CHAPTER

8
ANALYSIS
OF

COMPONENTS IN VIII-2

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Section VIII-2 requires stress analysis of vessel components when explicit design formulas are not given. This includes ued-in heads, head-to-shell junctions, expansion joints, thermal stresses, and stresses in components due to loads other than pressure. In performing the stress evaluation, the designer must determine the maximum stress at a given point or location. When computer programs such as ANSYS and NASTRAN are used to determine the stress, the output usually consists of the total combined stress at a given point. This stress must then be separated into its components of membrane, bending, and peak stresses. This is necessary in order to compare each of these components to a corresponding allowable stress given in VIII-2 or to properly establish an allowable fatigue life. In this chapter only stress categories, stress concentrations, combinations of stresses, and fatigue evaluation are discussed in accordance with the denitions and requirements of VIII-2.

8.2 STRESS CATEGORIES

Stress in any component and location is classied by VIII-2 as one of three categoriesprimary, secondary, and peak stresses. Primary stress, such as hoop stress in a cylinder due to internal pressure, is developed by the imposed loading and is necessary to satisfy the laws of equilibrium. It is not self-limiting in that gross distortion or failure of the structure will occur if its value substantially exceeds the yield stress. This primary stress is divided into two subcategories in VIII-2. They are primary membrane and primary bending stresses. The longitudinal and circumferential stresses in a cylinder due to internal pressure are classied as primary membrane stress. The primary membrane stress is again subdivided into two categories in VIII-2. They are referred to as general primary membrane and local primary membrane stresses. Examples of these primary stresses are given in Table 8.1. Primary bending stress in VIII-2 refers to such items as the bending of a at cover or a dished head due to internal pressure. Secondary stress is developed when the deformation of a component due to applied loads is restrained by other components. Secondary stress is self-limiting in that local yielding can redistribute the stress to a tolerable magnitude without causing failure. An example of secondary stress is the bending stress that develops at the attachment of a body ange to the shell. This attachment is referred to as a gross structural discontinuity. Other examples of gross structural discontinuity are given in Table 8.2. Another example of secondary stress is certain thermal stresses. These are referred to as general thermal stress. A typical example of this stress is the longitudinal bending stress that occurs along a vessel skirt due to temperature gradients along the length of the skirt. Other examples of general thermal stress are given in Table 8.3.
233

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Chapter 8

TABLE 8.1 PRIMARY STRESS CATEGORY

The third category of stress dened in VIII-2 is peak stress. Peak stress is so local that it does not cause any noticeable distortion in a component, but it may cause fatigue cracks or brittle fracture. Examples of peak stress are notch concentrations; local hot spots; local structural discontinuity, as dened in Table 8.2; and local thermal stress, as dened in Table 8.3 VIII-2 establishes limits for the three stress categories discussed so far. These limits are given in Table 8.4. The rationale for these limits are given in various publications (see such references as ASME, 1968; ASME, 1969; and Jawad and Farr, 1989). VIII-2 also lists the stress categories for some commonly encountered loading conditions and vessel components. These are given in Table 8.5. Example 8.1 Problem A cylindrical shell with a at cover, see Fig. E8.1, is subjected to an internal design pressure of 800 psi and an internal operating pressure of 700 psi. The allowable stress intensity value for the material from II-D is 20 ksi. What stress intensity values should be calculated at sections aa and bb, and what are the allowable stress intensities at these locations? Solution Section aa From Table 8.5, at heads develop general primary membrane stress, Pm, and primary bending stress, Pb, at the central region due to the internal design pressure of 800 psi. From Table 8.4 the allowable general primary membrane stress intensity, Pm, is equal to Sm (20 ksi). The allowable primary bending stress intensity, Pb, is equal to 1.5Sm (30 ksi).

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TABLE 8.2 STRUCTURAL DISCONTINUITY

TABLE 8.3 THERMAL STRESS

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Chapter 8

TABLE 8.4 STRESS CATEGORIES AND THEIR LIMITS (ASME VIII-2)

Section bb From Table 8.5, at heads develop local primary membrane stress, PL, and secondary stress, Q, at the junction with the shell due to internal pressure. From Table 8.4 the allowable local primary membrane stress, PL, due to the design pressure of 800 psi is equal to 1.5Sm (30 ksi). The total allowable stress due to local pri-

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TABLE 8.5 CLASSIFICATION OF STRESSES (ASME VIII-2)

NOTES: (1) Consideration must also be given to the possibility of wrinkling and excessive deformation in vessels with large diameter-to-thickness ratio. (2) If the bending moment at edge is required to maintain the bending stress in the center region within acceptable limits, the edge bending is classied as Pb; otherwise, it is classied as Q. (3) Consider possibility of thermal stress ratchet. (4) Equivalent linear stress is dened as the linear stress distribution which has the same net bending moment as the actual stress distribution.

mary membrane plus secondary stresses (PL + Q) is equal to 3Sm (60 ksi). It should be noted that the two stress values, PL + Q, must be calculated at the operating pressure of 700 psi rather than at the design pressure when comparing them to 3Sm, as shown in Table 8.4.

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Chapter 8

TABLE 8.5 (CONTD)

FIG. E8.1

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TABLE 8.6 SOME STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS USED IN FATIGUE Location

Fillet welds Nozzle in spherical segment Nozzle in cylindrical segment Tangential nozzle in cylinder Backing strips Bolts Cracklike defect

Stress Concentration
4.0 2.2 3.3 5.5 2.0 membrane 2.5 bending 4.0 5.0

VIII-2 Paragraph
5112 4612 4612 4614 AD412.1 5122 5111

8.3 STRESS CONCENTRATION

The stress concentration at a given location must be included in the stress analysis in order to establish the fatigue life of that component. VIII-2 lists a few stress concentration factors for llet welds and nozzle penetrations due to internal pressure, as shown in Table 8.6. All other stress concentration factors are usually obtained from handbooks such as Peterson (Peterson, 1974), experimental data, or a detailed stress evaluation using nite element analysis. It must be remembered that substantial inaccuracies could occur in using the nite element analysis if a large mesh is used near a stress concentration. The designer must exercise great judgment in establishing the correct mesh size near such concentrations in order to obtain accurate results. Example 8.2 Problem Categorize the stresses at section b-b in Example 8.1 if a stress concentration factor (SCF) of 4.0 is used at that location due to weld details. Solution Section bb From Example 8.1, at heads develop PL and Q at the junction with the shell due to internal pressure. Similarly, PL due to design pressure is equal to 1.5Sm (30 ksi). The quantity PL + Q due to operating pressure is equal to 3Sm (60 ksi). Also, from Table 8.4, the quantity (SCF)(PL + Q) at the operating pressure of 700 psi must be used to nd the quantity Sa in determining the fatigue life of this section.

8.4 COMBINATIONS OF STRESSES

In order to compare the actual stress at a given location to the allowable stress in VIII-2, the designer must categorize the calculated stress as primary, secondary, or peak. The designer must then combine the categories in the appropriate fashion in order to compare them to the allowable stresses given in Table 8.4. Identifying the stress category may be difcult sometimes, since the output of many nite element calculations are programmed to display only the principal, or effective, stress at a location. Thus, the designer has to either instruct the program to itemize the stresses or manually separate them into various categories. Separating the stress output from a nite element (FE) program into its components is called linearization. A typical computer output may look like the solid line shown in Fig. 8.1. The FE line must be divided into a membrane stress and bending stress as shown. These values can then be compared to the allowable stress given in Table 8.4. A typical output of a detailed stress analysis consists of three normal stresses, r, l, h, and three shearing stresses rl, rh, lh. From these six stresses, the designer can obtain three principal stresses 1, 2, 3, by using the classical equation

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Chapter 8

FIG. 8.1
LINEARIZING STRESS DISTRIBUTION

maxmin = (i + j)/2 [(i j)2/4 + 2ij]1/2

(8.1)

The maximum stress intensity dened in VIII-2 is the absolute value of the larger of the following values
S12 = 1 2 S13 = 1 3 S23 = 2 3

The maximum stress intensity is compared with allowable values in Table 8.4. Example 8.3 Problem The forces and bending moments in sections aa and bb due to design pressure in Example 8.1 were calculated from the classical theory of plates and shells as Section aa Membrane force in the radial direction = 2602.3 Ib Membrane force in the hoop direction = 0.0 Bending moment in the radial direction = 89,052.0 in.-lb Bending moment in the hoop direction = 89,052.0 in.-lb

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Section bb Bending moment in the axial direction = 5988.0 in.-lb Bending moment in the tangential direction = 1796.4 in.-lb Shearing force in the radial direction = 2602.3 lb Membrane force in the axial direction = 9600 lb Membrane force in the hoop direction = 0 (assuming the shell cannot grow radially at this location. A more accurate solution of this problem can be obtained by taking into consideration the inward deection of point b-b due to the edge rotation. The value of this deection can be taken as the edge rotation times half the at cover thickness.) Determine the stress values at sections a-a and b-b in accordance with the VIII-2 procedures and compare them with the allowable stresses. Solution Section aa The membrane stress is
Pm = force/t = 2602.3/6.375 = 410 psi

The bending stress is

Pb = 6M/t2 = 6 89052/6.3752 = 13,150 psi

From Table 8.4,

Allowable Pm = 20,000 psi > 410 psi Allowable Pm + Pb = 30,000 psi > 13,560 psi (13150 + 410)

Section bb The axial membrane stress at design pressure is

Pm = force/t = 9600/1.0 = 9600 psi

The axial membrane stress at operating pressure is

Pm = (operating P/design P)(force/t) = (700/800)(9600/1.0) = 8400 psi

The axial bending stress at operating pressure is

Q = (operating P/design P)(6M/t2) = (700/800)(6 5988.0/1.02) = 31,440 psi

From Table 8.4,

Allowable Pm = 20,000 psi > 9600 psi Allowable Pm + Q = 60,000 psi > 39,840 psi (8400 + 31,440)

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Chapter 8

The hoop membrane stress at design pressure is

Pm = force/t = 0/1.0 = 0 psi

The hoop membrane stress at operating pressure is

Pm = (operating P/design P)(force/t) = (700/800)(0/1.0) = 0 psi

The hoop bending stress at operating pressure is

Q = (operating P/design P)(6M/t2) = (700/800)(6 1796.4/1.02) = 9430 psi

From Table 8.4,

Allowable Pm = 20,000 psi > 0 psi Allowable Pm + Q = 60,000 psi > 9430 psi (9430 + 0)

Example 8.4 Problem A nite element (FE) analysis was performed on a at head-to-shell junction, shown in Fig. E8.4. Three different loading conditions were calculated. They were pressure, mechanical, and thermal loading. The results of the FE stress output are shown in Table E8.4. Assume the operating and design pressures are the same and all initial stress values are equal to zero. Assume the allowable stress value to be 14 ksi. Calculate the primary membrane stress and the secondary stress at the junction. Solution Primary Membrane Stress Table 8.4 indicates that primary membrane stress is produced by mechanical loads only. Thus, in Table E8.4 under the Membrane Stress part, only the pressure, mechanical, or a combination of pressure and mechanical are to be used. Thermal stresses are ignored in this case. The FE results indicate that there is a shearing stress in the r,l plane. Thus the two principal stresses, 1 and 2, in this plane are calculated from Eq. (8.1), while the third principal stress is h. The three principal stresses become 1
Pressure, psi Mechanical, psi Pressure plus mechanical, psi 6200 1370 7230

2
900 30 530

h
11,400 500 11,900

And the maximum stress intensity values are given by Maximum Stress Intensity, psi
Pressure Mechanical Pressure plus mechanical 12,300 1340 12,430

Allowable Pm = 14,000 psi > 12,430 psi

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FIG. E8.4 MODEL OF A FINITE ELEMENT LAYOUT IN A FLAT HEAD-TO-SHELL JUNCTION

Secondary Stress Table 8.4 indicates that secondary stress is produced by mechanical and thermal loads. The FE results indicate that there is a shearing stress in the r,l plane. Thus the two principal stresses, 1 and 2, in this plane are calculated from Eq. (8.1), while the third principal stress is h. The three principal stresses become 1
Pressure, psi Mechanical, psi Pressure plus mechanical, psi Pressure plus mechanical plus thermal, psi 2100 1760 3650 12,920

2
540 140 1650 1520

h
11,000 700 10,300 14,000

And the maximum stress intensity values are given by Maximum Stress Intensity, psi
Pressure Mechanical Pressure plus mechanical Pressure plus mechanical plus thermal 11,540 2460 11,950 15,520

Allowable Pm + Q = 42,000 psi > 15,520

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Chapter 8

TABLE E8.4 SUMMARY OF FINITE ELEMENT OUTPUT

8.5 FATIGUE EVALUATION

When a fatigue evaluation is required in accordance with AD-160 of VIII-2 or by the user or a qualied engineer, it shall be performed in accordance with the requirements of Appendix 5 of VIII-2. The number of cycles are evaluated from fatigue charts such as the one shown in Fig. 8.2 for carbon steel. In most applications the process cycle is easily determined. Each cycle consists of a start-up condition in pressure and temperature, a steady state, and then shutdown of pressure and temperature. This is illustrated in Fig. 8.3a. More complex cycles often occur where there is reversal of stress, as shown in Fig. 8.3b. On occasion, complicated cycles occur, such as the one shown in Fig. 8.3c. For each cycle the designer determines the maximum stress range, which is the algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum stress intensities in a cycle. The alternating stress, which is half the maximum stress range, is then obtained. With this value, the fatigue chart is then used to obtain the number of permissible cycles for each stress range. A Cumulative Usage Factor is then determined for each type of cycle considered by the designer.

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FIG. 8.2 FATIGUE CURVES FOR CARBON, LOW ALLOY, 4XX, HIGH ALLOY, AND HIGH STRENGTH STEELS FOR TEMPERATURES NOT EXCEEDING 700F (ASME VIII-2)

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FIG. 8.3 CYCLIC CURVES

Example 8.5 Problem Use the Peak stress values given in Example 8.4 to determine the fatigue life at the location indicated in Fig. E8.4. Use Fig. 8.2 for a fatigue chart. Solution Table 8.4 indicates that the peak stress must be combined with the membrane and bending stresses to determine fatigue life.

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Peak Plus Secondary Stress From Table E8.4, we combine the peak stresses for pressure, mechanical, and thermal conditions with those of membrane plus bending stresses. This gives peak plus membrane plus bending stress, as shown below: r
Pressure, psi Mechanical, psi Pressure plus mechanical, psi Pressure plus mechanical plus thermal, psi 2000 1250 750 950

l
2000 3900 5900 7900

h
11,000 1950 9050 10950

rl
200 1950 1750 1050

The three principal stresses become 1

Pressure, psi Mechanical, psi Pressure plus mechanical, psi Pressure plus mechanical plus thermal, psi 2010 4930 6400 8020

+2
2010 220 280 1070

h
11,000 1950 9050 10,950

And the maximum stress intensity values are given by Maximum Stress Intensity, psi
Pressure Mechanical Pressure plus mechanical Pressure plus mechanical plus thermal 13,010 6880 9330 12,020

The maximum alternating stress is

Sa = 13010/2 = 6500 psi

From Fig. 8.2, with Sa equal to 6500 psi, the maximum number of cycles is > 1,000,000.

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