Chapter 2 An Introduction to Fracture Mechanics

 Definition Stress Concentration Effects of cracks on strength of materials Strain Energy Release Rate, G Stress Intensity Factor, K Application of K to Design and Analysis
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fracture_mechanics

INTRODUCTION
Most materials show a tendency to fracture when stressed beyond some critical level. Usually, fracture is caused by a structural flaw or a crack: under the loading conditions, a crack may develop (starting from a flaw or stress concentration) and grow slowly in size. During the continuing development of the cracks, the material strength decreases until it becomes so low that the service loads cannot be carried any more, and fracture occurs. This may occur at stresses (caused by external loads) below the materials yield strength where fracture would not normally expected. In additional to cracks, other types of flaws that are crack-like in form may easily develop into cracks, such as deep surface scratches or gouges, voids in welds, inclusions of foreign substances in cast and forged materials, delaminations in layered materials and so on. Cracks or crack-like flaws occur more frequently than we might think about.
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Cracks or crack-like flaws commonly occur in ship structures, in bridge structures, in pressure vessels and piping, in heavy machinery, and in ground vehicles. They are also a source of concern for various parts of nuclear reactors.

QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED
What is the residual strength as a function of crack size? What size of crack can be tolerated at the expected service load; i.e., what is the critical crack size? How long does it take for a crack to grow from a certain initial size to the critical size? What size of pre-existing flaw can be permitted at the moment the structure/material starts its service life? How often should the structure/material be inspected for crack?

STRESS CONCENTRATION

Consider above diagram, what will happen when the left bar is cut into two?

Now, for above diagram, if the left side of the bar is cut, then what will happen?

STRESS CONCENTRATION

It is helpful to consider load-path (load-flow) lines: imaginary lines indicating e.g., how one unit of load is transferred from one loading point to the other. What will happen to the load-flow lines when no cut in the material? What will happen if there is a cut in the material?

Every discontinuity forms an interruption of the load-path, will therefore deviate the load-flow lines and hence cause a stress concentration.

STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR

l = kt nom
kt is called theoretical stress concentration factor (elastic stresses) For an elliptical notch:

b b kt = 1 + 2 = 1 + 2 a

a2 = b

In general, blunt notches produce lower local stresses, sharp notches cause higher local stresses. The highest local stress l is a number if times higher than the nominal stress, nom.

For a circle, a=b, kt = 3 For an ellipse of b/a=3, kt = 7 For an ellipse of a/b=3, kt = 1.67
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Elliptical hole in a wide plate under remote uniform tension, and the stress distribution along the x-axis near the hole for one particular case.
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EFFECTS OF CRACKS ON STRENGTH

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 If a load applied to a member containing a crack is too high, the crack may suddenly grow and cause the member to fail by fracturing in a brittle manner, that is with little plastic deformation. From the theory of fracture mechanics, a quantity called stress intensity factor, K, can be defined that characterizes the severity of the crack situation as affected by crack size, stress, and geometry. A given material can resist a crack without brittle fracture occurring as long as this K is below a critical value, Kc, which is a property of the material called the fracture toughness. Fracture toughness is a material property which is affected by temperature and loading rate, and secondarily by the thickness of the members.
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Consider two materials, one with low 0 and high Kc, and the other with an opposite combination, namely high 0 and low Kc. How do these combinations of properties cause crack sizes in these two materials? What does the crack size affect the materials in above two cases? In general, low strength in a tension test is usually accompanied by high ductility and also by high fracture toughness, Conversely, high strength is usually associated with low ductility and low fracture toughness. 14

BASIC MODES OF FRACTURE

Mode I: opening mode: caused by tensile loading, crack faces simply moving apart; Mode II: sliding mode: caused by shear loading, crack faces slide relative to one another in a direction normal to the crack front. Mode III: tearing mode: caused also by shear loading, crack faces slide relative to one another but in the direction parallel to the crack front.
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STRAIN ENERGY RELEASE RATE

Consider a cracked member under a Mode I load, P, where the crack has length a as shown in the above drawing, and assume that the behavior of the material is linear-elastic (load vs displacement being linear).

U is potential energy stored in the member and the rate of change of potential energy with increase in crack area is defined as the strain energy 16 release rate, G.

STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR, K

K, characterizes the magnitude (intensity) of the stresses in the vicinity of an ideally sharp crack tip in a linear-elastic and isotropic material.

Consider a coordinate system for describing the stresses in the vicinity of a crack is shown in above drawing with Mode I loading.

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STRESSES NEAR THE CRACK TIP

For any case of Mode I loading, the stresses near the crack tip depends on r and :

KI ij = fij ( ) 2 r
KI is a measure of the severity of the crack, its definition in a formal mathematical sense is:

K I = lim y 2 r
r , 0

It is generally convenient to express KI as:

K I = YS a ; Y = F ( a / L )
Y is geometry constant depending on crack size (a) and a size parameter of the body (L), S is remotely applied stress
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K I = YS g a ; Y = F ( a / L )
Sg is gross section nominal stress, calculated under the assumption that no cracks is present. Case (a) is called a central crack, it is a through-thickness crack, crack length is defined as half of the total crack length Case (b) is called a double edge crack, or simply double surface crack, again, it is through-thickness crack Case (c) is called a edge crack, or a surface crack, again, it is through19 thickness crack, in both cases, crack length is defined as total crack length

Values for small a/b and limits for 10% accuracy:

( a ) K = S g a ; ( b ) K = 1.12S g a ; ( c ) K = 1.12S g a ( a / b 0.4 ) ( a / b 0.6 ) ( a / b 0.13)

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Stress intensity factors for three cases of cracked plates under tension

Values for small a/b and limits for 10% accuracy:

Stress intensity factors for various cases of bending

( a, b )

K I = 1.12 S g a

( a / b 0.4 )

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(a) Axial load P:

4M (b) Bending moment M: S g = ; Y = 1.12; 3 b 2T ; Y = 1.00; (c) Torsion T, K=KIII: S g = 3 b

Stress intensities for a round shaft with a circumferential crack.

Sg =

P ; Y = 1.12; 2 b

(10% ,

a / b 0.21) a / b 0.12 )

(10% ,

(10% ,

a / b 0.09 )
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FRACTURE MECHANICS ANALYSIS

K I = K Ic = S a
Materials Selection Design Stress Allowable flaw size

Applied Stress

Crack size

Fracture toughness

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The plane strain fracture toughness KIC is a fundamental material property that depends on many factors, the most influential of which are temperature, strain rate, and microstructure. The magnitude of KIC diminishes with increasing strain rate and decreasing temperature. According to this equation, three variables must be considered relative to the possibilities for fracture of some structural component namely, the fracture toughness (Kc or KIC), the imposed stress (S), and the flaw size (a) assuming that Y has been determined.

Sc

K IC Y a

1 K IC or ac = SY

If the KIC and the magnitude of crack size are specified by application constraint, it gives how to determine the design (or critical) stress.

If the KIC and the level of stress are fixed by design situation, it gives the maximum allowable 24 flaw size.

FRACTURE MECHANICS ANALYSIS

The strength of materials approach traditional approach to structural design and material selection
Applied Stress Yield or tensile strength

The fracture mechanical approach has three important variables

Applied Stress

Crack Size

Fracture Toughness

Fracture mechanics quantifies the critical combinations of these three variables. 25

FRACTURE MECHANICS ANALYSIS

K I = K Ic = YS a
This equation shows the design criterion for material selection in engineering applications. You must first decide what is most important about you component design. Once such a priority list is established, certain critical decision can be made. If one of the above three parameters is fixed, then other two can only change according to fracture mechanics relation. If two of them are fixed, basically you have also fixed third one. Increasing strength, such as yield strength, usually leads to smaller critical crack length.
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Example 2.1
A high-strength steel has a yield strength of 1,460 MPa and a KIC of 98 MPam. Calculate the size of a surface crack that will lead to catastrophic failure at an applied stress of Y.S.

Example 2.1 Solution:

We are assuming an ideal case of plane strain conditions and assume surface crack, therefore F=1.12. Within these limitations, we can use:

K IC = YS a
With Y=1.12 and S=0.5*Yield Strength (S)., then

K IC = 1.12 0.5* S * a or a= 1

(1.12 0.5* S )2

2 K IC

(98MPa m )

1.12 0.5 (1460MPa ) 2

= 4.573 x103 m = 4.573mm

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Example 2.2
Given that a quality-control inspection can ensure that a structural ceramic part will have no flaws greater than 25 m in size, calculate the maximum service stress available with (a) SiC and (b) partially stabilized zirconia. Example 2.2 Solution:
We can treat this problem as a general fracture mechanics problem using fracture mechanic relation with assuming surface crack, therefore Y=1.12, in which case:

Sf =

K IC Y a

This problem assumes that the maximum service stress will be the fracture stress for a part with flaw size = a = 25 m. The KIC for SiC and PS-Zirconia (PSZ) is 3 and 9 MPam, respectively.
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(a) For SiC:

Sf =

3MPa m 1.12* 25 10 m
-6

= 302MPa

(b) For PSZ:

Sf =

9MPa m 1.12* 25 10-6 m

= 907MPa

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EXAMPLE 2.3
A center-cracked plate has dimensions b=50 mm, t = 5 mm, and large h, and a load of P=50 kN is applied. (a) What is the stress intensity factor K for a crack length of a=10 mm? (b) For a=30 mm? (c) What is the critical crack length ac for fracture if the material is 2014-T651 aluminum?

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Example 2.3 Solution:

(a) To calculate K, we need to know stress:

Sg =

P 0.050MN = = 100MPa 2bt 2 ( 0.05m )( 0.005m )

a 10mm = = 0.2 b 50mm

Since 0.4, it is within 10% to use Y=1.

K = FS g a = (100MPa ) ( 0.010m ) = 17.7MPa m

(b) For a=30 mm:

a 30mm = = = 0.6 b 50mm

This does not satisfy 0.4, so that the more general expression for Y is needed:

1 0.5 + 0.326 2 = 1.292 Y= 1

K = YS g a = 1.292 (100MPa ) ( 0.030m ) = 39.7MPa 32m

Example 2.3 Solution (cont.)

(c) For 2014-T651 Al, KIC = 24 MPam. Since ac is not known, Y cannot be determined directly. We may need to use trial and error method. First, assume that 0.4 is satisfied, in which case Y=1. Solving for ac gives:

1 K IC ac = Sg

1 24MPa m = = 0.0183m=18.3mm 100MPa

This corresponds to:

ac 18.3 = = = 0.37 b 50
which satisfies 0.4, so that the estimated Y=1 is acceptable and the result obtained can be accepted. However, it is better to use trial and error to make more accurate estimation. This method is described as below:
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Example 2.3 Solution (Cont.)

Trial and error method: Use the ac value from above as a rough estimate, and calculate K for several crack lengths in this neighborhood. Use the sample procedure as in (b) above for each crack length. When K = KIC is obtained, the crack length is the desired value. Calc. No 1 2 3 4 5 Trial a mm 10 15 20 16.5 16.3

= a/b
0.20 0.30 0.40 0.33 0.326

Y 1.021 1.051 1.100 1.063 1.0617

K=YSga MPam 18.1 22.8 27.6 24.2 24.0

The desired value of KIC=24MPam was between calculated values No 2 and 3, and the second of two additional guesses gave the desired K=KIC at a crack length of ac=16.3 mm. One can also use graphical procedure to obtained the same results.
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EXAMPLE 2.4
In a thin-walled pressure Vessel with a crack growing in the wall, two possibilities exist: (1) the crack may gradually extend and penetrate the wall, causing a leak before sudden brittle fracture can occur; (2) Sudden brittle fracture may occur prior to the vessel leaking. Since a brittle fracture in a pressure vessel may involve explosive release of the vessel contents, a leak is by far the more preferable of the two undesirable possibilities. Note that a leak is easily detected from a pressure drop or from the presence of vessel contents where they do not belong. Hence, pressure vessels should be designed to leak before they fracture. This is so-called leak-before-break design of pressure vessels. 36

This figure illustrates a crack in the wall of a pressure vessel, showing (a) its growth from a small surface flaw and (b) the minimum critical size of a throughwall crack to provide leak-before-break.
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Example 2.4 Question:

A pressure vessel made of ASTM A517-F steel operates near room temperature and has a wall thickness of t = 50 mm. A surface crack was found in the vessel wall during an inspection. It has an approximately semielliptical shape, as illustrated below, with surface length 2c = 40 mm and depth a = 10 mm. The stresses in the region of the crack, as calculated without considering the presence of the crack, are approximately uniform through the thickness and are z = 300 MPa normal to the crack plane and x = 150 MPa parallel to the crack plane, where the coordinate system is shown in the figure. What is the safety factor against brittle failure? Would you remove the pressure vessel from service? Discuss your results.

z b D

y a

2c

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[KIC = 187 MPam and ys = 760 MPa for ASTM A517-F steel, the stress intensity factor at Point D for a uniform tension normal to the crack plane is: 1.65 a a K D = YD ; Q 1 + 1.464 ( a / c 1) Q c For the case of semi-elliptical crack, YD 1.12, the limits for 10% accuracy is a/t < 0.3, and c/b < 0.2].

Example 2.4 Solution:

The material (ASTM A517-F) has a fracture toughness of KIC = 187 MPam and a yield strength of 0 = 760 MPa at room temperature. The stress intensity factor, K, for the given stresses and crack can be estimated. Since c = 20 mm, we have a/c=0.5, also, we have a/t = 0.2, and large b, for which YD = 1.12 is a reasonable approximation. The quantity Q is needed:

a Q = 1 + 1.464 c

1.65

= 1.466
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Example 2.4 Solution (Cont.):

Hence, the maximum K, which occurs at the point of maximum depth of the elliptical crack, is approximately:

K = YD

a
Q

= 1.12 300

( 0.01)
1.466

= 49.2 MPa m

The stress-based safety factor against brittle fracture can be calculated directly from K values as these are proportional to for any given crack length:

K IC 187 X = = = 3.80 K 49.2

This is a reasonably high value, so that it would be safe to continue using the pressure vessel until repairs are convenient. However, the crack should be checked frequently to be sure that it is not growing. In addition, the ASME or other design code for pressure vessels is likely to apply, and it should be consulted in this situation.
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EXAMPLE 2.5
A spherical pressure vessel is made of ASTM A517-F steel and operates at room temperature. The inner diameter is 1.5 m; the wall thickness is 10 mm, and the maximum pressure is 6 MPa. Is the leak-before-break condition met? What is the safety factor on K relative to KIC, and what is the safety factor against yielding? [KIC = 187 MPam and ys = 760 MPa for ASTM A517-F steel].

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Example 2.5 Solution:

The stresses for a spherical geometry can be seen from the part (b) of above figure. They are approximation within 5% for t/r1 <0.3 and 10% for t/r1 < 0.45.
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Example 2.5 Solution (Cont.):

The stress in the vessel wall is:

pr1 6 750 t = = = 225 MPa 2t 2 10

Combining this value with KIC = 187 MPam, the critical crack length is obtained from:

ccrit

1 K IC 1 187 = = = 0.220 m = 220 mm t 225

2

This far exceeds the wall thickness of t=10 mm, so that the leak-before-break condition is met. When the vessel leaks, the crack length along the surface is c=t, so that c = 10 mm. At this point, the stress intensity factor is:

K = FS c = 1 225 ( 0.01) = 39.9 MPa m

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Example 2.5 Solution (Cont.):

Hence, the safety factor on K is:

K IC 187 XK = = = 4.69 K 39.9

This is a reasonable value, so that the vessel is safe from brittle fracture. The above value may also be interpreted as a safety factor on stress or pressure for the brittle fracture situation, but it differs from the safety factor against yielding. Noting that the principal stresses are 1 = 2 = 225 MPa and 3 = 0, the yielding criterion if using the yield stress as:

MAX ( 1 2 , 2 3 , 3 1 ) = 225 MPa

The safety factor against the yielding is therefore:

y 760 Xy = = = 3.38 a 225

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