Main component for waveguide is electroformed in layers of nickel and cadmium.

Aluminum grow-ons are added to achieve the configuration shown at left.

ELECTROFORMING
Commercially available for decades but still considered a space-age technology, this metalforming process provides shapes and accuracies unmatched by any other fabrication method.
E. N. CASTELLANO and H. WOELLMER
GAR Electroforming Div. MITE Corp. Danbury, Conn.

UPPOSE you electroplated a metal onto a part, then threw the part away and kept the plating. This procedure, in essence, describes the process of electroforming. Of course, electroforming techniques are not nearly as simple as this description might indicate. The methods differ considerably from those of ordinary electroplating. Yet the family resemblance remains, and the capabilities and limitations of electroforming are essentially governed by the basic chemistry and physics of plating. Since electroforming is so drastically different from the more conventional forming, joining, or cutting methods used to shape metal, the design rules for parts to be electroformed are also quite different. It is almost as if the light weight of sheet metal fabrication, the complexity possible with castings, and the accuracy of precision machining have been made available in a single process. But electroforming also has its share of drawbacks related, for the most part, to limited selection of materials, and the basic limitations of plating. Recently, however, the increased emphasis on

precise, lightweight metal components has put electroforming in a more favorable light with respect to the common metalworking methods. Waveguides, reflective metal surfaces of optical quality, and even aerospace structural components are some of the parts electroformed on a production basis. And to some extent, electroforming is even providing new capabilities for the more conventional processes in that electroformed dies have lowered the cost of molding intricate surfaces in plastics and metals. An Old Technology Updated Electroforming, as a process, is not new; it is almost as old as plating itself. What is new is the application of advanced technology to the field. Formerly, the process was in large measure practiced as an artand correspondingly the results were sometimes erratic. Electroforming, as some have said, has had a lot to live down. But now a better understanding of electrochemistry, and especially knowledge about the role of additives in plating baths, permits close control of electroformed parts.

Results are now as reproducible as those obtained with welding, casting, forging, and other conventional techniques. In electroforming, as in plating, metal ions are transferred electrochemically through an electrolyte from an anode to a surface where they are deposited as atoms of plated metal. But in electroforming, the surface that is to receive the plated metal, called a mandrel, is conditioned so that the plating does not adhere. Instead, the plated metal, or electroform, is lifted away and retains its as-deposited shape as a discrete component. A part formed by this process has several unusual characteristics:
It can have extremely thin wallsless than one mil. In fact, minimum thickness is generally limited only by the fact that a part requires a certain amount of sturdiness to avoid being bent or broken by normal handling. Surface features of the mandrel are reproduced with extreme fidelity on the surface of the electroform. High surface finish and intricate detail are easily obtained. Complex contours are produced quite easily. Dimensional tolerances can be held to high accuracy. Accuracies of 0.0001 in. are not unusual. Maximum size is limited only by the size of the available plating tank. Parts over 7 ft long have been successfully electroformed.

How the Process Affects Design As with most metalworking processes, the only meaningful way to organize design guidelines for electroforming is to relate these guidelines to the details of the process itself. Also important is how design affects the cost of the electroform. Mandrels: Probably the most interesting aspect of electroforming is the ease with which complex shapes are produced. The mandrel and electroform bear the same geometric relationship that exists between a mold and cast metal. Internal features of the electroform, therefore, are simply machined as negative-image external features on the mandrel. Two types of mandrels are used: permanent and disposable. Permanent mandrels are used where the electroform has no undercut surfaces and can thus be lifted directly from the mandrel. Where undercuts are required on the electroform, the mandrel must be dissolved or melted away, or in some other way destroyed to be removed. Stainless steel and aluminum are the materials most often used for mandrels. Stainless steel polishes easily, providing high surface finish and high dimensional accuracy in the electroform. Internal (mandrel-facing) surfaces can be electroformed to 2 micro-in. rms. External surfaces are generally similar to that of a diecasting. Aluminum mandrels can be machined more easily, but do not provide the service life of stainless steel. Aluminum can be dissolved away and can thus serve as a disposable mandrel. Invar, low-melting bismuth alloys, and cast alloys of nickel or brass are used occasionally. Plaster, glass, quartz, wax, wood, and various plas-

tics and elastomers are also employed as mandrels. These materials are first made conductive with a surface coating. Mandrels must be handled with extreme care. The smallest imperfectioneven a fine scratchwill reproduce on the electroformed part. Of these materials, the castable ones are particularly useful where large numbers of electroforms must be produced with disposable mandrels. The mandrels can then be made economically in large numbers by casting them in reusable molds. Because of the large number of available mandrel materials and the special features of each, a number of tradeoffs must be considered in designing the electroform. The disposable mandrels generally cannot provide accuracy or surface finish as good as that provided by permanent mandrels. Every effort should therefore be made to avoid combining requirements for high accuracy or surface finish with undercut shapes. Small numbers of parts can be made economicallyif functional requirements are not stringentby using one of the low-cost mandrel materials such as wax or wood. A number of different materials and special bonding techniques are sometimes employed to build up a mandrel where extreme accuracy must be combined with a complex shape. This type of mandrel construction is sometimes required for waveguides and other electronic hardware having numerous cavities. Most electroforms are produced over a positive, or male, mandrel. But sometimes accuracy or smooth surface finish is critical on the outside surface of the electroform, rather than on the inside surface. In such cases a negative, or female, mandrel is built. Wall Thickness: Since plated metal is deposited more or less uniformly, electroforms are essentially parts of constant wall thickness. Parts are produced with walls as thin as 0.005 in. One-half inch is generally considered a practical maximum. Most electroforms are in the range of 0.010 to 0.050 in. thick. Uniformity of the deposit is subject to the usual variations encountered in electroplating. Deposits build to greatest depth in areas of high platingcurrent concentration at sharp edges or on convex surfaces. Deposits are thinnest at low-current areas within recesses or on concave surfaces. The easiest way to avoid either excess or insufficient current density is to provide adequate radii at all edges and corners. Holes or slots should also be at least as wide as they are deep. If the electroform cannot be designed to these rules, the plater can use shields and "thieves" to reduce current density, or he can use conforming anodes to boost current density. Masks that prevent deposition of metal in a given region are also used to produce variations in plating thickness. Inserts and Grow-Ons: One aspect of the process that makes electroforms particularly interesting is that the part need not be made entirely from deposited metal. Other materials, even nonconductors, can be incorporated into the compo-

Waveguide electroformed in nickel has numerous complex internal cavities. The rectangular flange at left and the three brackets are grow-ons. Length of the part is 18 inches.

Faithful reproduction of minute surface detail is illustrated by the barely discernible groove in the mirror-like, electroformed surface of this reflector.

Conforming anode and electroforming technology were required to apply an 0.2-inch copper cladding to the inner diameter of the hole in the 750-lb component for a shake table. Depth of cladding is about twice that which normally can be achieved with close tolerances by ordinary plating.

nent by plating onto, over, or around separate pieces attached to the mandrel. Threaded inserts, bearing surfaces, shafts, and other such inserts called grow-onsare often incorporated in electroforms by this technique, a patented proprietary process. The nondeposited metal, in fact, often constitutes a larger portion of the final part than the electroformed metal. Some waveguides are comprised primarily of machined wrought pieces, joined by a relatively small amount of electrodeposited metal. The joining aspect of electroforming is an important feature. Sometimes two parts of an assembly are formed separately by electroforming, machined to mate with the proper degree of precision, then joined in a second electroforming step. Materials and Properties Nickel is the metal most commonly electroformed. It lends itself readily to electroplating and provides good strength and corrosion resistance. Copper is the second most commonly electroformed metal, generally used for applications requiring high

thermal or electrical conductivity. Gold, silver, and rhodium are used where unusually high resistance to corrosion or oxidation are required. Iron can be electroformed, but surface corrosion and the corrosive nature of the electrolyte are some of the problems that restrict the use of electroformed iron. Handbook property values can generally be used for preliminary design work, but an electroformer should be consulted sometime during design because the mechanical properties of the formed part are determined by plating conditions and composition of the plating solution. Metal deposited from most solutions has properties similar to those of castings. Residual stresses in an electroform may occasionally cause problems for highly loaded parts. But if the electroform is annealed, properties usually approach those of wrought materials. For a given type of metal, properties can be varied over a wide range by changes in the plating bath. For example, a common electroforming bath is pure nickel sulfamate with no additives. This bath produces deposits with properties of:
Ultimate tensile strength Yield strength, 0.2% offset 75-85 ksi 45-55 ksi

Special purpose, custom comparators by GAR Electroforming Division solved unique surface finish problems for Grumman, Boeing, Pratt & Whitney, and Steel Painting Society.

G-4 GAR PAK KIT Contains the following MICROFINISH COMPARATOR Surface Finish Scales: S-22 Standard Machine Finishes G-6 Grit Blast Finishes SH-6 Shot Blast Finishes E-9 Electrical Discharge Machine Finishes

The scales are furnished in an attractive pocket-sized vinyl case. The GAR PAK enables the user to have the full range of surface finish scales available at all times in a convenient protective case.

Difference between interior and exterior electroformed surfaces is illustrated by this nickel beaker. Interior surface, right, which conforms to mandrel, is highly reflective, while exterior surface is dull.

Elongation in 2 in. Hardness, Vickers

10-20% 150-300

Other nickel solutions without additives produce deposits with greater strength at some sacrifice in ductility:
Ultimate tensile strength Yield strength, 0.2% offset Elongation in 2 in. Hardness, Vickers 100-150 ksi 65-75 ksi 5-15% 200-350

If greater hardness is desired, additives can be used to obtain:

Where no single metal can supply the properties required, two or more materials can be deposited, one after the other, to form separate plated strata called composite coatings. Combining this technique with masking and shielding can produce various complex combinations of metal and shape.

Chromium, for example, has good hardness and wear resistance, but is ordinarily too brittle for structural use as an electroform. Therefore, the metal is sometimes deposited with nickel to produce better combinations of properties. Extreme hardness can be obtained by special codeposits. Electroless nickel (a codeposit of 92% nickel and 8% phosphorus) deposited on electroformed copper can be heat treated to a hardness of 70 Rc. Copper is also applied to nickel to increase thermal conductivity. Many other such combinations are used. Aside from the interesting possibilities of codeposited electroforms, another aspect of electroforming technology is emerging. When ceramics, cermets, or metal powders are added to certain types of plating baths, these materials become imbedded within the electroform as the plated metal is deposited. These imbedded particles substantially improve strength and resistance to high-temperature creep. Several companies are now doing research in this area. If the technique proves feasible, electroforming may become one of the more practical routes to advanced composite materials.

Copyright 1968 by the Penton Publishing co., Cleveland, Ohio 44113

Photo shows Lockhead L-1011 components fabricated via electroforming. Center shows a nickel electroformed large tubing with welded flange. Bottom center shows an electroformed nickel fire wall WYE with welded stainless steel fittings. On each side of the electroformed WYE are two electroformed drain masts. One is called the APU drain mast and has welded stainless tubing. The other is called the Keelson drain mast with grown-in stainless flame arrestors. Both drain masts have brazed stainless flanges for attachment.

Rectangular to cross transition waveguide with grown-on Brass Flanges.

Center of photo shows 7 cavity filter with grown-on tuning bosses and electroformed iris's. At left and right side of filter are electroformed non-seamless rectangular copper cavities with grown-on mounting brackets.

For further information on solutions to specific electroforming problems, contact:

Eugene N. Castellano, General Manager GAR Electroforming Division/MITE Corporation Augusta Drive Danbury, Connecticut 06810 Tel. (203) 744-4300

Reprinted, with permission, from August 29, 1968 issue of MACHINE DESIGN.