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Class B, No,
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PREPARED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

THE PUBLICATION DEPARTMENT OF
THE BlIANDARKAR ORIENTAL
RESEARCH INSTITUTE
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Bhandarkar Oriental Research
Institute,
Poona
1941
GOVERNMENT ORIENTAL
Class B, No.
SERIES
Sftvltt
tftoS-B,
fa. 6
HISTORY OF DHARMASASTRA
(ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL
RELIGIOUS
AND
CIVIL
LAW)
BY
PANDURANG VAMAN KANE,

;
;
M.
A.,
LL. M.
ADVOCATE, HIGH COURT, BOMBAY SENIOR ADVOCATE, FEDERAL COURT OF INDIA FELLOW AND VICEPRESIDENT OF THE BOMBAY ASIATIC SOCIETY; AUTHOR OF HISTORY OF SANSKRIT POETICS' &c.
'
VOL. II PAET I
Bhandarkar Oriental Research
Institute,
Poona
1941
Copies can be had Bhandarkar Oriental Research

Price Rs.
direct
from the
Institute,
Poona
(4), India
30
for both
parts
(Parts not sold separately)
Printed at the Aryabhushan Press, 915/1 Shivajinagar, Poona 4 by Mr. Vithal Hari Barve, and Published by Dr. R. N.
Dandekar, M.
A,, Ph. D., Secretary,
Oriental Research Institute,
Bhandarkar Poona 4.
PREFACE
It is a little over ten years sinoe the first volume of my History of Dharmasastra was published. In the preface to that volume I expressed the hope that time and health permitting I might issue in a few years the second volume dealing with the development of the various subjects comprised in Dharmasastra. For several years thereafter whatever leisure I could secure from professional work was devoted to the collection and orderly assortment of the vast Literature on Dharmasastra. After my return from a few months' visit to Europe in 1937 I commenced the work of writing the second volume. It soon became apparent to me that to compress within the limits of a single volume the development of the thousand and one topics that fall within the purview of Dharmasastra would present only a scrappy and faint outline of the whole field. To add to the difficulties of my task my old painful complaint ( duodenal ulcer ) recurred with far greater virulence than before, so much so that, partly on medical advice and partly out of despair, in October 1938 I gave up the work altogether. When relief did not come even after six months' total abstinence from literary labours I resumed, in spite of my extremely painful complaint, the
work of writing, for fear that otherwise the extensive materials that J had been collecting for nearly two decades might be entirely lost to the world of Sanskrit scholars and that my labours might be altogether wasted. Being afraid that my strength and resolution
may
not last
till
the completion of the rather ambitious
undertaking, I decided upon bringing out in two volumes the development of the various subjects comprised in Dharmasastra.
The
present volume contains the treatment of varna and &&rama, the samskaras, ahnika and ac&ra, dana, pratistha and utsarga, and sirauta (vedic) sacrifices. The next volume (the last) will deal with the following topics: vyavahara (Law and procedure), adauoa (impurity on birth and death), 6r&ddha, prftya6oitta t tlrtha, vrata, k&la, 6anti, the influence of the Purvamlm&rhsft and other d&stras on Dharmasastra, customs and
usages modifying DharmaSftstra, the philosophical background of Dharmasastra, and future developments in Dharmasastra. Looking to my past performance I am unwilling to make any promise about the time when the next volume may be
H.D.
ii
History of Dharmaiastra
expected to be published. I of the fact that at present I

years more.
may state, however, that in view am in much better health than I

to publish
it
have been for several years I shall try
in three
Excellent works dealing with distinct topics of Dharmasastra have been given to the world by eminent scholars. But so far as I know no writer has yet attempted single-handed to survey the whole field of Dharmasastra. From that point of view this volume partakes of the nature of a pioneer undertaking. It is therefore to be expected that such an ambitious project will manifest the defects of all pioneer work. The circumstances (adverted to above) in which this work had to be written and the great hurry with which it had to be rushed through are other
factors
that are responsible for the awkward or obscure expressions and the errors that it may contain. I mention these matters
for lessening the surprise that such blemishes might lead my friends to feel and not for blunting the edge of adverse fcriti-
cism.
the
The critic is certainly entitled to mercilessly criticize work for its shortcomings and mistakes. Some readers may complain that the present work is prolix, while others
I
may
have
say that the space devoted to several topics tried to pursue a middle course.
is
meagre.
There was great temptation throughout this work to compare ancient and medieval Indian customs, usages and beliefs as disclosed by dharmasastra works with those of other peoples and countries. But I have tried to omit, as far as possible, such comparisons. Whenever I indulge in them I do so for
several reasons.
It is
the fashion
among many
writers, both
European and Indian, to hold the caste system and the dharma6astra view of life responsible for most of the evils from which
to that view.
India suffers at present. To a very large extent I do not subscribe 1 have endeavoured to show that human nature
being the same in essentials throughout the world, the same tendencies and evils manifest themselves in all countries, the
same abuses prevail and the same perversions of originally beneficent institutions take place everywhere and anywhere,
whether particular countries or societies are within the grip of the caste system or any other casteless system. Undoubtedly the caste system has in fact produced certain evils, but it is not
singular in this respect.
evil effects.
Though
No system is perfect and immune from have been brought up in the midst of the
it
Brahmanioal system, I hope
will be conceded
by scholars
Preface
that I have
Hi
picture
shown both
to write
sides of the
and that I have
endeavoured
with detachment.
A few words must be said about the extensive quotations from Sanskrit works and the references to modern Indian Legislation and case-law. For those who cannot read English (most pandits and iastris do not) the quotations will be of great help
in understanding at least the trend of the arguments. Besides Indian scholars are as a class poor and cannot afford to pur-
Nor are there many good libraries in India where all works of reference can be had. For all these reasons thousands of quotations have been cited in the footnotes.
chase numerous books.
The quotations are mostly references to mss. are few
drawn from published works and and far between. I hope that the numerous quotations will not intrude themselves on the attention of those who want to read only the English portion of the work. Legislative enactments and case-law have been referred to for showing that many regulations of dharma&astra are
still
very
much
alive, that they

all
govern the every-day
life
of
Hindus and permeate
classes of
Hindu
society in spite of
the fact that a considerable part of dharmaSastra has

obsolete.
become
Similar remarks apply to the numerous references to inscriptions on stone and copper. These latter serve to prove
that rules laid
down in the dharmaâstra were throughout two thousand years observed by the people and enforced by kings and that such rules were not mere precepts composed by dreamers or scholastic pedants.
I acknowledge with great pleasure that I am under deep obligations to many predecessors and workers in the same and
other fields
I
and
to
many
friends.
Among
the works to
which
had to
refer constantly
and from which
I derived the greatest

:
benefit I
Bloomfield's must specially refer to the following Vedic Concordance, the Vedic Index of Professors Macdoneli and Keith, the Sacred Books of the East edited by Max Miiller
vol. II, VII, XII, XIV, XXV, XXVI, XXIX, XXX, XXXIIII, XLI, XLIII, XLIV). As I was handicapped by the fact that I
little German and less French, I could not fully utilise all done by modern European scholars. I am highly obliged work the to Paramahamsa KevalSnanda SvamI of Wai for constant help and guidance (particularly in the &rauta portion); to ChintSmanfcastri Datar of Poona for assistance in the chapter on dar&apuri?am5sa and for carefully going through the other chapters onfoauta; to Mr. Keshav Lakshraan Ogale for his work on a
know
iv
History of Dharmafastra
portion of the Index ; to Tarkatlrtha Raghunathasftstrl Kokje for reading through the whole work and suggesting additions and
emendations.
Besides, assistance in various ways during the progress of the work for over three years was very kindly rendered by a
host of friends, among whom I should like to make special mention of Prof. H. D. Velankar, Prof. Bangaswami Ayyangar
Mr. Bhabatosh Bhattacharya, Mr. N. G. Chapekar, Mr. G. H. Khare, Mr. N. C. Bapat, Pandit Rangacharya Raddi, Mr. L. S. Dravid (aSSmavedl ofPoona), Pandit S. D. Satavlekar, Mr. P. K. Gode. Thanks are due to all these and other friends for their help and interest in this volume,
Prof. P. P. S. SSstrl, Dr. Alsdorf f
I must state, however, that I alone am responsible for the views and mistakes contained in this work.
In a work containing thousands of quotations and refeit is very likely that many slips have occurred. Besides it is very much to be regretted that several misprints have crept into the footnotes by the loss or displacement of dots and other
rences
loose parts of Sanskrit letters in the process of printing.
15th June 1941
P. V.
KANE
TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOL. H

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
...
vii-x
xi-xii
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
SYNOPSIS
LIST OF
...
...
xiii-xxxiii
WORKS CONSULTED
...
xxxiv-xlv
xlvl-xlvii
TABLE OF CASES CITED

HISTORY OF DHARMASASTRA
...
...
1-1255
APPENDIX OF LONGER EXTRACTS IN

SANSKRIT
...
1257-1278
1279-1358
GENERAL INDEX
INDEX OF IMPORTANT WORDS
...
...
1359-1866 1367-1368
ERRATA
...
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
A.
Aife.
L R. =
Br.
All
= Aitareya Brahmana. Indian Law Reports, Allahabad Series. Anan. or Anand. = Ananda&rama Press edition, Poona. Ap. Dh. S. 5= Apastamba-dharmasutra.
All.
India Reporter Chitaley of Nagpur ).
edited
by Mr. V. V.
Ap. gr. = Apastamba-grhya-siltra. Ap. M. P. = Apastamba-mantra-patha. Ap. ST. = Apastamba-Srauta-sutra. A6v. gr. = Asvalayana-grhya-sutra. Asv. Sr. = Asvalayana-sirauta-sutra. A. S. W. I. = Archaeological Survey of Western India
Baud. Dh. S. = Baudhayana-dharma-sutra. Baud. gr. = Baudhayana-grhya-sutra. Baud. Sr. = BaudhSyana-6rautasutra.

Bhar. gr. = fihfiradvaja-grhya-siitra. B. I. = Bibliotheca Indica series, Calcutta. Bom. = Indian Law Reports, Bombay Series.
Reports.
Bom. H. 0. R. = Bombay High Court Reports (vol. I-XII). Bom. L. R. = Bombay Law Reporter ( edited by Ratanlal and Dhirajlal ).
B. O. R.
Br. Up.
I.
Bhandarkar
Poona.
Oriental
Research Institute,
Brhadaranyaka Upanisad. Indian Law Reports, Calcutta Series. Chan. Up. or Ch. Up. = Chandogya Upanisad. C. I. L = ( Volumes of ) Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum. C. L. J. = Calcutta Law Journal.
Cal.
Com.
Cr. ed.
= Commentator or Commentary (according to context). = Critical Edition of the Mahabharata, published

by the Bhandarkar Oriental Research
Institute,
C.
W.
D. C.
Dh. Die
= Deccan College S. = Dharmasutra. Frau = Die Frau
Poona. N. = Calcutta Weekly Notes
Law
Reports
).
Collection of Sanskrit Mas.
im
(
Brahmanismus by
).
Dr.
M.
Winternitz
1920, Leipzig
viii
History of Dharmai&atra
E. C.
E.
I.
=5
E.
Epigraphia Carnatioa. Epigraphia Indioa. E. = Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics
edited
by James Hastings
F. n.
).
Fick
= Footnote. ~ The Social
organization in North-east India in
Buddha's time (translated from Dr. Shishirkumara Maitra, 1920 ).
German by
= Dharmasutra of Gautama. Gr. R. = Gfhastharatnakara of Cande&vara. G. 8. = Gupta sarhvaL H, A. 3. L. = History of Ancient Sanskrit
Gaut.
Prof.
Literature by
Max
Muller
1859
).
Hir. gr.
L
I.
HiranyakeM-grhya-sutra. Indian Antiquary. H. Q. SB Indian Historical Quarterly. L. R. = India Law Reports series.
A,
Ins.
Inscription or inscriptions.
J. B. B. R.
A.
S. =a
J. B.
0. R. S.
Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research
Journal of the
Society.
Jiv.
J.
Pandit Jivananda's edition. R. A. S. = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, London.

S.
K&thaka
= K^haka Samhit*.
Kaut =
L. R.
I.
Kautilya's Arthatestra. A. = Law Reports, Indian Appeals ( decided by the Privy Council ) t the number of the volume
Mait.
S.
being inserted between L. R. and

Maitrayanl-samhitft.
I.
A.
Manava
gr. = Manava-grhyasutra. Mark, or Markandey a = Mirkandey a-purana. Mit. = The commentary Mitaksara on Yajnavalkya Moo. I. A.= Moore's Indian Appeals.
n.
Srarfci.
footnote.
Pan.
P and
M = Pollock
Law.
Panini's Astftdhyayl.
and Maitland's History of English
Par. gr. as Paraskara-grhyapsatra. Par. M. Para&ara-Madhavlya.
Pat.
Patafijali's
Mahibhasya.
List
of Abbreviations
ix
Q.
Quoted.
Rel. and Phil.
Prof. Keith's of the
Bg. =
Rifc.
Religion and Philosophy Veda and Upuniâds.

'
'
Rgveda.
Lit.
Hitlebrandt's
' Ritaal Opfer und Zauber '.
Litteratur
Vedische
Sara. K.
Sam. P.
or^'
San.
or Pr.
Sarhskara-kaustubha of Anantadeva. = SariiBkaraprakasa of Mitrami&ra.
M* }
Samskara-ratna-mftlft of Goplnatha.
gr,
Sat. Br.
S.
B.
= Sankbyayana-grhya-sufcra. = Satapatha Brahmana. E. = Sacied Books of the East

Max
Miiller
).
ed.
by Prof.
Sch. C. 0. = Scheduled castes Order of 1936. Sm. C. = Smrti-candrika. Sm. M. or Smr. M. = Smrfcimuktaphala of Vaidyanafcba.
Sr. P.
S.
N.
Srautapadarfchanirvacana.
V.
Samaveda,
Tai. Ar. Tai. Br.
= =
Taittirlya Arapyaka.
Taittirlya Brahmana.
Tai, S. or
= Taittirlya Sarhhitft. = Translation or translated according to context Up. = Upanisad. = Vajasaneya Sambita. Vfij. S. Vaik. or Vaikhanasa = Vaikhanasa-smarta-sutra. Vas. or Vas. Dh. S. = Vasistha-dbarmasutra. Visnu. Dh. S. = Visnu-dharma-sutra. V. S. = Vedanta-sutra. Yaj. = Yajnavalkyasmrti. Yati. Dh. S. or \ = v Y a "" narma sam g raua
Sam.
Tr.
(
,
).
,,
Yati-dh
Z. D.
M. G.
Zeitschrift der Deutschen
Morgenlandischen
Gesselschnft.
H. D.
History of Dharwaiasira
Q.
^.
or
*7f. ^.
Î^TO^T^J^
*f.
^f-
or
ST.
^3.
=
m.
^T^t'^tq
^T.
or
2fT[.
s.
3?T.
^T.
= %f
%. ^T. or q^T.
o?j. jj.
^;
or
cjf^.
jf,
qr.
=
(
as quoted in
digests
2-
or
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
(
of important
works and authors referred
to in this
volume
N. B.
Some
dates, particularly of ancient works,
are conjectural
and only tentative.
4000 B. C.-1000 B.
C.
The period of the Vedic Samhitas, Brahmanas and Upanisads. It is possible that some hymns may go back to a period even earlier than 4000 B. C. and thafc some
Upanisads (even out of those that are
regarded as the principal and the earliest ones ) are later than 1000 B. C.
800
800
B. C. B. C.
500 B.
400 B.
C.
C.
600
B. C.
300
B. C.
sutras (of Apastamba, Asvalayana, Baudhayana, Katyayana, Sankhyayana, Latyayana, Drahyayana, Satyasadha)and some of the grhya sutras ( Asvalayana, Apastamba &c. ). The dharmasutras of Apastamba, Gautama. Baudhayana, Vasistha and the Grhyasutras of Paraskara, Baudhayana and
The Nirukta. The principal Srauta
some
600
500
300
B. C.
B. C. B. C.
C.
others.
300
B.
Panini.
200
B. C.
Jaimini's Purvamlmarhsa'-sutra.
100 A. D.
A. D.
Kautilya's Arthasastra
150 B. 200 B.
Mahabhasya
Manusmrti.
300 A. D.
of Patanjali.
C.~ 200
300
100
A. D.
Yajfiavalkya-smrti.
100 A. D.
A. D.-
100 A. D. 200 A. D, 200 A. D.
400 A. D. 500 A.
D.
Visrmdharmasutra. Naradasmrti.
Vaikhanasa-smartasutra.
Sabara, com. of Jaimini. Brhaspatismrti ( not yet found ). Some of the extant puranas viz.
500
A. D.
300 A. D. 500 A, D. 300 A. D.600 A. D.

400 A. D.
505 A. D.
Vayu
600
A. D.
Visnu, Markandeya, Kurma, Matsya. Katyayanasmrbi ( not yet found ).
587 A. D.
650
A. D.
750 A.
D,
Varaha-mihira, author of Brhatsamhita. Tantravartika of KumariJa.
788 A.D.
820 A. D.
Samkaracarya, the great Advaita philosopher,
xii
History of Dharmata&tra
600 A. D.
900 A. D.
Most
of the other smrfcis
and some
of the
purfinas.
800 A. D. 850 A. D. Visvarapa, com. of Yajnavalkya. 900 A. D. -Medhatithi, com. of Manu 1100 A. D. Mitaksara of VijnaneSvara. 1100 A. D.-1150 A,, D. -Kalpafcaru of Laksmldhara. 1100 A. D.-1150 A. D. -Jlmutavahana. 1125 A. D. Apararka. 1150 A. D.-1200 A. D. Smrtyarthasara. 1200 A. D.-1225 A. D. Smrticandrika. 1150 A. D.-1300 A. D. Haradatfca. 1150 A. D.-1300 A. D. Kulluka. 1260 A. D.-1270 A. D. Hemadri's Caturvargacintamani. 1310 A. D.-1360 A. D. Candesvara, author of the Grhastharatnakara and other Ratnakaras. 1300 A. D.-1380 A. D. -Madhavacarya, of author Purastira-
Madhavlya.
1360 A. D.-1390 A. D. Madanaparijata. 1425 A. D.-1450 A. D.Madanaratna. 1520 A. D.-1570 A. D. Raghunandana. 1610 A. D.-1640 A. D. Kamalakarabhatttt, author of Niruayasindhu and Sudrakamalaktira. 1615 A. D.-1645 A, D. Nllakarrtha, author of SmiiBkartv-nmyukha
and other Mayukhas.

1610 A. D.-1640 A. D. 1650 A, D.-1680 A. D.
Mitra Misra, author Anantadeva, author

tubha.
of
of
Vlramitrodaya.
Sumskara-kaus-
About 1686 A. D. Srartiinuktaphala of Vaidyanatha. 1700 A. D.-1750 A, D. Nagojlbhafta. 1750 A. D.-1820 A. D.- Balambhatta, author of 1790 A. D. Dharraasindhu ( of KaÎnatha ).
SYNOPSIS OP CONTENTS
I.
1
18
Various divisions of dharma. Topics Dharmas common to all ( s&dharana-dharma ). Truth, love, charity, self-restraint. Standard of moral values. Four purusarthas ( goals of human existence ) and their gradation. Limits
of
dharoiasastra.
of Aryavarta.
Bharatavarsa.
CHAP,
ll^*
19104
High eulogy and condemnation of caste system. Characteristic features of modern caste system. History of the word varna. Arya and dasa or dasyu. Vis in the Rgveda. Position of Sudra in Vedic Literature. Position of the three higher varnas inter se. Professions and crafts in Vedic Sariihitas. Rathakara and Nisada. Propositions deducihle from Vedic Literature. List of various crafts and avocations culled from Vedic Literature. Ramifications of caste traced by dharmasastra writers to mixed unions. Two postulates as to castes Urdharmasastra writers. Anuloma and pratiloma castes. \Jrni. Status of children of mixed castes. Varimsamkara. Jahjatkarsa and Jalyapakarsa. Professional castes and guilds. List of castes mentioned by works from 500 B. 0. to 1000 A. D. Revolt against the caste system in the Mahabharata. A few of the castes mentioned by medieval works.
CHAP.
III.
105-164
Bralimana's Duties, disabilities and privileges of varnas. special privileges and duties study of veda, teaching the veda, officiating at and performing sacrifices, making and receiving Rules about receiving gifts. Special duty of sudras to gifts.
serve higher castes. Divisions of sudras. Brahmana in distress may do the work specially meant for ksatriyas and vaisyas. Brahmana and money-lending, agriculture, sale and barter
as means of livelihood in distress. Begging. High eulogy of brahmanas. Enumeration and discussion of special privileges claimed by brahmanas. Disabilities of Sudras, viz. not authorized to study the veda nor to perform vedic sacrifices with vedic mantras, liability to rocoive higher punishment for
certain offences, not to hold high offices like that of judge.
xiv
History of Dharmaifistra
CHAP. IV.
Untouchability.
165-179
Arityajas according to the srnrtis.
touchables,
Hardly any Vedic passage supports it. Rules about shadow of unPublic roads and untouchables. Matters in which
immediate
relief required.
CHAP. V.
Slavery.
180-187
Existence of slavery in Vedic times.
Kinds
of
slaves in the smrtis.
Manumission
of slaves.
188-267
\Jfamskaras. Purpose of samskaras. Divisions of samskaras. Divergence as to number of samskaras. List of samskaras named by all or most of the smrti writers. Samskaras of
sudras. Easy expiation provided for non-performance of samskaras. Garbhadhana known from the times of the AtharvaGarbhadhana in the Brhadaranyaka of veda. Procedure upanisad and smrtis. Whether it is a sarhskara of the woman
or of the child.
rites in all
Homa. Preliminary Altar in grhya rites. samskaras such as Ganapatipujana, Punyahavflcana, Anavalobhana. Puftisavana. Nandlsraddha. Matrkapujana, and Jatakarma Siniantonnayana. Vimubali. Sosyantikarnia.
several component parts
of it such as homa, Medhajanana. were given at various periods several names for the same person. Rules about names. Karnavedha, Niskramaria. Annapraiana. Varsavardhana, Caula. Vidyarambha.
Namakarana.
How names
CHAP. VII.
268-415
ment
Upanayana. Meaning of the word. Origin and developAncient It implies gayatryupadesa. of this sacrament. features of upanayana. Originally a simple ceremony. The
proper age for
upanayana
for the three varnas.
The auspicious
Rules about the skin, the garments, the girdle and brahmacarin of different varnas. The preliminary the of the staff The principal rites of rites of Upanayana such as homa. upanayana. History of yajnopavita from ancient times. Rules
time for
it.
manufacturing and wearing yajnopavTta. Whether women had upanayana performed and could wear yajnopavita. Wearing of yajnopavita given up by ksatriyas in the fir^t few centuries Whether upanayana performed for the blind, the after Christ. deaf and dumb, idiots &c. Upanayana of mixed castes and of
for
the a^vattha
tree.
Imparting of sacred GSyatrl
to the student.
Synopsis of Contents
'
xv
Vyahrtis and om '. Eulogy of Gayatrl. The dharmas ( duties ) of brahmacarins. Bhiksa ( begging ) for food by brahmacarin. Performance of Samdhya twice daily and rules about the
principal elements of samdhyft, such as acamana, pranayama, marjana, aghamarsana, arghya to the sun, japa of Gayatrl,
worship ). Nyasas and Mudras. Study of the veda, Features of the ancient educational system, such as oral instruction, teaching without stipulating for a fee, student's stay with the teacher. Qualifications of a good
upasthana
the
first
duty.
teacher and the qualities of a good pupil. Students did work Rules about honouring the teacher and elders, for the teacher.
women
of greetings. Saluting and the wife of the teacher. Rules about showing courtesy and precedence on public roads. Grounds of showing respect. Duration of student-hood. Subjects of study at various periods. Corporal punishment of pupils. Education of ksatriyas, vaisyas, sudras and of women. Merits and defects
bowing
to
them and about the return
relatives
of the ancient system of education. The Veda-vratas. Perpetual Patitasavitrika (whose upanayana had not (naisthika) students.
been performed ). Whether ksafcriyas and vaisyas exist in the Kali age. The Vratyastoma for those whose upanayana had not been performed at all. Taking back those who had been forcibly converted or who belonged to other faiths. Tolerance in ancient India. Absorption of foreign elements. Punarupa-
nayana ( performing upanayana again ). Anadhyaya ( cessation of study ) on various days and for various reasons. Keianta or Qodana. Snana or Saniavartana ( the student's return from the teacher after finishing Vcdic study ). Rules of conduct for
snatakas.
CHAP.yiIL
Âsramas.
(
416-426
Origin and development of the idea of a&ramas
stages of life ). Number of asramas four from the times of the most ancient dhartnasutras. -Manu's theory. Brahmacarya and householder's stage well-known even to the Rgveda.
Vaikhanasa and yati in Vedic Literature. Three asramas expressly mentioned in the Ohandogya Upanisad. Idea of moksa (release from samsara ). Varna and asrama complementary. Three different npints of view about the four asramas.
CHAP, np"
^Marriage.
not point to a society where there
427-541
The most important sarhskara of all. Texts do was Dromiscuitv and no
xvt
marriage.
bridegroom.
(
(
History of Dharmatnstra
Purposes of marriage. Qualifications of a desirable Rules for the selection of a bride. Laksanas
),
indicatory characteristics
invisible or inferrible
).
bahya
visible
and abhyantara
grounds for preferring a particular girl. Selecting a girl by asking her to take one out of several lumps of clay gathered from various places. In ancient times brotherless maidens not accepted as brides. No unmarried woman was deemed in medieval times to go to as to caste, gotra, pravara and sapinda heaven. |lestrictions Breach of these rales rendered a so-called relationship. marriage null and void. Age of marriage for men not fixed. Age of marriage for girls varied at different periods. In the ancient sutras girls were married about the time of puberty. Reasons for insistence on pre-puberty marriages in Yajnavalkyasmrti and other works not clear. Examples of inter-caste marriages in Vedic Literature, in dharraa and grhya sutras and smrfcis and in Anuloma marriages allowed till about the 9th inscriptions. century A, D. Sapinda relationship explained in the Mit. Rules about prohibition of marriage on the ground of sapinda relationfive
Four or
Conflict of texts as to these rules. ship. Marriage with one's maternal uncle's daughter. Conflict on this point among medieval writers and among several castes. Narrowing of sapinda relationship permitted by writers of digests only on the ground of usage.
'
Meaning
of
viruddhasambandha.'
Sapinda relationship of the
Meaning of sapinda according to Dayabhaga and Raghunandana. Marriage between sagotras and sapravaras forbidden. Meaning of gotra and pravara in Vedic works.
adopted son.
'
'
'
the sutras and digests.
Gotra and pravara of importance in several matters. Gotra in Divisions and sub-divisions of gotras. Each gotra has one or more pravaras. Gotras ôf ksatriyas and vaisyas. Names of ksatriya kings among gotras and
pravaras.
Marriage
of sagotras
and sapravaras void according
to the writers of digests. Persons that have power to give a Sale of girls in marriage in ancient times. girl in marriage.
Taking monetary consideration for one's daughter condemned. Father's power over his children. Conflict of views among writers as to ownership over one's wifo and children. Infanticide, medieval and modern. Auspicious time for marriage. Medieval works introduced difficulties on astrological grounds. Forms of marriage. Meaning of raksnsa and paisaca marriages. Svayamvara. Only two forms of marriage in vogue in modern times. Procedure of marriage in the Rgveda and in the grhya
eutras.
List of the several elements in the marriage rite
and
their description. When marriage becomes complete vocable. Marriage brought about by force or fraud.
xvii
and
irre-
CHAP. X.
Madhuparka. Procedure of marriage with the arka plant ).
or sister
).
542-549
it
from the
sutras.
(
Arkavivaha
Parivedana
marrying before
an elder brother
CHAP.
XL
550-582
Polygamy, polyandry, rights and duties on marriage. No evidence for polyandry in Sanskrit Literature except in the case of Draupadl. First duty of wife was to co-operate with the husband in all religious matters. Wife not authorised to perform religious rites independently or without husband's
consent.
Precedence
among
co-wives
in
religious matters.
Theory of debts with which every man was supposed to be born, one being the debt to his ancestors and discharged by procreating sons. Duties of wife dwelt upon at great length in all smrtis and digests. Foremost duty of wife is to obey her husband and honour him as god. Ideal of a pativrata. Wife's conduct when husband was away from home on a journey. Wife's right of Supernatural powers ascribed to pativrata. residence and maintenance. Husband's power of correction. Humane treatment even when wife guilty of adultery. No identity of husband and wife for secular or legal purposes, Position of women in ancient India. Estimate of the charactei
5f "Tfrornen
in Sanskrit works.
character.
High eulogy
of
Passages condemning wome' and reverence for the mother.
fi
3HAP. XII.
583-5a
jrear after
Duties of widows. Rules of conduct for widows for one the death of the husband. In widowhood woman to
lead
an
ing betelnut.
ascetic life, avoid luxuries like perfumes, flowers, chewWidow (except one's mother) declared to be most
inauspicious. Her rights in a joint family, and as heir to Widow's position improved by liusband's separate property. recent legislation. The practice of tonsure of brahmana widows has no sanction in the vedas and smrtis ( excepting one or two ).
Examination
of texts relied
upon in support of
digests
this practice.
Only Skandapurana and medieval
insist
on tonsure.
Practice gradually evolved from about 10th or llth century. Sentiment that a woman should not be killed on any account.
H. C.
xviii
History of Dharma$astra
Position of women became assimilated to that of sudras in Certain advantages conceded to women. religious matters. Practice of purda did not exist for women except for queens and ladies of high or noble rank.
CHAP. XIII.
599-607
Niyoga. Great divergence of views about the origin and purpose of this practice. Stringent conditions were laid down by smrtikaras before niyoga could be resorted to. Breach of the
conditions severely condemned and
made
punishable.
Some
even very ancient writers on dharma did not allow this practice. The Mahabharata is full of examples of niyoga. Some writers held that texts permitting niyoga applied to sudras or to girls who were only promised in marriage to a person but not actually married to him ( as he died in the meantime ). Three views upon the question to whom the child born of niyoga belonged.' Niyoga forbidden in the Kali age by Brhaspati and
'
other smrti writers.
CHAP. XIV.
Remarriage of widows.
necessarily
608-623
The word 'punarbhu' does not

of
mean 'remarried widow*. Narada on the kinds and svairinls. Baudhayana and Kasyapa on 7 kinds punarbhus
punarbhu.
of
Smrtis ( except those of Vasistha, Narada and one or two others ) prohibit remarriage of widows. Rules for a wife whose husband is unheard of for many years, Hindu Widow's Remarriage Act of 1856. Appalling number of child widows. Verses of Rgveda and Atharvaveda supposed to refer to remarriage of widows examined. Divorce unknown in Vedic or Dharma&astra Literature. Kauîlya on divorce. Divorce law in England and Roman Catholic countries.
CHAP. XV.
624-636
Forbidden in India from 1829. Practice of widow Satt. burning obtained in many countries. Practice of SatI very limited in ancient times. Sahagamana and anumarana. Brahmana widows were not allowed anumarana. References to
practice of SatI in classical Sanskrit Literature and epigraphic
records.
Rewards promised to Sail. Some commentators were opposed to this practice. Restrictions imposed against widowburning by the smrtis. Procedure of the rite of widow-burning.
Widow-burning more prevalent in Bengal than anywhere owing to the higher rights of succession granted to wives.
else
xir
CHAP. XVI.
Vesya. The institution existed rights of concubines to maintenance.
637-639
from Vedic times.
The
CHAP. XVII.
640-695
Ahnika and acara. Importance of the stage of householder. Grhasthas grouped into Sallna and yayavara. Duties of householders described in detail in many smrtis and digests. Various ways of dividing the day. Smrtis usually divide the day into eight parts. Actions to be done on getting up from bed, such as hymns of praise to God, repeating the names of famous
cirajlvins.
personages like Nala and of persons that are supposed to be Auspicious and inauspicious sights on getting up from bed. Rules about answering calls of nature. Cleanliness of
body (iauca) in various ways. Acamana (sipping water). Dantadhavana (brushing the teeth) existed from the most ancient times. What twigs to be used for it. Times
when
there is to be no brushing of teeth. Snana (-bath ). KuSas necessary in most religious acts. Rules about collecting kusas. Snana twice a day or thrice according to some. No bath at
wafcer
except on rare occasions). Natural water preferred to or hot water. Procedure of bathing. Rules about the clay to be employed for smearing and cleaning
night
drawn from wells
the body.
Ten good
results of a bath.
Six varieties of b-ithing
with water.
holder.
How
one
who
is
a constituent part of snana.
be purified. Tarpana as Clothes to be worn by ajiouseill is to
Making marks on the forehead after bathing. Urdhvapundra and Tripundra. Saiva and Vaisnava sectarians conSamdhya after bath, Homa. demning each other's marks. Two views about performing it before or after sunrise. Agnihotra twice daily. Three or five or six fires. When to begin Materials for havis. Homa to be maintaining grhya fire. offered by oneself or by one's son, pupil, brother, sister's son or a similar relative. Wife or unmarried daughter may offer homa in grhya fire if householder be ill. Japa of Vedic texts.
What
of
are
mangala ( auspicious )
first
objects.
so far occupy
eighth part of the day.
The matters described In 2nd part revision

In 3rd
to
Vedic
texts, collecting fuel sticks, flowers,
part one
wealth.
earn In 4th part mid-day bath. Then tarpana of gods, sages and pitrs. A brief tarpana is also prescribed.
was
to find out
means
of
kusas &c. maintenance and
xx
History of Dharmaiaslra
CHAP, XVIIL
696-704
Mahayajnas (five daily observances or sacrifices ). These are mentioned in the Satapatha Brahmana and Taittirlya Aranyaka. Mahayajnas distinguished from rauta rites in two
Sentiments that prompted the five yajnas in very ways. remote days. Later on purpose of Mahayajnas stated to be atonement for injury to life caused by daily acts. The five yajnas in order of performance are brahmayajna, devayajna, bhutayajna, pitryajna and manusya-yajna. Brahmayajna. Earliest
description in Satapatha Br. and Tai. Ar, Brahmayajfia for Rgvedins described.
CHAP. XIX.
Devayajfla.
705-740
In sutras
homa
is
Devayajna.
In medieval
receded into background and devapuja took its Discussion whether images of gods were known in place. Vedic times. Meaning of Sisnadeva. Phallic emblems at
times
homa
Mohenjo-daro. Linga worship. Images known long before Panini. Erection of temples and worship of images, whether borrowed or indigenous. Substances from which images were made. Principal gods of whom images were worshipped. Ritual of image worship.
puja,
Who
are entitled to perform deva-
Salagrama and other sacred stones.

of Visnu.
Pancayafcanapuja.
Ten avataras
Germs of the theory in Vedic Literature. When Buddha came to be looked upon as an avatara of Visnu. Why Buddhism disappeared from India. Evidence
Siva worship. for religious persecution in India very meagre. Worship of Ganesa and Dattatreya. Earliest description of the
worship of Visnu and Siva. The 16 modes of worship ( upaFlowers in the worship of different gods. Tambula. ). Namaskftras to the sun. Worship of Durga, Analysis of devacaras
puja in modern times.
CHAP. XX.
Vaisvadeva.
741-748
According to some it comprises three yajnas, and pitrs. Deities of Vaisvadeva. Usually performed only once in the noon. Procedure of VaiSvadeva. Views about Vaisvadeva in relation to Sraddha. Baliharana or
viz. to
gods, bhufcas
bhutayajna.
Daily pitr-yajna.
CHAP. XXI.
741-756
Nryajna or Manusyayajna ( honouring guests ). Guests honoured from Rgveda downwards. Who is an cdtthi. Modes
of
xxi
showing honour
to guests.
guests was universal kindliness.
Motive of the injunction about Taking leave of a guest.

757-806
CHAP. XXII.
Bhojana ( taking meals ). Importance attached to purity Rules about bhojana in Vedic Literature. Direction of food. Times of taking food. Vessels to be in which to take food. used in bhojana. Preliminaries before bhojana (such as acamana,
pranahutis &c.
).
Posture at time of eating.
panktis (rows of dinners) were distinguished. of at time Etiquette panktipavana brahmanas.
How
How much to eat. Who are

bhojana.
Occasions
like
eclipses
when abstaining from food was
prescribed. What food should or should not be eaten. Various grounds on which food was forbidden. Flesh-eating in Vedic times. Sacred ness of cow. Paficagavya. Occasions when cow could be offered in sacrifices. Rules about the flesh of beasts, birds and fishes. Causes of the giving up of flesh-eating. Ksatriyas have been meat-eaters from ancient times. Rules about taking milk and its products and about certain herbs and Exhaustive list of persons whose food may not be vegetables. taken. Great fluctuations about the rules as to whose food may not be taken by a brShmana. Laxity about food prepared with ghee, oil or milk. Food from five classes of 6udras could be taken by brahmanas in the times of sutras, but later on this was forbidden. Rules about persons who could cook and serve food for brahmanas. Drinking liquor in ancient times. All intoxicants forbidden to brahmanas from sutra times, but some intoxicants allowed to ksatriyas and others. Madyas Tdmbula after bhojana. Acts to be done after of various kinds. Sexual intercourse between bhojana. Rules about sleeping. husband and wife. Rules about Rajasvala ( a woman in her monthly illness ). Rules about the distribution of the king's
duties
in the several parts of the day
and night.
807-818
CHAP. XXIII.
starting of the session of vedic studies ) and utsarjana ( cessation from vedic studies ). Divergence about time of upakarma. Explanation of the importance attached
Upakarma
to
the
month
of
of
Sravana
and the
in
Sravana constellation.
Analysis of the
times.
Procedure of upakarma in ancient times.

constituents
upakarma
modern
Holiday after
Description
upakarma. Divergence about times of modern utsarjana.
of utsarjana.
xxii
History of Dharmatastra
CHAP. XXIV,
Minor grhya and other
rites.
819-836
Parvana sthallpaka.
Gaitrl.
SravanI and Sarpabali. Serpent-worship from Slt&yajna. ancient times. Festival in honour of Indra. Aivayuji. Agrayana
isti.
AgrahSyanl.
Sulagava
or
X&anabali.
Vastupratistha,
ancient and modern.
CHAP.
XXV.
Dana
is
837-888
a special feature of householder's ( gifts ). Gifts extolled in the Rgveda. Gift of horses highly stage. censured in some works. Gifts of land were not favoured in very early times. Difference between dana, yaga and homa. Meaning of istapurta. All could make gifts ( including women
Dana
and sudras
).
Persons
fit
and
unfit to be donees.
What
things
could be donated and what not.
Three classes
of things that
could be given.
Danas
of three kinds, viz. nitya, naimittika
and
kamya. Making gifts in secret eulogised. Certain gifts should not be spurned. Gifts of certain things forbidden. Proper times for making gifts. Generally gifts not to be made at night. Gifts at times of eclipses, samkranti and onayana days specially
recommended.
Proper places for gifts, Presiding deities of various articles of gift. General procedure of making gifts. Kings were required to make various kinds of gifts to
brahmanas.
Spending money for marriages of brahmanas and
settling them in houses highly eulogised. Gifts of land the most meritorious. Smrti rules about land-grants followed in
epigraphic records.
made by
Verses deprecating the resumption of gifts Prior gifts to temples and brahmanas excepted in grants of villages. Taxes remitted in royal grants. The eight bhogas in relation to land grants. Discussion whether
earlier kings.
king
is
owner of all lands in the kingdom. Gifts called mahadanas
Procedure of Tuladescribed in puranas. Sixteen mahadanas. of Gift cows mahadanas. and other highly extolled. purusa Gifts of ten kinds called dhenus such as of ghee, jaggery &c.
Ten kinds
of gifts called parvata or meru danas viz. of heaps of corn, salt, sesame &c. Establishing a pavilion for distributing water. Gift of books. Gifts for propitiating planets. Founding of hospitals. Expiations for accepting gifts which should not
have been accepted.

of invalid gifts.
When
gift
becomes irrevocable.
Kinds
courts.
Gifts to
dharma held void by modern
CHAP. XXVI.
of
889-916
Pratistha and Utsarga ( founding of temples and dedication wells &c. ). Women and Sudras also could spend on purta-
xxiii
dharma, though not on isfc ( vedic sacrifices ). Charitable works for the benefit of the public canie to be regarded as more meritorious than sacrifices. Procedure of dedicating a tank or well
the sutras. Procedure prescribed in puranas gradually superseded the sutra procedure. Meaning of dana, in ancient Trees highly valued pratistha and utsarga. India. Trees supposed to save a man from hell just as a son did. Worship of trees. Consecration of images in temples.
to the public in
Image worship
in a public temple or privately. Procedure of consecration of images according to the Matsya-purana. In later times other details added from Tantra works. Three
,
kinds of Ny&sas viz matrkanyasa, tattvanyasa and mantranyasa. Consecration of the image of Visnu from Vaikhanasa Smartasutra. Practice of attaching dancing girls to temples
tistha)
comparatively ancient. When re-consecration ( punah-prabecomes necessary. Jtrnoddhara (repairing or re-constructing a dilapidated temple &c. ), time and procedure of.
is
Founding
pupils). said to
of mathas (monasteries or colleges for teachers and Distinction between a temple and a matha. Mathas have been established by the great teacher Sarhkara-
carya. The origin of mathas in general. How property of ma^ha devolves. Appointment and powers of the head of a ma^ha. How rulers and courts in ancient and medieval times controlled administration of temple and matha properties, Modern legislation dealing with religious and charitable
endowments. Yogaksema is impartible. Control of founder on work dedicated to the public. Powers of a shebait to remove an
idol or to establish another.
917-929
\*/Vanaprastha (forest hermit). Vaikhanasa, ancient word An ancient work called Vaikhanasa sfltra or for vanaprastha. Time for becoming a vanaprastha. Principal points Sastra.
connected with being a vanaprastha. If he suffers from an incurable disease, he may start on the great journey till the body falls to rise no more. Intricate classification of vanaprasthas in Baudhayana-dharma-sutra and others. Members Memof all varnas except 6udras could become vanaprasthas. bers of princely houses as vanaprasthas. Ending one's life by
or by fire or ( mahaprasthana ) water or falling from a precipice when and why allowed. Historical examples of this practice. This practice prohibited Most of the duties prescribed for vanaprasthas in the Kali age.
starting on the great journey
xxiv
are the same as those for samnyasinB. So vanaprastha stage forbidden in Kali age by the NSradlya-purSna and other
works.
CHAP. XXVIII.
of ascetics).
930-975
ties,
Life of giving up worldly Samnyasa (order of begging and contemplation on the Absolute known to
Upanisads,
Jabalopanisad
prescribes
the earliest
ascetics.
rules for
The most salient features of samnyasa gathered from the dharmasutras and smrtis. Tridandi and ekadandi ascetics. Four kinds of ascetics, kuticaka, bahudaka, hamsa and paramahamsa and their characteristics. Popular notion that the paramahamsa is beyond all rules and prohibitions combated by ancient texts. Vidvat-samnyasa and vividisS-sarhnyasa. The
and avadhuta kinds of ascetics. turiyatita Opinions as to "whether samnyasa was allowed only to brahman as or to all three varnas. According to smrtis and medieval works a sudra
could not become an ascetic.
the ascetic
Women
in rare cases adopted
mode of life. The word samnyasa conveys two distinct ideas. Some held that samnyasa was meant only for the blind and the cripple. Ascetics were to give up wife and home and were not to revert to householder's life. Ten orders
samnyasins following Samkaracarya's doctrines and Disputes among the heads of these mathas as to properties and ecclesiastical jurisdiction. How successors to the pontiffs of the mathas are appointed. How and why samnyasins gave up doctrine of ahimsa in medieval times. A samnyasin is severed from his family and loses rights of property in it. By custom certain samnyasins called Gosavis were allowed to have wives and concubines. Procedure of
of advaita
their
mathas.
samnyasa according
to
the
sutras.
Procedure of samnyasa
according to Dharmasindhu.
Principal elements are; eight fcrftddhas, savitripravesa, virajahoma, declaration of leaving
home,
all
wealth and desires and taking vow of ahimsa, giving
up
karaTta
and sacred thread, teaching by guru of panel' and mahavakyas (like tat tvam-asi), giving of anew name by the teacher, yogapatta (p. 962), paryanka-sauca.
of topknot
Samnyasa in extremis ( afcura-samnyasa ). Controversies about giving up sikha and yajnopavlta. Daily duties of an ascetic.
No
impurity
Ascetic heads of tion in matters

lapses.
on his death for his relatives and vice versa. mathas claim in modern times jurisdicof caste, excommunication, expiations for In ancient times parisads (assemblies of learned
xxv
men )
The number
exercised these functions and kings acted on their advice. of persons required to constitute a parisad for
Meaning of parisad. established by Shivaji

these eight.
deciding a doubtful point about dharma. Sistas constitute a ista. The council of eight ministers
and the duties of the Panditrao, one of Panditrao took advice of the parisads of learned brahmanas on questions of re-admission of converts, expiations &c. Many features of asceticism are common to all religions. It is a partial truth that Indians have the highest regard for
the ascetic.
CHAP.
XXIX.
(
976-1008
)
Srauta
Vedic
sacrifices.
Deep study
of vedic
sacrifices
essential for the proper understanding of Vedic Literature, for appreciating the influence of that Literature on varnas. Chrosacrifices.
sacrifices.
Works, ancient and modern, on Vedic nology uncertain. Jaimini on interpretation of Vedic texts relating to
Cult of yajna existed in Indo-Iranian period. Literary and epigraphic evidence for the performance of Vedic Grants made sacrifices by kings after the advent of Buddha. by kings for enabling brahmanas to perform agnihotra &c. The references to sacrificial matters in the Rgveda. General rules applicable in all sutras. Mantras of four kinds, rk, yajus, saman and nigada. Different kinds of ladles. Sacrificial utensils.
The several fires. The five bhusamskaras. Agnyadheya. Choosing the devayajana ( place of worship ). Procedure of AgvJiotra in the morning and agnySdheya. Punaradheya. evening. Rules about agnihotra when the householder goes away from home either alone or with his wife.
CHAP.
XXX.
1009-1090
Darsapurnamasa ( New moon and Full moon sacrifices ). Time for starting the performance of darsapurnamasa. Anvarambhanlya isti, sakhShararâ, barhiraharana (bringing bundles of kusa grass ), idhmaharana ( bringing fuel-sticks ), Sayamdoha. Upatasatha day. Sannayya. Brahmavarana (choosing the brahma
priest
).
).
Pranlta
waters.
(
Nirvapa
)
taking
out sacrificial
material
sils
Proksana
sprinkling
Construction of vedi (altar). girding up the sacrificer'g wife ). Barhirastarana (strewing the vodi with kusas ). Fifteen SamidhenI
&e, The Haviskrt call. cake (purodasa) on potsherds.
of sacrificial material, utenBeating the grains of rioe. Baking
Patnlsamwhana
verses.
Pravaramantra
H. D.
invocation of
fire
).
The two agharas
xxvi
(
Prayajas
pouring of Sjya in a continuous stream ). Hotrvarana. The Vasa^kara. Ajyabhagas ( two ). The ( five offerings ).
sacrifice of
principal
Bvistakrt.
portions of the cake.
Offering to
Agni
Cutting off a portion of the cake called prSsitra Ida cut off from purodasa. A thin long slice ( for brahma ). Invocation of Ida by the hotr. of purodasa for yajamana.
eats prasitra, hotr eats avantareda, all priests together with the yajamana partake of ida. Division of puroclaSa for Agni into four parts and eating of the portions by the four Marjana thereafter. Cooking a mess of boiled rico priests.
(
Brahma
called anvaharya ) as fee for the four priests. The three anuyaja offerings. Recitation of suldavaka. Throwing of prastara
bunch and sakha" into tire. Samyuvaka. Throwing the paridhis on fire. Patnisamyajas. Phalikaranahoim. Samsthajapa by hotr. Samistayajus offerings. Adhvaryu and brahma leave the sacrificial hall. Yajamana takes Visnu strides. Final prayer by
yajamana.
Pindapitryajna.
CHAP. XXXI.
seasonal sacrifices
1091-1108
Four Caturmasyas each ). Caturmasyas ( called a parvan, viz. Vaisvadeva, Varunapraghasa, Sakamedha and Sunaslrlya, respectively performed on Full moon days of Phalguna, Asadha, Kartika and on the 5th full moon day from Sakamedha or two or three days before it. Observances on all parvan days such as shaving head and face, not using a Five cot, avoiding meat, honey, salt and sexual intercourse.
offerings
common to all Caturmasyas. Caturmasyas may be Three special performed throughout life or for one year. offerings in Vaisvadeva-parva. Nine prayajas and mnQanuyajas in Vaisvadeva. Varunapraghasa performed in rainy season outside the house. Two vedis prepared, to north and south, respectively in charge of adhvaryu and pratiprasthatr. Procedure is like that of Vaisvadeva. Four special offerings in
this
praghasas.
Procedure of Varunahas any paramour. Concluding avabhrtha ( bath ) in a river or the like, Sakamedha requires two days. Three istis and a mahain
addition to five
common
to all.
The wife has
to declare or indicate if she
havis of eight offerings to eight deities.
Then pitryajna
called
mahapitryajna ) on a separate vedi. Also Traiyambaka homa offered to Rudra. Sunaslrlyaparvan has three special offerings to Sunasirau, Vayu and Surya. Isti called Agrayana ( offering of first fruits ) in Sarad on Full moon day. Other istis performed for some specific objects e. g. putresti for son, Karlrlsti for rain &c.
xxvii
CHAP. XXXII.
Nirudhapa&ubandha or Pa&ubandha (animal
victim
is offered
11J9-1132
sacrifice).
SomayEga also, but as part of it. Nirudhapasu is an independent sacrifice to be performed by an ahitagni every six months or once a year. Six priests required in this
in
sacrifice.
Procedure of animal
sacrifice.
Selecting a tree and
making a y upa ( sacrificial post ) and a head piece ( casala ) for the post. Preparing a vedi and a raised platform on it called uttaravedi and a square hole thereon called nabhi. Animals
Surya or Prajapati, Eleven prayaja from Verses Aprl hymns employed. The eleven offerings. prayaja deities. Samitra fire for roasting omentum of the victim. Hotr's recitation of the Adhrigu formula. Choking to death or strangling of the he-goat. Omentum taken out and offered
sacrificed for Indra-Agni or
by the adhvaryu into Ahavanlya fire for Indra-Agni or Surya or Prajapati. Six priests, sacrificer and his wife perform Marjana. The limbs of the victim that are cut off, and portions of which
are offered as pasu-purodasa.
Heart
of victim is roasted with a
pike on 6amitra
fire
and
offered as havis to
sacrificer partake
of ida constituted
by remnants
Manota. Priests and of the limbs
of the victim. Upayaja offerings of a part of the entrails along with the Anuyaja offerings. The hotr repeats the formula called Suktavaka. Maitravaruna throws his staff into fire. Offerings of Patnl-sarhyajas with portions of the tail. KamyUh Pasdmih ( animal sacrifices from various desires). Ekadasina, a group
sacrifice of eleven victims.
CHAP. XXXIII.
t
1133-1203
Agnistoma. Sacrifices are divided into isti pa&u and soma. Seven forms of soma sacrifices, Agnistoma, Atyagnistoma, Ukthya &c. Soma sacrifices dividedînto ekaha, ahlna and sattra. Jyotis/toma.often identified with Agnistoma, usually lasts for five days. Chief rites performed on those five days. Time for performing Agnistoma. Priests invited and honoured with Madhuparka. Requesting the king for sacrificial ground (devayajana). Sacrificer and his wife undergo apsu-diksa and subsist on milk or light food. Purificntion of both with bunches of darbhas. Procedure of dlksanlya isî after which sacrificer comes to be called dlksita. Even a ksatriya sacrificer was announced as a brahmana. Observances of the dlksita and his wife and people's conduct towards him. Observance of silence by sacrificer twice daily. The prayaniya isti. Purchase of Soma and the drama of higgling
about
its price.
Cow
offered as its price is
taken back.
Bundle
xxviii
of
History of Dharma&astra
stalks placed on antelope skin spread
to the east of the
Soma
on a
cart, that is
brought
pragvamsa.
Recital
of
the
Su-
Subrahmanya priest. A goat is presented to king Soma. Oxen are released from the cart, soma bundle taken out of the cart, placed on a couch of udumbara wood and brought to the south of the ahavanlya. Atithyesî Then comes ( isti for hospitably receiving king Soma ) follows.
brahmanya
litany
by
the
Tanunaptra
a solemn covenant of the sacrificer and priests
not to injure each other). Pravargya Pravargya was a sublime rite supposed to
and Upasad follow. endow sacrificer with a new body. Not necessary in every Agnistoma. The heated milk is called gharma and the pot of heated milk Mahavlra or Samrat. Wife was not to look at it ( at least in the beginning ), nor sudras. On 2nd, 3rd and 4th days Pravargya and Upasad
performed twice. How pravargya apparatus is discharged udvasana ). Upasad is an isti. Mantras repeated in Upasad refer to sieges of iron, silver and gold castles. On 2nd day of upasads Mahavedi is prepared, on which a quadrangular platform is raised and a pquare hole called nabhi ( called uttaravedi ) is made on which fire is brought on the 4fh day from the
Erection of the harvidhana-mandapa original ahavanlya. in which two carts are kept. Digging of four holes ( called the below uparavas) forepart of the shafts of the southern
cart.
A mound
vessels on.
soma
(khara) to Erection
east
of
of
sadas
uparavas for keeping of the to the west
havirdhana mandapa. Planting of an udumbara post in sadas. Preparing eight dhisnyas (seats), six in sadas, one in the agnldhrlya shed and the eighth in the marjallya shed. On uparavas kusas are spread, over which two boards of udumbara are placed and a hide thereon. On the hide are stones for
crushing soma stalks. Offering of an animal to Agni-Soma. Then follow offerings of ajya called Vaisarjina to Soma. Fire
carried to the uttaravedi, and established on agnldhra dhisnya. Bringing Vasatlvarl water in a j'ir and keeping it in agnldhra Last day is called sutya'. Repeating of a long prayer ehed. called Prafcaranuvaka by hotr long before daybreak to Agni, Usas and Asvins. Making ready of five offerings.
is
*
Filling of ekadhana pitchers by adhvaryu vessel by the sacrificer's wife. Extracting

stalks, filling the
and
of pannejana
Soma from a few
upamsugraha and offering its contents. Then comes MahabMsava ( principal pressing ). Offering soma from
various cups to several deities. Vipru$-dhowa. Priests come creeping towards the north corner of the great vedi, where the
xxix
Bahispavaraana laud is to be chanted by the udgatr, prastotr and the prati-hartr. Some of the other priests and the sacrificer become choristers. The nine verses of the Bahispavamana Btotra set out from the Rgvoda and method of their manipulation when sung in the eama chant exhibited. Notes on the parts and svaras of sUmana. Rites of offering the savanlya animal. The five savanlya offerings of cake &c. Offerings of soma from dvidevatya grahas (cups), Camasonnayana (filling of nine camasas) for the priests called Camasadhvaryus. The Two offering of soma from the cups called iukra and manthin. chips of wood offered to the asuras, Sanda and Marka. Acchavaka priest's request and filling his camasa with soma Offering of rtagrahas. Ksatriyas were not authorised to drink soma. The hotr performs japa, ahava (hotr's call) to which there is
pratigara (response of adhvaryu), hotr offers prayer called tusnlm-samsa, twelve clauses of nivid, then hotr recites the
of the twelve stotras Agnistoma. Explanation of stoma stobha and stotra. Meaning of Rathantara and other samans. Chanting of stotras other than Bahispavamana near audumbarl post in Four ajya-stotras in morning pressing. sadas. The 2nd
ajyasastra.
Enumeration and distribution

of
and Sastras
sastra called
Prauga recited by hotr and three more repeated brahmanacchamsin and acchavSka. At the maitravaruna, by end of morning pressing priests go out of the sadas. For the mid-day pressing priests again enter sadas. Procedure of midday pressing similar to that of morning pressing. The priest gravastut wears the cloth, in which soma stalks were tied, ns a turban and repeats many verses from the Rgveda. The chantrite,
ing of the Madhyandina-pavamana-stotra. The dadhigharma then the offering of pau purodasa and the five savanlya
offerings
(
cake &c.
).
Distribution of daksina to the several

others.
priests, sight-seers
and
pit.
horn in catvala
The yajamana throws antelope Five offerings called Vaisvakarmana.
The Marutvatlya Sastra. Prstha-stotra and Niskevalya sastra. Three more Prstha stotras and three &astras recited by maitravaruna and two others. Procedure of evening pressted.
ing similar to mid-day pressing. Arbhava-pavamSna chanHaiis prepared IJbhus connected with third pressing. from savanlya pasu offered. Vaisvadeva Sastra. The Pafcnlvata
Chanting of Yajnayajnlya Agni Patnlvat. Agnistomasaman. Wife of sacrifioor pours pannejana water over her thigh and udgatr priost looks at her. Agnimaruta- Sastra recited by hotr. Hariyojana cup offered to
cup
to stotra also called
xxx
Indra. All priests wait on ahavanlya with Hindu, mantras. Avabhrkha (final bath). All vessels except four sthalls are thrown into water. Yajamana casts antelope skin in catvala Avabhrtha saman chanted. The nidhana of the saman is pit. repeated by all priests, yajamana and his wife at three places on their way to reservoir of water. Yajamana and wife enter water, rub each other's back. Handful of kusa thrown in avabbrfcha isti. Purodasa offered to Varuna and then to Agni and Varuna. The unnetr brings out yajamana, wife and priests. They offer fuel sticks. The Udayanlya isti ( concluding ). Anubandhya rite ( offering of a barren cow to Mifcra and Varuna ) or only payasya. Then five offerings called Devika to Dhatr, Anumati, Raka, Sinlvall and Kuhu. Udavasanlya igti like
punaradheya.
and
*
its
relation to the moon.

'
Theories about tho identity of the soma plant In the Deccan a substitute called
ransera
is
employed for soma.

1204-1223
Brief descriptions of Ukthya, Sodasin,
CHAP. XXXIV.
Other soma
sacrifices.
Atyagnistoma, Atiratra and Apfcoryama. Vajapeya may be regarded as an independent sacrifice. Number 17 predominant in it. 17 cups of soma and 17 cups of sura for Prajapati. A race with 17 chariots and 17 drums beaten. Vajapeya to be performed only by a brahmana or ksatriya who desired.super-eminence or overlordship. Horses of the chariots are made to smell earn of wild rice- When race starts brahrna priest repeats Vaji-saman. An udumbara post as the goal for the chariot race. Chariot of sacrifioer is in front and the rest follow at a distance. Chariots The go round udumbara post and return to sacrificial ground. principal wine cup is held by the pratiprasthatr and other
who joined in the race and they are Ladder raised against yupa and the sacrificer climbs up and holds a dialogue with his wife. Animals for Prajapati are offered at time of mid-day pressing. Adhvaryu Certain observances after declares yajamana to be samrat
sixteen are held by those
latter.
drunk by those
Vajapeya. Fees distributed are 1700 cows, 17 chariots with four horses yoked to each, 17 dasls &c. After Vajapeya a king
should perform Rajasuya and a brahmana Brhaspatisava. Jaimini's conclusions about Vajapeya. Vi6vajit, Gosava and Ahlna Sarvasvara among Ekaha sacrifices briefly described.
sacrificey extending over two to twelve days of soma pressing. Description of the twelve days of tho Dvadaâha. Differences between Dvada&aha us an ahlna and as a sattra. Rajasuya.
xxxi
years
very complex ceremony extending over a long period ( over two many separate istis, soma sacrifices ), and comprising and animal sacrifices. Rajasuya to be performed only by Dlksa on first day of Its relation to Vajapeya. ksatriyas. brigbt half of Phalguna. The Pavitra sacrifice which is like Agnistoma. One year thereafter Abhisecanlya. Five offerings one
on each day after Pavitra sacrifice. On Full moon of phalguna isti to Anumati. Caturmasyas performed for one year, between the parvans of which darSa and purnamasa rites are celebrated. After Sunaslrlya several rites. Twelve offerings called 'ratninam havlmsi* on twelve days in the houses of the ratnas ( viz. the
king, his queens, state officers &c.
)
offered to different deities.
Abhisecanlya (consecration) rite on first of Oaitra and follows procedure of Ukthya. Eight offerings called Devasuhavlmsi. Waters of seventeen kinds in seventeen vessels of udumbara from SarasvatI river and other sources. Partha homas. Holy water taken in four vessels. Sacrificer recites uvid formulae. Four principal priests sprinkle him with water from four vessels and a ksatriya, vai^ya and a friend of the king do the
same. Story of Sunahêpa recited by hotr for sacrificer's benefitKing takes three strides called Visnukramas. Remnants of
anointing water handed by king to his son. Symbolic march for plunder of cows. Dice-play which is so arranged that best
throw comes to the king. Avabhrtha follows. For ten days ' after Abhisecanlya offerings called Samsrpam havlmsi are made to Savitr and other deities. The Daâpeya, in which each of the camasas of soma are drunk by ten brahmanas ( i. e. in all 100). Very large daksinSs prescribed e. g. some say 240000 cows should be presented. After Da&apeya some observances are kept by the sacrificer for one year. At the end of the year, tlio keSavaraniya ceremony took place. Then two rites called Vyustf-dviratra at the interval of a month. One month after 2nd Vyustfdviratra the Ksatradhrti rite. One month after that the SautiamanI isti.
'
CHAP.
XXXV.
1224-1255
SautrSmanl and other sacrifices. Sautramanl is one of the seven Haviryajnas according to Gautama. Chief characteristic was offering of sura ( wine ) in it, in modern times milk being Kokill and Caraka-sautramanl. Procedure of offered instead.
Sautramanl takes four days, during first three of which prepared from various ingredients and on last day, v three cups of milk and three of wine were offered. Three goats
both.
wine
is
zzxii
Method of preRemnants of the wine offered were not drunk by the priests, but a brahmana was hired for drinking them or they were poured on an ant-hill. Persons for whom Sautramanl was offered. Avabhrtha and then amiksa to MitraVaruna and an animal to Indra. A&vamedha. Horse-sacrifice It was a sacrifice for three days, to in vogue even in Rgveda. be performed by a king. Time of commencement. The four queens accompanied by princesses and large retinue come near
paring wine described.
the king. Rules about colour and qualities of horse. of the horso, when ifc is let off to roam over the country.
horse's
were killed in this and fourth to Brhaspati.
Guards
During
absence for a year three istis every day to Savitr. Chants by a brahmana after the istis every day and also by a ksatriya lute-player. Hotr recites to the king surrounded by
his sons
and ministers the narrative called
'
Pariplava.'
Every
day for a year four oblations called Dhrti made in the ahavaAt the end of the year horse was brought back and nlya. sacrificer took dlksa. 21 yupas, each 21 aratnis high. Large number of animals tied to yupas slaughtered. Horse taken to a lake, bathed in it, brought back and anointed by the queens on various parts of the body. Dialogue between hotr and bralima. When horse killed, queens go round horse, fan ifc with their garments, crowned queen lies by the side of the horse and both are covered with mantle. Abusive and obscene dialogues between hotr and crowned queen, between brahma and favourite wife, between four principal priests and chamberlain on one side and the queens and their attendants on
the other.
(
Fat and blood of
the horse offered.
Brahmodya
Mahiman dialogue of questions and riddles ). Remnants of these sprinkled over the king and offerings. Avabhrtha on third pressing day. offering to 12 months. Offerings on the head of a bald man who dips into water to
theological
Jumbaka' ( Varuna). When sacrificer comes out of water after avabhrtha bath, persons guilty of grave sins plunge into it and
become
days.
free from sins. Large fees on first and third pressing Asvarncdha rare even in ancient times. Description of Asvamedha in the Mahabharata. Epigraphic references to Asvamedha. Sattras. Their duration is from twelve days to a year or more. Dvadasaha is the archetype. Sattras divided into two classes, ratrisattras and samvatsarika. Gavamayana is model of all sattras of one year or more. Scheme of the General parts of Gavam-ayana. When dlksa commenced. rules applicable to all sattras. Though all are yajamanas and
xxxiii
Peculiar also priests in a sattra, one of them is called grhapati. on 10th dlksa. followed as to day or Brahmodya procedure
abuse of Prajapati.
Rules
is
Most interesting day
to be observed while dlksa lasts. Mahavrafca, which is the last day but
one in sattras. Harp with a hundred strings, brahmana and dudra engage in praise and abuse of those engaged in sattra. Fight of arya and sudra for a white circular skin ; abuse by Drums beaten on harlot and brahmacarin of one another.
corners of vedi.
chanting.
Wives of sacrificers become choristers for Dance round marjallya by servants and slave-girls
singing popular airs referring to cows. Sattras of a thousand years believed even by ancient writers to be mythical and Jaimini states that in such descriptions samvatsara means
4
a day'.
Agnicayana ( piling of the fire altar). This rite is the most complicated and recondite of all srauta sacrifices. Satapatha Brahmana is leading work on it. Fundamental conceptions Construction of fire altar underlying it are costnological. in five layers is an anga of Somayaga. Five victims are first Heads built up into altar. Clay for the bricks how offered.
brought, mixed and prepared. First brick called AsadhS prepared by wife of sacrifices Ukha ( pan ) prepared from same clay, from which he prepares three bricks called Visvajyotis. Other bricks prepared. Description of the piling of the altar
in five layers. are of various
Several forms of altar and of bricks. Bricks sizes and have various names. Three bricks
called
Ground measured and ploughed. svayamatrnnah. Furrows sown with several corns. Several things such as a lotus leaf, golden ornament, golden image of a man are first placed, then a living tortoise is enveloped in moss and made motionless and then altar is constructed on it. Each of five
to
layers contains 200 bricks according
Satyasadha, but others
Time required for piling varies. Peculiar mode of cooling altar. Numerous offerings. Procedure of Somayaga followed with a few variations. Observances for a year
give larger numbers.
after cayana.
H.D.
WORKS CONSULTED
(
with references to editions &c.

to only once
N. B.
Works referred
or
twice and most of those

321n, 624n, 713n have been
already set oat on pp. 19n, omitted.
179n, 195n,
TEXTS
Vedic Samhitas
Atharvaveda
S. P.
Pandit's edition.
edited
edited
Kathaka Samhita-
MaitrayanI Sambita
by Dr. Sobroeder. by Dr. Scbroeder.
Rgveda
Prof.
Max
Mailer's edition witb tbe com. of Sayana
in four volumes.
Samaveda
*
Benfey's edition and Satyavrata Samasrami's edi-
tion in five volumes, respectively indicated of Benfey and B. I. '.

' *
by tbe addition
Taittirlya
Sambita
Anandasraraa edition witb tbe com. of
Sayana. Vajasaneya Sambita Weber's edition. Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanisads Aitareya Brahmana witb Say ana's Commentary Published by
Ananda&rama Press. Gopatba Brabmana ( B. I. edition

tbe
or tbe one
edited
by Dr.
Gaastra ( Leyden, 1919 ). Kausltaki Brabmana edited by Lindner.
Samavidhana Brabmana
Satapatha Brahmana
by A. C. Burnell ( 1873 ). by Weber. SankhySyana Brabmana Anandasrama Press edition. Taittirlya Brabmana Anandasrama Press edition. Tandya Maba-Brahmana with Sayana's Commentary B. I. edition ( also called Paiicavimsa Brahmana from tbe number
edited
edited
of chapters
).
Aitareya Aranyaka Oxoniensia ).

Taittirlya
Edited by Prof. Keith
in tbe Anecdota
Upanisads
Aranyaka Ananda6rama edition. Tbe edition of tbe text of 28 Upanisads issued by tbe Nirnayasagara Press, Bombay. Maitrl Upanisad Edited by E, B. Cowell in B. I. series.
Works
tirauta,
Consulted
sutras
xxxv
Grhya and Dharma
and similar works
connected with the Vedas.
Apastamba-&rauta-sutra in three volumes

(
Edited by Dr, Garbe
B.
I.
Series
).
Apastamba-grhya-sfttra with the commentary of Sudar&anftcarya ( Mysore Government Central Library series ). Apastamba-dharma-sukra with the commentary of Haradattapublished at
Kumbakonam by
Halasyanathasastri.
Apastamblya-mantra-patha (edited by Dr. Winter nitz in Anecdota Oxoniensia, 1897 ). A6va]ayana-6rauta-sutra with the commentary of Gargya Nara-
yana(B.
I.
Series, 1879).
A6valayana-grhya-sutra with the commentary of NarSyana ( Nirnayasagara Press edition, 1894 ). A&valayana-grhya-karika of Kumarila ( in the above edition ). A&valayana-grhya-parisista (in the edition of A6v. grhya above).
Baudhayana^rauta-sutra in three volumes ( edited by Dr. Caland

in B.
I.
Series).
Baudhayana-grhya-sufcra edited by Dr. Sham Sastri in Mysore University Oriental Library publications, 1920.
Baudhayana-grhya&esa-sutra ( in the above edition ). Baudhayana-grhya-paribhasa-sutra (in the ed, of the grhyasutra
).
Baudhayana-pitr-medhasutra
( in the ed. of the grhya ). BaudhSyana-dharma-sutra-Ananda&rama Press. Bharadvajagrhya-sutra edited by Pr. Salomons (Leyden, 1913). Brhad-devata ( edited by Prof. Macdonell in the Harvard
Oriental series
).
Drahyayana-6rautra-sutra Edited by Dr. Reuter ( vol. I only ), Gautama^dharmasutra with the commentary of Haradatta
(
Ananda&rama Press
(
).
Gobhila-grhya-sutra
B.
I.
Series
).
Grhyasamgraha-pariSista (edited by Bloomfield in Z. D. M. G. vol. 35 pp. 533 ff ). Tbe same is published in the B. I. series with a commentary as Grhyasamgraha of Gobhilaputra. HiranyakeMgrhya, with extracts from the commentary of Matrdatta, edited by Dr. J, Kirste ( Vienna, 1889 ).
Hiranyakesi-^rauta vide Satyasadha-$rauta. Kanaka* grhya, with the commentaries of
*
'
Adityadarâna, Devapala, Brahmanabala edited by Dr. Oaland ( 1925 ). Katyayana6rauta-sutra, with the commentary of Karka and
Yftjnikadeva
edited
by Weber, 1859.
xxxvi
(
K&tySyana-snana-sutra
appendix
to
Paraskara-grhya-sutra,
which
see
).
Kausika-sutra, with extracts from the commentary of Kesava edited by Prof. Bloomfield, 1890. Khadiragrhya, with the commentary of Rudraskanda ( Mysore
Government Oriental Library

(
series
).
LatySyana-srauta-sutra, with the commentary of Agnisvamin

B.
I,
series
).
Laugaksigrhya-sutra, with the commentary of Pevapala in two volumes ( in Kashmir series of texts, 1928 ). It is the same
as Kathakagrhyasutra. Manavagrhya with the commentary of Astavakra
Gaikwad's
Oriental Series, Baroda, 1926
).
Paraskara-grhya-sutra edited by Maharaahopadhyaya Shridharsastri Pathak with a Marathi translation. Here and there the Gujsrati Press edition ( 1917 ) which contains the commentaries of Karka, Harihara, Jayarama and two others
%
Sahkhyayana-srauta-sutra
has been referred to for the sake of the commentaries. edited by Dr. Hillebrandt in three
volumes
B.
I.
series
).
as Sahkhyayana-grhya-sutra same Kausltaki-grhya-sutra ( Benares Sanskrit series ). Sankha-Likhita-dharmasutra reconstructed by P. V. Kane and
published in the Annals of the Bhandarkar 0. R. Institute,
Poona.
Satyasadha-srauta-sfttra dasrama Press ).
published with a commentary (Ananedited with English translation by
Vaikhanasa-smarta-sutra
Dr, Caland, Calcutta, 1927. Varahasrauta-sutra- edited by Dr.
Caland and Dr. Raghu Vira,
Lahore 1933.
Varaha-grhya-eutra Gaikwad Oriental Series, Baroda, 1921. Vasistha-dharma-sutra edited by Dr. Fiihrer in the Bombay Sanskrit series.
Visnu-dharraa-sutra
edited
by Dr. Jolly, Calcutta, 1881.
PUR&NAS
Agnipurana published by the Anandasrama Press. BhSgavata-purana with the commentary of Srldhara in two volumes (printed at Ganpat Krishnaji Press).
Bhavisyapuranapublished by the Venkatesvara Press, Bombay. Brahmapurana Anandasrama Press. Brahmandapurana Venkatesvara Press, Bombay.
Works Consulted
xxxvii
Kurmapurana B. I. series. Markandeyapurana B. L series. Matsyapurana Anandasrama Press.

"Nfaradlya-purana Venkatesvara cited as Brhan-Naradlya.
Press,
Bombay.
Sometimes
Nrsimhapurana (published by Messrs. Gopal Narayan & Co., Bombay, 1911 ). Padmapuiana Anandasrama Press. Sahyadrikhanda a portion of the Skanda-purana, edited by Dr. Gerson Da Cunha fti 1877, Bombay. Skandapurana Venkatesvara Press, Bombay. Vamana-purana Venkatesvara Press, Bombay.
Varaha-purana fe. I. series. Vayu-purana published by the Anandasrama Press. Sometimes the B. I. edition in two volumes has been referred to, but wherever that is so the volume is mentioned. Visnudharmottara Venkatesvara Press, Bombay.
Visnupurana
published
1902.
by
Messrs. Gopal
Narayan
& Co,,
Bombay
SMRTIS.
Pandit JiyTEnanda published in two parts a collection of AnandS&rama Press, Poona, published another in 1905. They are referred to ag 'Jiv.' and 'Snan. respectirely below.
N. B.
26 smitis and the
Angirasa-smrti
in both Jiv.
and Anan. with a few

).
variations).
Apastamba-smrti in verse (Anan Atri ( in both Jiv. and Anan. ), Ausanasa-smrti (Jiv.).
Brhad-Yama (Anan.).
Brhaspati (Anan.).
Brhat-Parasara (Anan).
Caturvimsati-mata-sarhgraha Daksa-smrti ( Anan. ).
Gobhila-smrti
(
Benares Sanskrit series
).
Anan. and
Jiv.
).
Also called Karmapradlpa
or ChSndogaparisista or Kafcyayana-smrti.
Katyayana-smrti on Vyavahara ( reconstructed by P. V. Kane as Katyayanasmrti-saroddhara, with English translation and notes ).
Laghu- Atri ( Jiv. ). Laghu-Harlta ( Jiv. and Anan. Laghu-Sankha ( Anan. ).

Laghu-Satatapa
(
).
Anan
).
xxxviii
Laghu-Vispu ( Anan. ). Laghu-Vyasa ( Jiv. ). Laghvasivalayana ( Anan, Likhita-smrti ( Anan. ).
).
Manusmrti with
Manusrarti with the commentary of Kulluka (Nirnayasagar ed.). the commentaries of Medhatithi, Govindaraja, Sarsrajna-Narayana and three others ( edited by Rao Saheb V. N. Mandlik ).
(
Narada-smrti
edited
( (
by Dr. Jolly
).
Parasara-smrti
Prajapati-smrti
Bombay
Sanskrit series
).
Anan. ). Samvarta-smrti ( Jiv. and Anan. ). Sankha-smrti ( Anan. ). Satatapa-smrti ( Anan. ). Saunaka-karika ( Ms. in the Bombay University Library
"USanas-smrti.
).
Veda-VySsa-smrti
Anan.
Jiv.
).
).
).
Vrddha-Gautama
Vrddha-Harlta
(
Anan.
Yajnavalkya-smrti, with the commentary of Vi&varupa (Trivandrum Sanskrit series, 1922 and 1924 ).
Yajnavalkya-smrti, with the commentary Mitaksara of Vijnane^vara ( Nirnaya-sSgara Press, 1926 ).
Yama-smrti
in Jiv.
and Anan.
).
Commentaries and Digests on dharma&astra
Acaramayukha
(
of Nllakantha
edited
by Mr.
J.
R. Gharpure,
1921
).
Acararatna
(
published by the Nirnaya-sagara Press, Pothi size ).

of
Bombay
published
Ahnikaprakasa(part
in the
Vlramitroday a of Mitramisra
).
Chowkhamba Sanskrit series Ahnikatatfcva of Raghunandana (published by Pandit Jiv5 nanda). Apararka's Commentary on Yajnavalkya-smrti (AnandaSrama
press
).
Asia vakra Vide Manavagrhya. BalambhattI of Balambhatta PayagundeCom. on the Mitaksara edited by Mr. J. R. Gharpure, Bombay.
Caturvarga-cintamani
series.
of
Hemadri
published
in the B,
I.
Danacandrika with Marathi translation edited by Bhikacarya Ainapure and published at Baroda, 1908.
Works Consulted
xxxir
series,
Dana-mayukha
1909.
of Nllakantha
Chowkharaba Sanskrit
Danakriya-kaumudI of Govindftnanda (B. I. Series, 1903). Dana-vakyavali of Vidyapati (D. C. Ms. No. 368 of 1891-95 ). Dattakamlmamsa of Nandapandita with Bengali translation,
Calcutta.
of Jlmutavahanar-edited by Pandit Jivananda, 1893. Devapala Vide Kathakagrhya. Dharmasindhu with Marathi Translation published by the
Dayabhaga
Nirnayasagara Press, Bombay ( 1926 ). Dlpakalika of Sulapani ( edited by Mr. J. R. Gharpure, 1939 ). Goplnatha Vide Samskara-ratna-mala. Grhastharatnakara of Cande&vara published in the B. L series. Haradatta Vide Gautamadharmasutra. Harihara Vide Paraskaragrhya.
Vide Caturvarga-cintamani. Deccan College Ms. No 347 of 1887-1891. Vide Jayarama Paraskaragrhya. Karka Vide Paraskaragrhya. Krtyakalpataru Ms. in the possession of Rao Bahadur RangaBwami Ayyangar. Krtyaratnakara by CandeSvara (B. I. series, 1925). Madanaparijata of Madanapala and Vi^veSvarabhatta ( B. I.
Jativiveka
series
).
Hemadri
Malamasatattva of Raghunandana (published by Pandit Jivananda ). Medhatithi Vide Manusmrti. Mitaksara of Vijnane^vara published by the Nirnayasagara
Press,
tion
Bombay,
of
1926.
Nirnayasindhu
1935.
Kamalakarabhatta, with Marathi TranslaPublished by the Nirnayasagara Press, Bombay*
Nityaoarapaddhati of Vidyakara Vajapeyl (B. I. series). Nityacarapradlpa of Narasimha Vajapeyl, two volumes
series
).
B.
I.
Para6ara-Madhavlya of Madhavacarya edited by Vamanasastri Islampurkar in the Bombay Sanskrit series. Paribhaâprakasa ( part of Vlra-mitrodaya ) by Mitramisra
(
Chowkhamba
Bombay.
Sanskrit series
).
Pratisthamayukha of Nllakantha
pure,
of Pravaramanjarl Mysore, 1900.
edited
by Mr.
J.
R. Ghar-
Purusottama
Edited
by Chentsalrao,
rl
edited
Praya6citfcaviveka of Sulapani
PujaprakaSa (part of Vlramitrodaya khamba Sanskrit series ).
by Pandifc Jivananda, of Mitramisra ( Chow-
of Anantadeva published in Gaik wad's Oriental series, 1935. Sarhskara-kausfcubha of Anantadeva with Marathi translation-
Rajadharmakaustubha
published by Vyankatacarya Upadhye at Baroda. Saihskararaayukha of Nllakantha published by the Gujarati

Press,
Bombay.
(
Samskaraprakasa
Sanskrit series.
park
of
Vlramitrodaya
Chowkhamba
Samskara-ratnamala of Goplnatha
published by the Anandapublished by Pandit Jiva-
6rama
Press.
Samskaratattva of Raghunandana nanda.

Sarasvatlvilasa
of the
published in the Oriental Library Publications

edited
Mysore University, 1927.

by Mr.
J.
Smrticandrika of Devanna-bhatta
pure,
R. Gbar-
Bombay.
Smrtimuktaphala by Vaidyanatha ( the Samskara and Ahnika portions edited by Mr. J. R. Gharpure, Bombay ). Smrtyarthasagara of Chalarl ( printed at Nirnayasagara Press,
Bombay
).
Smrfcyarthasara of Srldhara
published by the AnandaSrama
Press, Poona. SubhodhinI of Vi^vesvara-bhatta^-edited
by Mr. J. R. Gharpure.
Suddhitattva of Raghunandana-published by Pandifc Jivananda. Sudrakamalakara of Kamalakarabhatta with Marathi Translation-published by the Nirnayasagara Press, Bombay, 1880. Sudrakrtyatattva of Raghunandana published by Pandifc Jivananda.
Udvahatattva of Raghunandana edited by Pandit Jivananda. Utsarga-mayukha of Nllakantha edited by Mr. J. R. Gharpure
Bombay.
Varsakriya-kaumudI of Govindananda published inB. I. Series. Vlramitrodaya (vyavahara portion) edited by Pandit Jivananda. Vi&varupa's commentary on Yajnavalkya-smrti published in the Trivandrum Sanskrit series.
Vivada-ratn&kara of Oande^vara
VratyatSprayafccitta-nirnaya Sanskrit series, 1927 ).
published in the B.
(
I.
series.
by NageSabhatta
edited
Chowkhamba
in
Vyavaharamayukha
the
of
Nllakantha
by P. V. Kane
Bombay
Sanskrit series, Poona.
Works Consulted
Yatidharmasamgraha of Visvesvara
the
Sarasvafcl (published
).
xli
by
Anandasrama
Press, Poona, 1909
Other Miscellaneous
Texts
Arthaâstra
see Kautilya.
Astahgasarhgraha of Vagbhata -published by the Nirnayasa"gara Press. Brhatl of Prabhakara ( Tarkapada ) edited in the Madras University Sanskrit series, 1936.
Brhat-samhita of Varahamihira
B.
I.
-edited
by Dr. Kern
in the
series.
GathasaptasatI of Hala
published by the Nirnayas&gara Press,
the commentary of Nllakantha published by Messrs. Gopal Narayan Co, Bombay, 1895. Harsacarita of Bana edited by P. V. Kane with notes. Jaimini's Purvamlmamsa-sutm with the bhasya of Sahara and
Bombay. Harivamsa with
&
the Tantravartika and Tup-tlka of KurnarHabhatta
Anan-
dasrama Press, Poona). Jlvanmuktiviveka of Vidyaranya ( Adyar Library edition ). Kadambarl of Bana edited with notes by P. V. Kane. Kamasutra of Vatsyayana Chowkhamba Sanskrit series,
1912.
Karpuramafijarl of Rajasekhara Oriental series ).
published in the
Harvard
at
Kasika, commentary on Panini's Astadhyayl
(published
edition
Benares
Kautilya's
).
Arthasastra
Dr.
Shama
Sastri's
in the
).
Mysore University Oriental Library Publications 1919
Kslrasvamin's commentary on the Amarakosa, edited by K. G. Oka, Poona, 1913. K'imarilabhatta Vide under Trantravartika.
Mahabharata with the commentary
of
Nllakantha
oblong
Bombay
in
edition).
(
Mahcabhasya of Patanjali
ed.
by Dr. Kielhorn in three volumes

).
Bombay
Sanskrit series
of
Malatlmadhava
the
Bhavabhuti
ed.
).
by
Sir R. G.
Bhandarkar in
Bombay
Sanskrit series
Mrcchakatika of Sudraka-Nirnayasagara Press edition, 1900. Naradlya-siksa from the Slksasamgraha (published in the Benares Sanskrit series ).
H, D.
xlii
History of Dharmnsastra
The edition of Prof. Nirukta of Yaska edited by Roth. Rajvade with a Marathi translation and learned" notes in Marathi has sometimes been referred to.
Asâdhyayl with SiddhanfcakaumudI of Bha^toji ( Nirnayasagara Press, Bombay 1929 ). PfcrvamlmSmsSsutra of Jaimini vide above Jaimini.' Raghuvamâ of Kalidasa ( published in the Bombay Sanskrit
Panini'g
Dlksita
series
).
Rajataranginl
edited
vol. II translation
by Dr. Stein, vol. I and notes ( 1900 ).
(text
and
translation),
Ramayana
of Valmlki. at the
Edition published by R.
Narayana(
swSmi Aiyar
Madras
Law
is
Journal Office
1933
),
except where some other edition "Pgveda-pratisakhya- edited by Dr.
specially referred to. Mangaldev Shastri in the
Panjab Oriental
series
1937
).
Rgvidhana Sahara's Bhasya
edited
by Dr, Meyer ( transliterated ). on the Purvamlmamsa-sutra ( vide Jaimini

(
).
Monier Williams). Samkaracarya's bhasya on the Vedantasutra ( Nirnayasagara

Sakuntala of Kalidasa
press,
edited
by
Prof.
1927
).
(
Saradatilaka with the commentary of Rfighavabhatta Sanskrit Series, 1934 ).
Kashi
Sarvadarânasamgraha of MadhavScarya ( Ananda^rama Press, 1906 ). Sarvajna-narayanain Mandlik's edition of Manusmrti. Srautapadartha-nirvacaim ( published in the Benares Pandit
'
'
1887 ). Suryasiddhanta ( B. I. Series, 1859 ). Sutasarhhita, with the commentary of MSdhavacarya-(Ananda-
^rama Press ).
Tantravartika of
Kumar ilabhatta
of
vide above Jaimini

I.
').
Trikanda-mandana
Bhaskara
B.
(
series 1903
).
Tristhallsetu of Narayanabhatta Uttarararaacarita of Bhavabhuti
Anandasrama Press, 1915). edited by P. V. Kane.

of
Vedanga
Jyotisa.
Vedautasutra with the commentary
Samkaracarya (published
(
by the Nirnayasagara Press ).

Vedantakalpataru-parimala of Sanskrit series, 1895 ).
the
Appayadlksita
edited
Vizianagram
in
Vikramanka-devacarita of Bilhana
by Dr. Bvihler
Bombay
1892
Sanskrit Series, 1875.
Yogastitra of Patafijali with Vyasabha^ya-(

series,
),
Bombay
Sanskrit
Works Consulted
Modern Works
Sir Sivaswaray
*
xliii
Aiyar's
'
Evolution of Hindu Moral Ideals'.
1935,
Alberuni's
(
'
India
translated by Dr. Sachau in two volumes
London 1888
).
'
Dr. A. S. Alfcekar's
*
Education in Ancient India'
1934
),
The
position of women in Hindu civilization* (Benares, 1938). Arrian's Indika' translated by Me Crindle, 1877.
Arthasastra of Kautilya
Sir
translation
'
by Dr. Sham Sastry.
Mysore 1915. Gooroodas Baner jee's

edition, 1923
).
'
Marriage
and Stridhana
'
5th
M. Earth's
(
Religions of India' translated by Rev. J. Wood Trubuer & Co. 1882 ). Sir Dr. R. G, Bhandarkar's 'Vaisnavism and Saivism' ( in the
German
Grundriss), 1913.
*
L Agnistoma' ( Paris 1906 ). Caland and Henry Colebrooke's 'Miscellaneous Essays' vol. I and II ( 1837 London ) and Digest of Hindu Law (3rd edition 1864-65).
' '
'
Deussen's 'Philosophy of the Upanisads translated by Rev. A. S. Geden (1906) and 'Das system des- Vedanta'
( Leipzig, 1883 ). Edicts of Asoka in the Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. I. Eggeling's translation of the Satapatha Brahmana in the
'
Sacred Books of the East series, Vol. XII,
XXVI, XLI,
and
XLIII, XL1V. Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences

Johnson,
'
(edited by Seligman
York). Encyclopaedia Britanica ( 14th edition ). Enthoven's The tribes and castes of Bombay in three volumes
'
New
(Bombay, 1920-22).
Epigraphia Carnatica, edited by B. Lewis Rice.
Epigraphia Indica.
Fa Hien's 'Record
Legge
(
of Buddhist
Kingdoms' translated by James
1886
).
Dr. J. N. Farquhar's 'Outlines of the Religious Literature of
Fick's
India '(Oxford 1920). Social Organization of North-East India in Buddha's

'
time* translated in English by Dr.
S.
K. Maitra
Calcutta,
1928
Fleet's
).
Gupta Inscriptions ( Calcutta, 1888 ). Dr. Ghurye's Caste and Race in India ( London, 1932
'
'
xliv
Grant-Duff's History of the Marathas in three volumes Reprint, 1863 ). Halsbury' a Laws of England ( Hailsham edition ).
'
(Bombay
'
Haug's translation of the AitareyaBrahmana ( Bombay, 1863 ). Hillebrandt's Ritual-Litteratur Vedische Opfer und Zauber Das Altindische Neu-und vollmonds-opf er/ ( 1897 ) Holdswortb's History of English Law ( 5th edition, 1931 ). Hopkins' Ethics of India' (New Haven, 1924), 'Epic Mythology' (1915, Strassburg), 'Great Epic of India' ( 1901 ). in three volumes Dr. Hultzsch's South Indian Inscriptions
*
'
* ;
'
( Madras Dean Inge's Christian Ethics

).
*
'
1930
).
Itsing's* Records of the Buddhist Religion' translated
by Dr.
Takakusu
*
Prof. Jolly's
*
Oxford, 1896 ). Recbt nnd Sitfce/ translated by Mr. Batakrishna

(
Ghose, Calcutta, 1928. Keay's Ancient Indian Education

Prof. A. B. Keith's
'
'
the Upanisads
( London 1918 ). Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and in two parts; Translations of tho Taitfcirlya,
'
Samhita, and of the Rgveda Brahmanas Oriental Series ).

*
in the
Harward
Jnanakosa ( in Marathi ), vol 2 and 5. M.M. Kunte's Vicissitudes of Aryan Civilization in India/
Dr. S. V. Ketkar's
'
1880.
Prof. Macdonell and Prof. Keith
*
Dr.
Vedic Index in two volumes. John MacKenzio's Hindu Ethics ( in Religious Quest of
' ' '
India series ), London 1922. Rao Saheb V. M. Mandlik's Hindu Law

Sir
1880,
Bombay
),
John Marshall
Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization,'

(
in three volumes, 1931. MaxMiiller's History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature
1859
).
Megasthenes-India
(
as described by
translated
by McCrindle
(
1877
).
Pollock and Maitland 1895 ).
History of English
*
Law
(
Cambridge,
Prof. V. K. Rajvade's edition of the Nirukta' and learned notes in Marathi ), Poona.
with translation
M. G. Ranade's Rise of the Maratha power.' Rhys Davids' Buddhist India ( 1903 ). Rice's Mysore and Coorg from Inscriptions
'
'
'
'
London 1909
).
).
Risley's
Tribes and castes of Bengal ( 1891, Calcutta ' ' G, 0. Sarkar's Hindu Law ( 7th Edition, 1936 ).
'
Works Consulted
*
xlv
Senart's
Caste in India
).
*
translated from French
by
Sir Denison
ROBS, 1930
Sherring's
f *
Steel e s
Strabo's
Hindu Tribes and castes/ 3 volumes (1872, 1879 ). custom of Hindu castes ( London, 1868 ). Geography translated by A. C. Hamilton and W.
Law and
'
( 1939 ). Mr. Edward Thomson's Suttee ( 1928 ). Tilak's Orion ( Poona, 1893 ) and 'Arctic Home in the Vedas'. in two volumes Tod's Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan of and 1873 1880 Madras edition ). ( Westermarck's Origin and development of moral ideas' in two volumes (1906 and 1908); History of human
'
Dr. Tarn's
'
Falconer, London, 1866-67. Greeks in Bactria and India

*
'
'
'
'
marriage
(1921
).
Dr. John Wilson's 'Indian castes', two volumes (Bombay, 1877). ' f and Prof. H. H. Wilson's Religious festivals of the Hindus
other Papers in (London, 1862).
'
Works
edited
by Dr. R. Host,
'
vol.
II
Die Frau im Brahrnatiismus (1920, Leipzig ). Yuan Ch wang's Travels in India/ two volumes, translated by Watters ( 1904-5 ).
Dr. Winternitz's
*
TABLE OF CASES CITED

Ami-it
v.
Hari
865n.
914
Hirabharthi
v.
Bai Javer
952
586n.
Annaji
Asita
v.
Narayan
Uonama
Indi
y.
v.
Timannabhat
Mohan v. Nirode Mohan Auojona Da si v. Prahlada

Chandra
Bai Diwali
v.
75
Ghania
502
888n.
In Re
538
Pyne
In the matter of
Ram
v.
Kuinari
621 n.
Moti
Jivanlal
503
452n.
Ishwari Prasad
Rai Hari
75
Bai Gulab
v.
Praead
Jiwani
v.
Bai Jivi
v.
Narsingh
v.
570
452n.
Mula Ram
502
908
Bai Kashi
Jamnadas
v.
452n. Kaliangsing Bai Nagubai v. Bai Monghibai 639 570 Bai Premkunwar v. Bhika
Bai
Bai Lakshmi
Kailasan Pillai v. Nataraja Kailasnath v. Parasakthi

Kali
525 n.
916
Kanta Chatterji
Surendra
v.
Ramkore
v.
v.
Jamnadas
502 952
586n.
Dhondgir Bhikubai v. Hariba

Balgir
Keahav v. Bai Gandhi Khushalohand v. Bai Mani

Lakshmibai
-v.
616n.
503
586
Bholanath v. Emperor Bhupatinath v. Kara Lai Binda v. Kaunsilya
75
911
Ramchandra
v.
570
621n.
Madhusudan Parvat Madhava Teertha

Maharaja of
Shree
950
v.
Budansa
Chunilal
v.
Fa tin a
v.
Kolhapur
Chintaman
v.
Dhondo
v.
913-914
525n.
Sundaram Ayyar
Moriceu. The Bishop of
Motilal
v.
382
Surajram
Durham 888
553
Collector of
Thana
Hari
v.
860n.
Deosaran
Dular Koer
Bharthi
Deoki
892
Bharthi
v.
Dwarkanath
570
164
Chanchal v. Budhia Munnilal v. Shiama Muthusami v. Masilamani
Mulchand
538
252u
179
Emperor
v.
Narayan
v.
Nalinaksha
v.
Rajanikanto
452n.
Fanindra Deb
Ghelabhai
v.
Rajeshwar
389
860n.
Natha
v.
Mehta Chotalal
v.
452u.
Padma Kumari
Paigi
v.
Hargovan
f.
Girijanund Datta Jha Sailajanund Datta Gitabai v. Shivbakas
Suraj Kuinari 452n. Sheo Narain 570

573u.
v.
910
,
Parami v. Mahadevi Pramatha Nath Mullick
952
Giyana Sambandha v. Kandasami Taiubirau 908 Gosain Rain Bharti v. Mahant

Surajbharti
Pradyumna Kumar Mullick 735,

911n., 916
Prosunno Kumaii Golabchand
v.
962
o.
911o., 915;i.
Government of Bombay
Queen Empress
621n.
v.
v.
Tippa
v.
904 n.
Ganga
Guru Govind Shaha Mandal Anand Lai Ghose
Rajah Muthu Ramlinga
474
Periyanayagum Pillai Ramangavda v. Shivaji

Uambrahina Chatterji Nath
v.
914
467
735 469
Eari Raghunath t>. Anant 916 Harischandra v. Atir Muhmud 952 Hira v. Hansji Pema 525a.
Kedar
Ramchandra
v.
Gopal
Table of Case* Cited
xlvii
Ranganaiki
Ravji
0.
v.
Ramanuja
502
865n.
Dadaji
Reg.
v. Jaili
v.
Reg.
Reg.
Bhavin Karsan Goja
904 IK
616n.
616n.
Vidyashankara v Vidya Narsinha Virasaini v. A p pas a mi

of
950
553
869n.
Vyakunta Bapuji r. Government
v.
Sambhu
Bombay
v.
Sainmantha'Ptndara v. Seilappa
Cbetti
Yamunabai
90S
Sardar Singh
v.
Kn nj
v.
Behari
889n.
Shamcharan Nandi
Abhiram
914
Goswami
Sohan Sing
v.
Kabla Singh 179 Somasundaram v. Vaitbilinga 952 Subrao v. Radha 75, 382
Thakur Indraj Bux Sheo Naresh
Tulabirara
v.
v.
Narayan A. I. R. 1930 Oudh 426 6 Bom. 24 14 Bom. 482 15 Bom. 612 17 Bom. 351 23 Bom. 725
12 Gal. 140 1 Mad. 164
570
525n. 888
888
216n.
888 888 539

904n.
Thakur
889n.
Bibari Lai
75
865n.
Vaman
Thana Vellanki Ramakrishna v.

t>.
Collector of
Mad. 12 Mad. 15 Mad. 15 Mad.

7
548 72
41
462
525n.
904n.
75
904n.
Kotagiri
Subbamma
w.
468
20 Mad. 283 30 Mad. 340
469 888 469

Journal
621
Vonkatacharyulu
43 Mad. 830
Rangacbaryulu
538
v.
42 Madras
3 Moo.
1.
Law
Vidyapurna Tirtha
A. 198
950
525n.
Vidyanidhi Tirtha
908
17 Patna 134
HISTORY OF DHARMASASTRA VOLUME II

CHAPTER
I
THE TOPICS OF DHARMASASTRA

Manifold are the topics that have been included under DharmaSastra from very ancient times. The Dharma-sutras of Gautama, Baudhayana, Apastamba and Vasis^ha deal in greater or less detail principally with the following subjects the several wrijas (classes), aframas (stages of life), their the samskaraa privileges, obligations and responsibilities performed on an individual (from garbhadhana to antyesti); the duties of the brahmacarin ( the first a&rama ) anadhyayas ( holidays on which Vedic study was stopped ) ; the duties of a
: ; ;
snataka
(
one
)
who has
all
marriage
and
matters connected therewith
finished the first stage of life ) ; vivaha the duties of ;
the grhastha ( house-holder's stage ) ; iauca ( daily purification of body ) the five daily yajnas ; dana ( gifts ) ; bhaksyabhaksya
;
what food should one partake of and what not ) ; iuddhi

vessels, clothes
;
; ;
puri-
fication of persons,
on birfch and death ) antyesti ( rites performed for the deceased ancestors and relatives ) strldharma duties of women ) and strlpumdharma ( duties of ( special husband and wife ) dharmas of katriyas and of kings vyava* hara (judicial procedure, and the sphere of substantive law such as crimes and punishments, contracts, partition and
; ;
&c. ) aiauca ( impurity on death ) sraddha ( rites
inheritance, adoption, gambling &o.); the four principal classes, mixed castes and their proper avocations; apaddharma ( actions
and avocations permitted

difficulties
)
;
to the several
castes in
to
extreme
expiate them ) ; karmavipaka ( results of evil deeds done in past lives ) ; Santi (rites on the happening of portents or for propitiating the
prUyaidtta
sins
and how
planets &c.
samnyasin
of vanaprastha ( forest hermit ) and All these subjects are not treated in any To take only one fixed or settled order in the sutra works. example, the subject of partition and inheritance occurs at the end of the dharmasutra of Gautama, while Vasistha
)
;
duties
).
ascetic
places the
chapter
same subject in the middle of his work ( 17th and Apastamba deals with those topics after finishing
2
three-fourths of his
History of DharmatSstra'
Oh. I
work ( in II. 6. 14 ). Further, some works on dharma&astra give very elaborate treatment of certain topics of which only faint traces are found in the ancient dharmasutras
and metrical smrtis.
pratistha (dedication of
Such topics are
vratas
which may be
looked upon as extensions of the subject of gifts ), utsarga and
and
works of public utility and of temples and pilgrimages to them), kala ( auspicious times, festivals &c. ).
shrines), tlrtha( sacred places
A glance at the above list will convince anyone how the conception of dharma was a far-reaching one, how it embraced the whole life of man. vThe writers on dharmasastra meant by dharma not a creed or religion but a mode of life or a code of
member
conduct, which regulated a man's work and activities as a of society and as an individual and was intended to bring
about the gradual development of a man and to enable him to reach what was deemed to be the goal of human existence.
dharma were The first comprised those rites and ceremonies with which the Vedic SamUtas and Br&timanas were chiefly concerned, such as consecration of the three sacred fires, the Full moon and New moon The smUrta comprised sacrifices, the solemn soma rites &c. those topics that were specially dealt with by the smrtis and 1 The that concerned the various classes and sfcages of life. smarta concern with work itself will dharma present principally and rauta dharma will be dealt with concisely in an appendix. Some works divide dharma into irauta (Vedic), smarta (based upon smrtis) and iistacara (the actions of the respected in 8 This classification is based on the three sources of society) dharma viz., iruti^ smrti and iistacara, as observed by Baudhayana.* Another and more comprehensive classification says that dharma is sixfold, viz. dharma of varnas (injunctions based on varna alone such as *a brahmapa should never drink wine* or 'a brfthmana should not be killed'), a&ramadharma
this standpoint various
From
divisions of
suggested.
Dharma was
divided into irauta and smarta.
t*iiciY
^"nSTTP^Rt
'
144. 30-31
m^<w
i
59.
31-32 and 39.
3ji?*mn*nft-
1 11
TO. m. L part
*ft *nr:
1 p. 64.
irf
141. 65
^fiteirsroteTO RuswWSt **re$ 207. 83

i
ro jfhirwft ***& WTRRI:
11
>^ÔTH n
3.
vide ^nfêr 354. 6 also.

i
wd& *% qf^^
...
wraTftihR iffrn AVPRI
A v.%,
1. 1.
Oh. I
Samanya-dharrna
* >
* '
such rules as begging and carrying a staff enjoined on a brahmaoarl* ), varna&rama-dharma (rules of conduct enjoined on a man because he belongs to a particular class and is in a particular stage of life, such as a brahmana brahmacarl should carry a staff of palaia tree ), guipadharma ( such as protection of subjects in the case of a crowned king ), naimittika dharma
*
(such as expiation on doing what is forbidden), sadhararia dharma ( what is common to all humanity viz,, ahii'nsa and other 4 This classification appears to have been an ancient virtues ). on Manu II. 25 speaks of fivefold dharma Medhatifchi one. dharma from the abovementioned ( only omitting sadharaâ six ) and quotes the explanations of them from the expounders Hemftdri ( vrata-khanda p. 5 ) quotes 16 verses from of smrfcis. 5 It will be noticed the Bhavisyapurana on the six-fold dharma. from the abovajhat all matters ( except sadharaâ or samanya dharma) have^yarâjtnd asrama as the pi votsjKwnd which the whole of dharmasastra revolvej* Tnrinerefore that in ancient smrfcis tife^fctro^r'oTManu fl. 2 and 107) and Yajnavalkya
_
( 1.
of those codes to inHjart to

varrias
the sages are represented as asking the great expounders them instruction in the dharmas of
and a&ramas,
Before embarking upon any treatment of varnas
it
would
not be out of place to say a few words about dharmas common to all humanity. Our dharmasastra works do not enter into
any
subtle or detailed examination of the principles of ethics
or of the moral standard, nor are the concepts of duty, happi6 ness or perfection subjected to any searching analysis . But
fa
4
5.
?s <r*PwnCi q$
i
^-fsr
i
Khrcoratra*
sres^%
fono on
ng II.
25;
aiHr^: q^ft^m^^Rq^j sreror-^'feni OTWn*&*iffif mcnsm on ^r. i. i.
an^^^^^w^^fpn
KullUka on Manu 11.25 and the KityaratnSkara pp. 9-10 Io the same. It is to bo noted that some of these very verses are quoted as from Sumantu by the Smrticandrika*. ( I p. 6 ). Reference may be made to the 6. Ethics of India by Prof* Hindu Ethics * by Dr. John McKenzie in Hopkins ( 1924 ) and The former work is marked by a 'lieligious quest of India' series. detached and fair attitude towards the ideas of the ancient Indiana and their writings. The latter, I am sorry to say, is marred by the
t ' *
unsympathetic and supercilious attitude of a Christian missionary. Its key-note is perverse inasmuch as the foundation of the author's criticism is the notion that one is not really moral unless one is engaged in active social service. There is very little warrant foe
(
Continued on Must pag* )
4
this does nofe at all
Oh. 1
mean
that the principles of ethics were
passed over by dharmasSstra works or were not highly thought of by them. From very ancient times truth is exalted above
everything
else,
7 ftgveda VII. 104. 12 says
'
True speech and
Continued from last page)
this
hypothesis
in
well-known^ works
on
Ethics.
To expose the
fallacies in Principal McKenzie's work would require a volume. But a few words must be said here. What particular brand of active social service the learned author has in view is difficult to follow. I would
make him a present of the following lines from the EncycloThe term social service is a pedia Britannica on Social Service comparatively new one in Great Britain. If it had been used previous to the 20th century it would have meant philanthropy and charity in the ordinary sense '. If the learned author means that ancient India never insisted on universal philanthropy and charity, he has read the Indian Literature in vain. Every house-holder was called upon by the Hindu Sffstras to offer food according to his ability to students, ascetics and to all beings including the untouchable cSndslas and even dogs and crows. Every brShmana who could teach had to do so without demanding any fee beforehand, Maths were established
like to
*
in all parts of India for
expounding
religious books, feeding students
and the
poor.
There are annasatras even
now where hundreds
are
fed every day. No necessity arose throughout the ages for a Poor Law in India with its attendant evils well portrayed in Dickens' famous master-piece 'Oliver Twist The above were some of the different aspects of philanthropy and charity which are now dubbed
7
.
social service.
In the third century B. C.
Attoka had
established
hospitals not only for men but even for beasts and YSj. 1.209 equates the free nursing of sick persons with gifts of cows. The learned
Professor asks with an air of triumph and condemnation of all Indian morality ( p. 251 ) Is there anything comparable to the movement which St. Francis of Assist initiated and led ? The learned Professor has fallen into the frequent error of comparing a move'
'
I shall
ment of the 13th century with Indian ideas over 2000 years old. Again quote words from the Encyclopaedia Britannica. 'It would be
an anachronism to think of Francis as a philanthropist or social worker though he fulfilled the functions of all these, Before every thing he was an ascetic and mystic '. The particular brands of Social Service that are now in vogue are mainly due to the ravages of Imperialism and extreme capitalistic tendencies. Besides he forgets that even the movement started by St. Francis had schisms and was guilty of all the moral evils that are associated with Western monastic institutions. Vide the recent and lucid book of Sir Sivmswamy * Calcutta Evolution of Hindu moral ideals Alyer on ( 1935,
or a revivalist preacher,
'
University
).
vn.
104. 12.
Ch. I
false
oufc
Samanya-dharma
speech run a race against each other,
Soraa protects
and what is very straight-forward and strikes down what is false The conception of ria in the Rgveda is a sublime one and is the germ of the later doctrine of the rule of dharma. The Satapatha-brahmana ( S. B. E. vol.
of the
is
two what
true
'.
44 p. 85) enjoins therefore let a man speak naught but truth* 8 In the Taittirlyopanisad ( I. II. 1 ), the teacher when taking leave of his pupil at the end of the latter's studenthood places
'
9 truth in the forefront of his exhortation and dharma next. In the Chandogya ( III. 17 ) there is an allegory of a Soma
sacrifice
viz.
on
life,
where the daksina

(
),
fee to be paid
),
is
(
fivefold
the five virtues of tapas

(
asceticism
(
arjava
straightforwardness
ahimsS
beings), satyavacana (truthfulness). 10 that truth and dharma are in practical life identical terms. One of the noblest prayers in all literature occurs in the Br.
*
charity ), non-injury to sentient The Br. Up. remarks
dana
from falsehood lead me unto truth, from darkness light, from death lead me unto immortality '. The Mundakopanisad says only truth is victorious and not
Up.
( I.
3.28
lead
me
unto
falsehood
the path of the gods is spread out by ( the pursuit ; The Br. Up. inculcates on all the great need of) truth'. of three cardinal virtues, viz. self-restraint, daya ( compassion
or love for all sentient life) and dana (gifts or charity ). n The Chan. Up. says that the world of Brahman is free from all evil and only those who have lived as chaste students can enter
the world of brahma.
sins, viz. theft of gold,
The Chan. Up. V. 10 sternly condemns five drinking spirits, murder of a brahmana, bed and association with these, as one's of guru's defiling the greatest sins and in V. 11. 5 Asvapati exultantly declares that in his kingdom there were no grave sinners. The ia upon cessation from evil Kathopanisad ( I. 2.23 ) insists
'
8.
I.
Compare sraTOm.
'
I. 1. 1. 1.
aftiwft
*c
S^f ^44d ^ft

T*H
>
and
1.1.5.
9.
îr^r3TOS^n%^*3$TTfi?r
tn+H^c^T êpEnrr^TH 3<jcfh%
7.
I
w$ ^
^T
9. v. 1. 11. 1*
10.
i
OT
fff.
1. 4.
.
!*ftfa
11.
ff
TcprrRr 7. I. 3. 28.
j
14.
NH^-NCU *n
^
1
wr
mmfore t%^ ^T fnf îf^ra 1*

.
T. v. 2.
3.
12.
I. 2.
23; vide also
I.
3.7
and
SbftgTi.
III. 5 for a
Hat of
qualities of darkness has to avoid.
which the student of a high and sublime philosophy
<J
Ch. I
conduct, peace of mind and concentration as essential for the seeker after the Self. The Udyogaparva 43.20ff. speaks of the twelve vratas ( vows or rules of conduct ) for brahmanas and
verses 22-25 describe at great length the characteristics of one who is danta ( self-controlled ). Santi 160 contains an eulogy Santi 162.7 describes how satya has 13 of dama ( self-control ).
and verse 21 says that non-injury to all beings in thought, word and deed, good will and charity are the eternal dharma of the good. 13 The Gautaraa-dharmasutra ( VIII.
aspects
24-26
(
( compassion or love for all beings ), k$anti anasuya ( freedom from envy ), sauca ( purity of body, speech and thought ), anayasa ( absence of painful efforts or ambitions ), mangala ( doing what is commended ), akarpanya ( not demeaning oneself before others ), asprha ( not hankering
holds that daya

),
forebearance
after sensual pleasures or the possessions of others ) are the qualities of the soul and remarks that the person who has these
and eight qualities realizes non- difference from Brahma reaches the world of Brahma, though he may not have all the
other forty samskaras, while he who has all the forty samskSras but is not possessed of these eight qualities does not reach the world of Brahma. 15 Vasistha ( X. 30 ) says that avoiding backbiting, jealousy, pride, egoism, unbelief, crookedness, self-praise, abuse of others, deceit, covetousness, delusion, anger and envy
is
the
dharma
of all
*
asramas and further
XXX.
he delivers
fine exhortation
adharma;
13.
practise dharma ( righteousness ) and not the truth and nob untruth ; look far ahead, not speak
wfiî
162. 21.
\v^n^
<ti*iu
*m
irci
3?3?n**
^rnt
^ *mf *m* tf^ncR: n
14.
ajsjTErarwsom
I
^n *?^<j
sni^cflCT^n 9rreuHi4i<tft
*ft.
W. ^.
VIII. 23-24.
Haradatta quotes eight verses which
explain these eight qualities. Atri (verses 34= -41) also defines these eight similarly but in different words. AparSrka ( pp. 164-165 ), SmrticandrikS ( 1. p. 13 ), HemSdri ( Vrata p. 8 ) and ParaâramSdhaviya I. part 1 p. 84
quote from Brhaspati eight verses defining these eight qualities, which Vide Matsya 52.8-10 for these eight qualities closely resemble Atri's.
and Vayu 59.40-49, MSrkandeya 61.66 for saying that days ( love for beings) is at the top of the eight Stmag-unas and28i31-32 for a slightly different enumeration of the eight. VisnupurEna ( III. 8.35-37 ) says that these eight mentioned by Gautama (f^fgr^TT being substituted for snfSeT ) and three more namely ?niHHTl%n, flTTj and ftîfiprr are common to all varnas. Vide 3TOB VI. 3 3*c
15.
SmrUcandrika
(I.
p. 13) quotes
veriet of 6ankha
to
the
same
effect.
Oh. I
Sclmanya-dharrna
7
1
. near; look at what is highest, not at what is not highest erato aSramas all calls 8. 23. 3-6 S. I. Dh. upon ) ( Apastamba dicate faults that tend to destruction and to cultivate the oppoThis shows that in site virtues (and gives long lists of both).
the scale of values mere performance of sacrifices and purificatory and other religious ceremonies ranked according to
Gautama and
other writers very low and the highest value attached to the moral qualities of the soul. There is no elaborate discussion of the questions as to why a man should tell the truth or abstain from himsa (injury to sentient beings) and cultivate other high moral qualities. But it should not be
supposed that no indications whatever are given of the reasons why this should be done. Two principles emerge if we closely examine the texts. In the midst of countless rules of outward
conduct there
the inner
'
is
always insistence on the necessity
to
satisfy
(antara-purusa) or conscience. Manu IV. 161 says assiduously do that which will give satisfaction to the antaratman' (inner self ); IV. 239 says 'No parents, nor wife nor sons will be a man's friends in the next world but only
;
man
righteousness.'
'Gods and the inner man mark the sinful acts and Manu VIII. 85, 91-92. Vide also Adi207-54 Vanaparva parva 74. 23-29, Manu VIII. 86, Anusasana 2. 73-74. The reason given for cultivating such virtues as daya ahimsa is based upon the philosophical doctrine of the one Self being immanent in every individual as said in the words 'tat tvam-asi*. This is the highest point reached in Indian metaphysics and combines morality and metaphysics. That doctrine requires us to regard the goodness or badness of one's actions from the standpoint of other individuals who will be affected by such actions. Daksa (III. 22) declares ie one who desires happiness
t '
'
should look upon another just as he looks upon himself. Happiness and misery affect one's self and others in the same way '.
Devala says that the quintessence of dharma is that one should not do to others what would be disliked by one's self. 17 There16.
ft n
^r
17.
H
III. 22.
sf^cft
wtri^
3j*arT
^r^rrw^r^cTT^
3?T*HT:
%*f?y
quoted in ^?wrreTT p. 17. Coinpaie ajrq^Fsrc^nr X. 12 : q^rra *r <n^f$ IP at3$nnra$ 113. 8-9 5
$qcft
U&
*T
fr'THT^t Vlfa
n
.
II
SRTr
anmiiiwfa
:
I
s^r<T:
i
wmfaT^m
STOFCT 260.
20 and 25
SRI?
$TO
cTcT^f fpficf srpwrftq^TcOTt n
8.
Ch. I
f,0re
our texts lay down two seats of authority in morals viz., the revealed truth (sruti) that 'All this is brahma* and the inner light of oonsoience. Another reason for cultivating high moral
qualities is found in the doctrine of the goals or ends of
human
existence (purusartha).
to be four,
From very
kama
moksa
( (
dharma (right conduct ), satisfaction of sexual, emotional
ancient times they are said artha ( economic interests ),
and
artistic
life
),
liberation of the spirit ). The last is said to be the supreme end and to be attained only by the few and the vast majority can only place it as an ideal to be attained in the
most distant future. As regards the other three, there is a gradation of values. Kama is the lowest of all and only fools 18 The Mahabharata says ' A wise regard it as the only end. man tries to secure all three, but if all three cannot be attained,
:
he secures dharma and arfcha or only dharma if he has a choice A man of middling disciof only one from among the three. pline prefers artha to the other two ; dharma is the source of
both artha and kama.'
The dharmaâstra
writers did
not
condemn kama
place.
altogether, they recognise that
kama has a
place
as a motive urging
men to be active but they assigned it a low They recognised that a man shares with lower beings the impulses and emotions of sex, but that the satisfaction of these impulses is of lower values than the moral and spiritual ends proper for a developed human personality and therefore insist that it should be subordinated to artha and dharma.
Gautama ( IX. 46-47
'
says
one should not allow the morning,
midday and evening to remain fruitless so far as dharma, artha and kama are concerned. But among these three one should
attach most importance to dharma.' Yaj. I. 115 says practically the same thing. Ap. Dh. S. ( II. 8. 20. 22-23 ) declares that
1
man
18.
should enjoy all such pleasures as are not opposed to
124. 34-38
vide
?nF^
167.8-9 for the
statement that dharma

lowest and that a
man
*
the best, artha is middling and kama is the should so act that dharma would he the principal
is
goal of his life and that he should so deal with others as he would deal with himself *nm^Rsr*n?ta; Hftei^f WRJTiTT
II .'
The nffVTOT winds up with the words

i
,&
OT?^**
sffm**
* ftnrS *r ?r^
**fTrcfto 5.62
vide
also
60.22,
& 151.37,
Oh. I
Purusarthaa
lf In the In this way one secures both worlds '. kama with himself identifies Krsna Bhagavadglta ( VII. 11 ) one may enjoy that is not opposed to dharma. Kautilya says*
dharma.
'
there is no conflict with dharma and artha, one * should not lead a life of no pleasures and then true to hia role of a writer on arthaaSstra, he proclaims that his own opinion is that artha is the principal of the three, as dharma and 1 after setting out ( II. 224 ) kama both spring from artha' is three principal states it as several views about which of"the
kama provided
Mnu
own opinion that one should strive for all the three, but adds that if artha or kama is in conflict with dharma one should give up artha or kama as the case may be. Visnu Dh. S. M of (71. 84) and Bhagavata 1. 2. 9 say the same. The Kamasutra Vatsyayana defines the three and says that out of dharma, artha
his
and kama each preceding one is superior to each following one and that to the king artha should be the highest goal. This teaching shows that there are proximate ends or motives and
ultimate ends or motives, that the ultimate ends are really the
most valuable and that the whole teaching of dharmasastra

points to this that all higher life demands discipline both of body and mind and requires the subjection of lower aims to aims of higher value. Manu II. 4 ( like Aristotle in the first
sentence of his Politics) says that the end of all activity is some presumed good. Manu further says ( V. 56 ) that the natural
proclivity of all beings is to hanker after the satisfaction of the common and lower desires of hunger, thirst and sexual gratifica-
tion and therefore no stress
is
to be placed on
cessation or curbing of these.

19.
II. 8. 20. 22-23.
them but on the The Upanisads 8* recognise the
20.
21.
N *3 II. 224; qfr<HM4&hi4?i T Ê^rat werT&ft pare fo*3*m^gr 71.84 '^R^fi ^T*h*?uft (*nr^[)
fc
i
*T3 IV. 176

;
com-
sTg^rTfr^T
'
111.18-19
iiqi-am*^
I.
n
5
11.7
C|
K<^^f ^MÎJRr
TT^TTST^fT'rT leHT
'
t|H*i'-<i^S'W^h cî^hi^rsHHf
II
at&g
^T^ft
^l^^
I.
2.7-15.
23.
?^ f
^jfruf -q
c^
IV^^TR
ftefSfH
*P^H ?TH
<fiWtaft WT.
^T.
III. 1.
H. D. 2
10
distinction between
beneficial
(
History cf Dharmaittetra
Oh. I
what
).
is
beneficial
(
hita
hitatama
Santiparva
288. 20
) and what is most and 330. 13 ) declares

*
that
what conduces
to the greatest
good of beings
is
satya.'
The Mitaksara on Yaj. 1. 1. remarks that ahimsa and other qualities are the dharmas common to all including even c&ndalas. The qualities are variously enumerated and emphasis is laid upon different lists in different works. Sankhasmrti (I. 5) says that forbearance, truthfulness, self-restraint and purity are common to all varnas. The Mahabharata says that three
are the best qualities
among
all
beings
viz.,
absence of enmity,
84 and in another place truthfulness and freedom from anger vow for a man is threefold viz., he that best vrata the ) ( says
should feel no enmity ( to others ), should give and should speak the truth. Vasistha ( IV. 4 ) says85 that truthfulness, freedom from anger, generosity, ahimsa ( non-injury ) and procreation of
offspring are
(
the
common dharma
of all
varnas
).
Gautama
(X. 52
says that even the Sudra has to submit himself to the dharma of truthfulness, freedom from anger and purity ( of
)
body and mind ). Manu says that ahimsa, truthfulness, no wrongful taking of another's possessions, purity and restraint of
senses are in brief the
(
common dharmas
of all varnas.
26
Manu
upon all to take delight in truth, in dharma, in conduct worthy of an arya and in purity. In the 3rd century B. C. the remarkable emperor A&oka inscribed on stone in all
IV. 175
)
calls
parts of his empire the

liberality, truth, purity
following
list of virtues
compassion,
ness, self-control
list
gentleness, peace, joyousness, saint liwhich bear a close resemblance to Gautama's

list
Yaj. ( 1. 122 ) mentions nine qualities as the means of securing dharma for all 87 The Mahabharata says ( from the brahmana to the cSndala ),
p. p.
and even to a later and VII in E. I. vol. II
of St.
Paul
vide Pillar Edicts II

).
249 and
272
that freedom from anger, truthfulness, sharing one's wealth

24.
UdRj Hd*f ^Nr

nfa
^TT'i^f'
*TTT<T
M4idl
M<
120.10.
^ -i- <x " 30 for 13 qualities prescribed for

.
-M
-i
>
-M
-i
-ii
~i
<
---all
1
-T
'
ms
44
vi Qe siti s *^*
Sdramas.
:
i
26.
arf^^TT
II
^r^Tg:
Hg
^flc^nt^ X. 63 vide
;
?Ti ti
fnP^ ^ 5y ^
ft *
ÎH
^mi4 u 4sall
ng
VI. 62 for ten guiâa prescribed for
a^ramas.
vide in. III. 66.
Ch. I
Samanya-dharma
11
with others, forbearance, procreation ( of children / irum one's wife ( alone ), purity, absence of enmity, straight-forwardness, maintaining persons dependent on one-self these nine are the
duties of all varnas.
88
dharma
is
common
to all
29
The Vamanapurana says that tenfold and names these ten as ahimsa, satyat
asteya, dana, forbearance, restraint, quiescence,
not demeaning HemSdri ( vratakhanda pp. 7-8 ) quotes several passages from the Brahma, Brahmavaivarta and Visrmdharmottara for several sftdharana dbarmas ( virtues common The Vignudharmasutra enumeto all varnas and asraraas ). rates fourteen qualities as s&manya-dharma. 50
oneself, purity, tapas.
The foregoing discussion establishes that
all
dharmasastra
writers attached the highest importance to moral qualities and enjoined them upon all with all the emphasis they could
command; but
as their
main purpose was a practical one,
viz.,
to guide people to right acts in
elaborately with the acts, rites had to do with reference to his station in society. They are therefore found principally concerning themselves with varpSsratna
everyday life, they dealt more and ceremonies that each person
dharma and not with sadharaya dharma

to all alike
).
( i.
e.
duties
common
One important question that is very much Aryavarta canvassed in works on dharmasastra is about the country or territory which should be called qryavarta or which was a fit
habitation for those
Vedic
religion.,'
who called themselves the followers of the Therefore a few wordr on this subject would be
The Rgveda shows chat the centre of Aryan quite relevant. culture in the times of the ftgveda was the land of "t!Te seven
28.
n
sm^.
60. 7-8.
$m*.
i
29.
i
avfttrr
*n*m^f ^nr
srtfScTt*:
3*3^4 ^ srN
;
3$rnp> ^T^T^r^ra: wftft ^riirST^; n ^rHsr^m 14. 1-2 114. 16-18 prescribes the following as common to all varnaa and Ssramas.
3T?r^^T
wrfrp^rt ôrr?n
grf^mr spri: u
3*r1rm
II.
35^n^T
n
16-17
compare
3?rT.
%r-
prescribed for
all
Sdramas and
23.6 for a long list of qualities srri^q^ 297. 24-25 for 13

I.
8.
12
rivers, viz.
Oh. I
North-west India and Punjab.
We
find that khe

;
rivers from
Kubha
Krumu
(
the
Kabul river, in Rg. V. modern Kurram, Rg. V. 53. 9, X.

(
the
53. 9
75. 6
x. 76.
),
),
SuvSstu
(
modern Swat, in Rg. VIII.

28.
1,
19. 37
),
the seven Sindhus
Rg.
II.
VIII. 24. 27, X. 43. 3 ) up to the Yamuna 75.5 ) 17, X. 75. 5 ), the Ganges ( Rg. VI. 45. 31, ( Rg. V. 52. and Sarayu ( probably in modern Oudh, in Rg. IV. 30. 18 and
12. 12, IV.
V. 53. 9
figure in the
Rgveda.
Among
the rivers of the Punjab

II.
Sindhu ( Rg. the following are individually mentioned : 15. 6 *he made the Sindhu flow northwards', Rg. V. 53.
9,
Rg. IV. 30. 12, Rg. VIII. 20. 25 where reference is made to the medicine in the Sindhu, in the Asiknl, in the seas and on mountains), Asiknl ( Rg. VIII. 20. 25, X. 75. 5), Parusnl
(
Rg. IV.
22. 2,
V. 52. 9
),
where
their confluence is spoken of
Vipas and Sutudri ( Rg. III. 33. 1 ), Vipas alone in Rg. IV. 30.
5,
12, Sutudri alone in
Rg. X. 75.
DrsadvatI,
Apaya and
Sara-
svatl (as very holy in Rg. III. 23. 4), SarasvatI alone (Rg. VII. 95, the whole hymn is addressed to it of which verse 2 says it
springs from the mountains; Rg. VI. 61 is another hymn addressed to it, v. 10 of which says it has seven sisters ), GomatI ( Rg. VIII. 24. 30, X. 75. 6 ), Vitasta ( Rg. X. 75. 5 ).
Gradually the Aryans spread southwards and eastwards. The Kanaka S. X. 6 speaks of Kuru-Paficalas. In the Brahmanas the centre of Aryan activities and culture shifted to the countries of the Kurus and Pancalas and Kosala-Videhas For example, the Satapatha Brahmana remarks that in the lands
of Kurupaiicalas
31 its best. In Sat. Br. XL 4. 1. brahmana and a Kuru-Pancala 1 Uddalaka Aruni is called contrasted with brahmanas of the north ( S. B. E. vol. 44 p. 51 ).
speech
is
at
88 that those who Similarly the Kausltaki-br. ( VII. 6 ) remarks want to learn ( best ) speech go northwards or wait upon him who comes from that direction. In the Satapatha we have the story of Videgha Ma^hava who went beyond the country of Kosala-Videha, crossed the river Sadanlra that came down from
the
Himalaya, and
settled to the east of that river,
where the
country was a cultivated and civilized one in the times of that work, while in former ages it had been uncultivated (I. 4. 1. Even in the Buddhist 4-17, S. B. E. vol. 12 pp. 105-106.).
31.
B. B. vol. 12 p.
32.
awqpfrrmfi XLII n.
w^m s^rarasrr
1
?ra^ m. in.
2. 3. 15.
Vide
B.
and
vol. 26 p.
50 for various interpretations.
WT
3*TT^rf?r fR^r *n
U^JSP^
ehitferr3 wr. VII. 6,
Oh. I
Limits of AryUvarta
13
Jfttakas
we see thai; being an 'udicoa brihmano' was a source of great pride ( vide Fick's work p. 40 ). The Tai. Br. speaks of 83 Even in the the vedi of the gods as being in Kuru-ksetra.
1
Rgveda itself the country through which ApayS and Sarasvatl flowed is spoken The Tai. Br. says that ( vide III. 23. 4 ).
east in the winter
the rivers DrsadvatI,

of as the best
spot
and In the times of the Upanisads also the Kurupancala country appears to have occupied a pre-eminent place. The Br. Up. ( III. 1. 1. ) says that when Janaka, king of Videha, performed a sacrifice the brahmanas of Kurupaficala flocked there in large numbers. Vide also Br. Up. III. 9. 19. The Br. Up. VI 2. 1 and Chandogya V. 3. 1 say that Svetaketu went to the assembly of the PancSlas. Kausltaki Br. Up. ( IV. 1. ) names the countries of Uslnara, Matsya, Kurupancala and Kadivideha as centres of intellectual activity and in II. 13 refers to two mountains one in the North and the other in the South ( meaning probably Himavat and Vindhya ). According to the Nirukta ( II. 2 ),
the country of Kamboja was outside the limits of the country of Aryas, though the language spoken there seems to have been
the same.
the Kurupaiicalas go westwards in the last month of summer.
The Mahsbhasya lends support to this and adds that Arya country ( vol. 1, p. 9 ). In the times of the Dharmasutras great divergence of opinion prevailed on the question of the location of Aryavarta. The Vasisthadharma24-sutra says: Aryavarta is to the east of the disappeaSurasfra was not an
'
rance
to the north of the
), to the west of Kalakavana, mountains Pariyatra and Vindhya and to the south of the Himalaya It then refers to two more views held by other authors viz., Aryavarta is in the region between * the Ganges and the Jumna and where the black antelope roams about there is spiritual pre-eminence The Baud. D. S. (
'.
' *
of Sarasvatl in the desert
'.
( I.
1.27
gives
the
same
......
limits of Aryavarta as Vasis^ha,
33.
%*T
I *nrm*ra
HI.
23. 4
fot
%*$%
^rrffci;
wr. V.
1. 1;
ft
II
3?.
for
Kurukfetra as u very ancient place vide

35. kh.
Satapatha IV.
i
1.5.13 and Ait. Br. (chap.
4)
sndrov
qft
ercmi^sriSft
I
^TOTWT:
ursft
*n%
......
3**^^
^Vlc4l if^cf
n. IT. I. 8. 5.
34.
arnrhrm
i
HHII^^^^ îd*Hi|*M?*nrr^f%nta flT?m:

i
T^nr^^nfrF^'c^ rf*?l I. 8-9 and 12-13.
...
il
'
Ch. I
substituting the word

his
vinasana
'
for
'
adarsa '.
S5
Patanjali in
Mah&bh&sya
defines
terms as Vasis^ha does.

gives
Aryavarta several times in the same 88 The Dharmasutra of Sankha-Likhita

limits
(
somewhat similar
is to
pre-eminence
KSmpill, to
'.
be found
countries of Sindhu and
spotless spiritual in the country ) to the east of the Sauvlra, to the west of the city of
by remarking
south of Himalaya and to the north of The extant Manusmrti ( II. 22 ) makes ArySvarta coterminos with the whole of India north of the Vindhya by saying that the territory between the Himalaya and the Vindhya and extending up to the eastern and western oceans is known by the wise as Aryavarta. The second view ( viz. Aryavarta is the region between the Ganges and the Jumna )
the
87
Pfiriyatra
occurs in Baud. Dh. S. ( 1. 1.28 ). In the Tai. Ar. 11,20 special honour is shown to those who dwell between the Ganga and the
the black antelope
view ( viz. Aryavarta is the country where roams about naturally ) is the one given in most smrtis. Both Vagistha ( I. 14-15 ) and Baud. Dh. S. ( 1. 1. 29-30 ) quote an ancient gatha from the Nidana work of the
third
Yamuna. The
Bhftllavins
28
to the effect that wherever the black
antelope
roams about in the country lying between the Sindhu in the west and the rising mountain in the east, there is spiritual pre-eminence. So this view is a very ancient one and probably
35.
I. 1.27. Even so early as the rTpginTf TW. ^T*5r*n f^T^r^ ^TST^ (24.17.1 ). This shows that the Sarasvati had disappeared by the time of the ciF^T. According to the Vanaparva 82. Ill Vinasana is the tirtba wheie the Sarasvati the Sarasvati disappeared and Vanaparva (130.3-5) says that
I
srigror
we have
the words
disappeared at the entrance of Ni$a"darStia through fear of pollution from Ni5das tmd Salyaparva (37. 1-2) tells us that Vinasana is the sacred place where the Sarasvati disappeared through hatred for
and Abhiras.
36.
^j
vol.
I.
p.
475 (on Pan.
II.
4.10),
vol. III.
p.
174
(on Pan. VI. 3.109)

37.
i
quoted in trfwnsmigFfi^T
^Tr^r>^T
i
p.
57
).
38.
5^:
^n^R^roWwr^
7
rrm
JJ^^^HH
'
vftr
wte
1.
14-15.
reads 'ftfT^ft
and explains it as where the sun sets ', while may mean *dividing line, boundary '. qftHiqmaRrer p. 57 reads f^wfr and explains f^R^ ^H^qJc^T
Oh. 1
Limits of Aryavarta
15
arose from some mythological account as is indicated by the commentary of Visvarupa on Yaj. 1.2 which quotes a prose passage of the Svetasvataras Sacrifice became a black anfcelope and wandered over the earth; dharma followed it in its
'
wanderings'. This view of the limits of Aryavarta is maintained by Sankha ( as quoted by Vi&varupa on Yaj. I. 2 ), Vianudharmasutra 814, Manu II. 23, Yaj. I. 2, Sathvarta4, Laghu-HSrlta (I. p. 178 ), Veda-Vyasa ( I. 3 ), Brhat-ParSsara ( p. 56 ) and several other smrtis. The Manusmrti ( II. 17-24 ) defines Brahmavarta as the country between the holy rivers Saras vatl and Drsad89 vatl, says that the traditional mode of conduct observed in that
is called sadacftra, that the countries of Kuruksetra, Matsya, Pancala and Sflrasena are styled Brahmarsidesa and are slightly less ( in holiness ) than Brahm&varta, that Madhyadesa is between the Himalaya and the Vindhya and to the east of Vina&ana and to the west of Prayaga, that Aryavarta is the country between the Himalaya and Vindhya up to the eastern and western oceans, that that territory where
country
for sacrifices
^that
live
the black antelope roams about naturally is the country fit and the countries beyond constitute mlecckade&a,
men
in
of
the
three
higher
(
varnas should
endeavour to
Brahmavarta, Brahmarsidesa, Madhyadesa, Aryavarta &c. ) while a sudra, when distressed for his livelihood, may stay in any country whatever, The Visnudharmasutra (84. 4 ) says that the country where the system of the four varnas is not established is to be known as Mleccha country and Aryavarta is beyond that. This is explained by Aparftrka (p. 5 ) as follows : one who desires to practise Vedio religion should live in one of the four countries
these countries
viz.
Brahmavarta and others if that is not possible, then in a country where there is establishment of the four varnas and the black antelope roams about naturally if both these cannot be had, then one should dwell in a country where at least one of the two (caturvarnya and black antelope) is found. The above discussion shows that in very ancient times the country
viz.
; ;
was looked upon as beyond the pale of Aryan culture^ Baud. Dh. S, fl. 1. 31 ) says that the countries of Avanti, Anga, Ifagadha, Surastra, Daksinapatha,Upftvrt,Sindhu
south of the Vindhya
Vide TSndya Br. 25. 10. 13-14 for Drâdvatl 39. falling into the Sarasvati and 25. 10. 16 for the disappearance of the latter and Ait. Br. (chap, 38 kh. 3) for Kuru-Pancala, Vada and U^lnara as included in the centre of India.
16
of
Oh. I
( i. e. not of pure Aryan goes to Araftaka, Kfiraskara, Pundra, Sauvlra, Anga, Vanga, Kalinga and PrRnuna (?) has to offer a solemn sacrifice like the Sarvaprs^ha and that for
and Sauvlra are
mixed origin
ancestry), that a person
who
going to Kalinga the prayascitta is an offering to Vaisvanara Agni, The Mit. on Yaj. III. 292 quotes a verse of Devala to the effect that if a man goes to Sindhu, Sauvlra, Saurfistra, the
( or Mleccha countries ), Anga, Vanga, Kalinga and Andhra he has to perform the Upanayana satfaskSra over 40 The Mit. adds a remark that this is so only if the man again. goes to these countries for some purpose other than pilgrimage. Gradually however as Aryan culture spread over the whole of what is now called India the view of the sages about the countries pre-eminently Aryan had to be given up. Medhfttithi on Manu II. 22 explains that Aryavarta is so called because Aryas again and again spring up there and because the Mlecchas even if they overrun it from time to time do not abide and then makes the following very sensible there for long observation ( on II. 23 ) if a ksatriya king of excellent conduct
border lands
'
'
'
were to conquer the Mlecchas, establish the system of four varnas ( in the Mleccha country ) and assign to Mlecchas a position similar to that of cftndalas in Aryavarta, even that country would be fit for the performance of sacri( Mleccha ) fices, since the earth is not by itself impure, but becomes impure
through contact
of the spread
of
impure persons or things

culture
of
Aryan
As a result eastwards and southwards

).'
41
and the frequent invasions of non-Aryan tribes on the northwest, the countries on the rivers of the Punjab came to be looked upon in the whirligig of time as unworthy of the Aryas to live in. Karnaparva 43. 5-8 abuses those who live on the Sindhu and the five rivers of the Punjab as impure and dharmabahya.**
40.
T?f?T
It is
I-
This
is
Devala
v.
ascribed to
41.
\
BaudhSyana
J
16 with slight variations in the 3rd pftda. in the Smrticandrika" I. p. 9.
3JTOT ^cT'n cf^

ifat
on irg
II.
22
on ?rg
II. 23.
42.
trernrr
[
1%^^^^ ^rr^t ^mfwn:

7
;
OT^ 43.
'.
\\
$nfto 44.
31-34 calls these countries Arattas and
na^tadharma
Vide
40 and 43.
Ch. I
Bharatavarsa
17
Another word which is very often used, particularly in the Puranas, to denote the territory where the ancient Vedio religion prevails is Bharatavarsa or Bharatavarsa. It occurs in the Hathigumpha InscripttaTof Kharavela ( 2nd century B. 0. ) as Bharadhavasa. 43 The Markandeyapurana says that Bhauatavarsa has the ocean" on the east, south and' west and the Himalaya on
4 riorCh.* Tne Visnupurana ( II. 3.1 ) says the same and Matsya ( 114-10 ) and Vayu define Bharatavarsa as stretching from Cape Comorin to the source of the Ganges. 45 Sahara ( not
the
1-35
later than 5th century A. D. ) in his and 42 ) shows that to him there
and culture from the Himalaya to quoted in the Paribhasa-prakasa (p. 58) says that dharmajs fully developed ( lit. four-legged ) in the country from the Himalaya to Cape Comorin. 4T , According'tff Markarideya ( 5341 ), Vayu (vol. I chap. 33-52) and other Puranas Bharafcj^varsa is so called
descendant of Svayambhuva Manu; ) appears to strike a different note by saying that Bharatavarsa is so called after Bharata, the son of Dusyanta and Sakuntala. The Visnupurana says that after thousands of births a person secures life as a human being in Bharatavarsa and this land is called Karmabhumi ( the land of religious actions ) for those who want to secure heaven and final liberation. 48 The Vayupurana says almost the same and adds that in no laud other than Bharatavarsa is karma
after Bharata,
of Jlsafoha,
bhasya on Jaimini ( X. was unity of language 48 Cape Comorin. Pai^hlnasi as
son
while
Vayu
vol. II. chap. 37-130
prescribed for mortals.

43.
It
is
somewhat amusing
to find that
Vide E.
I.
vol. 20 p. 79.
II
<T%cf3?t^ spj
grrT<
<R|cn<j<c4
57.59
45.
j^TOT
^"c^ns^^r fiû^^nT ^fôp II. 3. 1; ^"i*j vol. I, 45. 75-76

-q^-q ^TTHT W5i\
);
I ;
v, N,
TX&F1 114. 10
% ^XM^*,^ vc-.-.^.^. 3TT4d^ ^T^TTCTtft *T^T^,.
compare with the

P.
lust
yu^4<IT
vol. 1, 45. 81
T^m^Ht^^ ^
X.
1.42.
47.
?TT
tnjrfn^:
'
&*i
f^raRT STT
crar
^ ^prrTT; f^r^^nFft
i \
f^V ts^t^<i*<^
II. 3
jgpui^prV
RxR!^
W^^JSÎC{T M^cfiul
*ri^n<TT*rejT5r p. 58.
48.
qrif'$iftTv4 ^4^M^*i ^r M^^JdT^ " II. pp. 106-106 ; cTH;

,
Riyi^TT
;
2;
vide WiUon'a
j^
SRI? fw^sfanfr
^R^g" rr)^rar srBtWt'Pcifôyjûr II. 3, 5. *T3 45. 77
H.D.3
18
of the countries of India that in
Oh. I
many
selves on being most orthodox are declared
modern times pride themby the Aditya-purftna
quoted in the Smrticandrika ) to be countries unfit for ( as habitation and to be such that a stay in them except for pilgrim49 The Adipurana age entailed loss of caste and prayasoittas.
(
says
Adityapurana ? ) as quoted in the ParibhasSprakasa ( p. 59 ) no one, whether a dvija or not, born in Aryavarta should
'
cross the three rivers, Sindhu,
Karmada
( i.
e.
Karmanasa
if
or
Karatoya except on a pilgrimage' and that should perform the penance of candrayana.
he does
so,
he
All smrti writers and commentators generally restrict themselves to the duties of varnas and asramas as practised in
Yaj. II. 192
Aryavarta or Bharatavarsa, though in very rare cases ( as in of the usages of ) they provide for the observance even heretics.
*J5T* H trM4Jr>..*:W^(
(same verse as in
n.
42)...^^%fa-uîjVfl<îq^?af3TI. p.
i
^rnwî i^Nn^c
y^^^^^M
qreft^n
^T
g^^
îr< ^n?^t*r ^r^f^sr: u ^Q-ô sn^n^-ainihifiHi^wft f^s?t ^r ^rf% ^rrsflr^r:

i
n 1*1^1
9 quoting
ftpa'TTt
*i%rf
airofî
AiahH f^n fMf^yt f^t
>
arryr fry
a*n
f^g^^T
fIgvzrfS
qftHiQiwtiTO p. 69.
CHAPTER
VARNA
,
II
The
number
of
works
dealing
with the
origin
and
Most characteristics of the caste system in India is legion. of them, however, concern themselves with the detailed description of the bewildering variety of castes and subdivisions of castes in modern times and their present religious and social customs and usages. ^The origin of caste has given rise to
great speculation and several schools of thought have arisen. Generally individual authors lay undue emphasis on one element or attach far too much importance to one point in
tracing the origin of the caste system and its ramifications, such as race ( Risley ), tribe ( Ibbetson ), occupation ( Nesfield ). The study of the origin and development of caste in India is
one of deep and absorbing interest to all students of sociology. A complete and critical examination of the several theories of caste advanced by distinguished authors and a detailed
description of the hundreds of castes and suboastes now found in India is far beyond the scope of the present work. \.Fpr
those
want to make a thorough study of the most important works on caste a modest list is given in the footnote
who
below. 50
N. Bbattaeharya's Hindu castes and sects (1896); E. A. H. W. Crooke's * Tribes Caste system of Northern India ( 1931) and castes of N, W. Provinces and Ondh 4 Vol. (1896); N. K. Dutt's * of Origin and growth of caste in India (1931) and Aryanization Tribes and castes of Bombay 3 Vol. E. B. Enthoven's India ( 1925 ) India in Buddha'i (1920); R. Fick'|/ Social Organisation in North-east Dr.S. K. Maitra 1920 (deals only with the Buddhist translation
50.
'
'
J.
Blunt's
'
'
'
'
'
'
time,'
by
Jstaka materials)
son's
'
Dr. Ghuryo's 'Caste

'
and race in India' (1932)

)
)
;
;
'
Ibbet-
Punjab castes
India
'
1881, reprint In 1916
S.
V. Ketkar's
'
History
of
of caste in
2
'
Vol.
(
1909 and 1911

;
Kitt's
Compendium
castes found in India
1885
Nesfield's
brief review of the caste

'
(1885); O'Malley's system of the North-west Provinces and Oudh Indian caste customs '( 1932 ) and 'India's social heritage' (1934); Tribes and Hayavadan Rao's 'Indian Caste system* (1934); Risley's People of castes of Bengal 1891 ( mostly anthropoinetric data ) and * India' 2nd ed. 1915; B. V. Russell's Tribes and castes of Central
'
'
'
( Continued
on next page )
20
History of Dharma&Ustra
Ch, II
The caste system has been highly eulogised and also most severely condemned by Western writers. Sidney Low in his 'Vision of India* (pp. 262-263, 2nff ed. of 1907) speaks of the beneficent aspect of the caste system in the following
eloquent passage There is no doubt that it is the main cause of the fundamental stability and contentment by which Indian society has been braced up for centuries against the shocks
of politics
*
and the cataclysms of Nature.

place,* his career,
It
provides every
man
with his
it
friends.
body,
his occupation, his circle of It makes him at the outset a member of a corporate protects him through life from the canker of social
jealousy and
unfulfilled aspirations; it ensures him companionship and a sense of community with others in like case with himself. The caste organization is to the Hindu his
club, his trade union, his benefit society,
his philanthropic
society. There are yet needed.' Abbe

after
no work-houses in India and none are as
Dubois, who wrote about 130 years ago being in close touch with Hindus of all castes for 15 years as a missionary, remarks ( in his work on the character, manners and customs of the people of India,
translated
1
into English
and published in London in 1817
1 consider the institution of castes
among
the
Hindu nations
convinced
as the happiest effort of their legislation; and I am well that, if the people of India never sunk into a state of
if,
barbarism, and
when almost
all
that dreary gulf, India kept up her head, preserved tended the sciences, the arts and civilization, it is
to the
Europe was plunged in and exwholly

for that
is
distinction
'
of
p.
castes
that
she
indebted
several
his
'
high
the
celebrity
justification
14
and he
remark.
devotes
of
this
Maine in
page}
*
pages to Ancient
(Continued from
last
Provinces
'
4 volumes
*
1916
Bmile
Senlfft's
Les caste dans
'
I
*
Inde
'
(1896) translated Tribes and Castes
Ross (1986'); M. A. Sherring's Hindu by G. Slater's 3 volumes ( 1872-1881 ) Dravidian element in Hindu culture (1514); Steele's 'Law and customs of Hindu castes' (1868) Thurston and Rangaclmri's 'Caste and Tribes of South India 7 volumes (1909 ) John Wilson's Indian castes 2 vol. (1877);
Sir E.
1 ;
; '
'
'Mysore Trib&s and castes' by S. V. tfanjundayya and Rao Bahadur L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer, vol. I-IV with several hundred illustrations.
Besides these there are numerous papers published in Journals such as Weber's in Indische Stttdien ' vol. X pp. 1-160 ( very exhaustive as to Vedio material ) ; Dr. Ghurye's on c Ethnic theory of caste ' in Man ' in India vol. IV ( 1924 ) pp. 209-371.
*
Oh. II
Varrta
21
)
Law
most
'
new
'
edition of 1930
p.
17
characterises
all
'
it
as
'
the
disastrous
and blighting of
human
institotions."'
Sherring in Hindu tribes* anTcastes vol. Ill p.T5Tsays it is the most baneful, hard-hearted and Jcruel social system that could possibly be invented for cfamning the human race*. On ' the other hand Meredith Townsend in Europe and" Asia*
l firmly believe caste to be a marvellous discovery, a form of socialism which through 'ages protected Hindu Society from anarchy and from the worst evils of industrial and competitive life is an automatic poor law to
p.
(edition of 1901
73
"wrote
ifc
begin withjmd the strongest form"~knbwnTbf Trades Union*. There are others, 51 though their number is small,* that believe
51.
*
says
It
E. g. Sherring in his ;Hindu Tribes and castes ' vol. Ill p. 274 has been said with some truth that caste promotes cleanliness
and order and is in a certain sense a bond of union among all classes of the Hindu community. Yet surely these ends might have been attained in a simpler manner and by a less antagonistic process. TTie
invention of a project BO wonderfully elaborate and intricate a project of bringing into absolute.-subjection two hundred millions of the human
very was in view from the very first is abundantly manifest. This object was neither more nor less than to exalt the Brahman, to feed his pride and to minister to his self-will.' Equally sweeping condemnation can be and has been indulged in Jas regards feudalism and modern capitalism. Fick (p. 331) entirely scouts the idea that the theory of castes was invented by tho priests. There are several fallacies
different object
the invention of a species by robbing them of their independence, project like this, so prodigious and far-reaching was not needed to accomplish such useful and beneficent endg. That another and
lurking in the above quoted passage of Sherring. ID the first place, there is nothing to show that tho caste system was invented by any
body of persons who could impose their will on a continent. The system simply grew up in the lapse of ages. The population of Hindus when Sherring wrotejmay have been near two hundred millions, but it could not have been more than a small fraction of that colossal number during the thousands of years that the system has flourished. Besides writers like Sherring pass over the great achievements of Indians under the caste system in Literature, religion and philosophy, in handicrafts and in the fine arts and unduly exaggerate the defects of the system that have become glaring only in the machine-made civilization of the 19th and 20th centuries. These critics ignore the great adaptability of the system, whereby it preserved Indian society from social anarchy during ages of foreign invasions and internecine wars. While severely condemning the brShmanas the critics altogether forget that the vast and varied Sanskrit Literature owes its production and preservation mostly to the sacrifice of the brShmanas ages. Under the caste
(^Continued on next page )J
22
Histonj of Dharmaiastra
Oh. II
that the caste system was an invention, an artificial product, due to the machinations of crafty br&hmanas. Every great institution has its extremes of good or evil". This work will
**"
endeavour to steer clear of downright and hypercritical condemnation of the caste system due to relying on modern standpoints and conditions of society and unthinking adulation thereof. It will try to present and balance facts and though it cannot help passing judgments it will leave the reader free
to judge for himself as far as possible.
In the present work the discussion will be mostly confined to the evidence of Sanskrit literary monuments, ancient and medieval. An attempt will be made to trace the origin of caste from Vedio times, to exhibit
theories of the Dharmasutrak&ras, other smrtikaras and commentators on the subject and to describe the peculiar ceremonies,
privileges,
duties
and
responsibilities
gathered from these works in Sanskrit.
of Hindu To discuss the
castes
as
feasibility
and means
or desirability of totally destroying the caste system or the ways of attaining that end is deemed to be outside the
It
legitimate limits of this volume.
may, however, be expressly
stated as the authors opinion, in order to avoid misunderstandings or fruitless speculations about his personal views, that he
does not think that the caste system was an artificial product due to the intrigues, greed and cunning of brahmanas, nor does
he hold that
it is
feasible to destroy the whole edifice of the caste
system in the near future.
In the cities we
may
find
some
people taking their food together but the real India is in the villages, where in spite of the loud denunciations of reformers
for a
hundred years, the restrictions on taking food and intercaste marriages are almost as rigid as .they once were. Our
efforts
among
and
directed to wide and rapid spread of literacy the village people, the diffusion of the idea of one people one nationality and gradual fusion of small subcastes into
must be
larger* similar units.

critical
We
in India
stage in our history
when
old ideals, institutions
have no doubt reached a and
( Continued from last page) no man was allowed to be useless to the commonwealth and his system, conduct was a question of honour with his group. "When all work was
turned out with the hands, the caste system tended to preserve and
augment the skill of artisans. Moreover what social organization is to be substituted and how is not made clear by these critics. Most of these critics have the western stfial system based on wealth and the industrial revolution in
view j%ut that system aUo worse than the modern caste system.
is
as evil as or perhaps
Ch.
II.
Varya
23
habits are being shattered by the impact of new ideas and by the onrush of world forces. have to decide whether we shall make or be able to make a clean sweep of all old ideals and
We
much debris and rubbish or whether while keeping the old ideals and some of the old institutions as foundations we shall build up a new social order and create and foster
institutions as so
new
the present
v
habits of thought and action. It is beyond the scope of work to write more on this point.
of caste
A sort
prevW in many
and Japan.
system based on birth and occupation did countries In ancient times as in Persia, Rome But in all these countries it hardly ever made any
we have
^No stances which led in India alone to the evolution
near approach in rigour and complexity to the caste system that in India and instead of ramifying into divisions and subdivisions, it dwindled and disappeared in the course of time. unanimity seems possible as to the several causes and circumof
the
stupendous structure of casteX Nofc only is it impossible to hold that the origin of the modern complexity of the caste system is
to be traced
that
back to one single cause, but it is difficult to accept the origins that have been postulated by the several authors can adequately and satisfactorily explain the
even
all
modern
,
caste system.
In most of the works on the castes in India a few features

:
are pointed out as the characteristics of the caste system and as common to all castes and sub-castes. They are ( 1 ) heredity i. e, in theory a man is assigned to a particular caste by birth
to
( 2 ) endogamy and exogamy i. e, restriction as marrying in the same caste and not marrying certain relatives or other persons, though of the same caste ( 3 ) restrictions as to food ( i. e. what food and water may be taken or not taken and from whom ) ( 4 ) occupation ( i. e. members of most castes follow certain occupations and no others); (5) gradation of castes, some being at the top in the social scale and others being deemed to be so low that they are untouchable. Some authors 52 like Senarfc add another characteristic, viz. the caste council with its chief having in meeting assembled among 9ther matters the power to regulate the conduct of its members, to impose the penalties of fine or excommunication
in that caste
for lapses.
It
may
be said at once that this last
is
a feature
Vide Senart's * caste in India tr. Ty Boss pp. 66-73 ( 1930 ), 62. Pick pp. 36-37 holds that there were no caste. councils and no caste chiefs
'
24
that
is
History of Dharmai&stra
Oh. II
not found
castes even in
ristic of
among most of the brahmana and ksatriya modern times and is not dealt with by dharraanow
the most prominent charactetlaat it
is byJbirjtbuV)
sastra works. \(Elndogamy is
casteând soTSTKeTtfceory
The
other three are
or less fluctuating from province io province and age to age) In this work the first five characteristics of the caste system set out above will be subjected to a close
more
critical
examination OH the basis of the Vedic^ ^l^dharma-
must also remember thaFthe attributes sastra material/ There of caste have not been the sarae throughout the ages.
\
We
is
great
difference
VeTween the
popular
modern
caste
the~ ancient
and the conceptions liBbut and medieval dharma&astra" works.

'
conceptions""!)! it embodied in
In
the
twentieth century caste in India is a matter of marriage and As to avocato a much lesser extent of food arid drink.
tions
any one can
at present follow
any
fear of loss of caste excepting a
few believed
profession without to be very impure
and very degrading ones (like those of sweepers, butchers, tanners &c. ). It is also not possible even now for any one to be generally accepted as a priest, unless he is or claims to
N
be a brahmana. ^The old barriers that separated one caste or subcaste from another have been greatly shaken by the influx
of
modern ideas and the exigencies of the times and one may hope that in a few decades more caste will remain as a purely social
and to a lesser extent commennot a one Western scholars, in spite of and ). religious sality their most commendable patience and industry, often present, through ignorance or lack of first-hand knowledge, the number of castes as larger than what it actually is. For example, II. Introduction XXII-XLVI (vol. ) Sherring pp. gives an alphabetical list of brahmanical tribes and remarks ( XL VII ) Hundreds of these tribes, if not at enmity with one another, cherish mutual distrust and antipathy to such a degree that they are socially separated from one another as far as it is possible for them to be-as much as brahmanas are from the
institution regulating marriages
(
'
lowest outcastes- neither eating nor drinking together nor intermarrying*. The list he gives is most misleading. To take only a few examples, he enumerates Athavle, Achwal, Abhyankara, Apte, Agashe, Bhanu, Bivalkar, Badye, Bhide, Bhagvat, Bhuskute, Bhat, Bodas as separate tribes ; but it is well-known
to people in
Westertotndia that these are the surnames
not
Bubcastes
of the
KMkanastha
or CitpSvana brahmanas,
who
not only interdine, but also inter-marry
among
themselves,
Oh. ll
Varria
is
25
of
provided there
no bar on the ground
sameness of gotra
'
and
pravara.
varria
\Theword
II. 3.5, IX. 97.15, passages of ~the g. I. 73.7, IX, 104.4, IX. 105.4, X, 124.7 ), But in some verses of the 53 Rgveda the word varna is associated with groups of people having a skin of a dark or fair colour. For example, we
moans RgveSa ( e/
colour
'
or
v
'
light
in
most
read in Rg. II. IS.l^lt Indra ) who placed low the dasa colour in a cave (or darkness)'; in Rg. I. 179.6 the fierce sage in Rg. IX. 71.2 like one (Agastya) cherished both varnas
* '
'
a fighter
who
'
strikes the people he
Soma
who
is
powerful
goes giving out frequent roars; he exposes the Asura colour '; in ftg. I. 130.8 Indra helped in battles the Arya sacrificef ...... Indra punished for the sake of Manu ( the dasas ) who do not
observe the ordinances and subdued
or killed
the dark skin
';
(in dra having killed the dasyus protected the arya varna' (^g. IlL 34.9T; 'TOtt'f Indra) subdued for Rjisvan, the son
of Vidathin, iipru
fifty
and powerful Mrgaya; you mowed down thousand dark (men), you shattered cities as old age does shatter good looks Rg. IV. 16.13 Sornas, which strike dark skin In the IX, 41.1. Rg, Rg. I. 158.5 a certain away dasa is called f raitana which name has a Persian ring about it In Rg. I. 104.2 varna seems to be placed in opposition to dasa. These passages make it clear that the Aryas and dasas both were designated varnas were two opposing camps and f KK ***"---*-<* "-*.. ,:,., ^.A,.,.^--^-, The Tai. Br. I- 2.6 on account of the colour of their skins. Mahavrata in which there was a mock ( with reference to the and a sudra ) says that the brahmana, brahmana a between fight s* If is the divine varria, and sudra is the âsurycT' varipa V verse of the Tai. Br. can byTKe help' we intBriJrettSe'Tlgveda mean then in Rg. IX. 71.2, the words asurja^ârnam 6udra trjbej. There is no doubt that the word asura when
'
'
'
'
'
r-
'
'
applied to gods like Variina has another meaning also in the Rg. In numerous ^places in the Rgveda the antagonism
53.
^^ôf^^^r^: 1^. n.l2.4;^vftWlllTOT:3qklgFr. 1.179.6.

as 'ktJina' and 'tapaa,' but this i8 appears bettor to take the passage as meaning that supported both Aryas and dasas. The words cannot reasonably
*
Here Sayaâ interprets

Ear-fetched
varpau
'
and
it
Agastya
be taken to refer to Brahmana and Ks-ttriya since there was no difference of colour between the two and since varnas have been four and not two.
54.
WT^rn^T ^3*3" HJUchcf
TFTf&
^ftfl^^ff WT^TOT: 3^5^:
SjJTt
2. 6. ft*.ilT. I.
H.D. 4
26
History" of Dharmaiastra
Oh. II
art/as and dasas or dasyus is emphasized and prayers are offered to India and other gods for having subdued or for subduing the dasa in favour of the Arya. Rg. I. 51.8;
between the
I.
103.3;
1.
;
117.21; II. 11.2, 4, 18, 19
III. 29.9
I.
V. 70.3
VII. 5.6;
IX. 88.4
to
VI. 18.3
VI. ^5.2.
In Rg.
51.8 Indra is requested
mark who are aryas and who are dasyus. This does not mean that there was difference between the two in bodily
4
appearance only; on the contrary the antithesis between the arya who is referred to as barhismat ' and the dasyu who is styled
'avrata' clearly
shows that the emphasis was rather on the That dasyu and dasa are identical in meaning follows from the same epithets being applied to both and from the fact that dasyu and dasa occur in the same verses as 55 In Rg. X. 22.8 dasyu and applying to the same enemy. dasa are used in the same verse as applicable to the same enemy. In Rg. X. 99.6 and 8 Indra is represented as killing
difference of their cults.
both dasa and dasyu respectively. The dasyus are described as avrata ( not obeying the ordinances of the gods ) in VI, 14.3, I. akratu I. 175.3, (who perform no 51.8, Rg.
'
'
'
'
sacrifice
anasaî ( Bimb-nosed or dumb ) in IJg. V. 29.10. It appears that dasa and dasyu For are synonyms and were sometimes styled asuras.
distinct or soft
in VII. 6.3, mrdhravacah ) in VII. 6.3 and V. 29.10,
56
'
(
*
whose speech
'
is
in-
example, Sambara is called dasyu and dasa in Rgveda VI. 31.4 and dasa in Rg. VI. 26.5 and is also associated with in is like asuras VI. 18.8 ; spoken of Fipru Pipru as a dasa in ftg. VIII. 32.2 and as an asura in X. 138.3. Varcin is styled dasa in $g. IV. 30.15 and VI. 47.21 and asura in VII. 99.5. In Tai. S. 57 ( IV. 3.11.3 ) also it seems that they are held to be identical. The enmity between dasa and arya is breathed in such verses as the following: Rg. II. 11.4 vanquish the tribe of dasas by the sun ( i. e. by the help of a brilliant weapon ); Rg. I. 174-7 You made the earth a pillow for
' '
the dasa
*
I
( i. e. you laid him low on the ground ); Rg. III. 12-6 Oh Indra and Agni, by one effort together you shook ninety
II
iff.
X.
22.8.
56.
ll
3?.
VII. 6.3.
This verse applies seven epithets to
dasyus. They are called pagis ( greedy traders ), In Nirukta VI. 31 YtUka, paraphrases ^sreFcT: as V. 34. 6-7 the dasa lamped P^ni.
3f*ra$.
.
In
IV. 3.11.3n>
Oh. II
Van?a
had das as as overlords
',
27
It is
cities that
not possible to say that
Aryan tribes that had fallen from the worship or culture of the Aryan singers of Vedic hymns. In many places the sage refers to the conquest for him by Indra and other gods of dasas as well as Aryan foes. For example, Protectors of the good! you ( two ) killed Arynn foes and dasa foes Rg. VI. 60-6; 'Oh Indra and Varuna you killed dasa foes and also Arya foes and helped Budas with your protection
dasas or dasyus were some
*
'
'
Rg. VII. 83.1. Vide also ftg. VI. 22-10, X. 69-6, X. 83-1, X, 102<3. This shows that though the aryanshad become divided and fought among themselves, they keptaryss and dasas quite distinctlj^h^. foregoing shows that in the times of the Rgveda there were two aTtfagonTs?io^c'amps, of the aryas and dasas or dasyus, they diffeyred ir\ the colour of their skins and also iu worship, speech
and bodily appearance. Therefore, in the earliest period we find word varna âssociated o^ly^jth^jdâ an<T wlthârya. ^the Though the words brahmana and ksatrijra^ occur frequently in the Jfcgveda, the worovarna is not usedin connection with them. Even in the Purusasukta ( Rgveda X. 90 ) where the words brahmana, rajanya, vaisya and sudra occur the word varna is
not used.
Hence, one ina^xeasqnâbly say that the only water-
tight groups that are positively or expressly vouchsafed
by the Rgveda afeârya and dasa^ orjasjru. It is often argued that^ as the word bf^ffioaliaênotes^ a caste In laterTi?erature,*Tn^ the Rgveda aTsoTTmttst be presumed to haviTthe "same meaning. But this begs the whole queslTon. ]$Q one denies that brahmana denotes a caste in later literature?) But whether it has the same
the ftgveda rnustTe determined on the materials furnished by the Rgveda itself. Some rely on the word brahmaputra in Rg. II. 43. 2 as showing that a brahmana became
' ' '
sense in
so only by birth in the Rgveda. But the verse begins by saying ' and so brahmathat you eing a Sama like the Udgafcr priest
'
putra
must mean a
rtvij
whose duty
it
was
to recite sastras (the

).
;
It is generally conceded that the Purusasukfca is a much later hymn than rnSst of ihe hymns of the Rgveda, fin the whole of the Bgveda the wordCyaisya and sudra do not offiur except in tacrlPurusasukta, though both of tnem occur in the Atharvaveda (V. 17-9 for vaiSya an^lV. 20. -fand 8 for 6udra and arya ) and very frequently in the Tai. S. Besides we cannot forget that the final
Brfthmanacchamsin
as
Sayana
explains
<
......
Rgveda must be held to have been separated from the composition of the indiviflral hymns by several hundred years ( if not more ) and that even if it be conceded
redaction of the
28
that at the time
History of Dharmaiiistra
Oh. II
when the Purusasukta was composed, the four varnaa had been constituted and had become castes, yet the same cannot be affirmed for the time of the original composition of the other hymns. The word brahmana occurs several times in 58 Oh brahmanas, Oh pitrs fond of soma May the the IJgveda:
*
!
sinless Dyavaprfchivl ( Heaven and Earth 4 Like brahmanas in the Atiratra where
tend to our welfare'; soma is to bo drunk, utterring ( words ) round a lake full of water you have, Oh frogs, gathered together on that day of the year on which the rains begin*
)
The brahmanas, who drink soma, reciting yearly sacrifice, have sent forth their speech 8 ). In this verse brahmanas are expressly said brahma ready. May Agni who devours everything make that ( dead body ) free from disease and ( may ) soma also ( do the same ) who entered into the brahmanas ( Rg. When the brahmanas worship together as friends X. 16. 6 ). in hymns ( lit. speed of the mind ) that are fabricated from their hearts X. 71. 8 ). In Rg. VI. 75. 10 brahmanas are ( Rg. invoked for welfare along with pitrs. This shows that the brahmanas were highly venerated. The other verses establish that they were the reciters of hymns ( brahma ) and drank soma. In "Bg. VIII. 35. 16-18 we read You ( Asvins ) urge on (or inspire ) brabma, you urge on our thoughts ( or actions ), you kill the evil spirits and subdue diseases ( 17 ) you urge ksatra (valour) and also men, you kill evil spirits (same as 16 ) and also the Vi6 ( the rest is same ( 18 ) you urge on the cows Here it seems that the groups of people ( viz. those as 16 )/ who think and make songp, those who show valour and lead men, and those common peoplo who tend cattle ) are clearly
Rg. VII. 103. prayers of the ( Rg. VII. 103. to be getting
(
'
59
);
'
'
'
'
'
,,
meant.
These verses
may
be conceded as pointing to the exis-
tence of three groups ( brahmanas, ksatriyas and visah ) but there is nothing in them to show that these three had crystallised into
33.
somewhat
is
11 Vasistha
mean that he was been born of UrvasI from Mifcra and Varuna.
58.
like tho castes of later times. In IJg. VII. addressed as brahman, but that does not a brahmana ( by birth ), as he is said to have
Similarly, in
WTSJOrWt fqrR:
l**mT: f?T%
*ft
59.
wrsrTro> s*i1frr%
* tfftr
7.
^^
-,
STnrrT^ft 3T^FTT
Sff.
VI. 75.10.
.
$forf2ra>
^n
^f^^^^ er^f
i!
<*?.
;
103. 7
=ff
;
7. 103. 8
10
16. b
J-^T
aif TredlsT^! ^r^nirm:
^^
snaro
^?.
X. 71. 8
u 9?. 1. 164.
45.
Oh. II
Farrwi
96. 6
29
the word
',
Bg. IX.
'
Brahma devanam
'
brahma
'
60
does not
'
brahmana by mean brahmanas by birth In

certainly
'.
mean
birth
nor does
vipranam
is
that verse oae
who
super-
eminent among a group
is
specified, just as the buffalo
among
animals, the hawk among carnivorous birds &c. In Rg. VIII. 33. ' 19 look down and not up ; bring your feet close together ; may
thy kasaplakas ( legs wert born a woman/
?
)
it is
be not seen, for though a brahma, thou impossible to hold that the last words
mean
reason
thou
wert;
a brahmana
woman
'.
If
it is
to refer to the fact that she is a
brahmana woman,
'
( babhuvitha ) is most probably means a priest of that name ', as that is the meaning in Rg. II. I. 2 ( brahma casi Tha word brahmajaya in Rg. X. grhapatis-ca no dame).
why
the Perfect tense

'
only intended there is no used and not the
present.
Here brahma
'
'
'
109. 2, 3, 6
and
does not
'
mean
the wife of a
brahmana by
wife of Brhaspati '. The whole hymn is obscure and more or less enigmatic or allegorical. In the 61 35. 2-4 it is said that soma is the food Aitareya-brShmana
birth but rather
brahmanas and that a ksatriya was to press the tendrils of Nyagrodha tree and the fruits of Udumbara, Asvattha and Plakâ and drink the juice so pressed instead of soma. vJJ^ appears, therefore, that tha brahmanas were a distinct group even in thefearliest period of the, Bgyeda, Whether they were hereditary is certainly not clear nor is there anything to show
of
the
as regards partaking of food from persons other than brahmanas of as to marriage. That brahmanas in the Rgveda were a class by themselves may be conceded,
that there were restrictions
but whether they had become a^casferByTliriiK is"'a "matter of opinion dependent on the connotation given to the word caste. Dr. Ghurye ( Caste and race in India p. 42 ) thinks, probably
*
'
following the Vedic Index ( vol. I on Ksatriya ), that the reference in Rg. X. 71. 9 to a false claim for being regarded
as a brahmana points to the conclusion that brahmanas had become a caste. The verse literally translated means these who do not move below nor beyond, who are ( persons )
*
neither
60.
brahmanas,
argrr
nor
engaged in
pressing
soma
they
ifrwrt <Tcpfp
^T3C
sft
3?.
r? wgrr spjifoi
IX. 96.6; 3TO: SR. viti. 33.

ii
61.
^l^.wr. 35.2-4;
47-61, III. 6.
vide
^j^j^^
III. 5. 22,
III.
5.
36 and Sahara's bhs^ya thereon for this subject.
80
Oh. II
being ignorant and having reHorted to speech in sinful ( or coarse ) language take to ploughshares and engage in ( agricultural) operations'.
It is
difficult to see
how
there is here
any false claim to be regarded as a brahma na. This verse means apparently that those who are not composers of prayers or drinkers of soma ( because they are ignorant ) are men of low speech and have to turn to agriculture. Even in the days of the dharma-sutras restrictions as to food and marriage for brahmanas were not at all as rigid as they became in medieval and modern times but even when these restrictions were not rigid it was clearly laid down that a*brahmana is brahma generally means in so by birth alone. VT^ e word
;
'
'
1fe IV. 6.11, Vl. 52.2, prayer or"* hyntn ". Vfde X. 141.B "~(*0li Agnir'make our prayer and sacrifice IJg. III. 53.12 is 'this brahma prosper by your flames'). or of Visvamitra protects the Bharata ) power ( prayer spiritual In the Atharyaveda II. 15.4 (as brahma and ksatra people*. entertain no fear, nor are~tne~y""MTtned ) brahrna seems to mean the class of brahmanas '. The transition of mearifng from 'brahma' (prayer) to Brahma' meaning the class of In those who composed or recited prayers is natural and easy. 63 in the the Rgveda I. 157.2 both""fcrafrffia and ksatra occur same verse where they probably mean prayer and valour respectively. In the Atharvaveda III. 19. 1 both words occur and probably mean the same thing as in Rg. I. 157.2. In some Vedic 64 works brahma and ksatra aland collectively for brahmanas and
the ftgveda
'
'
**
X.
105.8,
'
'
'
'
'
ksatriyas (e.
I. 2.
g.
Tai. Br. II. 7.18, Br. Up.

is
I.
4.11,
Kathopanisad
24).
The word ksatriya

e. g.'
epithet to several gods;

(
very frequently applied as an Kg? VII: 64. 2 and VIII. 25. 8
), Rg. VIII. 67. 1 ( to Adityas ), Bg. X. 66.8 ( to gods in general ). In some verses ksatrjya e means a king or a nobleman '; e. g. 3Jg. IV. 42.1 tEeTkingdom on both sides ( heaven and "earth ) belongs to me, who am a ksatriya and who holds sway over all living persons, so that 65 all the immortals ( gods ) are ours (on my side)'; Bg. X, 109.3
'
in both to Mitra
and Varuna
62.
?t^3&a*&f^^^*#n^.
I
X. 141.5.
Sff.
III. 53. 12.
63.
^T^fTmT(^T^^5fftj^TT^?r5^cr
TT
^RHcTf H%JTI%
II
Sff. 1.
i
157.2.
64.
65.
wsr
WT^TOT: %nf TI^^T:

fjerr
^.
srr.
III. 9. 14.
i
*m
ti^ srSwr fi^rnfl*^ 3^^m ÎT TJ

this is
^K.
IV. 42.1.
to the
Anukiamaî
by mn
of
king
Trasadasyu
sou
Ace. of
Parukutsa.
Oh.II]
(
Varya
3i
Atharva V, 17.3 ) 'the domain of the ksatriya has been ' protected ( from the sight of enemies ) '. (The word rSjanya occurs in the Rgveda only in the PurusaStrkts: ft OOOnrS' in
the sense of ksatriya in the
^Sarvayeda
V." 17.9.
~TCe~1slJme
remark applies l6~tW"wor3 ksatriya as to brahmana. It is difficult to say whether ksatriyas were so by birth ia the times of the hymns of the Kg. 'or were only a class more or less fluid. We find that the Rg. speaks of Devapi as the The story 86 is that purohita of Santanu who became a king. both were sons of Rstisena and that Santanu, though a younger brother, became king as Devapi was not willing to be a king. The result was a famine due to Santanu 's transgression and so Devapi performed a sacrifice to induce rainfall. This shows that out of two brothers one became a king and the other a purohita. So kings and purohitas did not depend on birth. In Rg. IX. 112. 3 a poet exclaims I am a reciter of hymns my father is a physician and my mother grinds ( corn )
"
'
with stones.
In Rg.
We
desire to obtain wealth in various actions.

'
'
67
III. 44-5 the poet wistfully asks Indra 0, Indra, fond of soma, would you make me the protector of people, or would you make me a king, would you make me a sage, that has drunk of soma, would you impart to me endless wealth ? This shows that the same man could be * a rsi or a noble or a king. Dr. Ghurye ( in Caste and
*
p. 44 ) thinks that the ksatriyas had become a compact body and he particularly relies on Rg. VII. 104. 13 = Atharvaveda VIII. 4. 13 ) which is cited in the Vedio ( Index ( vol. 1, p. 207 ) for the same purpose. That verse literally means Soma does not urge on the crooked one, nor the ksatriya
race in India
'
who
'
bears false.
;
He
strikes the raksas,

'
and
strikes
him who
'
speaks falsely both lie in the bonds of Indra '. The words ksatriyam mithuya dharayantam are explained by Sayana as Ksatriya who bears false words'. The 2nd half is only an
'
expansion of the first half and so vrjina corresponds to raksas and asad vadantam is only a paraphrase of mithuyS dharayantam'. They may mean this that one who is a
* *
* *
'
ksatriya, but has no strength as a ksatriya should have, is at

66. Vide Nirukta II. 10 for the story of DevSjn and Santanu who were Kauravya brothers according to it.
67.
5i.
sTRi^t
am
IX. 112.3.
Kara means here
3*3 TT fosnjTcswoft T*T ^TmiWr VidvSmitra composer of hymns

i
^^r
'
ia
addressed as kSru by the rivers in Vide fsfc-tff VI. 6
%.
III.
33. 10
32
History of Dharmafaslra
Oh. it
state of society
it is
the morcy of Indra. Unless we project our notions of the later and the caste system when considering this verse,
refers to persons
*
hardly possible to hold that this verse indicates that it making a false claim for entrance into a com-
pact body of ksatriyas by birth. Dr. Ghurye also says ( p. 44 ) The 2nd order in society, the ksatriya, is known in the earlier
portions of the Rgveda as rajanya.' I have nofc been able to find the word rajanya in the Rgveda any where except in the Purusasfikfca. In the Aitareya biahmana (chap. 34. 2) the word 'rajanya'
stands for a member of the 2nd class in society, while ksatriya means a king of whom land ( for sacrifice to gods ) is asked for
by brahmana, rajanya
\
or vaisya,
Though
in
the word
in* the
people
Purusasukta,
it.
_the
vaisya occurs in the Bgv&4,a_ only word 'vis* is very frequently

'
i
êmployed
'.
people or group of generally means In a large number of cases we have the words
It
_
manusir-visah or manuslsu viksu or
manuslnam visam,
e.
g.
Rg. I1I.5.3, III. 6.3, III. 11. 5 (invincible Agni goes in front of human groups ), IV. 6. 7 and 8, IV. 9. 2, V. l. 9, V. 8. 3, VI. 48. 8, VI. 47. 16 ( viso manusyau ), X. I. 4, X. 69. 9. In some places we have dasir visah ( the dasa hordes ) e. g. IV. 28-4, VI. 25-2. 68 In Rg. III. 34-2 we have Oh Indra, you are the leader of human hordes as well as of divine hordes ( where we have 69 VIII. 63-7 (when loud invocations daivlnam visam). Rg. were sent towards Indira by the people consisting of five groups) In Rg. V. 32. 11 shows that vis means all the Aryan people
'
*
'
'
Indra is styled pancajanya ( favourable to the five people ) and in IX. 66. 20 Agni has the appellation pancajanyah. purohitafr of the five peoples). Sometimes jana and vis seem ( the puroMta
'
'
'
'
to be contradistinguished as in Rg. II. 26. 3 ( sa ij-janena sa visa sa janmana sa putrair-vajam bharate dhana nrbhih ), But the
very fact that

68. 69.
vis
is qualified
also as paiioajanya
1
shows that
%?%
{ScfteT^nw
sriswt
I.
^qra^^r ScSlr? ^"fTT s^g^cf

4.
'
bhaya on VedaLtasutra
VIII. 63 7
'
Rsrr '<Hfaf5*r ^Vncr 3?. III. 34.2. âihkara in his Wt. V11I. 63.7. 12 says that the word pancajana in
I
%.
means 'prajs' (people) and also notes that according to some panca jauah are devaa, pitrs, asuras, gandharvas and rakâses while according to others they are the four varnas and nissdas as the The Ait. Br. (13. 7 ) gives an explanation of panoa janSh similar fifth.
;
to the first
^TftJTt
<n3F3
ST
*FwWwt WTt ^r R^rt ^
^ypsf ^1^%%^ srifnt *n tjarcq-^rsrsfifrs^^ ^wgThe Nirukta ( III. 8 ) in explaining

.
X. 53. 4 remarks about panca janahi.

j
I
>
Oh. II
there
rarva
33
was hardly any distinction between jana and vil In the Rgveda frequent reference is made to five people ( pafica janah );
vide Rg. III. 37. 9, III. 59, 7, VI. 1 1. 4, VIII. 32. 22, X. 65. 23, X. 45. 6. In the same way the words krsti (II. 2. 10, IV. 38. 10), ksifci ( V. 35. 2, VI. 48. 7, VII. 75. 4 ), oarsani ( V, 86. 2, VII. 15. 2 ) are
employed
krstisu
all
4
'
along
"frg.
with
panca.
We
is
'
have also
'
pancajanyasu
tha
'
'
in
III. 53-16.
So
'
ifc
clear that vii cannot in almost

*
or people ' is aryan people or daivlh 70 The Ait. Br. (I. 26 ) says that ' visah ' means prefixed. rastrani ( countries ) when explaining Trig. IV. 50-8 ( tasmai
'
'
*
hymns
of the Rg.
mean vaisya bub means when no epithet like daslh
'
'
vi6ah svayam-3vanamante
).
*
means a serf or a slave.' It follows that the dasa tribes that we see opposed to the Aryas in the Tlgveda were gradually vanquished and were then made to serve the Aryas. In the Manusmrfci ( VIII. 413 ) the Sudra is said to have been created by God for service
dasa
in later literature
(
The word
'
7I dasya ) of the brahmana. and other Brahmana works
We
find in the Tai.
S.,
the Tai. Br.
that the sudra occupies the same position that he does in the smrtis. Therefore it is reasonable to infer that the dasas or dasyus conquered by the Aryas were
gradually transformed into the 6udras. From being enemies they were brought into friendly relations and given a very subordinate position. Traces are visible even in the Rgveda that friendly relations had begun to be established between certain
'
dasas and the priests. For example in IJg. VIII, 46. 32 we read the singer took a hundred ( cows or other gifts ) from the dasa
fro'ii
Balbutha and
Taruksa.
In the Purusasukta
X. 90. 12
the brahmana, ksatriya, vaiSya and sudra are said to have sprung from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the supreme
Purusa.
to
In the very next verse the sun and the moon are said have been born from the eye and mind of the Purusa. This shows that the composer of the hymn regarded the division of society into four classes to be very ancient and to be as natural and God-ordained as the sun and the moou.
shall now see what position was assigned to the suclra in the Vedic Samhitas and Brahmanas. In the Rgveda the ' Arya is contradistinguished from the men of dark skin.' In
VWe
the dharmasutras we find the Madras spoken of as

70.
ârk
varna.
Vide Rg.
I. 25.1, I.
114
3,
VI. 15-1, X. 173*4 for 'vi*T by itself.
H. P. 5
34
Hidtory of Dharmaifistra
S. I. 9. 27.
Oh. II
Vide Ap. Dh.

II. 1. 59.
78
11 which
is
^The Sudra among men and

;
the same as Baud. Dh. S. the horse among beasts.
ances of beings
Therefore those two, the horse and the sudra, are the convey therefore the svidra is not fit ( or ordained )
73
for sacrifice' (Tai. S, VII, 1.1. 6).
This shows that the 6udra could not perform the Vedic sacrifices and Jhat he was employed for carrying person's "in a palanquin or otherwise.
In Tai. S."v.
7.
6.
it
3-4 we have 'put light (glory) in our ( or kings ), ( put ) light in 74 vaisyas and Sudras, put light in me by your light.* This is a sure dasa is here of the who took the indication that the dudra place other with the three in the on classes the same level placed
brfihmanas, put
in our chiefs
matter of the receipt of light from God and that far from being looked upon as an enemy, he had come to be looked upon as a
member
6udra
the
of the society
though the lowest in the scale ).\*The

;
isâ moving Veda in the vicinity
burial ground
of a siudrar^5
therefore one should not study He created the brah'
mana with Gayatrl, the rajanya~wllh Tristubh and the vaisya with JagatI ;Jbut he did not create the sudraVith any metre. 76 The Tandy amahabrahmana says ^ Therefore a sudra, though he
'
may have many

is
beasts, is not entitled to
perform
sacrifice,
he
godless as no deity of the other varnas )
was created
;
after
him
),
as in the case
therefore
he
does
not
go beyond
being an allusion to the Purusasukta X. 90. 12 padbhyam sUdro ajayata ). This shows that the sudra, however rich in cattle he might be, had to
feet*
washing the feet created from the
of the
three other varnas

(this
last
since he
was
perform the menial duty of washing the feet of

72.
I. 9.
dvijas.
The
27.
11=
165. 29.
73.
^rjtowSHt
74.
1. *. VII.
l. 1.6.
75.
TO^r(T^?iT^TE|r5-j
1.
*
cnEm
?^^^
-a
w^rac
This
18.
is
quoted
by Sahara on Jaimiui VI. these words ij^

is
38 as a
sriiti.
I
qr%s u. ^.
11-12 echoes
.
m wSlrt
?T:
cited as Satapatha Sruti

76.
This
is
by the ^ndrakiinalakara (p. 3 ). Vide quoted by Vaa. Dh. S. IV. 3.
Ait. Br. 5. 12
77.
VI.
1.
11.
Cb. II
Varna
position
'
of Sudra
'
35
B. E. the sudra is untruth Satapatha Br. says that ( S. vol. 44. p. 446 ), that the sudra is toil (S. B, BY Vol. 44 p. 410 ), and that a dlksita ( one who was initiated for a Vedic sacrifice ) was not to speak with a sudra ( S. B. E, vol. 26 p. 4 ). The 78 Aitareya Brahmana remarks that the sudra is at the beck
'
'
'
ancfcaTI of 6tHefs~t"the three' varnas)," foe c^nTjeTSade to rise 79 at Will, he'cltn^lêaten at will.' When the father of Sunahsepa
(
who had
^sold
SunahsepsT for 100 coins
and had shown
himself ready to kill him as a pasu for another hundred coins ) urged his son to come back to him after the boy had been
taken into favour by Varuna and VisvSmitra, he contemptuously discards his father's proposal with the words one who commits an evil deed once may commit another sinful deed thereafter you did not leave aside the sudra's line of conduct
'
you did what leaves no door for reconciliation. These passages show that the sudra, though he had ceased to be an enemy of the arya and had been allowed to be within tEePpale of society, was looked Uown upon, wa_s -asSTglteli a very'low position, had to perform wttfk oT toil as a menial and was not
*"
'
'
allowed to perform Vedic sacrifices. A clear line of demarcawas kept between S&e^SVya and the Sudra in tho times of the Brahmana works and even in tho dharmasutras. The 80 Tandya Brahmana speaks of a mock fight 'the sudra and
tion
5rya fight on a hide, out of the two they so arrange that the The Ap. Dh. S. ( I. 1.3.40-41 arya colour becomes the victor 81 says that a brShmaoarin, if he cannot himself eat all the food he has brought by begging, may keep it near an arya or he may give it to a sudra who is a dasa ( of ( for his use ) his teacher)'. The same Dharmasufcra 88 (II. 2.3. land 4) says Aryas who are pure ( by bach ) should prepare the food or SQdras supervised by aryas should for Vaisvadeva; it Similarly Gautama X. 69 uses the word anarya prepare for sudra and Gautama 12.3 prescribes heavy punishment for a
'. *
*
'.
78.
^:
a^^^r
ifcnr:
^THVwi^ft ^SH^TTRI^:
art.
35.3
79
I
*r
.
The legend of Sunahsepa is referred to even in Rg, *r. 33. 5. 24.12-13 and V. 2.7 (where it is expressly said that unah6epa was released by Varuna from the sacrificial post to which he had been tied).
I.
80.
81. 82.
t?TT. v.
^j
|*4I
^nlf ^MI^SPH
fl <U'*I*ta
l?S'*rhMsPc|
'
cTPST V.
^.
5. 14.
3jnfrrrTMJq<tw<U awfSfr
sinr?: snr
*r ^r^pr
STTT. v.
1. 1. 3.
40-41
H,
2. 3. 1
and
4.
36
History of Dharmasastra
Ch. II
sudra having sexual intercourse wit'* an arya woman. Jaimini in his Purvamlmansa sutra (VI. 1.25-38) establishes after elaborate discussion that the sudra has no adhikara for the performance of Aguihotra and Vedic sacrifices. It is, however,
somewhat gratifying
to find that tit least one acarya, Badari, espoused the cause of the sudra and propounded the view that all ( including sudras ) were entitled to perform Vedic sacrifices (VI 1.27). In the Vedanta-sutras also (I. 3.34-38) it is
established that the sudra has no adhikara for
brahmavidya based on Veda study, though some sudras like Vidura might have been endowed with the knowledge of brahma owing to sarhskSras of former births. In the smrti literature, however, a few passages are found allowing marriages of aryas with sudra women Similarly sexual relations ( which will be discussed later on ). between a sudra woman and a man of higher ( illicit ) varna are alluded to even in the Samhitas e. g. Tai. S. 83 VII. 4.19.3 when a sudra woman has an arya as her paramour
*
SllS
deer
*]ofc
.seek
wealth for the prosperity
of her relations
'.
In Ait. Br. (8. 1) there" is the "tory or Kavasa Ailusa, who was driven out from the sacrifice on the SarasvatI with the words* Oh, son' of a female slave, you are a rogue and not a
brahmana; how did you take the dlksa ( initiation ) as one of us 'and they carried him off to a sandy desert with the idea He when tormented by that he might die of thirst there. the hymn $g. X. 30 and SarasvatI came rushing thirst saw 84 Further discussion about the sudra and his disto him.
*
'
abilities will follow in another section later.
The position
arya
)
of the three varnas inter se
called collectively
now
requires consideration.
It is clear that the
Samhitas
other than the

classes of
Rgveda and Brahmana works show that the three brahmanas, ksatriyas and vaisyas had become differbecome
,,
entiated and their privileges, duties and liabilities had more or less fixed in those times.
83.
^r tr^fcrm
woman
)
**
fifln*r
*Wrfiri&
Sarhhita ^3. 30. 'Arya''

(
may moan an
).
tf. VII. 4. 19.3 and VtTjasaneya Arya, or simply 'master' or 'vaidyu'
as in later literaiiuo
The words
TT..."^
of the dadra
docs not desire wealth for his
may mean Ho ( the father own prosperity (ag

'
'
he
is
pained by the event).
84.
The words
mean
that,
is told in the SankhSyana BrShmatja XII. 3. dSsyah putrah may be only terms of abuse or they may though he posed to be a brahmana, he was the BOH of a brRh-
similar story
'
mai?a from
Ch. II
Varna
'
br&hmanas
37
we read that king alone who places brahma first ( i. e. honours him dwells happy in his house, for him the earth always remains prosperous and to him all the people ( or Brahmanas 8S are kingdoms ) bow down of their own accord Tai. S. I. 7. 3. 1 ); there are two gods that are directly seen kinds of gods for indeed the gods are gods and the brahmanas who have studied and teach the sacred lore are the human gods'
50.8
)
*
In Bg. IV.
'.
'
Br. ( S. B. E. vol. 12 p. 309, vol. 26 p. 341 ). In the Atharvaveda V. 17. 19 there is an assertion of the pre-eminence of brahmanas and the consequences of harming them or fteir * cows/ Therefore the brahmana is the foremost ( Tai. S. II. Therefore the brahmana shows his might by 6. 2. 5, V. 2. 7. 1 ). his mouth, since he was created from the a moutty' ( Tandy Br. XI. 1. 2 ). 86 In the Ait. Br. ( 33. 4 ) Varuna, when he was told that a brahmana boy would be offered In place of the son of the king Hariscandra, is made to say a brahmana is indeed preferable to a ksatriya '. The mere fact of birth as brShmana's son is represented here as giving to the boy pre-eminence over a king's son. On the other hand the Sat. Br. says (V. 1. 1 . 12 ) a brahmana 87 is not adequate to ( competent to manage ) a In the Tai. Br. it is said that playing on the vlna kingdom ( in the Asvamedha ) is to be done by a brahmana and a rajanya ( and not by two brahmanas ), since wealth does not find delight 88 in the brahmana. The Satapatha Brahmana ( XL 5. 7. 1 ) lays emphasis on the four-peattliar 'attributes^ of brahmanas viz.
Sat.
;
'
'.
brahmanya
(
purity of parentage as a
),
Brahmana
(
'
),
pratirupacarya
)
befitting deportment or conduct
yasas
).
jglory
and lokapakti
the teaching or perfecting of people
being perfected or taught by him, people privileges viz. area ( honour ), dana ( SJftjOâjyeyata
85.
When_ the people arc endow him with four

(
freedom
<&
"i*
%3t:
wq&
.
srrsrom
'<T.
H.
1.
7. 3.
3*r.
n. 15 and
I
$nrqT XII. 4. 4. 6 rTfrTTfTITjjroft S^T^ 'sflM ^rftnf S^Sreff f|" ig&i wr. VI. 1. 6. Tho same idea ia expressed in the TrTWH^rf^T V.
;
86.
T
?T5r
i
ft
.
grî3r
87.
'Tr.
snroi; 33. 4.
m^^Jr^r
^T. XI. l, 2
'^snsnjft Ti^^nrT?R
fr
?iw^r V.
1.
'
1.12
s. B.
B. Tol. 41 p. 4.
wTirot
88.
ifl
**&
fft wFartffwft Tr^rr^^^
^. *i.
ni.
9. 14.
.5. 7. 1.
38
Cb. It
from being harassed ) and avadhyata ( freedom from being The Satapatha ( V. 4. 6. 9 ) expressly mentions beaten ). that brfthmana, rSjanya, vaisya and sudra are the four varnas. Teaching had become so much associated with the brahmanas that when the brahmana GSrgya approached king
" this Ajatasatru for the knowledge of brahma, the latter replied is contrary to the natural order that a brahmana should approach
'
a ksatriya with the idea he ( ksatriya ) will propound to me " In a separate section below alt the privileges brahma '. 89 enjoyed by the brahmanas will be set out at one place.
89.
i
*Rf.
gr.
II. 1.15.
ti
*RWtaf%WT. T. IV. 18.
In the Tai.
S.
IV.
5. 11. 9
we
i
read
wrsn*ft
<T^*T:
This
literally
means 'if a brahmana and a nou-brShmana come (to a man) asking him a question, then he should speak to the brahmana first that he speaks to the brabmana first is really tantamount to speaking first to One-self; when he speaks away from the brShmana (i. e. he speaks to the non-brffhmana first and then to the brahmana ) that is therefore a brSbmana should not be really speaking away to oneself spoken away ( i. e postponed to non-brshmanas ).* Manu VIII. 24 says
;
;
that a king should take up the causes of litigants in the order of the yarnae (i. e. if there are two plaintiffs coming with complaints at the same time the brShimina's complaint should be first attended to ).
Brhaspati says the same thing. Therefore the Tai. S. should be interpreted in the same way. Another meaning is possible viz. if a brShmana and a non-brahmana come to a person and ask him who is superior, the person should declare that the bra"hmana is the superior of the two (on account of his birth as brahmana probably or of his being a learned
man).
I.
This sense of *adhi

'
superior Prof. Keith in his translation of Tai. S. (to all) on this wide earth. " (Harvard Oriental Series, vol. 18 p. 203) says in a footnote it is not
)
7
99
since
as meaning 'superior brahmana when born becomes ( or
is
found
born
in
Manu
is
absolutely certain that adhibru means decide in favour 1 speak in favour of." Vide also Vedic Index ( II. p. 83
'
of
).
rather than
Dr.
in
Caste and race in India

or
It
'
p. 43 ) says
in a legal dispute or witness
Ghurye between
brahmana
non-brahmana an arbitrator
must speak in
favour of the former.'
appears that Dr. Ghurye simply follows the rather guardedly expressed view of the famous Professor, but makes the sense more emphatic than Prof. Keith puts it and does not think for
himself whether any other meaning is possible or more appropriate. Any stick IB good for beating the brahmana with. The br&hmanat were never ashamed in the smrti texts of declaring the privileges they
(
Continued on next page
Ch. II
Varqa
ksatriyas
39
to the br&h-
The
position of ksatriyas
and their relation
manas
*
falls to
'
be considered now.
*
'
First of all with reference
to the king several important
cases
10,
rajan
X. 97. 6. '. government often seems to hay e. been triEalT such tribes as Yadus, Turva&as, Druhyus, Anus and Purus ( Rg. I. 108. 8) being frequently mentioned ( vide Rg. VII. 18. 6 for Bhrgus and Druhyus and VIL 18, 7 for Trfcsus, VIII. 6. 46 for Yadvas ). Whether kingship was by election it is not necessary here to discuss. The king was regarded as keeping'the people within 90 bounds. When a king was crowned, it was thought that
,
passaêsjmay be cited. In some means only a noT)le or **cKePTas in Rg. X. 42. In many^p^Mlges"^ rajaiT meansjjdng The
'
a ksatriya was produced, a lord of all beingsr tftte defender of brShmanas (or of Tioly tetfcs ) and of dharma.' 91 The ' for these two ( srotriya and king ) are the Sat. Br. Says upholders of the sacred law among men* ( S. B. E. vol.41 9B That the co-operation between brahmana and ksatriya p. 106 ).
*
results in glory and success is frequently emphasized therefore a brahraana must certainly be approached
e.
g.
by a
ksatriya who is about to perform some act, for indeed that act ' of a ksatriya which is sped on by brahmana succeeds 93 The purohtta of a . ( Satapatha, S. B. E. vol. 26 pp. 270-271 )
Continued from last page)
claimed.
But they never claimed to be treated in a court of law as above truth and justice. If they had taken the Tai. S. passage in the sense in which Dr. Ghurye takes it they would never have scrupled to say so in smiti works und would have quoted the Tai. S. in support. llence the moaning is different. There is no question here of an
In JJg. I. 100. 19 there is a similar decision. * May Iiidra speak in our favour on all days (f*h^l%*^t expression S. 63. 11 and 16. X. 5 Vide for the verb 3t 3<fonfr Rg. Vsj. 3^g). vac with adhi in the sense of speak in favour of or bless.'
arbitration or judicial
* ' ' *
'
'
'
90.
01.
I
^.
srr.
38 and 39.
3.
Varuna is frequently called IQ&R ( e. g. ^. I. 25. 8 and 10 and once even the yajarnSna is so called (qf. I. 25. 6); the îff'W V. 4. 4. 5 explains 5ff. I. 25. 10 as Hy^|<| ^ ..... ^?rpr yft ^rarîr ^ CHfT
92.
'
trisr
q-
^fBnrJ
(
^%
f\
*
*3*%$
^câfr
same words occur

Nitrada
93
gfr
praklrnaka 42
*?(% ^"STcft Tr^rr ) express the
VIII. 1 practically the arrgnr^r Tffjcf: . Manu IX. 322 and

'.
'
In
mnT
same
^T
idea.
cTWf ^Tf%^T CT *& Rtt^HTOT'i^M tfcf

r.
arfSTT:
tf
^7^
ift?rar
ff
IV. 1.4.6; the words wfT
...
\^ occur in
XL 14.
40
Ch. II
The Satapatha ksatriya came to occupy a very high position, lays emphasis on ihe importance ( S. B. E. vol. 26 p. 270 ) of the purohita and cautions a brahmana against being the
purohita of
any king he meets with and adds
that a
brahmana
without a king, but a king should not be without a brahmana. Even the gods required a purohita, as the Tai. S.
may remain
II. 5. 1. 1.
94
Visvarup* son of Tvastr was the purohita of Sanda and Atnarka were the purohitas of the Asuras gods/ S. IV. 4 ). ( Kathaka Agni is often called purohita ( fig. I. 1. 1., I. 44. 10, III. 2. 8 ). May we, purohitas, be awake in the
says
'
'
kingdom
Ait. Br.
says the Tai. S. ( I. 7. 10. 1 ). The the purohita is half the soul of the says ( ' ksatriya and contains an eulogy of purohita in the following " words ( 40. 1 ) for indeed the gods do not eat the food of a king no who has purohita; therefore a king when about to offer a sacrifice should have a brahmana as his purohita with the
(
for its welfare

)
'
chap. 34. 8
95
idea
'
may
brahmana
it is
(
" the gods eat my food.' and the rajanya is said to

*
Tbfe
The combination of the most desirable and that
V.
1.
of both is declared in the Tai. S. eAii conducive to the^pinence 96 10. 3 ) Therefore reron a brahmana who is supported by a
rSjanya is superior to another brahmana ( not so supported ), hence a rajanya who has a brahmana ( to help him ) is superior The Satapatha ( V. 4. 4. 15 ) declares 'that to another rajanya who indeed is not powerful to the brahmanas ( i. e. who is king humble before the brahmanas ) becomes more powerful than his *7 It is not to be supposed that this attainment of the foes/
'.
supreme position by brShmapas was an affair of plain sailing. Sometimes ksatriyas claimed higher position and also paid scant In the Satapatha we read whence the respect to brahmanas. brahmana is an object of respect after the king ( S. B. E. vol. 41, hence the people here serve, from a lower po-ition, the p. 96 ); ksatriya seated above them Satapatha ( S. B. E. vol. 12 p. 94 ); 'hence when a nobleman approaches, all these people, the subjects crouch down by him on the ground Satapatha ( S, B. E. vol. 26 p. 228); 'therefore there is nothing higher than the ksatra;
'
' '
'
'
94.
95.
srqfeft
*rr <?<?
srf^T?qr *r?s*tfl*f:
$.
wi
34. 8;
3TT.
40. 1.
cT*
96.
*rac
i
S. H. v. 1. 10. 3.
97.
^t t ^ren yT5rqnKflqHffiV**fr
*r
^rn^c *ren* SKPW V. 4.4.
15.
Ch. II
Varrta
ksatriyas
41
therefore the
'
brahmana
sits
down below
the ksatriya in the
Rajasuya ( Satapatha 14. 4. 1. 23 = Br. Up. I. 4. 11). In the Atharvaveda several verses occur which declare the harm that results from disrespecting or injuring a brahmana or from robbing him of his cow. He who regards brahmana as food drinks of the poison of Tairaafca he who injures a brahmana, the relative of the gods, does not attain to the world of pitrs ( Atharvaveda V. 18. 4 and 13 ). Those who spat on a brahmana or those who sent to him mucus remain biting the hair in the midst of a stream by their mouth that kingdom sinks as water sinks a shattered vessel, where' they injure a brahmana; that wicked act strikes that; kingdom 98 ( Atharvaveda V. 19. 3 and 8 ).
; '
*
'
The stories of king Kartavlrya and VisvSmitra who respectively carried off the cows of Jamadagni and Vasistha narrated in the Mahabharata ( Santi 49 for Kartavlrya -Adi. 175 for
;
and the Puranas show how several kings were high-handed and treated brahmanas with no respect whatever. It appears that even the wives of brahmanas Mpre not quite safe at the hands of kings. The chamberlain ( ksatr ) of that king in whose kingdom the wife of a brahmana' is thoughtlessly put under restraint does not march in front of cooking vessels with a golden ornament on his neck " ( Atharva V. 17. 14 ). The somewhat mystical hymn ( Rg. X. 109 ) where brahmajaya figures prominently probably hints at the same fact ( viz. the kidnapping of the wives of brahmanas ).
ViSvamitra
)
'
'
'
desirous of cattle
'
the vjfj|v^^ndeed sacrifices, being Tai. S. says that * and that the gods having been defeated were reduced to the condition of being the vaisyas or Visi of asuras'; 10
The
'
the vaiSya among men, cows among beasts, therefore they are to be enjoyed (to be eaten, to be subsisted upon ) by others; they were produced from the receptacle of food ; therefore they exceed
others in numbers*.
98.
101
The
Tai. Br. says
'the vaiSya class is
^srr?src
II
arrsror
*nr fihrr%
awf
V. 19. 3 and
8.
99.
sro^V.
100.
17.
H.
i
Mffifwt *?rg ^ft trsfr *5HOTnRi*.^.n. 3.7.1.
*r
II. 5. 10.2
101.
:il.?r.Vll. 1.1. 5
H. D. 6
42
Oh, II
said to have been born from rk verses, they declare the Yajurveda as the origin of the ksatriya, the Samaveda is indeed the ' 108 The same Brfthmana further says the source of brahmanas vi& go away from ( reside separately from ) the brahmanas
f
.
The Tandya Br. says 108 Hence the vaisya, though being eaten ( i. e. subsisted upon ) by others is not exhausted, since he was created from the prajanana ( from the sexual parts of Prajapati ) therefore he has numerous cattle, he has all the gods ( as his patrons ) and was produced with the
and ksatriyas
'.
;
'
JagatI metre, his season
is
the rains, therefore he is to be eaten
by the brahmana and the rajanya, since he was created as The Sat. Br. ( S. B. E. lower (than those two classes)'. He thus assigns to the Maruts a share vol. 26 p. 335 ) says therein after Indra, whereby he makes the people ( vi& ) subser04 vient and obedient to the nobility V According to the Ait. Br.
'
who is the food of others, who pays These passages show that vaidyas were entitled to sacrifice, reared cattle, were far more numerous than the other two classes, they had to bear the brunt of taxation, they lived apart from brahmanas and ksatriyas and were
35.
3 the vaisya is one
taxes to others.
obedient to them.
in the period
The system of the four varnas had taken such deep roots when the Brahmana works were composed, that
it
we
even
often meet with Vedic passages saying that to the gods, Agni and Brhaspati being the
extended
brahmanas
Yama being the ksatriyas; and Devas Visve Maruts being the vis, the Vasus, Rudras, 105 and Pusan being the sudra. the Similarly it is said
among gods;
Indra, Varuna, Soma,
*
brahmana
is really spring, the ksatriya are the rainy season.'
summer, and
the
vis
102.
jm
S. wr.
HI.
12. 9
*rcm$[
argwyr srersr f^sfa^rsrofHofh
ITT.
1. 6. 5.
103.
VI.
1.
10.
104.
I
5RHWT IV.
3. 3. 10.
Vide Maitr5ya9l Sam. I. 10. 13, âUpatha 14. 4. 2. 23-25 which ia the same aa Br. Up. I. 4. 11-13, Br. 9. 5 and Ait. K^feaki Br. (34. 5). Compare $nfcro$ 20d. 23-25 for Amtyas being kgatriyas, Maruts as Vai^yaa, Asrins ai
105.
Ch. II
Varna
various crafts in the Vedas
43
That there were other professions and crafts with specific in later times at lease became castes ) even in the times of the Samhitas is quite clear. The Rg. speaks of vaptS ( barber ) in X. 142.4, tasta ( a carpenter or maker of chariots ) in ftg. I. 61.4, VII. 32.20, IX. 112.1, X, 119.5; tvasta (a carpenter ) in VIII. 102.8; bhisak ( medicine man ) in IX. 112.1 and 3, karmara or karmara ( iron-smith ) in X. 72.2 and IX. 112.2, carmamna ( tanner ) in Rg. VIII. 5.38.
names ( which
The Atharvaveda mentions rathakSra ( III. 5.6 ), karmara and suta (III. 5.7). In the Tai. S. ( IV. 5.4.2 ) 106 mention is made of ksatr ( royal chamberlain or doorkeeper ), samgrahltr ( treasurer ), taksan ( carpenter ) and rathakara ( maker of chariots), kulala (potfcer), karmara, punjista (fowler), nisada, isukrfc ( maker of arrows ), dhanvakrt ( maker of bows ), mrgayu ( hunter ) and svani ( those who lead packs of hounds ). These also occur in the Vajasaneya-samhita 16. 26-28 and these and a few more in Vaj. 8. 30.5-13 and in Kathaka SamhitS 17.13. In the Tai. Br. ( III. 4.1 and the following anuvakas that deal
(III. 5.6)
with Purusamedha) we have ayogu, magadha (bard), suta, sailusa ( actor ), rebha, bblmala, rathakara, taksan, kaulala, karraara, manikara, vapa (sower or barber), isukara, dhanvakara, jyakara ( maker of bow-string ), rajjusarga, mrgayu, svani surakara (vintner), ayastapa (heater of iron or copper), kitava ( gambler ), bidalakara ( worker in wicker-work ), kantakakara. The Satapatha Br. XI, 8.1. speaks of kaulala-cakra ( the The Tai. Br. III. 8.5. mentions also rajaputra potter's wheel ). The Satapatha (S. B. E. Vol. 44 p. 397) speaks of Marutta ugra. This latter is a pratiloma Aviksita as an ayogava king. caste according to the dharmasutras ( vide below ). Whether
in
The
the
the Satapatha that word has the same sense is doubtful. ' ' Tai. S, I. 8.9.1-2 mentions among the ratnas ( the jewels )
sflta,
),
taxes
gramanl, ksatr, sarhgrahlfcr, bhagadugha ( collector of aksavapa ( superintendent of gambling ). Vide also Tai.
) it
Br.
1
the king's brother, the king's son, the purohita, the crowned queen, the Therefore it looks suta, the gramapl, ksatr and samgrahltr '.
viz.
In the Tandya Brahmana ( 19.1.4 brave persons hold up the kingdom eight
I.
7.3.
is
said that
likely
that ksatr
castes.
and samgrahltr were high

In
the Sat.
Br.
officers of state
and not
106.
XIII.
4. 1.
among
the
IV.
5. 4, 2,
44
Oh. II
*
guards of the horse lei; loose in the Advamedha there were a hundred sons of ksfitra-samgrahltrs carrying clubs As the word 'ksatra' is prefixed to * samgrahltr it follows that ' sarhgrabltrs were officers who may have belonged to any varna. In the same passage mention is made of a hundred In another guardians who were the sons of sutagramariis.
'.
' '
passage of the same brahmana (XIII. 2. 2, 18) the sutas and gramanls are said to be no kings and yet are rajakrt ( i, e.
107 This means probably that they are the king-makers). principal persons on whose support the king depends. The Sat. Br. V. 4. 4. 15-19 arranges brShmapa, king, king's brother, suta or sthapati, gramanl, sajftta in a descending scale of
powerfulness.
an important
So the suta appears to have been originally officer. It is hardly possible to say with assurance that all these had become petrified into castes in the modern sense, particularly when several persons associated with these in the Vaj. S. and elsewhere were not castes such as
the thief
(
taskara
)
),
;
the impotent
kllba
),
humpbacked
kubja
),
dwarf
vamana
but most
It
is
of
the avocations and crafts
referred to above
have corresponding castes and subcastes for

therefore possible to say that in the
hundreds of years.
times of
and Brahmanas these were groups founded on occupations that had become castes or were in The Tandya Br. speaks process of developing into castes. of Kiratas ( who were and are non- Aryan and were abori108 The Vaj. S. (30. 17) speaks of Paulkasa ginal tribes). in connection with blbbatsa ( nauseating filth ) and of candala with vayu ( wind ). The paulkasa ( in 30.21 ) in connection and candala occur in Tai. Br. (Ill- 4. 14 and III 4. 17
the Samhifcfis
(respectively).
In the Chandogya Up. ( V. 10.7 ) 10 the candala is ' Therefore even if one ranked with the dog and the boar. knowing thus were to give the leavings of his food to a cndala that would in his case be an offering made into the
107.
108.
TOT $
*T#tSTF3n*ft TTST^f: frciijm^:

13. 12. 5,
frrsr.
Vide ffFTO *T.
WW* XIII. 2. 2. 18. tf. 30. J6, 8TO^ X. 4.

I
14,
109.
I
n. V.
10. 7.
There were
strict rules
to another.
&p. Dh.
S. (I. 11. 31.
25-26
about giving one's ucchifta did not allow a brahman* to
give bis ucohi^ta to one not a brshmana, unless certain rather obnoxious things were done to it. Manu IV. 80 forbids the giving of ucohiâ to a 4odra (who ie not a dependant) while Manu X. 125 allows it to be given to a dudra who is a dependant.
Cfi. II ]
'
Forria
caridala
and others
45
Chandogya V. 24. 4. This shows that the candala was the lowest in the social scale. Just as a p&sya or vaideha, or the son of an ugra, after having made his bow
*
Self as Fire
strung &c.' Br. Up. III. 8.2. In the Br. Up. IV. 3.22 mention is made of both candala and paulkasa and in IV. 3.37 it is said 110 that just as when a king pays a visit, the ugras, pratyenasas ( thief catchers ), the sutas and headmen of the village make
'
arrangements for him with food and drink and with pavilions.' Here ugras seem to be a group of nobles subordinate to the king. In later literature ugra is the offspring of a ksatriya from a sudra woman ( Yaj. I. 91 ). In the Rg. 97. 12 the word
who is a mediator or arbitrator ( removes dispute ).' What ugra means here cannot be said with certainty. It may only mean a ' formidable chief or king.'
ugra occurs
destroy disease just as an ugra
Tai. Br.
'
You
The rathakara and nisada deserve a passing notice. The I. 1. 4 after stating that the brahmana should consecrate sacred fires in the spring, the ksatriya in summer, the vaisya in autumn, ordains that the rathakara should consecrate sacred fires in the rainy season. The question arises whether
is a member of the three higher castes who has taken in economic distress to the profession of making chariots or is a person belonging to a caste other than the three higher varnas. Jaimini in his Parvamlmansa-siltra ( VI. 1. 44-50 )
the rathakara
discusses this question and establishes 111 that the rathakara is a member of a caste other than the three higher varnas, that he
has on account of the express words in the iruti the privilege to consecrate sacred fires with vedic mantras, that the mantra for the consecration of rathakaras is rbhftnam tva (Tai. Br. 1. 1. 4) and that the rathakaras are the caste called Saudhanvana which of the three higher ones, but is is neither gftdra nor one
*
'
slightly inferior to the three higher varnas.
Viavariipa
n8
(on
Pnini VI. 2. 60 teaches the accent of the word X^JT^ when 110. compounded with ^rsf^. According to Baud. Dh. S. ( II. 2. 29 ) ugra it an anuloma caste sprung from a brahmana father and dudra wife. ...... 111. *r4Hi4*jchK<t4Jimto?tr tiiVUicqi^ tfi^îitu ^HWI**WIK VI. 1. 44 and 50.
'
112.
|
*rf".
t^fW^tvC
I.
W4 sfc K^*i
on
10.
The
^. II. 5.
6.
Vide
HR^M^HU
has w*p% aiiîm^MH 1. 1 for the same rule,

31 -^H in si
quoted in *tehlW*l*l
that thii
P-
399 which says
WOT* if
different.
46
Ch. II
1. 10) notices that in some smrfci the rathakara though not belonging to the three higher varnas, was allowed the privilege of upanayana, but adds that this dictum of the smrfci is due to mistake, it being misled by the fact that he is allowed the
privilege of
Sdhana
113
(
consecration of
sacred
fires
).
In
modern times the members of the carpenter caste in certain parts of the Deccan at least are in the habit of performing the upanayana and wearing the sacred thread.
an isti offered to Rudra a Vedio text says a nisadasthapati perform this isti.' The discusses the question Purvamlmansa sntra ( VI. 1. 51-52 )
With reference
to
one should make
who is himself a chieftain or a a member of the three higher varnas) of nisadas. The established conclusion is that the isti is to be performed by a nisada who is a chieftain though he be beyond the pale of the
whether this authorises a nisada
chieftain
(who
is
three varnas, as the Karmadharaya compound is the proper way of dissolving the compound and not the genitive Tatpurusa. The * Ait. Br. (37. 7) says 11S just as the nisSdas, or selagas (thieves) or
evil-doers seize a wealthy man in a forest and throwing him in a well run away with his wealth/ The Sahkhayana Br. ( 25. 15 )
allows one who had performed the Visvajit sacrifice ( in which everything is given away ) to stay in a settlement of nisSdas whose food is the lowest that he is allowed to take. The Katyall6 that the chieftain who yanasrauta-sutra ( 1. 1. 12-14 ) says
*
is
a nisada can
offer
cam
of
this offering is to be
made
in ordinary
)
Gavedhuka cc^n to Rudra, but fire ( and not in the fires

i.e.
consecrated with Vedic mantras
the permission to offer
perform Vedic consecration of fire ( ftdhana ). But according to Satyasadba I17 -kalpa III. 1 both the nisada and the rathakara are entitled to perform
isti
Raudra
does not entitle
him
to
Agnihotra and Dara-purnamftsa.
113.
WTO. *ft
114.
V.
3.
18; vide TO^TTinwfa
T. 1.
I
9-10 also.
VI.
1.
*%mffii3tyi4:
*<li*y*^Twfa^
*TT
I
j[<ivft.
51.
115.
TOT f ^T f^ H*nqi
9TCiTl^
?fttk
ftvwmq
7. 6
^%
WT. 37. 7.
The com. on Isv.

( 1 ).
Sr. (
Uttara-
IV.
116.
explains
$ra*rr:
as *rfaffaqraTT:
i
ftqrr^t
wri^ftWVna:
^n*?^^'
*iv*l*î
rfifiii
ift. 1. 1.
12-14.
HI.
1.
Ch. II
Varna
47
The AitareyaBrahraana 118 narrates that Vtevamitra cursed

sons, when they did not agree to his proposal to treat Sunahsepa ( Devarata ) as his son, that they would associate with the lowest castes and that they became the
his senior fifty
Andhras,
among
It is
Pundras, Sabaras, Pulindas and Mutibas who are the lowest of society and are mostly composed of dasyus,
probably owing to this legend that the Manusmrti ( X. 43-45 ) is prepared to regard the Paundrakas, the Odras, Dravi-
Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas, Paradas, Pahlavas, Clna, Daradas and Khasas as being originally ksatriya castes, but later on reduced to the position of sudras by the nonperformance of Vedio sarhskaras (like upanayana) and by the absence of contact with brahmanas. Manu further adds
das,
KirStas,
that the various castes that are outside the ( influence of the ) four varnas are all known as dasyus whether they speak the language of Mlecohas or of Aryas.
One very important question is whether the theory of the four varnas with their peculiar privileges and duties described in the dharmasutras and other smrfcis was merely a theory even
in the most ancient times.
Rgveda speaks
of
When the Purusasukta of the Brahmana, Rajanya, Vaisya and Sftdra or
when the Satapatha Brahmana expressly says that they are four varnas, it appears to me that they speak of facts existing in their times and nob merely of a theory which was to be striven
for as an ideal. Srnrfci writers try to place all their dicta in the frame-work of the varnas because the four varnas and their
duties and privileges had been more or less clearly defined in the times of the Vedas and Brahmanas, which according to the
authors of the smrfcis were
6ruti, eternal
and
infallible.
Tirey
tried to approximate the stafce of society existing in their times But to the varnas which they held were of hoary antiquity.
there
is
the authors
nothing to show that the same difficulties were felt by of the Vedic hymns and the Brahmanas. The
manner in which they refer to the privileges and disabilities of the several varnas have such a deep ring of actuality that one must concede that the varnas spoken of in them represented the
f.
33.6.
frg X, 43-45.
48
History of DharmaiGstra
Ch. II
real divisions of society at least to a very great extent, if not
cent percent.
The preceding discussion renders the following propositions

most probable
(1)
;
earliest times about which we have were only two varnas, the Sryas and their opponents the dasyus or dasas\ that the difference between the two was based on difference of colour and culture and was thus more or less racial and cultural
that in the
literary records there
that centuries before the samhifca period closed the dasyus had been conquered and were given a position subservient to the ftryas ;
(2)
(3)
that the sudras were the dasyus so subjugated and

;
made subservient
(4)
that the spirit of exclusiveness and pride of superiority existing among the Sryas with reference to dasyus soon extended to groups among the aryas themselves ;
(5)
that
(
by
the
time
of the
Brahmana
Literature,
brahman as
hood
),
men
supposed to be devoted to learning
and
priest-
ksatriyas ( kings, noblemen and some warriors ) and vaisyas ( the artisans and common people ) had become separated into groups more or less dependent on birth and that the
brahmana 18 had come by the fact of birth

;
to be regarded as superior to the ksatriya
that even such low castes as c^ndalas and paulkasas (6) had been evolved long before the end of the Vedic period
;
owing to cultural advance, division of labour arose and numerous arts and crafts had been developed and
(7)
that
they were in process of contributing to the complexity of the system by creating numerous sub-castes based upon occupations
;
(8)
that besides the four varnas intermediate castes like

;
the rathakftra had been evolved

(9)
that there were certain

to
non-Aryan
tribes
which
were supposed
later on.
have been originally ksatriyas but fallen
120.
That
this theory of four varnas
was well-known
to
Buddhist
literary works is shown by Fick chap. II. p. 17 ( the only difference being that in the Buddhist works the ksatriya is put first and the
brShmana after him
).
Ch. II
Varya: crafts in Vedic times
4(F
The
later
it is
close of the Vedic period is here taken as being not than about 1000 B. 0. How much earlier it may be placed
not possible to say.
and
The following is a list of persons engaged in professions which had probably become castes or were in the process of becoming castes, before the close of the Vedic period, as seen from the Vaj. S., Tai. S. and Tai. Br., Kathaka Sam. Br. ( III. 4. ), the Ait. ( 17. 13 ), the Atharva-veda, the Tandya The meaning of some of Br., the Chandogya and the Br. Up. the words is not quite clear and it is possible that some in the list were not at all castes or professions. They are arranged in the alphabetical order of Sanskrit (though transliterated). The meanings of most of them have been given above. Where the meaning is doubtful a question mark has been made.
crafts,
Ajapala
goatherd
Andhra
Ayastapa
Dasa Dhanuskara
or
Ayogu
or
Ayogu
Dhanvakara
or
AvipSla ( keeper of ewes )
Anda(?)
Isukara
Dhanvakrfc
Ugra
Kantakakara or KantakIkarl
(
Dhaivara Nisada
or in Vaj. S.
Naisada
Karmara
Kari ( dancer ?) Kitava
Kirata
Pumicalu
Punjisâ
or
Paunjistha
(
Klnaâ
cultivator
Pundra
Pulinda Paulkasa
Kulala or Kaulala Kevarta
KoSakSrl (blower of bellows) Bainda (catching fish in nets) Bhisak Ksatr Bhl mala ( fcimid ? ) Gopala
Carmamna
Candftla
Manikara
Magadha
( ? )
Jambhaka
Jyftkara
MargSra
Mufciba
Taksan
I,
Mrgayu
D. 7
50
History of DharmaiUslra
Oh. II
Main&la (catcher of
Eajayitrl
(
fish ?
Vidalakarl or BidalaVrafcya
dyer
Rajjusarga or-sarja
Sahara
Sabalya
Sailusa
(
Rathakara
Rajaputra
? )
Rebha
Svanin
or Svanita
Vamsanartin
Samgrahltr
Surakara
Vapa
barber )
VSnija
Vasah-palpull
(
)
Suta
a washer-
Selaga
woman
Several
Hiranyakara
the Christian era
there
centuries before
were
This follows not only from the dharmasutras but also from the ancient Buddhist works and from the meagre
several castes.
existing fragments of the work of Megasthenes on India. Though Megasthenes was confused in his statements about the caste system as prevalent in his day, some propositions are
clearly deducible therefrom.
He
states (pp.
40
ff) that the
whole
(4)
population
of
(1) philosophers, (2)
India was divided into seven castes, husbandmen, (3) neatherds and shepherds,
assessors.
artisans, (5) military, (6) overseers, (7) councillors Out of these 1 and 5 correspond to brahmanas
and and
to adhyaksas
ksatriyas, 2-3 to vaisyas, 4 to sudras ; 6th and 7th correspond and amatyas ( as in Kautilya's Arthasastra ) and
are not really castes but occupations. He probably regards them as castes because the offices of the adhyaksas and amatyas were generally hereditary or at least he gathered that they
were so. Megasthenes' further statement ( pp. 43-44 ) that no one is allowed to marry out of his own caste or to exercise any calling or art except his own* shows that the prevailing tendency was that caste had become exclusive and mostly occupational in his day, though there must have been exceptions of which he was not informed.
The ancient writers on dharma&astra strive very hard to account for the bewildering ramifications of the caste system from the four varnas that were spoken of in the sruti ( revelation ). There is unanimity on the theory that the numerous
castes actually found in the country arose from the unions of males of different varnas with women belonging to varnas
differing
from their own.
The divergences
and they are
Gh. II
Vartja and castes derived therefrom
51
many) among
The
srarti writers
the several srartikaras relate only to details. had before them the hoary theory of four
varnas vouched for by infallible Vedic authority, but they were at the same time quite cognisant of the realities in
society viz. the separate existence of numerous castes and sub-castes that had varying claims as regards social status and that were based in popular estimation on birth alone. Therefore,
the smrti view of the derivation of from the mixture or confusion (samkara)of the four varnas as purely hypothetical and imaginary, the criticism is true only partially. The smrtis were composed in different parts of India at different times and they were meant to supply a popular want, to guide the people and to reflect the
criticizes
when one
numerous
castes
prevailing state of society and popular feeling. Therefore, it must be admitted that the numerous castes mentioned in the smrtis did exist at the time of the srartis, that the social status
of the several castes or
might have varied from country
to
country
to epoch, that the peculiar avocations and means of livelihood assigned to the various castes reflected the real
from epoch
The element of hypothesis and speculation lies only in the theory of a particular sub-caste having sprung from the union of two persons belonging to two particular varnas or castes. 121 This description of the origin of the
state of things.
several castes
the accepted
was only indicative of the author's view or of view about the social status of those castes in
There
is
particular localities.
here, as a matter of fact, great
divergence of views
among
the several authors.
In the first place all writers on dharmasastra start with the propositions viz. (1) that the four varnas, brahmana, ksatriya, vaisya and siidra, are arranged in a descending scale of social
status
and ( 2 ) that marriage is or was permissible between a male of a higher varna with a woman of a lower varna, but the union of a woman of a higher varna with a male of varna lower than her own is reprehensible and not permitted. There is a third proposition advanced by many writers that a man belongs to a particular varna or jati by birth only i. e. if born in lawful wedlock of parents both of whom belong to that varna
;
'
121.
Sffntiparva
(297. 7-9) aays

ii
ôrffor W^THPUT:
srarr
$rf^[Kfa*i[*fsr
52
or
IM
jSti.
Oh, II
This is the view held by all medieval writers and and it is expressly said that a man belongs to a caete by birth and no actions of his can alter that fact, that several castes are like the species of animals and that caste attaches to the body and not to the soul (vide Sutasamhita ). When a male of a higher varna marries a woman of a lower varna, the marriage is said to be anuloma ( lit. with the hair, in the natural order ) and the offspring is said to be anuloma when there is a union of a woman of a higher varna with a male of a
digests
;
lower varna,
it is said to be pratiloma ( against the hair, i. e. or proper order ) and the children of the natural the against union are said to be pratiloma. These two words anuloma and
)
pratiloma ( as applied to marriage or progeny in the vedic literature. In the Br. Up. ( II.
1.
hardly ever occur 15 ) and KausI-
in note 89 above ) the word ( quoted to the applied procedure adopted by a br&hmana pratiloma From of going to a ksatriya for knowledge about brahman.
taki Br. Up. IV. 18

f
is
this
it may possibly be inferred that pratiloma and anuloma might have been employed with reference to marriages also Panini ( IV. 4. 28 ) teaches the ( in the days of the Upanisad ). formation of words from anuloma and pratiloma. They occur
in
Gautama (
(
IV. 14-15
),
),
Baud. Dh,
)
S.
I. 8.
),
Vasistha
18. 7
),
Manu
X. 13
Yaj. (I. 95
and other
is
smrfci works.
One important question
whether the theory of anuloma
or pratiloma castes presupposes a marriage or only a union of a man and a woman. The 5.p. Dh. S. ( outside marriage )
(
18? that a man must marry a virgin 3-4) lays down of his own varna with the rites prescribed by the iastras and only the son born of such a marriage is entitled to the privileges and occupation of his father, that sexual intercourse with a woman who has been married by another or on whom the proper ceremonies of marriage are not performed or who
II. 6. 13. 1,
122.
is
JT|.
X.
5, Ro^jfcnfe^T 16. 1
(
*TT. I.
90.
*
The mlrngnsaka position

:
stated
by
the qybmnfaf
on $.
I. 2. 1 )
q ^F3TTraR TOt
H"!pMJ
tiffin:
*
.
the
12
61-52
says
n
i
3Tft ?rm srrft

123.
grmwr quoted
*rsrrft
in snffcrqm.
1
p.
462.
'
tiîT^^n^T^HSdl^fr TIJ5 ipsgwj

oif?aft
^$j^
sftaz
^1^1 1?*nfat -H*W* V^^K $* v* a?nr. v.

t
^. II.
6. 13. 1, 3
and
4.
tin.
II
Varâ
anuloma and pratiloma
castes
53
belongs to another caste is condemned and that the son ( and not the daughter ) born of such an union is condemned (through the sin of the parents ). So Apastamba looked with disfavour
even on marriages called anuloma.
He
is
entirely silent about
anuloma and pratiloma castes. It is no doubt true that most ancient writers like Gautama ( IV. 1 ), Vasistha ( I. 24 ), Manu ( III. 12-13 ), Yaj. ( I. 55 and 57 ) prescribe that a person should by preference marry a girl of his own varna but also allow the
his
marriage of a person with a girl of another varna lower than own. Ysj, (I. 92 ) expressly says that the six anuloma
castes, murdhavasikta, ambastha, nisada, mahisya, ugra, and karana are so called only when they are the offspring of women married by men of higher varnas. Manu ( X. 41 )
says
(
that
the six anuloma castes are entitled to the rites
samskaras like upanayana ) performed for dvijas, but that the pratiloma castes are like sudras ( i. e. even when a pratiloma caste springs from a brahmana woman and a ksatriya or vaisya male they cannot have upanayana and other rites
of
dvijas
).
dvijas
performed 184 Kautilya
for
(
them,
)
though
both
parents
are
III. 7
also says that all
pratilomas
like sudras; Visnu says that they except cSndalas are are condemned by all Aryas. Devala 185 (quoted by ParaSaramadhavlya I. 2. p. 122 ) says that pratilomas are outside the pale of the system of varnas and are patita. The
the murdhavasikta and other
anuloma sons and those born of anuloma castes are dvijUtis and are entitled to samsk&ras as dvijatis. Commentators like Kullfika ( on Manu X. 11 ) say that, as no marriage is legally possible between a woman of a higher varna and a male of a lower
Smrtyarthasara
p.
13 says that
varna, all the pratilomas are born outside lawful wedlock. Gautama (IV. 20) says that all pratilomas are dhar?hahina which is interpreted by the Mit. on Yaj. Ill, 262 as meaning that
they cannot have upanayana and similar samskaras of dvijas performed for them, though they are amenable to the rules of morality and entitled to perform vratas &udpraya&cittas. Vasistha, BaudhSyana and several others do not make it clear whether,
when they speak

124.
of prafr7omas,they contemplate offspring of legal

^T
^sgtit|iHU?l 16. 3.
3JT* *lyiiir:
9?rfer*T
HI. 7
125.
^R5 quoted
I
in <m.
m.
I part
p. 122;
flWT jn^Rb'miiq<aiim'9U*'9 isiîcH: H
ftyfmUlK p.
W
it
tlistory of DharmaiUstra
Oh. II
marriages or only of illegitimate and adulterous unions. Bui will be seen from the list appended below that Usanas and
Vaikhsnasa almost always make a distinction between the offspring of the union of parents of different varnas, according as there is a marriage between the two or it is only a clandestine, illegitimate or adulterous union. 126 that when there is a marriage For example, Usanas says between a ksatriya male and a brShmana female, the offspring is called suta, while the offspring of a clandestine union between a brahmana woman and a ksatriya male was called rathakara. So these two authors held that there could be a legal marriage when a woman of a higher varna married a male of a lower varna. There were several other works like the Sutasamhita ( Sivamahatmyakhanda chap. 12. 12-48) where a similar distinction is made between the children of marriages and clandestine unions. The Mit. on Yaj, I. 90 says that such progeny as kunda and golaka ( Manu III, 174 ), kanlna, sahodhaja ( who are all not due to intercourse in wedlock ) are different from savarna? anuloma and pratiloma and are to be treated as sudras and that the ksetraja son is to be treated as in a different category (since niyoga is allowed by the smrtis and by the usage of sistas ) and belongs to the caste of his mother. Apararka ( on Yaj. I. 92 p. 118 ) does not accept this view and holds that even kanlna and sahodha may be held to be brahmanas ( if the begetter can be proved to have been a brahmana); while Visvarupa on Yaj. II. 133 says that kanlna and gudhaja must be deemed to belong to the mother's caste as the begetter may not be known and that sahodhaja ( II. 135 ) is also to be so treated. These several kinds of secondary sons will be treated under inheritance.
caste assigned to the
,
A few words must be said about the word jati, The idea of varna was as we have seen based originally on race, culture, cha. racter and profession. It takes account mainly of the moral and intellectual worth of man and is a system of classes which appears more or less natural. The ideal of varna even in the smrtis lays far more emphasis on duties, on a high standard of effort for the community or society rather than on the rights and privileges of birth. The system of jatis (castes) lays all emphasis on
126.
It
......
*1i$iu*jf
127.
Vide
Yaj.
Tf^nw*fr3;WTT: S^flf&T: T^TT^vv. 2-5. I. 95 which saya that pratilomaja* are

I
atat
(condemned )
tmsklrti.
and anulomajat are
sat
good
i.
e.
entitled to the
Oh. II
birth
Varna,
and jati
55
and heredity and tends
to create the mentality of clinging
to privileges without trying to fulfil the obligations correspond' ' ing to such privileges. The word jati in the sense of caste
1M hardly ever occurs in the vedic literature. In the Nirukta is said 'after it 13) (XII. agnicayana (the building of the fire altar), a man should not approach a rama (for sexual intercourse); rama is so called because she is
approached only for pleasure and not for ( accumulation of ) merit; she is of a dark casfce*. Here the word krsnajatlya occurs with reference to a woman of the sudra caste. Almost these 189 where for krsnavery words occur in Vasis^ha ( 18* 17-18 ) krsnavarna is substituted. Visvarupa on Yaj. jatlya the word
1S quotes these words as a brahmana ( yad-ucyate etc. ) but there the word is krsnavarnlya. Therefore, the use of the word jati in the sense of caste can be traced back at least to the times of the Nirukta. Panini (V. 4. 9 ) 1S1 teaches the formation of words like brahmanajatlya' derived from words
I.
56
text,
'
ending in 'jati' (in the sense of caste). The expression 'jatidharma* rules of castes ) occurs in Gautama XL 20, Vasistha I. 17 and XIX. 7, Manu 1. 118 and VIII. 41 and the word jati ( caste ) occurs also in Ap. Dh. S. II. 3. 6. 1, II. 1. 2. 3, Manu ( IV. 141, X. 11, 18, 40, 97 ), Yaj. ( I. 95, 361, II. 69, 206, III. 213), Narada Varna ( rnadana 288 ) and in the vartika on Panini IV. 1. 137. and jati are sometimes clearly distinguished as in Yaj II. 69 and 206. But very often they are confounded. In Manu X. 27, 31 the word varna is used in the sense of mixed castes Conversely the word jati often appears to be used tc (jatis). indicate 'varna'. Vide Manu III. 15, VIII. 177, IX. 86 and 335, X. 41 and Yaj. I 89 ( in which latter sajati appears to mean savarna ).
'
'
Even when anuloma marriages were allowed there is no unanimity among the sages and the smrfcis as to the status of the progeny of such unions. Three different views are found. The first view is that if a male of one varna married a female of the varna immediately after it, the progeny belonged to the varna
128.
3rc
<
XII. 13; the words

129.
.
ar,^ f%c?TT
i
...
farm;> occur in
*TT
*rrf$r
f%wrr TnTRjfa'TrC
ir^^Jif
fT*ri
wiAc
qna<KdQm 21. 7. T unfa

IR,
I.
17-18.
U gjWiquffar TOTT <*Wl*l<frt<ld fft *I4I I4T3:
I
130.
ft*^T on
56,
v.
4. 9.
56
of the father;
History of Dkarmafastra
188
Ob. IJ
a g. Baud. Dh. S. ( I 8. 6 and I. 9. 3 ) says that sons born to a person of a savarna wife or a wife of the varna next to his own are savarna i. e. the son of a br&hmana from a wife of the k?atriya varna is a br&hmana. The AnuSasanaparva 48. 4, Narada ( strlpurhsa 106 ) and Kautilya ( III. 7 ) say the same. Gautama IV. 15 as interpreted by Haradatta appears to say that the off-spring of a brahmana from a ksatriya wife is called savarna, but not the offspring of a ksatriya male from a vaisya wife or of a vaisya male from a Fick ( pp. 54-57 ) shows that even according Sddra wife. * the family of the mother does not to the Bhaddasala Jataka matter; the family of the father alone is important'. The second view is that the progeny of anuloma unions is in status lower than the father, but higher than the mother; e. g. Manu X. 6 sages declare the sons begotten by dvijas on wives of varnas immediately next to theirs as similar ( to the fathers, but not of the same varna with the fathers ) but tainted by the inferiority of their mothers.' The third view (and this is the common view) is that the progeny of anuloma marriages is of the same varna as regards its privileges and obligations as the mother's ; e. g. vide Visnu Dh. S. 16. 2 and Sankha ( prose ) quoted by the Mit. on Yaj I. 91 and Apararka (p. 118). A classical echo of this view is found 154 where king Dusyanta exclaims in the Sakuntala of Kalidasa aside to himself would that this girl were born of the sage Medhatithi on Manu X. 6 from a wife who was not savarna says that Pandu, Dhrtaras^ra and Vidura being ksetraja sons took the caste of their mothers. The Mit. explains the words of
'
'.
Sankha by saying
that the offspring of anuloma marriages such
as murdhavasikta are not really different from ksatriyas, that they have the same samskaras but they do not become ksatriyas
etc.
and are dubbed by these names to indicate their mixed origin and come to form separate sub-castes. The pratilomas^ as said above, are lower in status than any of the two parents.
132.
I. 8.
sffig
ijgrr:
<H4|uiM^cHI&
iwir:
and
I. 9. 3;
vrnH^citA
i^Mt**
5<Tiiic*m<f
Ti^ncSifî-nl "MÎ: ...... ^Ti. tar. ?iHc) 3T35TWT ^8. 4

I ;
106 )
m$4 QI$if3h<*fnM*titl''
133.
3J3c?fam$J JTTf^&rf:
f^roj
16.
'
2;
i
TJ in ftm. on
134.
*rr. I.
91.
Oht II
Varna and
the enumeration of castes
57
The ancient dharmasutras mention only a few mixed castes. S. mentions only candala, paulkasa and vaina. Gautama names five anuloma castes, six pratiloraa, one and eight others according to the view of some. Baudhayana adds to those mentioned by Gautama a few more viz. rathakaraj svapaka, vaina and kukkuta. Vasistha names even a smaller number than Gautama and Baudhayana. It is Manu ( X ) and Visnu Dh. S. ( XVI ) that for the first time dilate upon the avocations of the mixed castes. Manu refers to 6 anuloma, 6 pratiloma and 20 doubly mixed castes and states the avocations of about 23 Ysj. names only 13 castes (other than the four varnas). Usanas names about 40 and gives their peculiar avocations. All the smrbis taken together hardly mention more
Ap. Dh.
;
than about one hundred castes.

of primary anulotnas is only BIX ( vide Manu Yaj I. 91-92 ), but Manu names only three of them, viz. ambastha, nisada and ugra. The primary pratilomas also are six ( vide Manu X. 11-12 and 16-17 and Yaj. I. 93-94) viz.
The number
X.
10,
vaidehaka, cSndala, mSgadha, ksatr, and ayogava. Further sub-castes are said to arise from the unions of the anulomas and pratilomas with the four varnas and of the male of one anuloma and the female of another, from the union of pratilomas among themselves and from the union of a male or female of an anuloma caste and the female or mate of a pratiloma caste. For example, Yaj. I. 95 defines rathakara as the offspring of a mahisya male and a karana female, i. e. it is a further
suta,
mixture between two anuloma castes. The Mit. on Yaj, I. 95 says that upanayana and other samskaras are performed for the
offspring of
anuloma persons marrying among themselves. The

.
135 Similarly Manu X. 15 Smrtyarthasara ( p. 13 ) say s the same from the union of a brahmana says that avrta and abhlra spring with an ugra girl and an ambastha girl respectively ( i. e. from the union of a brahmana with anuloma caste girls ). Manu X. 19 says that svapaka is the offspring of a ksatr male ( a pratiloma ) with an ugra female ( an anuloma ). Manu X. 33 defines maifcreyaka as the offspring of a vaidehaka male and an A ftydfcava female (i.e. from parents who are both pratiloma).
135.
i
fferr.
on *n.
I.
95
*3fiNrfitem
trai
iijrf^(^wfT%grTft5ns^ fit^rm:
*^J*m p.
13*
H.D.8
58
[Ch. II
4
188 smrti verse quoted by Vi6varQpa on Y&j. I. 95 says that there u 24 are six an lorn as, doubly, mixed castes ( due to the union of the six anulomas with the four varnas ), 6 pratilomas and 24
doubly mixed castes ( due to the unions of 6 pratilomas with four varnas) i. e. in all 60 and further mixtures of these among themselves give rise to innumerable sub-castes. says that the further mixed Similarly Visnu Dh. S. 16. 7 castes arising from the unions of mixed castes are numberless. This shows that before the time of the Visnudharmasutra ( i. e. at least about 2000 years ago ) numberless castes and sub-castes had been formed and the writers on dharma^Sstra practically gave up in despair the task of deriving them, even though mediately, from the primary varnas. The same state of things was continued and was rather aggravated by the time of the
rdbandhakdras.
Medhatithi on
Manu X.
31 speaks of 60 mixed
castes along with the four varnas and adds that by the interThe mingling of these endless sub castes are formed.
Mitfiksara 158 on Yaj. I. 95 observes that since the castes springing from the double intermingling of varnas are innumerable, it is impossible to describe or enumerate them. Similarly the
prakirnaka topic of vyavahara secWon, merely quotes several passages from the smrtis and does not add a word of its own about the castes,
its
Krtyakalpataru in
when dealing with

names
).
castes,
their
or
avocations
in
12th century
The Mit. on Yaj.
the avocations of the pratilomas ( should be understood from the smrtis of
own day ( first half of 94 189 expressly says that about which Yaj. is silent )
its
I.
USanas and Manu.
Medieval
ment
writers on dharmaâstra usually ignore the treatin detail of the numerous sub-castes and content themselves
with dilating upon the duties of the four varnas.
There was great diversity of opinion among the smrtikaras about the derivation and status of the several subfind that the same sub-caste is known under five or castes.
We
six different
names even so early as the present Manusmrti.
136.
n??fcrr H
mid
quoted by
faTOT on
*rr. I.
95.
It is
quoted also by
;
qrTT.
*TT
I.
part 2 p. 126 and both say that these are tnmvrnffs further samkaras are
137.
ti cmti cnJi
the
m. *r
says that
*gW<^
<4 [:
{ttajgWH^Sf 16. 7.
i
138.
*t^^^^sjfitfHiui*i' **Tis7n+^flNwuri
s
139.
iifort *r
JFNT sfopffr *i*r
^ WT>
ftm* on
irr. I.
94.
Oh. II
Vanja and
sub-castes
50
Manu X.
X, 23 gives
There
is
22 gives seven names for the same caste and Manu five for another. Visivarupa on Yftj. I. 92 explains
that these different
names
are due to difference of locality.
140
another difficulty. The same name given to a caste is differently derived by different writers ( vide under nisada and
pftra&ava below ). For the same sub-caste different names are given in different smrtis (vide under krfca and ramaka). It
became difficult to assign any peculiar derivation for groups of 141 people and so Manu (X. 40), Vasistha ( 18.7 ) and AnusSsanaparva 148. 29 laid down that men's sub-caste was to be known
from their actions and occupations. This shows that according to most writers castes in the times of the smrtis were
predominantly occupational.
One word
castes
that
frequently
occurs
in
connection
with
and sub-castes is varnasamJcara ( or only samkara ). In Manu 12 and 24 the word varnasarhkara is used in the plural in the sense of mixed castes, while in Manu X. 40 word samkara seems to be used in the ( and in V. 89 ) the
sense of 'mixture or
(
intermingling
of
varnas'.
*
Gautama
on the two employs the word samkara and says ( the brahmana and the king ) depends the prosperity ( of men ), protection, the prevention of mixture ( of varnas ) and the UB of ) merit ( or the observance of dharma ). ( accumulation u3 Narada ( strlpumsa 102 ) says to be born from a union in 9 the inverse order of varnas amounts to wrriasamkara; while
VIII. 3
)
'
Brhaspati quoted in the Krtyakalpataru appears to apply the word varnasamkara to both anuloma and pratiloma castes. Baud. 144 Dh. S. (I. 9. 16) says that those who are born of
140.
.
3J5f
I
tr^
^J?fcTC
qfc tMmît *f i^^n^t^\ Ttfî *f IM

[
T $T: tHK^Trft*^* <VIH

I.
^^^^RW^r
part 2 p. 120
(
I.
92-93
vide also qTT5lT*TTO*frr
141.
u7cM
I
Ml^R^ 142. JTÔTTO^^tiift.

143.
VIII. 3.
i
wfitefrfer ^rspiT fr
^ft
*ro?*fajT:
m^f
ftsw 102
)
)
Wffât
in ^^^^hcr'Ad^
144.
( ni? )
^*^CT
?rSr?
Brr?Tnrr|T?"?Vfirar:
^t. v.
I. 9. 16.
$8
History Of Dharmaiastra
Cfa.
II
varnasamkara are called vratyas. The Mifc. on Y&j I. 96 applies the word yarnasamkara to both anuloma and pratiloma progeny. 145 on Manu V. 88 says that the word saihkarajata' Medhafcithi indicates pratilomas like ayogava and that even though as regards anulomas there is intermingling ( of varnas ), yet as they have the privileges of the caste of their mothers, even Manu himself does not apply the word samklrâyoni to them as 146 seen above ( Manu X, 25 ). Yama quoted in the Krtyakalpataru says Varnasamkara arises by the violation of the res*
' '
about marriage ) ; if the proper order of varnas ( i. e. varna marrying a woman of a lower varna) is the followed, ( offspring) is entitled to be regarded as belonging
trictions
(
male
of higher
system of varnas, but if the reverse order is followed it is Manu ( X. 24 ) says mixed castes arise by members of one varna having sexual intercourse with women of another varna, by marrying women who ought not to have been married of the duties peculiar to ( such as a sagotra girl ) and by neglect The Anuâsanaparva 48. I 147 remarks that one's varna * varnasamkara arises from wealth, greed, desires, uncertainty about the varna ( of a person ) or ignorance about varna '. Even in such a philosophical treatise as the Bhagavad-gltS * when women become corrupt ( or demo( I. 41-43 ), it is said samkara necessarily ralised ), intermingling of varnas arises leads the whole family and the destroyer of the family to hell.
to the
*
'
sin.
'.
By
reason of these transgressions of the destroyers of families
which bring about varnasamkara, the ancient caste observances and family observances are subverted.'
On
of varnasamkara the smrtis ordain that
account of the great emphasis laid on the prevention it is one of the principal
duties of the king to punish people if they transgress the rules prescribed for varnas and to punish men and women if guilty
of varijasamkara.
protect the varnas
the king should and asramas according to the Sastras and he should make them conform to their duties when they swerve
( )
Gautama
XI. 9-10
'
says
frno on
*rg.
V. 88.
146.
T
quoted in MS. of
147.
8, 1,
Oh.
Varqa and varnasamkara

'
61
from them ;
to all
Vasisfta
these viz. the
families should
make
the king paying attention observances of countries, castes and the four varnas conform to their duties
(
19.
7-8
'
and should punish them when they go astray Visnu Dh. S. III. 3 and Yaj. I. 361, Markandeyapuarna 27, Matsyapurana 215. 63 say the same. Narada ( strlpumsa 113 ) 148 says
;
'
'
when a brfihmana woman goes astray a candala is born from a dudra male ( and the brahmana woman ) therefore the king should specially protect women from sarhkara '. It is on
;
account of this that so early as in the

Christian era
vol.
first centuries of the that king Vasithlputa Siri Pujumayi is extolled as having prevented the mixture of the four varnas ( E.
we
see
VIII pp. 60-61, vinivatitacatuvana-sakarasa ).' That varnasamkara had gone too far in the opinion of the author of the Mahabharata ( Vanaparva 180. 31-33 ) follows from the following words which are despairingly put in the mouth of
I.
'
Yudbisthira
of all
l49
"It appears to
all
ascertain the caste of
varnas
me that it is very difficult to human beings on account of the confusion sorts of men are always begetting offspring
speech, sexual intercourse, being born to all human beings and there is
; *
from
all sorts of
women;
and death-these are common
scriptural authority ( for this view ) in the words ever we are, offer the sacrifice '. Hence those who
We, whohave seen

desired."
the
truth regard character as the principal thing
Samkaracarya in his bhasya on Vedantasutra I. 3. 33 remarks that, though in his day varnas and asramas had become disorganised and unstable as to their dharmas, that was not the
case in other ages, since otherwise the sastras laying down regulations for them would have to be deemed purposeless
or futile.
180
Gautama ( IV. 18-19 ), Manu ( X. 64-65 ) and Yaj. ( I. 96 ) speak of a peculiar doctrine called Jafyutkarsa and Jatyapakarsa. These passages have given rise to some divergence of interpreta148.
^riuîcjY
*\m3 y#i^
113
;
*T3P*ft
TO
(
vide also STR^T

i
vftfa
2-6
).
149.
srrr^* *Tfurf
irg*^ *w**&
'
^farcrwhnJTRt
fwr^te^
II
fc
II
*f&
Pd
I
^T^T TTT:
^rSjTSJ'nwt
^1T H^f
^ ^TH ^"Tn^
^TT^
^tf^l^
cRJTT^lft^ JTOTÎJ
fS^cft^flR;
18C. 31-33.
150.
1.
3 33*
62
Oh, II
1SI
)
lion, but their general sense is clear.
Gautama
IV. 18
says that according to the acSryas the anulomas when they in such a way that the bridegroom in each stage is higher or lower than the bride they rise to a higher or go down to a lower varna in the 7th or 5th generation ( respectively ). This is
marry
When a brahmana marries explained by Haradatta as follows a ksatriya woman the daughter born of this marriage is called
:
if this latter is married to a brahmana and a daughter born and this latter is again married by a brahmana and if this continues in the same way for seven generations, then when the 7th girl in descent marries a brahmana, whatever child is
savarna
is
born of that union belongs to the brahmana varna (though in the preceding generations only the fathers were brahmanas and the mothers were all not strictly brahmanas, but only savarnas if at all ). This is called jatijutkarsa (rise in status as a caste). On the other hand, when a brahraana marries a ksatriya girl and a son is born who is called savarna, then that son marries a ksatriya girl and has a son and this is continued fox five generations^ then when the fifth son ( in descent ) marries a ksatriya girl, the child born belongs to the ksafcriya varna ( though in all the preceding generations the father was higher than ksatriya and the mother only was a ksatriya ). This is jatyapakarsa ( fall in status as a The same rule holds good as regards a ksatriya caste ). marrying a vaisya female and a vaisya marrying a sudra
female.
e.
The
if
same
(
g,
a savarna
rule applies as defined by
girl and a daughter is savarna and this continues for seven generations, then the child of the 7th girl ( in descent ) from a savarna male becomes a savarna ( rises in status ) on the other hand if a
ambastha
among anulomas also Gautama ) marries an born who again marries
brahmana male and ksatriya female ) marries an ambastha girl and a son is born and that son marries an ambastha girl and their son marries an ambastha girl and this goes on for seven generations, then the child of
savarna
(
offspring of
151.
IV. 18-19.
differently
i.
In S. B. E. vol.
e.
II. pp.
196-197 the sutras are arranged

'
the
first
ends
another sUtra.
Though
this
and pancame...ry3h method makes a good sense it is opposed

at
'
saptame
is
to
the explanation of Haradatta, who explains that the option allowed by 7 the use of * v5 in the sUtra applies only where there is pre-eminence
of character and learning (i. e. in such the 5th generation ).
a case rise IB possible
oven in
Ch, II
arya and jatyutkafsa

3nt
( i. e.
)
63
the 7th ma]
born of an ambastha wife becomes
an ambas^ha
there is jatyapakarsa as to
158
anulomas
).
X. 64 when a brahmana marries a According to Manu sudra woman, the daughter born is parasava, and if this parasava daughter marries a brahmana and the daughter of
this latter
union marries a brahmana and this continues for seven generations, then the seventh generation will be a brahmana ( i. e. there will be jatyutkarsa ). Conversely, if a brahmana marries a sudra woman and a son is born, he is a parasava and that son marries a sudra woman and their son again marries a sudra woman and this goes on for 7 generations, the 7th generation becomes a mere fiudra ( there is
jatyapakarsa
jafcyapakarsa
).
It will
be seen that this differs from

first
Gautama
and
in several respects.
In the
place for both jatyutkarsa

are
while in prescribed, Gautama they are 7 and 5 respectively (according to Haradatta). In the second place according to Gautama the 8th in descent seven
generations
from the
first anuloma marriage secures jatyutkarsa, while according to Manu, the 7th secures it. Further Manu is silent about jatyutkarsa when the original parents are anulomas. Be&jdes, the commentators of Manu shorten the period for rise or fall in jati as stated below. Manu X. 65 extends the same rules to the offspring of the marriage of a ksatriya with a vaisya woman and of a vaisya with a sudra woman. Medh&tithi
and Kulluka extend these express words of Manu further by explaining that if a brahmana marries a vaisya female and a daughter is born and she again marries a brahraana then in
the fifth generation there will be jatyutkarsa
son
is
conversely if a born from a brahmana and a vaisya wife, and he marries

;
* '
The wcr-d yuga is understood by MedhStithi (on Manu X. 64) 152. and Kullnka to mean 'janma'; Sarvajna-nSra"yana understands it to mean yugma '( pair of spouses ). The meaning (yuginaj is attached ' to yuga by AparSrka on Yaj. I. 96 ( p. 119 ). In the S. B. E. vol. II
*
'
II. 5.10. 10-11 with Gautama p. 196 Dr. Btihler compares Ap. Dh. S. IV. 22. But the'great scholar is not accurate here. Ap. does not speak of progeny of mixed marriages rising to higher status or being degraded he rather speaks of a to lower status after several generations
;
f&dra
In the higher and higher in successive births. Anut&sanaparva (chap. 27. 5-6, 28. 6-13) it is said that after numberless births dudras and others become vaidyas and so on. Vanaparva ( 212. 11-12 ) gives expression to the same idea
rising
-
u-12
&4
Mistary of junarmamstra
un. II
a vateya female and this goes on, then in the fifth generation be a vaisya ( i. e. there will be jatyapakarsa ) Similarly if a brahman a marries a ksatriya woman then there
the son will
is jatyufckarsa
or jatyapakarsa in three generations.

(
152 ) speaks of two kinds of jatyutkarsa one due to marriage ( as in Manu and Gautama ) and another due to the avocation followed. It should be understood that there is rise in caste in the ?th or even in the 5th generation if there is inversion as to the avocations, then there is corresponding similarity (of varna in the 7th or even 5th generation ).' This is elaborated by the MitaksarS as follows If a brahmana marries a sudra woman and a daughter is born she if this latter marries a brahmana and a daughter is is a nisadl born and she in turn marries a brahmana and this goes on for six generations, then the child of the 6th girl (in descent ) becomes a brahmana ( he being 7th in descent ) similarly if a brahmana
Yajnavalkya
96
or jatyapakarsa viz.
'
marries a vaisya woman and a girl is born, she is an ambastha ; if the latter marries a brahmana and a daughter is born and this goes on in the same way, then the fifth girl in descent has a
child ( from a brahmana husband ) which is the 6tb in descent from the original anuloma marriage and which then becomes a brahmana. If a brahmana marries a ksatriya woman and a daughter is born who is called murdhavasiktS ( Yaj. I. 91 ) and she marries a brahmana, then the fourth in descent marrying a brahmana has a child (5th in descent), then that child becomes a brahmana. Similarly, if a ksatriya married a Sudra female and a daughter was born, she was called ugra, then jatyutkarsa by marrying a higher male took place in the 6th generation. If a ksatriya married a vaisya woman, the daughter born was a mahisya and jatyutkarsa took place in the 5th generation. If a vai&ya married a sudra woman, the daughter of the marriage is a karanl and if she marries a vaisya, then in the fifth Certain peculiar generation there would be jatyutkarsa. avocations and activities are prescribed for the four varnas. Each varna may in times of difficulty follow the occupation peculiar to the caste immediately below it, but should not he must follow the avocations peculiar to the higher varnas however revert to his proper avocation when the difficulty is
153.
.
I. 96.
154.
,
areftwi
22-23.
^n^rt^^f^
*r4farff
gRimftSvi
g>
Oh. II
Varna and jatyapakarsa

II.
65
over (vide Vasistha
13-23, Visnu Dh. S.

If
II. 15, Yftj. 1.
118-120,
a brShmana begins to follow the avocations peculiar to a sudra and has a son, who does the same and this goes on continuously for seven generations, the 7th becomes a sudra ( by caste ). If a br&hmana begins to follow the avocations peculiar to a vaisya or a ksatriya then in the
1-7 &c.). 5th or 6th generation respectively there is fall in caste ( i. e. the 5th or 6th becomes respectively a vaisya or ksatriya ). Similarly if a ksatriya follows the avocation of a vaisya or sudra and
this goes on continuously, then the 5th or 6th ( respectively ) becomes a sudra or vaisya. Similarly if a vaisya takes to the work peculiar to sudras, then the fifth generation becomes sudra.
Gautama X.
jstyutkarsa.
of ( I. 8. 13-14 ) gives another illustration says if a nisada ( fche son of a br&hmana from a sudra wife ) marries a nisadl ( and this goes on continuously ), then the fifth generation becomes free of the taint of a sudra status, he can have upanayana performed for
S.
Baud.
155
Dh.
He
'
him and his son ( 6th from the original nisada pair vedic sacrifice performed for him.'
the casfce system based purely
can have a
These provisions would considerably lessen the rigour of on birth. But one feels grave doubts whether such a method of jatyutkarsa or jfttyapakarsa ( particularly the one based on occupation ) was or could be ever enforced in actual life. It would have been impossible to remember descent in a particular way for five or seven generations. The want of unanimity among the original 6mrtikras and the commentators also points in the direction that the method advocated, though it might have originally some slight basis in fact, was only a hypothesis and an ideal. Hardly any
examples of j&tyutkarsa in the way set out by Manu or Yaj. occur in the literature on dharma-sastra or in inscriptions. In ""the inscriptions we have authentic cases of intercaste marriages 158 From the Talgupda only, but hardly anything further
.
king Kakusthavarman of the Kadamba family we learn that the Kadambas were originally of brahmana lineage, that the founder of the family was a brahmana
pillar inscription of
155.
A %
*.
156.
I. 8.
13-14.
Vide my paper published in the Jour Dal portion of 38 Bombay Law Reporter on * Inter-caste marriages in modern India, in the smrtis and epigraphic records/ where several instances of inter-caste marriages
are cited.
H. D. 9
66
History of Dtiarmasastra
Oh. II
Mayurasarman, who became exasperated with the Pallavas of Kanclpura and took up the sword to conquer the earth, that his
descendants applied the affix varman to their names ( as if they were ksatriyas, according to Manu II. 32 ) and Kakusthavarman ( 4th in descent from Mayura&arman ) married his 187 This shows that an daughters to Gupta and other kings
.
*
brahmana family came to look upon itself as ksatriya by virtue of pursuing the profession of arms and
originally
governing the people. In the Mahabharata we meet with stories For example, Anusasana of kings who became brahmanas. 30 speaks of Vlfcahavya, a king, as having become a brahmana similarly Salya ( 39. 36-37 ) speaks of Arstisena, Sindhudvlpa, Devapi and Visvamitra as having become brahmanas at a sacred spot on the Sarasvatl. In the Puranas also there are
;
of kings like Visvamitra, Mandhata, Samkrti, Kapi, Vadhryasva, Purukutsa, Arstisena, Ajamldha and others as having risen to the status of brahmanas. These are mythical sages and their rise is not stated to have been duo to the prin159 Ibbetson ( Report on the census of the ciple of jatyutkarsa
stories
.
158
Punjab 1881,
certain
pp.
174-176
notes that
professions
became degraded
brahmanas following and that the caste
was changed.
That the professional castes were wealthy and well organized follows from the dharmas&stra works and epigraphic records. In this connection the words sreni, puga> gana, vrta and sangha deserve to be carefully studied. All these were called samuha (group) or varga according to Katyayana. 160 These
157.
158.
E.
I.
vol.
p. 24.
(
Vide VSyupurffna
B.
I.
Ed.
) vol. II
chap. 29. 111-114.

I.
159.
P-
Compare
the following lucid note of the <m$TOTO3fa
part 2
122 <=t**Wiiti<imit.*
!TT ^f
quoted in f^riN.
(
on nr*.
p. 18
),
f^. f. p. 669.
Oh. II
Varna
caste
and
other guilds
67
words occur in the Vedlo literature, but the sense is generally a group and there is no special meaning attached, '&reni'
'
occurs in the Rg. 1. 163. 10 lel ( like flamingoes the horses press forward in rows or groups ) ; both vrata and garia occur in Rg.
III. 26. 6, V. 53. 11 and in numerous other places. The KausItaki Br. 16. 7 168 speaks of Rudra as piiga (as he is the head of the band of Maruts ). Ap. Dh. S. I 1. 3. 26 18 * quotes a BrSh-
mana
passage about a group ( sangha ) of brahmacSrins going about for alms. Panini teaches 164 the formation of derivatives from puga, gana, sangha ( V. 2. 52 ), from vrata ( V. 2. 21 ). In his time it appears the words had acquired specific meanings. The Mahabhasya explains ( on Panini V, 2. 21 ) that vratas are groups formed by men of various castes with no fixed means of livelihood but subsisting by the might (or strength) of
their
The bodies (by bodily labour of various kinds). Kasika 165 explains pugas as associations of men of different castes with no fixed professions, who are solely bent on making
money
or seeking pleasure. Kautilya in one place distinguishes
( guilds ) and in another place says that the guilds of ksatriyas in Kambhoja and Sur&s^ra subsist 166 Vas. Dh. by the profession of arras and vartS ( agriculture ).
between soldiers and srenis
XVI. 15 says that boundary disputes are to be settled by the evidence of the old men in the village or town or of guilds Visnu ( sreni ) when there is conflict of documentary evidence. Dh. S. V. 167 prescribes banishment for him who embezzles
S.
the wealth of associations
gana
and who transgresses the
conventions made by them. Manu ( VIII. 219 ) has a similar The rule about village and local associations (sangha). above words are variously explained by the several common161.
^n %* w*r$?T[ *TcT5% ^rfsr^ft^TJrwwc

îft
162.
^
i
163.
ef^TTf
g*N a%5T w ^ arsramfc^

i
^
^.
37. 1. 163. 10.

r.
flTTtnrft
rfhff
16. 7.
*3K*$
^nftft ft msrorac
164.
en.
srir. tr.
i
1. 1. 3. 26.
arfo-
sffafifr
qrr.
V.
2.
21
V.
2. 52.
165.
sfnnftm
trrate:
f^rcTfTf^fsfemJTm^r;
166.
^T*n^ vol. II. p. 374 ( on n. V. 2. 21 ) fr^c $TT: ^^m on n. V. 2. 21.

i
*TTTT-
3*T3wrenr: sWfarft^n'ft *i*w?.

i i
arS^rm VII.
1. p.
siww XI.
378
16.
68
tators
(
History of DharmaiUstra
vide
Oh. II
187
Katyayana verses 678-682 of that reconstructed srarti). Katyayana says 'Naigarna is an association of citizens of the same city, vrata is a company of soldiers carrying various arms, puga is an association of traders and the like, gana is a group of brahmanas, sahgha is a body of Bauddhaa or Jainas and bands of oandalas and
;
my
notes to the translation of
vapacas are called
gulma.'
Yaj.
( I.
361
directs the king to
they transgress their rules punish kulas, castes, drenis, ganas, and the or Hit. conduct business) explains dreni ats a (of guild of sellers of betel leaves and the like and gana as of
if
168 'helabukas'( horse-dealers); while Yaj. II. 192 and Narada to the the king 2) require prevent ( samayasyanapakarma breach of the conventions of 6reni, naigama, puga, vrata, gana and to confirm them in their traditional occupations. Yaj. II 30 says that pugas and srenis had authority to investigate dis putes and that the puga was a higher tribunal than the dreni. The Mit. on this explains that puga is an association of people of diffe-* rent castes and different occupations that stay in one locality,
-
while a dreni
is
a group of people of different castes, that subsist

*
'
by
(
hedabukas tambuthe occupation of one caste and gives ' * * f likas ( betel sellers ), kuvindas ( weavers ) and carmakaras
'
'
shoe-makers
as examples of srenis.
In the Htrsa stone of

'
Chahamana Vigraharaja ( E. I. vol. II p. 124 ) there is a reference to one dramma for each horse given to hedavikas.' In the Nasik Inscription No. 15 ( E. I. vol. VIII p. 88 ) we are told
that in the reign of the Abhlra king Isvarasena 1000 karsapanas were deposited with an association of potters as a permanent
donation yielding interest, 500 with a guild of oilmen and 2000 with a guild of watermen ( udaka-yantra-sreni ) for medicines to
be given to sick bhiksus. No. 9 and No. 12 of the inscriptions at Nasik also contain reference to deposits of money with the
guild of weavers. The Mathura Brahml inscription of Huviska's reign mentions a guild of flour-makers ( samitakara, vide E. I. The Junnar Buddhist cave Inscription vol. 21 p. 55 at p. 61 ).
(
A. S. W. I. vol. IV p. 97 ) refers to an investment of monies with the guild ( Sreni ) of bamboo- workers and of braziers
kasakara ). The Indore copperplate of Skandagupta ( of the Qupta samvat 146 ) speaks of the deposit with the guilds of the
(
167.
VWfoffcpr
168.
These versea are quoted in the re. ) P. 426., TO. Hi- ( on
Hî<(Wi^<
p.
pp. 618-669,
352 Ac.
qrrav3^mftftmiwn
Ch. II
Varna and guilds
6fr
oilmen of Indrapura for permanently securing a supply of two polos of oil ( 0. 1. 1. vol. Ill p. 70 ). Similarly it is said that a guild of silk weavers from Lata ( southern Gujerat ) came to Dasapura ( Dasor in Malwa ) and built a temple of the sun in the Malava year 494 i. e. 437-38 A. D. ( 0. 1. I. vol. Ill p. 81 =
These examples show that about the first I. A. vol. 15 p. 194 ). centuries of the Christian era such castes as woodworkers,
oilmen, betel sellers and weavers that are at present very low in the hierarchy of castes had very efficient caste guilds, so
their organization, integrity and stability that people deposited with them thousands for permanent services to objects 169 of charity.
famous for
shall now append a list of several castes enumerated or mentioned in smrfci and other dharmasastra works from
We
They are not given
about 500 B. C. to 1000 A. D. in alphabetical ( Sanskrit) order, in a tabular form owing to numerous contradictory statements in the smrtis themselves. References are given only to a few smrfcis, the principal ones drawn upon
being the Dharmasufcras, Manu, Yaj,, Vaik. smarta-sufcra X. 11-15, Usanas, the Sutasamhita ( Siva-mShatmya-khanda
chap. 12 ). It is hoped that the list is fairly exhaustive for the It will be noticed that many of the caste names smrti period. collected here still occur under the same forms or under
slightly modified forms of the names.
Andhra,
Vide above note 118 quoting the Ait. Br.
Manu
X. 36 says it was a low subcaste sprung from Vaidehaka fathei and Karavara mother and that Andhras were to live outside the village and to subsist ( X. 48 ) by killing wild beasts. In the edicts of Asoka the Andhras are associated with Pulindas ( vide Rock Edict No. 13 ). The Udyogaparva ( 160. 103 ) mentions Andhras ( probably as people of Andhradesa ) along witb Dravidas and Kaficyas. In the Nalanda plate of Devapaladevs are spoken ( E. I. vol. 17 p. 321 ) meda, andhraka and candala
of as the lowest castes.
In Orissa one scheduled caste

).
is
noted
as Adi-Andhra
vide Sen, 0. O. 1936
Anlya. According to Vas. Dh. S. 16.30, Manu IV. 79, VIII. 68, Yaj. 1. 148, 197, Atri 251, Likhita 92, verse Apastamba ( III. 1 ) this word is a generic appellation for all lowest castei
* Local Government in Ancient India by Dr. Radba and kumud Mukerji pp. 29-34, 44 for pBga, dreni, gana aangha. Unfoi as printed ) are wrong and not in point tunately some of the references (
169
Vide
70
like the candala.
Oh. Il
Vide the chapter on 'untouchables'. The bahya has the same sense. Ap. Dh. S. I. 3. 9. 18 says that there is a cessation of Vedic study on the day on which bahya senter a village; vide also Nftrada (rnadJna 155), Visnu Dh. S. 16.14.
word
'
'
Antyaja. This word is applied to all lowest castes like the candala ,in Manu IV. 61, Visnu Dh. S. 36.7, Yaj. I. 273, Brhad-
In Manu VIII. 279 Various enumerations of the subdivisions of antyajas are found in the smrtis. Atri 199 enumerates 170 seven antyajas viz* rajaka ( washerman ), carmakSra ( worker in hides ), nata ( dancer caste, represented in the Deccan by Kdhatis ), burada ( worker in bamboos ), kaivarta ( fisherman ), meda, bhilla. This verse is quoted as Apastamba's by the Mit. on Yaj. III. 265, while Aparftrka p. 1123 ascribes it to Atri. The Mit. on Ysj. III. 260 distinguishes between two groups of antyajas, viz. the one quoted above which it says is not so low as another group of seven, which are
yama
the
word
quoted in Mit. on Yaj. is used in the sense of
III.
'
260 sudra
).
'.
called antyavasayins? 11
flesh
),
viz.
candala, dvapaoa
eater of dog
vaidehika, magadha and ayogava. In the Mahabharata ( Santi 101. 19 ) reference is made to antyaja soldiers and Nllakantha explains that they were the kaivartas and bhillas of the border regions. According to the Sarasvatlvilasa (p. 74) Pitatnaha speaks of the seven castes of rajaka and
ksatr, suta,
Is ifc possible that the Prakrta languages others as prakrtis were originally so called because they were spoken by these
castes called prakrtis ? II dated Sake 922 ( E.
I.
In the Sangamner plate of Bhillama vol. II. p. 220 ) a village is granted
with eighteen prakrtis

of
p.
washermen and
others
meaning probably the eighteen guilds The Vlramitrodaya ( vyavahSra ).
12 ) explains that srenis mean the eighteen low castes such as the rajaka. This shows that these low castes had risen in social status in the medieval ages by their organization and
170. 199,
T3T^wf?TW
3?f|f^( Jiv.
^ 3^3
554
tpr
),
^^^f^3F^ *nft ^rpe^r:

Anand.
ed.
).
^prr:
for
171.
:
I. p.
*TH 33 (
Some mas. read
vide note 202 below.
^("gic?: MT^f:
I
snn
3?ft
^Q*WH
?TT.
JTTwnffcrirr 3r*
^ws^^n^
on
ft
(
n^JTn| âcc. to
grr.
ITT.
fterro
on
HI. 265; quoted by
5^^
20. 1
and
172.
!!
part 1 p. 116.
P 74.
Ch. II
Varna and various
castes in smrtis
71
wealth.
castes
The Veda-VySsa smrfci ( 1. 12-13 ) enumerates twelve by name as antyajas and adds that all those who eat
cow's flesh are also antyajas.

' '
l
tions
Antavasayin or Antyavasayin. Manu IV, 79 separately men' antyas and antyavasayins and Manu X. 39 says that the antyavasayin is the offspring of a candala male from a ' nisada female, that he is condemned even by all bahyas
'
Gautama 20. 1 and ) and stays in a cemetery. 32 mentions antyavasayin ( and -yinl ). Vas. Dh. S. 18. 3 holds that the antyavasayin is the offspring of a sudra from a vateya woman. The BharadvSja-srauta sutra ( XI, 22. 12 ) forbids the study of the Veda in the presence of the antyavasayin. The Anusftaana-parva ( 22. 22 ) speaks of Medas, Pulkasas
untouchables
'
23.
and Antavasayins ( the printed text is corrrupt ). Santi(141. 29-32 ) gives a graphic description of a hamlet of candalas and NSrada ( rnadana 182 ) calls them 'antyavasaya* ( in verse 41 ). says that an antyavasayin is not eligible as a witness. Some modern works like the Jativiveka (D.O.Ms. No. 347 of 1887-91 )
say that
Dom
in
modern times
is
the antyavasayin of the smrtis.
Abhisikta
See under MurdhSvasikta.

(
Ambastha
same as Bhrj jakantha
).
In Ait. Br. ( chap. 39. 7 ) king Ambasthya is said to have performed an Asvaraedha sacrifice. In Pan. VIII. 3. 97 the word Ambastha is derived and on Pan. IV. 1. 170 Ambasthya ( king ? ) is cited by Pat. as an example derived from Ambastha It is a question whether the caste of Ambasthas ( a country ). derived its name from a country. Karnaparva ( 6. 11 ) mentions a king Ambastha. In Baud. Dh. S. I. 9. 3, Manu X. 8, Yaj. 1. 91, USanas 31, Narada ( strlpurhsa v. 107 ) Ambastha is an anuloma sprung from the marriage of a brahmana with a vai^ya woman, while according to Gautama 4. 14 as interpreted by Haradatta he is the offspring of a ksatriya from a vaisya woman. Manu X. 47 prescribes the profession of medicine for him and Usanas ( 31-32 ) says that he may subsist by agriculture or may be a fire-dancer or he may be a herald ( ? banner procl aimer)
173.
:
H H
^^T^r
12
).
I.
12-13.
174.
72
History of Dliarmasastra
Ch. II
Vaik. 10. 12 has almost the same live by surgery. words ; the Sahyadri-khanda ( 26. 40-41 ) says the same. Haradatta on Ap. Dh. S. I. 6. 19. 14 says that ambastha and salyakrnta are synonymous. The Baidyas of Bengal came to be
and
the amba$thas of
Manu (vide Risley's

).
'People of India*
p. 114).
Ayaskara
ayastapa
(
blacksmith
heater of ayas, probably
karmakara and karmSra. him as a sudra along with taksan (MahabhSsya,
In the Vedio literature we have any metal ). Vide under Patanjali on Pan. II. 4. 10 mentions
vol.
I. p.
475 ).
Avarita. Devala quoted by Apararka ( p. 118 on Yaj. I. 92 ) says that he is born of the illegitimate connection between a married woman and a male of the same caste and he becomes a 175 sudra. The Sudra-kamalakara (p. 247) cites from the Smrti-
kaumudl a verse
Avira.
a clandestine
of the
Adityapurana
to the
same
effect.
According to the Sutasarhhita he is the offspring of union between a ksatriya malo and a vai^ya
female.
Apita.
According
to the Sufcasarhhita
he
is
the offspring of
brahmana from a Dausyantl.

Abhlra. According to Manu X. 15 he union of a brahmana with an ambastha girl.
(
is
the child of the
The Mahabh&rata
Mausalaparva 7. 46-63 and 8. 16-17 ) states that the abhlras were dasym and mlecclias who attacked Arjuna after the great war in the land of the five rivers and carried away Vrsni women. The Sabhaparva ( 51. 12 ) mentions abhlras with Paradas and the A6vamedhika ( 29. 15-16 ) says ( just as Manu X. 43-44 do) that the Abhlras, the Dravidas and others became fciidras by non-contact with brahmanas. The Mahabhasya
expressly states that the abhlras are not a subcasfce included under the genus sudra but that they are a caste distinct from
The Kamasutra ( V. 5. 30 ) names an abhlra king Dandin in his Kavyadar&a ( I. 36 ) says that ApaKo^taraja, bhramfca is the appellation of the speech of abhlras and the like
Madras.
175.
I
%TO
fttfreT in
g T:
fterc
3WfT%
P.
Hsrofat V^T& 118 and in
arafte
on rg X. 5
3^VR
fffa
).
iits
W^^4
p. 247.
176.
TJT^
<H
Tol.I. p. 251 (on
ITT.
1.2. 72.
).
Ch. II
Vartia
Abhlra
73
in poetry. The Amarakosa says that they are cow-herds and that the abhlra wife of a Mahasftdra is called Ahhlrl. The
Ahhlras became ahsorhed in Hindu society and we find that an Abhlra senapati Rudrabhuti in the year 103 ( 181-82 A. D. ) under king Rudrasirhha, son of Rudradaman, built a well ( E. I. vol. 16 p. 235 ) and in the Nasik cave No. 15 there is an inscription of king Xsvarasena, a son of Abhlra Sivadatta and M&dharl ( i. e. the mother was of the Mathara gotra ). Vide E. Abhlras are called ahirs in modern times. Vide I. voL 8. p. 88. Tribes and J. B. B. R. A. S. vol. 21 pp. 430-433, Enthoven's
*
castes of
Bombay
'
vol.
I. p.
17
ff.
Ayogava, Vide Ayogu above (p. 43) from Vedio literature. According to Gaut. IV. 15> Visnu Dh. S. 16. 4, Manu X. 12, Kaut III. 7, Anusasana 48. 13, Yaj. I. 94 this is a pratiloma caste sprung from the union of a sudra male and a vaisya female; while Baud. Dh. S. (I. 9. 7), Usanas 12, Vaik. X. 14 say that it springs from the union of a vaisya male and a
name
ksatriya female. Vas. Dh. S. ( 18. 3 ) gives antyavasayin as the of the caste sprung from a dudramale and a vaisya female
and pulkasa as the name of one sprung from a vaisya male and a ksatriya female. His avocation (Manu X. 48) is to pare wood, while Usanas ( verse 13 ) says he is a weaver or subsists by
by cultivating paddy or by dealing According to Visnu Dh. S. 16. 8 and Agnipurana (151.15 ) he is to make his living by going to the stage. The Sahy&drikhanda says ( 26. 68-69 ) that he works in stones and bricks, makes pavements and whitewashes walls i. e. he is the modern Patharvata ( in the Deccan ).
making
vessels of bronze or
in cloth.
Avantya.
Aivika.
Same
as Bhurjakan^ha
Manu
X. 21
).
According to Vaik. X. 12 he is the child of a clandestine union between a ksatriya male and a vaisya female and deals in horses.
Ahiwfika. According to Manu X. 37 he is the offspring of a nis&da male from a vaidehl female i. e. he is a double pratiloma Kulluka says that his avocation according to Usanas caste.
is to prevent strangers from trespassing on places where offenders are kept imprisoned. Manu X. 36 shows that the same caste is called Karavara when it follows the craft of a carmakara.
Ugra.
Baud. Dh.
48, 7 he is
S.
For Vedic reference see above (p. 45). According to (1 9. 5), Manu X.9, Kaut. III.7, Yaj, 1. 92, AnusSaana an anuloma offspring of a ksatriya male from
H D.10
74
History of Dharmasattra
Ch. II
woman, while according

of the union of a
( I. 2. 7.
20
to USanas ( verse 41 ) he is the offspring brahmana with a sudra woman. The Ap. Dh. S. allows a pupil to bring wealth from a 6udra or an
is in distress or difficulties.
)
Gaut. 4. 14 says that ugra is the offspring of a vaisya from a sudra female. The Ap. Dh. S. ( I. 6. 18. 1 ) says that a brahmana may accept the gift of money, corn like paddy, flesh of deer, house, field, hay for oxen from an ugra. Manu X. 49 says that the ugra should subsist by catching and killing animals that hide in holes, while Usanas ( verse 41 ) states that he is to be the staff-bearer of the king and to carry out the
(
ugra when the teacher

as explained
by Haradafcta
to
punishments inflicted on offenders. Vide Vaik. 10. 13. According the Sahyadrikhanda and Sudrakamalakara (p. 255) he is called Rajputa In the Jativiveka ( the D. 0, collection of 1887-1891 No. 347 ) he is called Bavut.
*
'.
Udbandkaka. According to U6anas ("verse 15 ) he is the union of a sunika and a ksatriya woman, subsists by washing clothes and is an untouchable. Vaik. 10. 15 says he is the offspring of a khanaka and a ksatriya woman.
offspring of the
Upakrusta. According to Asv. ST. sutra (II. 1) he does not belong to the dvijatis, but is authorised to perform the vedic rite of agnyadheya and the commentary explains that he is a vaisya following the profession of a carpenter.
Odra. Vide Manu X. 43-44. Odra is a country corresponding more or less to modern Orissa. Most of the names of people mentioned in Manu X. 44 are derived from countries. Vide
note on
Khasa
(p. 79
and see Sabhaparva
51. 23.
Katakara.
is
According to USanas
the offspring of a clandestine union
( 45 ) and Vaik. 10. 13 he between a vaisya and a
sudra female.
According to Gaut. ( IV. 17 the view of some and acaryas) Yaj. I. 92, he is the child of the marriage of a vaisya and a sudra woman ( i. e. he is an anuloma ). Manu (X, 22 )
says
that a ksatriya
Karana.
who
is
)
upanayana has been performed
a vratya ( i. e. for has from a similar
whom no woman a
child variously called Niccivi ( Licchivi? ), Jhalla,_Malla, Nata, Karaiia, Khasa, Dravida. Adiparva 115. 43 tells us that Dhrfcarastra had from a vaisya female a karana son named Yuyutsu. Kslrasvaral on Amara says that karana also denotes a group of officers like kayasthaa and adhyaksas ( superintendents
).
The. Sahyadrikhanda
26.
49-51
says he
is
the
same as
Ch. II
Varya karcwa
:
75
carana or vaitalika and his business
is to sing the praises of kings and brahmanas and study the science of erotics.
Karmakara. Visnu Dh. S. (51. 14) mentions this caste. most probably the same as karmara. But Sankha ( prose ) quoted by Apar&rka p. 115 separately mentions in the same passage karmakara and karmara.
It is
Karmara.
For vedic references vide

it.
(p.
43
above.
This
caste appears in the
IV. 215 mentions

(
gana kulaladi ( Pan, IV. 3. 118 ), Manu In Bengal the Lohar is a scheduled caste
).
vide Sch. 0. O. 1936
Ka/hsyakara, ( modern kamsara in Marathi) Mentioned by Narada ( rnadana 274 ) and Visnu Dh. S. X. 4 in connection
with the balance ordeal.

Kakavaca.
Mentioned in Usanas
Vide
50
as doing the
work
of bringing grass for horses.
Kamboja.
Manu X.
(
43-44.
II. 2
)
was known
Sakas.
to
Yaska
Nirukta
Udyogaparva 160. 103, Drona Vide under Yavana.

Kayastha.
111
121.
The country of Kamboja and Panini ( IV. 1. 175 ). 13 mention Kambojas with
Heated controversies have raged in medi-
eval and modern times about the origin and status of kayasthas and the bitterness is reflected in the decisions of the Indian
the Calcutta High Emperor Court held that the kayasthas of Bengal were sudras and went so far as to hold that a kayastha could marry a Dom female. But in Asifa Mohan v. Nirode Mohan the Privy Council left open the question whether the kayasthas of Bengal were and in sudras. On the other hand in Tulsi Ram v. Bihari Lal m the Allahabad and Patna Ishwari Prasad v. Rai Hari Prasad
courts also.
v.
In Bholanath
179
High Courts
and not sudras.
respectively held that the kayasthas were dvijas In Subrao v. Radha 52 Bom. 497 at p. 504-506
this conflict of decisions is referred to.
sutras of
177
The word kayaskha does not occur in the ancient dharmaGautama, Apastamba, Baudhayana, or Vasistha nor
'
New
Vide for further details my paper on 'the KSyastbaa Indian Antiquary for 1939 vol. I. pp. 739-743. 178 I. L. R. 51 Gal. 488. 179 L. K. 47 I. A. 140,145.
180
181
in
the
12 All. 328.
6
Patna 506.
fa
Oh. ll
in the Manusrarti. The Visnu Dh. S. VII. 3 defines a public document (r&jasaksika) as one written in the royal court or office by a k&yastha appointed by the king and attested by the hand 188 of the superintendent of the office. These words suggest that the k&yastha was an officer and that there is nothing about a caste
here. Yaj. I. 322 calls upon the king to protect the subjects from the harassment of caâs ( rogues ), thieves, bad characters, desperadoes and the like and particularly of kayasthas. The
Mit. explains that kayasthas are accountants and scribes, are favourites of the king and very cunning. U&anas 182 ( 35 ) holds the kayasthas to be a caste and gives an uncomplimen-
tary derivation of the

the
first letters
name by saying
(
that
it is
compounded
of
of kaka
crow
),
Yama and
sthapati to
convey the
three attributes of greed, cruelty and the spoliation ( or paring ), 184 characteristic of the three. The Veda-Vyasa smrfci ( 1. 10-11)
includes the kayastha
among
Madras along with barbers, potters
and others. jSumantu quoted in the Par. M. II part I p. 383 makes the food of a lekhaka along with that of oilmen and 185 Lekhaka is obviously a caste others unfit for a brfthmana
.
here, but
whether
it is
the kayastha caste
is
doubtful.
Brhas-
pati as quoted in the Smrfcicandrikft ( vyavahara ) speaks of the ganaka and lekhaka as two persons to be associated with a
judge in a court of justice and says they were to be dvijas. Vide also Apararka p. 600. Therefore both these were only officers and
not members of a particular caste. In the Mrcchakatfka (Act IX) a dresthin and kayastha are associated with the judge. So the k&yastha seems to be the same as the lekhaka of Brhaspati and as a mere official. In the first centuries of the Christian era the
kftyastha was merely an officer and the word was possibly derived from or is a Sanskrit approximation of some foreign word for an officer, though in some parts of the country ( as shown by U&anas and Veda-Vyasa ) the kayasthas also had come to form
a caste in medieval times.
182.
VII.
183.
H
3.
chTOigW^
TTOI<J
&} wtritai
^w*
H
smrsmPr
S^RÎt
35.
184.
^"TOWTS
.
I.
10-11
*n.
H.
p-
Oh. II
Varna: kayastha
officers are
77
Though numerous
of the
first five
mentioned in the inscriptions
or six centuries of the Christian era, the kayastha
hardly ever figures among them. One of the earliest inscriptions where the word kayastha occurs is the Kanaswa Inscription
Sivagana dated in the Malava era 795 ( i. e. 738-39 A. D. ). Vide I. A. vol. 19 pp. 56 and 59. See also E. I. vol. X. p. 79 for Kayastha KSficana in Balera plates in 994-95 A. D., E. I. vol. XL p. 149 for Sasanika kayastha in Naraspatam plates of 1045-46
of
A. D., E.
vol.
XL
'
'TBarvasastravit
in
p. 20, 25 for kayastha Suraditya who was Govindacandra's plate dated 1129-30 A. D.,
E. 1. 19 pp. 209, 213 Amoda plate dated 1161 A. D. ( for Vastavya kayastha ), E. I. vol. 19 p. 45 Inscription of Hammlra ( dated 1288-89 A. D. ), E. I. XII. p. 46 ( dated 1328-29 A. D. for Mathura kayastha ), E. L 20 Appendix No. 442 p. 64 ( for Gauda
kayastha
).
In the Rajataranginl
VIII. 131
kayasthas and
diviras are mentioned separately and in VIII. 2383 it is stated that the brahmana Sivaratha, who was a roguish kayastha, was
So in the 12fch century kayasthas were only officers in Cashmir and brahmanas held such offices. Vide Rajataranginl V. 180-184 for a bitter diatribe
strangulated in the reign of Jayasimha.
against kayasthas.
The Sudrakamalakara
castes of kayasthas.
pp.
279-280
speaks of three sub -
Karavara*
According
to
Manu X.
36 he
is
a doubly mixed
caste sprung from the union of a nisada with a vaidehl and his craft is that of a carmakara, According to later digests like the ' Sudrakamalakara he is called kahara or bhoi and holds
'
'
torches and
carries umbrellas for others.
Karusa. According to Manu X. 23 this caste springs from the union of a vratya vaisya and a similar female. This caste is also called Sudhanvacarya, Vijanman, Maitra and Satvata ( according to Manu ).
Kirata. Vide above (p. 44) for vedic references. Veda-Vyasa speaks of him as a subdivision of sudra ( note 184 ). According to Manu ( X. 43-44 ) he is a ksatriya reduced to the status of a
sudra.
Anusasana
35.17-18
says the same about Mekalas,
Dravidas, Laâs, Paundras, Yavanas and others. Karnaparva Asvamedhika 73. 20 speaks of kiratas as men of fiery valour.
73. 25
shows that Arjuna met kiratas, yavanas and Mlecchas to the north with the Asvamedha horse. The Amarakosa says that kirata, sabara and pulinda are subdivi-
when proceeding
sions of Mleooha castes,
78
Ch
II
to Baud. .Dh. S. I. 8. 8 he is a pratiloma says that he is the child of the union of a sudra with a nisada woman, while 1.8. 12 states that he is the offspring 188 Manu X. 18 agrees with of a vaisya from a nisada woman.
Kukkuta. According
1.
caste, but
9. 15
I. 9. 15. According to Kaut. III. 7 he is the offspring of an ugra male from a nisada female. According to Adityapurana quoted in the Sudrakamalakara he manufactures swords and other weapons and engages in cockfights for the king.
Baud. Dh.
Kunda. According to Manu III. 174 he is the offspring of a clandestine intercourse between a married brahmana woman whose husband is living and a brahmana male.
Kukunda.
of a
According
to the
Sutasamhita he
in
the
is
the offspring
magadha from a sudra female. Kumbhakara. This word occurs

3.
gana kulaladi
'
32-33 ) says that he is the offspring of the clandestine union of a brahmana with a vaisya female. Vaik. ( X. 12 ) agrees with Usanas and adds that the offspring becomes either a kumbhakara or a barber who shaves parts of the body above the navel. Veda-Vyasa 1. p. 431 and Gr. ( I. 10-11 ) and Devala ( quoted in Par. M. II.
(
Pan. IV.
118
).
Usanas
B. p. 337 ) include the potter among sudras. 187 Provinces the Kumbhara is a scheduled caste.
In the Central
Kulala.
For Vedic references
see above (p.43).
explains the formation of kaulalakam ( made by a potter ). A6v. Gr. IV. 3. 18 says that all earthen vessels ( kaulalam
Pan IV. 3. 118 The

)
of
a deceased agnihotrin should be kept by his son.
Why
two
names
arose for the caste of potters
it is
difficult to explain.
Kulika.
This
Apararka
p.
1175
casfce is mentioned in Sahkha quoted by where Apararka explains it as devalaka ).
Kuillava. According to Baudhayana as quoted in the Kytyakalpataru he is the offspring of an ambastha from a vaidehaka female. According to Amara he is the same as a cSrana ( a- bard ). According to Kaut. ( III. 7 ) he is the offspring of a vaidehaka male from an arabastha female ( i. e. exactly the reverse of BaudhSyana's view ) and he gives the name vaina to the offspring of an ambastha male from a vaidehaka female.
^r^mR^r^m^^T^^^ f^nf*r 3j^: fctonTt s^fTR:

186,
ft. IT.
1. 8. 8,
11-12
r.
^. 187.
I. 9.
15.
^î^fir in TO. *r.
TIITO)
rta: gpvrarf
i. p.
n.
431.
Ch. II
Varna
krta, kaivarta &c.
79
Krta. According to Gaut. IV. 15 he is the offspring of a vaisya from a brahmana woman. Yaj. I. 93 and others call this caste vaidehaka.
Kaivarta.
caste.
In the
Assam valley
kaibartta
is
a scheduled
Vide under antyaja (p. 70 ) above. Medhatithi on Manu X. 4 says that this is a mixed caste. Manu X. 34 tells us that the inhabitants of Aryavarta employ the name kaivarta to denote the offspring of a nisada from an ayogava woman, who is also called mSrgava and dasa ( dasa? ) and who subsists by plying Samkara on Vedantasutra II. 3. 43 says that dasa and boats. kaivarta are the same, Fick p. 302 notes that fishermen who work with nets and baskets were called in the Jatakas kevatta.
Kolika. Mentioned as one of the antyajas by Veda-Vyasa. Vide note 173 under antyaja. Koli is a scheduled caste in the Central Provinces and Kol in United Provinces.
For vedic references see above. According to Baud. Kaut. ( III. 7 ), Manu X. 12, 13 and 16, Yaj. I. 94, Narada ( strlpumsa 112 ), this is a pratiloma caste sprung from a sudra father and ksatriya mother. Manu ( X. 49-50 ) prescribes for him the same avocation as for ugra and pulkasa.
Ksatr.
Dh.
S. I. 9. 7,
S. 18. 2 calls him vaina. In the Amarakosa ksatr is given three meanings, a charioteer, doorkeeper and the caste described above. In Chandogya Up. IV. 1. 5, 7, 8 the word seems to mean only door-keeper. Pan. notices the word (VI. 4. 11).
Vas. Dh.
The Sahyadrikhanda ( 26. 63-66 ) says that ksatr is also called nisada and that he is an expert in catching deer by means of nets, is a forester and kills wild animals, also rings a bell at night to remind people of the hour.
Khanaka. According to Vaik. ( X. 15 ) he is the offspring an ayogava male and ksatriya female and lives by digging.
of
Kha&a or khasa. According to Manu X. 22 name for karana while in X. 43-44 he makes
;
this is another
the
khasas a
ksatriya caste originally but reduced to the status of sudras by the absence of samskaras and the absence of contact with
brahmanas.
Vide Sabba.
52. 3,
Udyoga
160. 103.
is
Guhaka.
of a
According to the Sutasamhita he svapaca from a brahmana female.
the offspring
offspring of
Goja (or Goda). According to Usanas ( 28-29 ) he is the clandestine union between a ksatriya male and
female.
80
Gopa.
Histonj of Dharmatastra
Ch. II
Vide note 184.
He
is
the
modern Gavli and a
dfidra subcaste.
wives must and earnings depend upon them. mentions a caste called Gopalaka.
Y&j. II. 48 says that debts contract ed by gopa be paid by their husbands as the latter's profession
The Kamasiitra
I. 5.
37
Golaka. He is the offspring of a clandestine intercourse between a brahmana widow and a brahman * male. Vide Manu
III. 174,
Laghu-Satatapa 105, Sufcasamhita
Siva. 12. 12
).
Cakrl. According to Usanas ( 22-23 ) he is the offspring of a clandestine union between a sQdra male and a vaisya female and subsists by ( selling ) oil and oilcakes or salt. He seems to
Harlta ( quoted by Apararka p. 279 ) be the same as tailika. mentions him. According to Brahmapurana quoted by Aparftrka According to Vaik. (X. 13) p. 1177 he is one who presses sesame. he is the offspring of a secret love affair between a vaisya male and a brahmana female and engages in the sale of salt and oil.
Vide under antyaja (p. 70 ) above. He is menVisnu Dh. S. ( 51.8 ), Apastamba ( in many verse 9. 32), Paraâra (VI, 44). According to Usanas (4), he is the offspring of a sudra from a ksatriya girl, while verse 21 says that those sprung from a vaidehaka and a brahmapa girl Vaik. (X. 15 ) agrees with subsist by working on hides.
Carmdkara.
tioned in
srnrtis like
IV. 218 speaks of him as cftrmavakartin According to several smrfcis he is one of the seven antyajas. According to the Sutasamhita he is the offspring of an ayogava from a brahmana female. This name persists to this day as cambhar ( in Western India ) or camar in all other Indian provinces. This caste is often spoken of as Mochi Often the rnochis are Moslems. This is an ( shoe-maker ). untouchable caste and the population of oarmakaras in India is very large. In the Bombay Presidency alone they are about two hundred and ninety thousand ( in 1931 ).
this
latter.
(
Manu
).
cutter of hides
According to Amara he is a person who "rings a Kslrasvaml says that he announces the king's arrival by ringing bells and that some regard him as the same as vaitalika.
Cakrika.
bell.
According to Sankha ( prose ) and Sumantu quoted by Apararka 1175-76 ) cakrika and tailika are separate subcastes. ( pp. According to Vaik. ( X. 14 ) he is the offspring of a love affaii between a fcudra male and a vaisya female and hie avocation
is
the sale of salt, oil
and
oil cakes.
Oh, II
Varya
candala
81
Candala (or candala). For Vedio references see above pp. 44-45. AGO. to Gaut. IV. 15-16, Vas. Dh. S. 18. 1, Baud. Dh. S. I.
9. 7,
Manu X. 12, Yaj. I. 93, Anusasana 48. 11 he is a pratiloma caste sprung of a 6udra from a brahmana woman. He is the lowest among men ( Manu X. 12 ), beyond the pale of religious observances prescribed for the four varnas ( sarvadharma-bahiI. 93 says ) and often spoken of in the same breath with dogs and crows ( e. g. Ap. Dh. S. II. 4. 9. 5, Gaut. 15. 25, 188 The word occurs in the kulaladi gana ( Pan. IV. Yaj. I. 103 ). 3. 118 ). Veda-Vyasa-smrti ( I, 9-10 ) says that there are three kinds of candalas. viz, the offspring of a sudra from a brahmana
skrta, as Yaj.
woman,
p.
the offspring of an unmarried

girl.
woman,
union with a sagotra

ascetic turns
Yama quoted
in Par.
the offspring of a M. vol. II. part 1
306 says that one born of a person
who
after
becoming an
back to the householder's life, one born of a and one who is the offspring^ of a sudra from a woman sagotra brahmana woman are all candalas. Laghu-Safcatapa ( 59 ) has a similar verse. Manu (X- 51-56) says that candalas and svapacas should have their houses outside the village, vessels used by them cannot be used by others ( even after putting them in fire ), their wealth consists of dogs and asses, their clothes should be the garments on corpses, they should take their food in broken vessels, their ornaments were to be made of iron, they should incessantly roam, they are not to enter towns and villages at night, they have to carry the corpses of persons who have no relatives, they are to be hangmen when the king so orders, they may take the clothes, ornaments and l>eds of persons that are to be hanged. Usanas (9-10) says that their ornaments are to be of lead or iron, they should have a leather thong round their necks or a cymbal under their armpits, they should remove the
Dh.
dirt of the village in the first part of the day. S. 16.11 and 14 their avocation is to be
According to Visnu
hangmen
or to kill
those offenders
condemned to death and candalas have to stay outside the village and to wear the clothes on corpses. Santi 141. 29-32 gives a graphic description of their hamlet. The classical description of a candala hamlet is in the Kadambarl of Bana. In Anusasana ( 29,17 ) Matanga is called a candala because he was born of a brahmana woman from a barber.
are
who
Fa Hien
live apart
188
*TRT:
A. D. ) describes how candalas had to ( 405-411 and give notice of their approach when entering a
Ql^(Jt-au*Zl fA*JH.<j+Ic*ie*'*'*^
JWT
'
S3n?5'
II
%5Tc?
quoted in
qrr.
*TT.
vol. II. part 1. p. 366.
H. D. 11
82
History of DharmaSaslra
or
Oh. II
market place by striking a piece of wood to make known so that a man may avoid them and not come in contact with them (vide 'Record of Buddhist kingdoms' tr. by Legge, p. 43 ). In modern times candalas are returned as a scheduled paste in Madras and Orissa.
town
themselves
Cina.
in the
According to Manu X. 43-44 the Clnas were a ksatriya
caste reduced to the status of 6udras.
They
51. 23,
Mahabharata
15.
e.
g,
Sabha
are frequently named Vanaparva 177. 12,

N
Udyoga 19.
CuHcu.
According to Manu X. 48 the avocation of Meda, Andhra, Curicu and Madgu is to kill forest ( or wild ) animals. Kulluka says that he i<3 the offspring of a brahmana from a vaidehaka woman.
CucuJw. According to Vaik. (X. 13) he is the offspring of the marriage of a vaisya with a sudra woman and his avocation is the sale and purchase of betelnut, betelnut leaves and sugar.
Cailanirnejaka (or only nirnejaka)-washerman. Thn occurs in Visnu Dh. S. 51. 15 and Manu IV. 216. It appears that
Visnu who separately mentions

shes between the two.
Harlfca
(
*
'
'
'
rajaka
in 51. 13
distingui-
quoted in Apararka p. 279 ) also distinguishes between rajaka ( one who dyes clothes ) from * * nirnejaka ( one who washes clothes ), Very often rajaka means only a washerman ( as Amara says ).
* ' '
'
Jalopajlvin
subsisting by catching animals
in a net
probably the same as a kaivarta.

quoted by Apararka
Jhalla.
p.
He
is]
mentioned in Harlta
279.
Manu
Karana and Khasa.

as a scheduled caste,
X. 22 says that it is another name for In Bengal Jhalo Malo or Malo is returned
Dornba (or Doma) is the same as ivapaca according to Kslrasvaml on Amara. Parasara quoted by Apararka ( p. 1197 ) puts svapaka, domba and candala on the same level. In the Rajataranginl ( V. 354, VI. 182, VI. 192 ) dombas are spoken of as untouchables on the same level with candalas and as following the
profession of singers. In RajataranginI V. 289-394 dombas are spoken of as svapacas. This caste is returned as a scheduled
caste in
Madras as Dombo, as
Taksaka
(
pom
in Bengal, Bihar and U. P.

).
Taksan or
carpenter
For
vedic
references
see above (p. 43).
under kayasfcha. Dh, S. 51. 8. According to the Mahabhasya on Pan.
He is the same as vardhaki quoted above, He is mentioned by Manu IV. 210, Visnu
II*
4.
10
Ch. II
Varna
is
taksan
83
a sudra and on the same level with an ayasexcluded from sacrificial rites. Even ) and so early as the Sat. Br. the taksan was an unholy person and his touch made yajfiapatras impure ( L 1. 3. 12 ). ( amedhya ) Usanas 43 says that taksaka is the offspring of a brahmana female from a Bucaka ( i. e. he is a pratiloma ). He must be
the taksan
kara
ironsmifch
supposed to be originally different from the rathakara ( vide Tai. S. quoted above p. 43 ) who was allowed the vedic rite of adhana
time of the smrtis the carpenter lost his 189 the offspring of a According to Vaik. ( X. 14 ) ? is a taksaka who a from cucuka sucaka brahmana girl ) ( in is untouchable or a goldsmith or blacksmith or worker bell-metal. Brhaspati names the taksaka as one whose food a brahmana could not eat.
or probably
in the
former status,
He is menTantuvaija ( a weaver ), also called kuvinda. tioned in Visnu Dh. S. (51. 13 ) and Sankha, quoted by Apararka He is regarded as a sudra by the Mahabhasya on p. 1175.
Pan,
II. 4.
10 and as excluded from sacrificial
rites.
Tambalika
I. 5.
37.
seems to have been a caste. Vide Kamasutra Bana refers to his house as stored with spices and betel.
Tamropajliin (coppersmith). According to Usanas (14) he is the offspring of an ayogava from a brahmana woman. Vaik. The Jativiveka ( X. 15 ) says the same and calls him tamra.
(
D. C. No. 347 of 1887-91
gives the
name
as tamra-kuttaka.
He occurs in Manu IV. 214. Tunnavaya ( a tailor ). According to the Brahmapurana quoted L>y Apararka p. 1178 he is the same as suci ( or saucika ).
Tailika ( oilman )-occurs in Visnu Dh. S. ( 51. 15 ), Sankha and Sumantu quoted by Apararka ( pp, 1175 and 1176 ),
Darada. above p. 79.
Manu X. 44 names him. Vide note on khasa Vide Mahabharata, Udyogaparva 4. 15.
Dasa ( a fisherman ). This occurs in an Upanisad passage according to Vedanta-sutra II. 3. 43. Veda-Vyasa (1.12-13) includes him among antyajas (vide footnote 173). Manu X. 34 says that margava, dasa ( dasa ? ) and kaivarta are the same and
that he subsists
by plying
boats,
Pan.
III. 4.
73
derives the
word.
189.
Vide under kaivarta.
X. 14
N
ff^TlS in TO.
*f. II. 1. p. 380.
84
Divaklrtya
Ch. II
occurs in
to Araara both candala
Manavagrhya II. 14. 11. According and napita are called divaklrti.
caste sprung
Dauswanta. According to Qaut. 4. 14 this is an anuloma from the union of a ksatriya male and a sudra
female. According to the Sutasarhhita the

Dravida.
name
is
Daus.yanta.
The same as karana, according to Manu X. 22. According to Manu X. 43-44, this is a ksatriya caste reduced to the status of a sudra. Vide under khasa, and Mahabharata, Udyoga 160. 103, Drona 93. 43.
brahmana male from an
According to Manu X. 15 he is the offspring of a ayogava female and according to Manu X. 49 he subsists by working on ( and sale of ) hides. Kulluka on Manu X. 49 quotes a text of Usanas that Dhigvanas subsist by working on hides and selling them and distinguishes them from karavaras. This passage is not found in the printed text of Usanas. In the Jativiveka he is styled
Dhigvana.
Mocikara.
Dhlvara.
Same
as kaivarta and
dasa,
Gaut.
IV.
1?
indicates that this is a pratiloma caste sprung from a vaisya male and a ksatriya female ( according to the view of some
teachers
).
In the Tai. Br.
III. 4.
12 Dhaivara, Dasa and Kaivarta
are separately mentioned, but how they were distinguished it is difficult to say. All caught fish in different ways. Dhimar is a
scheduled caste in the Bhandara District of C. P.

JDhvaji
(
seller
of
wines
mentioned by Sumantu and
Harlta quoted by Apararka p. 1176. The Brahmapurana quoted by Apararka ( p, 1177 ) says he is the same as saundika.
one of the seven antyajas ( vide note 170 a scheduled caste in Bengal, Bihar, U. P. and above), Harlta quoted by Apararka ( p. 279 ) distinguishes Punjab. between naâ and sailusa and Apararka remarks that nata is a specific caste, while sailusa is one who though not a naâ by caste makes a living by going on the stage. Manu X. 22 says that he is the same as karana, khasa ( vide note on khasa p, 79 ). Panini
Nata.
is
He
Nata
is
knew
of a Naâsutra composed by Silalin and another by Krsasva ( IV. 3. 110 and 111 ), but whether the naâs he meant were so by caste or whether he meant only actors in general is not clear. Vide under rangavatarin for a quotation from Maitrl
Up. Probably this caste is the same as the Kolhaîs or Bahurupls of modern times ( in the Deccan ) who are dancers, acrobats and jugglers by profession, Fiok's work p. 299 speaks
Ch. II
Varna
nata
85
of natakakulas mentioned in Buddhist Jatalcas and at p. 294 he shows that in the Suruci Jataka the nata is described as throwing up a ball of rope and climbing it and performing other
tricks of jugglery.
According to Usanas (19) he is the offspring of a a from vaisya woman and his profession is that of a rafijaka Brhaspati quoted in Par. M. ( II. part I p. 380 ) sepasinger. rately mentions in the same verse nata and narfcaka ( both being abhojyanna to a brahmana ). Atri VII. 2 also mentions the two separately. See note 189.
Nartaka.
(in cudakarma).
Napita (barber). The Sankhayana grhya I. 25 refers to him Usanas (32-34) and Vaik. (X. 12) say that he is the offspring of a clandestine affair between a brahmana male and a vaisya female and Usanas derives the word by saying 190 that he shaves the body above the navel of a person. Vaik.
(
X, 15 ) says that the offspring of an ambas^ha male from a ksatriya female is a napita, but he shaves the hair on the body below the navel. Parasara ( XI. 21 ) 191 says that the offspring
of a
brahmana from a sudra

if
(
girl
is
called dasa if
samskaras
are performed on him, but
comes a napita. Pan.
VI.
2.
they are not performed he be62 ) specially provides for the
accentuation of words meaning artisan ( silpin, like napita or kulala ) when compounded with the word grama. The Sutasamhita (Siva chap. XII. 15) says that the offspring of the
clandestine union of a brahmana male and a- vaisya female is called kumbhakara or urdhva-napita, while verse 32 says that the offspring of a ksatriya female from a nisada is called
4
adho-napita
'.
Nicchiw. Manu X. 22 says that this is another name for karana or khasa. Probably tuis is a misreading for Licchavi or Licchivi. Kaut. (Artbasastra XL 1) speaks of the oligarchies 192 etc. Vaisali or corporations of Licchivika, Vrjika, Mallaka
was
'
the seat of this oligarchy in the 6th century B, C. (Rapson's Ancient India p. 169 ). Vide Indian Antiquary vol. 32 p. 233 for their Tibetan affinities and I. A. vol. 9 p. 178 and vol. 14 Indian Historical of this tribe and p. 98 for inscriptions
'
'
190.
IWT XI.
XI.
1.
21.
192.
86
'
Oh. II
Quarterly/ 1933, vol. 18 p. 439 ff. Fa Hien ( in Records of * Buddhist Kingdoms translated by Legge, 1886, p. 71 ) says that the Licchavis of Vaisali were attached to Buddha and also
speaks of
Ananda
pupil of
Buddha ) and
the Licchavis.
Niasda. For vedic references see above ( pp. 43 and 46 ). The Nirukta 193 III. 8 while explaining the words pancajana mama hotram jusadhvam in B-g. X, 53, 4 remarks that according to Aupamany ava the five people are the four varnas with nisada as the fifth. This shows that Aupamanyava regarded them as distinct from the four varnas (including the sudras). The
* '
'
'
Nirukta further says that according to the Nairuktas the nisada is so called because sin ( or evil ) sits down in him from this it follows that in the times of Yaska the nisadas had come to be looked down upon with scorn as evil people and were probably some aborigines like the modern Bhils. According to Baud, Dh. S. ( I. 9.3 and II. 2.33 ), Vas. 18.8, Manu X. 8, Anusasana 48.5, Yaj. I. 91 the Nisada is an anuloma caste, offspring of the marriage of a brahmana with a sudra woman. Baud. Dh. S. ( II. 2.34 ), Kaut. ( III. 7 ), Manu ( X, 8 ) and Yaj.
'
'
91 ) say that parasava is another name for nisada. Manu IX. 178 ) derives parasava from the root paray ( to go across ) and the word sava ( a corpse ) meaning though living he is like
( I.
'
one dead
the
In a corrupt passage of Vas. Dh. S. 194 ( 18. 9-10 ) Gaut. ( IV. 14 ) distinguishes the former ( aco. to the com. Haradatta ) being the offspring of a brahmana from a vaisya woman and the latter being the offspring of a brahnuma male and a sudra female. According to Narada ( sfcrlpumsa v. 108 ) and Anusasana 48.12, nisada is the offspring of a ksatriya male and a sudra female and he subsists by fishing (according to the latter). Narada ( strlpumsa 108 ) says that parasava is the offspring of a brahmana male and a sudra female. Usanas ( 36-38 ) says that the offspring of the marriage of a brahmana with a sudra
'.
same derivation is accepted. between nisada and parasava,
woman
worshipper of the
parasava and gains his livelihood as the goddess Bhadrakall or by learning Saiva agamas or by playing on musical instruments, while nisada is the illegitimate offspring of a brahmana from a sudra woman who subsists by killing wild beasts ( such as elephants ) and by
is
called
193.
? ) urcsnft ( TKsre: ^fite 18. 9-10, where ^sfrrtta is a obscure words <nT*r3ra in Manu IX, 178,
194.
^n*rt
^nrt
^r
wSh^Tf
( <n*i?$re ? ) sftafa srol paraphrase of the rather
Oh. II
Varna and wqada
87
13') has practically the same remarks to make about parasava and nisada. Santiparva ( 59. 96-97 ) speaks of nisadas as men with reddish eyes and wifch black hair. In the Ramayana Guha, the king of nisadas, helps Rama to cross the river Ganges ( Ayodhya 50. 33 ). Here he is
selling flesh.
The Vaik. 195 (X.
spoken of as belonging to the caste of nisadas ( nisadajatyah ). We have historical evidence for the name paraâva in the Harsacarita ( I, towards end ), where Bana 198 tells us that he had wifch him two paraSava brothers Candrasena and Matrsena in In the Tipperah copperplate of a chieftain called his travels. Lokanatha (about 650 A. D.) we are told that the king's maternal grandfather Kesava was a parasava ( vide E. I. vol. 15 at p. 307). The Mit. on Yaj. I. 91 cautions that this nisada ( the anuloma offspring of a brahmana from a sCidra woman ) is different from
another caste called nisada, which by catching fish. Medhatithi on
is
Manu X.
a pratiloma one and lives 8 does the same.
Nisada occurs in the gana kulaladi ( Pan. IV. 3. 118 ). The ( vol. II. chap. 1. 120-121 ) narrates that the nisadas, dark and dwarfish, were produced from the left hand of king Vona and they dwelt on the Vindhya. In the Bhagavata-purana wo have the same story 197 ( IV. 14. 42 ff. ; and we are told that nisadas were dark like crows, of short stature, snubnosed, with red eyes and hair and that they dwelt in mountains and forests.
Vayupurana
Pahlava. occurs in Manu ( X. 43-44 ) as a ksatriya caste Vide note on kha&a. The reduced to the status of sudra. Mahabharata several times mentions the PahJavas, Paradas
and other non-Aryan people 15, Bhlsma 20. 13 ).
vide S*.bha 32, 16-17,
Udyoga
4.
Pandasopaka. According to Manu X. 37 he is the offspring male from a vaideliaka woman, who maintains himHe is the same as buruda. self by dealing in bamboos.
of a candala
Parada, Vide Manu X, 43-44 and note on khaSa above. Paradas are frequently mentioned in the Mahabharata, generally
196.
I
fNfcr, sfÎH
I ( at
end
).
197.
mr^f
IV. 14. 44-46.
88
Ch. II
52. 3
as Mlecchas and non-Aryan tribes ( vide Sabha 32, 16,51.12, Drona 93. 42 and 121. 13 ). Vide under Yavana.
;
Vide nisada above. In the Adiparva 109. 25 called parasava and he is said ( in Adi. 114.12 ) to have married the parasavl daughter of king Devaka. The Sahyadrikhanda ( 26. 43) says that he is called sudra and is superior to a sudra ( in status ) and that he was to live hy the avocations preParasava.
is
Vidura
scribed for sudras.
Pingala.
of a
According
to the Sutasarhhita
he
is
the offspring
brahmana from an ayogava female.
Pundra or Paundraka, Frequently mentioned in the Mahabharata among non- Aryan tribes e. g. Drona 93. 44, Asvamedhika 29. 15-16. Medhatitbi on Manu X, 44 remarks that the Paundrakas are spoken of as ksatriyas in the Mahabharata,
so a
man may
Medhafcithi they were
be misled into thinking that even in the days of still ksatriyas ( but they weiM not so ).
Pulinda. For vedic references see above ( p. 47 ). They were a wild mountain tribe like the Kiratas or Sabaras. In the Vanaparva 140. 25 Pulindas, Kiratas and Tanganas are spoken of as
dwelling on the Himalaya. Udyoga 160. 103, Kama 73. 19-20, 33. 21-22 mention pulindas. Usanas ( 16 ) says that he is the illegitimate offspring of a vaisya male f rom a ksatriya female and he lives by rearing cattle and by killing wild
Anusasana
beasts. Vaik. ( X. 14 ) says the same and adds that he subsists on the produce of the forest and by killing wild animals. The Sutasamhita is of the same opinion as Vaik.
Pulkasa (or paulkasa). The word is also written as Sarhkaracarya on Brhadaranyaka Up. IV. 3. 22 says that pulkasa and paulkasa are the same. According to Baud. Dh. S. (1. 9. 14) and Manu X. 18 he is the offspring of a nisada male from a sudra female. According to Kaut. ( III. 7 ) he is the offspring of a nisada male from an ugra female, while Vaik. X. 14, Usanas ( 17 ) find the Sufcasamhita say that he is the offspring of a sudra male from a ksatriya woman and that he makes his livelihood by manufacturing and selling 198 liquors or natural intoxicating sap. The same is the view of some teachers according to Gautama IV. 17. According to Vas. Dh, S. ( 18. 5 ) and Visnu Dh. 8. (16. 5 a vaisya ) he is the offspring of
pukkasa.
x.u.
/
Oh. II
Varna and pulkasa
89
male from a ksatriya female and the latter adds that he subsists by hunting. The Agnipurana ( 151. 15 ) says that and Harlta quoted in the Krtyapukkasas are hunters. Yama kalpataru make him out as the offspring of a sudra male from a vaisya female. Manu X. 49 prescribes catching and killing animals that live in holes as the occupation of ksatr, ugra and
pukkasa.
Kslrasvaml
com. of Amara ) says that pukkasa
is
the
as mrtapa (which see below). Ap. Dh. S. (II. 1. 2.6) says that when a Brahmana, Ksatriya or Vaisya is guilty of the theft of gold, of the murder of a brahmana, they undergo for
same
some time in hell torments and then are respectively born as Candala, Paulkasa or Vaina.
Puskara.
of the antyajas.
Mentioned in Veda-Vyasa-smrti
Vide note 173 above.
( I.
12
as one
Puspadha. avantya ( p. 73.

35. 17
Manu
)
(X. 21) says that this
is
another
name
of
Paundraka ( or Paundra ). Vide Pundra above. AnuSasana and Santi 65. 13-14 have the form paundra. Vide Manu X. 44 for paundraka and note on khasa.
Paulkasa.
Bandin.
Barbara.
Vide pulkasa above. See under vandin below.
are samklrnayonis.
Medhatithi on Manu X. 4 says that the barbaras In the Mahabharata they are frequently mentioned among no n- Aryan tribes along with Saka, Sahara,
etc.
(
Yavana, Pahlava
18
as staying in the west Santi 65. 13.
Vide Sabha, 32. 16-17, 51. 23 Vana 254, Anusasana 35. 17 ); Drona 12l. 13
;
;
Bahya.
Vide under antya
(p. 70).
Buruda ( worker in bamboo ). He is one of the seven antyajas ( vide note 170 above ). The word is also written as
Varuda occurs in the Kulaladigana varuda ( vide below ). Buruda is a scheduled caste in Orissa. ( Panini IV. 3. 118 ).
Bhata.
(1. 12).
He is one of the antyajas according to Veda-Vyasa Vide note 173 above and on rangavatarin below.
He is one of the Yama 33. Vide note
antyajas according to 170 above.
Bhilla.
Ahgiras,
Atri 199,
Bhisak.
clandestine
199.
According to Usanas (26) he is the offspring of a union between a brahmana and a ksatriya girl
H. D.
90
Ch. II
and he maintains himself by studying the Ayurveda in its eight parts, or astronomy, astrology and mathematics (verse 27). According to Brahmapurana (quoted by Apararka p. 1171) he lives by surgery and by attending upon patients.
Bhupa.
is
According
to
Yama
quoted in Krfcyakalpataru he
the offspring of a vaisya from a ksatriya female.
Bhurjakantaka. According to Manu X. 21 he is the offspring In several coun of a vratya brahmana from a similar woman. tries he is called avantya or vaâdhana, puspadha or saikha.
Bhrjjakantha ( same as ambastha ). According to the view some teachers mentioned in Gaut. IV. 17, he is the offspring a brahraana male from a vaisya female.
Bhoja.
of
of
of a ksatriya
According to the Suta-samhita he woman and a vaisya male.
is
the offspring
Mentioned in Manu X. 48 as subsisting by killing Kulluka on that verse explains that according to Baudhayana he is the offspring of a brahmana from a bandin
Madgu.
wild beasts.
female. Vaik. X. 12 says that he is the offspring of the marriage of a ksatriya male with a vaisya female and subsists as a merchant ( srestbin ) and does not take to the profession of a warrior.
Manikara.
According
to
Usanas
39-40
he
is
the offspring
of a clandestine union between a ksatriya male female and he gains his livelihood by working
and a vaisya on beads, by
perforating pearls and dealing in coral and conches. According to the Sutasarhhita he is the clandestine offspring of a vaisya
male from a vaisya female.

Matsyabandhaka (a fisherman). According to Usanas (44) he is the offspring of a taksaka ( carpenter ) from a ksatriya woman.
Malta.
Vide
Manu ( X.
22
who
says that
it
is
another
name
Kaut.
of Jhalla etc.
According to Gaut. IV. 15, Anusasana 48. 12, X. 11, 17 and Yaj. I. 93 he is a pratiloma caste sprung from the union of a vaisya male and a ksatriya female; while according to the view of some teachers mentioned in Gaut. IV. 16, Usanas (7) and Vaik. (X. 13) he is the offspring of a vaisya male and a brahmanii female; but Baud. Dh. S. I. 9. 7 says he is the offspring of a sudra male and a vaisya female and Visnu Dh. S. 16. 5 makes him the offspring of a sudra from a
Magadha.
(
III. 7
),
Manu
ksatriya female.
Manu (X. 47) prescribes trade by
land routes for
Ch. II
Varna and m&gadha
Magadhas; Anusasana X. 48 says that they maintain inemseives on speech ( i. e. by praise ) and are also called bandin. Sahyadrikhanda ( 26. 60-62 ) also calls him bandin and says he is slightly superior to sudra and that he is clever in ornate prose, in six languages, in kalas and he is a devotee of Kalika. Vaik. (X. 13 ) states that even sudras cannot take food cooked by him, that he is an untouchable and maintains himself by Uânas ( 7-8 ) says praise, by singing or by being a messenger. that he becomes the bandin of brahmanas and ksatriyas, he maintains himself by lauding ( the deeds of others ) or as a
messenger or servant of a vaisya. Panini IV. 1. 70 derives the word Magadha from the country Magadha, but apparently not in the sense of a caste.
Manauika.
of the clandestine union of a sudra
According to the Sutasamhita he is the offspring male and a sudra female.
Matahga.
The same as candala.
The Kadambarl
of
Bana
(para 9) and Amara employ them as synonymous. Yama (12) uses the word Matanga where we ordinarily find candala in other
smrtis.
Bombay Presidency there is an untouchable Mang which numbers about three hundred thousand. There are Mangs as a scheduled caste in Orissa. Margava. Same as kaivarta (fisherman). Vide Manu X. 34.
In the
caste called
Malakara
or Mali/ca.
Vide Veda-Vyasa
( I.
10-11
quoted
above in note 184.

Mahisya.
According
to the
view of some teachers mentioned
in Gaut. IV. 17 and Yaj. I. 92 he is an anuloma caste sprung from the marriage of a ksatriya with a vaisya woman. According
to upanayana ( 26. 45-46 ) he is entitled and his avocations are astrology, augury, prognostications due to svara. According to the Sutasamhita he is the same as
to the Sahyadrikhanda
ambastha.
Murdhavasikta. This is an anuloma caste according to the view of some teachers in Qaut. IV. 17 and Yaj. I. 91 sprung from the marriage of a brahmana with a ksatriya woman. According to Vaik. (X. 12) the offspring of the marriage of a brahmana with a ksatriya woman is the foremost among anulomas and is called savarna, while the offspring of the clandestine union of these two is called abhisikta, If crowned he becomes a king, otherwise he subsists by studying Ayurveda ( Medicine ) or the science of ghosts or astronomy, astrology and mathematics. In the Sahyadrikhanda ( chap. 26. 36-39 ) more details are added*
S3
Oh. II
800 on Mrtapa. Vide pulkasa above. In the Mahabhasya Pan. II. 4. 10 this casta is mentioned as separate from candala,
niravasita
but both are included by the Mahabhasya under sudras that are that if ( i. e. those who are so low in the caste system
is used by them for eating their food from it cannot be used by any one of the other castes even after the vessel is purified by fire &c. ).
a vessel
This
22.
Meda. He is one of the seven antyajas ( vide note 170 ). is mentioned in Narada ( vakparusya, verse 11). Anusasana
22 speaks of raedas, pulkasas and antavesayins, and the com. Nllakan^ha 201 explains that Medas are those who eat the Manu X. 36 says that he is the offspring flesh of dead cattle. of a vaidehaka male and a nisada woman, that he dwells outside the village and Manu X. 48 says that his business along with that of Andhra, Cuficu and Madgu is to kill wild beasts.
Vide under Andhra above and see E.
I.
vol.
XX.
p.
130 where
meda and candala
are
named
as lowest castes in a grant of
Paramardideva in samvat 1236. According to Sudrakamalakara, andhras and medas have to sweep dirty places, doorsteps and privies.
Maitra.
Manu
X. 23 says he
is
the
same as Karusa.
Maitreyaka. According to Manu X. 23 he is the offspring of a vaidehaka male and ayogava female and his means of livelihood are belauding kings and nobles continually and ringing a The Jativiveka says that he is bell in the early morning. called Dhokanakara.
MleccJia.
According to the Sutasamhita he
is
the offspring of
the clandestine union of a brahmana
woman;and a vaisya male.
IV. 17 he
According to the view of sone mentioned in Gaut. a pratiloma caste sprung from a sudra male and a ksatriya woman. According to Manu X. 43-44 Yavanas were originally ksatriyas reduced to the status of sudras ( vide under In the Mahabharata Yavanas are almost khasa above p. 79 ).
Yavana.
is
200.
cm fft *r fimf^
i
?r ft
^$fi
<rrsf
^ft^n^nflJ
f QWT& ^
f^^T^cTi:
HftHT'T on
<n. II. 4.
10 (vol.
22
I. p.'
475).
201.
2.
.
Ch. II
Varna and yavana

several other
M
non-Aryan
always associated with Sakas and

tribes
;
vide Sabha. 32. 16-17, Vanaparva 254. 18 (as inhabiting the west ), Udyoga 19. 21, Bhlsma 20. 13, Drona 93. 42 and 121. From Sfcrlparva 22. 11 it 13, Karna 73. 19, Santi 65. 13.
appears that Jayadratha ( king of the countries of Sindhu and Sauvlra ) had Kamboja and Yavana women in his harem.
Panini (IV. 1.59) derives the word YavananI from Yavana and a vartika on that sutra adds that YavananI means the lipi written alphabet ) of the Yavanas. Patafijali in his ( the Mahabhasya ( on Pan. II. 4. 10 ) indicates that he was prepared to regard Yavanas and Sakas as sudras but as outside Aryavarta, Asoka in Rock Edicts V and XIII refers to the Yonas and Kambojas as nations on the borders of his empire. The Visnupurana IV. 3. 21 describes that the Yavanas shaved the head and also the beard, the Sakas tonsured their heads only, the Paradas allowed the hair on the head to grow long and the Pahlavas grew beards and that all became Mlecohas because they gave up their original dhannas and because brahmaiâs
also left them.
Eangavatarin
is distinct
or-taraJta
).
According
gayana.
to
Manu
IV. 215 he
Sankha ( quoted by 36 1175 Visnu Dh. S, 51. 14 Saakha and 17. ), ( ) Apararka p. mention him. According to Brahmapurana (quoted by Apararka p. 1178 ) he is a nata who goes on the stage for livelihood and
from sailusa and
who
introduces various changes in his appearance and dress. Rangavatarin is mentioned in the Maitrl Up. along with nata
and bhata. 208
Rajaka
U.
P.,
washerman
),
Dhobl
(
is
a scheduled
caste
in
one of the antijajas according to several writers ( vide note 170 above). According to Vaikh, (X. 15) and the Sutasamhita he is the offspring of a pulkasa ( or vaideha ) from a brahmana woman,
called Dhoba).
is
Bihar and C. P. and in Bengal
He
while according to Usanas (18) he is the offspring of a pulkasa male from a vaisya girl. The Mahabhasya on Pan. ( II. 4. 10 ) includes him under siidra. Yaj. II. 48 mentions him as liable
to
pay his wife's debts, because his livelihood depends on her. The Sudrakamalakara mentioned another caste of rajaka( which is the offspring of an ugra male and vaidehaka female ).
202.
94
Oh. it
Rafijaka (dyer). Manu IV. 216 mentions him. According Usanas (19) he is the offspring of a clandestine union between a sudra male and a ksatriya femaleto
Rathakara. Vide above pp, 43, 45 for Vedic references. According to Baud. gr. II. 5. 6 and Bharadvaja gr. (I) his upanayana was to be performed in the rainy season. It appears he In the Baud. Dh. S. ( I. 9. 6 ) he is the lost his status gradually. of a vaisya male with a sudra female. of the marriage offspring According to Yaj. I. 95 he is an anuloma doubly mixed as he is the offspring of a mahisya male from a karana female and
according to a prose passage of Sankha quoted by the Mit. the rathakara is entitled to have upanavana performed, to offer sacrifices and gifts and makes his living by learning
the art of taming horses, of
houses.
making chariots and building According to Usanas ( 5-6 ) and Vaik. ( X. 13 ) he is the offspring of a clandestine union between a ksatriya male and a brahmana woman and he is to behave like a sudra, he is
not a twice-born
(
makes
his living
dvija ) and cannot repeat Vedic mantras and by tending and driving horses and carts.
Ramaka* According to Vas. Dh. S. 18. 4 he is a pratiloma sprung from the union of a vaisya male and a brahmana female. This would be krta, according to Gaut. ( IV. 15 ), vaidehaka
according to Baudhayana.
Lubdhaka
Lekhaka.
part 1
is p. 383.
;
hunter of deer
same
as vyadba.
Mentioned by Sumantu quoted in Par. M. II. He is probably the same as kayastha, if a caste
pp. 75-76.
meant vide under kayastha
08 Lohakara (ironsmith). Vide p. 75 under karmara. Narada* ( rnSdana 288 ) recommends utilising the services of an ironsmith who is so by caste in the fire ordeal. He is mentioned by Harlta
(
The Kamauli plate of p. 1176. was Gahadavala by Lohara Someka engraved Jayacandradeva
prose
)
quoted by Apararka
(
'
'
in sarhvat 1232
B.
I.
IV.
p.
127
).
Vandin (a bard, written as bandin also). According to in Krtyakalpataru he is a pratiloma sprung from a vaisya male and ksatriya female. According to the Brahma-purana quoted by Apararka p. 1177 a vandin is one who
Hrlta quoted
sings the praises of men.
203.
Oh. II
Varna
varata, varuda &c.
95
Varata.
(
Enumerated among the antyajas by Veda-Vyasa

(
1.
12-13
).
in bamboo ) also written as buruda The Mahabhasya on Pan. IV. 1. 97 ( vol. II the instance varufaki ( f rom varuda). Bidalap. 253) gives kara ( splitter of bamboo) occurs in Tai. S. III. 4. 5. 1. and
Varuda
worker
89
).
vide abo'ye
p.
bidalakarl in Vaj. S. 30. 8.
Vatadhana.
According to
Manu
X. 21 he
is
is
the
same as
avantya.
Vijanman. According to Manu X.23 he
the
same as karusa.
Vena
S.
( I.
(or Vaina}.
)
According to
Manu
X. 19 and Baud.
Db
vaidehaka male from an ambastha female, while Kaut. ( III. 7 ) makes the vaina the offspring of an ambastb a male from a vaidehaka female; and according to Manu X. 49 he makes his livelihood by beating musical instruments. Kulluka on Manu IV. 215 says that Vena is one who maintains himself by splitting bamboos and that he is the same as buruda according to Visvarupa* For
9.
13
he
is
the offspring
of a
Vaina see Ap. Dh. S. quoted under pulkasa (p. 89). Kaut (III. 7) adds that a vainya follows the same profession as a rathakara. Sankha ( 17. 38 ), Visnu Dh. S. 51. 14, Yaj. III. 207 place the vena alongside of carmakara, nisada and pulkasa. According to Vas. Dh. S. ( 18. 2) he is a pratiloma sprung from the union of a sudra male and a ksatriya female. Yaj. I. 161 has the form vaina which the Mit. explains as meaning one^ who maintains himself by cutting and splitting bamboos. The Sudrakamalakara notes that according to Adipurana vena is a drum-beater to
announce royal orders and
edicts.
Venuka. According to Usanas (4) he is a pratiloma, the offspring of a suta from a brahmana woman, while according to Vaik. (X. 15 ) he is the offspring of a madgu from a brahmana woman and his avocation is to play on a vlna and on flutes. According to the Sutasamhita he is the offspring of a
barber from a brahmana woman.
Velava.
of a sudra
According to the Sutasamhita he from a ksatriya woman by stealth.

According
17,
is
the
offspring
to Baud, Dh. ( 1. 9. 8 ), Kaut. ( III. 7 ), Visnu Dh. S. 16. 6, Narada (strlpumsa 111), Yaj. I. 93, Anusasana 48. 10 he is a pratiloma sprung from a vainya male and a brahmana female while according to Gaut. IV. 15 he is the offspring of a sudra from a ksatriya and according to Vaik. (X 14), the view of some acSryas
Vaidehaka.
Manu
X. 11,13,
96
Oh, II
in Gaut. IV. 17 and Usanas (20) he is the offspring of a 6udra male from a vaisya female. According to Manu X. 47 and Agnipurana (151. 14) his peculiar work is to attend on and guard women ( in harems etc ), while according to Usanas and Vaik. ( X. 14 ) he is to tend goats, cows and ( 20-21 )
buffaloes
and to sell milk, curds, butter-milk and ghee. Suta-sarhhita says that vaideha and pulkasa are the same.
The
Vyadha
p.
1176 and Harlta

9.
huntsman )-mentioned by Sumantu in Apararka ( quoted by Apararka p. 279 ), Apastamba

II. 48.
(verse)
32,Yaj.
II. 5
According to Ap, Dh. S. 1. 1, 1. 22-1. 1. 2. 10, Par. gr. and other sutra works a vratya is one on whom and on whose ancestors the samskara of upanayana has not been performed. But in other works like Baud. Dh. S, (I. 9. 15), the word vratya is applied to all who are born of the mixture of varnas.
Vratya.
aka, Manu ( X. 43-44 ) mentions Sakas along with Yavanas and others as originally ksatriyas reduced to the state of sudras. Vide note on Yavana (p. 92) above. They are mentioned in the Mahabharata along with Yavana and other no n- Aryan
tribes.
Vide Sabha
),
32.
16-17, 51. 23,

),
Udyoga
13
).
(4. 15; 19. 21;
160. 103
Bhlsma
20. 13
(
Drona
1.
(
).
121.
Saka occurs
in
the kambojadigana
Sahara.
Pan. IV.
175
Vide note 200.
An
aboriginal jungle tribe like the Bhilla.

^
In the
( e.
Mahabharata the sabaras are Anusasana 35. 17, Santi 65. 13 ).

Salika.
frequently
mentioned
g.
According to the Sutasamhita he
is
the
same as
Magadha.
ulika.
According
to
Usanas
42
he
is
the offspring of a
clandestine union between a brahmana and a sudra female and his avocation is to impale those offenders who are sentenced to
be impaled.
According to Vaik.
X. 13
and Sutasamhita he
is
the offspring of a clandestine union between a ksatriya male and a sudra female.
tiaikha.
According
to
Manu X.
S. 51. 13,
21 he
is
the
same
as avantya.
dailusa.
Vianu Dh.
Manu
IV. 214, Harlfca quoted
the
by Apararka p. 279 distinguish him from rangavatarl and Brahmapurana ( quoted by Apararka p. 1178 ) defines him as one who finds out employment for natas 804 Apastamba 9. 32 ( verse ) speaks of him in the same breath with rajaka and
.
204.
f ?q?Wr TOnrf g
w 3 &$TO:
*S*:
wgr^FT
q.
by
Oh. II
Varrta
and
iailusa
97
vyadha. Yaj, II. 48 does the same and the Mit. fchereon paraphrases the word by naâ.
Saundika
(
wine-seller
216, Yaj. II. 48,
Brahmapurana
vapaca or
Visnu Dh. S. 51. 15, Manu IV. ). Sankha ( quoted by^ Apararka p. 1175 ) and quoted by Apararka p. 1177 ) mention him.
vapaka. He is one of the antyajas enumerated by Veda-Vyasa ( I. 12-13 ). Vide note 173 above. He occurs in the gana kulaladi ( Pan. IV. 3. 118 ). According to Baud. Dh. S. ( I. 9. 12 ), Kaut. ( III. 7 ), he is the offspring of an ugra male from a female of the ksatr sub-caste, while according to Manu X. 19 he is the offspring of a ksatr male from an ugra female. Vaik. ( X. 15 ) and Sutasamhita say that he is the offspring of a candala male and a brahmana female, while U6anas (11) holds that he is the offspring of a candala male from a vai6ya woman. According to Manu X. 51-56 candalas and 6vapacas follow the same avocation and are governed by the same rules Uganas ( 12 ) says that they eat the ( vide p. 81 under candala ). flesh of dogs and that dogs are their wealth, while Vaik. says that they wear the same marks that candalas have to wear
under the king's order, as Manu says in X. 55 ), that they remove the filth of towns etc., stay near cemeteries, have to dispose of corpses of men that leave no relatives, have to act as hangmen for offenders sentenced to death and to take their clothes etc., have to take food in broken pots and to eat dogs' flesh and to deal in hides and armour ( or in armour made of hides ). The Bhagavadglta ( 5. 18 ) puts him on the same level with dogs. In the Markandeya-purana (8. 81-83, 86, 96) a candala is called Svapaka ( i. e. no distinction is made between the two). In the Jativiveka he is identified with the Mahar and
(
with the
Mang
of the Deccan.
Satvata.
According to
Manu
X. 23 he
is
the
same as same
karusa above.
Sudhanvacarya.
as karusa above.
Suvarruz,
of the legal
According to
Manu
X. 23 he
is
the
According to U&anas (vv. 24-25) he is the offspring union with Vedic mantras of a brahmana male and
a ksatriya female. It appears likely that the text is corrupt and we should read savarna for suvarna. He should perform rites prescribed by the Atharvaveda, he should by the king's order ride a horse, elephant or chariot, may act as the commander of an army or may practise as a physician.
H. p. 13
98
Ch. II
hiranyakara
Br.
III.
4.
Suvarnakara or Sauvarnika or Hemakara (goldsmith). A is mentioned in the Vaj. S. XXX. 17 and in Tai.
14.
According
to
Visnu Dh.
S.
X. 4
and Narada
(rnadana 274 ) a goldsmith or a dealer in bronze or a bania was Manu IV. 215, to examine the balance in the balance ordeal.
Yaj.
1.
)
163,
1176
treat
nisada.
rogues
Sankha and Sumantu quoted by Apararka ( pp. 1175, him on a level with karmakara ( blacksmith ) and Manu IX. 292 condemns him as the worst of all sarvakantakapapistha ). For the view of Vaik. and
Brhaspati vide under taksan above ( note 189 ). In the Mahabharata it is said that after Parasurama's alleged extermination
of
the ksatriyas,
castes of ironsmiths
some of them that escaped resorted and goldsmiths. 201
to the
Sucaka. According to Usanas ( v. 43 ) he is an anuloma born of the marriage of a vaisya male from a sudra female.
Sucika or saucika or sucl one who works with a needle, According to Vaik. ( X. 15 ) and Usanas ( v. 22 ) he is a pratiloma, offspring of a vaidehaka from a ksatriya woman
a
tailor.
and engages in the work of sewing with a needle. Saucika, according to the lexicon of Amara, is the same as tunnavaya (for which see above p. 83 ) and the Brahmapurana quoted by Apararka ( p. 1178 ) also equates sucl with tunnavaya.
According to Vas. (18. 6), Kaut. (III. 7), Manu (X. 11), Narada ( strlpumea 110 ), Visnu Dh. S. ( 16. 6 ), Yaj. (I. 93) and Sutasarhhita, he is a pratiloma sprung from a
Suta.
For vedic references
see above p. 43.

),
Gaut
(IV. 15), Baud. Dh. S. (I. 9. 9
that the suta

different
ksatriya male and a brahmana woman. Kaut. is careful to add who figures in the puranas as the reciter is quite
from
this.
vartika on Pan.
206
VI.
3.
70
teaches the
formation of words like sutaputri. According to Manu (X.47) and Visnu the avocation of sutas is driving a chariot ( i. e, breaking and yoking horses). According to Vaik. (X. 13) he makes his liveli-
hood by reminding the king of his duties and by cooking food for him. Usanas (v. 3) also says that his business is to remind (a king) of his duties. According to the Karnaparva( 32. 48) sutas
205. ?ftchK^chi<iQ^Tf^ frc4 *r*rrfrrn: ?npfrr< 49. 84. probably for fc^l^K ( au iron-smith ) while another reading ( maker of bowstrings ) also.
i
is
206.
$5TfT
I
The 9th vsrtika on Pan. VI. 3. 70 The examples given by the TT^TVTF^r
ia
are
Ch. II
are
fche
Vwna and
sftta
99
not carry out

(
attendants of brahmanas andksatriyas and the latter need what the suta says. According to the Vayupurana
vol. 1. 1. 33-33 and vol. II. 1. 139 ) the suta was to preserve the pedigrees of kings and great men and traditions about learning or books, he is not authorised to study the Veda, the middling way
maintenance for him is to depend upon kings and to look after chariots, elephants and horses an inferior way of maintenance The Vaik. ( X. 13 ) and the Sutais the practice of medicine. samhita expressly say that the difference between the suta and
of
;
the rathakara consists in this that the former is the offspring of a marriage, while the latter is the offspring of a clandestine
union
a ksatriya male with a brahmana woman. The (26. 53-54) says that he is inferior to ksatriyas, but is entitled to do all the work of a ksatriya and that he also performs the work of a charioteer, of taming elephants and
of
Sahyadrikhanda
riding horses.
he
According to Usanas (v. 14) an ayogava from a ksatriya woman. Harlta ( quoted by Apararka p. 279 ) speaks of him in the same breath with rajaka and carmakara. The Brahmapurana ( quoted by Apararka p. 1177 ) says that he is pasumaraka'. Sumantu 207 quoted by Par. M. makes his food unfit for brahmanas. He is the same as khatika according to the Jativiveka.
Sunika or Saunika (a butcher).
the offspring of
is
' *
'
Sairindhra. According to Manu X. 32 he is the offspring of a dasyu ( as defined in Manu X. 45 ) from an ayogava woman and he makes his living by combing the hair ( of men and women ), he is not to be treated as a dasa ( i. e. he has not to eat
ucchista food
),
but
is to
perform menial work
such as sham-
pooing the body ) or is to subsist by catching deer etc. is included in the gana kulaladi ( Pan. IV. 3. 118 ).
The word
From
the
Mahabharata we see what duties DraupadI disguised as sairandhrl had to do for the queen of Virata ( Virata-parva 9. 18-19 ), viz. combing and arranging the hair, pounding unguents, making Similarly DamayantI became a sairandhrl to the garlands. mother of the Cedi king ( Vanaparva 65. 68-70), but she refused to eat ucchista food, would not wash the feet of anybody and would not allow any man to approach her. According to Adipurana quoted in Sudrakamalakara he lives by hunting deer and guarding royal harems and women after delivery.
207.
.
*r. II. 1. p. 383.
100
Svpaka.
Ch. II
of
According to
Manu (X.
38) he
is
the offspring
candala male and a pukkasa female, subsists by the profession of being hangman to those whom the king condemns to death.
Saduhanvana. Vide note on Vide Kamasutra I. 5. 37.

It
'rathakara* above (p. 45).
some of the castes mentioned magadha, malla and vaidehaka Amba, Magadha, Videha etc. ), that some others are based upon race such as Abhlra, Kirata and Saka. Manu ( X. 43-45 ) and the Mahabharata ( Anusasanaparva 33. 21-23 and 35. 17-18 ) were prepared to admit that
in the smrtis such as ambastha, are connected with countries (
will have been noticed that
several foreign races like the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Dravidas, Daradas, Sabaras, Kiratas
etc. were originally ksatriyas, but had been reduced to the status of sfidras by losing contact with brahmanas or by not liking the idea of being subject to the
brahmanical system.
same.
The Visnupurana (IV. 4. 47-48) says the Numerous names of castes arise from the professions
e.
they follow,
g.
ayaskara, kumbhakara, carmakara, taksan,
Even in ancient times tailika, nata, rathakara, vena etc. brahmanas followed so many different occupations almost as in modern times that the list of brahmanas who cannot be invited
at sraddhas because they follow occupations other prescribed for them is rather very formidable ( vide
than those
Manu
III.
151
ff.
and the remarks on panktipavana
later
on
).
It
appears that comparatively very early
many among
the
brahmanas had given up the occupations peculiar to them and were entitled to be called brahmanas simply because of their The Mahabhasya 808 of Patanjali quotes a verse 'tapcis^ birth. vedic study, and birth ( from brahmana parents ) these are the causes why a person is called a brahmana he who is devoid of tapas and vedic study is a brahmana only by birth ( and not a real brahmana ) Similarly in another place Patanjali quotes
;
'.
a verse
'know
viz.
this to be the auspicious sign of the best of
whose lore, actions and birth are all three holy* brahmanas, ( vol. II. p. 220 on Pan. IV. 1. 44 ). Though in the Mahabharata
208.
:
*TfTvrr*T
on
or. II. 2. 6
( vol. I. p.
411 and
II. p.
363
).
In
'
121, 7
wo have TO I (tart
a similar verse
I.
The
*Tf
TWT
wrgl"<J*K ulH has another verse (vol.

......
TO
II. p.
220
^rfr
WN^Hifl fNn
Oh. Itf 1
it is
Varna and character
10i
often said that a

809
brahmana
all,
still
is
so
by birth alone and that he

several times
deserves respect from
we meet
with
wherein there is a revolt against the caste system passages dependent on birth alone and where it is severely condemned and great emphasis is laid on the moral worth of a man. In the
Vanaparva
tapas,
(181. 42-43)
we
are told
810
truthfulness, restraint,
to sentient beings, constant generosity, non-injury adherence to dAarwa-fchese always lead men to the fruition ( of
) and not caste nor family '. Udyogaparva ( 43. 20 ff. ) explains at great length what is meant by self-restraint. In the Santiparva 211 (,189. 4 and 8) Truthfulness, generosity, freedom from hatred and wickedness, humility, kindness, and tapas
their goal
he
If these signs is known as a brahmana where these are seen. are seen in a sudra and they do not exist in a brahmana, then the 6udra would not be a sudra and the brahmana would not be
In another place we are told 812 there is no brahmana'. difference between the varnas; the whole world is brahma ( the creation of Brahma ), since it was created by Brahma in former ages and was evolved into varnas by actions ( or. occupations ).' ais Do not regard a person as ( 43. 49 ) remarks Udyogaparva brahmana by his talk he who does not depart from truth is a brahmana Vanaparva ( 216. 14-15 ) that sudra who is always struggling for self-restraint, truthfulness and dharma is a
* * ;
'
brahmana
in
my opinion,
(
for a
Vide Vanaparva
313. 108-111
It
brahmana is and Yaj. )

(
so
I.
by
)
his character.'
200 and Vrddha

that
Gautama
p.
632.
has been seen above
p. 6
Gautama
But
laid the greatest emphasis on the eight qualities of the soul.
209.
II
3f?JT?ta
JTsrvrpt 3fTsr"ft
35. 1
;
3*sRmr^
flcqf
^ smrar vide also 143. 6.
210.
ÊcT'ff
^FRfiNTT tjrff^KTr
*nWTT%
^t
37
181.42-43.
211.
*T*.
crtSH i$$ ra ^ vsr

9.
and 8
vide also
cR<r<J 180. 21.
212.
I
II
5TTT%
188. 10.
813.
cT**TT^rfc*r
43. 49; *r*g

r:
tr^ ^cfiw&Kf:
;
?r
3^4 216.
|^rr WT5T"T
*
14-15
:
cf
f%f
f^^Hp.
632. but the CRT.
w.
II
part
p.
228 saya
i02
History of Dharma&Ustra
Oh.
in spite of those sentiments the caste system dependent on birth has continued in all its strength and rigour for ages and writers like the Par. M. II. 1, p. 228 are emphatic in saying that between jati and character one must look principally to the eminence
of the caste.
In certain medieval works called Jativivoka and in other works like the Sudra-kamalakara ( first half of 17th century A. D, ) several more castes are mentioned, some of which are sot
out below.
Aghasika or Andhasika from avaidehika male and a sudra female; sells cooked food; also called Rtindhavanu.
Avartaka
JLhitundika
from a bhrjjakantha and a brahmana woman.

from a nisada and a vaideha female
;
called
Garudl in Marathi.
Aurabhra called Dlmngar in Marathi ewes for their wool ),
tends
rams and
Katadhanaka
Kuntalaka
from avartaka and a brahmana woman.
the
same as
napita.
Kuruvinda
from a
Sail,
kumbhakara and a kukkuta female.

female.
Same
called
as
modern
according to Sudrakamalakara.
Ghclika from a
Vyadha male and garudl
He
;
is
Undiramaru
or
(rat-killer) in the vernacular.
Durbhara
from an ayogava and a dhigvana

in
woman
called
Pohor
in
Dhor)
modern
times.
;
Paustika from a brahmana and a nisada female modern times Kahara or Bhol (palanquin-bearer).
called
Plava
in
from a candala and an andhra woman; called 'hadl'

times.
modern
BandhulafTom maitreya and janghika female; called Jharekarl now ( who takes out gold particles from the dust at the doors of goldsmiths).
stitute
Bhasmankura from a Saiva fallen ascetic and a sudra procalled Gurava by the Jativiveka.
;
Manyufrom
Taw$ia
(
a vaisya and a ksatriya female;

).
called
thief catcher
Romika from malla and an avartaka Lon&r in modern times ( manufacturer of salt ).
woman
called
Oh. II
Varna and modern
castes
103
tfalakya or
Sakalya from a malakara and kayastha
woman
called Maniar.
tiuddha-Marjalva called Mandali ( who gains by singing and playing on musical instruments ).
SindolaJca or spandalilca,
livelihood
from a sudra male and a magadha

).
female
called Rangarl
dyer
In modern times each of the principal varnas has numerous sub-castes, based upon difference of country, occupation, sect and other causes. For example, brahmanas are first divided into
ten classes, five of them being Gaudas 214 and five Dravidas. Among the Dravida brahmanas, the Maharastra brahmanas are
again subc&rided into numerous sub-castes such as the Citpavana ( orTlonkanastha ), Karhade, Desastha, Devarukhe etc. 815 It is said that in Gujerat there are 84 subcastes of brahmanas, most of which do not interdine nor intermarry. There is often a
further distinction
viz. those
among
the
members
of the
same subcaste,
follow the priestly occupation and those who do not. The spirit of exclusiveness and ideas of superiority that arose in vedio times gradually led on to further and further divisons and subdivisions of people owing to geographical
who
81<5 causes. It appears that probably even in ancient times the brahmanas of the north looked down upon the
situation and other
brahmanas
Magadha. Vide notes The Matsyapurana ( 16. 16 ) says that brahmanas who dwell in Mleccha countries, in Trisanku, Barbara, Odra ( Orissa ), Andhra ( Telingana ), Takka,
in
eastern countries like

(pp. 213-214).
31-32 above and Fick
Dravida and Konkana are not
to be invited at sraddhas.*
17
214.
(
;
section of the
'
^R^^TWT ) 3^^} X.
'
2-3
p.
ed.
by Dr.
Da Cunha ) vido Wilson's names slightly differ.

215.
Indian castes
vol. II.
17 where the
Shorring, vol.
in
*
I. p. 99.
7
and Wilson
total to 160.
Indian castes
vol. II, pp. 92
gives the names of these 84 subcastes adds more bringing the

.
Vide Bombay Presidency Gazetteer, vol. 9 p. 18 ( for 216. Sarasvatas of Panjab having 470 subdivisions ). Wilson ( 'Indian castes' vol. II. p. 126 ) was informed that there were 460 subcastes of SaTaarata brShmanas and he enumerates these at pp. 127-133.
16. 16.
104
History of DJiarma$astra
Oh. II
Among ksatriyas there are several subdivisions, such as those claiming descent from the Sun or the Moon and those that
Agnikulas ( vide Sherring, vol. I. p. 120 and Tod's Rajasthan vol. I chapter VII for lists of royal tribes ). The Paramaras have 35 branches, Guhilofcs 24 branches. Chahmanas 26 branches, Solankis 16 branches and so on.
call themselves to be
ff.
Even among comparatively

*
late
works the
total
number
of
subcastes enumerated does not go beyond even two hundred.
For example, Wilson in Indian castes' vol. I pp. 65-70 mentions only 134 castes with their Sanskrit and modern Marathi names as gathered from the Jativiveka, Madhava-kalpalata, Parasurama-pratapa and other works. It is only in the census reports
prepared at great expense by the British Government after elaborate efforts and organization that the great complexity of
this
modern India is laid bare to the eye. But work cannot, by reason of its limited scope, go into these varied and complex details of the hundreds of castes that exist
the caste system in
in the several provinces of India.
CHAPTER
THE DUTIES,
DISABILITIES
III
AND PRIVILEGES
OF THE VARNAS
The duties and privileges of varnas occupy a very prominent place in all works on Dharmasastra. The study ( of the Vedas ), offering sacrifices and giving gifts are said to be the duties absolutely enjoined on the brahraana, ksatriya and 18 while each of these three varnas has certain peculiar vaisya,* Teachprivileges, which are its principal means of livelihood.
ing Vedas, officiating at sacrifices and receiving gifts these are the privileges of brahinanas the profession of arms and protection of the people are the peculiar privileges of ksatriyas; agriculture, rearing cattle, trade and money-lending are the
;
peculiar privileges
sacrifices
and
the
The first three viz. study, of vaisyas. liberality are said to be the dharmas of all dvijas the other actions such as teaching the Veda are said to be
and
The consevrtti or jwika ( means of livelihood ) of the dvijas. quence of this bifurcation is that if the first three are nofc performed or are neglected, the person concerned was deemed to incur sin, while a brahinana is not bound necessarily to earn his livelihood by all or any one of the three viz. teaching, 219 A few words on officiating at a sacrifice or receiving gifts.
each
of these duties
and privileges must

).
be said at this stage.

(
Study
of Vedas
It
has been already stated
p.
38
that
brahmana and learning had become indissolubly connected even We see in the Satapatha Br. and in the in early Vedic periods. certain that kings had attained eminence as Upanisads learned philosophers or students of brahma-vidya and then even brahmanas came to them as pupils. For example, Yajnavalkya learnt from Janaka ( Sat. Br. XL 6. 21. 5 ), Balaki Gargya from
218.
Tg^rafaT'RW^fHSTT 3T*PJ
;
'
X. 1-3, 10. 2-5, Vas.
7,
50
vido also Ap. Dh.
S.
II. 5.
10. 5-8,
Baud. Dh.
S. I.
Dh.
S, II.
X. 75-79, Yaj. I. 118-119, Vi?i?u 13-19, Manu I. 88-90, 10-15, Atri 13-15. Markandeyapurfina 28. 3-8.
II.
219;
^W^nnnsfrfr aj^rsRtfwm* ar^sic^tm $f3*1*3%^ 3Rfte*rcSr ^ *<^w. ^^ 5Tr*g^^j sr^ on ft.

i
i \ i
snra-
x, 3
cf*îf%
nfiforsr^pf^
f^crr 8
on
^T.
I.
H8.
H. D. 14
106
Ch. Ill
Ajatasafcru, king of KasI ( Br. Up. II. 1 and Kausltaki Up. IV ), 280 Jaivali ( Chan. Up. Svetaketu Aruneya from Pravahana V. 3 ), five brahmanas from Asvapati, king of Kekaya ( Chan. V. 11 ). In Br. Up. ( IV. 2. 1 ) Janaka is described by 821 Yajfiavalkya as one who had studied the Vedas and Upanisads. From this it may be inferred that some ksatriyas at least
spent a good deal of time in the study of religious and 822 that is sometimes philosophical doctrines. The conclusion
1
220.
j^m^r Srefo
arrgrors till
known
vide
to
8 ay* in sn^r^r V. ho imparted it to *narr
3.
i
7 that q-^rrfSFNn
*IT
was not
*WT
s[f. grr.
VI.
2. 8.
where similar words occur about the same
221.
rfrf^ TTff
(T% $<r^n;cft ajfijsT: ^rsrsfrcT^'
^^rrf^r^f
3".
if eft
f^5 !8 *wrT:
d^ NH<4
4
T9T T^ns^Fftf^
'
^5.
IV.
2. 1.
Vide Deussen's Das System dea VedSnta ', 1883, (pp. 18-19 ) 222. the real cherisher of those thoughts was originally the caste of the Over and over again we kfatriyas, rather than tire caste of the priests.
(
come
mation
across the situation that the brtlhmana asks the kâtriya for infor' and Deussen refers only to six passages ( f Br. Up. II. 1, VI. 2,
'
Vide also 11 and Kauîtaki Up. I. 1 and IV. 1 X 'Philosophy of the Upanishads (translated by Qeden, 1905, pp. 17-19). In the first place these are too few passages out of the vast Upaniâd literature to found the sweeping generalisation in which the German
Ch. Up. V. 3 and V.
savant indulges. In the second place in Br. Up. II. 1 and Kausltaki Up. IV. there is no statement that brahmavidyS was known only to AjStaatru expresses surprise that a ksatriyas; on the contrary brShmana should approach a kâtriya for the expounding of brahma-
vidyS and says that this is opposed to the natural (or usual) order of affairs. This shows that AjStas'atru was an exception and that brahmanas In Kausltaki I. 1. and Ch. Up. taught brahmavidyS. usually V. 11 all that is narrated is that Gautama Svetaketu learnt from
Citra Gargyayaui
and certain drotriyas
like
Aupamanyava
learnt Vaid-
vSnaravidyS from Asvapati Kaikeya. But nothing is said here about brahmavidyS being first known to ksatriyas only. In Br. Up. VI. 2 and Ch. Up. V. 11 it is no doubt stated that 'this Vidya was not known to any brShmana till then but 'this vidys' does Dot mean the whole of the philosophy of brahma, but only that particular doctiine which bears the name of pancagnividyS. This vidyS no doubt propounds the doctrine
' ;
of transmigration in a figurative and somewhat picturesque way. But is elsewhere elaborated by brShinanas like YSjnavalkya to the brShmanas in king Jauaka's court and to Janaka himself ( vide Br. that doctrine
Up.
III. 2. 13 and IV. 4. 3-4). Nor can it be said that the doctrine of transmigration was not at all known before the Upaniads. The same views are echoed by Sir B. GL Bhandarkar in * Verhand-lungen des VII
(
Oh. Ill
Study of the Veda
107
drawn by certain writers that ksatriyas or kings were the pioneers in brahmavidya cannot be accepted as correct. The germs of the philosophy of the Upanisads are seen in the later
hymns of the Rgveda, in the Atharvaveda and in some of the Brahmana treatises. The Upanisads are full of brahmanas who
there
independently propounded various aspects of brahma-vidya and is no reason to suppose that the few ksatriyas referred to as masters of the vidya were the only persons who first attained to
that position. There are hardly any ancient passages to show that vaisyas devoted any portion of their time to veda study.
The Kathaka-Samhita 883 (IX. 16) indicates that all varnas studied the Veda since it speaks of a person not a brahmana, having studied ( Vedic ) lores and yet not shining ( by his
learning
).
The Nirukta which are called Vidyasukta ), the first of which says that vidya came to the brahmana and 825 requested him to guard her as his treasure. The Mahabhasya of Patanjali quotes as an agama ( Vedic passage ) the words a brahmana should study and understand without any motive ( of
to
As
4
)
brahmanas
the
matter stands thus.

(
II.
contains four 824 verses
'
profit
dharma, the Veda with its six subsidiary lores ( viz. Manu TV. 147 says a brahmana should etc. ) '. always and assiduously study the Veda alone; that (Veda study) is his highest dharma; everything else is inferior dharma \ Yaj. ( 1. 198 ) observes the Creator created brahmanas
)
*
phonetics
'
for the
preservation of the vedas, for the satisfaction of the

Cotinhucd from last page
( Arische Sec. pp. 108-109 ) and in Vaiûavism and laaivism* p. 9 * Ksatriyas engaged themselves in active speculation on religious matters about the time of the Upanisads and are mentioned as the original possessors of the new knowledge, and the learned Doctor refers only to Ch. Up. V. 3 and V. 11.
Internationalen Oriontalisten
'
Congresses zu Wion
It may be stated that Hopkins ( in Ethics of India 1924 p. 63 ), Barth (Religions of India p. 65 ) and Vedic Index ( vol. II p. 206 ) do not subscribe to these views of Detissen and Bhandarkar.
*
'
223.
*fr
SRTOT
arrgrof ff5&Ti>
PTISI fc^Msfla
'
TOfrMJ* IX. 16.
224. The same four verses occur in Vas. Dh.S.II. 8-11, three of them except adhyapita ye in Visnu Dh. S. 29. 9-10 and 30. 47 Manu II. 114-115 expresses the ideas of two out of them, but in different words.
'
' ;
225.
p. 15
).
108
pitrs, for
Oh. Ill
gods and
tains the
rites
same
idea.
the safeguarding of dharma.' Atri ( 25 ) conOther 886 sages say that ho in whose family
Veda ( Vedio study ) and vedl ( consecration of fires for 6rauta ) are given up for three generations becomes a durbrahmana brahmana ). The Tai. S. ( II. 1. 10. i ) ( an unworthy or bad prescribes a rite for a durbrahmana in whose family cessation of drinking soma occurred for generations and who himself
desired to drink soma.
the son
Teaching the Veda It is probable that in very remote times was taught the Veda by his father. The story of Svetaketu
(
and VI. 1. 1-2 and Br. Up. VI. 2, Vedas from his father and the legend in the Br. Up. ( V. 2. 1 ) that the gods, men and asuras learnt from their father Prajapati points in the same direction. 827 Rg. VII. 103. 5 shows that instruction was oral and consisted in the pupil repeating the words uttered by the teacher. 888 Whatever may have been the case in very remote times, from the times of the Brahmana literature and in the times of the dharmasastras teaching Vedic literature was almost universally in the hands of brahmanas. Some ksatriya teachers or philosophers are referred to in the Satapatha ( VIII. 1. 4. 10 and XT. 6. 2 ) and elsewhere, but they are generally held in low esteem. The 229 Ap. Dh.S. (II. 2. 4. 25-28) lays down that the brahmana alone can be the teacher ( of a brahmana ), but in distress ( i. e. in the absence of a brahmana teacher ), a brahmana may learn from a ksatriya or vaisya, but the only service ( which as a
Aruneya
1
)
Chandogya V.
3. 1.
shows that he learnt
all the
pupil
) he should render to a ksatriya or vaisya teacher is to go after him ( and not shampooing his feet etc. ) and after the
brahmana
226.
TT*T
finishes his study,
the
brahmana may go
f^fûtl^
1-
in front
3T*I ^3,3 1 ^ Î^cT-'qTT

I
%^pgr
$ ^f
is
f^T^^R
'
^ 9*3 fTcTJqrm
*n^
<J
U4gi<4 KVTFTT
10 &~6.
This
is
quoted as
Yama'a by
AparSrka pp. 286,449.
has the verse, but tho last pa"da the following am^tf
IV p. 524, Jiv.) ^n^lcf} T *fi<H^T Vide for j^fajm

Aiirfanaqa ( chap.
Httf
II.
1.
îiiWfaMm^tt ?H
^. #. II.
1. 5.
fejâmmdfrH *ffr T9^Hfar<fNl ^npTR
<pr?5r<JT:
I
fthrm^
10. 1
;
3n%ftt
^.
ST.
vide also
5 fc
227.
^T:
'*$ ^nr
228. 229.
^:
f.
3-.
V.
2. i.
^^srm^t STT^T ^r^ ?rr^^
^t fiwmor:
.
URT.
VII. 103.
5.
'
WTT sr
II. 2. 4.
25-28,
Ch, III
Teaching the Veda
109
II.
Gaut, ( VII. 1-3 ) and Harm ( X, 1, ). lay down the same rules. Manu ( II. 242 ) adds that a perpetual student ( naisthika brahmacarl ) should not stay as a pupil with a teacher who is not a brahmana and that a brahof jhis ksatriya teacher
241
mana may
craft
(
learn even from a sudra a useful or efficacious
The profession of teaching the Veda could not ). have brought much money or wealth to brahmanas, since very great emphasis was laid, as we shall see later, on teaching without any prior agreement about payment. It was the 220 privilege of a brahmana alone to officiate as a priest. Jaimini says that, as the ksatriya and vaisya cannot be priests (rtviks ),
II.
238
the sattra
sacrifice extending over many days or years ) ( a could be performed only by brahmanas. The Katyayana Srautasutra uses a similar argument. When Visvamitra agreed to
perform a sacrifice for Trisaiiku who had been cursed to be a 831 candala, the Ramayana says that the gods and sages would not accept the oblations. It is doubtful whether the same rigid
rule prevailed in ancient Vedio days. In Rg. X. 98. 7 it is said that Devapi was the purohita of Santanu and the Nirukta
(
adds that Devapi and Santanu were brothers and desSo, according to the Nirukfca at least, a be a in Vedio times. could It may be admitpurohita ksafcriya ted that the Rg. itself does not expressly say that they were In modern times many writers often speak of brahbrothers.
II.
10
cendants of Kuru.
manas
or as priests. But this is not a All brahmanas never were nor are priests; besides even in modern times when caste is so rigid not brahmanas. all priests in all temples and shrines are
as the priestly
caste
very accurate statement.
Some brahmanas became
many engaged
tic rites
the family priests (purohitas) of kings, as rtviks at solemn srauta sacrifices or at domes-
later institution
and ceremonies. Temple priests are comparatively a and they were generally looked down upon in 228 olden times and are regarded as inferior even in modern times.
Manu
III.
152
says that a devalaka
i.
e.
a brahmana
who took
230.
ansriTRT
^wtf^^nHRTcJ $w\*
I
VI.
6.
18
*\&u\\
ft I. 2. 28.
231.
srfsnfr ^rrsreft
wr ^srim ft^rw:
232.
:
quoted in
^f^f$?^T
II p. 396,
the
first
verse being quoted by
pp. 450, 923.
110
Oh. Ill
remuneration to perform service before the image in a temple for three years continuously was unfit to be invited at a Sraddha or to officiate in a sacrifice for gods.
The third means of livelihood permitted to brahraanas was receiving gifts from a worthy or unblemished person. Accordquoted in the Sm. C. ( I. p. 179 ) pratigraha ( receiing to Yama ving gifts ) from a worthy person of the three higher varnas is
superior to the acquisition of wealth by officiating as a priest or by teaching. But Manu (X. 109-11) says that pratigraha
from an unworthy person ( or a sudra ) is worse than the act of teaching him or officiating as a priest for him. Very elaborate rules were laid down about gifts i. e. who should receive gifts,
from
whom
gifts
may
be received and on what occasions and

of gift.
The latter two matters Here the rules about the persons to whom gifts should be made and from whom they were to be accepted will be set out. It appears from the Br. Up. (IV. 1.3) that even in those ancient times there were prohibitions against receiving gifts from unworthy persons and officiating as priests for the unworthy. And the Br. Up. ( V. 14. 5-6 ) suggests that it is only the learned who could properly accept large gifts.
will be discussed in detail later on.
what things were proper subjects
In the first place, the ideal set before brahmanas was one of poverty, of plain living and high thinking, of forsaking the active pursuit of riches and cherishing cultural preservation
and advancement.
Manu
lays
down
the general rule that
when not
just
in distress a
to
sufficient
brahmana should acquire wealth only maintain himself and his family, and to
enable him to perform his religious duties without causing any harm to others or by as little harm to others as possible and
without unduly worrying his own body ( IV. 2-3 ) and then Manu ( IV. 7-8 ) says 234 thai; a brahmana householder may
233.
fT^fctf g
234.
I. p. 179. n *m quoted in ^{^g kumblil buve been variously words 'kusula aud explained by the commentators vide Kulluka on Manu IV. 7. According to Kulluka one wbo baa corn sufficient for tbreo years is called
m4 S^faf %T:
Tbe
'
kusuladhanya as suggested by Manu X. 7; wbile kumbbidhffnya one who lias a store of corn for one year. MedbStitbi says tbat there is no restriction to corn only one wbo has wealth either in corn or money to satisfy his needs for three years is kusnladhSnya and kurnbhidhanya arc according to GovindaiSja, kusuladha"nya respectively those who have corn for 12 and 6 days. The Mit. on YSj. I. 128 accepts GovindarUja's explanation.
'
J
'
'
is
'
'
'
Ch. Ill
Accepting gifts
111
)
either accumulate so
much
grain
but not more
as
kusula
a granary
),
or a kumbhi z3s or he
may
would fill a have as much
corn as would satisfy all his needs for three days or as much as will suffice for the day that is on and that out of these four
each succeeding one was superior to each preceding one i. e. one who had no more accumulation of material goods than for the
day itself ( and who did not care for the morrow ) was the best brahmana. Yaj. I, 128 speaks of a fifth grade viz. a brahmana should subsist by collecting the ears of corn that are left in
the
field
after the
left
crops are gathered or the single grains of
if a brahmana cannot maintain himself he may prefer to live on the collection of fallen ears of corn or grains rather than receive gifts. This
corn so
and Manu (X. 112) says that
designated rfca by Manu ( IV. 5 ). Manu ( IV. 12, down that a brahmana should cultivate supreme contentment and though desirous of happiness should restrain himself ( in the pursuit of wealth ), he should not, even when
last
mode
)
is
15, 17
lays
in distress, hanker after the acquisition of wealth by excessive attachment or by doing what is forbidden or by accepting gifts from any person whatever ( of blemished character etc. ) and he should give up pursuits that are opposed to ( cause obstacles in ) his devotion to Vedic study. Yaj. ( I. 129 ) says the same thing
in more concise language. Vyasa prescribes that a brahmana should seek to narrow down his means of livelihood and should
about accumulation 828 The brahmanya. Mahabharata says that when a brahmana has more corn than he would require to satisfy his needs for three years, then he should offer a sacrifice with that wealth and he should not go on accumulating wealth in vain and that accumulation of vast 837 wealth is a calamity for a brahraana.
;
not hanker after excess of wealth

(
if
he
sets
of wealth he loses the
glorious
status of
Gautama ( IX.
Laghu-Vyasa
63
)
(II. 8
), Yaj. ( I. 100 ), Visnu Dh. S. ( 63, 1 ), and say that a brahmana snould approach a
the
it
235. That this ideal of *kniubhIdliSiiya' is very ancient is shown by use of the word kumbhidhftnya in the Mahsbha^ya where
is
explained
as
follows
(on Pan.
I.
3.
7,
vol.
\
I.
p.
264)
vw
236.
f Rr^^t^JTF^d^lcr
TT. I. 1- P.
nHfr*?rnjc
SROT^
i
srf
^3 WTSJ
-spfa
WTO
quoted in TO.
199 and ^f?Nr.
I. p.
173.
237.
**roc M
thaffojTsi^T vnET^fiH ^3^TH^ 47. 22 3**fff

.
^T^T^STW g wTîwNr TI;
*Hfcr
fa
f^trf^r^ff
HST^
61, 19.
112
( i. e.
Oh. Ill
Dh. S. ), and Vas. brahmana when oppressed by hunger should seek for help ( or money ) from a king, from his pupil or from one who is able and willing to offer a sacrifice. Bufc a brahmana should not receive a gift from an irreligious king or other irreligious donor. This implies that if the brahmana is not hungry and has sufficient wealth either obtained by inheritance or partition or in any other way he should not go about seeking for wealth and should not receive gifts ( Manu IV. 34 ). If a brahmana cannot secure gifts from the above three, then he may do so from any other worthy dvijati. When even that is not possible and the brahmana is in difficulties he was allowed to take a gift from anybody including a sudra ( Manu X. 102-103, Yaj. III. 41 ); but a brahmana should not seek gifts from a
I.
king ( or a rich man ) for his yogakqema and support ). Manu ( IV. 33 ), Yaj. (
XII, 2
)
for his livelihood
130
declare that a
sudra for the performance of a sacrifice or for agnihotra, as thereby he becomes a candala in another birth ( Manu XI. 24
and
42, Yaj. 1. 127

(
).
),
A brahmana
elders
parents
etc.
his dependants
trying to support his hungry ( wife, servants etc. ), and
about to worship gods and honour guests may accept a gift from anybody ( except a patita ), but should not satisfy his own hunger with that wealth (Manu IV. 251, Vas. 14. 13, Visnu Dh. S. 57. 13, Yaj. I. 216 ). Yaj., however, allowed this even for
Gaut. 239 ( 18. 24-25 ) allows a brahmana to receive even from a sudra as much as would enable him to finish marriage ceremonies on which he has embarked or to get materials for a sacrifice when he has begun it. One may take
one's
own
livelihood.
gifts
from a sudra or ugra for paying a fee to one's guru at the end of the period of brahmacarya ( Ap. Dh. S. I. 2. 7. 20-21 ). A brahmana was not to seek gifts from a king who was not of ksatriya lineage nor from butchers, oilmen, keepers of liquorshops and of brothels nor from courtesans ( Manu IV. 84 ), nor from a king who is avaricious and transgresses the rules of the
tastras
24
(
Yaj.
I.
140,
Manu
IV. 87
).
The Smrtis lay down

i
238.
239.
j?$RcTT*rt ^sfiif
fitsncfru arrsrorr
s^fa
*ri^#nrrg
T
'
n%r
17. 1-2 .
îqicH f^TCfirg^rsJ
Vide Par. M.
I. 1.
nrfd^-H'^fft
*W3H
18. 24.
p. 199 for quotations from Saihvarta, the Skandapurffna, the Vi^nu-dharmottara condemning the receipt of gifts from irreligious kings. In Anusteaana 93. 94 the sages say to king
240.
fWtar*
Oh. Ill
that
Accepting gifts
113
it is the duty of the king to support &rotriyas ( br&bmanas learned in the Veda ) and brahmanas who are incapable of struggling for their maintenance (Gaut. X. 9-10, Y&j. Ill* 44, Atri 24 ) and that if a srotriya perishes through hunger in
the domains of a king, that country would suffer from famine and disease ( Manu VII. 134 ). Yaj. III. 44 lays down that it is
the duty of a king to assign a proper means of livelihood to a brShmana in distress, having regard to the brahmana's conduct,
descent,
learning,
Vedic
study, tapas,
family.
841
The
ideal set before
the members in his brahmanas in the matter of
pratigraha ( receiving gifts ) was that he, who though entitled to accept a gift ( on account of his Vedic learning and tapas ) does not take it, attains to the highest worlds ( Yaj. I. 213 ); and
says that though entitled to accept gifts a resort to that method, since the spiritual power ( due to Vedic study ) that he acquires is lost by accepting gifts. Another rule about gifts is laid down in many works as follows. When a donor himself goes to the place of a worthy donee and makes a gift that is the best gift, when a donor calls a donee to his place and makes a gift it is middling and when a donor gives if begged by a donee it 848 Manu ( IV. 188-191 ) prescribes that a man, who is inferior, is not learned, is reduced to ashes like fuel if he accepts a
)
Manu ( IV.
186
brahmana should not again and again
gift of gold, land, horses, cows, food, clothes, sesame that a brahmana who, being devoid of learning
(
and ghee, and tapas
regulated life ), desires to accept gifts sinks ( into Hell ) as who sits in a stone boat sinks in water and that therefore a brahmana who is not learned should be afraid of receiving gifts.
one
We find that kings followed these directions from very 241. ancient times. In Karle Inscription No. 13 (E. I. vol. VII. p. 57) and Naaik cave Inscription No. 12 ( E. I. Vol. VIII p. 78) king UsavadSta that he gave one lakh of cows and 16 village! ( $Babhadatta )> proclaims to brShmanas at PrabhSaa and got some of them married at his expense and that he also fed every year a lakh of brffhmanas. In numerous grants of lands and villages the purpose of the grants is said to be to
enable the donees to perform the five Mdhayajhaa, Agnihotra, Vaidvadeva, the offering of bali and caru ( \ide Sarsavni plate of BuddharSja in B. I. vol. 6 p. 298 dated in Katacchuri Sarhvat 361 i. e. 609-10 A. D., Damodarpur plates in B. I. vol. XV. p. 113 dated 443-14 A. D. ).
242.
amrr*3ra*t qiHmgff* g qrenrq I- 29 *rwr i^faRfr fnr a^*i*ff>J

;
w* *rre*rprre frnrqrfr
f^jfl^
i
QlT^fiR^ quoted by the Hit. and AparSrka (p. 291) on Ysj. 1. 203. Vide quoted by AjarBrka p. 291 and 6antipaiva 294. )8-19.
M
H*D. 15
114
History of Dharmainstra
Ch. Ill
To the same effect are Yaj. ( I. 200-202 ), Vas. Dh. S. ( VI. 32 ), Ausanasa ( Jiv. L p. 521 which is almost the same as Manu IV. 188). Just as a brahmana who was not learned was enjoined not to accept a gift, so conversely people were asked to make gifts only to learned and worthy men. Even so early
as the Sat. Br. this is emphasized as in IV. 3. 4. 15 ( S. B. E. " vol. 26 p. 344 ) thus those cows of his are given to him who
is
fit
to receive a daksina
and not
to
him who
is unfit'.
Vide
114) also. The Ap. Dh. S. (II. 6. 15. * 9-10 ) prescribes one should invite for dinner in all religious acts brahmanas who are pure and who have studied the Veda
III. 5. 1.
19
(S. B.
E. vol. 26
p.
and one should distribute gifts at a proper time and place and on occasions of purificatory rites and when there is a worthy E* 3 To the same effect are Vas. Dh. S. Ill, 8 and VI. acceptor/ Manu III. 128, 132 and IV. 31 ), Yaj. ( L 201 ), Daksa III. 26 ( 30, and 31. 844 The smrtis say that gifts given to a brahmana who has not studied the Veda or who is avaricious and deceitful are fruitless and lead the donor to hell ( Manu IV. 192-194, Atri Manu ( XI. 1-3 ) says that nine kinds of 152, Daksa III. 29 ). snataka brahmanas who are poor are the primary objects of the while to others gift of food and fees inside the sacrificial altar food and wealth may be given outside the altar ( bahirvedi ).
;
An exception was made in the case of gifts made without request from the donee. What has been offered unasked may be
accepted even from one who is guilty of bad actions, except from unchaste women, impotent persons and patita ( outcastes or
Ap. Dh.
persons guilty of raahapatakas ) Yaj. I. 215, Manu IV. 248-49, S. I. 6. 19. 11-14 ( where two verses are quoted from a
Pur&na which are almost the same as Manu IV. 248-249 ), Visnu Dh. S. 57. 11. Many persons are mentioned in the smrtis from whom gifts ( particularly of food ) were not to be accepted ( vide Manu IV. 205-224, Vas. Dh. S. XIV. 2-11 ).
Another rule about
learned
brahmana who
is
one
who
not near;
if
was that a person should prefer a his neighbour for making a gift to he did not do so, he incurred sin; but
gifts
is
there
was no blame in passing over an ignorant or
foolish
243.
^f*nft sfarnprft
244.
III. 31.
i
STTT.
*. *,
H.
6. 15.
9-10.
Thi8
is
also
44-45,
*Tg$mm*
59. 7,
mfc*r
35. 52-53,
72. 39.
Oh. Ill
Proper donees
115
brfthmana who stays near in favour of a worthy but distant brahmana. 245 Vide Vas. Dh. S. III. 9-10, Manu VIII. 392 ( which prescribes a fine of one masa for this ), Veda-Vyasasmrfci IV. 35-38, Brhaspati-smrti 60 and Laghu-Satatapa 76-79, Gobhila-smrti II 66-69. Devala quoted by Apararka p. 288 and Par. M. I. part 1 p. 181 say that that brahmana is a patra ( worthy to receive a gift) who is pure in three respects ( viz. as to his parents and his guru ), whose means of livelihood are slender, who is tender-hearted and of restrained senses. Vas. Dh. S. VI. 26 and Yaj. I. 200 also define patra similarly.
It is not to be supposed that the ideal of poverty and nonacceptance of gifts except under compelling circumstances was only an ideal hardly ever acted upon at any time or in any part of .the country. Even in the 20th century rural India has villages with a considerable population of brahmanas where
many srotriyas ( learned in the Veda ) and pandits ( those who study sastras like grammar, logic, mlmansa ) are still found who are content with what little patrimony they have got, who
engage in the profession of teaching the Veda and sastras in accordance with ancient rules and who do not go about seeking In the gifts nor accept invitations for dinner at sraddhas.
Santiparva 199 brahmanas are divided into two sorts,
viz.
those
for
who
are pravrtta
( i. e.
engage in
all
sorts
of activities
acquiring wealth) and those who are nivrkta and verse 40 defines these latter as those who do not resort to pratigraha ( acceptance
of gifts
).
was a special privilege of brahmanas, by anybody to anybody. Yaj. I. 6 says that giving to a worthy person at a proper time is the complete definition of dharma and Visvarupa adds that but the merit secured by gifts could be made by anybody making a gift depended upon the worth and caste of the donee. Gaut. ( V. 18 ),846 Manu VII. 85, Veda-Vyasa IV. 42, Daksa III. Though
could
gifts
pratigraha be made
245.
.
WlgJUIIIdchHt TlftcT
tl.
I. 5.
98,
^rm IV. 37
The
10, iftfltWi'fo II. 68-69.
n^^fqr 227.
roads ft* ^fofift ), *fihj III. 7 also prescribes a fine for
246.
18
VII. 85 3qeiTO IV. 42 and Daka read ^fliiumiîtf which reading is noted by Kullaka also and VedavySaa (IV. 43-47) explains the words
;
116
History of DharmaiBstra
Oh. Ill
28 say that a gift given to a brahmana ( who is only so by but is not learned ), to a drotriya ( or ScSrya ) and to one who has completely mastered all the Vedas ( with their subsidiary lores ) respectively confers merit which is twice, a hundred thousand times or an infinite number of times more than 4 the merit conferred by a gift to a non-brShmana. Gautama* *
caste,
(
V. 19-20
and Baudhayana
II. 3.
24 further
make
it
obligatory
to give outside the sacrificial altar according to one's ability
portion of one's wealth to a brahmana, irotriya and veda-paraga when they seek help for giving a daksina to their teacher ( at the end of the period of studenthood ), for their own marriage,
for medicine, for their
sacrifice, for their
own maintenance
that day
),
for a
own
study or journey, and
when everything
has been given in a Visvajit sacrifice and that one must give cooked food to all others who beg for it ( except brahmana, &rotriya and vedaparaga ). Manu ( XL 1-3 ) gives practically the
same
rule. In the Yaisvadeva the householder was enjoined to give food to every one including even dogs and candalas, as we
under 248 Vaisvadeva ). Medhatithi on Manu IV. 5 says that when a person makes a gift through compassion it is not the dana and pratigraha spoken of by the 6astra just as when a man gives instruction as to what is beneficial he does not care to see what the caste of the person to be benefit ted by the advice is, so a gift made through compassion is made irrespective of caste and that when non-brahmanas reduced to a helpless condition take what is given by others, it cannot be said that they are assuming to themselves the livelihood by prati4a graha which is a peculiar means of livelihood for brahmanas.
shall see later
on
247.
t
Ptam%
24
ftdl*ffid?3
ifaur V. 19. 20
^.
STT*?:
tj.
TTSPTihT^q^M KV"*T. before g% *}o and TOKlfih

.
^. II. 3. 24 reads before *ff^ft%. Vide
248.
3er^^ HTPfa:
?nj xT fh^ u l^l
^TtTT
I
N^&*<l:
^ffT JJH;
t
W. *. ^.
<|[ii<4i:
I
II. 4. 9. 5.
249.
^TfHgBiQ^
T ?T5T
f
^T^"
fftlT "Sf f?IHT n4f%& ^T^ 3qcf^rÎ5^'>i W 94 "j ii c<) q q sj^WT'n 9W X \&v\\ Slf^T ^^ÎMWl: *&?[ ^p^ Ji5!KI T T fwr^ on T3 IV. 5. The words t^Ttsrm quoted here are from Rg III. 96. The Par. M. (I part 1 p. 189) quotes a verse from the MahsbhSrata >
I
I
The idea
diseased
is
is
that qfiug is a privilege, while charity to the poor
and the
due
to dayci (
compassion
).
Oh. Ill
Proper donees
117
In spite of the noble ideal set before br&hmanas it appears owing to the growth of the Brahmana population and the paucity of gifts and invitations to officiate as priests, the strict rules about dana and pratigraha had to be relaxed and in course of time it came to be said that a brahmana, whether learned or ignorant, was to be a donee and may accept gifts without any
that,
scruples.
The
first
inroad 850 was
made by
the rule that in rites
gods the character and learning of brahman as need not be deeply inquired into, but fchat such enquiry was proper only when they were to be invited for 6raddha and, other rites for the dead, the only exceptions being that a brahmana, who is a thief or is guilfcy of a mahapataka, or is impotent or an atheist was not to be invited even in rites for the gods ( vide Manu III. 149-150 ). Gradually such views as the following came to be
meant
for
The Skandapurana* as quoted by AparSrka ' 455 ) makes Siva say to ParvatI the Vedic revelation is that )raddha ( food ) should be given (to a brahmana) after inquiry ( into his learning and character ), but straightforward action is better than scrutiny. When one offers sraddha
recommended.
(
51
p.
straightforwardly without scrutiny, his pitrs are satisfied and also gods/ The Vrddha-Gautama smrti (chap. Ill pp. 512-513 and 518, Jiv. ) says Brahmanas, whether well conducted or
'
not
fire
of bad conduct, whether vulgar or of polished intellect, should be disrespected like fires covered with ashes. Just as in whatever condition
it
may
be, is
a great deity, so a
'
br&hmana is a great deity in whatever condition he may be.' llf The wise should not despise brahmanas, whether they be squinteyed, humpbacked, dwarfs, indigent or diseased, since they are
250.
miyuuvr
qfrsfcr srf^r^ft
2.
^nTwft^
3T35TTCPT 90.
Article
XXVI
instructive parallel may be found in of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Anglican Church, wherepriest
An
by sacraments administered by a
in efficacy.
251.
who
is
sinful
do not
suffer
quoted by
252.
amr4 p.
455.
n ft
?> fit^TTt
"
Wrem
chap. III. pp. 512, 513

I
vide
m$
200. 88-89
^fedlW^
*!*^!
iHT:
II
'
ÎW"
^[^^
Tf^
II
118
Oh. Ill
The Anutesanaparva ( 152. 19 ) (i. e. of Krsna)'. brahraana who not 'a is learned is a god and he is a worthy says object for gifts and is a great purifier; a learned brShmana is a
my forms
greater god
than an unlearned one
).*
already said above teaching could have brought very There was no state educational system as in modern times with stability of tenure and graded rates of
little
As
wealth.
any Copyright Act under which a learned for students and the general public. The brahmanas had no organised corporate body like the Anglican Church wifch its hierarchy of Archbishops, Bishops and other divines, nor was there in ancient India any practice of making wills whereby large estates came to the Church as in England ( where statutes of Mortmain had to be 25 * passed to prevent enormous estates from going to the Church). The emoluments of officiating priests and gifts given by charitably disposed persons must have been fitful and offered only a precarious means of livelihood, as they depended upon the volition of others and as the smrtis recommended that even in fcraddha too many brahmanas should not be invited.* 55 Besides all biahmanas could not have possessed the memory, intelligence and patience required to master the Vedic Literature
salary.
Nor was
there
man
could
make money by writing books
after intensive study for decades of years. Therefore, there is no wonder that many brahmanas were compelled by the force of
circumstances to pursue for their livelihood avocations other than the three prescribed ones. From ancient times this was recognised by the dharmasastra works. Gaut. ( VII. 6 and 7 ) says that if a brahman a cannot maintain himself by means of
the three peculiar modes of livelihood viz. teaching or officiating as a priest for even an unworthy person or by receiving gifts,
then he should maintain himself by doing the work peculiar to a ksatriya ( i. e. by fighting and protecting people ) and if even that is not possible then by following the avocations of a vaidya and Gaut. VII. 26 ordains that a ksatriya may resort to the
profession of the vaisya in similar circumstances.
253.
Baudhayana
152. 19
and
23.
p.
Vide Holdsworth's History of English Law ( 4th ed. ) rol. Ill 87 for the origin of statutes of Mortmain from 1279 A. D. to 51 and
254. 255.
52 Vio. chap. 42.
Vide
Munu
III. 125-126,
GUut.
15. 7-8, Yjj. I. 228.
Oh. Ill
Other means of maintenance

II. 2.
119
says the same and then it adds ( IL 2. 78 and that it should not be so as the duties of a ksatriya would be too terrific for a br&hmana and that he should pursue the avocation of a vaisya. BaudhSyana ( 1. 1. 20 ) notes that the profession of arms was practised by the brahmanas of the north. Vas. Dh. S. ( II. 22 ) lays down that
Dh.
S.
77
80) that
Gautama says
persons (of the three higher varnas) should, if they cannot maintain themselves by the peculiar avocations of their varna, resort to the means of livelihood prescribed for the varna which is immediately below their own. Manu X.^81-82, Yaj. Ill 35, Narada ( rnadana 56 ), Visnu Dh. S. 54. 28, Sankha-Likhita say the same f86 thing. It is further laid down by the same works that a person belonging to a lower varna should not resort to the modes of livelihood peculiar to a higher varna ( vide Vas. Dh. S. II. 23, Manu X. 95 ). The smrtis further ordain that when the calamity or distress ceases, the person who has taken to the avocations of another varna should perform prayascitfca, should resume his proper avocations and abandon fche wealth acquired
by him by resorting
192-193 Visnu Dh.
;
to
improper avocations
vide
Manu XL
S. (54.
27-28), Yaj. III. 35,
Narada ( rnadana
59-60). Manu (X. 96 ) prescribes that, if a person of a lower varna maintains himself through greed by the avocation 85T peculiar to a higher varna, the king should confiscate the wealth and should at once banish him from the country. A classical example of the keenness with which good kings were expected to prevent persons of lower varnas doing the actions allowed only to higher varnas is furnished by the
Ramayana ( VII. 73-76. ) The Uttararamacarita of Bhavabhuti echoes the same sentiments. A 6udra 858 who engaged in japa, homa, tapas or became an ascetic or repeated ( Vedio ) mantras was to be punished ( or killed) by the king and was also guilty of mortal sin. Manu ( X. 98 ) allows a vaisya, if unable to maintain himself
story of
Sambuka
narrated in the
by the
256.
pursuits peculiar to his varna, to live
by means
of the
quoted by
p. 930.
257.
9?rer*r fpffir wnjrT:
m$ qi*?WH
fTO: 9n? TT *T8f Ud0fr ft
57
258.
19.
136-137
inan.
ed. )
vide wnrf 150. 36
120
Oh. Ill
serving members of the twiodby Gaut. ( VIL 22-24 ) that a brShmana may maintain himself in any way if unable to maintain himself ( by the three means specially prescribed for
actions proper for a
viz.
udra
born classes.
It
is
also said
him ), but he should

that according to
some acaryas he
when
life
itself is
not resort to the actions peculiar to a dudra, may do even those actions in danger, but that when he stoops to the
actions peculiar to sudras for maintenance he should not mix himself up with members of that varna ( by sitting on the
seat with them etc.) or eat articles forbidden to brShmanas such as leek and garlic ) and should not be a mere menial servant. Vide Manu ( IV. 4 and 6) and Narada ( rnadana 57 ).
(
same
According
the fcudra
859
to all ancient authorities the special
duty of
was to render service to the twice-born classes, to obtain his livelihood from them and serving a brahmana conferred greater happiness or benefit on the &udra than serving a ksatriya and serving a ksatriya conferred greater good than serving a vateya. According to Gaut. ( X. 60-61 ), Manu ( X. 124-125 ) and others, the sudra was to wear the old or cast-off clothes, umbrellas, sandals, mattress etc. of his patron and the leavings of food { ucchista ) were to be given to him. If he became old and unable to do work while serving anyone of the higher varnas he was to be fed by him whom he had formerly served (Gaut. X. 63). In course of time the position of the 6udra MO was unable to maintain hi. aself and improved. If a 6udra his family by serving dvijas he was allowed to maintain
t
himself by having recourse to crafts like carpentry or drawing or painting pictures etc. Narada ( rnadana 58 ) allowed him to perform the work of ksatriyas and vai^yas in times of
distress. Yaj. (I. 120) also says that, if unable to maintain himself by the service of dvijas, the sudra may carry on the profession of a vai&ya or may take to the various crafts. M1 who could not maintain The MahS-bhSrata allowed a 6udra
259. n.
1. 1.
^qgqrr
;
l.i7-8
;
^^1 ^WIK
tnnfofr
Tjfflf
i
^g^t^tai qn*ii^
'
X. 57-59
MarniQii
ff% izwfa 31$ ^whrM^cl frilfilMJ

&*ft
i
enr
60. 28
I.
;
vide also Vas.
Dh.
S. II. 20,
Manu
X. 121-123, Ysj.
1.
120,
aft. T*.
I
^.
10. 5, wsnrfr 150. 36.

8.
260.
f^KTMi-jOq
^T
$J^l
u li
I.
TSpJTeJng:
mîl"!
17 1
OTjn qJBurmft
261.
*n<*ro
sqpsfir
*g
X. 99-100.
295. 4
wm
quoted in the
22. 5.
ffhr.
I.
p. 171
ride
Ch. Ill
Position of Sudras
121
himself by the service of higher varnas to resort to the avocations of a vaidya, to rearing cattle and to crafts. Others like Laghu-A6valayana (22.5), Vrddha-Harlta ( VII. 189, 192 ) allowed agriculture to the sudra. The Kalikapurana quoted in the Gr. R. ( p. 479 ) allowed the sudra to sell all commodities except honey, skins, laksa ( lac ), wines and flesh, while Brhat-Parasara (p. 101 ) prohibited the sudra from selling
wine and flesh. Devala quoted in the Mit. ( on Yaj. I. 120 ) prescribes that the sudra should serve the twice-born and may engage in agriculture, rearing cattle, carrying loads, sale of
commodities, drawing and painting, dancing, singing and playing on musical instruments like the flute, lute, drums and 86B tabors. The foregoing will show that the sudra gradually rose in social status so far as occupation was concerned and could follow all occupations except those specially reserved for the brahtnana, so much so that sudras became even kings and
Manu
IV. 61
had expressly to enjoin upon brahmanas not to
dwell in the kingdom of a sudra. 6S The smrtis however did not like that wealth should be accumulated in the hands of the sudra (though they were quite willing that ksatriyas and vaisyas
should
command
all
wealth
).
Gaut.
X. 64-65
says that the
sudra's accumulation of wealth should be for the support and benefit of the other varnas. Manu (X. 129) says that a sudra, even
though able to accumulate wealth, should not do so, as ( on account of his pride of wealth and his ignorance ) he may cause obstructions and trouble to brahmanas. Sudras were divided into numerous subcastes. But there were two main divisions. One was aniravasita Sudras (such as carpenters and blacksmiths) and the other niravasita sudras ( like candalas ) vide note 200 above. Another division of sudras was into those who were
;
bhojyanna
( i. e.
)
brahmanas
262.
and
abhojijanna.
food prepared by whom could be partaken by In the first were included one's
TO
in
f^RTT
on
ITT. I.
120,
263.
Compare
arnr.
*T.
*.
I. 11.
32.
with *rg IV. 61. This dictum of Manu must have been pronounced at otherwise it would have no a time when sGdra kings were rare meaning and brahmanas would have been compelled to leave India. So it follows that Manu did not hold the view propounded in certain PurSnas that after the Nandas there would be no ksatriya kings and only
;
will be kings.
H, P. 16
122
Ch. Ill
slave, one's cowherd, barber, family friend and one who shared with one the crop reared on one's land (vide Yaj. 1. 166). is worthy of note that even the Mit. adds the potter to the Ifc
above
list.
All the other sudraa were such that a
brahmana
could not take his food. A third and well-known division was into sacchudra ( well-conducted ) and asac-chudra. The former class included those sudras who followed good occupations or
trade,
served dvijas and had given up meat and drinking or
The Sudrakamalakara (p. 60 ) says that selling liquor. asat-sudras do not incur sin even if they partake of meat and liquor, provided they do not eat forbidden meat arsd that
there is no lapse if one
BW
comes in contact with a sudra that
drinks liquor.
A few words may now be said about brahmanas being allowed to follow the occupations of ksatriyas and vaisyas. From very ancient times brahmanas appear to have followed the profession of arms. Pan. ( V. 2. 71 ) teaches 26S the formation of the word 'brahmanaka* as applied to a country, which means
which Brahmanas follow the profession of arms.' Kau^. 866 (IX. 2) quotes the view of the acaryas that when there are armies
*in
composed of brahmanas, ksatriyas, vaisyas and sudras each preceding one is better for enlistment than each subsequent, but Kaut. himself is against this and adds that the enemy may
win over the army of brahmanas by prostration before them. Apastamba was against the idea of brahmanas following the 267 a brahmana profession of arms. He says ( I. 10. 29. 7 ) hold a of for even should not catch weapon examining it ( much
*
264.
?T
gtf fl-N<JSHjJ 3TF5r%

3!
(
3ff
5T
f^FfGTTnT <* ?TOT *T^T?T ft *T
^STT
265.
WT3T section ) chap. 44. 32.

2.
Pan. V.
71
is
not commented on by Pataiijali and tho
explains the sutra as above.

a country called
Psi).
But
it is
clear that Patanjali
knew
on
BrShmanaka
as elsewhere
srrsrTOrt
ho says
*rnr
( vol. II. p. 298
IV
2.
104,
Vartika 30,
266.
l:
I
^f^ ÎICCMJ
STftim3*f fll^Hci <TrVsPf^rviii,

i
sfnf^FT IX. 2.
1. 10.
267.
gfterofire ^r^rir 5*rgtf Hij<fto

.
arrr.
J
^.
29. 7
VII. 25
wrmcîf ^r
T^nfr^^nrf
H
rmf
r.
art^TT^f
^sr^ ?n5f
^"itl ^
l
$.
II. 2.
80
* w\ * V4\
\
Î'wîq^îcii*^
^RiB
III. 24.
Ch. Ill
BrUhmayas as
with
it
) '.
soldiers
123
(
less for attacking others
Gaut.
VII, 6
allowed a
brahmana
(
to follow ksatriya's profession in case of distress
apad ) and adds ( in VII. 25 ) that even a brahmana while still following the peculiar avocation of a brahmana may wield weapons when his life is in danger. The Baud. Dh, S. (II. 2. 80) quotes a verse for saving cows and brahmanas, for preventing
*
the mixture of varnas, the brahmana and vai^ya may take to arms from their concern for dharma. The Vas. Dh. S. (III. 24) allows a
1
brahmana
to wield a weapon for protecting himself and for preventing confusion or mingling of varnas. Manu( VIII. 3 48-349) allows all dvijatis to resort to weapons where the observance of
dharma ( or of the duties of varnas and asramas is obstructed by violent men ), when there is a disturbance ( due to invasion
)
etc,
) involving the twico-born classes, in evil times for protecting one's self, when there is an attack for carrying away cows or other wealth ( given as fees ) and in order to protect women
and brahmanas and he incurs no sin if he kills ( for these purposes ). Among the heroes of the Mahabharata there are great warriors and commanders like Drona, his son Asvatthaman, Krpa (the maternal uncle of Asvatfchaman) who were brahmanas. The Mahabharata says that a brahmana should fight at the order of the king. 268 The Santiparva ( 78. 18 ) calls upon persons of all varnas to wield arms when the rules for holding society together are broken and when dasyus ( robbers or U)w persons ) cause confusion. From ancient times we find brahmanas as commanders and founders of royal dynasties. The famous Senapati Pusyamitra belonged to the Sunga gotra and wrested an empire from the last of the Mauryas about 184 B. 0. His line was followed by the Kanvayanas, the founder being minister Vasudeva, a brahmana, who killed the last Sunga about 72 B. 0. We learn from the Talagunda pillar inscription of Kakusthavarman ( E. I. Vol. VIII, p. 24 ) that the founder of the Kadambas, Mayurasarman, was a brahmana. In Maratha history there were the Peshwas and other brahmana warriors and commanders.
the occupation of
brahmana in distress may follow a vaisya, there were several restrictions imposed upon brahmanas following the occupations of money-
Though
it is
said that a
lending, agriculture, trade, and the rearing of cattle, which were prescribed as the privileged occupations of vai&yas.
268.
1
1
5t^rrf 65. 42.
124
Ch. Ill
5-6 ) allowed a ( X. and his family by agriculture, sale of commodities and money-lending only if he did not engage in these personally, but through the agency of others. Vas. Dh. S. ( II. 40 ) enjoins upon brahmanas and ksatriyas not to lend money like usurers and quotes two verses which define usury and say that a userer is a greater sinner than even
to
As
money-lending,
Gaut. 269
brahmana
to maintain himself
one who is guilty of brahmana-murder. Manu (X. 117) also forbids usury to brahmanas and ksatriyas, but allows them to charge a low rate of interest to persons engaged in low actions.
Narada
rnadana 111
87
forbids
usury to brahraanas even in
the direst calamities.
prayascitta
S. ( I. 9. 27. 10 ) prescribes a a brahmana lending money at usurious rates. 271 in the Gr. R. has a rather amusing Brhaspati as quoted
Ap. Dh.
for
verse 'sages have enumerated numerous means of livelihood, but out of all of them money-lending is pre-eminent. There
is loss in agriculture due to draught, to the fear of the exactions of the king- and the ravages of rats and others, but there is no such loss in money-lending.' It appears that this is only a
general or satirical statement and does not
recommend money-
lending to brahmanas.
tions
The obvious reasons and motives underlying these restricon brahmanas were to make them live simple lives, to insist on the necessity and high value to themselves and to society of studying, preserving and augmenting the ancient literature and culture, to emphasize the fact that a highly
spiritual life should not be
to prevent
given up for a mere secular
life,
the coarsening and hardening of the heart and emotions in a relentless and continuous pursuit of wealth or
martial glory.
Agriculture
conflict
269.
of
In the dharmasastra works there is a great views about agriculture as an occupation for
I
rmrfÎ^ 3TS*q<l$d
^ft^
A. X. 5-6
*nratarRj
JHflum
'
*TOSr
II. 40.
Vide 4.
*r.
*.
i
I.
5.
(
93-94 for these two
verses
awreffi ft
*fieis
sriST^^
f ^T^
w%
i
ôrrfTf
v.
Ill
270.
a?^nfl ?nr^
-
i^^w^fi^'
^(fftl^t
^TPnr:
^. ^. I. 9- 27. 10.
271.
sîff
^Tf^TPTT
in ^f.
^. p.
Tft^HncTT;
it
f^?rm
488
Ch. Ill
Agriculture and brfihmanas
125
brahmanas. The Vedic Literature does not condemn agriculture in the case of brahmanas. The gambler's song 27 * ( Rg. X. 34 ) winds up with the exhortation *do not play with dice, do engage in agriculture, thinking highly of my words ( or of wealth ), do
find joy in wealth, in that
is
( in agriculture ) there are cows, there your wife &c.' There are frequent references in Vedio Literature to fields, ploughshares and tilling the soil ( vide Rg. X. 101. 3 = Tai.S.IV.2.5.5, Vaj. S. XII. 67, Rg. 1. 110. 5, 1. 176. 2, X. 117. 7 ). Baudhay ana 873 says (1. 5. 101) The study of the Veda tends
'
to the destruction of agriculture and ( devotion to ) agriculture tends to the loss ( of the study ) of the Veda. One who has the
capacity
is
to look after both

(
may
)
unable
to look
after
both
Baudhayana
engage morning meal and he should only coax again and again his oxen whose noses have not been pierced and whose testicles are not removed and without proddThe Vas. Dh. S. ( II. 32-34 ) has a ing them with a pointed awl
'.
further says ( II. 2. in agriculture before his
resort to both, but he who should give up agriculture '. a brahmana should 82-83 )
'
similar sutra, adds that in summer he shall water his beasts (in Manu ( X. 83-84 ) the morning ) and quotes Vaj. S. XII. 71. a brahmana or a ksatriya compelled to follow the says
'
avocations of a vaisya ( owing to difficulty of maintenance otherwise ) should by all means avoid agriculture which is full
of injury to sentient beings
and dependent on others
labourers,
oxen & c. ). hood but it

tip
( i.
e.
Some regard agriculture as a good mode of liveliis condemned by the good, (as) wood having an iron the plough) strikes the earth and (the insects and
*
*
ture
germs) imbedded in the earth/ Manu IV. 5 designated agriculby the word pramrta ( pre-eminent in loss of life ). Harlta
274
quoted
in Gr.
R.
p.
429
declares 'the
ploughshare
life,
it
(
(i. e.
it is
)
agriculture ) carries with it destruction of not for brahmanas ; but if he were to follow
distress he should pursue
it
therefore
agriculture
of tiding
in
only
till
his object
over
272.
H
^. X.
34. 13.
273.
$^
T. *T.
^. !
*>
101
4<l<l
*ft. *f.
^ H.
2.
82-83.
274.
mg^H
<3if &
126
distress) is
Oh. lit
27S (II, 2-4, 7, 14) allows a acoomplished '. Parasara brahmana to engage in agriculture, but lays down certain The proper number of oxen to be yoked to the restrictions.
'
cruel
six being middling, four are yoked only by the and two by those who sacrifice the lives of their oxen he should not yoke an ox that is hungry, thirsty or tired, he should make the oxen work only for half the day and then bathe them in water, he should offer the five mahayajiias and other sacrifices
plough
is eight,
with corn raised by himself engaging in agriculture, the sin of ploughing the earth for a day with an iron-tipped ploughshare is equal to that incurred by a fisherman fishing for a year; he should give J of the corn to the king, offer S T to gods and ?\y to brahmanas and then he may not be smeared with sin*. Harlta
quoted by Apararka (p. 937) has a long prose passage on the treatment to be given to oxen by brahmanas and also Vrddha-Gau-
tama
Vrddha-Harlta ( Jiv. part 2 p. 571 ). ( VII, 179 and 182 ) that common all varnas and agriculture, is to says agriculture rearing cattle and service are not forbidden to any. The above
discussion shows
876
how
agriculture
was viewed
at different times
and by
different writers
from
different points of view.

is
Sale and barter
We
have seen above that a brahmana
allowed to maintain himself by trade in distress or difficulties But there were very great restrictions as to what things ( apad ). could be gold by a brahmana, According to Qaut. (VII. 8-14 ) a brahmana should not engage in the sale of fragrant things ( like sandal-wood ), fluids ( like oils, ghee &c. ), cooked food,
sesame,
hemp ( and hempen
articles like bags

clothes,
),
ksauma ( linen
its
),
deer-skin, dyed
(
and cleanly washed
milk and
products
like curds &c. ), roots, flowers, fruits, herbs ( used as drugs ), honey, meat, grass, water, deleterious drugs (like opium, poison), animals ( for being killed ), mon (as elave-.), barren cows, heifers and' cows liable to abortion. He adds ( Gautama VII. 15 ) that according to some a brahmana could not sell land, rice,
yava, goats
275.
and
sheep, horses, bulls, freshly delivered cows
and
TS-^rsrf^Ttrt
r
II. 2
;
Rcff
T f&cq%
(
II
<ro?R
II.
12-13.
p. 936, T$$ . ^. p. 431.
The verse
) I.
Apastamba
in verse
ascribed to ff^T(% by occurs in Atri 222-223, 22-23, HSrlta in Gr. K. p. 431.

is
This last
sreM w**fe&
VII. 179, 182.
Ch. Ill
Sale and barter for brcthma^s
127
oxen that are yoked to carts. These restrictions did not apply a ksatriya engaging in trade. Ap. Dh, S. 1. 7. 20. 12-13 877 has a similar list but adds among forbidden articles of sale weapons,
to
*
stalks ( tokma ), fer( slesma, like lac ), young mented liquids ( kinva ), the expectation of merit ( sukrtasa ) and says that among coma sesame and rice are on no account Baud. Dh. S. II. 1. 77-78 condemns the sale of to be sold. sesame and rice by saying that he who sells them sells respectively his pitrs ( dead ancestors ) and his pranas. This arose probably from the close connection of sesame with sraddha and tarpana. Vas. Dh. S. ( II. 24-29 ) gives a similar list and adds
sticky things
a prohibition against the sale of stones, salt, silk, iron, tin, wild animals, all fcame animals with uncloven hoofs and those that have a mane, birds and animals having fangs.
lead, all
'
quotes a verse at II. 27 ( which is the same as Manu X. 92 ) a brahmana immediately becomes a sinner by the sale of meat, lac and salt and he becomes a smdra by selling milk for three
It
878
'
Manu ( X. ( II. 1. 76 ), days '. About sesame, Baud, Dh. S. 91 ) and Vas. Dh. S. ( II. 30 ) present the same verse If a man deals with sesame in any way other than eating them or using them for bathing (i. e. applying sesamum oil to the body before a bath ) and making a gift of them, becomes a worm and sinks together with his pitrs in the ordure of a dog '. But it appears 279 that Vasistha (II. 31), Manu (X. 90) allow the sale of sesame if a man engages in agriculture and himself produces them ( but sale must be only for purposes of religious duties, according to Manu ). Yaj. (III. 39) and Narada { rnadana 66 ) say thafc sesame may be bartered for an equal measure of othar corn to raise means for religious purposes ( and for medicine also according
to Narada).
Manu
(X. 86-89), Yaj. (III. 36-38),
Narada (rnadana
give long lists of articles that Brahmanas were forbidden to sell and that include a few more than those specified above.
61-63
For example, Manu forbids the sale of bee's wax, kusa, indigo, while Yaj. adds soma, mud, blankets made of goat wool, hair ( of camarl deer ) and oilcakes ( pinyaka ) to things forbidden to
277.
^
-T
fqspnrro[ ww. v. ^.
i
I. 7.
20. 11-13.
278.
H3
279.
vH>aH 1*^^*11^111^ ^5 r Mc^d X, 91 ; ^qrr quoted in

sff
fiTrtt
*^N.
I.
180 has a similar yorse.

i
5&nt
*re ^fterrar
fiteF* foiiWtai;
sfite II. 31.
128
be
sold.
History of Dharmatostra
880
Ch. Ill
Sahkha-Likhita, Udyoga-parva 38. 5, S&ntiparva 78. 4-6, Harlta ( as quoted by Apararka p. 1113 ) contain long lists of things the sale of which was forbidden to brahmanas. Apart
from these negative

prescribe
rules, there are

sold.
some that
are positive
and
S.
what may be
!
For example, the Baud. Dh.
M|
prescribes the sale of grass and wood in their natural state and ' quotes a verse Oh Brahmana, these are the articles you may
sell,
domestic animals that have only one row of teeth, minerals except salt and threads ( i. e. cloth ) that are not coloured Narada888 (rnadana 64-65) states a brahmana with some dye.
viz.,
* '
may
(
sell dried
wood and
),
grass, except fragrant articles, eraka
kusa grass; cereals that get split up of their own accord, badara and inguda among fruits, cords and threads of cotton provided they are not a kind of grass
rattan, cotton, roots,
Sahkha-Likhita also (as quoted by Apararka p. 933) have the same rules as Narada and further enjoin upon the brahmana not to higgle for the price but to have a fixed price.
coloured
'.
Yaj. ( III. 40 ) says that the sale of lac, salt and meat lead to a brahmana's fall ( i. e. he loses the right to perform the duties of dvijatis) and the sale of milk, curds and liquor reduces
him
low class (i. e. of a sudra). Manu (XL 62), and Yaj. (III. 234) include the sale of forbidden articles among upapatakas and Yaj. (III. 265) prescribes candrayana and other prayascittas for it. Harlta ( quoted by Apararka p. 1113 and Mit. on Yaj. III. 265 ) prescribes various
to the status of a
S. (37.
Visnu Dh.
14)
prayascittas for the sale of various forbidden articles. LaghuSatatapa prescribes ( v. 87 ) candrayana for the sale of honey,
meat, wine, soina,

280.
T
lac, salt.
888
Narada (rnadana 67
'
calls
upon
TCSfffUliMiqicuttMituI
W3m c5 tfTOî
f^Q-rf.
I.
4 'fW'rrt l^Tl*!^** W^jci'l

T:
1 1
quoted by
38. 5.
smi% P. H13
and
180
281.
STWgîTFcT iq^ârTST^t^ff^fl^rspfi^Trll ^. ^.
gu|4hiyQ$<i
I
I
R^Hl
^.
II.
1.
81-82; sale
of minerals would be opposed to Vasi^tha 282. *T5W{*r g f^Snfr
II. 24.
64-65)
^Mi^lg^^
p-
quoted by surTT*
quoted in 3JtmJ>
p. 934.
934
Ch. Ill
Safe and barter for brnhmarias
129
the king to inflict a heavy fine upon a brahmana who engages in the sale of articles forbidden to be sold and strays from the
path
proper for brahmanas
in the absence of distress.
states the general rule that Ap. Dh. S. ( I. 7. 20. 14-15 ) exchange or barter also of those articles that are forbidden to be sold cannot be resorted to, but adds that barter is allowed of foods with foods, of slaves with slaves, of fragrant things with other fragrant things, of one kind of learning with
another.
rasas
(VII. 16-21) allows the exchange of with rasas, of domestic animals with other domestic animals, of cooked food with an equal measure of uncooked food for immediate use, but forbids the barter of salt, cooked food and sesame with other articles. Manu ( X. 94 ) allows the exchange of one rasa ( liquid like molasses ) with another (like ghee ), of cooked food with uncooked food, of sesame with an equal quantity of other corn, but does not allow the barter of salt for any rasa. Vas. Dh. S. ( II. 37-39 ) has rules similar
Gaut.
to
285
Manu and Ap. 886 Manu ( X. 116
enumerates ten means
of
maintaining
oneself in apad ( distress ) viz. learning, arts and crafts, work for wages, service ( i. e, carrying out another's orders ), rearing
sale of commodities, agriculture, contentment, alms, money-lending. Out of these some cannot be followed by a brahmana or a ksafcriya when there is no distress ( e. g. a
cattle,
brahmana cannot engage of these and adds cart*

'
in service). Yaj. III. 42 enumerates seven ( i. e. driving curts for hire ), mountain
subsisting on the price of grass and fuel taken from hills ), a country full of water, trees and shrubs, king ( i. e. resorting 288 to or begging from a king ). Chagaleya quoted in Gr. R. p. 449
284.
srf^ftcT^qt i^wt flftmt

t
i
wr.
i
*r ^.
r
1. 7. 20.
14-15.
i
285.
f^r^g
TOT
Trnî
*&
T^fn ^
cF^^cnsnft:
a <ns^ tfuwff imnT

i
VII. 16-21.
I
286.
HT3J<n
T*l*fcft tfNft ^T f^fTTcf^r:

I
*$
I
qfttf II. 37-39.
287.
:
ii
fTOT firef frfa: *rg X. 116

;
^J ^TT
f^
42.
fTO^
fW^R W:
ffiflM
$ ^H^ffir 3
288.
TT.
HI-
in W- T. P 449. The f^%^?n VI. 138 has the first half and reads the 2nd half as 1^331 <nftft THTT ^^R. In some Mss. of the this verse occurs in VI. 5 where the readings are an^^5^T ^r^ TT3TT f^% Tf I^PTJ N. STI^FfsT may be the same as
^ ^1^^
130
Ch. Ill
speaks of nine means of livelihood in a season of drought, viz. cart, plot of vegetables, cows, fishing, asyandana ( maintaining oneself by the slightest effort possible ? ), forest, a
full of water, trees and shrubs, a mountain, king. Narada (rnadana 50-55) says thut three modes of acquiring
country
wealth are
common
to all, viz.
ness or affection and
what comes
inheritance, a gift of friendlito a man with a wife ( at the
time of marriage); that each of the three varnas has three special modes of acquiring wealth, viz,, receiving gifts, fees as booty in priest and fees for teaching in the case of brahmanas
;
war, taxes and fines in judicial trials in the case of ksatriyas ; agriculture, rearing cattle and sale of commodities in the case
of vaisyas.
Narada ( rnadana verses 44-47

),
divides wealth into
sukla
(
white, pure
sabala
dark-white, mixed
varieties.
dark
and each of these into seven
and krsna ) The Visnu Dh. S,
varieties
ohsp. 58 also divides the wealth of householders into these three and says that what is earned by the special modes
prescribed for each varna, inherited wealth, gifts of affection and what comes with the wife-these are Sukla ( pure ); what is
by following the special avocation of the varna immediately lower than one's own varna and what is acquired by giving bribes or by sale of forbidden articles or from one who is under one's obligations is sabala what is obtained by following the avocations of a varna other than the immediately lower one and what is acquired by gambling, theffe, violence or fraud is called krsna. Baud. Dh. S. ( III. L 5-6 ) speaks of ten kinds of vrttis ( means of livelihood ) and III. 2 explains them at length. Manu ( IV. 4-6 ) speaks of five ways of livelihood viz. rta ( i. e. subsisting on grains left in the fields ), amrta ( what comes without begging ), mrta (alms obtained by begging), pramrta ( agriculture ), satyanrfca ( sale of commodities ) and
obtained
;
forbids svavrtti
service,
lit.
living like a dog

live
).
Manu
means
(IV. 9)
( i.
further says that
some brahmanas
by
six
e.
adhyapana, yajana, pratigraha, agriculture, rearing cattle and trade ), some by three ( viz. the first three ), some by two (yajana
and adhyapana
and others again only by one
adhyapana
).
wealth were
The avocations practised by brahmanas in the pursuit of many and varied, so much so that from very ancient times the lists of brahmanas not eligible for invitation at sraddhas because they followed unworthy callings were very
formidable.
brahmanas and
Atri (Anan. ed.) verses 373-383 names ten kinds of briefly defines them, vis. deva-brahmana ( who
Oh. Ill
Classification of
brahmanas
131
daily performs bath, samdhya, japa, homa, worship of gods and honouring of guests and vaisvadeva ), muni-br. ( who is given up to staying in a forest, subsists on roots, fruits and vegetables and performs daily sraddhas ), dvija-br. ( who studies the Vedanta, gives up all attachments and is engaged in reflecting over Sarhkhya and
who engages in (who sells lac,

(
Yoga ), ksatra-br. (who fights), vaisya-br. agriculture, rearing cattle and trade ), sudra-br. salt, dyes like kusumbha, milk, ghee, honey,
meat
nisada-br. ( who is a thief and robber, a backbiter and ), always fond of fish and meat ), pasu-br. ( who knows nothing about brahma and is only proud of his wearing the sacred
thread
mleccha-br. ( who obstructs or destroys wells, tanks, ), gardens, without any qualm )and candala-br. (who is a fool, devoid of prescribed rites, beyond the pale of all dharma and cruel). Atri (384) rather 289 humorously adds those who
*
are devoid of Vedic lore, study the sastras ( like grammar, logic &c. ), those devoid of sastric lore study puranas ( and earn money by reciting them ), those who are devoid even of purana
reading become agriculturists, those who are devoid even of that become bhagavatas ( pose as great devotees of Siva or Visnu
i.
o.
become what
890
is
called in
modern Marathi buva
'
'
)/
Devala
by Apararka ( pp. 284-285) speaks of eight kinds of brahmanas ( of whom each succeeding one is superior to each preceding one) viz. matra ( one who is only born in a brahmana family but has not studied any part of the Veda nor performs the actions appropriate to brahmanas ), brahmana ( who has
quoted
studied a portion of the Veda), srotriya (who has studied one vedic sakha with the six angas and performs the six duties of brahmanas ), anucaaa (who knows the meaning of the Veda and
the vedangas, is of pure heart and has kindled the sacred fires ), bhruna ( who besides being anucana always performs yajnas and eats what is left after performing yajnas), rsikalpa (who has gained all worldly and Vedic knowledge, and has his mind
289.
^flsfais* craRf
srrei srrifar
II
WHdl
290.
Hîf^cT
3Tr5T
384.
These verses about the eight kinds of arrima are quoted in

also
the
^PHc*n3IT
sr:
(MS.))
i
The
^g-israw
a lso gives brief
definitions of these eight kinds of

(
s^*. ^r^r: ?
132
History of
Dharmai astro,
Ch. Ill
under control ), rsi (one who is celibate, of austere life, of truthful speech and able to curse or favour ), muni ( to whom a clod of earth and gold are the same, who has ceased from all 891 activity, is devoid of desires and anger &c. ). $atatapa quoted
( pp. 286-287 ) speaks of six classes of persons who, born though brahmanas, are really not brahmanas viz. one who has taken service with a king, one who engages in sale and
by Apararka
purchase (of commodities), one who officiates for many yajamanas, one who is the officiating priest for the whole village, one who is in the service of a village or town, one who does not
perform saihdhya adoration in the morning and evening at the

proper time.
The Anusasanaparva ( 33. 11 ff) shows that some brahmanas were great rogues, others engaged in austerities, some resorted to agriculture and rearing cattle, others subsisted by begging, some were thieves and others were false, some were acrobats and dancers (but it yet recomnends that brahmanas must be honoured ).
The smrtis
( II. 4.
are to be treated
teach that brahmanas doing certain things as sudras. For example, Baud. 898 Dh. S.
20 ) requires a religious king to employ brahmanas who do not perform the morning and evening adoration ( samdhya ) in doing work appropriate to sudras. Vas. 893 Dh. S. J( III. 1-2 ) says that brahmanas who are not srotriyas ( learned in the Veda ), who do not teach the veda or who do not kindle the sacred fires become reduced to the status of sudras and quotes a Manava sloka ( Manu II. 168 ) that a brahmana who without studying the Veda works hard to master something else is
*
quickly reduced while still living to the status of a sudra together with his family/ Manu ( VIII. 102 = Baud. Dh. S. I.
291.
cf: U 3?TOcfi pjp. 286-287 frnror in his HT^T cm $. BTT. chap. III. khaijda 5 quotes with variations these very verses (viz. ^j^rfi^Jicr^T^f^r: *
;
*ra*ft
urf^mn
^ <?3V ^gr^g: f^r: n
).
sfir
292.
^f qpn H^T *wi ^ nm
wuti
^m cm ^r^>
^rsn
g^-
OTfJ^ftenfcjU ^t. ^. ^. II. 4. 20 (this as sr5TT<TUr'8 by some writers. )

293.
and the preceding verae are cited
*rf&S HI. 1-2; this verse ia also c^^T^cTPT^ 22. 23 ; vide 10 and tf**T**o 22. 21-22 irnnfMfcft ft* ^"F^llfirf^ VIII. 24; but the very next verse ia TO
T;
ll
also
Cb. Ill
5.
Brahmanas and low avocations
I3i
95) asks fche king to treat as sudras brahmanas wbo engage in rearing cattle, in tbe sale of commodities, wbo are artisans and actors, who are mere servants and money-lenders. Vide Manu
tbat a Parasara ( VIII, 24 ) says brahmana wbo does not repeat tbe Gayatr! mantra is more impure tban even a sudra and tbat brahmanas who do not offer oblations to sacred fires, wbo are bereft of sarhdhya adoration
X. 92 quoted above
( p.
127
).
and who do not study the veda are all sudras and that therefore one should study at least a portion of the veda if he cannot 295 sums up in one place the study the whole. Manu (V. 4) are seized reasons why brahmanas by Death before the allotted span of human life on account of not studying the Vedas, on
'
account of giving up the rules of conduct prescribed for them, through idleness and through the faults arising from ( partaking forbidden ) food, Death desires to kill brahmanas.'
few words must be said about begging,
Tbe smrtis
prescribe begging as specially appropriate to brahmacarins (vedio students) and ascetics (yatis), which will be dealt with at
length later on. Begging was not allowed to others except under 896 considerable restrictions. The king of Kekaya is made to
boast in the Mahabharata
is
(
Santi 77. 22
that no one
wbo
not a brahmacarin begs in bis kingdom. Gifts of food were to be made daily while performing the five mabayajnas
(
this will be treated under vaisvadeva ). Ap. Dh. S. II. 5. 10. 1-4 recognizes that begging can properly be resorted to for the
following reasons, viz. for the teacher, for ( one's first) marriage, for a sacrifice, in anxiety to support ouo's parents, for warding off the non-observance of the duties of a worthy person he
;
enjoins that on these occasions there is a duty to give according to one's ability and according to the worth of tbe person begging
and
(
that
if
man
afld not for pressing

294.
begs only for the gratification of his senses wants ) one should pay no heed to such 89?
i
arf&^nrorcq-Rsraru
*fMfo%?ft
295.
H^m^nrrSim: *rf% sr T ?T*FI$ TOSTT

i
XLI. 32-33.
are^jwre
V. 4
^HIHMK^ ^
srefsn^
296. 297.
*T3rsr'*rft ftsTTTO;
frg*for3refoR
i
OT%^ 77. 22.

i
fn^t Rfixwi^reffireTgr ^r mmfrwiri te*r TTRTB? %*rac si^rffarfrer g fasrTOfafHxf^ r. r II. 5. 10. 1-4; compare Manu IV. 251, XI. 1-2,
'
Ysj.
I,
216,
Gaut. V. 19-20. srnfotrf 165. 1-2 are

r
fam
i
134
begging.
Vas.
History of Dharma&ftstra
Dh.
'
Ch. lit
XII. 2-3 says that a man oppressed by hunger may beg for a lifcfcle viz. a cultivated or uncultivated plot, a cow, a sheep or ewe, and at last gold, corn or cooked food; but a snataka should not faint through hunger; this
S.
is
the instruction*.
Vide
Manu
X. 114 for practically the
same words and Visnu Dh. S. 3. 79-80. Baud Dh. S. II. 1. 64 includes begging by one who has finished his course of shidenthood among actions that make a man impure (aitcikara).
16-17 says that when a person has had no food days he may take away ( by theft even ) from one who is lower than himself in class as much corn as will be enough for one day, either from the threshing floor or from the field or from his house or from whatever place he can get it, but he should announce his action when the owner asks. Gaut. 898 effect. ( 18. 28-30 ) and Yaj. III. 43 are to the same Angiras
for* three
Manu XL
quoted in Gr. R. ( p. 450.) allows begging to the diseased, the indigent, to one who is torn away from his family and who is on a 8" as quoted in Gr.R. (p. 457) say when journey. Sankha-Likhita
'
man begs he should state the purpose ( such as marriagej completion of sacrifice ) of his begging; he should nofc beg of a woman or of those who are minors or unable to conduct
when the donor is not in a proper place or at a He should apply the alms to the purpose for which he
their affairs, nor
proper time.
begged.
He
)
unused
(
to priests or
should give that portion of the alms which remains any other excellent person*. Vas. Dh. S.
and Parasara 20 ( I. 60 ) call upon the king to fine that village where persons of the higher classes wander about begging though they are not observers of vows ( like brahmacarins ) and are not studying the Veda. The foregoing will show that indiscriminate begging was never allowed or encouraged by the smrtis even for brahmanas, much less for others.
III.
It has been seen above how even during the Vedic perTod brahmanas had come to be highly eulogised as if they were The gods and held superior merely on account of birth.
3*l^<în
299.
^. p.
450.
w
300.
;
*
i
]?
457.
sRiifrnTT *rt *Ntnro fitî: *fo$ HI- 4 and TO^TC I. 60.

arepri
rf irirf
Ch. Ill
Tai.
High eulogy of brGhmarias
135
III. 7- 3 says 'One should sacrifice in the right a brahmana the brahmana indeed is Agni-vaiSvanara'. Vide Santiparva 343. 13-14, 'Manu IV. 117, Likhita The same ideas of the sacredness and 31, Vas. Dh. 8. 30. 2-5.
Br,
hand
of
the superiority of brahmanas were carried forward and further Most exaggerated emphasized by the dharma-6astra works. and hyperbolical descriptions of the greatness of brahmanas
are
sown broadcast over
all
the smrfcis and the puranas.
It is
not possible to set out even a small fraction of them. But a few passages may usefully be cited here by way of samples. ' The Visnu Dh. S. 301 ( 19. 20-22 ) says the gods are invisible
deities,
but brahmanas are

;
visible
deities;
the worlds are
the gods stay in heaven by the supported by brahmanas favour of brahmanas words spoken by brahmanas never come
;
whatever 802 wealth belongs to the brahmana; the brahmana deserves everything on account of his superiority due to his descent ( from the mouth of the Creator ).' Manu IX. 313-321 contain a hyperbolical eulogy of the power of
to be untrue
exists
'.
Manu
( I.
100
'
declares
on this earth
all that
brahmanas, two of which may be set out who would prosper if he oppresses brahmanas that, when angered, might create other worlds and other guardians of the worlds and that might 'a ( 315 ) deprive the deities of their position as deities brahmana, whether learned or not, is a great deity ( verse 317 ). Manu XI. 84 is 'a brahmana by the very fact of his birth is Parasara (VI. 52-53 ) an object of honour even to the deities. holds whatever defects there may be in vratas, in austerities, or in sacrificial rites, they all vanish when brahmanas support them. Whatever words are spoken by brahmanas are spoken by the gods brahmanas have all the gods in them and therefore
'
'
'
'
their
words do not
'
fail.
8os
The Mahabharata indulges
in very
301.
19. 20-22.
With the
This
is
first
sutra note 85 above

It
may
4
be compared.
it is
302.
mere arthavada.
means
as
if his
',
for
(in VIII. 338) prescribes for brShmanas who knowing everything are guilty of theft 64 or 100 or 128 times as much fine, as a dndra guilty of the same theft has to pay if he unknowingly commits it, while the latter pays eight times as much if he knowingly commits it.
Manu himself
303.
VI. 52-53. %udrd<T

variations.
( I.
30-31
has the same two verses with
slight
136
History of Dharma$astra
Ch. Ill
frequent eulogies of brahmanas.

'
Adiparva (28. 3-4) says
a brahmana, when provoked, becomes fire, tbe sun, poison, and weapon a brahman a is declared to be tbe guru of all 805 a brUhmana is the highest ( 303. 16 ) says beings.' Vanaparva
; '
light,
he is the highest tapas the sun shines in heaven on account of the salutations made by the brahmanas '. This and similar dicta closely follow what was expressed in the Vedic
;
c
the sun would not rise if the long before e. g. brSLhmana did not make sacrifice ( Satapatha II. 3. 1. 5 ) the refrain of Bg. II. 15. 2-9 is that Indra performed his great and
period
'
heroic works under the intoxication of the
soma
offered
by
the priests in sacrifices ). Rg. IV. 50. 7-9 say that a king and others for whom the purohifca offers prayers win battles, secure
*
306 ( 33. 17 ) says booty and help from gods, Anusasana-parva into a a and a deity into a make non-deity deity they may non-deity that man may become a king whom they desire to
;
be
so,
(
f
and he who
56. 22
.
is
not desired
'
Santi
declares
In this
by them may be defeated. world brahmana is the highest
'
being
It
should not be supposed that the brahmanas inserted

eulogies solely
these
for the purpose of increasing their importance and tightening their hold on the other classes. If the other classes had not themselves more or less shared these
ideas, no amount of iteration on the part of brahmanas would have given them the influence which they as a matter of fact wielded. Their influence was a growth of centuries and they themselves were as much parts of the huge edifice of the caste system as the other varnas. Besides the brahmanas had no They could only succeed in military force behind them. other varnas the by persuasion and their own influencing The brahmanas were the creators and custodians of the worth. vast literature that had grown up, they were the guardians of the culture of ages, they were expected to shoulder the burdens of teaching and preserving the vast literature on such gifts as were voluntarily made. Though many among them did not
304.
wftTOrf fa? 5T5T fait *reft gftfrcT: rf 28. 3-4 videanflo 81. 23 and 25 and
I
STc^n^r
30.
23 and 25 for
a similar idea.
305.
u
wrgftfr ft qi ?h?V ^Tfr"ft
ft
it
mrf 303.
&\$
306.
II
^ ^|^r
33. 17
16.
wn|i*iH
16.
91%IKHM
and 152.
Ch, III
live
Eulogy of brahmayas
137
up to the high ideals set up for their order, there must have been not a few who made as near an approach to the fulfilment
of the ideal as possible. It was the greatness of these latter that led to the glorification of the whole order to which they belonged. Learning and tapas are more or less elusive and
impalpable, while birth from brahmana parents was quite an apparent and palpable thing. Therefore that was seized upon by some writers as the principal reason for the respect to be given For centuries human societies have everywhere to brS-hmanas. acquiesced in the government and control exercised by small
generally the elite of birth, who have guided the destinies of their societies on traditional lines of religious and social order. It must be remembered that the smrti works also extol the office of the king ( which was
coteries of the elite,
generally hereditary and is so even now ) to the skies. Manu 807 the theory that the king has in him the VII. 4-11 ) propounds parts of such gods as Indra and that a king is a great deity in human form. The theory of varnas as conceived by Manu and
other smrfcikaras
was based upon

;
the idea of the division of
labour, on the idea of balancing the rival claims of various it laid greatest emphasis upon the sections of the community
duties of the varnas rather than
It
raised the
but at
upon their rights and privileges. brahmana to the highest pinnacle of reverence, the same time it placed before him the ideal of not
hankering after temporal power, of leading a life of comparative poverty and of making his knowledge available to the other classes for a scanty and precarious return. It made the military caste feel that they were not all-in-all, but had
up to some other class as superior to themselves. European writers severely condemn brahmanas for their greed, But selfishness and constant praises of gifts to themselves. they forget to take account of the circumstances under which the brShmanas were forced to sing the praises of gifts to them. The ideal before brahmanas was to lead a life of comparative poverty they were forbidden to follow many worldly pursuits and depended on the generosity of their patrons. They did not live in monasteries as Buddhist and Christian monks did nor were they entitled to fixed and fat salaries like the bishops in some Christian countries. They had further to bring up their own families and pupils and had themselves also to make gifts to In modern capitalist societies those who have brains others.
to look
;
307.
H.
r>;
18
138
Oh. Ill
to become financiers and capitalists, all centred in their hands, they reduce most other men to mere wage-earners who are often hardly better than helots.
and knowledge tend

wealth
is
While finding fault with the brahmana writers of over two thousand years ago for the eulogies they bestowed upon themselves, one should not forget that even in the 20th century when the pursuit of scientific studies is professed to have reached its zenith, we hear ecstatic and arrogant eulogies of the white ma$'s burden, of the great and glorious achievements of the Nordic race and the greater and more glorious future it
is
destined to attain
vide the very
first
sentence in Spengler's
'The Decline of the West', English translation by C. F. Atkinson ). The brahmanas never arrogated to themselves the authority to depose kings and to hand over vast territories for ever to whomsoever they liked, as Pope Alexander VI by his Bull of 1493 made over the New World to Isabella of Castille and Ferdinand of Aragon ( vide Dean Inge's Christian Ethics' 1930 p. 160 where this astounding Bull is set out ).
*
has been seen already that brahmanas had the special privileges of teaching, officiating as priests and accepting gifts made as a religious duty. It is desirable that a comprehensive list of all the privileges claimed by brahmanas ( though not always conceded as the sequel will show ) should be set out
It
once for
all.
to all
The brahmana was varnas by the mere fact

(1)
so.
to be guru( object of reverence ) 388
of birth.
'
Ap. Dh.
&
( I.
1. 1.
says
Vas. Dh. S.
its
IV. 1
says
distinguished by
origin and
by
the system of four varnas is the special features of the
( each of them undergoes )' and quotes Rg. X, 90. 12 in support. Manu ( I. 31 and 94 ) says that the Creator produced the four varnas respectively from his mouth, arms, thighs and feet, that ( I. 93 ) the brahmana is by right the master of this whole world on account of his birth from the best limb (i.e. the mouth ) of the Creator, on account of his priority ( in birth to the ksatriya and others) and on account of possessing Vedic lore.
sacraments
Manu (X,3) uses almost

is
the
the master of the varnas
same words as Vasistha 'the brahmana on account of the peculiar excellence

ftqt
308.
.
^g.
1.
1. 1.
^rî^t ^tf WT^raT^rfinT^T^T: 5.
$:
$*f Sf'JTcT: 3^1^
3TfT.
^m f?^
fr*ml
*refif
^rRre
IV. 1-2.
121. 35.
Oh, III
Brahmana, the guru of

),
all
139
on account of his superiority of origin ( from the himself to ), on account of his submitting discipline ( or holding up Vedic lore) and ou account of the eminence of the sacraments ( samskaras ) in his case '. Bhismaparva ( 121. 35 ) says that the brahmaiia is superior among all
of his casfce
mouth
of the Creator
This sense of superiority was carried so far that Apa(1.4.14.23), Manu (11.135) and Visnu Dh. S. ten years old was to be ( 32. 17 ) say that a brahmana only honoured as a father by a ksatriya 100 years old.
castes.
stamba 309
classes, to indicate to
to expound the duties of all other them proper conduct and their means of livelihood and they were to abide by his directions and the king was to rule in accordance with such directions ( Vas. Dh.
(2)
S. I.
The brahmana was
39-41,
Manu
is
words of the Kathakasamhita 310

the
brahmana
(
This is supported by the IX. 16 ) and the Tai. Br. that indeed the supervisor over the people. The Ait.
).
VII. 37, X. 2
declares that where the might of ksatriyas the control ( or direction ) of brahmanas that kingdom
Br.
37. 5
is
under becomes
3U &c. This idea is prosperous, that kingdom is full of heroes somewhat similar to the teaching of Plato who held that
philosophers that had undergone a special training were to rule and were to be politicians, that the government of the best
The problem is how to find by leaving the decision of knotty points to the learned brahmanas and the execution of the decisions arrived at by them to the king and the ksatriyas.
(
aristocracy out the best.
was
the ideal system.
Ancient India solved
it
The king was the ruler of all, except brahmanas'XI.l. The Mit. on Yaj. II. 4 explains that these words were only laudatory of the greatness of brahmanas and were not to be taken literally and that the king could punish brahmanas in appropriate cases. These words of Gautama are a mere echo of certain passages like those in the Vaj. S. ( IX. 40 ) and the Sat. 313 Br. ( V. 4. 2. 3 and IX. 4. 3. 16 ), where it is said
(3)
'
Gautama
sl2
309.
ft?n
SIN. *r
g;.
I. 4.
14. 23.
.
310.
311.
.
wwft %
*T5fT*Tlwnp3T
WT. II. 2. 1
and qrraqRfQtTT IX.
16.
ITT.
37. 5.
312.
313.
msrow^ nft. XI. 1 H ^ TFSTT *rM$ Û35r fft TOTrq; cT^r *?ftn*fens; T%T on HfrftsWtf *T3T<TrTt TON $ra<W V. 4. 2. 3
*T3n fnntf &
.
i
i
in. II. 4.
SKTTO IX.
4. 3. 16,
140
'
is
Oh. Ill
Soiua
i.e.
the
king of us brahmanas
to prepare
'.
The idea was that
to the they held all wealth for Soma and owed all allegiance to Soma, while other people owed allegiance only to the king. The brahmanas alone were to eat the sacrificial food and drink Soma ( and ksatriyas were to drink only a substitute for Soma ). Vide
brahmanas had
soma and
offer it in sacrifices
gods
Ait. Br.
chap. 35
khanda 4
).
In the Mahabharata, however f
kings are described as Somapaa. So the practice of not allowing the ksatriyas to drink sorna was not universally accepted. Further it was probably not a privilege at all, but
many
only indicates that Soma sacrifices had been mostly neglected by all except brahmanas.
six matters, viz.
The king should exonerate ( the brahmana ) in the ( a brahmana ) should not be beaten ( whipped ), he should not have fetters put on him, he should not be mulcted
(4)
'
in fines of money, he should not be driven out ( of the village or country), he should not be censured, he should not be abandoned'-
Gaut. VIII. 81 12-13.
* The Mit. on Yaj. II, 4 explains that these words are not applicable to every brahmana, but only to deeply learned brahmanas described in the preceding sutras (Gaut. VIII. 4-11 ). Haradatta adds that even a learned brahmana is treated in this way only if he commits an offence without pre-medi-
but only through ignorance or oversight. As to corporal punishment for brahmana offenders, the matter stands thus. Gaut XII. 43 says that there is no corporal punishment for a brahmana ( even when he being a thief comes to the king confessing his guilt and asking the king to beat him with a heavy club on the head ). Vide Manu XL 99-100 also, Baud. Dh. S. ( I. 10. 18-19 ) first lays down that a brahmana is to undergo no beating for any offence but allows for a brahmana guilty of the mortal sins ( of brahm ana-murder, incest, drinking liquor, theft of gold) the punishment of branding on the forehead with redhot iron and banishment from the country. Manu IX. 237 (= Matsyapurana 227. 163-164), Visnu Dh. S. V. 4-7 prescribe the
t at ion
314.
.
8.
12-13
12.
a<?f?
w tr*
^ wi^THi'Ti^^c
qggtft w?t..ft5f(er wft (ififR on *n. II. 4 . n T*RTT
8.
4-11
*?t
vr.
^.
I.
10. 18-19
5
i
the verse
in
the q^j*fii5gff
IX )
Rift
ST
wif *rg**r*i^
VIII. 280.
pointedly refera to
*3
Ch. Ill
Brahmayd and
tofrparal
punishment
141
rarious figures that were to be branded on the forehead of a brahmana in the case of various offences. Manu ( VIII. 379-380 ) prescribes shaving of the head for brahmana offenders
where others would have had to suffer the extreme penalty of death and adds that a brahmana was not to be sentenced to death whatever offence he might have committed and that he is to be
banished from the country taking with him all his possessions. Even on this the Mit. ( on Yaj. II. 81 ) observes that it applies only when it is the brahmana's first offence ( i. e. he may be fined for repeating an offence ). Yaj. ( II. 270 ), Narada ( sahasa, verse 10 ) and Sankha 315 prescribe branding and banishment as
punishment for brahmanas ( particularly in fche case of theft ). The brahmana was never above being fined. Manu ( VIII. 123 ) prescribes fine and banishment for a perjured brahmana witness, while Manu VIII. 378 prescribes heavy fines for a brahmana 316 Yaj. II. 302 quotes guilty of rape or adultery. The Mit. on a verse of Manu ( not found in the extant Manusmrti ) that in the case of the brahmana corporal punishment takes the form of complete shaving of the head, he is liable to banishment from the town, he may be branded on the forehead and he may be made to ride through the town on the back of an ass ( looked upon at all times as the highest form of indignity ). Kaut
also
s IV
(
IV. 8
all offences but prescribes
forbids corporal punishment for brahmftnas in branding on the forehead in the same
way as Manu (IX. 237) and also banishment and labour on mines. But Kau^. makes an exception, viz. he allows a brahmana to be drowned in water if he is guilty of high treason, or of forcible entry in the king's harem or of inciting the enemies of 318 on Yaj. II. the king &c. ( quoted by Visvarupa Katyayana
281
)
latter
prescribes death sentence even for a brahmana when the is guilty of the destruction of a foetus, of theft, of
315.
sr^roit
Wit
TTT. II.
quoted by the faff. on
270.
316. arrgroTFT s^t '^ srrfrfr
*n^ ^'II.
>
f ft
ia
II
STiar
Hgwm^
ftrm
on ^n
302
the latter half
^[^r
(^^ 10),
the
first
half being
317.
IV. 8
318.
u ^r^r. quoted by f^rera o
^rr,
II. 281,
142
striking a
Ch. Ill
innocent
brahmana woman wifch a weapon and of woman. The Mit. on Yaj. III. 257 thinks
killing
it
an
possible
that kings sentenced brahmanas to death iu spite of the prohibition of corporal punishment and we h-we a olassidal illustration in the death sentence passed on the brahmana Carudatta by
king Palaka in the Mrcchakatika (IX). The foregoing disoussion shows that the only special privilege claimed for the brahmana in the law courts of the land was freedom from death sentence
or other corporal
was
liable to
punishment like whipping, though rarely he be sentenced to death also. He was subject to
the indignities of branding and being paraded on the back of an These claims were very modeass, to fines and banishment.
rate as
*
compared
319
wifch the
'
of
benefit of clergy
was
absurd lengths to which the doctrine carried in England and other western
The clergyman in England was not by birfeh, he had Yet clergymen claimed that an ordained clerk, a monk or nun charged with serious offences called felonies could be tried only by an ecclesiastical court and this was conceded by the ordinary courts this privilege was gradually
countries.
to be ordained.
;
extended to persons not ordained

exorcists
(
viz.
to
all
of
whom
merely
assisted
doorkeepers, readers , the clergy ) and
finally to all who could read or pretended to read a few words from the Bible. Holdsworkh, Pollock and Maitland admit that
the procedure in the ecclesiastical courts was little better than a vol. I. p. 426, Holdsworih vol. Ill p. 296 ). The farce ( P and
ecclesiastic courts never
pronounced a judgment of blood, the
bishop only deprived the offending clerk of orders, and relegated him to a monastery, or kept him in prison for life or a shorter
period and very rarely whipping and branding were ordered. Even in the first quarter of the 0fch century, European British
subjects
British India
and Europeans and Americans in general could claim in some startling privileges when charged wifch criminal offences which even the brahmanas of over two thousand years ago did not claim. For example, under Sec. 443 of the Criminal Procedure Code of India ( as it existed before 1923 ) they could not be tried by any Indian Magistrate ( however senior and experienced ) and that in serious cases like murder, even a Sessions Judge who was himself an European British
* 319. Vide Pollock and Maitland's History of English Law 1895 ) vol. I. pp. 424-440 and Holdsworth's History of English Law 4th Ed. ) vol. I. pp. 615-616, vol. III. pp. 294-302 for the history of
the doctrine.
Oh. Ill
The brahmana
and, privileges in courts
143
subject could not sentence an European British subject to more than one year's imprisonment ( Section 449 ). Any European or American could claim to be tried by a mixed jury of which not less tban one half had to be Europeans or Americans, while an Indian offender could not claim the privilege in his own country that not less than one half of the jury that tried him
In England even now a peer indicted for treason or felony must be tried by bis peers and not by the tribunals that try ordinary men ( vide Halsbury's Laws of
must be Indians.
England, 2nd Ed. vol. 25 p. 46 ). The brahrainas had to submit to trial in the ordinary courts and the smrfcis do not
tical
generally provide for trial of brahmanas in special ecclesiascourts of their own class. The only approach to this western doctrine of benefit of clergy is to be found in the
2?1 whore it is said that the teacher and others who Ap. Dh. S,, have authority over a brahraana guilty of transgressions should if he does not abide by their prescribe prayoscittas for him orders, he should be taken to the king who should hand him
:
cittas
own purohita ; the latter was to prescribe prayaspenances for atonement) for brahmana offenders. If the latter did not carry out the penances then he was to break them by disciplines according to their ability except that he
over to his
(
the purohita ) was not to prescribe corporal slavery for brahmaria offenders.
punishment and
Most smrtis lay down that a srotriya ( a brahmana (5) Certain learned in the Veda ) was to* be free from taxes. passages of the Sat. Br. suggest that even in those times 221 S22 II. 10. 26. 10, brahmanas were not taxed. Ap. Dh. S.
Vas. Dh. S. 19. 23, Manu VII. 133 say this. Some claimed this exemption for all brahmanas e. g. Vas. Dh. S. ( I. 42-43 ) says 44 a king ruling over his subjects according to the rules of the sastra should take the sixth part of all wealth except from brahmanas"; the Visnu Dh. S. III. 26 says a king should
4
320.
CRT
'^
^
18
r-sf frFfM
qtkt
*\*n3
ifnnx
TTSTT
II. 5.
10
14-18.
srore
6. 2.
321.
XIII.
322.
3TcffT:
sftf*nr:
srro. ^-
^ II.
10 26. 10.
;
^nr *T3r<JTf^
i
ffcwnfayr
m.
*n%sr I. 42-43 26-27.
144
History of DJmrmaiastra
'.
Oh. Ill
not recover taxes from brShraanas
Kaut. lw
IT. 1
(
requires the
officiate
king at solemn
to
make
gifts of brahmadeya lands to rtviks
who
sacrifices),
teachers, purohitas, srotriyas, that will
yield substantial produce and on

will be levied.
shared in
Vas,
which no fines and taxes The reason assigned was the belief that the king the religious merit accumulated by the brahmanas. I. 44-46 ) from taxation is ( freedom explains
'
secures the sixth part of the ) because he ( the king ) istapurta ( the merit due to sacrifices and performing charitable works of public utility) and it is declared ( in a BrShmana text ) tbat the brahmana enriches the Veda, he relieves ( others ) from
there
calamities and therefore

subsistence
;
the
brahmana
is
not
a source of
should not be taxed by the king ) since Soma is his king and it is further declared that bliss awaits after death The Visnu Dh. S. (the king who does not tax brahmanas). III. 27 pays render him unto tax of the they religious merit '.
(i. e.
1
'
Manu
VII. 136 says
'
by the religious merit which the srotriya

'
accumulates every day when protected by the king, the Vide Manu 8. king's life, wealth and kingdom increase. 305. This sentiment is expressed even by a great poet 85 like Kalidasa* 'forest-dwellers give a sixth part of their tapas ( merit due to austerities ) to the king and that is an
inexhaustible treasure
srotriyas, but also
'.
It is further to
be noted that not only

all
many
other persons were free from taxation.

)
Ap. Dh.
S.
II. 10. 26.
11-17
exempts from taxation
women
of the four varnas, all boys before they show signs of manhood ( i. e. before they attain majority ), those who stay with their
teachers for learning ( even though they may be grown up), those engaged in austerities and devoted to right practices, a sudra who washes the feet ( of men of the three higher classes ),
the blind, the
dumb
-and the diseased, those
who
are
for-
bidden to possess wealth ( i. e. ascetics etc. ). The Vas. Dh. S. SM ( 19. 23. ) exempts from taxation the king's servants, helpless
323.
I
<?>IIG ?<4
II.
324.
'
^flrs
I.
44-46
compare the passage from tho
6atapatha
quoted above in note 313.

325.
T:
^gfrlBH
qufuft sgmuii $rflr
flc-hrt*!,
II. 13 $T($<rdtt'
3*6.
Oh. Ill
Taxes and brahmaws
145
persons, ascetics, minors, senile men ( above 70 ), young men, and women who are recently delivered, Manu VIII. 394 contains a similar provision. Brhat-Para&ara (chap. Ill,
a brahmana Jiv. part II p. 113 ) says had to pay nothing to anybody '. It
engaged in agriculture is extremely doubtful whether in actual practice kings respected all these rules. Note 275 shows that a brahmana engaging in agriculture had to pay Jth of the produce just as others did. An inscription of Vikramaditya V. found near Gadag dated sake 934 ( 1012 A. D. ) refers to tares levied even on upanayana, marriages and vedic sacrifices ( E. I. vol. XX. pp. 64 and 70 ). The Santiparva ( 76. 2-10 ) contains anlnteresting disquisition on the taxation of brahmanas. Those brahmanas who have mastered all the lores and who treat all equally well are called brahmasama. Those brahmanas who have studied the Rgveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda and who
stick to the peculiar duties of their class are styled devasama religious king should make those who are ( verses 2 and 3 ).
'
not srotriyas and who do not kindle the sacred fires render taxes and forced labour ( verse 5 ). Then certain brahmanas are
described as ksatrasama and vaisyasama. A king whose treasury is empty should levy taxes from all brahmanas except 828 Even those that are described as brahmasama and devasama. if these rules were honoured, the claim was not very excessive. The brahmanas who ministered to the religious wants of the people
and who were
to conserve the religious literature
and spiritual
inheritance of the country and to teach without the liberty to make a contract for fees were never entitled to raise taxes from the people for their benefit. According to the practice of the
the clergy owed no allegiance to the secular power they were not under the laws of the land, they paid no taxes to the State. All benefices were put under the
Roman
Catholic Church
;
for
Holy See and the Roman chancery compiled a tariff of prices which each might be bought '. It would take too long to
327.
g3<f<r$lT
328.
HI.
u
*%
\\
76. 2-3,
5, 9.
H, D. 19
146
Ch. Ill
enumerate the other exactions of the same kind
the Tithes,
889 Annates, Procurations, Subsidies and Dispensations.
In the matter of treasure trove the brahmana was more (6) favourably treated than members of other classes. If a treasure was found by a learned brahmana he was entitled to keep the
whole of
it in other cases the treasure belonged to the king, except a sixth part which was givon to the finder if he honestly informed the king about the finding of the treasure. If a king
;
himself found buried treasure, he was to distribute half of it among brahmanas and was to keep for himself the other half. Vide Gautama' (X. 43-45 ), Vas Dh. S. (III. 13-14), Manu
(VIII. 37-38), Yaj. II. 34-35, Visnu Dh. Narada ( asvainivikraya verses 7-8 ).
(7)
S.
(III. 56-64),
rule about the property of one dying heirescheats to the king, but there was an exception in the case of an heirless brahmana. Such property was to be
less is that
it
The general
distributed
among
srotriyas or brahmanas.
Vide Gautama 820
Dh.S.17. 84-87, Baud. Dh. S. I. 5. 118-122, 231 IX. 188-189, Visnu Dh. S. 17. 13-14, Sankha.
28. 39-40, Vas.
(8)
Manu
The rule
of the road
If
as against the king.

tion,
was in favour of brahmanas even on a road there was a crowd or obstruc-
precedence was to be given to the cartman, to a very old man, to one suffering from a disease, to a woman, to a snataka,to the king; but a king was to give precedence to a 6rotriya-Gaut.
VI. 21-22.
222 a burden should be Ap. adds that one carrying given precedence and all who desire their own welfare should
329.
Vide Dean Inge in
Christian Ethics
'
chap. IV pp.
160-161
for the enoimous greed of the
Romish Church.
I I
T f|
330. 3*Tf%TT WTgnJTFTFTTrq-^r R^f VT^; TrSrf^srR mem 28. 39-40 T f^? f^ftc^lgtSgl-H fi<?*r^l% *lg|U|*^ TT^fl ifej *4gU4 g fi^r ^R*3C
I I
7.
84-87.
gfa^rrfr ^T sftBnri^ ^ TT^TTTI^ ST^f quoted in f%. ^. p. 598. 8 Brf&j^lJfhrT3?nST^^HIdh^M^r: q'sft ^T^ ^T^TT 3 sftnfaPT *rhra VI. 2 1-2 2.- ?n5T: <p*n m3rfcwfr?*r ^TH^T g wrsror^- cp*ir: ^T^W VTTTTTH331.
332.
i I
5. 11.
^!^(^\^^\*i^\^^~ 5-9
;
133.
^
.
3Tfj$mr?r 104. 25-26.

S. II.
This
11.
is
almost the same as
57 (which reads IT$ TT^f parva 133. 1 is the same as lp. Dh.
II. 3.
\
ST^S^ );
the latter half of
Vana-
5.5-6.
Vide
quoted by the ft?n. on
^T, I. 117.
Oh. Ill
Brahmana and
precedence on a road
147
give precedence to fools, pattta, the intoxicated and lunatics and a person of a lower varna should give precedence to one of a higher varna. The Mahabharata ( Vanaparva 133. 1 ) adds the blind and the deaf, ( Anuâsana 104. 25-26 ) cows, a pregnant woman and a weak man. Vas. Dh. S. (13.58-60) enumerates the same persons, but says that the snataka ( one who has just returned from his stay with his guru ) has precedence over the king and that the bride has precedence over all when being
taken in a procession ( to the house of the bridegroom ). Manu II. 138-139 has the same list and prefers the snataka to the Sankha ( quoted in the king Yaj. I. 117 has the same rules. Mit. on Yaj I. 117) mentions the view of some that the king has precedence over the brahmana, but disapproves of it. Vide Brahmapurana 113. 39 fora list. The Markancleyapurana ( 34. 39-41) has a long list which includes a prostitute and one who is an enemy. The Visnu Dh. S. ( V. 91 ) prescibes a fine of 25 karsapanas for him who does not give precedence on the road to one who deserves it. It will be conceded by every one that the above rules ( except the one about the precedence of brahmanas over even the king are quite reasonable and are informed by a The rule about learned spirit of humanity and chivalry. brahmanas probably owes its origin to the emphasis laid on the
;
importance of the diffusion of learning
direct concern of the state in those days, but of the
and the superiority
of
which was not the brahmanas ) knowledge over mere brute force or
(
military achievements.
The person of the brahmana was regarded as very (9) sacred from ancient times and so brahmahatya ( killing a brahmana ) was looked upon as the greatest sin. The Tai. S. 12. 1-2 ) says that he who performs the horse-sacrifice ( V. 3.
goes beyond (i. e. gets rid of) all sins, even the sin of brahmanamurder. The Tai. S. II. 5. 1. 1 narrates how Indra incurred the
sin of brahmahatya by killing Vi^varupa and how all beings ran ' him down as brahmahan '. In the Sat. Br. XIII. 3. 1. 1 we
B. E. vol. 44 p. 328 ) thereby the gods redeem all sin, ' and yea, even the slaying of a brahmana they thereby redeem ' whosoever kills a human brahmana here he forsooth is deemed
read
S.
guilty,
*
how much more

B. E. vol. 26
p.
god
S.
so 243
who
).
strikes
him
Soma ), for Soma
is
The Ohandogya Up. V. 10. 9 quotes
333.
\\
$. tf. V. 3. 12. 1-2.
The words
*rf
......
*rs^ are quoted by Qaut.
19. 9.
and Vas.
22. 6.
148
History of tiharmatastra
Oh. Ill
a verse declaring brShmana murder as one of the five mortal sins (mahapatakas). Gaufc. (21. 1) places the murderer of a brahmana at the head of his list of patitas ( persons guilty of mortal sins ) 4 Manu XL 54, Vas. Dh. S. ( I 20 ) uses the word bhruriahatya** Visnu Dh. S. 35. 1, Yaj. III. 227 enumerate five mahapatakas of which brahmana-murder is one. Manu VIII. 381 declares that there is no worse sin in the world than brahraana-murder.
'
question that very much exercised the minds of all smrtikaras and writers of digests 8 * 5 was whether a brahmana who was himself guilty of violence or serious offences could be
killed in self-defence
by one
attacked.
The
dicta of the smrtis
are
somewhat
conflicting.
rule prohibiting himsa ( Veda), expounder (of the

one's
other teachers
(
IV. 162 lays down a general death or injury ) of one's teacher ( of
Manu
meaning
),
of the
Veda ),
one's parents,
or elders
brahmanas, cows and all

)
persons engaged in austerities.

there is
of
(
Manu XL
that
no expiation
prayascitta
89 lays down that will wipe off the sin
115-117 = Vrddha-Harifea IX. 349-350) says 'one may surely without hesitation a man who comes down upon one as an 236 atatayin ( a desperate character or violent man ), whether he be a teacher, a child or an old man or a learned brahmana. In killing an atatayin, the killer incurs no sin ( or fault ), whether he kills him in the presence of people or alone ; (in such a case )
kill
But Manu himself intentionally killing a brahmana. VIII. 350-351= Visnu Dh. S. V. 189-190 =Matsyapurana 227.
wrath meets wrath

4
'.
Vas. Dh.
S.
III.
15-18
expressly says
by killing an atatayin they say the killer incurs no sin * whatever and quotes three verses an incendiary, a poisoner, with a weapon, a robber, one who wrests a field or armed one
*
carries
away
one's wife
these six are called atatayin.
When
334. The word 'bhrffna' has several meanings. Baud. Gr. (I. 4. 8) says that bbruna is one who knows the whole Vedic lore of his s*skhs up Vaik. (I. 1 ) says that bhnlna is a to sutra mdpravacana (bhsgya ? ) brahmana learned in the Veda who has performed soma sacrifices. Vide note 290 above. Gaut. 21. 9 uses the word in the sense of 'garbha (foetus),
;
'
while in Gaut. 17. 9 bbnlnaha Dh. S. I. 5. 94 and Vas. Dh. S. means brahmahs, while Vas. Dh.
*
'
is
It.
equal to brahraaha '. Both Baud 42 quote a verse where bhrQnaha

23 gives
8. 20.
two meanings
to
it.
335.
Vide VtevarUpa on Ysj.

Sin. C.
(
(
'
III.
222 and the Mit. on

'
YSj
II. 21,
AparSrka pp. 1042-44,

336.
fata*yin
VyavahSra pp. 313-15. ). one who goes with literally means
his
bow
Siva is called fitrung(i. e. ready to kill or fight). S. 16. 18 and Ksj-haka-aamhita 17. 12.
atatayin in Vaj.
Ch, III
Killing a brahmaâ
(
149
kill
an Statayin comes
one
to attack
with the desire to

does not
(or harm),
of
may
;
kill
him even though he be a complete master
become a brahmanamurderer. If a person kills one who has studied the Veda and who is born of a good family, because the latter is an atatayin, he does not thereby become a brahm ana-murderer as in that case fury meets fury.' I87 In the Santiparva ( 34, 17 and 19 ) we have similar verses If a brahmana approaches wielding a weapon in a battle and desirous of killing a person, the latter
Vedanta
by so doing one
'
may
Veda.
kill
him even
if
the former ba a complete master of the
brahmana atatayin who has swerved from right conduct, he does not thereby ......... fury*. Udyogaparva ( 178. 51-52 ) says that, if a man kills in a battle a brahmana who fights like a ksatriya, it is a settled rule that he does not incur the sin of brahm ana-murder. Santi ( 22. 5-6 ) is to the same effect. The Visnu Dh. S. ( V. 191-192 ) speaks of seven persons as afeatayin viz. one who has a weapon ready
If a person kills a
*
to strike, one
who
rites
is
who has
raised his
hand
about to set fire or administer poison, one to give a curse, who sets about to kill
mentioned in the Atharvaveda ( e. g. such III. 1-2, VII. 108 ), one who is a backbiter and informs the king, one who violates or assaults
by the magic
1.
suktas as
19, II. 19,
another's wife.'
to the
The Matsyapurana (227. 117-119) is practically same effect. Sumantu as quoted by the Mit. (on Yaj. II. 21) and by Apararka ( p. 1043 ) "says there is no sin in killing an atatayin except a cow or a brahmana SS9 This implies that a brahmana even if an atatayin should not be killed, but if he 3* the Sm. C. be killed sin is incurred. Katyayana ( quoted in and other digests ) declares that one should not kill a brahmana who is eminent by reason of his tapas, Vedic study and birth, even though he be an atatayin; Bhrgu allows killing when the
*
*.
841 offender is of a lower caste than that of brahmana'. Brhaspati
also says that he
who would
is
not kill a brahmana atatayin

14 and the
337.
This last vorse
latter half of it is tho
same aa Santiparva
also quoted in Baud. Dh. S. 15. 55.
I. 10.
338.
SIS3J sisratT
?TTF&34. 17.
339. 340.
r
sTfrfcufiHfr
^nfa^m
ftsrrr*rrac
3^3 in
i
fare,
on
TTT.
II. 21.
^5:
341.
arraarftft ^fc$r& rTT^^r^nrspiTcT: 9n*m*r in *stiN o ( T^T* p. 315 )

34itituPH4i<sbi
( nj. p.
srqrcra
l*flft quoted in ^fiNfo
315
l&O
History of
DharmaiMra
Oh. Ill
deserving to be killed for his violence would obtain the merit

of
an A&vamedha
sacrifice.
Commentators and writers of digests differ in their interpre342 III. 222 ) remarks that he is Visvarupa ( on Yaj. a brahmana except in who of brahmana-murder kills guilty battle or except when the latter is an atafcayin, or who kills a brahmana ( not an atatayin nor fighting ) on his own account
tations.
without being employed by another or who brings about the brahmana by hiring another to perpetrate the murder for money. He further adds that the man who kills a brahmana at the instigation of another for money is not guilty
death of such a
of the sin of
brahm ana- murder, but it is the instigator who is so the analogy of the rule that the merit or fruit of a sacrifice belongs to him on whose behalf the rtviks perform it.
guilty on
The Mit. 343 on Yaj.

VIII. 350-351
if
is
( II. 21 ) says that the real purport of Manu not to ordain that a brahmana must be killed
he is an atatayin, but those two verses are only an arthavada laudatory or recommendatory dicta), the real meaning being that even a guru and a brahmana who are most highly honoured
(
and who are not
fit
to be killed at all,
may
have
to be killed
if
atatayins ( then what of others ? ). The final conclusion of the Mit. is that if a brahmana who is an atatayin is being opposed
in self-defence without any desire to kill him and if he dies through mistake or inattention, then the killer incurs no punishment at the hand of the kim* and has to undergo a slight
prayascitta
i.
e.
brahmana and
there is really a prohibition fco kill an atatayin verses like Manu VIII. 351 refer to an atatayin
who
the
is
not a brahmana.
(
game view
on
Manu
JMedhatithi appears to have held VIII. 350-351 ). Kulluka explains

*
Manu VIII. 350
as
meaning that a guru
or a
it is
brahmana
is of
or others
344
coming as atatayins may be killed oneself even by fleeing from thern

342.
when
'.
impossible to save
Apararka
opinion
*p<rvjMiT^f
on
*n.
HI. 222.
343.
f*fcn
on
^r. II. 21.

i
344.
^wHTKHSTTrft
^r
TO wtFafar T tf^TO
?nhr
ar^snwr
*nr
g
^r.
on
III. 227 p. 1043.
Ch. Ill
Killing a
brahmam
151
an atatayin brahmana cannot be prevented from his wicked intent except by killing him, there only the 6astras allow the killing of a brahmana but where it is possible to ward him off by a mere blow ( i. e. without actually killing him ) there would be the sin of brahmana-murder if he were actually killed. The Sm.C. in a long note appears to hold that an atatayin
that where
brahmana rushing upon a man

person attacked (there
for
it
is
to kill him may be killed by the no sin and no punishment nor penance
that a brahmana atatayin ( who does not come to kill ), who only siezes one's fields or wife should not be killed that ( but lesser harm may be done to him with impunity ) and ksatriyas and others if atatayin may be killed outright. The 245 adds a rider that, on account of the Vyavahara-Mayukha
but
prescription contained in the section on kalivarjya ( actions ' forbidden in the Kali age ) viz. the killing in a properly ' conducted fight of brahmanas that are atatayin ( is forbidden
in Kali), an atatayin brahmana even when about to kill a person should not be killed by that person in the Kali age, that such a brahmana was allowed to be killed in former ages, that an atatayin brahmana other than one bent upon killing another was not be killed in all ages. The Vlramitrodaya ( pp. 19-27 )
has a long disquisition on this subject but space forbids us from giving even a brief summary of it. It will have been noticed how the sacredness of the brahrnana's person went on
increasing in later ages.
(10)
striking
Even threatening a brahmana with him or drawing blood from his body drew
*
assault, or the severest
condemnation from very ancient times. The Tai. 248 S. ( II. 6. 10. 1-2 ) contains these words He who threatens a brahmana should be fined a hundred, he who strikes a brahmana should be fined a thousand, he who draws blood would not reach ( er find ) the abode of pitrs for as many years as the dust particles that may be made into a paste by the quantity of blood drawn. Therefore one should not threaten a brahmana with assault, nor strike him nor draw his blood*. Qaut. (22. 20-22) has a
345.
UFT f^T
fWfa^l
**nrflTH^sr p.
242; for
qfriSwyzf
texts vide
Appendix.
346.
s?f 9jsr
TT
r
^
r
*fau?fan<3C
f^f^rw
differ
5 *fa;
tf .
n.
6,
10. 1-2.
152
similar*
47
Ch
Ill
dictum,
viz. that
threatening a brShmana with assault

(
in wrath prevents entry into heaven for a hundred years Jaimini III. 4. leads to hell for a hundred years ) &c.
or
17
is
considers the question whether the passage in the Tai. S. kvatvartha or purusartha.
For certain offences a brahmana received lesser (11) punishment than members of other classes. For example, Gaut 848 'if a ksatriya reviled a brahmana the fine was one says hundred ( karsapanas ), if a vaisya did so it was 150 but if a brahmana reviled a ksatriya the fine was 50; if he reviled a vai&ya it was only 25, and if a brahmana reviled a sudra he was not Vide Manu VIII. 267-268 ( but Manu prescribes a to be fined.'
.
fine of
twelve for a brahmana reviling a 6udra ) which are the same as Narada ( vakparusya verses 15-16 ), Yaj. II. 206-207. But in the case of certain crimes the brahmana was to receive heavier punishment. For example, in the case of theft, if a 6udra thief was fined eight, a vaisya 16 and a ksatriya 32, a brahmana was fined 64, 100 or 128. Vide Gaut. 21. 12-14 and
Manu
VIFI. 337-338.
(12)
S5 ( XIII. 4 ) a brahmana could According to Gaut. a litigant who was not a brahmana by and the king would not summon him, provided he ( the brahmana) was not an attesting witness on a document. Narada ( rnadana verse 158 ) lays down that 251 6rotriyas, those engaged in austerities, old men, those who have become ascetics, are not to be witnesses because the authoritative texts ' So so prescribe but there is no cause assigned for this rule. Narada's view was that a sirotriya could never be cited as a witness by any litigant ( even by a brahmana litigant ). Gaut. impliedly shows that even a 6rotriya could be cited as a witness by a brahmana. Manu VIII. 65, Visnu Dh. S. VIII. 2 also forbid citing a fcrotriya as a witness.
not be cited as a witness
'
347.
I
TTcHT 22. 20-22.
348.
i
T^f%f^;
i
ifWr
21. 6-10.
349.
imw
21.
12-14
I
350.
îû|t:7q!>Hû|q-qvnqiqM%'^ST 7!^f9%^[
*TT.
XIII.
4.
n *rrc^
^rm^rsr 158
).
Ch. Ill
Minor
privileges of
brahmanas
153
(13) Only certain brahmanas were to be invited for dinner in raddhas and in rites for gods. Vide Gaut. 15. 5 and 9,Ap. Dh. S. II. 7. 17. 4, Manu III. 124 and 128, Yaj. I.
217, 219, 221.

sacrifices could be performed only by For example, the SautramanI sacrifice and the sacrifices called sattras could be performed only by brahraanas. 588 But it has to be noted that the Rajasuya sacrifice could performed only by ksatriyas and that according to Jaimini VI. 6. 24-26 even brahmanas of Bhrgu, Sunaka and Vasistha gotras could not perform a sattra.
(14)
Certain
brahmanas.
of mourning were less in the case of Gaut. 14. 1-4 prescribes ten days of mourning for brahmanas, eleven for ksatriyas, twelve for vaisyas and a month for sudras. Vas. Dh. S. IV. 27-30, Visnu Dh. S. 22. 1-4, Manu V. 83, Yaj. III. 22 contain similar provisions. Later on ten days' mourning came to be prescribed for all castes. 352
(15)
The periods
brahmanas.
Several other lesser privileges are enumerated by Narada (praklrnaka, verses 35-39) 'The king shall show his face
in the
salute
rank
to
morning before brahmanas first of all and shall them all. When nine or seven persons ( of different meet, they shall first make room for the brahmana
354
pass
:
by.
Further
privileges assigned
to
brahmanas
free access to the houses of other people for the purpose of begging alms ; the right to collect fuel, flowers, water and the
are
255 and to converse being regarded as a theft with other men's wives without being restrained ( in such
like without
its
and the right to cross rivers without ) by others and to be conveyed ( to the fare for the any ferry-boat paying other bank) before other people. When engaged in trading and using a ferry boat, they shall have to pay no toll, A brahmana who is engaged in travelling, who is tired and has
conversation
;
so also Jaimini ^R^n- ft- I. 6. 13 tfaniufr ^TSTOTTTT^f^rîT: 16-23 for ^=rs and VI. 6. 24-26 for the proposition that of *J5, ^T37 and <rf*re gotras were not entitled to perform ^s.
352.
I
VI.
6.
353.
H?nfcr W*rt ^r% sa

rcTT<>
on
*n. III. 22.
Vide privilege No. 8 (rule about making way ) above. Gauabove p. U6 ) names seven persons, while ( VI. 21-22 quoted Vasi^tha (13. 58-60) mentions nine persons about this rule. Nsrada has probably these two sntra works in view here.
354.
355.
Vide
arnr.
*. ^.
I.
10. 28. 3,
*g
VIII. 339, *n.
U.
166.
9. P. 20
154
Ch. Ill
nothing to eat, commits no wrong by taking two canes of sugar or two esculent roots.
There were some disabilities also in the case of brahmanas which have been indicated in the above discussion ( viz. as to avocations, selling articles &c. ).
It
may
:
be convenient to bring together the disabilities of
the 6udra
(1)
He was
the smrtikaras and writers of
not allowed to study the Veda. Many of 256 digests quote several Vedio
'
A sruti text reads ( The Creator ) passages on this point. created the brahmana with Gayatrl ( metre ), the rajanya with Tristubh, the vaisya with JagatI, but he did not create the
sudra with any metre; therefore the sudra
unfit
for the
is
known
to be of the
samskara
of the Veda follows after 257 one should perform Upanayana of only three classes upanayana for a brahraana in spring, for a rajanya in summer Not only was the sudra and in sarad ( autumn ) for a vaisya. not to study the Veda, but Veda study was not to be carried
*
The study ( upanayana ) Upanayana and the Veda speaks

of
'.
'
on
note 75 above ). 858 This attitude ( vide Vedic literature was largely The sacred wonder. need not cause
in
his presence
by the brahmanas ( the ksatriyas a very small share in that task ). If the brahmanas desired to keep their sacred treasure for the twiceborn classes in these circumstances, it is understandable and for those ages even excusable. In the 20th century there are vast
created and preserved entirely
contributing
if at all
majorities
istic
who
are not allowed
by small minorities
of imperial-
capitalistic tendencies to control the just and equitable distribution of the material goods produced mostly by the
and
labour and co-operation of those majorities and doctrines are being openly professed that certain races alone should be imparted higher and scientific knowledge while other so-called
inferior races
of water.
356.
I
should be only hewers of wood and drawers
WKte IVS, quoted by

rffeft
3mr
I
p. 23
who
quotes
357.
*ren
1.
Mflui*iMH4H
33
of Jaimini VI.
858.
and
is
relied
i
*v%*3 fm^ *Mfft/3 This is the basis on by Sabara. Vide Ap. Dh. S. I. 1.1.6 .
11
swire
'^ ***ft
i -413
it
^.
I. 3. 9.
5 ^rn^p4 9>3[re?T wftrs 18. 13. VfdeifK 9 (SHmWHt4*lRUa ), *! 1. 148, an%^ 64.
16.
18-19,
Oh. Ill
tiudra not allowed to study
Veda
455
this
There are however faint traces that in ancient times
prohibition of Veda study was not so absolute and universal as the smrtis make it. In the Chandogya Upanisad IV. 1-2, we
have the story

latter
of Jana&ruti
Pautrayana and Raikva where the

It
Samvarga ( absorption
imparts to him the appears that Janasruti was a 6udra to whom the vidya embodied in the Chandogya ( which is also Veda ) was imparted. It is no doubt true thai; in the
addresses Janasruti as sudra and
)
vidya?**
Vedantasutra 860
( I.
3.
34
the word 6udra
is
explained not as
referring to the class, but as meaning that sorrow ( iuc ) arose in Janasruti on hearing the contemptuous talk of the flamingoes
about himself and he was overcome
sudra
is
derived from sue and
dru
from dru ) by that ( i. e. But this far-fetched ).
explanation had to be given because of the practice current in the times of the Vedanfcasutras that the 6udra is not entitled to
study the Veda. Gaut. XII. 4 went so far as to prescribe if the sudra intentionally listens for committing to memory the Veda, then his ears should be filled with ( molten ) lead and lac if he
;
utters the Veda, then his tongue may be cut off ' mastered the Veda his body should be hacked S61
.
if
he has
Though the sudra could not study the Veda, he was not debarred from hearing the itih&sas ( like the Mahabharata ) and the Puranas. The 862 Mahabharata ( Santi 328. 49 ) expressly says
Mahabharata through a brahmana as reader. The Bhagavatapurana 262 says that as the three Vedas cannot be learnt by women, sudras and brahmanas ( who are so only by birth ), the sage ( Vyasa ) composed the story of the Bharata out of compassion for them. The Sudraka13-14 ) cites several passages from the puranas malakara ( pp.
that the four varnas should hear the
359.
360.
cig
<i*:
sic^r^rf ST^tr ^3"
&* W mftrf?^
i
gqCT
vol.
I.
^rinf^ ctyn^rereqiTii q i4mreq^r& f% 8. 158 where thia derivation is followed.

2
-
sn*^t"r IV.2.3. I. 3. 34 vide

;
361.
3 4
;
vide %*&%te*G IX
21
%qrwfa SHITTO*
;
362.
srr^î(t ^rHp?^
wi^TJlinicT:
5TTfnT^ 328. 49
vide also
4 62. 22, and 95. 87.

353.
^î^r?^5n ^nfr
1. 4.
25
sr ^^ffârTT ?f^ vide f%ffTOJTOT IV. 28 ar

i
364.
fff^FRgf
3&W
ft^riTr S^TT^f^Hf
9fC^f^
;^*fa.
p.
17
58. 13.
156
Oh. Ill
to the effect that the sudra could not study the smrlis and purSnas by himself. Even Manu II. 16 seems to suggest that only the
had the privilege to listen to the Manusmrti ( and not The only privilege conceded by the Sudrakamalakara to the sudra is that he can acquire knowledge by listening to the puranas read by a brahmana (p. 17) the Kalpataru and other works allowed the sudra to read and repeat Purana mantras. Samkaracarya on Vedantasutra ( I. 3. 38 ) quotes Santi 328. 49 and says that the sudra has no adhikara ( eligibility ) for brahmavidya based upon a study of the Veda, but that a sudra can attain spiritual development ( just as Vidura and Dharmavyadha mentioned in the Mahabharata did ) and that he may
dvijatis
sudras
).
fruifc of correct knowledge. In certain digests a smrti quotation to the effect that sudras are Vajasa865 explained as meaning that the sudra should neyins. This is follow the procedure prescribed in the grhyasutra of the Vajasaneya Sakha and a brahmana should repeat the mantra for himThis i3 probably based on the Harivarhsa ( Bhavisyat-parva, chap. III. 13 ) "all will expound brahma all will be Vajasanewhen the yuga comes to a close sudras will make use of yins
attain to moksa, the
we
find
the
word
'
bhoh
).
'
in address
"
(
sarve
brahma vadisyanti sarve
VajasaneyinalL
The sudras were not to consecrate sacred fires and to (2) perform the solemn Vedic sacrifices. Vide note 73 above. Jaimini ( I. 3. 25-38 ) elaborately discusses this question and arrives at the conclusion that the sudra cannot consecrate the three sacred fires and so cannot perform Vedic rites. Among the reasons given are that in several Vedic passages only the three higher
classes are referred to in the case of the consecration of fires, about the samans to be sung, about the food to be taken when
observing vrata. one ancient teacher
266
It is
(
Badari
however interesting to note that at least S67 was found who advocated that )
365.
-
sarfo'fr'T *r<h*
^r 5fr3RT%ft?r:
)
a^Hre^:
w
I
^g?r
(
3>n<fo u
).
p.
634
The
( P-
575
p.
while ^frtr.
366.
quotes the words Tg^T *rn3rerwr^: as from 51 says T|3Nf^ft<T %
^r
r
I
*rera WTST^TStfTTTîfm ffic^ TT^f^: srtft $$*:

( I. 3.
......
These are the redic texts relied upon

I. 3. 27.
by Jaimini
367.
26-38
and Sahara.
*
ftftî qr^tTO***^ ws $
Ch. Ill
udras not authorized for Vedic

sacrifices.
rites
157
:
The Bh5radv&ja Srauta sutra* (V.2.8) states the opinion of some that the sudra can consecrate the three sacred Vedic fires. The Katyayanaeven Madras could perform Vedic
68
srautasutra
( I.
4.
prescribes thafc all can perform
Vedic
rites
except those who are deficient in a limb, who are not learned in the 369 Veda, who are impotent and Madras; but the commentary thereon states by way of purvapaksa that there are certain Vedic texts which lead to the inference that the Sudra had the
adhikara for Vedic rites e. g. in Sat. Br. I. 1. 4. 12 ( S. B. E. vol. XII. p. 28 ) it is said with reference to the Haviskrt call "Now there are four different forms of this call, viz. 'Come hither* the case of a brahmana ( ehi ) in approach ( agahi ) and * hasten hither (adrava) in the case of a vaisiya and a member * run hither ( adhava ) in that of a of the military caste and udra," Similarly in the Sornayaga in place of the payovrata ( vow to drink milk only ) mastu ( whey ) is prescribed for sudra sudra could perform Somayaga) ( indicating thereby that the and in Sat. Br. (XIII 8. 3. 11, S. B. E. vol. 44, p. 435 ) with reference to sepulchral mounds it is said for the ksatriya he may make as high as a man with upsfcretched arms, for a brahmana reaching up to the mouth, for a woman up to the hips, for a The vai&ya up to the thighs, for a sudra up to the knee commentary on the Katyayana Srauta I. 1. 6 says that the word 6udra here stands for rathakara because ( ace. to Yaj, I. 91 ) his mother's mother is a sudra woman.
'
'
'
'
'.
Though rites, he was

i. e.
the sudra
was not authorized
to
perform Vedic
entitled to perform what is called purta-dharma the building of wells, tanks, temples, parks and distribution
and gifts of food as works of charity as eclipses and the Sun's passage from
into another
on such occasions
one zodiacal sign
tithis.
and
on
the
12th and other
He was
allowed to perform the

368.
five daily sacrifices called
Mahayajrias
i
^r^
*qfffer
wpwrnfofr^ft ^ f^r ^wroc

I
i
V.
2. 8. (
Journal of Vedic studies, Lahore, voi
for Sop. 1934
).
369.
*q-
3TfpCi^r*ftBm*5^r3^ 9re<n. sfr. ^. 1.4.5; com. The <refa*rc*rr^ a^V^^ff ?$g*3ft iqg&fr 3^3 Tgjif^m
^
;
first
is 5KT**! I- I- 4.
12 and the last
is sicTCTO
XIII.
i
8. 3. 11.
370.
n
^HrsifffiNTcffat *nmft mfarsnft arf^CT ' 3?r% verse 46 ft^g' verae6 OTfi^ p. 24
n.
The
first
verse
is
quoted from the
T^PTI^T and the second from
158
in the ordinary
of the devatas
1
fire,
Oh. Ill
he could perform Sraddha, he was to think

' '
loudly the word namah which was to he the only mantra in his case ( i. e. he was not to say 871 *namah'X Agnaye svaha but to think of Agni and say
and
'
ufcter
Manu
X. 127 prescribes that all religious rites for the sudra are without (Vedic) mantras. According to some the 6udra could also have what is called Vaivahika fire ( i. e. fire kindled
at the time of marriage ) in Manu III 67 Medhatithi ( on the same verse), the Mit. (
and Yaj. I. 97, but on Yaj, I. 121 ), the
Madanaparijata
fire for
p.
offer oblations in the
the sudra.
231 ) and other works say that he should ordinary firo and that there is no Vaivahika All persons including the 6udras and even
candalas were authorized to repeat the

(
Ramamantra of
the
13 letters
Sri
Rama
jaya
Rama
jaya jaya
Rama ) and
( namah Sivaya ), mantra of six letters ( Sudra- kamalakara pp. 30-31, where passages of Varaha, Vamana and Bhavisya Puranas are cited to show that sudras are entitled to learn and repeat mantras of Visnu from the Paficaratra texts and of Siva, the Sun, Sakti and Vinayaka. The Varahapurana (128.22-31) describes the initiation (dlksS) of a 6udra as a devotee of Visnu ( as a bhagavata ).
of five letters
the Siva
Siva mantra while dvijatia could repeat Om namah Sivaya). Vide
Samskaras, there is some apparent conflict Manu X. 126 says The sudra incurs no sin ( by eating forbidden articles like onions and garlic ), he is not fit for samskaras, he has no adhikara for ( authority to perform ) dharma nor is he forbidden from performing dharma and in IV. 80 ( which is the same as Vas. Dh. S. 18. 14 and Visnu Dh. S. 71. 48-52) we see one should not give advice to a sudra, nor give him leavings of food nor of sacrificial oblations, one
(3)
As
to
among
the authorities.
'
371.
34^l^TSFT *T*UhKI *P^:
<TT3v*r|i:
*rH?ffr
3 3^*^
V. 9
;
ft Fh=ffaif
cT^r
^^T T^fo^Hlf HHthK: f4fat4 T

I
*u. 10.
66-67
ffnr^
37^
^zfTQ^/pfrvi III. 8. 33. ;
<n^r^'^cT
60.
ffiîQ*
*rr.
^ ^ *rl
121
<
x33"s
wgfiNs 3?flcf &T ^ n

n
r^
it
?m%^
37-38;
IP on
which
(
gives the view of some that the numaskSra mantra

'
is
^rr.
on 173
III.
121
remarks
ft.
X. 66
I
) 5*
21. 20 says about eapindikarana be performed for fadras on the 12th day ( from deathj) without mantras
jîq^H 4rddha that it may

nftwi
T
'
The Vinu Dh.S.
Ch. Ill
The BamskUras of iudras
159
should not impart religious instruction to him nor ask him to perform vratas '. Laghuvisnu ( 1. 15 ) contains the dictum that the 6udra is devoid of any samskara. The Mit. on Yaj. III. 262 explains the words of Manu IV. 80 about vratas in the case of
fcudras as
applicable only to those sudras who are not in attendance upon members of the three higher castes and establishes that sudras can perform vratas ( but without homa and
muttering of mantras ). Apararka on the same verse ( Manu IV. 80 ) explains that the sudra cannot perform vratas in person, but only through the medium of a br&hmana. The Sudra-
kamalakara
andjapa.
p.
38
vratas, fasts,
religious acts
mahadanas and
holds that sudras are entitled to perform praya&citfcas, but without homa
X. 127 allows religious sudras to perform all which dvijatis perform, provided they do not use Vedio mantras. On the other hand Sankha (as quoted by Vi^varupa on Yaj. I. 13 ) opines that samskftras may be performed for sudras but without Vedic mantras. Yama quoted in Sm. C. ( I. p. 14 ) says the same. Veda-Vyasa (I. 17 ) prescribes that ten samskaras ( viz. garbhadhana, pumsavana, slmantonnayana, jatakarma, nSmakarana, niskramana, annaprasana, caula, karnavedha and vivaha ) can be performed in the case of sudras, but without Vedic mantras. Haradatta ( on Gautama X. 51 ) quotes a grhyakara to the effect that even in the case of the sudra the rites of niseka, pumsavana, slmantonnayana, jatakarma, namakarana, annaprasana and oaula are allowed but without Vedic mantras. When Manu prescribes ( II. 32 ) that the sudra should be given a name connected with
service, he indicates that the sudra could perform the ceremony of namakarana. So when Manu ( IV. 80 ) states that he deserves
Manu
no.samskara, what he means

IV. 80
is
that no samskara with Vedic

case.
mantras was to be performed in his
Medhatithi on
Manu
says that the prohibition to give advice and impart instruction in dharma applies only when these are done for making one's livelihood, but if a sudra is a friend of the
family
of a brahmana friendly advice or instruction can be given. Vide Sudrakamalakara p. 47 for several views about the samskaras allowed to sudras.
(4) Liability to higher punishment for certain offences. a 6udra committed adultery with a woman of the three
If
372.
160
higher castes, Gaut.
his
Oh. Ill
XII. 1-2
prescribed the cutting off of
penis and
forefeiture of all his
guilty of this offence

tecting her, he
was
property and if he was entrusted with the duty of proto suffer death in addition. Vas. Dh. S. 21. !
when
Manu
VIII. 366 prescribe death in the case of a sudra having intercourse with a brahmana woman whether she was willing or unwilling, On the other hand, if a brahmana committed
rape on a brahmana woman he was fined a thousand and five hundred if he was guilty of adultery with her (Manu VIII, 378) and if a brShrriana had intercourse with a ksatriya, vaisya or sudra woman, who was not guarded, he was fined five hundred
(
Similarly in the case of Vakparu$ya a sudra reviled a brahmana he received corporal punishment or his tongue was cut off ( Manu VIII. 270 ), but if a ksatriya or vaisya did so they were respectively fined 100 or 150 (Manu VIII. 267 ) and if a brahraana reviled
).
Manu
VIII. 385
slander and libel
if
a sudra, the brahmana was fined only 12 ( Manu VIII. 268 ) or nothing ( aco. to Gaut. XII. 10 ). In the case of theft, howVide above p. 152 ( No. 11 ever, the sudra was fined much less.
among
the privileges of brahmanas).
In the matter of the period for impurity on death or was held to be impure for a month, while a brahmana had to observe ten days' period only. Vide above p. 153 (No. 15 among the privileges of brahmanas ).
(5)
birth the sudra
A sudra could not be a judge or propound what (6) dharma was. Manu ( VIII. 9 ) and Yaj. I. 3 lay down that when the king does not himself look into the litigation of people owing to pressure of other business, he should appoint a learned brahmana as a judge. Manu ( VIII. 20 ) further says that a king may appoint as his judge even a brahmana who is
so
duties of
by birth only ( brahmanas
i.
),
e. who does not perform the peculiar but never a sudra. KatySyana ( as quoted
fiHT%^nro^: afom 12. 1-2. 373. 3ir*5*mrnT$ ref^rc: **rwrn In parts of America the penalty for an attempt to commit a rape on a white woman is burning alive, but only if the offender has a black As to Rome vide Westermarck's * The Origin and Development skin. of moral Ideas ( 1912) vol. I. p. 433 "from the beginning of Empire
i
i
'
the
were divided into privileged classes and commonaltyand whilst a commoner who was guilty of uterque ordo and pleba muider was punished with death, a murderer belonging to the " privileged classes was generally punished with deportation only.
citizens
Ch. Ill
in
Disabilities
of tudras
161
says that when a brahraana is not ) may appoint as judge a ksatriya or a vaisya who is proficient in dharmasastra, but he should carefully avoid appointing a sudra as judge.
I.
m the Mit. on Yaj.

(
available
as a judge
the king
A brahmana was not allowed to receive gifts from a (7) sudra except under great restrictions. Vide above note 239.
(8)
A brahmana
could take 875 food at the houses of
mem-
the duties prescribed for them by the sastras ( according to Gaut. ), but he could not take food from a sudra except when the sudra was his own cowherd, 01
tilled his field or
bers of the three classes
who performed
own
(
was a hereditary friend of the family, or his barber or his dasa. Vide Gaut. XVII 6 and Manu IV. 253 = Visnu Dh. S. 57. 16 ), Yaj. I. 166, Parasara IX. 19. Ap. Dh,
'
S76 that food which is brought by an impure S. I. 5. 16. 22 says sudra should not be eaten by a brahmana;' but Apastamba allows sudras to be cooks in brahmana households provided they were supervised by a member of the three higher classes and observed certain hygienic rules about paring nails, the cutting of hair. Manu IV. 211 forbade in general the food of a .sudra to a brahmana and by IV. 223 he laid down that a learned brahmana should not take cooked food from a sudra who did not perform sraddha and other daily rites ( mahayajfias ) but that he may take from such a sudra uncooked grain for one night, if he cannot get food from anywhere else. Baud. Dh. S. ( II. 2. 1 ) requires a brahmana to avoid the food of vrsalas ( sudras ). Gradually rules about taking food fro-n sudras became stricter. The Sankhasmrti ( 13. 4 ) remarks that brahmanas fattened on 577 XI. 13 the food given by sudras are Panklidusaka. Parasara ordains that a brahmana may take from a sudra ghee, oil, milk, molasses and food fried in oil or ghee, but should eat it on a river bank and not in the sudra's house and the Par. M. adds
374.
^^
SRIWTC ( quoted by
i
wmo
on
TTT. I.
375.
*ft*n7 17. 1
and
I
6.
*T.
376.
sfltTO^T
ûftqg3*reT7*ra: . ^. II. 2.
3JHT.
^.
5. 16.
23
3. 4.
i
377.
3*
<m
rtt Q*
'ijtrg
&* ^nf^n^
XI. 13 and
ûrîQW
m. n. jrt
i pp. 411-12.
H.D.21
162
( II. 1*
History of DharmaiOstra
pp.
Ch. Ill
411-12 ) that this permission
is
meant
to
apply only
when the brahmana is tired by travelling and no food from a member of another class is available. Haradatta on Qaut. XVII. 6 remarks that a brahmana could take food from a 6udra who was a cowherd &c. only in the case of very extreme calaApararka also (p. 244 on Yaj. I. 168) says the same. In the kalivarjya ( actions forbidden in the kali age ) the old practice of eating the food of cowherds, barber &c. was formities.
bidden.
878
The sudra gradually came to be so much looked (9) ,down upon that he could not touch a brahmana, though at one time he could bo a cook in a brahmana household and a brahmana could eat food from his house. In the Anus&sanaparva S79 a brahmana should be served by a it is said ( 59.33 ) sudra from a distance like blazing firei while he may be waited upon by a ksatriya or vaisya after touching him.' ' Apararka ( p. 1196 ) quotes two smrti texts a brahmana on touching a sudra or nisada becomes pure by acaraana ( ceremonial sipping of water ) on touching persons lower than these, he becomes pure by bathing, pranayama and the strength of tapas\ on seeing a ram, a cock, a crow, a dog, a sudra and an antyavasayin ( an antyaja ), one should stop the rite that is being performed and on touching them one should take a bath '.
*
On
this Apar&rka explains that if a man who touched a 6udra cannot bathe then he may resort to sipping water, but if able he must take a bath or that on touching a sat-6ndra one may have recourse to acamana and on touching an asat-sudra one must take
a bath.
offered to
find from the Grhyasutras that in Madhuparka a snataka the feet of the guest ( even if he was a brahmana ) were washed by a sudra male or female. So there could have been no ban against a sudra touching a brahmana then. The Ap. Dh. S. (II. 3. 6. 9-10) says that two sjudras should
We
380
wash the
feet of a guest, according to
some teachers
),
in the
case of a householder
who
has several dasas
while Apaetamba
quoted in
( I. P.
12
),
TO. m.
I.
part 1
pp. 134-137 and
the
379.
^[tix^ûj^MTiTn
I!
wr3TmwRw
1. 12.
^qwn,
tlt^T
nx*ist(j
^ 3jamH 59.
3BO.
e. g.
33.
ftrofeitanr
18-20
'
st^d mwftft srm
Ch. Ill
Disabilities
of iudraa
163
himself says that one sudra should wash the guest's feet and another should sprinkle him with water,281
(10) As the sudra could not be initiated into Vedio study, the only asrama out of the four that he was entftled to was that of the householder. In the Anusasanaparva ( 165. 10 )
we
four asramas
a sudra and so I have no right to resort to the In the Santiparva383 ( 63. 12-14 ) it is said, in the case of a sudra who performs service (of the higher classes ), who has done his duty, who has raised offspring, who has only a short; span of life left or is reduced to the 10th stage above 90 years of age ), the fruits of all asramas are ( i. e. is
read
I
' '.
'
am
tithi
by him ) except of the fourth.' MedhaVI. 97 explains these words as meaning that the sudra by serving brahmanas and procreating offspring as a house-holder acquires the merit of all asramas except moksa
laid
(
down
on
as obtained
Manu
which
is
the reward of the proper observance of the
duties of
the fourth asrama.

(11) The life of a sudra was esteemed rather low. Yaj. 236 and Manu XL 66 include the killing of a woman, a sudra, a vaisya and a ksatriya among upapatakas ; but the
III.
prayasoittas and gifts prescribed for killing these

life of the
show
that the
sudra was not worth much.
On killing a
ksatriya, the
was brahmaoarya for six years, gift cows and a bull; for killing a vaisya, brahmaoarya for three years and gift of 100 cows and a bull for killing a sudra brahmacarya for one year, gift of 10 cows and a bull. Gaut. XXII. 14-16, Manu XI, 126-130, Yaj III. 266-267 say practically the same thing. Ap. Dh. S. ( I. 9. 25. 14-1. 9. 26. 1 ) says that on killing a crow, a chameleon, a peacock, a cakravaka, flamingo, bhSsa, a frog, ichneumon, musk-rat, a dog, a cow and
prfiyasoitta prescribed
of 1000
sudra.
draught ox the piayascitta is the same as that for killing a Manu ( XL 131 ) says on killing a cat, an ichneumon,
'
381.
.
CT^T <n|lr
II. 3. 6. 9-10.
382.
37)* ^TT^fjrft d <3i3tt*THi3Y^ si&tntnnrf

i
165. 10.
383.
63. 12-14;
(Uftonm.Vl.97,
164 osa, a
History of
Dkarmafatra
Ch. Ill
eame as
frog, a dog, iguana, owl and crow, the prSyasoitta is the 884 that for killing a sudra.
If the sudra laboured under certain grave disabilities, he had certain compensating advantages. He could follow almost any profession except; the few specially reserved for brahmanas and ksatriyas. Even as to the latter many sudras became kings and Kaut, in his Arthasastra ( IX. 2 ) speaks of armies of sudras ( vide note 266 above). The sudra was free from the round of countless daily rites. He was compelled to undergo no saniskara (except marriage), he could indulge in any kind of food and drink wine, he had to undergo no penances for lapses from the rules of the sastras, he had to observe no restrictions of gotra and pravara in marriage. Those western writers who turn
up
their nose at the position of the sudras in ancient and medieval India conveniently forget what atrocious crimes were perpetrated by their people in the institution of slavery and in their dealings with the Red Indians and other backward
coloured races; how nations of Europe out of false pride of race have passed in the 20th century laws prohibiting marriages between the so-called Aryans and non-Aryans and preventing
the latter from htlding
state
offices
is
and carrying on several
occupations and
how
discrimination
made against coloured
men on railways, in hotels and other places of public resort and how even in India separate third class compartments were
reserved on railways for Europeans, for entering which Indians were prosecuted and sentenced in their own country. Vide Emperor vs Narayan 25 Bom. L. R. 26 for such a case.
384. Those who are familiar with the cases decided in India in which Indian servants or coolies were kicked by European employers and died
as a result
and in which the offenders were either acquitted or let off on a small fine (on the ground that the deceased had an enlarged spleen) need not feel surprised at the above statement of affairs in India over two thousand years ago.
CHAPTER
IV
UNTOUCHABILITY
Those who have written on the Indian caste system have always been struck by the fact of the existence of certain castes that are treated as untouchables. But it should not be
supposed that this is something confined only to India. Even nations that have no caste system at all have often carried out
complete segregation of certain people dwelling in their midst,
which in
in India.
essentials is the
same as the system of untouchability The Encyclopaedia of social sciences vol. XI. p. 339
'
says that in the southern States of U. S. A. discrimination residential segregation, against Negroes took the form of and places of in the of races conveyances public separation amusement, exclusion of Negroes from public institutions and
educational discrimination.
Disenfranchisement
and social
discrimination had their economic counterpart in all branches of industry except agriculture and domestic and personal 385 service, occupations to which Negroes had been habituated
under the slave regime.
'
It is also
within living memory that
Mahatma Gandhi had
to lead a
movement
of satyagraha
in
South Africa against the discriminating treatment of Indians and even now in Natal and other parts of British Africa there is legislation restricting Indians in the matter of residence
and Durchases
of land.
In the early Vedic literature several of the names of castes have that are spoken of in the smrtis as antyajas occur. carmamna ( a tanner of hides ? ) in the Rgveda ( VIII. 5. 38 ),
We
and Paulkasa occur in the Vftj. S., the Vapa 01 the VidalakSra or Bidalakara ) even in the Rg., of the smrfcis ) occurs in the buruda the ( corresponding to washerwoman ) correspondTai. and the ( VSsahpalpuII S. Br., Vaj. in the of smrtis the V5j. S. But there is nc the to Rajaka ing
the Cfindala
(
VaptS
barber
Vide Westermarck's 'The Origin and Development of the I. pp. 370-371 for the treatment of Bushmen in Africi and Australia and of Negroes in America. Vide 'Satyagraha in Soutl
385.
moral ideas' vol.

Africa 1 by
Mahatma Gandhi
8.
translated by Mr. Valji Govindji Desaj
(published by
Ganesan, 1928).
166
History of Dkarmatnstra
Ch.
IV
indication in these passages whether these, even if they formed were at all untouchables. The utmost that can be said is that as the Paulkasa is assigned to blbhatsa ( in Vaj. S. 30. 17 )
castes,
and C&ndala
in such a
to
Vayu
in the
Purusamedha ), the Paulkasa lived
way
wind
( i. e.
as to cause disgust and the CandSla lived in the probably in the open or in a cemetery ). The only
passage of Vedic literature on which reliance can be placed for some definite statement about candalas is in the Chandogya
V. 10. 7. where while describing the fate of those souls that went to the world of the moon for enjoying the rewards of
Up.
388
some
of their actions
it is
stated
'
those
who
did praiseworthy
actions here, quickly acquire birth in a good condition, viz. in the condition of a brahmana, a ksatriya or vaisiya, while those whose actions were low ( reprehensible ) quickly acquire birth
in a low condition
as a dog, or a boar or a candala. This occurs in Pancagnividya, the purpose of which is to teach
i.
e.
vairagya and disgust wifch the transmigratory world. This passage does not enjoin anything, ifc is a bare statement by way of explanation or elucidation. All that can be legitimately
inferred from this is that the
and
that candalas were looked

It is
scale.
three varnas were commended upon as the lowest in the social to be noticed that the Sudra varna does not occur
first
in this passage at all. So probably even in the times of the Chandogya the candala was looked upon as a sudra, though lowest
The candala is equated the several Sudra subcastes. with the dog and the boar in this passage, but this leads hardly anywhere. It is no doubt stated in the Sat. Br. XII. 4. 1. 4 that 'three beasts are unclean in relation to a sacrifice viz. the
among
vicious (filthy) boar, the
ram and
the dog.
'
Here
it is
clear that
not unclean, but probably only that variety that subsists on the village offal. On the other hand the flesh of boars was said to cause great delight to the Pitrs when offered in Eiraddha (vide Manu III. 270 and Yaj. I. 259 ). Therefore this Upanisad passage does not say anything on the point whether the
every boar
is
Candala was in its day untouchable. This passage may be compared with another in which the sudra is said to be a walking
386.
V. 10.
III. 1.
7.
The VedSntastltra
8-11 deals with this passage.

snft
387.
3 ?*re isntf^w.
&r? qro:
*grr
itat
.4. 1. 4-
Oh.
IV
tTntauchability
167
cemetery.
literature,
If
the 6udra
if
and
was not untouchable in the Vedio he was allowed to be a cook for brahmanas and
wash the feet of brShmana guests in spite of that passage ( as stated in the Dharmasutras quoted above pp. 161-162 ), there is no reason to suppose that the ChSndogya passage indicates that
to
the candala
was untouchable in the remote ages. Another passage is relied upon by orthodox writers to support the theory that untouchability of candalas is declared in Vedic writings. In the Br. Up. I- 3 the story is narrated that gods and asuras had a strife and the gods thought that they might rise superior to the asuras by the Udgltha. In this vidya occurs the passage 388 * this devata ( Prana ) throwing aside the sin that was death
to these devat&s
( vak etc. and he put down the sin
)
sent
it
to the ends of these quarters
; therefore one should not go to people ( outside the Aryan pale ) nor to the ' ends ( of the quarters ) thinking otherwise I may fall in with papman i. e. death*. In the first place there are no peoples expressly named here. Samkara explains that by end of the * are meant regions where people opposed to Vedio quarters culture dwell. This description can only apply to people like the mlecchas and not to candalas who are not opposed to Vedio knowledge (but who have no adhikara to learn it). Besides candalas might stay outside the village, but they do not stay at the end of the quarters 389 ( or at the end of the arya
of these devatas there
'
territory
Hence this passage does not help in establishing ). the theory of untouohability for Vedic times.
Next comes the consideration of the evidence derived from But certain preliminary observations must be made to clarify the position. The theory of the early smrfcis was that there were only four varnas and there was no Vide Manu X. 4 and AnuSasanaparva 47.18. 890 fifth varna. When in modern times the so-called untouchables are referred
the sutras and smrtis.
388.
cr^rat
The Mlecchaa were known to the Sat. Br. (III. 2. 1. 24 389. Vide Ait. Br. 33. 6 Canton vah. 'tasmftn na brShmano mlecchet). ' prajSbhak^ta quoted above in note 118 for the meaning of
*
antah
390.
^jf
<Th5ilf*Hti
^t TTfttf 3
<WT:
ffg 10. 4
TO** mftTKiih 9199mm
47. 18.
168
to as the
tion.
Ch.
iV
pancamas^
4.
Pan. II
that is something against the smrti tradi10 and Patanjali 898 say that a Samahara-
dvandva compound can be formed from several subdivisions of e. g. we can have the compound * taksayaskaram meaning carpenters and blacksmiths, but not 'caTLdala-mrtapamt because caridalas and mrtapas are niravasita 6udras ( and so the compound will be candalamrtapfth). Therefore it follows that Pan. and Patafijali included candalas and When Angiras ( note 171 above ) mrtapas among Madras. includes ksatr, suta, vaidehika, magadha and ayogava ( that are
sfidras that are not niravasita
*
'
pratiloma castes) among antyavasayins along with candala and fcvapaca, he makes it clear that he regarded candalas as included among sudras, for Manu X. 41 declares that all
pratiloma castes are similar to sudras in their dharma and because the Santiparva 297.2S 393 expressly says that the vaidehika is called 6udra by learned dvijas. Gradually however, a distinction was made between Sudras and castes like candalas. Fresh castes were then added to the list of untoucha-
bles
by custom and usage and

no warrant
the spirit of exclusiveness, though
there is
of the Sastras for
such a procedure.
Untouchability did not and does not arise by birth alone. various ways. In the first place, persons become outcasted and untouchable by being guilty of certain acts that
It arises in
For example, Manu IX. 235-239 prescriare guilty of brahmana-murder, theft of brahmana'g gold or drinkers of spirituous liquors should be excommunicated, no one should dine with them or teaclithem,
amount
to
grave sins.
bes that those
who
or officiate as priests for them, nor should marriage relationship be entered into with them and they should wander over the world excluded from all Vedic dharmas. But if they perform
the proper pr&yacitta they are restored to caste and become touchable. Secondly, persons were treated as untouchables simply through religious hatred and abhorrence because they
belonged to a different sect or religion.
For example, Apararka
391.
p.
105,
N. P. Dutt in Origin and growth of caste in India ' rol. I. (1931) speaks of Nhhadas, chandalas and paulkasas as the
*
*
fifth
varna
392.
'.
Vide note 200 above for the quotation from the Mah5bh*$ya.
X. 41;
393 ^n^tl^^Wj^^PtfmTj^TTtn *S *wr (ton *nra spitmmn îf^ni 297. 28.
Oh.
( p.
TV
UntouchaUlitij
169
923 ) and Sra. C. ( I. p. 118 ) quote verses from the Sattrirhanmata and Brahmandapurana that 'on touching Bauddhas, PSsupatas, Jainaa, Lokayatikas, Kapilas ( S&mkhyas ) and br&hmanas guilty of doing actions inconsistent with their oaste one should enter water with the clothes on and also on touching Saivas and atheists It is worthy of note that Apararka p. 923 quotes a verse of Vrddha-Ysjnavalkya that on touching candalas, pukkasas, mlecchas, Bhillas and Paraslkas and persons guilty of mahSpatakas one should bathe with the clothes on. Thirdly, certain persons, though not untouchable ordinarily, became so, if they followed certain occupations, e. g. if a person touches a brahmana who is devalaha ( i. e. has been doing worship to an image for money for three years ) or who is a priest for the whole village, or a person who sells a soma plant, then he has to bathe with his clothes on. 398 Fourthly, persons become
1
.
untouchable when in certain conditions e. g. a person if he touches even his wife in her monthly period or during the first ten days after delivery or if he touches a person during the period of mourning on the death of some relative or a person who has carried a corpse to the cemetery and has not yet bathed, he then has to take a bath with his clothes on ( vide Manu V. 85 ). Fifthly, certain races such as mleochas and persons from certain countries and the countries themselves were regarded as impure ( vide notes 40, 42, 49 ). Further the
smrtis say that persons following certain filthy, low and dis-
approved avocations were untouchable

394.
e.
g.
Samvarta8 *7 quoted
i
qre^NFH?ri3[
r
*H^K
qrnpTcit^H'
OTFTPIU^ H
i$H th H,
^cft
sramfiSq;
ami!?
p. 923,
*guN.
I.
p. 118
fftm
on
.
30 quotes it as from w^nn^TOT ( reading fhn^for ift^rf^ and for ^TFT ); vide t^nficT IX. 359, 363, 364 for bath on ton jhing fta and
III.
entering Bauddha or Saiva temples *<np %^5^ ^TC H^rffT quoted by fwerr on ^rr. HI. 30 and awtF$ p. 923 ^rrFciqiJ 76. 6 has
;
;
TT:
395.
faiw^feh^
^^r quoted by 3TT<r^ p.

396.
923.
on
*TT.
III.
30
an
amr
397.
M
p. 922.
^M^ W^ quoted by arm^
p. 1196.
170
History of Dharmatestra
Ch.
IV
by Apararka p. 1196 says 'on touching a fisherman, a deer-hunter, a hunter, a butcher, a bird-catcher, and a washerman one must first bathe and then take one's meal It is to be remarked that such texts do not expressly make a man of those castes untouchable even if he does not pursue the occupation stated, but they have rather the occupation in view. Such occupations were thought impure, as it was believed that if one was to secure the final goal of liberation, one must cultivate purity of mind as well as body, and as great importance came to be attached to cleanliness and the ceremonial purity of the body for spiritual purposes ; and emphasis was laid upon not coming in contact with persons carrying on filthy or impure pursuits, but also with animals and even inanimate objects. These restrictions were
1
.
not inspired by any hardness of heart or any racial or caste % pride as is often said, but they were due to psychological or religious views and the requirements of hygiene. Ap. Dh. S. * a person touched by a dog should take a bath I. 5. 15, 16 says
;
wifch his clothes

S. 22. 69.
on Vide also Vas. Dh. S. 23. 33, Visnu Dh. Vrddha-Harlta ( chap. 11. 99-102) enumerates certain vegetables and herbs ( such as leek ) and other articles on touching which one was to bathe- Ap. Dh. S. ( II. 4. 9. 5 )
'.
requires every house-holder to give food after
Vai&vadeva to all and crows. And this practice is including candalas, dogs followed even now by those who perform Vaisvadeva. The ancient Hindus had a horror of uncleanliness and they desired
to segregate those
who
followed unclean professions like those
of sweepers, workers in hide, tanners, guardians of cemeteries &c. This segregation cannot be said to have been quite unjus-
Besides those who are not familiar with ancient or tifiable. even modern Hindu notions must be warned against being
carried
away by
the horror naturally felt at
first
sight
when
certain
classes are treated as untouchable.
The underlying
notions of untouchability are religious and ceremonial purity man's nearest and dearest women relatives and impurity.
such as his
to
own mother and

their
wife or daughter are untouchable

periods.
the most days when the latter is in mourning due to death in the latter's family. A person cannot touch his own son (whose thread ceremony has been performed ) at the time of taking meals. In this latter case there is no idea of impurity and in most of these cases there is no idea of superiority or inferiority. As many professions and prafts were in ancient times hereditary, gradually the idea arope
him during
monthly
To him
affectionate friend is untouchable for several
Oh.
IV]
UntoachcMUy
1?1
that a
man who belonged to a caste pursuing certain filthy or abhorred avocations or crafts was by birth untouchable. Medieval and modern usage had no doubt reached the stage that if a
man belonged by birth to a caste deemed by custom to be untouchable he remained an untouchable whatever profession or craft he may pursue or even if he pursued no profession. But ancient
and medieval writers thought otherwise and there was also great divergence of view as to who were untouchables and to what extent. The only caste that is said by the most ancient Dharmasutras to be untouchable by birth is that of candalas and the word c5ndala has a technical meaning in these works as stated above (p. 81 ) under candala. Gaufc. ( IV. 15 and 23) says that the candala is the offspring of a sudra from a brahmana woman and that he is the most reprehensible among the pratilomas. Ap. Dh. S. II. 898 1. 2. 8-9 states that on touching a candala one should plunge into water, on talking to him one should converse with a brahmana ( for purification ), on seeing him one should look at the luminaries ( either the Sun or moon or stars ). We have seen above that there were three kinds of candalas and they were all so by virtue of the circumstances of their birth. Manu ( X. 36, 51 ) makes only the andhra, meda, candala and 6vapaca stay outside the village and makes the antyavasayin ( X. 39 ) stay in a cemetery. That leads to the inference that other men even
of the lowest castes could stay in tho village itself. Harlta * quoted by Apararka (p. 279 ) states if a dvijati's limb other
399
than the head is touched by a dyer, a shoemaker, a hunter, a fisherman, a washerman, a butcher, a dancer ( nata ), a man of actor caste, oilman, vintner, hangman, village cock or dog, he becomes pure by washing that particular limb and by sipping water ( i. e. he need not bathe )'. Here most of the
and it is expressly said that impure as to require a bath. Angiras 17 ) states that a dvija when he comes in contact ( verse with a washerman, a shoemaker, a dancer ( naâ ), a fisherman or a worker in bamboo becomes pure by merely acamana (by
seven antyajas are included
their touch is not so
398.
*ror -qiugk'TiMwfo
shrrqwr
Hrrnri *iflum'*rwor
399.
frfta:
W
i
%$$
^ ^rorar srmSrsra;
?$?
^fn^rt
^
'
arrr. *r.
^.
II. l. 2. 8-9.
......
^SJTO^WT
ro
^TO
p.
279
the same
verses are quoted as imfmtpi by
172
sipping
verse
400
History tf Dhartltotastra
Ch.
IV
water
to the
).
The
effect
Nityacarapaddhati
that even on
p.
130
quotes a
coming in contact with
candalas and pukkasas one need not bathe, if the latter stand near a temple of Visnu and have come for the worship of Visnu. Alberuni in his work on India ( tr. by Sachau vol. !
IX ) refers to two classes of antyajas, the first of which had eight guilds ( seven of which were practically the same as the seven in note 170 above, the eighth being the weaver ) and a second group of four viz, Hadi, Doma, Chandala and Bhadatau. As to the first group he says that they intermarried except the Alberuni seems to have been fuller, shoemaker and weaver. misinformed as to this and what caste he means by Bhadatau 401 in his commentary on Manu X. 13 is not clear. Medhatithi is positive that the only pratiloma who is untouchable is the candala and no bath is necessary on coming in contact with the
chap.
other pratilomas
ksatr
).
( viz. suta, magadha, Syogava, vaidehika and Kulluka also says the same. Therefore it follows that
in spite of the smrti texts
tilomas
the pra( notes 170, 171, 173 ) including antyajas along with the candalas, such authoritative and comparatively early commentators as Medhatithi (about
among
900 A. D.) were firmly of opinion that they were not untouchable. V. 85 and Angiras 152 prescribe a bath for coming in bodily contact with a divaklrti (a candala ), udakya* ( a woman in her monthly period ), patita ( one outcasted for sin &o. ), sutika ( a woman after delivery ), a corpse, one who has touched a corpse. It follows therefore that the only antyaja who was
Manu 408
asprsya according to Manu was the candala. But gradually the spirit of exclusiveness and ideas of ritual purity were carried to extremes and more and more castes became untouchable. Some
very orthodox writers of smrtis went so far as to hold that on 403 Among the touching even a smdra a dvijati had to bathe.
400.
rl
II
quoted by
<Tff:
flfqiHmqÔ
I
P- 13
401.
quditf'
3ij3tiftaippr:
&TP
on
*g
X. 13.
402.
II
*g
V. 85 on which fcqr* says

I
l^jl^Tmrilî
403.
33
^ft^
quoted by
awrA
p. 1196.
Oh.
IV
Untouchability
173
occurrences of the word asprsya ( as meaning untouchables in general ) is that in Visnu Dh. S. V. 104 ; KatySyana also uses the word in that sense **. It will have been seen from the quotations above that cSndalas, mlecchan and Paraslkas are
earliest;
* placed on the same level as regards being asprsya. Atri if a dvija comes in contact with a candala, ( 267-269 ) says
*
40
patita, mleocha, a vessel containing intoxicating drink,
woman
in her monthly course, he should not take his meals ( without first bathing ) and if he comes in contact; with these while taking his meal, he should stop, throw away the food and bathe '. Vide
Visnu Dh, S. 22. 76 about talking with mlecchas and cSndalas. But so far as mlecohas are concerned these restrictions of untouohability have been given up long ago at least in public. Similarly the washerman, the worker in bamboo, the fisherman, the nata, among the seven well-known antyajas, are no longer untouchable in several provinces (though not in all ) and were not so even in the times of Medhatithi and Kulluka.
Once the spirit of exclusiveness and exaggerated notions of ceremonial purity got the upper hand they were carried to extremes. It does not appear from the ancient smrtis that the shadow of even the candala was deemed to be polluting. Manu V. 133 ( which is nearly the same as Visrm Dh. S. 23. 52 )
declares
'
flies,
spray from a reservoir, the shadow
of a
man
),
the cow, the horse, the sun's rays, dust, the earth, the wind and ' fire should be regarded as pure. Yaj. I. 193 is a similar verse Mann IV. 130 the almost is same). (Mark. Parana 35.21
the shadow of prescribes that one should not knowingly cross the image of a deity, of one's guru, of the king, of a snataka, of one's teacher, of a brown cow or of a man who has been initiated
for a
1
Vedic
sacrifice.
'
Here no reference
is
made
to the
shadow
of
V. 133 expressly says that a candala. ' shadow means shadow of a candala and the like '. Kulluka, however, adds on Manu IV. 130 that on account of the word
Medhatithi on
Manu
ca
'
in that verse the
shadow
of candalas
it
was included in the
injunction of that verse.

that
Manu and
Vide
legitimate to infer the shadow of even that did not prescribe Yaj.
Therefore
is
404.
are quoted
405.
nwrg*gggUl i<Ul K ( ed. by me ) verses by the fan. on *rr II. 99 and by amnfr P- 813.
433,
783 that
syTO
verses 267-269.
174
History of Dharrwiaxtra
Oh.
IV
a candsla was impure and caused pollution. Not only BO, 40<J quotes a verse the shadow of a candala or patita, AparSrka if it falls on a man, is not impure But Apararka himself 407 adds on this verse the comment that this favourable rule about the shadow of a candala or patita is applicable only if he is at a greater distance from a man than the length of a cow's tail.
' '.
8 ) describes how the candala ( para assembly-hall though she was untouchable and stood at some distance from the king. It appears that there was no difficulty about her entering the hall of audience or polluting the assembly by her shadow. Gradually some smrtis prescribed a bath for a brahmana coming under the shadow of a candala. The Mit. on Yaj. III. 30 quotes a verse in his
girl entered the royal
Bana
Kadambarl
of
Vyaghrapada that
if
a candala or patita comes nearer to a
person than the length of a cow's tail, then the latter must take a bath and another verse of Brhaspati to the effect * a patita, a woman in her monthly period, a woman freshly
delivered
and a candala should be kept respectively at a distance
of one yuga, two, three and four'. As yuga is four cubits, this means that a candala cannot approach within 16 cubits of
a caste Hindu. 408
As regards public roads Yaj. I. 194 says that they become pure by the rays of the sun and the moon and by the wind even when they are trodden by candalas. In Yaj. I. 197 it is stated that the mud and water on public roads and on houses built of baked bricks, though touched by candalas, dogs and crows, are rendered pure by the mere blowing of the wind over them. 409
405.
*4Udi<ftq
quoted by 8<q<n?
p. 275.
p. 275.
408.
i n
*rea ^rnrt ^Mi-^t^
M9<ft
fsrfy <ls fir
a*fe 288-289, 3T%T^ quoted by the fSfcfro on ^T III. 30, 3=PTCFK p. 1195 ascribes a similar verse to âtStapa.
Jiv. chap.
IX
part 1 p. 552
I
also
says the same.
fa&l
^
n
amr^p. 923; arteMm^Q ( ed. 5^ ^ fjjfgJT 4N

quoted by
-
^3^ro;
TTT.
HiUe{|^^!icTÎ4^JMQdlHI^TiT: a7HT^
-,
'gtjVn'H
i
iitaP on
ill. 30
^^T^
'
^^n^rf^^n^^Tc?^
*&&*.
'
^^f^r:
TOTOT
TW
quoted by
part
I. p. 17.
tfk**nft on
1^5
in the
amrofor remarks
^^H^^ti
^ *WT
f^>wi*Tnr?
^H
I.
197
a^c^( verse
144
) is
almost the same.
Oh.
IV
Untauchability
175
These rules show that the emrfcis followed a reasonable rule about the public roads and do not countenance the restrictions maintained in some parts of South India, particularly in Malabar, about the use of public roads by the untouchables viz. that an untouchable must not approach within a certain distance of a high caste Hindu, must leave the road to allow
him passage or must shout to give warning of his presence in order to avoid pollution to the cnste Hindu. Vide Wilson's ' ' Indian Castes vol. II p. 74 ( footnote ) for details of the distance.
In South India also there are various grades of distances within which members of the several lowest castes cannot approach high caste Hindus.
Certain provisions were
to
made
in the smrtis
by way of
the general rules about the untouchability of exceptions ' Atri 41 ( verse 249 ) says there is no taint of certain castes.
untouohability when a person is touched by an untouchable in a temple, religious processions and marriages, in sacrifices, and in all festivals '. SatStapa quoted in the Sm. C. declares that there is no dosa ( lapse ) in touching ( untouchables ) in a village
( i. e.
affray
on the public road ), or in a religious procession or in an and the like, and also when the whole village is involved 411 in a calamity. Brhaspati also remarks that there is no fault no so and prayasoitta ) if one comes in contact ( with untouch( ables ) at a sacred place, in marriage processions and religious
processions, in battle, when the country is invaded, or when the town or village is on fire. The Sm. C. adds that these verses
were variously interpreted; some saying that they apply only where one does not know that the man who has touched him is an untouchable, while others hold that they apply to the touch of impure persons who are not u^chista ( i. e. risen from meals The SmrtyarthasSra 4ia without washing their hands &c ).
410.
3jf% 249.
3441411341^$ In the ^jQ-c<

s?tf^f
^TS^^ ^r
'
3Wij ^
*r% !<f
( v. 1. Ti^rjf
I. pp. 121-122 this is quoted aa from an(* *Î ^TH5T). The first word must be taken to be
formed of throe separate members

s5ra will show.
411.
as the quotation
from the Smrtyartha-
quoted by
412.
^ô
I. p.
119.
3mfc re'ntf'* ^TWir%îl5
T^n^grf?^
flrc*
P. 79.
176
(
Histani of Dharmaiastra
Oh.
IV
summarises the places where no blame in incurred on of mixing with untouchables viz. in battle, on roads leading to a market, in religious processions, in public
p.
79
the
ground
temples, in festivals, in sacrifices, at sacred places, in calamities or invasions of the country or village, on the banks of large
sheets of water, in the presence of groat persons, when there It is somewhat is a sudden fire or other great calamity.
speaks of untouchables that entering temples. The Par. M. ( vol. II part I p. 115 ) says there is no dosa when candalas take water from a large tank as regards small reservoirs the ( used by higher castes ), but same rules apply to them that apply to the purification of wells
remarkable that the SmrfcyarthasSra
touched by untouchables.
for the purification of
4l3
Vide Vrddha-Harlta IX. 405-406
a well.
The Visnu Dh. S. ( V. 104 ) 4U prescribed that if an untouchable deliberately touched a man of the three higher castes he should be punished with beating, while Yaj. II. 234 prescribes that if a eandala ( deliberately ) touches any one of the higher
castes the candala should be fined one
hundred panas.
the penance for drinkfor partaking of of or vessels from the wells untouchables, ing their food ( either cooked or uncooked ), for staying with them and for having sexual intercourse with untouchable women. These matters will be briefly dealt with under prSyascitta,
Elaborate rules are laid
down about
The so-called untouchables were not entirely excluded from 20 ) 4 15 worship. When it is said ( as in Y&j. I. 93 or Gaut. IV. ^ he is that is the meaning that the candala is outside all dharma, outside such Vedic rites as upanayana, not that he cannot worship
the
He
Hindu deities nor that he is not bound by the moral code. could worship images of the avataras of Visnu ( vide note 364 above ), The Nirnayasindhu quotes a passage of the DevIpurSna that expressly authorizes antyajas to establish a temple of 418 X. 70. 43 says that even the Bhairava. The BbSgavatapurana
'
413.
T.
*TT-
vol. II. part 1 p. 115.
414.
415. 416.
:
($3N ?re: wr: f^f^r^r V. 9>nre>qmg vi sTkMWRri w^ter: intt IV. 20.
\ I
104.
U Vfi*r^w
'
X. 70. 43.
mcrrcmra III
under
Ch.
IV
UntauchabUity
177
antyavasSyins are purified by listening to the praises or names of Hari, by repeating the names of Hari and by contemplation on Him, much more therefore will those ( be purified ) who can see or touch your images'. This however shows that to the
author of the Bhagavata it never occurred that an untouchable could see or touch the image of Visnu enshrined in a temple of caste Hindus. In south India among the famous Vaisnava saints
classes
called Alvars, TiruppSna Alvar was a and Nammalvar was a Vellala.
member
of the depressed
The Mit. on
Yaj. III. 262
remarks that the pratiloma castes (which include candala) have the right to perform vratas. 417
In modern times the eradication of the system of untouchaengaging the minds of greafc leaders like Mahatma Gandhi whose fast for 21 days for effecting a change of heart among caste Hindus is famous throughout the world. The principal matters of concern to the so-called untouchables or depressed classes are facility for education in schools, removal of restrictions about places of public resort such as public wells, roads, restaurants and eating houses and entry in public A good deal has been done by a few zealous workers temples. The from among the higher castes in these respects. Christian missionaries have been doing good work among the untouchables, but their efforts are mainly devoted to direct or
bility is
indirect prosely tization. The conscience of the educated among the higher castes has been roused. But the total removal of untouchability is yet a matter of the distant future. The greatest draw-back is illiteracy among the masses of India. Hardly
twelve per cent of the population are
literate.
The
diffusion
of literacy and the spread of the idea of the equality of all men before the law and in public are the only sure solvents of the evils associated with untouchability which have exis-
Popular Governments in the provinces are doing their limited resources can do to ameliorate the condition of the untouchables. The Government of India Act ( of 1935 ) has given special representation to the Scheduled Castes (the name given to the depressed classes or untouchables ) in the Provincial and Federal Legislatures of India. The Government of India Scheduled Castes Order of 1936
ted for ages.
what they with
417.
3*m <gftg^t ^fir^TOT^
^ "^^
*n;
*TT.
HI. 262.
H.D.33
1T8
i
Ch.
IV
question the entry of untouchables in temples by passing such acts as the Bombay Act XI of 1938 viz. Bombay Harijan Temple Worship ( Removal of disabilities Act ) and the Madras Temple Entry Authorisation and Indemnity Act of 1939. Much will
out the names of the numerous scheduled oasteg in the several provinces of British India. The Provincial Governments have issued circulars to enforce the rule that no discrimination be made against the scheduled castes in places of public resort and have tackled to some extent the of
depend upon the untouchables themselves. As am ong the caste Hindust the Untouchables also have inter se numerous divisions and subdivisions each of which regards itself as superior to several others of them and will not condescend to mix with them in the public or dine with them. They must also throw up from among themselves selfless and capable leaders. This is a vast problem and the appalling evils which have been growing for ages cannot be wholly removed in a day. The leaders of the so-called untouchables also should not make exaggerated claims. For
the present they should rest content with
places, public services
equality in public
and before the law and at the most entry into public temples. But if they indulge in the tall talk of destroying the caste system at one stroke and requiring that all caste Hindus should dine with them and inter-marry with them, they may find that at least two hundred millions of caste Hindus will be dead opposed to them, and the cause of the removal of the evils of untouchability is bound to
a set-back. Besides it should not be forgotten that the amelioration of the condition of untouchables is bound up with the problem of the poverty of the entire rural
suffer
population of India. It should not be supposed that all the untouchables are the poorest of the poor. I know from personal knowledge that many among certain classes of untouchables
better off
Decoan are economically many villages. The mahars are hereditary village servants in the Deccan and they recover from every householder bread every day as part of their remuneration or a certain measure of corn from the threshing floor. Vide Grant Duff's History of the Marathas ( ed.
like the
Mahars and Ohambhars
of tha
than the ordinary cultivators in
'
'
of 1863 vol. I
p.
23
for the balutedars
village servants
whom
Offices
among
the
mahar occupies an important place and Hereditary Act (Bombay Act III of 1874, section 18 ) for Legislative
recognition of their ancient rights. The population of untouchables in India has been estimated at various figures from threa
Oh.
IV
Untauchdbility
179
ororea to six crores.

I. p.
The Simon Commission Report ( 1930 ) vol. 40 estimated that there were about 43 millions of untoucha-
bles in the whole of India, the criterion adopted being whether pollution by touch or approach within a certain distance is
caused.
The
ratio of
untouchables to the total population of
Hindu population varies greatly in different parts of India. The total Harijan ( the name given to untouchables by Mahatma Gandhi ) population is 14 per cent of the whole
India or to the
Bombay Presidency the ratio of only about eleven per cent being the lowest of all provinces and States in India, while in Bengal the ratio is about 32 per cent which is the highest in India except 418 The High Courts in India have held that the in Assam. untouchables are included among sudras for purposes of marriage. Vide Sohan Singh vs. Kabla Singh 10 Lahore 372,
population of India.
In the
Harijans to
Hindus
is
Muthusami
vs.
419 Masilamani 33 Mad. 342.
418.
419.
Vide Census of India
1931
),
vol. I part 1, p. 494.
Seyeral books and papers have been recently published on the queation of untouchables in India. Vide "The Psychology of a " suppressed people (1937) by Rev. J. 0. Heinrich ; Untouchable Claaaea
*
of Maharashtra
'
by M. GK Bhagat.
CHAPTER V
SLAVERY
Slavery has existed as a constant element in the social and economical life of all nations of antiquity such as Babylon,
Egypt, Greece,
It
Rome and also of many nations of Europe. ** was however left to such Christian nations of the West as England and the United States of America to carry on the institution of slavery in the most horrible manner possible never dreamt of by any nation of antiquity, viz. by sending out
kidnapping expeditions to Africa to collect slaves, to huddle them in ships in such unspeakably filthy conditions that half of them died on the voyage, to sell them to plantation owners and others like chattel. Wesfcermarck in his Origin and Development of the moral ideas' vol. I (1912) p. 711 was ' This system of slavery, which at least constrained to observe in the British colonies and slave states surpassed in cruelty the
'
any pagan country ancient and modern, was not only recognised by Christian Governments but was supported * by the large bulk of the clergy, Catholic and Protestant alike. Slavery was abolished in the British Dominions only in 1833 and in British India by Act V of 1843.
slavery of
It has been seen above (pp. 26-27) that the word 'dasa* in the Rg. generally stands for the opponents of the aryas. It is possible that when the das as were vanquished in battle and taken In the Rgveda, however, prisoners they were treated as slaves. ' f there are not many passages where the word dasa can be said 421 we to have been used in the sense of slave. In Rg VIII. 56. 3
ancient
Vide Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, vol. XIV, p. 74 'To the a fixed and accepted element of life and no moral problem was involved. That slavery already was established as a recognized institution in the Sumerian culture of the Babylonian area in the 4th millenium B. C. may be confidently assumed from the fragments of Sumerian legislation upon slaves which date from the first half of the 3rd millenium '.
420.
mind slavery was
421.
OTîr^TT^^Tcf^rT^
5.
Viii.
38
wnfp> liU^nt raro* sRTS^jsrra;
9f-
VIII. 19. 36.
Oh.V]
read
'
Slavery
181
thou madest a gift to me of one hundred donkeys, of one hundred fleece-bearing ewes and one hundred dasas '. It appears that here dasa means slaves or serfs. In Rg VIII. 5. 38 the sage
praises his patron Caidya Kasu the common people sit down at the feet of Caidya Kasu like men crowding round tanners of
hides,
*
ten noblemen ( Caidya ) who honoured me by giving me that were like gold in appearance '. Hare probably there is an allusion to the gift of ten captured nobles made to the sage by
A sage declares in 5g. VIII. 19. 36 victor. ' Trasadasyu, son of Purukutsa, gave me fifty young women This probably refers to the gift of female slaves ( dasls ). The
Caidya KaSu, the
'
Tai. S. VII. 5. 10.
says dasls ( girl slaves ) place on their heads jars full of water and singing this madhu and beating * their feet against the ground dance round the marjallya &o. 428 The Tai. S. II. 2. 6. 3. refers to the gift of a horse or a male ' He obtains a portion of himself who accepts ( in gift ) ( slave ).
1
'
a being with two rows of teeth, ( such as ) a horse or a human male on accepting an animal with two rows of teeth one should 428 offer to Vatevanara a mess cooked on twelve potsherds' The Ait. Br. 39.8 mentions large gifts such as 10,000 girls made by a king to his purohita ( dasl ) and 10,000 elephants
;
performing coronation. When the angel of Death tries to dissuade Naciketas from his curiosity to know the destiny of a person after death, he tempts the inquirer ( Katha Up. 1. 1. 25 ) Here are such handsome women with chariots and musical instruments make them, when as cannot be secured ( ordinarily ) by men do not ask me what happens after gifted by me, serve you The women referred to were probably meant to be death*.
'
serving ( or slave ) girls who attended on a man as maids and who could dance and sing. In the Br. Up. IV. 4. 23 Janaka
after receiving instruction in
Brahmavidya from YajSavalkya
a gift to your honour of the Videhas together with myself for being your slave*. We read in the Chan. Up. 1 In this world they speak of cows and horses, elephants and gold, wives and slaves, fields and houses as mahima (greatness).'
exclaims
make
422.
*n*i TTRTOTTSR
423.
^.
*f-
VII.
5. 10.
aTTWft ^T
<FT
it *t.
.
H.
;
2. 6. 3;
iff
3T IV. 4, 23
I
ITT.
7. VII. 24,
2,
182
History of Dharmatostra
Oh.
Vide also Chan. Up. V. 13. 2 and Br. Up. VL 2. 7 for references These passages show that in the Vedio period men and women had become the subjects of gifts and so were in
to dssls.
the condition of slaves.
Though Manu ordained ( I. 91, VIII. 413, 414 ) that the principal duty of the 6udra was to wait upon the three higher castes or that the Eiudra was created by the Creator for the service of brahmanas, the Sudra who thus served a dvijati as
a duty was not his slave.
perfectly clear
makes this by saying that when a man makes a gift in the

Jaimini
(
VI.
7.
424
Vi^vajit sacrifice of everything belonging to himself he cannot make a gift of the 6udra who waits upon him as his duty. ' Sahara in his bh$ya adds the 6udra may not desire to serve
the
man
to
whom
the sacrificer gives his all

if
and the
latter
has
no power over him
he
is
unwilling.
have seen how the Qrhya Sutras speak of dasas It being employed to wash the feet of honoured guests.
appears that the ideal
treat the slave
We
placed
before
the
masters
was
to
one
if
may
II 485 says that or one's wife indeed stint oneself, son ( as to food )
humanely.
Ap. Dh.
S. II. 4. 9.
guests come, but never a dSsa who does one's menial work ( or a dasa and hired servants ). In the Anu&Ssana'
4*8 it is stated one should not sell a human being who parva is a stranger; how much more one's own children*. In the Mahfibharata gifts of dSsas and dsls are very frequently mentioned. In Sabhfiparva 52. 45, Vanaparva 233. 43 and Virata 18. 21 gifts of 30 dasls to each of 88000 snataka brahmanas are spoken of. In Vanaparva 185. 34 Vainya is said to have given a thousand handsome dfisls with ornaments on to Atri. Vide Dronaparva 57. 5-9. Manu ( VIII, 299-300 ) places a slave on the same level as one's son in the matter of corporal punishment the wife, the son, the slave, a menial servant, one's full brother these when guilty of wrong may be beaten with a rope
'
424.
^v^f
tpfe?H3l^l<
&
VI.
7.
I
6;
'
Qi*f
^hmnffr
245.
thW^TcHT'T
Wft S?f sftTSTOTTO c^
fwW^T^
3HT.
II.
426.
Oh.
V]
if
Slavery
183
or a thin piece of split bamboo, bub only on the back
and never
on the head and

punished as a
a person beat them otherwise he would be

'
thief.
427 in evidence in India Slavery was probably nob much in the 4th century B. 0. or the treatment of slaves in India was so good that a foreign observer like Megasthenes accustomed
to the treatment of slaves in Greece thought that there
slavery, Megasthenes ( MacCrindle, p. 71 ) states that of the -Indians employs slaves ( vide Strabo XV. 1. 54 ).
was no none
slavery existed then admits of no doubt.
when proclaiming
his
Law
of
That The Emperor Asoka Piety enjoins in his 9th Rock
Edict that the Law of Piety consists ( among other things ) in the kind ( or proper ) treatment of slaves ( dasas ) and hired 428 servants. In the Arthasastra ( III. 13 ) Kautilya gives very
important provisions about slaves. He says that the mlecchas are not punishable if they sell or pledge their children, but an He then prescribes that if ftrya cannot be reduced to slavery.
relative sells or pledges
a sudra
who
is
not born as a slave
or a vaisya or ksatriya or a brahmana ( all being minors ), he should be respectively fined 12, 24, 36 and 48 panas and that if a stranger sells or pledges the above then the vendor, the vendee
and the abettors will be liable to the first, middle and highest ammercements and whipping respectively ( i. e. first ammercement for sale of a sudra by a stranger and whipping for the sale of a brahmana). But he allows the pledge of even an Srya in family distress. He refers to several kinds
of slaves viz. dhvajahrta
(
who
sells
himself
or for
),
in battle ), atmavikrayin ( captured udaradasa ( or garbhadasa, one who is

)
born to a dasl from a slave

(
or those so
(
made
for a debt
).
ahitika
),
fine or court's decree
dandapranlta
He
then prescribes how they are set free from slavery. One who sells himself or is pledged or is born a slave becomes a free man by paying off respectively the amount for which he was
purchased or pledged or what would be a proper price. One who is made a slave for a fine may pay off the fine by doing work. One captured in war may become free by paying according to the time he has been in bondage and the work he did The child of one who sells himself or by paying half of it.
Vide Rhys Darids in
c&^j|ti|4U|frt
*
427.
Buddhist India
I
'
1903
p.
263.
428.
III. 18.
init ftiig*iiWa IT
184
free
Ch.
prescribes that if a master or sweep ordure, urine or leavings of food, or keeps him naked, beats him or abuses him or violates the chastity of a female slave, he forfeits
).
remains an Srya ( makes a pledged
man
He
slave
carry
a corpse
by him. He prescribes the first ammerceinent having intercourse with a pledged slave girl against her will and middle ammerceinent for a stranger
the price paid for a master
doing
so.
Maim (VIII. 415) speaks of seven kinds of dasas, viz. one captured in battle, one who becomes so for food ( i. e. in scarcity or in a famine), one born in the house ( i. e. of a female slave ),
one bought, one given
ted
(
( by his parents or relatives ), one inherias part of the patrimony ), one who becomes so for paying off a fine or judicial decree. He states the general rule ** 9 that
the wife, the son and the slave have no wealth and whatever they earn belongs to him whose wife, son or slave they are.
Manu
member
prescribes a fine of 600 panas for a of the dvijati castes after his
brahmana making a upanayana a slave
against his will.
NSrada
abhyupetyasusrusS
and KatySyana among the
smrtikaras contain the most elaborate treatment on slavery. Narada first says that a susrusaka ( one who serves another ) is
of five kinds viz. a
who
Vedic student, an antevasin ( an apprentice learning a craft ), adhikarrnakrt ( a supervisor over workmen), bhrtaka (hired servant) and dasa. The first four are
is
called karmakara.
They can be
called
upon
to
do only work
that is pure, while a dasa may have to do impure work 430 such as cleaning the entrances to the house, filthy pits (for leavings of food ), the road, dunghill heaps, touching ( or scratching )
private parts, taking up and throwing away ordure and urine verses 6-7 ), doing bodily service to the master if he so desires. Narada mentions 15 kinds of slaves viz. one born in the
house, one bought, one acquired
by
gift or
other
means
),
429.
II
srg VIII. 416.

<TsrroqrT
This
is
the same as
$rT:
$
vjg/frjirj 33.
64 where the
first
half
is
^q-
TT3R
*?rqr?
^THWIT
compare
verse 41.
430.
:
.
I
BTfpt
IP?
6-7
).
Oh.
Slavery
185
one Inherited, one saved in a time of famine, one pledged by the master, one discharged from a large debfc, one captured in a battle, one vanquished in a bet, one who accepts from the I am yours ', an apostate slavery by saying order of asceticism, one who stipulates to be a slave ( for a certain time ), one who is a slave for food ( as long as food is given to him ), one who is tempted to become a slave out of love for a female slave, and one who sells himself. Narada says that the first four of these are not freed from slavery except by the favour of the master ( v. 29 ), while one who sells himself is the worst kind of slave and he also does not become free from slavery ( v. 37). Narada ( v. 30) and Yaj. (II. 182) state a rule applicable to all slaves, viz. that when a slave saves a master from imminent danger to the latter's life the slave becomes a free man and ( Narada adds ) that he gets a share in the inheritance as a son. One who is an apostate from the
*
order of ascetics is a slave of the king till the former's death Yaj. II. 183 ). One saved in a famine becomes free by giving
a pair of cows, one pledged 421 if the master who pledged him repays the debt, the slave in lieu of discharge of debt by paying off the debt with interest, one who accepted slavery or who was captured in battle or became so under a bet is freed by giving a substitute who is equal to him in work, one for a stipulated period by the lapse of the period, one who is a bhakta-daâ becomes free by the master ceasing to give food, one who is vadavahrta ( tempted by a female slave ) by abandoning his intercourse with her ( Narada vv. 31-34, 36 ). Yaj. ( II. 182 ) and Narada ( v. 38 ) say that one who was made a slave by force or was carried away by raiders and sold should be set free by the king. Yaj. ( II. 183 ) and Narada ( v. 39 ) prescribe that a man can be a slave to a master only in the proper order of varnas438 i. e. the three varnas next to a brahmana may be slaves to a brahmana, a vaisya or a 6ftdra may be a slave to a ksatriya but a ksatriya cannot be the slave of a vaisya or a 6udra, nor a vai&ya of a sudra. There is one exception viz. an
1
'
apostate
431.
from asceticism may be the slave of a vaisya or a 6udra
A slave who
redeemed.
is
pledged becomes the slave of two
till
the
pledge
is
432.
H
p.
^^w^^rwTi
>
<fi**i<^ <fi*i?
r*ii*u+iiss>i M*i
<|f4
39
T
).
^Swi+int
<hltq(<M
quoted by
788
compare
*n^ (*g.
H.P.24
186
king.
History of Dharmaictetra
Ch.
4 K&tySyana emphasizes that a brahmana ** cannot be made a slave even to a brahmana, but if he himself chooses, he may do pure work for a brahmana endowed with character and Vedic learning, but no impure work. Katyayana ( v. 721 ) says that when a brahmana becomes an apostate from the order of asceticism he should be banished from the kingdom and the ksatriya or vaisya apostate may become a slave to the king* Daksa ( VII. 33 ) quoted by Apararka ( p. 787 ) adds that the
apostate's head should be branded with the

484
mark
of dog's foot.
and Katyayana ( v. 723 ) both declare that if a Kautilya master has sexual intercourse with a female slave and she is delivered of a child, both the slave and the child should be
given freedom by the master.
Kautilya declared that the heirs to the wealth of a slave and if none of them exist then the master, while Katyayana 435 says that the only wealth that; the slave can call his own is the price he received for selling himself or what the master gave as a gift through favour.
are his relatives
Narada
desires to
vv. 42-43
mission of a slave
"
} describes the ceremony of the manuwhen a master being pleased with a slave
shoulder, a jar full of water
man, he should take, from the slave's and break it, he should sprinkle water mixed with whole grains of rice and flowers on the slave's head and thrice uttering the words you are no longer a slave " he should dismiss him with the ( slave's ) face to the east.
free
*
'
make him a
The Vyavaharamayukha 4S6 quotes a verse from the K&likapurfina about an adopted son, which is very interesting persons adopted and the like on whom the sarhskaras of cuijla ( fconsure ) and Upanayana are performed by the gotra of the
adopter, become sons of
(
the adopter
)>
whom
such ceremonies are not performed
otherwise the person ( on ) is held to be a slave
433.
t-<i**ni H
snx*n*T*T (TV.
sfeftfT^nnFfa^ Hf 4 *R$ OTTcT. cTsTrf'T ..^ 717 and 719 ) quoted by 3JTTT3? p 789 and
I
434.
îf^T^H^t
(jlî^
5ffTc*rnra
>a
<frw*f ^Tfcf
fTTT^^f^r^
fîifi^
I
^rinr?*r III- 13.

<
435.
^*^ Tc'^T'TT cffT ST^J

f>.
'f^tTt
XR?rr^f^^5
ft.
TWT
^
nm^m M
724 (quoted by
* p. 150
and
f%. p. 46).
^ ^prrTf ^TH
^r^f occurs in the ^xHvffortarT also

II
T^
rr^W
H4
of
my
is
edition
).
This verse
where the reading
Oh.
Slavery
187
(of the adopter).' The VyavahSramayGkha remarks that this passage is not reliable as it is not found in several mss. of the KalikSpurana, Narada mentions 15 kinds of slaves, but this is not one of them. All that the Kalikapurana probably means is that when a boy is adopted into another family after his cuda" and upanayana are performed in the family of birth, he is
not fully affiliated in the family of adoption, he does not
become a son and so does not take the inheritance but is only entitled to maintenance in the family of adoption, just as a slave is to be fed. No digests have recognised such a person as
a slave proper.
( rnadana 12) and Katyayana declare that a by a Vedic pupil, an apprentice, a slave, the wife, a menial servant and a workman for the benefit of the family even though it was incurred in his absence, was binding on the owner of the house. Ordinarily a slave was not a competent witness, but Manu VIII. 70 and Usanas ( quoted in VyavahSramayukha p. 37 ) say that when no other witness is available, a minor, an old man, a woman, a pupil, a relative, a
Narada* 37
debt contracted
slaveôr a hired servant
may
be a witness.
various aspects.
There are numerous works dealing with slavery in its The latest book on the subject is * Slavery
through the ages' by Sir George Mac Munn ( 1933 ), Mr. D. R. Banaji has published a very painstaking and interesting study on Slavery in British India from 1772 to 1843 (2nd ed. 1937) The Carnegie Institution of Washington has published studies on several aspects such as Judicial Cases ( by Mrs. Catterall in 1926 ) and Documents of the history of the Slave Trade to America, 1930 by Prof. Elizabeth Donnan. Dr. H. J. Nieboer's 'Slavery as an Industrial System' (1910) is a well' ' '
'
'
study of slavery in various times.
documented
various
countries and at
437.
v. 12
.
s&n
wr quoted by 3mr$
p.
648, ft.
CHAPTER
VI
SAMSKARAS
Gautama ( II. 1 ) says that before upanayana, a boy may speak and eat as and what he likes ( i. e. may follow his inclinations ). Haradatta explains that this does not mean that he can kill a brahmana or drink liquor, but that there is no restriction, although he be a brahmana's son, to his selling what ip forbidden to a brahmana to sell, or he may eat onions and garlic or stale food or may eat four or five times a day. 428 Ap. Dh, S. ( II. 1. 6. 15. 17-20 ) states several views on this point. 'Up to the time when they begin to take cooked food infants do not become impure ( by the touch of a rajasvala &c. );
act,
till
according to some ( teachers ) up till they are one year old ; or they are not able to distinguish the cardinal points; another view is that till upanayana (they do not become impure )'. Aparfirka ( p. 28 ) also explains that a boy may ( before upanayana) eat the leavings of the food of his parents, but he
cannot eat or drink what would cause loss of caste as in that case he may become unfit to have the samskara of upanayana performed on him. The Smrtyarfchasara gives the view of some
that in case an infant touches a cSndala before it reaches the age of taking cooked food, only water need be sprinkled on it, before caula acamana need be done by it and after caula Vas. Dh. ( and before upanayana ) a bath would be necessary. S. ( II. 6 ) quotes a verse of Harlta to the effect up till investiture with the girdle of munja grass ( i. e, till upanayana ) there is no action that is obligatory on him, as long as he is not born 48 again for Vedic study he may be in his conduct like a sudra' *. This verse occurs also in Baud. Dh. S. I. 2. 6 and Manu II. 171 and 172. Daksa I. 3-4 says Till a boy is eight years old he is like one newly born and only indicates the caste in which he is born. As long as his upanayana is not performed the
* *
438.
nq-. *r.
ii- 6. 15. 17-20.

f3> f%c[
439.
îfHic^rsx^ ^
i
uferac f^rei^ *R$
compare
f^rpf^f
28.
^fS ^rftro II- 6; &*. r. 40 *n^refar*Wl fJ^T;

'
reads srow
nft *TO
t
Oh. VI]
SafaJ&raa
180
boy incurs no blame as to what is allowed or forbidden to be eaten, as to what should ( or should not ) be drunk, as to what 44 he should or should not speak, as to telling a falsehood But this does not hold good as to mahapatakas. As to prayaSoitta when a child is guilty of the commission of a mahftpStaka,see under prayascitta later on and the Mit.on Yaj.III.253. The smrtis look upon upanayana as the second birth of a boy 441 Gaut. (X. 1 and 51 ) (the first being his physical birth) says that the three higher classes are called dvijatis ( having two births ), while the udra is only ekajati. 44a Ap. Dh. S. says
'.
.
( 1. 1.
1.
16-18
)/
the teacher causes
him ( the boy who
is
initiated
into Vedic study ) to be born from vidya ( i.e. by imparting Vedic knowledge ), that birth is superior, the parents produce only the
body'
'
443
.
Upanayana
is
like
Baptism and
St.
John
(3. 3
also
says
of
except a
man
God/
Manu
be born again, he cannot see the Kingdom II. 147-148 ( = Visnu Dh. S. 30. 45-46)
convey the same
idea.
Manu
II 169
speaks of three births

the
in theTcaiE^ the girdle isÎe3Ti.

is
seoomTwhen
on upanayana ) and ihe third when Jie iruiiafed for a Vedie sacrifice. Upanayana is the foremost
e.
:
of
tlTe"8am^kSra8r^lriTHI "fl2 ) saysâ person is known as a brShmana by birth, he is said to be a dvija ( twice-born ) on account of samskaras, he reaches the posifcionjDf ajyipra by learning (study of the Veda ) he is called jrojriy a on account
;
""FarTsara (VIII. 19) colitarns~ar fine image to illustrate this jusfc as a work of painting gradually unfolds itself on account of the several colours ( with which it is drawn), so brahmariya (the status of a brahraana) is similarly
tAllJhese
three
444
'.
440. ÎcWTC: frfj}{dH4l|tr4&T *T*TT T7

I. 3-4,
'
\
If
fff
T^T^T ?hft <miÛMM<i$?4i!

it
tt
quoted in smiji
( p.
28
and the second citod
as
from
I.
I
in irn. in. I part 2 p. 29.
441.
ag; fitefH ^spir
asrcm^r WBTT:
5fl*l^
I
^T^^TT^
wfi
ft.
9-11.
x. 1
442.
51.
f^3frtfta'W*reT{*?*n
^^r3^f
iHistflft:
ft.
and
Vide an*, u.
443.
^r
1. 1. 1.
1. 1. 1. 6.
i
^.
ft f*teriH^ ^rfnrf^ 16-18.
m^
444.
ffi^r^r vd*4Hi wTgroft it<r: 'riwiftfS^r H aife 141-142 Brgr^noT reads ^JT^T... 5 H quoted in ^f. IT. p. 404.
i I
T*^
AparSrka (p. 25) and as of Angiraa in

JT.
T^T^C VIII. 19 quoted as Devala's by Par. M. II. part I. p. 22,

;
p. 136.
190
Oh.
VI
brought out by samskaras performed according to prescribed

'
ritee.
Therefore
it is
now
time to speak of BarhskSras.
Vedic
The word samskara hardly ever occurs in the ancient ' kr with sam and the past literature, but the root
' *
*
In Rg. passive participle 'samskrta* occur often enough. V. 76. 2 the word samskrfca is applied to 'gharma* (vessel) 'the two A&vins do not harm the gharma that has been purified/
and Rg. Sat, Br. 1. 1. 4. 10 speaks ranaya sarhskrfcah of preparing ( or purifying ) offering ( havis ) for the gods. So in Sat. Br. III. 2. 1. 22 therefore a woman approaches a man who stands in a well-trimmed (samskrfca) house.' Vide Vaj. S. IV. 34 for a similar use of samskrta. In 446 read "of that sacrifice there Chan. Up. IV. 16. 2, we
In
ftg.
VI
28.
'
we have
the
word samskrfcatra
445
'
VIII. 33. 9 has
'.
'
are two ways, by mind, by speech the Brahm& ( priest ) prepares ( or polishes ) one of them by his mind." The word samskftra is used several times in the sufcras of Jaimini ( as in
;
III. 1. 3,
III. 2. 15
4.
and
17,
III. 8. 3,
1.
IX.
2.
9, 42, 44,
).
IX.
3.
25,
IX.
4.
33, IX.
50 and 54, X,
and 11 &c.
It generally
means some purificatory act in a sacrifice e. g. in Jaimini III. 8. 3 the word is applied to the actions of shaving the head, washing the teeth and paring the nails on the part of the saorificer in Jyotistoma in IX 3. 25 the word samskara is
;
applied to proksana
sprinkling with water
),
in
2.
49
it is
447 applied to the shaving of the head and face. In Jaimini VI. 1. 35 the word samskara stands for upanayana. Sahara 448 samskara as that which being effected makes a explains
certain thing or person fit for a certain purpose and the Tantravartika says that samskaras are those actions and rites that
445.
10. cf^ri cf^rif

446.
.
& smtf &*%& TTO?cTHARf

I
*r
%*^T %fe-
sr
*ri
w3 sreilrc^cTs
i
SRTTO
I.
1.
4.
srcTW
m,
2. 1. 22.
TF^RT
IV. 16. 1-2.
The BrahmS
priest
remains silent
and watches the whole sacrifice he corrects by ]jr5ya^citta.

447.
448.
*frcf?Twr
cf
to see if there bo
any mistake, which

1. 35.
*fori!r3jnrf
TOgfo
4 VI.
on ^.
III. 1. 3
p.
660
^reft ^T^TTHT: f^TF:
ffej p. 1078;
fCl.
1.4.
Ch.
VI
Samskaras
*
ttt
;
and ifc further says **' fitness is of two kinds It arises by the removal of taints ( sins ) or by the generation of fresh qualities. Samskaras generate fresh qualities, while tapas brings about the removal of taints. He who performs such sacrifices as Jyotistoma and others has certain blemishes in
impart
fitness
him due to not doing in this down for him or doing what
a previous life duties laid forbidden. If they ( blemishes ) are not removed they obstruct the ( acquisition of the ) reward of the sacrifice even if it be entirely free from any defects
life or
is
whatever, as they ( blemishes ) produce (for the sacrificer ) the experience of their own fruits that are opposed to the ( fruit of the ) sacrifice/ The Vlramitrodaya 450 ( on sarhskara ) defines * samskara as a peculiar excellence due to the performance of rites ordained ( by the 6astra ) which resides either in the
'
'
and says that it is of two kinds, one kind a person eligible for performing other actions ( e. g. making upanayana renders a person eligible for Vedic study ), while another kind removes the evil taint that may have been generated ( e. g. Jatakarma removes the taint due to seed and uterus ). The word samskara does not occur in most of the grhyasutras
soul or the body
( it
'
occurs in Vaik. ), but Gaut. VIII. 8, Ap. Dh. 1.
it
occurs in the Dharraasutras
vide
1. 1. 9,
Vas. IV. 1
to
).
The principal matters

samskaras are
:
that fall
be
discussed under
the purpose of samskaras, the classification of samskaras, the number of samskaras, the procedure of each of the samskaras and the persons authorized to perform them and
the persons for
whom
they are to be performed.
Mann ( II. 27-28 ) First as to the purpose of samskaras. ' of the or taints case sins ) due to seed the In dvijatis, ( says
and the uterus ( i. e. derived from parents ) are wiped off by the homas (burnt oblations) performed during pregnancy and by jatakarma ( ceremonies on birth ), caula ( tonsure ) and the tying
This ( human ) body is rendered fit brahma by the study of the Veda, by of ) vratas, homas ( oblations in fire ), by the ( observance vrata called traividya, by worship ( of gods, sages and manes ),
of the girdle of
munja
grass.
for the attainment of
by generation
449.
.
of sons,
by the performance of the
five
daily
1115 on $. III.
8. 9. 3.
450.
MWcf
on ISTT^WH !!
33
19*
sacrifices
History of Jbhartoaiastra
Ch.
VI
The view of ) sacrifices/ by the performance of samskftras ) the taint arising from the seed and uterus ( i. e. from the physical defects of parents ) is removed.' These words of Manu and Yaj. are variously interpreted by the commentators. Medhatithi says sead and uterus are not the causes of sin and therefore all that is meant by enas ( in Manu II. 27 ) is impurity.' Kulluka explains that blemishes of seed are those arising from intercourse in a prohibited manner and the 'gSrbhika* blemish is what arises from having to stay in the womb of an impure mother. The Mit. 451 on Yaj. I. 13 makes it clear that samskaras are deemed to remove bodily defects transmitted from parents ( such as defective limbs, diseases &c. ) and are not intended to remove the taint of being born of sinful
(
and by
is
solemn Vedic
( i. e.
Yaj.
( 1.
13
that
'
thus
'
parents.
Harlfca
458
Manu
II.
66 also states that all the samskaras are
also for the purification of the body. ' as quoted in the Samskaratattva says when a person has intercourse according to the procedure of garbhadhana he
establishes in the wife a foetus that becomes
fit
performed on a
woman
for the reception
of the Veda, by the rite otpumsavana he makes the garbha become a male, by the ceremony of Slmantonnayana he removes from
the foetus the taint derived
lated taints
from the parents and the accumudue to seed, blood and womb are removed by jatakarma, namakarana, aunapradana, cudakarana and samavartana. By these eight samskaras ( from garbhadhana ) purity arises. The exact significance of samskaras in the development of higher human personality was left rather vague in our authorities and their treatment of the purpose of samskaras is not very elaborate or exhaustive. The samskftras had been treated from very ancient times as necessary for unfolding the latent capacities of man for development and as being the outward symbols or signs of the inner change which would fit human beings for corporate life and they also tended If to confer a certain status on those who underwent them. we look at the list of samskaras we shall find that the purposes
(
which are
five
'
451.
I
f^n. on
*H.
I.
13
tnftaWHCT
TTft:
452.
hJi urf
Ch.
of
VI
Safiiskaras
193
samskaras were manifold. Some like Upanayana served and cultural purposes, they brought the unredeemed person into the company of the elect, they opened the door to Vedic study and thus conferred special privileges and exacted duties. They have also psychological values impressing on the mind of the person that he has assumed a new role and must strive to observe ifcs rules. Other samskaras like nSmakarana, annaprSfiana, and niskramana were more or less of a popular
spiritual
nature. They afforded opportunities for the expression of love and affection and for festivities. Ofcher samskaras like
garbhadhana, purhsavana, sltnantonnayana had also mystical and symbolical elements. Vivaha (marriage) was a sacrament which broui>t about a union of two personalities into one for the purpose of the continuance of society and for the uplift of the two by self-restraint, by self-sacrifice and mutual
co-operation.
The samskaras were divided by Harlta into two kinds, brahma and daiva. 452 The samskaras of garbhadhana and others which are described only in the smrtis are called brahma arid the man who is purified by performing them attains equality with sages, stays in the same world with them and is joined with them pakayajnas ( offerings of cooked food ), yajiias with burnt offerings and sacrifices in which soma is offered are called daiva ( samskaras The last two varieties, viz. those in which there is burnt offering and those in which soma is offered, are dealt with in the 6rauta sutras, which have been left outside the purview of this work ( except in the note
;
).
at the
end
of this
volume
).
There is a great divergence of views among the writers on smrtis as to the number of samskaras. Gaut. ( VIII. 14-24 ) speaks of forty samskaras and eight virtues of the soul. The forty samskaras are garbhadhana, purfasavana, slmantonnayana, jatakarma, namakarana, annapraâna, caula, upanayana (8 rrr-tr.:: -f ^3 Veda, snana ( or samavartana ), in ail j,"tL':
vivaha, five daily

453.
<
mahayajnas
for
deva,
pitr,
manusya,
Mrh*Jtff? T*l*iiymi*^ l*%f9r if3":
^WMdf
.
'HcJlf'Shcli
iTf^'f
^^fjf^r
yf^
I-
P- 13
TTT.
*TT.
I.
part 2 p. 18, ^TT^^T^T^T P- 135.
The
editor
of the <m. TTdiscovered).
ays
it
is
srihraifo^
XL
1-5
from the
MS
he had
?. P. 25
194
bhuta
History of Dharmaiaatra
Oh.
VI
and
brahma
seven
pftkayajSas
4W
viz.
pSrvanasthallpaka, 6raddha, 6ravanl, SgrahayanI, oaifcrl, yujl ) ; seven haviryajnas ( in which there is burnt offering
bufc no soma) viz. Agnyadheya, Agnihotra, DarsapurnamSsa, Agrayana, Caturnifisyas, NirudhapaSubandha and Sautramanl); seven soma sacrifices ( Agnistorna, Atyagnistoma, Ukthya, 8 Sodasin, Vajapeya, Atiratra, Apfcoryama). Gautama uses the word samskSra in the most extended sense. Sankha as quoted by the Sm. 0. (I. p. 13) and the SubodhinI on Mit. II. 4 follow Gautama. Vaik. speaks of eighteen 6arlra samskaras ( in which he includes utthSna,pravSs5gamana,pindavardhana, which are seen nowhere else as samskaras ) and twenty-two yajfias ( i. e. five daily yajnas as one and seven pakayajiias, seven havir-yajfias, and seven soma yajnas ). Most grhyasutras, dharmasutras and smrtis do not enumerate so many. Angiras ( quoted in the Sarhskaramayukha, Saihskara-praka&a p. 135 and other digests) mentions twenty-five samskaras. They include all samskaras of Gautama from garbhadhana to the five daily yajnas ( which latter are reckoned as one samskara by Angiras ) and after namakarana niskramana is added. Besides, Visnubaii, Agrayana, Astaka, SravanI, AsvayujI, Marga&IrsI ( same as Agrahayanl ), Parvana, Utsarga and Upakarma are enumerated as the remaining samskaras by Angiras. Veda-Vyasa I. 14-15 enumerates sixteen samskaras. Manu, Yftj., Visnu Dh. S, do not give the number of samskaras but simply say that they are those from niseka ( garbhadhana ) to sma&ana ( i. e. antyesti ). This last one is not treated of in Gautama and several grhyasutras. In most of the digests the principal samskaras are said to be sixteen; but there is some difference of opinion even as to 455 For example, Jatukarnya as quoted in Sam. these sixteen. Pr. ( p. 135 ) enumerates the 16 as garbhadhana, pumsavana, slmanta, jatakarma, namakarana, annasrasiana, caula, mauiijl
454. According to some the seven pskayajnas are aupSsanahoroa, vaHvadeva, pHryana ( slhallpska), asta^^V^^^îicftitJnJr ), sarpabali and i^Snabali. Vide Sm. C. I. p. 13. The Baud. gr. I. 1. gives the seven
:
and a^taka homa.
pSkayajnas as huta, prahuta, ahuta, dulagava, biliharana, pratyavarohana Vide S. B. E. Vol. 30 p. 358 for several differing
enumerations of pskayajnas.
455.
.
3.
The 16 usually enumerated in the digests are
Ch.
(
VI
Nutnber of &uhskaras
),
195
upanayana
vratas
four
),
godana, samavartana, vivaha and
antyesti. These slightly differ
from the sixteen
of
Veda-Vyasa.
The grhyasutras deal with sarhskaras in two different sequences. Many of them begin with vivaha ( marriage ) and then proceed up to samavartana. Some like the Hiranyake&igrhya, Bharadvajagrhya and Manavagrhya begin with 456 Some samskaras like Karnavedha and Vidyfiupanayana. rambha are conspicuous by their absence in the grhyasutras, but are added by later smrfcis and puranas. The following is
the
list
of all the
samskaras usually so called in most
of the
smrti works together with a few remarks against each as to the work or works in which each is mentioned or described. The
samskaras are arranged in the sequence of the times at which in a man's life they are performed beginning from garbhadhana:
457 L 1 as distinct from Rtu-samgamana mentioned in Vaik. garbhadhana ; it calls it niseka also ( VI. 2 ) and describes it in III. 9 and garbhadhana in III. 10. The Vaik. commence* the samskaras with niseka.
Garbhadhana
Niseka
Caturthlkarma or-homa
Manu ( IL
16 and 26 ), Ysj. 1. 10-11, Visnu Dh. S. ( 2. 3 and 27. 1 ) employ the word niseka as equivalent to garbhadhana. In the Sankhayana grhya ( 1. 18-19 ), Par. gr. L 11, and Ap. gr. ( 8. 10-11 ) caturthlhoma takes the the rite called caturthlkarma or
place of the rite called garbhadhana elsewhere and there is no separate description of garbhadhana in these and some similar
For detailed treatment of some of the samskaras, vide Dr. Kamalabai Deshpande's work 'the Child in ancient India (with copious references to the grhya sUtras ); Mrs. Stevenson's the Bites of the twice-born' (1920), which exhaustively reviews in the minutest details the rites of brShmanas ( particularly in Kathiawar and Gujarat ) This work however gives hardly any references as observed at present.
456.
)
1
(Mrs.
permeated by the spirit of a Christian missionary and commits the mistake, usual with most Western writers, of comparing hoary Indian customs, usages and the position of women with those of the West only in the latter half of the. 19th century, altoa few hundred years ago, gether ignoring what existed in Europe over though it is generally written with sympathy and understanding. Colebrooke's Miscellaneous Essays, Vol. I. pp. 123-226 (London, 1837), Monier Williams' Religious thought and life in India part I ( 1883 ), VidyaTnava's on daily practices in the 20th volume of 'the Sacred Books of the Hindus may also be consulted.
to original Sanskrit authorities, is
'
'
'
'
'
457.
?roft
tfintf
ftfoPtengi
1.
t*rnm
VI. 2
aw ftfrmfoiHmm
?ffH I.
196
grhyasutras. 30. 8 ), Gaut.
History of Lharmaiastra
Oh.
VI
The Baud.
(
gr.
IV.
6.
),
the
Katbakagrhya
VIIT. 14
),
Yaj.
Ill employ
the word garbhS-
dhana. According to Vaik. ( III. 10 ) the garbhadhana rite follows niseka or rtu-samgamana ( union of married pair after
menstruation
and consists in ensuring conception.

occurs in almost 11 ).
:
Pumsavana:
Qaut., in Yaj.
( I.
all
the
grhyasutras,
in
It
Garbharaksana mentioned in the SankhSyana gr. ( I. 21 ). seems to be the same as the Anavalobhana which according
to the
is
Asvalayana
gr.
1.
13. 1
occurs in the Upanisad and which
described in Asv.'gr.
( I.
13.
5-7
).
This occurs almost everywhere. 11 uses the word slmanta.
Slmantonnayana
Yaj.
I.
Vtsnubali mentioned in Baud. gr. ( I. 10. 13-17 and 1.11.2), Vaik. (III. 13), Angiras. It is not mentioned by Gautama and several other ancient sQtrakaras.
:
Sosyanti-karma or-homa: described in Khadira and Gobbila. Sosyantl-savana in Kathaka-grhya and Ksiprasuvana in Ap. gr., Bharadvaja gr. and Ksipraprasavana in Hir. gr. It occurs in Budhasmrti ( as quoted ( S. B. E. vol. 30, p. 210 ). in Samskara-prakasa p. 139 ).
It is called
Jatakarma
Utthana ah. gr. I. 25
:
This
is
described in all sfltras

in
and
III.
smrtis.
mentioned only
(
the Vaik.
).
18
and in
S.
B. E. vol. 29, pp. 51-52

:
Namakarana
mentioned in
all smrfcis.
Niskrainana or Upaniskramarâ or Adityadarsana or Nirnayana: Yaj. I. 11 speaks of it as Niskramana, Par. gr. ( 1. 17 ) as Niskramanika, Manu II. 34 speaks of it as Niskramana. The
Kausikasftfcra
58.
18 calls
(II. 2 ) employs the word 19. 1 ), Visnu Dh. S. ( 27. 10
appropriately the name several other sutras omit it.
it Nirnayana; while Baud. gr. Manava gr. ( I. upaniskramana ), Sankha ( in verse, II. 5 ) employ Adityadarsana. Gaut., Ap. gr. and
;
Karyavedha
tioned in
12. 1
),
-omitted in almost all ancient smrtis

srarti
(
men( I.
Veda-Vyasa
:
( I.
19
),
Baud.
gr. sesa-sutra
)
Katyayana-sutra
a supplement
to Par. gr.
Annapra&ana
Baud.
mentioned by almost every smrti.

:
Varsavardhana or Abdapurti
Par.,
-mentioned in GobhiU, San.
Oh.
VI
Samskaras
'
19^
Caula or Cudakarma or Cudakarana

smrtis.
mentioned by
all
not mentioned in any smrti but only in Vidyarambha Markandeyapurana quoted by Apararka (p. 30 ) and Sm. 0.
:
(I. p. 26').
mentioned by all. It is called vratadesa in Upanayana Veda-Vyasa I, 14. Vratas ( four ) mentioned by most of the grhyasutras.
:
Kesanta or Oodana
these two.
Mentioned by almost
:
all.
Samavartana or Snana
there
is
great
Manu
III.
seems to keep snana

is
divergence about ( ceremonial bath
after the period of studentship
over
as distinct
from sama-
vartana.
Par. gr. ( nial bath
Gaut., Ap. gr. V. 12-13, Hir. gr. I. 9. 1, Yaj. I. 51, II, 6-7 ) employ the word snana for both the ceremo-
and the
San. gr.
rites
of
return from the teacher's house on
finishing one's studies, while

(
Asv.
S.
gr.
III.
8.
),
Baud.
)
gr.
II. 6.
),
III. 1,
Ap. Dh.
( I.
2. 7.
15 and 31
employ
the word Samavartana.
Vivaha
Mentioned by
all as
a sarhskara.
;
Mahayajnas: five daily Angiras and others.
yajfias
mentioned
by
Gaut,
Utsarga : ( seasonal giving up of tioned as a sarhskara in Vaik (LI) and

:
Veda studies ) is menby Angiras. ( yearly commencement of Veda study ) menUpaJcarma tioned as a sarhskftra by Vaik. (LI) and by Angiras. mentioned by Manu II. 16 and Yaj 1. 10. Antyesti
'
It is laid down that the sarhskaras from j&takarma to cudakarma were to be performed in the case of the twice-born classes with Vedic mantras when the child was a male and
that in the case of girls the ceremonies
were to be performed
(
but without Vedic mantras

17. 18),
vide Asv.
gr.
1.
15. 12,
I.
16. 6, 1.
Manu
II.
66, Yaj
1,
13.
But marriage
in the case of the
girls of the three higher classes was to be performed with Vedic mantras ( Manu II, 67. Yaj. I. 13 ).
The sarhskaras 488 from garbhadhana to upanayana alone were absolutely necessary in the case of all twice-born persons ;
458.
I.
pp.
13-14;
*srag.
(Wwo*3
p. 73).
The words
'
198
History of Dhafmaiastra
Ch.
VI
the samskaras of snSna and viv&ha were not obligatory, as a man was allowed to become a samnySsin ( ascetic) immediately after finishing the period of studenthood (according to the Jftbalo-
panisad
).
The Samskaraprakasa enters upon an elaborate
as to whether jatakarma could be performed for a child that is neither a male nor a female ( pp. 195-197 ) and
discussion
arrives at the conclusion that jatakarma and other samsk&ras

( impotent ) child. Another question was as to what samskSras could be performed for the sudra. The view of Vedavyasa that he could have ten samskaras performed ( but without Vedio mantras ) has been stated above ( p. 159 ). The Baijavapa 459 grhya says that seven samskaras are allowed to the sudra viz. from garbhadhana The view of Apararka 48 appears to be that ( or niseka ) to caula. the eight samskaras from garbhadhana to caula ( in Yaj. 1.11-12) were meant for all varnas (including the Sudra), According to the Madanaratna, Rupanarayana and the bhasya of Harihara as quoted in the Nirnayasindhu, the sudras were entitled to perform six samskSras viz. jatakarma, namakarana, niskramana, annapraâna, cuda and vivaha and the five daily mahaThe Sudrakrtya-tattva of Raghunandana ( p. 634 ) yajnas. 4M this very procedure quotes a verse from the Varahapurana declared in the case of sudras but has been sraddha ) (rabout without mantras for the &udra who is not entitled to repeat a mantra, a brahmana repeats the mantra and then remarks that for a 6udra a mantra from the puranas is to be repeated by the brahmana priest employed, that the sudra is not to repeat even namah the purana mantras but has only to say The 462 mentions with approval the same view of Nirnayasindhu
*
cannot be performed for a kllba
'
'.
SulapSni that in
all religious
ceremonies for sudras the
man-
from the puranas and that they are to be *6 * repeated by the brahmana priest. The Brahmapurana quoted
tras are to be taken
459.
.
sf. )
p. 133.
460.
C
I
ticra ?^Ta^rzfft^ jn^f

!
r {
3TTO*
e
P. 25.
461.
P. 634.
462.
ill.
463.
wn&3 iî^M^^hii ^yffi gwri

III.
Oh.
VI]
Bafhskaraa
199
in the Sm. 0. ( I. p. 24 ) and other digests states that no other samskara than vivaha is allowed to the sudra. On this the Nirpayasindhu remarks that these conflicting views are to be reconciled by holding that the liberal ones apply to good ( sat ) sudras and the stricter ones to low ( asat ) sudras or that; the
rules are different in different countries.
It is to be noted that in modern times most of the samskaras (except garbhadhana, upanayana and vivaha) have fallen into oblivion and are hardly ever performed even by brahmanas in the manner and at the times prescribed by the smrtis. Owing
to the rapid rise
in the marriageable age of brahmana girls, even the samskara of garbbadhana is falling into abeyance. Namakarana, annaprasana are performed in a popular way but without Vedic mantras or without calling a priest to In most cases caula is performed on the day of the officiate.
after
upanayana and samavartana
is also performed a few days upanayana. Jafcakarma and annaprasana are performed on the same day in some parts (e. g. in Bengal). It appears The that this state of things has continued for centuries. 464 if the samskaras ( except upa( p. 3 ) says Smrty arthasara nayana) are not performed at the prescribed times, the Vyahrtihoma should be offered and then the samskaras should be performed ( though late ). For each samskara that is not performed the penance called pSdakrcchra should be performed ( if the nonperformance is due to some difficulty or distress ), and for nonperformance of caula the penance is ardha-krochra. If the samskaras were knowingly omitted or if there was no distress then the 465 of this/ The Nirnayasindhu quotes verses penance is double 466 to this effect and then remarks that there was of Saunaka a conflict of views, some holding that after the penance the samskarfts passed over should be performed all at one time,
'
464.
The VyShrtihoma consists in offering
clarified butter
with the
mystic syllables, bhuh, bhuvah, svah (or surah) uttered separately and then together. Vide Sir. gr. I. 3.' 4 ( S. B. E.' Vol. 30 p. 144 ).
465.
: H?^T tftfarnn% fi^r: ^SC^WTC P. 3; for Y5j. III. 318 and fifcn thereon where ar^^p" also is explained.
i
^
i
m^^
i
vide
466.
aw
*teffnsfo sftagfj
sTn^r^^^rgftrTc^RT^cfr^
M
*K*?UHH
'
3 ^^b^ 5^1 ^^ *W3F5*nH

Qr ?^Nrftf^m
i
^nî^toi^ 3
MKI^^
'H'+uWvi
w^rnrf^
HI I?W;
u
'
mg.
WrTOT p.
t ^rf^ f^s^ ^^[ 99 ) quotes a similar verse from
^5t
5^
200
Ch.
VI
while others held that they should not be performed at all after undergoing penance and a third view was that if caula was left unperformed it may be performed on the same day as upanayana. The Dharmasindhu ( 3rd pariccheda, purvftrdha )
( which are comparatively easy ) for For example, one prajapatya penance is equal to three Padakrcchras. In place of prajapatya the person guilty
states various substitutes
these penances.
of the lapse
cow or ( in the absence 320 gufijas ) of gold or one half or one-fourth of ib one who is very poor may give one-eighth of a silver niska or corn of that value. There being these easy substitutes (pratyamnaya as they were called ) people gradually
gift of a
(
of a
cow
may make the may give one niska

;
left off performing the several samskaras and concentrated themselves only on upanayana and uvaJia. The whole life of a person was so very minutely worked out and overlaid with so much ritual in the grhyasmtras and smrtis that the tendency to This neglect and change became insistent and inevitable.
tendency was helped by the accommodating spirit of the brahmana authors of later smrfcis and digests that were ready to prescribe easier and easier substitutes for non-observance of the elaborate
sacraments, pre-natal and post-natal. Haradatta in commenting
upanayanam brahmanasya astame ) remarks the teacher ( Gautama ) expounding upanayana first and passing over the samskaras like garbhadhana that precede upanayana in time conveys that upanayana is the principal samskara.
on Gaut.
I.
'
Therefore even if the samskaras like garbhadhana did not take place owing to adverseness of fate, upanayana can be performed, but it follows that if upanayana be not performed there is no adhikara ( eligibility ) for marriage which follows only after
In modern times in undergoing prayascitta for non-performance of the samskaras up to caula rupees two have to be paid to the priest ( annas four for each of the samskaras 468 not performed up to caula and annas eight for caula ).
upanayana/
467
467.
sjOTvrrf^TT
TOTS H if
firs 1 *
468.
?*^r on
*TJ.
I.
6.
Vide
*T3TlfT3ffir p.
752 for
%*%TK*nwFf and
Tho modern samkalpa at the time of pp. 141-142 for various Mc*n*srnr*upanayana for late performance or non-porformance of samskSras is:
?*&*#! Am:
*m 53^ Wt*^^r^T^r^^3rra<^m^^
Ch.
VI
Samskaras
SOI
The samskSras will now be described in detail. The material contained in the sutras, smrtis and nibandhas ia so vast that only very concise statements can be made here. The method followed will be as follows. Each sarhskara will be described from a few representative grhya and dharma sutraa
gr., and references will be given to Only important parts of procedure can be noted, minute divergences among the several works being
such as the Asv.
gr.,
Ap.
other important works.
passed over.
Greater details will be given in the case of the
two chief samskaras vogue even now.
viz.
upanayana and marriage which are in
Oarbhadhana: The beginnings of this ceremony are found very early. Atharvaveda V. 25 appears to be a hymn intended for the garbhadhana rite. Atharva V. 25. 3 and 5 are verses which occur in the Br. Up. VI. 4. 21 the passage of the Br. Up. At the end of three VI. 4.13, 19-22 may be rendered thus: days ( after menstruation first appears ) when she ( wife ) has bathed, the husband should make her pound rice ( which is then
;
'
boiled
and eaten with various other things according as he brown or dark son or a learned son or a learned then towards morning, after having according and ... ) daughter
desires a fair,
to the rule of the SthallpSka performed the preparation of the he sacrifices from the Sthallpaka little by little,
469.
clarified butter,
Besides the grhya sUtras, the dbannasHtras, Manu, YSjnavalkya smrtis, the principal digests on samakSra relied upon here are the SamskSratattva of Raghunandana, the SamskEramayukba of Nllakautha, the SarhskSra-prakSsSa of Mitramidra, tlio SaihskSrakaustubha of Anantadeva and the SaraskSraratnamttla" of GoplnStha. Further, one
and other
should never lose sight of the fact that in a vast continent like India the various items in daily rites and ceremonies have always varied from and from caste to caste. Innumerage to age, from province to province able modifications were introduced and usages cropped up among the to the influence of women, of which smrtis people, particularly owing and digests take no notice. This was the state of things even several centuries before Christ. The Ap. Dh. S. ( II. 11. 20. 15 ) closes with the aphorism 'some teachers hold that the rest of the dharma a (not
described here) may be understood from (the usages of) women and of all varnas '. The idv. gr. ( I. 7. 1 ) states 'various indeed are the usages of the different countries and of the different villages ; one should observe 1 them in marriage ceremonies. This work does not profess to give the bewildering differences of the several s'skha's and the several pro*
vinces of Modern India, but will restrict itself principally to Western India and the &v. sntra, though important variations have been out in many places. pointed
B.D.26
J02
is for
Ok VI
saying 'This
Agnl, svftha
this is fop
1
Anumati,
this is for divine Savifcr the true creator, svaha Having sacrificed he takes out the rest of the 9 ice, eats it and after having eaten
he gives some of it to his wife. Then he washes his hands, fills a water jar and sprinkles her thrice with water saying Rise, oh Vi&vSvasu, seek another blooming girl, a wife with her husband/ Then he embraces her and says I am Ama, thou art Sa. Thou I am the Saman, thou art the Rk. art 85, 1 am Ajna. I am the sky, thou art the earth. Come, let us strive together that a male child may be begotten ( VI. 4, 21-22 cannot be literally translated for reasons of decency ). Briefly the husband has intercourse with her and repeats certain mantras may Visnu make ready your private parts, may Tvasta frame your beauty, may PrajSpati sprinkle and may Dhata implant an embryo into you; Oh Sinlvall Oh Prthustuka implant embryo ( in her ), may the two Asvins who wear a garland of lotuses plant in thee an embryo .......... A.S the earth has fire inside it, as heaven has
* '
f
'
Indra inside
it,
as the
wind
is
inside
as the
embryo
of
the
quarters, so I plant a garbha in thee, oh, so and so ( the name of 470 In the Asv. gr. (I. 13, 1 ) it is the woman being taken)'.
expressly stated that in the Upanisad the ceremonies of Garbhalambhana ( conceiving a child ), Pumsavana ( securing a male child ) and Anavalobhana ( guarding against dangers to the embryo are mentioned. Evidently this is a reference to the Br.
)
Up. quoted above (where four mantras used in the garbhadhana samskara by Hir. and other grhya sutras occur ).
The
gr.
( I.
rite called
S.
caturthlkarma
is
described in the
)
SSnkhayana
"
18-19,
B. E. vol. 29, pp. 44-46

8. B.
as follows
Three
470.
Vido Appendix for text and

'
the translation of the passage. Max 'amohasmi occurs in the Atharvaveda XIV. 71, that a similar passage (where instead of 'sa" tvam there is 'sa tram') occurs in Ait. Br. VIII. 27 * and that in the ChSndogya Up. 1. 6. 1 as is explained as earth and ama
7 '
15, pp. 220-221 for Muller notes that the passage
E. vol
The mantra 'may Visnu.. .embryo into you is Rg. X. 184. 1=* as fire. Atharvaveda V. 25. 5, and the mantra oh SinIvSlI...an embryo/ is Rg. X. 184. 2= Atharva V. 25. 3 (where Saras vati is read for 'prthustuke The Nirukta ( XI. 32. on $g. II. 32. 6 where we have an invocation to Sinivsli in the words 'give us progeny', s^tf ^fir f^f^f:) explains prthuftuke aa 'pxthujagbane (having large buttocks or largo mass ' of hair ). The words garbham dadhstu probably suggested the name
*
*
'
'
'
'
garbhSdhSna given to this rite. The Hir. gr. I. 7. 25. 1. has the above two mantras and also the mantra *as the earth &c ' (and another
mantra also) which four occur in Bp. Up. VI.
vol. 30 p. 199,
4.
21-22; vide
S. B.
B.
Ch.
Vl
Samskaras-Caturthtkarma
203
nights after marriage having elapsed, on the fourth the'husband makes into fire eight offerings of cooked food to Agni, Vayu, Sftrya ( the mantra being the same for all three except the name of the deity), Aryaman, Varuna, Pusan (mantras being the
to
same for these three ), Prajapati ( the mantra (Agni) Svistakrt. Then he pounds the
is ftg.
X. 121. 10
),
root of
Adhyanda
plant and sprinkles it into the wife's nostril with two verses He should with svaha at the end of each. ( $g. X. 85. 21-22 ) then touch her, when about to cohabit, with the words the mouth
*
of the
'
Gandharva Vi^vavasu
art thou
'.
Then he should
(
murmur
of the
into the breath I put the sperm,

)
Oh
4.
so and so
the
name
wife
(
or he repeats the verse

*
as the earth has

22
)
fire
inside &c.
quoted above from Br. Up. VI.
or several other verses in
this strain
471
may
;
into the quiver
a male embryo enter thy womb as an arrow may a man be born here, a son, after ten
Par. gr,
( 1.
months
pp,
".
The
),
11, S. B. E. vol. 29, pp.
288-290
also has a similar procedure.
Ap.
(
gr.
8.
10-11, S. B. E. vol. 30,

)
267-268
Gobhila
II. 5
S. B.
E. vol. 30, pp. 51-52
give
briefly a similar procedure, but refer to
mantras given in the
Mantrapatha ( e. g. Ap. M. P. 1. 10. 1. to I. 11. 11 ). To modern minds it appears strange that intercourse should have been surrounded by so much of mysticism and religion in the ancient sutras. But in ancient times every act was sought to be invested
with a religious halo so
;
much
so that according to Hir.
Jgr.
7.
25.3. (S. B, E. vol. 30, p. 200)
Adreya held that mantras were to be
repeated at each cohabitation throughout life, while Badarfiyana prescribed that this was necessary only at the first cohabitation and after each monthly course. 478 The Hir. gr, ( I. 7, 23. 11 to 7,
25, S. B. E. vol.
30 pp. 197-200
gives a very elaborate rite, but
on the same
(
lines as the above grhyasutras. One of the mantras is interesting on account of its reference to the cakravftka birds
L 7.
that
is
p.
The concord that balonga to the cakravaka birds, brought out of the rivers of which the divine Gandharva ( S. B. E. vol. 30, possessed, thereby we are concordant
24. 6
),
'
is
198
).
The Vaik,
III. 9
gr.
calls this
gr.
ceremony rtusaihgamana
It will
and
is
similar to Ap.
and Hir.
be seen that the
471.
The mantra
25. 1.
1.
I.
23. 2.
This occurs also in
I. 7.
472.
HftgreNim
'
20 ascribes these views respectively to Adnmrathya
and -Slekhana
^nf^S^TTT'nf
04
caturthlkarma
is treated
Oh.
VI
by the grhya writers as part of the was performed irrespective of the and rite the marriage question whether it was the first appearance of menses or whether the wife had just before the marriage come out of her monthly illness. This indicates that it was taken for granted that the wife had generally attained the age of puberty at the time of marriage. As the marriageable age of girls came down it appears that the rite of caturfchlkarma was discontinued and the rite was performed long after the ritual of marriage and appropriately named garbhadhana. The smrtis and nibandhas add many details some of which will have to be noticed. Manu ( III. 46 ) and Yaj. I. 79 say
rites
that the natural period ( for conception ) is sixteen nights from the appearance of menses. Ap. gr. 9. 1 says 47S that each of the even nights from the 4th to 16th ( after the beginning of the
monthly illness ) are more and more suited for excellence of (male) offspring. Harlta also says the same. These two appear to allow garbhadhana on the fourth night, but Manu ( HI. 47 ), Yaj. ( I. 79 ) lay down that the first four nights must be omitted. Katyayana, Par&sara ( VII. 17 ) and others say that a woman in her menses is purified by bathing on the 4th day. Laghu-Asvalayana ( III. 1 ) says that the garbhadhana ceremony should be performed on the first appearance of menses The Sm. C. suggests that the 4th after the 4th day has elapsed.
may
(
be allowed
)
if
there
I.
IV. 128
and Yaj.
full
moon and
moon
474 is entire cessation of the flow. Manu 79 added further restrictions viz. that new days and the 8th and 14th tithis of the
month were also to be omitted. Astrological details were added by Yaj. I. 80 (that the Mula and Magha constellations must be avoided and the moon must be auspiciously placed ) and other later smrtis, which it is unnecessary to dwell upon. In the later smrfcis like Laghu-Asvalayana III, 14-19 and in nibandhas like the Nirnayasindhu and Dharmasindhu
elaborate discussions are hold about the months, tithis, week473.
r-
Sft
*.
9. 1, S.
B. E. vol 30
p. 268.
474
f?f,
i
quoted in ffteNn%&r
^npsftrîTft
ipr
p-
15;
H
*m
in.
i.
3 |*ft*qiQ*4J
ft
^ %mr^
<msrcVH. 17;
g*rtff I%WH
x*
it
Ch.
VI
8amskaras-aarbhadh5na
colour
of
205
clothes, that were deemed to appearance of menses and about the Mantis (propitiatory rites) for averting their evil effects. Ap. gr., Manu (III. 48), Yaj. (I. 79), Vaik. III.
days,
naksatras,
be inauspicious for the
first
9 hold that a
man
desirous of male
issue should cohabit
on
the even days from the 4th day after the appearance of menses and if he cohabits on uneven days a female child is born.
Hir. gr.
gr.
( I.
47S
I. 7.
24. 8
S.
B. E. vol. 30 p. 199
and Bharadvaja
prescribe that a woman in her menses who takes a bath on the 4th day should attire herself in white ( or pure )
20
ornament herself and talk with ( worthy ) only ). The Vaik. ( III. 9 ) further adds that she should anoint herself with unguents, should not converse with a woman, or a 6udra, should see no one else except her husband, since the child born becomes like the male whom a woman taking a bath after the period looks at. Sankha-Likhita convey a similar eugenic suggestion, 476 viz. Women give birth to a child similar in qualities to him on whomsoever their heart
clothes,
should
(
brahmanas
is set
in their periods/
A debatable question is
of the garbha
(
whether garbhadhana
is
a samskSra
the child in the
womb
or of the
woman.
is
47t
Gaut, VIII. 24, Manu. 1. 16, and Yaj. 1. 10 indicate that it a samskara of the garbha and not of the woman. Visivarupa
on
asserts that all samskfiras except be performed again and again ( as they are the sarhskaras of the garbha ), while Simantonnayana being a samskara of the woman has to be performed only once and
Yaj.
I.
11
expressly
to
Simantonnayana have
this opinion
was in consonance with the usage in his days. Laghu-A6valayana ( IV. 17 ) also holds the same view. MedhS478 on Manu II. 16 says that the garbhadhana rite with tithi mantras was performed after marriage only once at the time of
the
first
cohabitation according to some, while according to

^jstfr
^ricit
475.
3WM$tf *rr
ij
rctoT<Ti' ......
trrcrfMUW
20
476.
*3* 3nr
ft. T. p.
<r*
^rnr^
in srff&ffor quoted
^frô
(unr. p. 241
and
441.
477.
I
fifrfrn iti^*i*i
'
lf^ ^T ^r*TT^nxisjw<?:
'
ft^^r^T
on
ift.
I.
11,
478.
.
on
!?
II. 16.
ZU6
History of Dhanhafastta
Oh;
VI
others it was to be performed after every menstruation till conception. Later works like the Mit. (on Yftj. 1.11), the Sm. C., the Samskaratattva (p. 909) hold that garbhadhana,
and slmantonnayana are samskfiras of the purhsavana woman and are to be performed only once and quote Harlta in support. Apararka holds that slmantonnayana is performed only once at the first conception, while puihsavana is repeated at each conception. He relies on Par. gr. I. 15; and the Saihskara-mayukha and the Samskarapraka&a (pp. 170-171) hold
the same opinion. Sm. 0. ( I. p. 17 ) quotes a verse of Visnu that according to some even slmantonnayana is repeated at each
conception.
their
479
About the rules for women who are rajasvala monthly course ) vide later on.
in
According to Kulluka ( on Manu II. 27 ), the Sm. 0. ( I. p. 14 ) and other works garbhadhana is not of the nature of homa. The Dharmasindhu says that when garbhadhana takes place on
the
first
appearance of menses,
homa
for garbhadhana is to be
performed in the grhya fire, but there is no homa when the cohabitation takes place on the second or later appearance of
menses that those in whose sutra no homa is prescribed should perform the garbhadhana rite on the proper day after the first appearance of menses by reciting the mantras but without homa. The Samskarakaustubha ( p. 59 ) relying on Grhyapari6ista prescribes homa in which cooked food is to be offered to Prajapati and seven offerings of ajya are to be offered in fire, three with the verses Visûr-yonim ( Rg. X. 184. 1-3 ), three with nejamesa ( Ap. L_ i/. 1 12. 7-9 ) and one with Rg. X. 121. 10 ( prafcpate na ).
;
'
'
All sarhskaras other than garbhadhana can be performed by any agnate in the absence of the husband ( vide Samskara-
praka&a
479.
48
p.
165
).
^^FTTTcf^T of ^H*-<(H
p.
909
p.
25
and ^Q*qo I. p. 17; vide fifcrf. on *rr. I. 11 where a full vorse of is quoted, which combines the latter half of ^rficT with the half verse of
i^7 quoted
480.
*
above. 4g|tfTu iq ^nffa^T:

PI
TVlfyMlQ^^*^
H ......
T*TT
5^^c!TT: ^Jcf:
3*T1%
srr^nsftrî^: ^^^n^Tt (wmift?) ^gr
^^HlHt ^^ft
< '
165;
?T
p. 407.
In the
( III
^nj )
the verse
ftm f^rnnft
ascribed
Ch.
VI
Sarhskaras and
homa
207
As boma is necessary in numerous ceremonies and rites, the grhyasutras give a description of a model homa. Therefore here also it would be well to set out the description from the
481 Grhyasutra ( I. 3, 8. B. E. vol 29 pp. 162-163 ), A&valayana a few important points of difference being added from other grhyasutras and other works.
to offer a sacrifice he with cowdung ) a sthandila ( a slightly raised square surface of sand or loose earth ) of the dimension at least of an arrow on all ( four ) sides let him then draw six lines ( in all ) on it, one to the west ( of that part of the sthandila on which the fire is to be placed ) but turned northwards, two lines turned towards the east but separately at the two ends ( of the line first drawn ) ( then he should draw ) three lines in the middle (of the two) let him then sprinkle (the sacred sthandila) with water, establish the ( sacred ) fire ( on the sthandila ), put then he should perform ( two or three samidhs ) on the fire
44
Now wherever ( a
(
person
intends
488
should besmear
parisamuhana (i. e. wiping or sweeping the ground round the fire), then paristarana ( i. e. strewing darbha grass round ) to the east to the south, to the west, to the north (in order ) in this way ( all acts like parisamuhana, paristarana &c. ) should end in the north. Then silently he should sprinkle ( water ) round ( the fire ). (2) With two ( kusa blades used as ) strainers ( pavitra ) the
;
482 taken two kuSa purifying of the ajya is done. (3) Having do which not bear a young shoot in blades with unbroken ends, them, of the measure of a span, at their ends with his thumb and fourth finger, with hands turned the inside being upwards, he purifies the ajya ( from the west ) towards the east with (the words ) by the urging of Savitr I purify thee with this uninjured
*
pavitra,
with the rays of the Vasu ( i, e. rich or good ) sun *, once with this mantra, twice silently. (4) The strewing of kuSa grass ( paristarana ) round the fire may or may not be done in
the ajya homas ( i. e. sacrifices in which clarified butter alone is to be offered into the fire ). (5) So also the two ajya portions (6) And ( the ( may optionally be offered ) in the Pakayajnas.
481.
482.
Vide Appendix
for the text of 3*T*T %.
I.
3.
*re 3r^RlQiiMHUTfclK44
483.
^ggfomiKNimqlvrqHpfr g
is
qi^srfr rerfr qfrrnr reitfir
s.
1. 10.
13-15.
to
The Hjya to Agni

the south of
it.
offered to the north of the fire
and that
to
Soma
208
History of Dharmattstra
all
Oh.
VI
employment in
Pakayajnas
of the
brahmS
priest is optional
except in the Dhanvantari sacrifice and Sulagava sacrifice. (?) ' He should offer the sacrifice with the words to such and such
a deity, svaha
deities to
'.
(8)
If there is
no
specific direction
as to the
484
whom
the offerings are to be
made
),
the deities are
At Agni, Indra, Prajapati, Vi6ve Devas ( all gods), Brahma. the end there is an offering to Agni Svistakrfc ( vide Appendix under note 481 for the mantra ).
In the SankhSyana
procedure
described
is
gr.
I.
S. B.
E. vol. 29
pp.
22-31
the
more elaborate and contains some important differences. The performer ( I. 7. 6-7 ) draws one line in the middle of the sacrificial surface from south to north and from this line only three lines are drawn upwards, one to the south of it, one in the middle, and one to the north ( i. ethere are only four lines and not six as in Asvalayana).
says that the seat of the brahmS priest is and he is honoured with flowers. Sankhayana adds ( I. 8. 8. ) the detail that the pranltS waters are carried forward on the north side and ( I. 8. 9-11 ) that paristarana follows after the carrying forward of the pranlta waters. It also adds ( I. 8. 24-25 ) that waters in the sruva Further
it ( I. 8.
6-7
to the south of the sthandila
spoon are purified just as ajya is purified and then a portion of the water in the sruva is poured on to the pranlta water and the rest of the water in the sruva is called the proksanl water with
which
the
havis, the
idhma
fuel
and
barhis
kusas
are
sprinkled. Sankhayana I. 9. 1 lays down that sruva spoon is the vessel in all grhya rites ( and not juhu as in 6rauta rites )
except where a special rule to the contrary is stated. The Par. gr. I. 1 ( S. B. E. vol. 29, pp. 269-270 ) and the Khadira gr.
I.
S.
B. E. vol. 29, pp. 376-378
describe the model

gr.
homa
in a
9-11, and I. 5. 13-20, I. 7. 9, 1. 8. 21 ), Hir. gr. ( 1. 1. 9-1. 3, 7 S. B. E. vol. 30pp. 138-145) describe it at great length. The sthandila should be prepared on a level spot or on a spot that slopes towards the east or north or north-east ( vide Hir. gr. 1. 1. 9, S. B.
very concise manner.
The Gobhila
(I.
1.
E. vol. 30,
p.
133
).
The sthandila should be raised
to the height
484.
he
is
represented by a bundle of ku6a grass
In the grhya rites ordinal ily no brahmS priest is present, but For q*^R( 50 blades ).
*T5T
and
ÎH
when none
sfctras e.
! 12. 7 and IV. 9. vide respectively srr*?. The deities are specified or indicated .are different according to other g. mgMJjjj states them to be arftf, ^rff
.
4, )
Cfo.Vl|
of
SatheKOraa and
finger breadths or as
hama
309
as the sand or loose
two or four
much
earth that one has brought will allow ; and the sthandila is to be a square, each side of which is given variously as being an
arrow
Vajk.
(
),
18 angulas ) in length, or 32 finger breadths

or one aratni
(
according to
=21 angulas
according to Baud. gr.
paribhasa
5. 3
485
).
The &p.
homas.
g-r.
describes at length the procedure
common
to all
The following
sthandila, the lines
figures
would
illustrate the position of
the
drawn thereon, the position
of the sacrificer
and of the various

idbma
articles required at the

_ __ _East_
time of
homa &c.
...
barhis
Sjyapfftra pranaya-
-c
napStra
sruva proksanapatra
West
Sacrificer facing the east.
ABCD is the sthandila of

lines
sand or loose earth

the
fire
1-6 are the

be placed.
drawn with a samidh on which
is to
The above
ftjya
figure represents the position of all materials in

( i.
an
homa
e.
offering of clarified butter

(
there is darvihoma
only but when offering of boiled food in a darvi or ladle )

)
;
the materials on the north side are carusthall and proksanapatra,
darvi and sruva, camasa and ajyapafcra,
idhma and barhis
485.
ij. I.
Mi T* 1*1*
*iî^H
angulas equal to two vitastis, while t*mf? ( gcT^P'^ part 1 p. 51 ) quotes from the Adityapurffga a passage where an aratni is said to be equal to 21 angulas. In effRTT'nwfcr 16. 8. 21 the height of a man is
1.9. 3^TTT^ quotes (p. 905) a sinrti that a vitasti is equal to 12

is
and aratni
given aa
five aratni a.
H.D.I7
History of
DharmaiMra
)
Oh, VI
14 (according to isvalfiyana-grhya-pariSista
kSrika 1
2.
and'Kumarila-
20.
East
Q seat of
brahma*.
West
Sacrificer faoing the east.
The above is the figure of the sthandila and the lines thereon in all grhya rites according to Baudh&yana-grhya-samgrahaparisista ( Z. D. M. Q. vol. 35 p. 540 ) I. 52-58. The distance between the lines running towards the east is six aiigulas and it will be noted that all the lines are only five ( and n<nlfcti~ ).
The brahma is the only priest ( out of the f oui rtviks) in sacrifices that are offered in one fire ( n grhya fire) and are called pakayajfias and the
k
gru
himself the hotr priest. The order of the in the homa is as follows: 487 upalepana ( smearing with cowdung ), arranging of sthandila with sand or earth ; drawing lines on the sthandila with a samidh (fuel stick), keeping the samidh on the lines with its end towards the east,
sacrificer
)
is
486
several
parts
sprinkling sthandila with water on
its
samidh
with which lines were drawn
north or east, keeping the ) outside the sthandila

(
towards the north-east, then acamana
by the
sacrificer
),
then
placing fire ( either produced by attrition or brought from the house of a srotriya or the ordinary one ) on the sthandila facing the performer, placing two or three samidhs on the fire, keeping ready of idhma (15 samidhs) and a bunch of darbha grass. Then parisamuhana ( wiping the ground round the fire from north-east with the hand that has water in it ), then paristarana
(
strewing darbha grass round the altar first to the east, then to the south, then to the west and lastly to the north ), then silent paryukfana (sprinkling of water thrice round the fire, each
486.
*$&%
*TO*n
sfrf?*^
tr
i
I.
1.
8-9
*r:
9?*4ffnft
^Tfîsr
1. 1-
20.
r. gt. I. 3. 1-9.
487.
1MB
is
base4 on NsrSyaâ'a com, on
fcfcu
Vl
8aMkUro9 and horn
ill
time taking water in the hand separately ), then apah-pra$a( carrying forward the water to the north of the fire ) in a vessel of bell-metal or earthenware, then ajyotpavana ( purifica-
yana
tion of the clarified butter wifch

thrice,
two
kua
blades as strainers 488

),
once with mantra and twice silently

of ajya.
the
two Sgharas
and the two oblations
the principal oblations as directed in the various sufcras, then finally an oblation to Agni The method of offering an oblation is to repeat the Svistakrfe.
Then
ahuti
mantra preceded by om and to add sv&ha at the end, to put the this is for such and such ( oblation ) on fire and to say a god and not mine '. 489
*
The A6v. grhya-sutra ( I. 4 ) further adds that in caula, upanayana, godana and marriage there are ( as part of these
ceremonies
)
first
four oblations of clarified butter to be

'
made
with the three mantras ( Rg. IX. 66. 10-12 ) Oh Angi, thou purifiest life &o and with the one verse Prajapati no other than thou &c ( Rg. X. 121. 10) or with the vyahrtis, 489 or
'
'
438.
paryukâna
In some works pa"tra"sa~dana is taught after paristarana and It consists in placing ( Tide NSrffyana on AsV. gr. I. 3. 3. ).
the several vessels to the north of the fire on darbha grass in pairs with both hands, the faces of the vessels being turned down. Then he takes two blades ( as described in A4v. gr. I. 3. 4 ) o,spavitraa and places them in the prokânapStra the face of which is turned up and pours water in the prokânapStra and thrice purifies the water with them, then the other vessels are turned upwards, the bundle of idhma is loosened and
all vessels
are sprinkled with water, then the pranlta'pa'tra is placed to the west of the fire, the two pavitras (kua'a blades used as strainers are placed inside it and water is poured into the pranlta'pa'tra and sandalwood paste is mixed with it, the vessel is raised level with one's
nose and placed to the north of the fire on darbhas, and covered with This is pStrSsSdana. NffrSyana mentions also other acts not specified by AdvalSyana which may be done even by a person following
darbhas.
that sfltra viz. carrying a firebrand ( burning blade of darbha ) round the clarified butter and cleansing of arwc and srwwi, and throwing of the rope that tied together idhma into the fire at the end of the oblation
to Sviftakrt.
489.
ffr
In offering an oblation to DhStr one would say

3R*re<rfifh
i
sjf TirRn
*r
*Pn$hii*ft
*r
T: $3&r
four oblations with the vyffhrtis
*FR?J ^Tfr would be ^t ^TTfT,

i
i
rnr
spef
*m'.
^Tf| The
fTTfTt
*t **T5T,
TO
ig^t TO
-SgbSra consists in pouring in a continuous stream clarified butter for Prajapati on the fire from the north-west to the south-east once and then from the south-west to the north-east for Indra.
TOffT*
s>.
Vide Ip.
satra II.
12.
and
II.
14.
and NarSyana on AST.
gr. 1. 10. 13.
For Sjyftbbjfga see note 483.
Jlfc
History of Dhamafastra
Oh.
VI
and vyahrtis
according to some teachers with a combination ( of the rk verses 490 while according to others there are no such ),
491
special oblations.
fire is
In modern times, after the sthandila is sprinkled with water, established on it under various names depending on the
be performed
fire is
e. g.
rite to
in
*
tively the
called 492
upanayana and marriage Samudbhava and Yojaka

f
'
respec-
'.
Then
fuel sticks already sprinkled with holy water are placed on the fire and it is fanned into a flame and prayer is offered to it in
the
words
agne
VaiSvanara
'.
Sandilya
mesadhvaja
mama
sammukho varado bhava

other acts stated above.
Then follow parisamuhana and

are
all
Just as
certain matters
homa is required in most grhya rites there common to almost all rites. One is that in
samskaras one has to feed .brahmanas learned in the Vedas, All rites begin with acamana by the performer, pranayama by him, reference to the de&a ( place ) and kala ( time ) and a samkalpa rifce he is performing and for what ( a declaration of whafc
purpose
).
After these, according to medieval works, follow in
all auspicious rifces the
worship of Ganapati, puny aha vacana
the worship of Matrs (mother goddessess) and Nandlfiraddha According to some there is only one samkalpa for all these ;
.
according to others there is a separate samkalpa for each of In all punyahavacana, matrkapujana and Nandldraddha. auspicious rites the performer takes a bath first, ties his topknot, has a piece of ground cowdunged and lines with coloured materials are drawn on a portion of the ground, two auspicious
kalasas
(
jars
filled
ground
with
their
with water are placed on such ornamented mouths covered with a pot, all articles
necessary for worship are placed to the north of the spot,

490.
i.
).
two
e.
there will be eight oblations
with rks and 4 with

nor with the
vyShrtis
491.
i.
e.
there are no oblations with the 4 verses
four vyahrtis, but oblations will have to bq offered to those deities that are prescribed as the deities where no special rule exists ( ride 5^v. gr.
1. 3.
8 set out above at p. 208

492.
).
several sarhsksras
names of the fires in the and DSnakriySkaumudi (pp. 205-206 ) quotes from Kapila PancarStra over 80 names of the fires kindled in the several rites and ceremonies.
tf. ^. ITT.
Vide
pp. 58-59 where these rites are set out. The
493.
i
ta^^vnw *rfro?ftg Htert^
an*.
U.
*.
II.
6.
15.
whiHiityi TI WTIRTO tifcrtro
wcnS
tt.
Oh.
VI
Preliminaries in all Sartekftras
213
wooden low
stools or planks are arranged to the west of the
spot so decorated, the performer sits on one plank faoing the east, his wife sits to his right and if the ceremony is meant; for
his son, the latter sits to the right of the wife ; the brahmanas are seated a little away to the right of the wife, facing the
494 north and the performer sips water (takes acamana). Except where a religious rite is to be performed on a fixed day ( e. g, anniversary sraddha &c. ) all samskaras and other auspicious
rites are to
be performed at certain auspicious times only.

:
This consists in inviting the presence of Gariapatipujana the elephant-faced god Ganesa on a betelnut placed in a handful of husked rice, The word Ganapati is used in the ftgveda as an
attribute of
Brahmanaspati
*
the lord of prayer or holy lore
).
1
The well-known mantra ( gananam tva ganapatim havamahe Rg. II. 23. 1 ) which is used to invoke Gane6a is addressed to Brahmapaspati. Indra is addressed as Ganapati in Rg. X. 112. In the Tai. S. IV. 1. 2. 2 and Vaj. S. pa6us ( and the horse 9. specially ) are said to be the Ganapatya of Rudra. The Ait, 495 Br. IV. 4 expressly says that the mantra gananSm tva
'
'
is addressed to Brahmanaspati. In the Vaj. S. 16. 25 we have ' the plural ( GanapatibhyaSca vo namo ) and in 22. 30 we have the singular Ganapataye svaha '. The peculiar features of Ganeâ as described in the medieval works, viz. the head of an
*
elephant, pot belly, mouse as vahana ( conveyance ) are entirely wanting in the Vedic literature. In Vaj. S. IIL-57 the mouse 4M is said to be the pasu ( animal to be offered to ) of Eudra. In
the Tai.
Ar.
(X. 15
there
is
a verse 497
(
'
Vakratunda, therefore
may
the tusked
is
Grhya and Dharma sutras there of Gane&a at the beginning of
contemplate In the impel us no reference to the worship
We
god
'.
all
auspicious rites.
That
is
comparatively a later cult. In the Baud. Dh. S. ( II. 5. 83-90, S. B. E. vol. 14. p. 254 ) the Devatarpana includes the propitiation of Vighna, Vinayaka, Vlra, Sthula, Varada, Hastimukha,
494.
-
*
i
I- 4.
HRsrrer
1.
1.
495.
$. *r.
ittsr
IV.
4.
496.
*T3T.
&
vrnr f?f
^mfawrr 3 zsw* ^TT^ ^ ^3f nm snfpS

I. 8. 6. 1.
\
ngt
III. 57;
vide also &. *.
497.
nr^tjî^
f^T^
^7f>&"er<i
*ft*jft
W^f
?||^f: ( 3ffift ? )
M^Tl^M Iff U J.
an. X.
1.
4U
Baud Dh.
8. is of
History of Dharmatnstra
Oh.
Vl
But this part of the doubtful authenticity. All the above are the appellations of Vinayaka (vide Baud. grhya-sesasutra III. 10. 6 ). In the Manaya grhya II. 14 it is said that the Vinayakas are four viz. Salakatankata, Kusmandarajaputra, Usmita and
Devayajana. They are evil spirits and people when seized by them have bad dreams and see in them inauspicious sights such as shaved persons, persons with matted hair or wearing
yellowish
seized
Vakratunda, Ekadanta and Lambodara.
garments, camels, hogs,

princes,
asses,
candalas.
When
though capable, do not get their kingdoms maidens, though endowed with all accomplishments, cannot secure husbands married women have no children or even virtuous wives lose their children in infancy husbandmen lose their crops &c. The Manavagrhya then prescribes propitiatory rites to remove the effects of Vinayaka seizure. The
by them,
Baijavapagrhya (quoted by Apararka p. 563 on Yaj. I. 275) says that there are four Vinayakas, Mifca, Sammifca, Salakatankata and Kusmandarajaputra and describes seizure by them and its
effects in the same way as the Manavagrhya. These two show the first stage in the development of the cult of Vinayaka. VinSyakas are at this stage malevolent spirits who cause dangers and obstacles of various kinds. In this cult various elements from the terrific aspects of Rudra were probably first drawn upon and amalgamated with other elements drawn from aboriginal cults. The next stage is indicated by the Yaj. smrti Here Vinayaka ( I. 271 ) is said to be one appoin( I. 271-294 ). ted by Brahma and Budra to the over-lordship of the Ganas, he
is
498
represented not only as causing obstacles, but also as bringing success in the actions and rites undertaken by men. Yaj,
enumerates the results of the seizure by Vinayaka in the same way as the Manavagrhya. Yaj. I. 285 says that Mita, Sammita, Salakatankata and Kusmandarajaputra are the 4 four names " of the one Vinayaka and that Ambika is the
mother of Vinayaka.
It
is
noteworthy that Yaj. does not
498.
q. in
anrTO?
p. 563.
Though Vidvartipa and AparSrka take these to be four, it ia curious that the Mit. makes them to be six ( viz. SaTla and Katankata as distinct and so also Ku^m&nda and RKjaputra). It is remarkable that K^lra on Amarakoda expressly says that Heramba ia a Derfya word. Thii adds some weight to the theory that Ganerfa was taken over into the Vedic pantheon from some exotic tribe and affiliated to Budra ( 6iva ).
499.
Oh.
VI 1
Sarhskaras-GanapatipUjana
4IS
employ any one of the well-known epithets of Vin$yaka, viz. The Baud, Ekadanta, Heramba, Qajanana, Lambodara &c. gr. 6e$asutra III. 10 prescribes a somewhat different procedure for propitiating Vinayaka and styles him the lord of bhutas ',
'
and also
hastimukha and vighnesvara and prescribes the Thus Baudhayana is offerings of apupa and modaka to him. nearer to the medieval conception of GaneSa than even Yajfiavalkya. The Adiparva makes Gane6a write the MahSbharata
'
'
'
to the dictation of
Vyasa ; but this part is apocryphal as many mss. altogether omit this episode ( vide J. R, A. 8. for 1898 The other references in Vanaparva pp. 380-384, Winternitz ). bear affinity to the description 65. 23 and Anusasana 150. 25
of
50 Vinayaka in the Manavagrhya.
The Gobhilasmrti
ning of
all rites, the
(in verse)
1.
13 prescribes that at the begin-
Matrs together with Ganadhipa ( the lord of Ganas ) should be worshipped. The well-known characteristics of Gane&a and his worship had become fixed before the 5th 01 6th century of the Christian era. Kalidasa does not refer to Gane&a. The Gathasaptasatl has references to Ganesia. In thai work (IV. 72) an image of Ganesa is referred to as made use of as a pillow and the tip of his trunk is mentioned in V. 3. In ' Codrington's Ancient India plate XXXIX there is an image of Gape6a referable to about 500 A. D, Vide Dr. Bhandarkai Bana in his Harsacarite in Vaisnavism and Saivism p. 147. 2 of the tusk of Ganadhip* verse Ucohvasa large ) speaks ( IV and in describing Bhairavacarya ( Harsacarifca III ) associate* Vinayaka with obstacles and learning and also indicate* that he had the head of an elephant. In the Vamanapurane
'
'
'
chap. 54
there
is
fantastic
legend about the birth
oi
Vinayaka.
The Mahavlracarita ( II. 38 ) speaks of the tusk of Heramba The Matsyapurana ( chap. 260. 52-55 ) describes how the imagei Apararka ( p. 343 ) quotes a pass of Vinayaka are to be made. 289.7 ) on the mahad&na callec ( the from Matsyapurana age Mahabhutaghafa, in which it is said that Vinayaka should bi shown as riding a mouse. The Krtyaratnakara p. 271 quotes for the worship of Ganesa or passage from the Bhavisyapurana the 4th day of Bhfidrapada. Vide Agnipurana chap. 71 and 313
500.
mu
3T3&rmr
150. 25,
216
Oh.
VI
501 In modern times a verse
the eight
is repeated in which the shrines of Vinayakas in the Decoan are enumerated.
Among
the earliest epigraphic references to Ganapati

(
is
the
one in the Nidhanpur plate of Bhaskarvarman 508 century ). Vide E. I. Vol. XII. p. 73.
*
middle of 7th
The Ganapatipujana consists in the performer repeating mantra Rg. II. 23. 1 ( ganSnam tva Ganapatim ) as a prayer and then bowing to Gane6a with the words Om MahSganapataye namo namah nirvighnam kuru ( salutations to the great Ganapati, make ( this rite ) free from obstacles *.
'
the
'
Although many elaborate descriptions of Punyahavacana given in later digests like the Sarhskararatnamala, this was originally in ancient times a very simple and brief The Ap. Dh. S. ( I. 4. 13. 8 ) says that in ordinary life in rite. all auspicious rites ( such as marriage ) all sentences begin with 1 Om * as in saying punyaham ', svasti \ and rddhim \ The performer of a religious rite honours the assembled brahmanas with gandha ( sandal wood paste ), flowers and tambula ( betel leaves ) and requests with folded hands 'may you declare the day to be auspicious for such and such a ceremony which I, by
:
this are
'
'
name
so and so,
t<*ltn
am 502
about to perform and then the brShmanas
501.
n. The eight places are indicated by thick type. near Jejuri, f^r%^ refers to flr^tef ( about 30 miles from Dhond), 1$ refers to JÎTR ( about 4 miles from Khopoli). 5^9 is the capital of the Siddis on the west coast south of Bombay. trajT is 12
miles from
gaon
is three miles from Jannar. RSnjana* Besides these there are famous Ganapati shrines atjChinchwad and at Pujem near Ratnagiri on the sea coast. Ojhar (where there is the shrine of Vighnedvara) is 28 miles from Poona and 8 miles from Junnar. In 15 Bom. 612 a scheme .'was framed by the Bombay High Court for the famous shrine of Maiigalanmrti at Chinchwad near Poona which has under its jurisdiction the shrines at is
Poona and Lenysdri
30 miles from Poona.
Morgaon,
502.
Theur and Siddhateka
( p.
619
).
503.
n^ M E. I. XII. p. 73. g-pT means gift as well ichor. In wf3d*U4|M the performer says aigflHi*?: HIT *T^cft wif?jf and the brahmanas reply arif Î^T
'
' 5
the
performer says the ^TSTTS reply
aft
jjuqmq;
>
the performer says
'
yi^
II
and the
in
irrgT'Ts
respond
p.
aft
^nETVR
or
erf
TR quoted
^^lUWHlWI
Oh.
VI 1
Preliminaries in all Saihskaras

*
217
of these
is
respond by saying
three sentences
(
Om, may
svasti,
with
it be auspicious Each punyaham and rddhim )

'.
to be
verse repeated thrice according to Baud. gr. desa-sutra 1, 10. of Yama says that the brahmanas should respond without the syllable oni when the performer of the rite is a ksatriya or a
*
'
vaisya.
Matrkapufana
figure in the
sutras.
The Matrs ( the Mother Goddesses ) do not But that their worship was prevalent
certainly in the first centuries of the Christian era throughout India can be proved from several sources. In the drama Mrcchakatika (I) Carudatta asks his friend Maifcreya to offer
The Gobhila-smrti 504 ( in verse 1. 11-12 ) names Gaurl, Padma, Sad, Medha, Savitrl, Vijaya, Jay5 Devasena, Svadha, Svaha, Dhrfci, Pusti, Tusti and one's own deity In the Markandeya ( chap. 88. 11-20 and 38 ) ( abhlsâ-devata ). seven matrs have been named as Matrgana. The Matsyapurana (chap. 179. 9-32 ) names over a hundred mother goddesses (like Mahesvarl, Brahml, Kaumari, Camunda ), while in chap. 261 ( 24-36 ), there is a description of the images of some of the matrs like BrahmanI &c. The Brhat-Sarhhita of Varahamihira (chap. 58. 56 ) refers to the images of the mother goddesses. Bana in his Kadambarl frequently refers to the matrs, to their worship and to dila505 The KrtyaratnSkara quotes pidated temples'of these goddesses. a passage from the Bhavisyapurana at p. 261 about the images of the seven matrs and pp. 305 and 307 quote the Devlpurana about the worship of matrs and the flowers dear to them. The worship
bali to the Mfifcrs.
14 matrs
viz.
of mafcrs
is mentioned in the Bihar Sfcone Pillar Inscription of Skandagupfea ( Gupfca Inscriptions pp. 47, 49 ). The Calukyas * are often described as* cherished by the seven matrs ( I. A. vol. VI. p. 73 in 535 sake and E. I. vol. IX. p. 100 in 660 A. D. ). The Kadambas are described as meditating on Kartikeya-SvamI and on the group of matrs ( I. A. vol. VI. p. 25 ) 5 6 Similarly a
.
504.
p. 517.
These verses are quoted in the ^raô The seven in the Hl&^4 are argmft,
* '
sn^*- p.
503
and
505.
STf^nTû-iHjId^l^Md^lîJMiî^^
( t4/c)tfti*i
in
para 64,
para 130
r^NgNT^>>^r
506.
'
para 216
......
îfiin^^HMi^MqTT^^nm^n
*
sfi^nm'*
1.
A. vol. VI.
p. 25. Fleet's translation
who meditate on -the assemblage of the mothers
of SvSml KSrtikeya
H. D. ?8
is
not accurate.
218
temple to the Matrs
the minister of
History of DharmatUalra
Ch.
VI
is said to have been ereoted by Mayftraksa, Vi6vavarman in 480 of the Malava Era i. e.
423-24 A. D.
Gupta Inscriptions p. 74 ). Whence the cult of matrs, which was not described in the Grhyasutras, was derived it is difficult to say. Sir John Marshall in his famous work on Mohenjo-Daro ( vol. I. p. VII and pp. 49-52 and plates XII, XOIV and XOV ) shows how figurines of mother goddesses are common at Mohenjo-Daro. That shows that the cult prevailed in the remotest antiquity and was probably taken up by the followers of the Vedic religion and
(
affiliated to the
worship of Durga, the spouse of Siva.
In 5g.
IX. 102. 4
the seven mothers are said to regulate soma when it is being prepared ( the seven mothers are probably the seven metres or the seven rivers ).
50T
NandUraddha
later on.
This will be dealt with under Sraddhas
This rite is so called because in virtue of it a Pumsavana male is born. 508 The word 'pumsuvana* occurs in the Atharvaveda VI. 11. 1 where 509 it appears to be used literally ( in the The Asvattha tree is sense of giving birth to a male child ) on top of the SamI tree, there the birfch of a male has been The A&v. gr. 1. 13. 2-7 describes the rite as follows effected he should in the third month of pregnancy, under the constel:
'
'
'.
lation Tisya
( i.
e.
Pusya
(
give
thrice
to eat
to the wife,
on the preceding Punarvasu constellation ) in the curds of a cow which has a calf of the same colour (wifch the cow ) two beans and one grain of barley for each handful of curds. On his asking ( the woman ) what dost thou drink ?
after she has fasted,
*
what dost thou drink ? ', she should thrice' reply pumsavana ', In this way ( he ) a male ), pumsavana ( generation of should make her take three handfuls ( of curds with two beans and barley ).' B1
'
'
'.
There
Hir, gr.
The Ap. gr., is some difference of view as to details. and Bharadvaja gr. place pumsavana after slmanton3T$Ttf *TH *TTcR*
507.
608.
frqWIUId iStf
fl^
3?.
IX. 102.
4.
^tiqiRrc)
en*i*iiil<< ^*T tft*tM
on WT. ^.
14. 9
^K
166-167.
509.
510.
^tfwjea 3<ua<g^gr &5*nf %*% Vide Appendix for text,
3m VI, 11.
1.
Ch.
VI
Puihsavana
219
nayana and Ap. says it may be performed when pregnancy becomes apparent. Instead of two beans and a barley 511 grain in curds, he requires the bringing of a shoot of the branch of a nyagrodha tree which ( tree ) points eastward or northward and which has two ( fruits that look like ) testicles and the pounding of the shoot and fruits by a girl who has not attained puberty between two upper stones of ( two mills ) with water. He then prescribes that the wife should lie down on her back to the west of the fire herself facing the east and that the husband should insert in her right nostril the pounded substance with his thumb with the formula (pumsavanam-asi) found in Ap. M. P. (II. 11. 14).
San. gr. ( I. 20, S. B. E. vol. 29. p. 46 ) says that the rite may be performed on Tisya or Sravana, while the BharadvSja gr. ( I. 22 ) says that it may be performed on Tisya or Hasta or
Anuradha
or Uttara" or Prosthapada Paraskara and Baijavapa say it should be performed when the moon is in conjunction with a male naksatra. 512 Par. gr. 1. 14 and Jatukarnya (Sam.Pr. p. 167 ) and Baijavapa ( ibid. ) say that the rite should be performed in the 2nd or 3rd month of pregnancy, Asv., Hir., San.,
;
Gobhila, Khadira prescribe the third month. Yaj. I. 11, Par. gr. ( I. 14 ), Visnu Dh. S. 27. 2 and Brhaspati ( quoted in the Sin. C. ) say that pumsavana should be performed before the foetus begins to move or throb in the worab. In the Ka^haka
gr. 32. 2 the
proper time
is
said to be
when
the greater
number
of
pregnancy are past ( i. e. after the 5th ) and the Manava gr. says that it should be performed in the 8th month of pregnancy. Devapala ( com. of Kathaka gr. ) says the usage
of
months
511. NSrSyana says that in this rite one has to perform at first the sthalipaka intended for PrajSpatt up to the offering of the two Sjyabhffgas and then one should perform what is specially prescribed bore.
He further notes that the curds may be of a cow the calf of which is of a different colour, if one of the same colour could not be had. The curds are to be poured from the vessel of curda on to the woman's band
thrice, she is to lick the curds
barley
by
p.
the beans and barley grain are suggestive. ?wn*Fr TJT MI^Txfl WT gr. 14. 10
every time with two boans and a grain of This is made clear
III. 11 also has
'3Ti}{m^WnfHNI i^
512. According to a verse quoted in Sm.O. the male nakâtras are Hasta, Mnla, Sravana, Punarvasu, Mrgadiras and Pu?ya the SamskSra-mayakha adds that the NSradiya mentions Bohini, PilrvSbhSdrapadS and UttarHbhadrapadS also as male naksatraa and that Vasiftha regards SvSti,
;
AnurSdhS and A4vinl

*
also as
male nak$atras.
tn$?f^T
on f%r^T
^[< I*
1*
saya
8pGT
280
History of Dharma&Bstra
Oh,
VI
of Vistas is to perform it in the 8th month and Brahmabala another com. ) says that the usage is to perform it in the 7th or 8th month of pregnancy. Most of the grhyasutras refer to the
(
513 pounding of the shoot of the Nyagrodha tree (or some other plant) and inserting fche pounded substance in the wife's right nostril. The mantras repeated when inserting the substance in her nostril are different according to most siltras. Sankhayana (S. B.E.
vol. 29,p. 46) prescribes the four verses Rg. I, 1. 3, III. 4. 9., V. 37 . 2 and IX 3. 9. with svaha at the end of each verse. Paraskara
( S.
B. E. vol. 29,
p.
292) prescribes Vaj. S.
XIIL
Rg. X. 121. 1
and XXXI. 17; Khadira gr. ( S. B. E. vol. 29. p. 394) mentions Mantra-Brahmana I. 4. 8, the Ka^haka gr. quotes Kathaka Samhita. The several sutras of the Black Yajurveda show the
greatest divergence
It
among
themselves.
elements, religious
would be clear that the pumsavana rite has several (homa and son's importance from ancient
times), symbolical or suggestive (the drinking of curds with beans and grain of barley ) and medical ( inserting some substance in the woman's nostrils ). For what purpose the placing of the v bile of a tortoise on the woman's lap was prescribed by Paraskara alone ( 1. 14 ) it is difficult to say.
Later works like the Samskararatnamala prescribe a homa also and remark that when in the absence of the husband, the husband's brother or other relative performs the rite, it should be performed in ordinary kitchen fire ( p. 815 ). This latter rule applies to Slmantonnayana also.
for
pumsavana
Anavcdobhana or Garbharaksaria
This
rite
was apparently
part of Pumsavana. Asv. gr., as already said, separately men tions pumsavana and anavalobhana as referred to in the
Upanisad. The Baijavapa gr. ( quoted in the Sarhskarapraka&a p.171) says 'He performs the pumsavana and anavalobhana
the
in the fortnight of the waxing moon on an auspicious day when moon is in conjunction with a naksatra ( deemed to be ) a
This shows that both were performed on the same day. male Another sutra of Baijavapa quoted in the Samskaramayukha 5M says that the two are to be performed in the 2nd or 3rd month
'.
513.
According to the KSthaka
gr. the
pounding
ia
to be
done by a
virgin or a brahmacarin or
514.
by
a chaste brShinana
woman.
Oh.
VI
Anavalobhana
2Jt
of pregnancy. This rite is so called because by virtue of its performance the f oecus does not fall out or is not destroyed (i. e.
it is
( I.
really anavalopana from the root lup with ava ). Asiv. gr. He then inserts in her right 5-7 ) describes it as follows nostril in the shade of a round apartment the ( sap ) of an herb
13.
:
according to some ( teachers ), with the Prajavat and Jivaputra mantras. Having offered a sacrifice of cooked food to Prajapati he should touch the region of her heart
is
which
not faded
515
with the verse Oh thou whose hair is well parted, what is hidden in thy heart, in Prajapati, that I understand, ( mayst thou understand ) me who know that; may not injury to the
'
son be
my
lot
'.
dUrvarasa in the woman's touching her heart and prayers to the gods for the safety of the foetus are the principal features of this rite in Asv,
It will be seen that the inserting of
nostril,
According to Saunaka-karika
Ms. in
Bombay University
Library, folio 13a ) that rite is called anavalobhana whereby the 516 foetus remains undisturbed or does not fall out. According
to the Smrfcyarthasara it "is to be
performed in the fourth month. According to Laghu-A6valayana IV. 1-2 anavalobhana and slmantonnayana were to be performed in the 4th, 6th or 8th month of pregnancy and verses 6-7 give the same details as in Asv. gr.
The an. gr. ( I. 21. 1-3, S. B. E. vol. 29, p. 47 ) speaks of a ceremony called Garbharaksana ( protection of the foetus ) " In the fourth month the garbharaksana offering six oblations into fire from a mess of cooked food with the six verses of the hymn brahmanagnih 517 ( Rg, X. 162 ) with svaha uttered at
; '
'
from thy eyes, thy nose the end of each verse, with the verges ( Bg. X, 163. 1-6 ), besmearing her limbs with clarified butter at
each verse,
515.
'
'
"
NftrSyana explains that the herb is dSrvS according to usage. put in the nostril silently or to the accompaniment of two mantras, which are respectively of the sago PrajSvat and Jivaputra.
The
flap is
They
lift
are
an
if
frrcT: M sircrtg swift

t
an ^nrf^rf^rg 3**K ^r^T 5^rf i^^T^t wrc^ srsrt fjwg ^C^TT^TT^

i
f^
III. 23. 2
<?i^TO *T $1313; l"i%. the 2nd is an*. *T

;
The
<nI.
first is
practically the
same
as
4. 7.
51 6.
??
sp
The AnukramanI says that the hymn Rg. X. 162 is to be there is abortion and on X. 163 that it is meant for when repeated
517.
removal of disease
222
Oh.
VI
This seems to be another version of anavalobhana.
According to A&v. gr. karikas of Kumarila (I. 6. 5 ) this be repeated on every conception. Most other writers would hold that like pumsavana it is to be performed only once.
rite is to
Slmantonnayana:
sutras
I.
:
This
is
I.
treated
22,
in the following
gr.
Asiv.
I.
14. 1-9; San.

I.
Ap.
14. 1-8, Hir. II. 1,

II. 2.
Baud24-28,
10,
Bharadvaja
15,
21,
Par.
1.
Kathaka
31. 1-5,
Gobhila II. 7. 1-12, Khadira Vaikhanasa III. 12.

*
This word literally means parting of the hair ( of a woman ) upwards,' Yaj. ( 1. 11 ), Veda-Vyasa ( 1. 18 ) call this sarhskara simply slmanta ', while Gobhila ( II. 7. 1 ), Manava gr. (1. 12. 2),
c
Kathaka gr
31. 1
call
it
slmantakarana. Ap.
:
gr.
and Bhara-
dvaja gr. ( I. 21 ) describe it before pumsavana. The A6v. gr. " as follows In the fourth month of ( 1. 14. 1-9 ) describes it
should be performed ). In the fortnight of the waxing moon,when the moon may be in conjunction with a naksatra that is ( regarded as ) male ( or the name of which is of the masculine gender, according to NSrayana);
pregnancy the Slmantonnayana
then he establishes
fire
( i. e.
)
performs the details of
homa up
to offering of ajyabhagas
fire a bull's hide with its he makes eight oblations ( of ajya, clarified butter ), while his wife sits on it ( hide ) and takes hold ( of his hand ), with the two ( verses) may Dhatr give to his worshipper ( Atharvaveda VII. 17. 2-3 ), with the two verses, 'I invoke Raka* ( Rg. II. 32. 4-5 ), with the three (verses) called 'nejamesa' ( a khilasukta after ftg. X. 184 and Ap. M. P. 1. 12. 7-9 ) and with the verse Oh Prajapati, no one other than you ( Rg. X. 121. 10 ). He then three times parts her hair upwards ( beginning from the front and proceeding backwards ) with a bunch of an even number of unripe 518 fruits with a porcupine quill that has three white spots ( or rings ) and with three bunches of ku&a grass, with the words bhur, bhuvah, svar, om or he does so four times. He gives orders to two lute players sing ( praise of ) king soma. ( They ' sing this gatha ) may soma, our king, bless the human race.
'
'
and having spread to the west of the neck to the east and the hair outside,
'
'
'
'
518. The porcupine quill with three white spots is mentioned OTcn in the Tai. Br. as an auspicious thing. He should shave his head with a porcupine quill with three white spots since in the case of the gods three are auspicious things, viz. the three metres, the three
'
savanas, these three worlds
( I. 5. 6. )
^n
ffc
hfnt
>.
rc[tftr -sftfa *T**nrRf
^n
Vide Appendix for
the text of &s>. gi.
1. 14.
1-9,
Oh.
VI
Simantonnayana
223
river
Fixed
the
) ; ( here they take near which they dwell. And let them do whatever aged brahmana women whose husbands and children are alive direct. A bull is the fee ( for the sacrifice ) ". In the Ap. mantrapa^ha thirteen verses are
is the
wheel
dominion
)
of this
name
in the vocative
of the river
devoted to this samskara in
all,
some
of
which occur in the Rg
.,
the Atharvaveda and Tai. S.
We have here first the religious part of homa and oblations with mantras. But this rite is mainly of a social and festival
nature intended to keep the pregnant
woman
in good cheer.
The SamskSraprakasa ( pp. 172-173 an Avalyana stating that this

the foetus
quill,
;
quotes some verses from rite serves the purpose of

)
driving certain female goblins that thirst for the destruction of the parting of the hair by the husband with the
of unripe fruits and darbhas and tying a garland round her neck, giving her boiled rice mixed with mudga and ghee and asking lute players to sing indicate its festive character. There is a great divergence among the grhya sutras about the several details of this samskara and the order in which they take place. The Sm. 0. after pointing out a few divergences remarks that one should follow the rules of one's own grhya sufcra. A few important divergences are pointed out below. This samskara was to be performed in the 3rd month
bunch
according to
Kanaka
gr.,
in 3rd, 6th
or 8th according
to Asv., Ap., Hir.
(
to the
II. 1
),
MSnava
in the 4th
month according
in 4th or 6th according to Gobhila (II. 7. 2) and in the 4th, 6fch or 8th according to Khadira, in 6th or 8th according to Paraskara,
Yaj. (I. 11), Visnu Dh. S. ( 27. 3), Sankha; in the 7th according to San. gr, ( I. '22. 1 ), in the 8th according to Sankha as quoted hi the Vaik. and Veda-Vyasa ( I. 18 ). Smrticandrika ( I. p. 17 ) gays that it should be performed on
the foetus beginning to move and up to the time of delivery. A6vM San. and Hir. require that the moon must be in conjunction with a male naksatra. Hir. gr. alone prescribes that the samskara should take place in a round apartment. It is remark-
on a
able that A6v. alone requires that the woman should be seated bull's hide, which shows that till his day such a hide was
is done in modern times ) as a very unholy ( as makes her sit on a soft chair or seat, while* Paraskara thing. Gobhila prescribes a seat of northward pointed darbhas. There
not treated
is great
divergence as to the number of oblations and the verses
to be repeated
even in sutras of the same Veda,

oblations
Iftyana prescribes eight
and
ASvaeight mantras, but

e.
g.
224
History of Dkarmaiastra
Ch.
VI
six ( by omitting the verses Rg. Gobhila, Khadira, Bharadvaja, Paraskara and Sankhayana prescribe the preparation of boiled rice with ghee thereon or sesame and the first three of these say that the woman should be asked to look at the ghee on the mass of
SSnkhayana prescribes only
11.32. 4-5).
and be questioned what do you see and she should be made to reply I see progeny (Bharadvaja has the reply 'sons and Almost all grhya sutras agree that in parting the cattle'). hair the husband is to use a bunch of unripe fruit (Gobhila, Par. and San. specifying that it was to be Udumbara fruit), a porcupine quill with three white- spots and three bunches of ku6a grass. Paraskara and Gobhila add the use of a Vlratara stick and a full spindle. Some like Asv. prescribe that the parting must be done thrice, Gobhila seems to prescribe it six times, while Khadira ( II. 2. 25 ) expressly says that it is to be done only once. San. says that the unripe fruits are to be tied to a string of three twisted threads and the string is to be suspended from her neck aa a garland. Par. also seems to suggest the same. Ap. also says that the husband should ( by way of ornament ) tie a string of barley grains with young shoots on the woman's head ( 14. 7 ) and Vaikhanasa says that the woman is to wear a garland and have fragrant unguents applied to her body. Many of the grhya sutras direct that lute players should sing a verse or verses. Gobhila, Khadira, Vaik. are silent on this point, but Gobhila prescribes that brahmana women should address auspicious words to her Be you the mother of a valiant There is divergence as to whose praise is to be sung. son.* San and Par. say that the ballad sung must be in praise of the
rice
'
'
'
ruling ) king or any one else who is very valiant. Asv., Hir., Baud,, Bharadvaja and Par. prescribe a gatha in honour of king
Apastamba refers to two verses, one of ( the plant ). which praises king Yaugandhari and the other king Soma and prescribes that the first is to be sung for all varnas residing in
the Salva countries, while the second is to be recited by Some of the sutras like Asv,, Par., Bharadvaja brahmanas. allow that in the ballad to be sung by the lute players the river on which the woman and her husband dwell is to be invoked. 519
Soma
519.
.
14.
4-5
the versos from the
J^TO
( II. 11.
12-13
are
^ 33
*nr
( Continued on next page )
HKgisiw
(I. 2
has
(jh.
VI
fftmantonnayana
San. expressly state that a bull
is
225
the fee in this
Av. and
eamskara for the officiating priest;. Ap., Par. and BharadvSja say that brahmanas are to be fed in this rite. Sari, says that the woman is to sing merrily and wear gold ornaments if she The A.p. and BhSradvaja gr. say that the husband is likes.
to observe silence that day till the stars begin to appear and then after going out of the house from the east or north, he
should
first
touch a calf and then mutter the vyahrtis

)
bhuh,
bhuvah, svah
and give up his

( 1.
silence.
)
580
The Manavagrhya
the marriage rite also.
gives a faithful
12. 2
speaks of parting of hair in

verses
Laghu-Asvalayana (IV.
of the Asv. gr,
8-16)
summary
(
Continued from last
only tho 2nd verse but reads the tast pSda as ^ffT^T *rq$ ?nr ? while Hir. reads *r^ for TJI& in the verse aa read by Bhardvaja. PSr. reads '^
*ff TFSTJTT *rrg*ffj STSTT:
i
qualifies ?ft^ ( loc. ) or it
sTTîi-^M* 3U*fK*crt^ j3>*TJTHTr^f^ '. Here may be the vocative addressed to the river
It may be inferred with some force that Ap. is taken. mantrapatha and Hir. gr were composed in the Salva country on the banks of tho Jumna and the Bhffradvaja gr on tho Ganges. Haradatta explaining Ap gr. says that the country of Salva is on the Jumna and that Vaidyaa are in abundance there. The country of Salva was included
whose name
in the Kaccbadigana < Pffnini V. 2. 133, and MahSbhSsya, vol. II. p. 300). Pffnini mentions Ssiva in IV. 1.173, IV. 2.135 and teaches the formation of Yaugandhara in IV. 2. 130 and of Yaugandhari in IV. 1.
173.
capital
In the Vanaparva 14. 1-5 it is said that the king of Salva whose was at Saubha attacked Dvoraks. &lyaparva ( 20. 1 ) calls the Sslva king lord of mleccha tribes and speaks of him as fighting for Duryodhana and as killed by Sstyaki. A KSrikS quoted by the
makes Yaugandhara a
division of Salva
^Rff^fflT: n
'.
520.
The words of the am*.

l-
14.
7-8 are
280 translates he ties wife then she keepa barley grains with young shoots to the head of the silence until the stars appear '. But this is wrong. Throughout this section even in tho 7th sutra grammar the performer (karts) is the husband 13 tho requires that if the kartff of tying the garland ('abadhya') husband then the karts of visrjet' also must be tho husband. Sudarâna
The
S. B.
B. vol.
XXX
p.
* ^reUcT an TO^wT: notes (in his com. ) that some read the sUtras as and wife have to observe husband both then the dual); (in ft^m:' He also notes that according to some the actions from tying silence. onwards spoken of by Ap. are done by the wife herself and the
m^
yavft
not by the husband.

B. P, 29
<>
Oh.
VI
say
Apastamba, Baud., Bharadvaja and
Par.
expressly
that this sarhskara is to be performed only once at the first conception. For the difference of view among nibandhakaras
vide above
pp.
205-206
on garbhadhana.
sltnantonnayana
is
Visnu was
of the
of opinion that
is
the
woman, but that according to some it foetus and so was to be repeated at each
a samskara a samskara of
521
conception.
On
account of the great divergence of details one may conjecture that this samskara was not very ancient in the times of the
Grhyasutras.
It appears however that gradually this picturesque rite receded in the back ground, so much so that Manu does not
even mention
it
by name, though Yaj. names
it.
In modern
times in Western India some people perform a rite in the 8th month of pregnancy ( called in Marathi Athahgulem ) which
retains
some vestiges
).
of the ancient rite
such as the garland
of udurabara fruit
According to Vasistha quoted in the this ceremony was to be performed prakasa month of pregnancy, on the 2nd, 7ch or 12fch tithi of fortnight and when the moon was in the Sravana,
Visnubali
(
:
Sarhskarain the 8th
p.
178
the bright RohinI or
Pusya constellation. The same work quotes verses of AsvalSvana describing the ceremony and stating its purpose viz. to remove harm to the foetus and for easy delivery of the woman and that it was to be performed during every conception. On the preceding day Nandlsraddha was to be performed and then horn a to fire was to be performed up to the offering of ajyabhagas. To the south of the fire another sthandila of the shape of a lotus or svastika was to be drawn on which 64 oblations of boiled rice with ghee thereon were to be offered to Visnu ( some offer them on the fire itself ) with the verses of Rg. I. 22. 16-21, Rg. 1. 154. 1-6, Rg. VI. 69. 1-8, Rg. VII. 104. 11, Rg. X. 90, 1-16, Rg. X. 184. 1-3. Then to the north-east of the fire, a square plot should be smeared with cowdung and be divided into 64 squares with white dust and 64 offerings of boiled rice should be offered with the same mantras and in their midst one ball of rice should be offered to Visnu with the mantra loudly uttered namo
'
521.
T
T
S*IT
*T
33^
I.
*f flN'
fe
( I. p.
17
).
This verse
is
I
Anan. ed.
10
as
qrf
&
read by
*v*
mMV
ft
Oh,
VI
Saihskaras-Viwubali
'
??T
NarSyanSya and the husband and wife should partake separately of two balls of the same rice. Then the offering to Agni Svistakrt should be made, daksina should be distributed and branmanas should be fed. The Vaik. ( III. 13 ) describes Visnubali differently. The gods with Agni as the first are invoked unto the northern pranidhi vessel and then at the end Purusa is invoked four times with oin bhuh ', om bhuvah, om suvah,' ona
*
'
bhur-bhuvah-suvah ', then to the east of the fire he invokes Visnu on seats of darbha grass with the names, Keâva,
Narayana,^Madhava,Govinda,Visnu,Madhusudana,Trivikrama, then he Srldhara, Hrslkeâ, Padmanabha, Daraodara bathes Visnu, with mantras *ApaV (Tai. S. IV. 1. 5. 11 =Rg. X, 9. 1-3 ), 'Hiranyavarnah' (Tai. S. V. 6. 1) and fche chapter boginning 'pavamanah' (Tai. Br. I. 4. 8); he doss worship (with sandal paste, flowers &c. ) by each of Visnu's twelve names, then he offers 12 oblations of clarified butter with the mantras ato deva Visnor-nu karn ( Rg. I 154. 1-7= Tai S.I. 2. ( Rg, I. 22. 16-21 ),
Vamana,
'
'
'
tad-asya priyam ( Tai. Br. II. 4. 6 = Rg. I 154. 5 ), pra tadvisnuh ( Tai. Br. II. 4. 3 = Rg. I. 154. 2 ), paro matraya vicakrame trir-devah ( Tai. Br. II. 8. 3 ). ( Tai. Br. II. 8. 3 ), Then he announcces as offering a mess of rice cooked in milk on which ajya has been poured to the god and sacrifices ifc to him with the twelve names repeating the twelve mantras ( Rg. I. 22. 16-21, and Rg. I. 154. 1-6). Having praised the god with mantras from the four vedas he should prostrate himself before the god after taking twelve names with the word namah at the end of each ( i. e. by saying Kesavaya namah.' &o. ). What remains of the rica cooked in milk is eaten by the wife.
' * '
13),
'
'
'
'
'
Sosyantikarma
II. 3.1,
Bharadvaja
gr,
II
2.
29-30, Par. gr.
a very ancient rite. to be deliveied of a child

indications of this
*
Vide Ap. gr. 14. 13-15 Hir. gr. II. 2. 81. 23, Gobhila gr. II. 7. 13-14, Khadira gr. 1. 16, Kathaka gr. 33. 1-3. This seems to be It means a rite for a woman who is about
;
'. Rg. V. 78. 7-9 givo the earliest Just as the wind moves a lake on all sides, so may the foetus move and come out, being ( now ) in the tenth month. Just as the wind, the forest and the sea are in movement, so mayst thou ( foetus ) that art; ( now ) in the tenth
rite.
month, come out together with the after-birth, may the male child having been sleeping ten months inside his mother, come out a living being, unharmed, from his mother, herself being " Br. Up. VI. 4. 23 also refers to this rite alive.' He sprinkles with water the woman who is about to be delivered ( with the
mantras)
'just as the
wind
...
may
it
come out with the
228
'
History of Dharmatiistra
(
Oh.
Vl
after-birth
same as Rg. V.
a pen
528
of Indra
Indra, leave it Ap, gr. describes the ceremony as follows : Now is described the rite to secure a rapid delivery. With a cup that has not been dipped
'
78. 7 except the last pSda ). This is with a bdlt and with a chamber for rest oh and come out; with the foetus and after-birth."
:
in water before he draws water in the direction of the current
of
a river or spring ); he places TuryantI plant at his wife's feet; he should then touch on the head (with both hands) the woman who
is in child-birth with the verse ( Ap, mantra-patha II, 11. 15 ), should sprinkle her with the waters ( brought as above ) with the next three verses ( Ap. mantra-patha II. 11. 16-18 ). If the after* birth does not come out, he should snr inkle her with the water ' * *. Ap. ( brought ) as directed above with tl
'
Hir. to mantra-patha II. 11 19-20). P. Ap., but omits all verses except one ( w^. II. 11. 16 ). Bharadvaja is similar to Ap., but giveo ,~ AO t>s that are slightly different from those of the Ap. M. P. Gobhila and Khadira are very brief and say that a homa with two oblations of clarified butter is to be performed with the verses of the Mantra-brahmana I 5. 6-7. Paraskara also speaks of the sprinkling of the woman with two verses of Vaj S. VIII. 28-29
i
524
being almost like Rg. V. 78.7) and prescribes the Atharvaveda I. 11. 4 for the falling of the after-birth. Adityadarsana on Kathaka gr. ( 33. 1 ) remarks that this rite is not really a sarhskara and Devapala says that this is a rite which has a seen result ( while samskaras are deemed to have an unseen result).
(the
first
recital of
Jatakarma:
antiquity.
offer
In the Tai.
This appears to have been a rite of hoary 525 one should S. II. 2. 5. 3-4 we read
*
a cake cooked on twelve potsherds to Vaisvanara,

This refers to the
when a
522.
womb
of the
woman.
3r?T*Tren*T
523.
IT. 11. 15.
This
is
ajimcT 35rrorft^m3
20
q$&
3*nr.
*T.
m.
524.
5p. M. P.
II. 11.
is
the same as Atharva.

I
I. 11. 4.
525.
$er qnr
^sqf^T g 13514* 11&
f*T$ft?!i$ 3TT^
Tftfl^fRT
^fTffifS'
fiffaft
is ), 2.
),
?ren:ren3 ?T?^TT <TU*R wuritl. *r. II. 2. 5. 3-4. grurenS treated of in the following: arm. ^.15 1.7 (S. B. B 30 pp. 281-82 3IP*. S. (I- 15 i-4, S. B. B. 29 p. 182 ), cFTO^R^T 34-35, ^rr(%f II. 32-3*1 ( S. B. B 29 p. 395 ), iftmff II. 7. 17-23 (8. B. B vol. 30 pp 55-56
-
URTO:
S. B.
I.
16
( S.
B. E. 29
( S.
Sltanre
I. 24.
1-5
pp 293-297), HIT^TST I. 23-26, 9*1ni*III. 14-15, B. E. vol. 29 pp 49-50), f%^nr*ftr (II. 3. 2-U. 4-5,
)
E vol.
30 pp 210-214.
Oh.
VI
Samskaras-Jatakarma
229
eon
is born ( to a they perform this
man)
'
......
That son, for
whom when
born
isti
',
does become pure, glorious, substantial
in ( abundant ) food, full of vigour and possessed of cattle '. This shows that Vaisvanaresî was performed on the birth of a son. Jaimini ( IV. 3. 38 ) holds a discussion on this passage and establishes the conclusion that this isti is for the benefit of the son and not of the father and the bhasya of Sahara gives the further propositions that this isî is to be performed after the
jata/carma rites are finished ( and not immediately at birth ) that it is to be performed on a full moon day or a new moon
and day
following ten days after birth. The Sat. Br. ( S. B. E. vol. 44 p. 129 ) prescribes a certain rite before the navel string is cut ''regarding a new born son let him say to five brahmanas * before the navel string has been cut breathe over him in this way/ But if he should be unable to obtain them, he may even
Br. "
himself breathe over him while walking round him ". The 826 Up. I. 5. 2 contains the following interesting passage
when a boy is born they first make him lick clarified butter, and they make him take the breast ( of the mother ) after that.'* At the end of the Br. Up. ( VI. 4. 24-28 ) there is an elaborate
When ( a son ) is born, having description of the jatakarma. kindled the fire, having placed the son on one's lap, having poured curds mixed with ghee in a bell-metal vessel he offers
oblations of the curds
I
"
mixed with ghee with the mantras

;
1
'
may
maintain a thousand, prospering in my house ; may there I offer be no break with regard to progeny and cattle svaha to these in my mind my pranas, svaha! Whatever I have done in excess in my work or whatever I may have left deficient in this ( rite ), may the wise ( Agni ) ( called ) Svisâkrt make that well sacrificed and well offered for us, svaha '.
!
mouth up to the right ear then of the son he should recite thrice the word speech and clarified curds, honey together butter, having poured he makes the (son) eat it by means of (a spoon of ) gold
Then
after bringing
down
his
'
'
not covered with anything else with the mantras I place in theo bhuh, I place in thee bhuvah, I place in thee svah, I place in
'
526.
qr.
I.
5.2.
527.
The idea of muttering
vsk
'
thrice
is
that the father wishes
that speech as manifestedjii the three Vedas may come to the boy in due course. Bhttli, bhuvah and svah represent the three Vedaa or earth,
air
and heaven.
History of Dharmaiaaira
Oh.
YI
thee bhur-bhuvah svah, I place in thee all '. Then he gives ' him ( the boy that is born ) a name with the words thou ark
Veda That becomes his secret name. Then he hands the boy over to his mother and gives him the breast of the mother make that with the mantra ( Rg. L 164. 49 ) Oh, SarasvatI breast ready for being sucked, which lies on thy body, which engenders happiness, by which thou nourishesfc all blessings, which bestows gems, that wins wealth and is a generous donor*. Then he solemnly addresses the mother of the child with the 528 Oh strong one thou following mantras Oh maitravarunl art IJa, she ( the mother ) has given birth to a valiant ( boy ) ; mayst thou be endowed with valiant sons, since thou hasj? made
the
'.
'
!
'
us possessed of a valiant son. They say to him ( the newly born son) thou indeed excellest thy father, excellest thy grandfather ; he may attain the highest station by his prosperity,
'
glory and brShmana
spiritual eminence, that knows this ".
who
is
born as a son of such a
It will
be clear from the above passages of the Br.
Up.
that the jStakarma rite contained the following parts: (1) homa of curds with ghrta to the accompaniment of mantras; (2) repeat-
ing in the child's right ear the
making
the child lick curds,

(
word speech thrice; (3) honey and ghrta by means of a
golden ladle
or ring
(4)
addressing the child with a
name
which was
to be his secret
;
the child to the breast
putting (6) addressing the mother with mantras.

(
name
namakarana
(5)
The Satapatha adds another detail viz. asking five brahmanas if available to breathe on the child ( from four quarters, east, south, west, north and one immediately above him ) or the
father himself
may
do
so.
There is great divergence in the grhyasutras on the different details that go to make up the jatakarma. Some give almost all the above seven details, while others omit some of
them.
The order of these components differs in the grhyaand according to the Veda to which each sfttra is attached the mantras differ. It would be impossible to give in a brief compass the details from all grhyasutras. Some description, however, of the details from important grhyasutras is given below
sutras
:
528.
MaitrSvaruga
is
Arundhatl.
^t means
earth
Vasistha and or food '.

*
sg
MaitrSvarum
rather expects
may
be
One
Ch.
VI
Samsknras-Jatakarma
to be performed
231
The ceremony has
by the very necessities
of the case immediately after birth. But different sutras e*> press it in different ways, e. g. A&v. I. 15. 2 says the rite should
touches the child.

II. 2.
be done before any other person ( than the mother and nurse ) Par. gr. ( 1. 16 ) says it is performed before
the navel string is cut off. Gobhila ( II. 7. 17 ) and KMdira 32 say that ifc is to be performed before the navel string is cut off and the breast is given to the child.
15. 1-4 ) the ceremony is described as ( I. a son has been born, he (the father) should before other persons touch him, give to the child to eat honey and clarified butter in which gold has been rubbed by means of a golden ( spoon ) with the verse *I give unto thee the Veda ( wisdom or knowledge ) of honey and ghrfca, ( Veda ) which is produced by the god Savitr ( who urges on ) the bountiful may you have long life and may you live in this world for a hundgr.
In the S.&V.
follows:
"When
red
*
child's
autumns being protected by the gods Bringing near the two ears ( his mouth ) the father mutters medhajanana IM may god Savitr bestow on thee intelligence may the goddess Sarasvatl bestow on thee intelligence and may the two gods
'.
ASvins wearing wreaths of lotus give to thee intelligence '. 5SO Ho touches the ( son's ) two shoulders ( with the mantra ) be a thou art indeed Veda, frtone, be an axe, be indestructible gold called son so live a hundred autumns' and (with the mantra ) Oh Indra, bestow the best wealth ( ft. II. 21. 6 ) and Oh 5S1 Oh ( Indra) partaker of rjlsa Maghavan ( bountiful Indra ) bestow on us' (Rg. III. 36. 10). And let them give him a name". The following sutras ( I. 15. 5-10 ) lay down rules about the name, which will be considered under Namakarana.
'
;
'
'
629.
Tbe vejsc
is
bo
cuKcd because
it
waa deemed
to
produce
intelligence.
530. Nffrffyana ( on A&v. gr. I. 15. 2 ) notes that some say that the mantra is muttered only once, when the mouth is brought near each efcr one after another, others say that the mantra is recited twice.
531.
sj^sftq- is
Soma from which
the essence
is
taken
away
(i. o.
dregs of Soma ). The com. Na"ra"yana &ays that as to those mantras (1) some hold that the three mantras should bo repeated continuously, while the shouldeis are touched one after the other (2) others hold that the mantra s^ftT *nr should be uttered when touching the right shoulder,
;
should be uttered while while the two f??$ten$' and *nrf3sr touching the left (3) the three mantras should be repeated together and
(
* ;
3^
'
the
shoulders touched simultaneously. NSrByana prefers this last because the bhSsyakSra who went before did so.
iS J
History qf
Dharma&stra
Oh.
Vl
It will be noticed that out of the several components of the described in the Br. Tip. and the Sat. Br., A6v. omits express mention of homa, of putting the child to the breast (stanad&na), the address to the mother ( matrabhimautrana ), and the brearifce
thing over the child by five brahmanas or the father. The San. gr. ( I. 24. 1-12 ) also omits homa, the stanadana and matrabhi* mantrcwa, but refers to the father breathing over the new born child thrice. Instead of ghrta and honey served with a golden spoon, San. prescribes mixing of curds, honey, ghrta and water or
grinding together of rice and barley.

to a
It
adds the tying of gold
and fixing it on the right hand of the child till the mother gets up from child-bed. It will have been noticed that Asv. and an. both prescribe giving a secret name to the child on the day of birth and do not
hempen
string
prescribe a separate Namakarana ceremony. San. gr. ( I. 24. 6 ) adds that a vyavah&rika name may be given on the 10th day from birth. The Gobhila gr. (II. 7. 13-15) and Khadira gr. II. 2. 28-31 say that a secret name for the child that is to be
born
is to
be uttered in the Sosy anti-karma.

tradition.
So Asv. probably
carries
on that
We shall now take

show how they
the
the several components of the
rifce
and
are dealt with by the several grhyasutras.

is
the Manava, The A6v. gr. parisista (1. 26) says that homa should be performed to Agni and other gods as stated above then the child should be made to eat honey and ghrta and then the offering be made to Agni. It is prescribed before birth ( in the Sosyantlkarma ) by Gobhila and Khadira. It is prescribed after the whole rite by Baud. gr. II. 1. 13. It is omitted by Asv. and San. The Par. gr. (1. 16), Hir, gr., Bharadvaja gr. ( I. 26 ) say that the Aupasana ( i. e. grhya ) fire is taken away and a sutikagni set up ( which is also called Uttapanlya ) 5 * 8 near the door of the lying-in chamber. The Vaik. ( III, 15 ) calls it jatakagni ( and also Uttapaniya ). These say that in
:
Homa Kanaka
This
prescribed
by the
birth.
Br. Up.,
gr. at the
time of
this fire white
at the time of birth
ten days after
mustard seed with_small grains of rice are offered and at the morning and evening twilights for birth with certain mantras. Ap. prescribes that
532. The Sutikagni is prepared by placing tbe broken piece of a jar OQ the kitchen fireplace and heating it with the dried dung of a bull.
*
III. 15.
Ch.
VI
Saihskftras-Jatakarma
233
rice chaff are to be offered in the fire whenany body enters the lying-in chamber for ten days. Two meanings are given to this. This Medhajanana (2) word does not occur in the Br. Up. But it speaks of muttering vak thrice and making in the right ear of the boy the word the boy lick from a golden spoon or ring curds, honey and gbrta. The first of these viz. muttering in the right ear of the boy some words or a mantra is called medhajanana in Asv. and San. ( L 24. 9 which prescribes vak ) wMle most of the other sutras viz. Vaik., Hir., Qobhila say that medhajanana is the action of making the child eat honey, ghee, curds or pounded barley and rice, to the accompaniment of mantras (like bhustvayi dadhSmi in Par. or Bhur rcah as in VaikhSnasa, or medham te devuh as in Ap. ). The Baud. gr. ( II. 1. 7 ) prescribes the giving of curds, honey and ghrfca ten times with each of the ten mantras ( Tai. Br. II. 5. 1 ) of the anuvaka beginning with 'prSno raksati visvam-ejat.' The Vaik. expressly 883 plant, Pathya plant, gold, honey and clarisays that the Vaca Manu II. 29 seizes upon the fied butter become medhajanana. making the child eat gold ( dust ), honey and clarified butter to the accompaniment of mantras as the central part of the rite. Later works like the Samskaramayukha regard this eating of 584 honey and ghrta as the principal part of jatakarma.
mustard seeds and

ever
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
Some of the sutras speak of a rite called Ayusya (3) ftyusya in the jatakarma. This consists in muttering over the navel ('as in Par. ) or in the right ear of the boy some mantra or mantras invoking the bestowal of long life on the boy. A6v.
:
vide p. 231 ) has such an invocation in conjunction with the eating of honey and ghrta. Bharadvaja also does the same. ' MSnava gr. prescribes the anuvaka Agne ayur-asi ( Ka^haka Sam. XI. 7 ) for 21 oblations ( this anuvaka is full of the word
'
Syusmat
'
).
Amsabkimarkana ( touching the child on the shoulder (4) or shoulders ). Vide Asv. above. Ap. begins his treatment with the direction that the father touches the boy with the Vatsapra anuvaka. Par., Bharadvaja speak of touching the boy twice, once with Vatsapra anuvaka ( Vaj. S. XII. 18-29 or Tai. S. IV.
533.
15.
fort *g*ftirft- Stor^^ **<* 3*mren& Amara gives OTHJT and fficren as synonyms of î and
1
mwn
ill.
respectively. 634.
H.D. 30
234
2.
' '
Oh.
Vl
and again with be a stone, be an axe ( in Par. and with the mantra may he grow in Bhar. ). Some sutras like San,
2
)t
' '
omit
this.
(5)
mother
&o
The the mother ). ( addressing addressed by the father with the verse Thou art Ila vide Br. Up. above ), which occurs in Par. Many sutras
Matrabhimantraria
:
'
is
omit
this.
(6)
Hir. has a different verse.

:
We saw above that the Pafica-brahmanasthapana the the child by five brahover Satapatha prescribes breathing inanas or the father himself. Par. prescribes the same and
gives an option ( the five brahmanas are to repeat in order from the east prana, vyana, apana, udana and samana ). San. asks
the father himself to breathe thrice over the boy with a verse referring to the three Vedas. Several sutras omit this.
(7) making the child Stana-pratidhana or stanapradana take the breast. The Br. Up. and many of the sutras prescribe this, together with the recitation of a mantra or mantras e. g.
:
Par. prescribes Vaj. S. 17. 87
and 38. 5 for the two breasts, Ap. and Bhar. prescribe Ap. mantrapatha II. 13. 2 only for the right breast Hir. and Vaik. prescribe the same verse for both.
;
(8)
where tha son
Deiabhimantraricf^ (or-marsana): touching the ground is born and addressing the earth ( with one or
Par., Bhar., Ap., Hir.
:
two mantras).
(9)
do
this.
).
Namakararia
giving a name to the child
The Br
Up., Asv., San., Gobhila, Khadira and several others speak of giving a name to the boy on the day of birth. Asv. (I. 15. 4 and 10 ) prescribes the giving of two names on that date, one
for
which he gives elaborate rules ) and the which his parents only know till the boy's upanayana. San. reverses this and says the name for which similar elaborate rules are laid down by him is the secret name and a name for common use is to be given on the IQth day A.p. gr. ( 15. 2-3 and 8 ) says on the day of birth a name derived from the naksatra ( lunar mansion ) on which the boy is bon is given, which is the secret name and then on the 10th anothei name is to be given. According to Gobhila and Khadira a name is to be given in the Sosy anti-karma which is to be kept secret.
use
(
common
for
other a secret one
535.
fiffi^
I
3'4HJH<HJ iTIHT* *inf
<JWi^ ^PS H
flirt.
QlWrt reads
1
ff
Oh.
VI
Safiiskaras-Jatakarma
235
are
(10)
Keeping off
evil spirits
Though ASv. and San.
entirely silent on this point several sutras devote large space to this topic and are full of mantras which are more are less magic.
Ap. prescribes the offering of mustard seed and rice chaff in fire three times with each of eight mantras ( Ap. mantrapatha II. 13. 7-14 ). Bhar. gr. ( I. 23 ) also prescribes similar Hir. gr. requires tho throwing of offerings with several verses.
mustard seeds eleven times in the sutikagni with eleven mantras some of which are almost the same as in Bharadvaja. Par. gr. recites two of such mantras. 528
It would not be out of place to mention a few other subsidiary matters. Baud., Ap., Hir. and Vaik. expressly say that the boy is to have a bath. The Hir. and Vaik. 537 say that the axe is to be placed on a stone and gold is to be placed on the
axe, then these are to be turned upside down ( so that gold lies at the bottom and the stone is on top ) and then the boy is to be held head eastwards above the stone by a female in
her two hands, while the father repeats the two mantras be a stone &c.' and the mantra thou art produced from ( my ) limb
'
'
by limb &o.'
that the
This shows
how what was

'
once only symbolical
(viz. uttering the
mantras
be a etone
'
&c. indicating the desire
axe and gold
boy should be strong, sharp and worthy like a stone, ) became transformed into a rite requiring physical of these things. Par.. Ap., Hir., Bhar. and Vaik. presence prescribe that a pot full of water should be placed towards the head ( of the woman and her child ) with a mantra 'Oh waters
I
536.
I.
16.
These two
occur in Hir. and the

537.
first
in
HKM
j
also.
^TT^.^TRfr gfTT^THS^n^ TTfj

(
dK*lp^<
flrTr îr^^[
i
3^rt
^Kftfir
c(w"taR
is
^ r?fm
!
Wfa ^K^^^T
-
TOT*T*T
HI.
14.
The verse
12 ) prescribes that when a * 5TT?J 5TCH3C " A P father returns from a journey he should take in his hands his son's head, should smell (or kiss) the top of it thrice and then mutter this verse. Nir. III. 4. quotes this verse as a rk in support of the view that sons and of the inheritance. The formula s^rrr WT daughters_equally partake occurs in Adv. gr. and in others also. Vaik. says that the jar is to be to ' the south of the woman's head 5p. employs the word lirastah which
'
_ 3T
TT^hr^f& ^Trf^rsfnr^ M p !! I 1 33 ^P SI* ( 15

r
Sudardana explains as
T.
near the head of the child
'.
The
II. 13. 6
and ffWT. ^. have a similar verse,
236
History of Dharmaidstra .
Ch.
VI
except 14 ) says that when the child's nose appears, the position of the planets should he observed and his future welfare or otherwise should he examined, since the boy is to he so brought up as to
(
watch while (people are asleep)/ None of the sufcras VaikhSnasa ) refers to any astrological details. Vaik. (
III.
enhance his good qualities. Both Ap. and Baud, say that the remnants of honey, curds and ghrta should be mixed with water and poured out in a cowstable ( and not thrown about in an
impure place ). This ceremony is comparatively brief in Ap., San. and a few others, but in Hir., Par. and Bharadvaja it is most elaborate and would require an unduly long time considering the state of the newly born child and the woman in There is no wonder, therefore, that this ceremony child-bed. gradually went out of vogue.. In modern times a few well-to-do families in Western India sometimes perform what is called 'putravana* (in Marathi ) and make the boy lick honey and
ghrta by means of a golden piece or ring. The dangers to the child of an elaborate ritual must have been apparent to all 523 people even in ancient times.
The Sm.
C.
( I.
the effect that
till
cites Harlta, Sankha, Jaimini to the navel cord is cut there is no impurity,
p.
)
19
539
that the samskara
may
be performed
till
jaggery, sesame, gold, clothes, cows and corn
then and that gifts of may be made and
accepted. The same work quotes Samvarta and other smrtia to the effect that the father must bathe before he can perform the
jatakarma rite. This would involve some further loss of time and it is remarkable that the grhya sutras observe silence about this, though Manu V. 77 prescribes a bath on hearing of the birth of a son. The Sra. C. quotes Pracetas, Vyasa and others to the effect that a nandlsraddha ( which will be explained under
Sraddha ) should be performed in jatakarma ( brahmanas are not cooked food in this sraddha, but to receive corn or only money payment ). Later works like the Dharmasindhu say
to eat
that in
jatakarma as in other rights, svastivacana, punyahavacana and matrkapujana are necessary.

The author knows of an instance whore an old man jubilant over of a son from his third wife entered upon the performance of the jatakarma according to his grhyasutra and by the time the ceremony was over, the helpless child that had already little vitality was dead owing to exposure and cold.
538.
the birth
539.
s ifi?ftfr
* i
p. 19
an4
2Q.
Ch.
VI
Sathskaras-Jatalcarma
237
tanti rites
Medieval writers of digests give extensive descriptions of 840 performed to counteract the inauspicious effects of birth on the 14th tithi of the dark half of a month or on the am&vftsya or on Mula, A61esa and Jyes^ha naksatras and certain astrological conjunctions like Vyatlpata, Vaidhrti, Samkr&nti ( sun's passage from one sign of the zodiac into another ). These
matters are passed over here for want of space, as of little importance in modern times and as new departures introduced in
the ancient sutra rites
be
by later works. A few general remarks will made on these matters in the section on anti and Muhurta. In modern times on the 5th and 6th days after birth certain
sutras.
ceremonies are performed for which there is no warrant in the These probably arose in the times of the Puranas, since the only verses quoted on this point in the Nirnayasindhu, the
Sarhskfiramayflkha and other works are the MSrkandeyapurSna, Vy&sa and N&rada. On these days the father or other male relative bathes in the first part of the night, then invokes
Ganeda, and certain minor deities called Janmada on handf uls of rice and also SasthldevI and BhagavatI ( i. e. Durga ) and worships them with sixteen upacaras. Then tambula and
dakqirfa are offered to one or more brahmanas and the members of the family keep awake that night with songs ( in order to
says
One text from the Markandeyapurana ). should armed keep watch the whole night fully It must be noted here that fear springing from astrological considerations got better of even natural love and affection to such an extent that some writers advised that the child when born on certain inauspicious conjunctions should be abandoned and its face should not be seen till at least its eighth year.
ward
off evil spirits
'
men
'.
Vide Nityacarapaddhati pp. 244-255.

III.
Utthana .(getting up from child-bed). According to Vaik. 18 on the 10th or 12th day after birth, the father shaves, bathes,
performs in the jatakagni
(
purifies the house,
or in the ordinary
some person fire, according to some) a sacrifice to the earth through belonging to another gotra. Then he brings back the aup&aana
grhya fire ), offers oblations to Dhatr and others (as in 1. 16), five oblations to Varuna ( 1. 17 ), the mulahoma ( I. 18 ) and feeds the brfthmanas. San. gr. (I. 25 ) is more elaborate. It prescribes that a mess of cooked food is prepared in the sutikftgni
(
540
Vide
ffrgmMWim pp
846-47, sfcsnw&RT PP. 201-203.
238
Oh,
VI
and oblations are made to the tithi of the child's birth, and to three naksatras and to their presiding deities, two to Agni and then one ( i. e. 10th ) to Soma with Rg. L 91. 7. Hir. gr. II. 4. 6-9 ( S. B. E. vol. 30 p. 214 ) and Bharadvaja Both say that the sQtikSgni (I. 26 ) also refer to utthaiia. is taken away and the Aupasana fire is brought in and oblations of ghrfca ( 12 or 8 ) are offered in that fire with the mantras beginning with dhata dadatu no rayim '.
'
Namakarana 841
Ap.
gr. 15.
The ceremony
Baud.
of
naming a
),
child.
Vide
1.
8-11
S.
B. E. vol. 30, pp. 282-283

gr. II. 1.
Asv.
gr. 1. 15.
4-10), S. B. E. vol. 29, p. 183),
23-31, Bhar, gr.
26,
Gobhila gr. II. 8. 8-18 (S.B.E, vol. 30 pp. 57-53), Hir. gr. II. 4. 6-15 214-215 ), Kathaka gr. 34. 1-2 and 36. 3-4, ( S. B. E. vol. 30, pp. Kausika sutra 58. 13-17, Manava gr. 1. 18, 1, San. gr. I. 24. 4-6 50 ), Vaik. III. 19, Varaha gr. 2. ( S. B. E. vol. 29, p.
There
child
is
was named. Several times are suggested literature and in the sutras and smrtis.
great divergence of view as to the time when the in the ancient
have already seen ( p. 232 ) thab a child was (a) addressed by a name, according to Gobhila and Khadira, even in the Sosyantlkarma.
According to the Br. Up., Asv. and San., Kathaka gr. (6) was given to the child on the day of birth. This name a (34.1) 541<* therefore practice is supported by a passage of the Sat. Br. when a eon is born ( the father ) should bestow on him a name thereby he drives away the evil that might attach to the boy a second, even a third ( name ) ', ( the father gives him ) even " The MahSbhasya of Patanjali appears to refer to this view. In the world the parents give a name to the son when born in a closed space ( or room ) such as Devadatta, Yajftadatta ; from
*
;
We
their
to
employment
'
of that
name
'
for the
",
54 *
boy
others also
come
know
this is his appellation
541. For a comprehensive treatment of the way in which nainei were given from Vedic times onwards, my paper Naming a child or a person in the Indian Historical Quarterly for 1938, vol. 14, pp. 24-44
*
'
'
may
be consulted. A summary of the points made in that paper given below together with some fresh matter.
541a.
is
aWcSSTCV
VI.
1. 3. 9.
*rf wr^r vol.
I.
p. 38.
Ch.
VI
SaniskZras-Namakaraya
Ap., Baud., Bhar.,
239
(c)
and Par. prescribe the 10th day
namakarana. The Mahabhasy a quotes a passage 543 from the Yajnikas that a name was given on a day after the tenth from birth. (d) Yaj, 1. 12 prescribes it on the llth day after birth. Baud. gr. ( II. 1. 23 ) says that Namakarana may be (e) performed on the 10th or 12th, while Hir. gr. says that it should be on the 12th. As Vaik. prescribes that the mother should get up from child-bed on the 10th or 12th and then speaks of namakarana, it follows that the ceremony was performed according to it on the lOfeh or 12feh. Manu II. 30 says it may be performed on the 10th or 12th day after birth or on an auspicious tithi, muhurta and naksatra thereafter.
after birth for
(/) Gobhila ( II 8. 8, 8. B. E. vol. 30. p. 57 ) and Khadira M * say that it should be on any day after ten nights, one hundred nights or a year from birfch. Laghu-Advalftyana ( VI. 1 ) allows it on llth, 12th or 16th day. Apararka (p. 26 ) quotes grhyaparisisâ to the effect that it may be performed after the 10th night is passed or after 100 nights or a year and the Bhavisyat-purana to the effect that it may be performed after 10 or 12 nights or on the 18th day or after a month. It is worthy of note that Ban a in his Kadambarl ( purvabhaga para 68 ) says that Taraplda named his son Candraplda when the tenth day after birth fell on an auspicious muhurta and that the minister Sukanasa named his son Vaisampayana next day. 545
The commentators were bewildered by these differences. ' Vtevarupa explains Manu II. 30 as when the 10th night is ' past and Kulluka does the same ( i. e. according to him it is 548 like performed on the eleventh day ). Medhatithi does not
the addition of 'past' (atlfcayam) after dasamyam in Manu II. 30 and says jusfc as jalakariii* can ba performed even when
there
is impurity due to birth, so namakarana may be performed on the 10th and that the only essential thing is that it is not to
' '
543.
544.
*fgmi8<j vol. I. p. 4. 3f*rfr$wF ^Kisd^dirsrrf^^T^Tsrf *rnr **rf?i
OTT^T
'
II. 3. 6
swwf P.
26.
545.
STTH cp?rthrf^r
g?^ gg?F
^PSTIT?
5*1%
TTH ^htf
;
para. 68
546.
140.
on
ng
II, 30.
246
tiistary of
Dharmaiaitra
Oh.
Vi
be performed before the 10th or 12th. AparSrka says that there It is an option and one may follow one's own grhyasdtra. 84T of Harisoandra, son of Jayatappears that the n&makarana
candra, king of Kanoj, took place three weeks after jatakarma 31. 8. 1175 A. D. ). In modern times namakarana generally takes place on the 12th day after birth and no Vedio ceremony
(on
as prescribed in the sutras is gone through, but women assemble and after consulting the male members of the family beforehand announce the name and place the child in the cradle.
In Bg. VIII. 80. 9 we read when you give us a fourth name connected with ( the performance of ) a sacrifice, we long for it ; immediately afterwards, you, our master, take us ( forward to glory ) 548. This shows that a man could have a fourth name even in the times of Rg. and the fourth was a name due to
'
'
the performance of a yajna. Sayana explains that the four names are : naksatranama ( derived from the naksatra on which a
person was born ), a secret name, a publicly known name and a fourth name like Somayajl (due to having performed a Somayaga ). In Rg. X. 54. 4 there appears to be a reference to four names ( though Sayana takes nama here to mean the body
or deed
*
).
In Rg. IX.
75. 2 there is reference to

to the parents
a third name
the son has a third
name unknown
and which
is
in the bright part of heaven '. The two names are the naksatra name and the ordinary name, while the third would be the name
due to the performance of a sacrifice ( which the parents could not foresee at his birth ). In the Kg* frequent refeience is made to the secret name of a person. Vide $g. IX 87. 3, X. 55. 1-2. We saw above ( note 541a ) that the Sat. Br, speaks of a second or even a third name for a person given to him by his parents. The same Brahmaria 549 recommends Therefore a brhmana
*
547.
Vide
I.
vol. 18 p. 129,
read with B.
I.
vol. IV. p.
120 and
B.
I. vol.
X. p. 95.
3*rr^qRi3 lited 3?. VIII. 80.9; X. 54. 4; ^nft s*t ft^nrfW The f^<Ntf?TW apenks of three
i \ i
548. 5<H TTO *iiinf ^t urotrpufa ^^rR & 8iS*nP[ swifi^rmf *tf|<re*r *fo
^?.
TR 5*famiv *vg$ v$m

also Bays that a
^. IX. 75. 2. names 9T$WOT, 'WSTlfoim and * third one

I
like ^nwreTf*
man
bears the
name
atrfr&JTOnfr
The JTf CHTT when he performs
vol.
n.
p.
168 on m. ill.
fir$V*f
4. 1.
549.
*re*n^ wrîoftsmw^
k i
*w
spJfa
wftft Jw T
3.
irf
^rm HI.
6. 2, 24.
Vide 3rowr?r^r;I.
9 for the recital
of the three
tfou
names of a sacrificer and rwrm ).
( %rfar*r*r
says they were
Ch.
VI
Saihskaras-Nftmalcaraw
241
1
when he does not prosper should give himself a second name . But how these names were formed is not stated anywhere in the Vedic literature. In the Tai. S. VI. 3. 1. 3 it is said therefore a brahmana who has two names prospers 55 The Sat. Br. ( II. 1. 2. 11 ) says Arjuna is the secret name of Indra and the constellation of Phalgfluls being presided over by Indra they are really Arjunyah, but are called Phalgunyah in an indirect way 5S1 We saw above (p. 230) that the Br. Up. speaks of a secret name given by the father on the day of birth. Hardly any secret names are expressly mentioned in the Vedic literature except the name of Arjuna given to Indra ( and being secret they cannot be expected to be mentioned). How the secret name was given is not clear from the Vedic literature. In Vaj. S. 17. 89 The Tai. S. there is a reference to the secret name of ghrfca 552
'
'.
'
'.
gives expression to the request that the ( ahavanlya ) } fire should bear the name of one who keeps sacred fires, while the person
853 praying was away on a journey
.
A few examples of the three names of a person from the Vedic literature may be given here. These are generally the ordinary name, a name derived from his father and a third from his gotra ( or from the name of some remote ancestor ). In Rg. V. 33. 8 we find Trasadasyu ( his own name ), Paurukutsya (son of Purukutsa ), Gairiksita (descendant of Giriksita ). In the Ait. Br. ( 33. 5) Sunahêpa is spoken of as Ajlgarti ( son of Ajlgarta ) and also as Angirasa ( a gotra name ), while king Hariaicandra is mentioned ( Ait. Br. 33. 1 ) as Vaidhasa ( son of In the Vedhas ) and Aiksvaka ( descendant of Iksvaku ). Sat. Br. ( XIII. 5. 4. i ) Indrota Daivapa ( son of Devapi ) Saunaka ( a gotra name ) is said to have been the priest of Janamejaya. In the Chan. Up. ( V. 3. 1 and 7 ) Svetaketu Aruneya ( son of Aruni ) is styled Gautama ( a gotra name ). In the Ka^hopanisad
550. cHEm^; Sir. gr., Bba"r. gr.
nhrn wrspit&fi:
I.
ft-
tf-
VI.
3. 1. 3.
This
is
quoted in
26 and other grhya sutras.
551.
i. i. 2.
11.
552.
653.
^?r^r TT*T sprf

HIT
q^fo
f^rsr
%*rnrr**nw
This
i
*riPr:
1
srsr. tf . 17. 89.
rm swtf
srra^t fan
I. 5.
*
mm ^ ^rg^?jis
cn*f
fr^ff
s^r *%cft
in other
^. 3.
o.
10. 1.
differently read
nirqT^T
g.
26.
effrasff
VII. 3 reads
is
TW.
Bh5r.
I.
This verse
H. P, 31
ftviTm quoted in nffmakarana by several sStras, e. g.
^rg^fr
<m
35^ ^T*
842
(1. 1.1
Ch.
VI
is
and 11) Naciketas
is
the son of V&ja&ravasa
and
addressed as
Gautama ( a
gotra
name
).
literature
Usually however a petson is referred to in the Vedio by two names. In some oases it is his own name and
a gotra name e. g. Medhyatithi Kanva ( Rg. VIII. 2. 40), Hiranyastupa Angirasa ( Rg. X. 149. 5 ), VatsaprI Bhalandana ( Tai. S. V. 2. 1. 6 ), Balaki Gargya ( Br. Up. II. 1. 1 ), Cyavana Bhargava ( Ait. Br. 39. 7 ). In other cases a man is referred to by his own name and another name derived from a country or locality e. g. Kasu Caidya ( Rg. VIII. 5. 37 ), Bhlma Vaidarbha ( Ait. Br, 35. 8 ), Durmukha Pancala ( Ait. Br. 39. 23 ), Janaka Vaideha ( Br. Up. III. 1. 1 ),. Ajatasiatru Kasya (Br. Up. II. 1. 1). In some cases a matronymic is added to a person's name e. g. DlrghatamsP Mamateya ( Rg. I. 158. 6 ), Kutsa Arjuneya ( son of Arjunl, Rg. IV. 26, 1, VII. 19. 2, VIII. 1. 11 ), Kakslvat Ausija 554 Usik, Rg. I. 18. 1, Vaj. S, III. 28 ), ( son of a woman called Prahlada Kayadhava (son of Kayadhu, Tai. Br. I, 5. 10), Mahidasa Aitareya ( son of Itara, Chan. Up. III. 16.7 ). In the varhsa added at the end of the Br. Up. there are about forty sages with matronymio names. The practice of mentioning a
man by reference
gotra
to his mother's
till
name
or to his mother's father's
was continued
The most usual method, Rg. and also in other Vedic works was
later times, as will be shown later on. however, of referring to a person in the
to state his name along with another derived from his father's name. For example, Ambarlsa, Rjrasva, Sahadeva and Suradhas are all called Varsagira ( son of Vrsagir, Hg. I. 100. 17 ) king Sudas is called Paijavana ( son of Pijavana, Rg. VII. 18. 22 ), Devapi is Arsîsena ( son of Rstisena, Rg. X. 98. 5-6), Samyu Barhaspatya ( Tai. 8.' II. 6. 10 ), Bhrgu Varuni ( Ait. Br. 13. 10 and Tai. Up. XIII. 5. 4. 11, Ait. III. 1), Bharata Daussanti ( Satapatha Br. 39. 9 ), Nabhanedistha Manava ( Ait. Br. 22. 9 ).
;
The principal rules about names

the grhyasutras. Asv.
'
may now
be set out from
182-183 ) says Let (them) give the boy a name beginning wifch a sonant, having a semivowel in it, with a visarga at the end, consisting of two syllables or of four syllables, of two syllables if (the father)
( 1.
15. 4-10, S. B. E. vol. 29, pp.
is
desirous of firm
if
syllables
554.
^r.
he
is
( worldly ) position ( for his son ), of four desirous of spiritual eminence ( for his son ) ;
^T(&R 7 on trrfrft VI. 1.37 explains the words

).
1. 18. 1
Vide
*%m*V vol
III. 3. 33.
Ch.
VI
(
Samskaras-Namakarawi
243
but
an even number of syllables in the caae and with an uneven number of syllables in the case of women. And let him find out (for the boy) a name to be employed at respectful salutations ( at Upanayana &c. ) that name ( the boy's ) mother and father alone should know till his 55S The San. gr. (S. B. E. vol. 29. p. 50) omits the rule upanayana' about the name ending in a visarga and allows an option of six syllables and adds that the name should be formed by a krt affix ( from a root ) and not by a taddhita\ that this name should be known only to his parents and that on the tenth day after
in all oases ) with
of males
birth the father should give the child a name for ordinary use which should be pleasing to brahmanas. It should be noticed that
ASv. and San. differ on one very important point. According to ASv. the name for which elaborate rules are laid down is to be the ordinary name and he lays down no rule about the formawhile San. lays down for the secret tion of the secret name name the same rules as A&v. does for the public one and SSn. says about the public name that it should be pleasing.
;
rules about
Instead of quoting grhya sutras at length the principal names deducible from them may be stated in the
form of propositions with a few illustrations for each.

(1)
The
first
rule in almost all sutras is that the
name
for males should contain
two or four syllables or an even from Vedic literature where most deduced is This rule number. of the names contain either two syllables ( e. g. Baka, Trita,
Kutsa, Bhrgu ) or four syllables ( Trasadasyu, Purukutsa, Medhyatithi, Brahmadatta &c. ), though names of three syllables ( like Kavasa, Cyavana, .Bharata ) and of five syllables
555.
are the last three letters
of the five
<rIs
(gîflt
),
3J*xTW: W&*K Separate the 5th sutraaa tftrrcr^Tr^ 3^?R*?R*t (3T?*r: means mOT. <nf3ri3 VIII. arfllfSreTm^ means smtfsten*: 3F$ *ra*r. ^THRB-R That such rules arc very ancient follows from 3. 86 derives that word. a quotation in tho *rsnTTnr '*m1NrT: TOI5^
I.
*W
^^
p. 4.
f%3*<?n3^
that
would
follow the name of (one of) the three ancestors of the boy's father, a^f means 'descent or family.' 3Tf3[ means that tho first syllable is not * not borne by 3?T,ôra^(yideinfWrI. 1. 73) and aoffarftfar means
his foe.'
244
(
Oh.
VI
Hiranyastupa ) are not; wanting. Baija* grhya allowed the name to be of one, two, three, four or any number of syllables. San. allowed a name even of six syllables and Baud. gr. ( II. 1. 25 ) of six or even eight. Examples of names with two syllables and four syllables are given
vapa
556
like Nabhanedistha,
below.
(2)
Almost
This
all
grhya
sufcras
contain the rule that the

in the middle a
name should begin with a sonant and contain

semivowel.
is
stated also in the ancient quotation
from
Yajnikas in the Mahabhasya.
visarga preceded
name should end in a by a long vowel (e. g. Ap., Bhar., Hir.,Par.). Asv. only mentions that it should end in a visarga, while Vaik. and Gobhila say that it may end in a long vowel or in a visarga. These rules were probably based on such Vedic names as Sudas, Dlrghatamas, Prthusravas ( that occur in the Rgveda ) and such
(3)
Some
sufcras prescribe that the
557
names as VatsaprI
first
Tai, 8. V.
2. 1.
).
(4) Ap. prescribes that the name should have two parts, the being a noun and the second a verbal formation ( generally a past passive participle ). This rule is probably based on such ancient names as Brahmadatta ( which occurs in Br. Up, I. 3. 24 and figures very much in Pali works ), Devadatta, Yajnadatta
&c.
(5)
Many grhya
)
Baijavapa, VSraha
root
by a krt affix a noun by an affix

(6)
' '
sutras (like Par,, Gobhila, San., say that the name should be formed from a and should not be a taddhita (i. e. formed from
),
Ap. and Hir. say that the name should have the upasarga su in it as a Brahmana passage says that such a name has stability in it. Examples are Sujata, Sudarsana, Sukesas ( Prasna Up. 1. 1 ).
556.
^sranr:
'
fart *rro efffrfS ^sr* Trot s^srt "^srgtsfwjftfatf TT swrnf? p. 27. TO, ^t, : STT^T? ( *rft srerfir f are examples of names of two syllables and ^nfrT:, TTO: *n*r%*: f53fta: ffiVir^r: of those of four syllables. In
t
the MahabhS^ya %7^cT and q^qiq are the most frequent stock names whenever it predicates something about a person in general and it also says that such names are shortened as e.
'
g.
>1. 1.
p. ill
on
mro^ 1.
1. 45.
15. 8-9.
Oh.
VI ]
(7)
Sathskaras-Namakarana
Baud.
gr. prescribes that, the
245
be derived
name may
or a deifcy or an ancestor. 558 The Manava grhya, however, forbids the giving of a name of a deity itself, but allows the giving of a name derived from the name of a deity or a naksa-
from a sage
tra.
Examples of names derived from sages would be Vasistha, Narada &c. and of names taken from deities would be Visnu, Siva &c. The Mifc. on Yaj, I. 12 quotes a passage of Sankha
that the
name should be connected with one's family deity. It should be noticed that in modern times most names in many parts of India are the names of deities or of heroes supposed to be avataras of deities. In Vedic literature hardly any human being bears the name of any of the Vedic gods ( Indra, Mitra, Pusan &c ). There are only a few exceptions such as that of Bhrgu ( in Tai. Up, III. 1 ) who is said to have learnt from his father called Varuna and in the Prasna Up. (LI) there is
Saury ay ani Gargya whose name is derived from Surya. But in the Vedic Literature persons have names derived from the names of gods, such as Indrota ( Indra -futa, protected ), Indradyumna.
The names that occur

Yajfiadatta, Vayudatfea
in the
(
Mahabhasya such as Devadatta,

296
),
vol. II. p.
Visnumitra
vol. I. pp.
41 and 359), Brhaspatidatfcaka (or Brhaspatika ), Prajapatidattaka ( or-patika ), Bhanudattaka ( or Bhanuka ) and others set out in the Mahabhasya ( vol. II. p. 425 ) exemplify the rule
Manavagrhya. It is difficult to say when the very names began generally to be borne by human beings. the Probably practice began in the first centuries of the Christian From the fifth century onwards we have historic examples era. of such names, e. g. in the Eran stone inscriptions of Budhaof the
of deities
gupta dated in the Gupta sarhvat 165 i. e. 484-5 A. D. ( Gupta Inscriptions No. 19 ) there is a brahmana Indra-Visnu, son of Varuna-Visnu, son of Hari-Visnu. Baud., Par., Gobhila ( and the Yajfiikas quoted by (8)
the Mahabhasya ) prescribe that the name of the boy may be the same as that of any of the ancestors of the father. The Manava gr. ( 1, 18 ) expressly says that the father's own name should not be given. This practice was observed in ancient times and
when the child is often given his grandname. 559 Vide I. A. vol. VI. p. 73 where we see that Pulakesi II was grandson of Pulakesi I.
continues even today,
father's
558.
^?^rq^ ^grr^g *f q^frr 953wrf *mn ft *g:

>
*}.v.q,. II.1.2S-29;
18.
559.
In the E.
I.
vol. 14 p.
342
of 4ake 1470
strangely enough
the engraver's
name
is
the Same as his father's.
S46
(9)
Ch.
VI
The grhyasutras (except Par. and Manava) are agreed name is to be given to the boy by the parents, in the Sosyantlkarma according toGobhila and Khadira, at birth according to some (like Asv. and Ka^haka) and according to others (like Ap,, Baud., Bhar. ) at the time of Namakarana on 10th or 12th day. We saw above that San. and Kathaka give elaborate rules about the secret name, which rules are those of the Vy&vaharika 560 name according to Asv, and many other sutrakaras. Gobhila and Khadira give no rules about the secret name. Ap., Hir. and Vaik. only say that the secret name should be derived from the naksatra of birth, but give no further rules. Bhara581 dvaja speaks of the giving of two names in Namakarana, one being derived by applying the intricate rules described above and the other being a naksatra name but it is not quite clear which was to be the secret name it is probable, however, that the naksatra name was to be the secret one. According to A6valayana the secret name was called Abhivadanlya ( which was to be known to the parents only till the boy's upanayana and which was to be used by the boy for announcing himself in respectful salutations ) but he does not say how it was to be derived. Gobhila, Khadira, Varaha (5) and Manava speak of an abhivadanlya name. Gobhila prescribes that this name was to be given to the boy at the time of upanayana by the acarya and was to be derived from the naksatra of birth or from the presiding
that a secret;
; ; ;
further adds that accorddeity of that naksatra. Gobhila ing to some teachers the abhivadanlya name was derived from
According to the KSthaka grhya ( 34. 1-3 and 36 ) only one on the day of birth ) and the same is used in NSmakarana ( 36. 3 ), but it mentions that it was the view of some that another name was to be given in NSmakarana.
560.
is
568
given
561.
I.
26.
secret given in ^t^nptfr^n?
and ^TUf* appear to suggest three names, one that was (ftmt7 II. 7. 15-16 ), the 2nd in nffmakarana Oftfrft H. 8. Band 14-16 derived by means of the intricate rules specified above ) and a third in Upanayana called STiSreT^fta (*ftftc7 H. 10. 21-25). According to them a name like Hfrnrisfi; would be the fourth name. In 1. 7 it is said that in the gpqig*!^ the following names of the
562.
jftpfts
1
Tsr
should be taken one after another viz. ^T^TTTH,
*fraRT*T,
and HTTH (ending

II. 10.
22-25
qft
.
irraritanift
farm*
4. 12.
Oh.
VI
Sa7hskaras~N5makarar?a
247
the gotra of the boy
This practice
( as e. g. G&rgya, SSndilya, Gautama &o. ). based on the usage we find in the Upanisads, where SatyakSma when about to go to a teacher for Vedio study asks his mother what his gotra was ( Chan. Up. IV. 4. 1 ) and where the teacher also asks him what his gotra was. In
is
the Kathopanisad Naciketes is styled Gautama and in Chan. V. 3. 7 Svetaketu is addressed as Gautama by Pravahana Jîivali
when
if
But no secrecy. From Gobhila it appears that the acarya told the boy his abhivadanlya name, but the Khadira suggests that the boy already knew it( from his father or mother) and informed the teacher. The naksatranama was of importance in the performance of Vedic sacrifices. The Vedangajyofcisa 562 ( of the Rg )
the latter expounded
Samvarga-vidya
to the former.
the abhivadanlya
was a gotra name
there could have been
in verses 25-28 enumerates 28 naksatras ( adding Abhijit after Uttarasadha and before Sravana ) and their presiding deities and adds that in sacrifices the sacrificer is to bear a name derived from the name of the presiding deity of his naksatra.
The
object of keeping the naksatra name secret seems to have been to prevent rites of abhicara ( magical practices ) against a
563.
verso 28.
In the Vedio Literature and in the
VedSnga
Jyotisa the naksatras are enumerated from KitlikS to Apabharani and not f rom A^vinl to Rcvati a^ in medieval and modern times. For the
position of Abhijit, vide Tai. Br.
deities
1. 5. 2.
The nakâtras and
their presiding
may
the modern
Some of the names differ from profitably be specified here. ones. The oldest lists are in the Atharvaveda (19. 7. 2-5) and
I. 5. 1
Tai. S. IV. 4. 10. 1-3, Tai. Br.

(
and
III.
1.
1.
irf%^T-3ntr, Trfton
( *TT
^^r in S. tf.>
in aroô
)
tfw, a^r^r
STI^TTT
in &. tf
ff *<rfo
(or
in
&
*f.)
^r^,
j&
and $TT^fnT^W and ^^TWI& ^TTTT) ft^^f:, 9?f^TT ( wnTT

:,
ir^ctt in I. ff.) ace. to others ),
mT:
T%ftm in
in
^TcTWT^
ÔT (called
in 3Tj|o
)
^5 in ft ^.),
The deity of
3TT*T!%^
i
w.
I.
ar^rr.
These are
(
given also in $TTynwjI
20,
Tf^^rf^
78. 16-17,
^WfflTW^
(
III. 20).
Some give
35=3T.
as the deity of f%3TT.
In the
^Tf3^fh%
^.,
HI and
3*3*TT are tlie pi^sitling deities
^R^fhr ), ft^ of $5*r <K^ft and
*ft
respectively.
248
Ch.
VI
person, for the effective

to
employment of which
564
ik
was necessary
know a
person's name,
Hundreds of names occur in the Vedic Literature, but there are hardly any names directly derived from a naksatra. In the Satapatha ( VI. 2. 1. 37 ) there is an Asadhi Sau^romateya
(son of Asadha and Su&romata ). Here Asadha is probably connected with the naksatra Asadha. Ifc appears therefore that
in the times of the br&hmanas naksatra names were secret and so are not met with. Gradually however naksatra names ceased
became common. For several centuries before names were very common. Panini be placed later than 300 B. C. and may have ( who cannot flourished some centuries earlier still) 'gives several rules 3. 34-37 and VII. 3. 18 ) for ( IV. deriving names of males and females from naksafcras. In IV. 3. 34 he says that names are derived from Sravistha, PhalgunI, Anuradha, Svati, Tisya, Punarvasu,Hasta, Asadha andBahula (Krfctika) without adding any termination signifying born on ( e. g. we have the names Sravisthah, Phalgunah &c. In VII. 3. 18 he derives ). the name Prosthapadah from Prosthapada. In the Junagadh
the Christian era naksatra
'
'
to be secret and
inscription of
Budradaman
150 A. D.
the brother-in-law of
Candragupta Maurya is said to have been a vaisiya named Pusyagupta ( E. I. vol. VIII. p. 43 ). This shows that in the 4th century B. C. a name was derived from the naksafcra Pusya ( so the name was naksatrasraya ). The Mahabhasya ( vol. I. p. 231 ) speaks of boys named Tisya and Punarvasu and cites Citra, RevatI, KohinI as names of women born on these naksatras ( vol. II. p. 307 ) and of Caitra as a male ( vol. II. p. 128 ). The Mahabhasya speaks of Pusyamitra, the founder of the Sunga dynasty ( vol. I. p. 177, vol. II. pp. 34 and 123 ). Buddhists also had naksatra names e. g. Moggaliputta Tissa ( where a gotra name and a naksatra name from Tisya are combined ), a parivrajaka Potthapada in DIgha I. p. 187 and III. p. 1 ( from the naksatra Prosthapada ), Asada, Phaguna, Svatiguta, Pusarakhita and in the SancI inscriptions of 3rd century B. C. ( E, I, ( vol. II. p. 95 ). The giving of naksafcra names continued for
centuries after the Christian era.
plate of
Dhruvasena
)
529 A. D.
564.
there is
For example/in the Palitana Valabhi samvat 210 (about a brahmana named Vi6akha. We have
I
dated
The com. of
^%^T says
II. 2.
32
and %^Tc7 on ?rn35RW
^Q<hW#^
36. 4 says
Oh.
VI
Safasmras-Nftrnakaraya
349
names like Pusyasvaml, Rohinlsvaml ( in the plates of Sivaraja dated 602-3 A. D., in E. I. vol. IX. p. 288 ). Another way of deriving names from naksatras was to form them from the presiding deity of the naksatra on which a person was born. man was called Agneya, if he was born on Krttika ( A^ni being its devata), Maitra (from being born on Anuradha). In modern times this round-about way is given up and persons are named directly from the names of gods and avataras
like
Rama
is
).
of deriving names from naksatras works on Dharmasastra and Jyotisa. Each of the 27 naksatras is divided into four padas and to each pada a specific letter is assigned ( e. g., cu, ce, co and la for the padas of ASvinl) from which names are derived for persons born in those padas ( e. g. Cudamani, Cedlsa, Cole&a and Laksmana 565 These names are secret and for the four padas of AsvinI ).
There
another
way
set
forth in medieval
are even now muttered into the ear of the brahmacarl in TJpanayana and are known as the name in the daily samdhya prayer.
Modern works like the Samskaraprakasa ( p. 237 ) say that names may be given viz. devatanama, masanSma, naksatranama and vyavaharikanama. The first shows that the bearer is the devotee of that devata. The Nirnayasindhu 566 quotes a verse about twelve names derived from the month in which a man was born and adds that the Madanaratna laid down thafc the names specified in the verse were to be given to the months from Margaslrsa or Caitra. Such names ( of Visnu ) are being
four kinds of
the
given now, particularly in Western India, but without regard to month of birth. So early as in the Brhatsaihhita of
565.
859 and dfrhiwhlfrl pp. 239-240 wher all are set out from a work called ?^TM^rJ> and on pp. 860-861 of the former the 112 names ( for the 4 qr^-s of 28 Even so late a work as the ^jf[%^ ( composed T^rsTB) are exemplified.
Vide *j*chKic?nRraT
p.
the letters for the 27
srsrsra
in 1790 A. d:) disapproves of these authorities
namea
as not baaed on
any Vedio
III
566.
*yfi}îJ$
U uuh H trts
:B
3?r5^ffV
3^ w 5i*r
'af'TT^'fJ
II
'SflRj F^TT fTT-HHI^P^^^^lct

I
3?3f *Tf<Uflq} f^
fiqf^W^ TR^? HI jpW. The verae quoted occurs Saunaka KSrikSs ( Ms. in Bombay University Library ) as one of Garga. The Laghu-ASvalSyana-gmrti (Snand.ed.) VI. 2 Speaks of HT^f beginning from
in the
.
D. 32
250
History of DharmatGstra
Oh.
VI
Varahamihira the twelve names of Visnu are associated with

the twelve months. 567
some special rules were laid down. that the names of girls should contain grhyasutras say an 'uneven number of syllables and the Manava gr. ( 1. 18 )
to the
girls,
As
names of
Many
bles.
expressly says that the names of girls should be of three syllaPar. and Varahagrhya further say that the names of girls
'
Qobhila and Manava say they should end in Vasuda, Yasioda, Narmada), Sahkha-likhita dharmasutra and Baijavapa require that it should end in 'I', while the Baud. 568 gr. 6esa-sutra says that it should end in a long vowel. The Varahagrhya adds an intricate rule that the name of a girl should have an a vowel in it and should not be after a river, a naksatra or should not be the name of the sun or moon or Pusan and should not be one having the idea of given by god as in Devadatta or having the word raksita ( as in Buddharaksita ). 569 Manu II. 33 prescribes that the names of women should end in a long vowel, should be easy to pronounce, should not suggest any harsh acts, should be perspicuous, should be pleasing to the ear, auspicious and should convey some blessing and in III. 9 Manu and Ap. gr. III. 13 say that one should not marry a girl named after naksatras, trees, rivers. In modern
should end in
'
',
da
'
(as in Satyada,
'
'
'
times girls frequently bear the
India
Sindhu, Jahnavl, Kaverl &c. ).

(
names of the great rivers of Yamuna, Tapl, Narmada, Goda, Krsna,
It is
remarkable that
Manu
altogether omits the involved

prescri-
rules given
by
the
)
grhya sutras about naming a boy and

rules viz. that the
bes
( II.
31-32
two simple
names
of all
the
of the four varnas should suggest respectively auspiciousness, vigour, wealth and lowness ( or contempt ) and that the names of brahmanas and the other varnas should have an
members
addition
667.
upapada
suggestive of sarman
happiness
),
raksa
The 12 names are

Vide amrsff
27 for quotations from $Tf f$n?ra and
568.
p.
uHq
569.
These directions of the Vsrsha
gr.
were not observed in

mentions
ancient times.
The MahBbhSsya
(vol. II. p. 307)
women named
;
Citrs, Revatl, A4vini, also a woman ^nff^Tf (vol. III. p. 156) and also
iTjflRT) in vol. III. p. 325.
I.; p. 184 ) and %^r%2Rf (or %TOT), q-^frî (or
named
Devadatta" (vol.
Oh.
(
VI
Safokara^Ntimakaraipa
51
protection ), pustf ( prosperity ) and presya ( service or dependence on others). It is significant that none of the grhya570 makes any reference to these sutras except Paraskara
additions (Sar man and the like) to the names of brahmanas and Therefore this was comparatively a later development, others. though such additions must have been in vogue at least two
The Mahabhasya 571 (vol. III. p. 416 ) cites Indravarman and Indrapalita as the names of a rajanya and a vaisya. Yama quoted by Apararka ( p. 27 ) 578 that the names of brahmanas should have the addition says
centuries before the Christian era.
of
datta,
iarma or deva^ of ksatriyas varma or trata, of vaisyas bhuti or and of 6udras dasa. Similar rules are given in the These rules were sometime observed, but were Puranas 573 A often broken from very ancient times as inscriptions show.
.
striking example of the observance of these rules is contained in the Talgunda Inscription of Kakutsthavarman of the Kadamba family ( E. I. vol. VIII. p. 24 ) where the founder who
MayuraSarman, but his descendants in varman ( which was appropriate to ksatriyas ). On the other hand we have frequent In the Gupta Inscriptions No. 35 breaches of these rules. 156 the Mandasor Ins. of YaSodharat 1. vol. I. 0. 150, p. Ill, p. ( man of Malava year 589, 645-46 A, D. ) the genealogy of the brahmana ministers is Sasthldatta, his son Varahadasa, his son Raviklrti ( so the upapadas datta and dasa appropriate to vaisyas and 6udras respectively were added to brahmana names ). In the Neulpur plate of Subhakara of Orissa ( 8th
is
was a brahmana
styled
who were kings had names ending
'
'
'
'
I. vol. XV. p. 4 ) we have several bhattas names end in vardhana, datta and svamin. In the Nidhanpura plate of Bhaskara varman ( E. I vol.' XIX p. 115 ) among the numerous donees (who must have been all brahmanas) there are some who are named Sraddhadasa, Karkadatta and Merudatfca. In the Inscriptions of the Saka king Damijada
century A. D,, E.
whose
570.
HsnRmr srffarHi fSTTTST**
iffcrr:
arrr.
3.
13
11) saya
2. 83.
571.
572.
This
*nr
is
on *rffor 2
*TTR^R?ri
^r^nt on tnfam VIII.

'
573.
e. g.
{^g<3^<fgT
III.
10.
the
rfwrcm p.
919 quotes ftnother verse
of
This
is
ftf5J^m HI.
10. 8.
25fc
History of Dharmditistra
II.
Oh.
Vl
of the year 60 ( 0. I. I. vol. Valavadha ( Balavardhana )
p.
16
his
his father is called
and
son
Mitravadhana
(Mitravardhana
).
A few words may be said about matronymics. A few examples of such names have been given above from Vedic Literature. Asv. gr. 574 (I. 5. 1. ) says that in selecting a bride" groom or bride one should first examine the family, as has been
already said those who on the mother's and father's side ". This refers to tho Asv. Srauta sutra where it is required that both parents of the brahmana at the time of camasabhaksana
in Dasapeya should be for ten generations perfect in their learning, austerities, and meritorious works and who can be traced to have throughout been of the brahmana class on both
sides &c. Yaj.
I. 54 enjoins that one should choose a girl from a great family of srotriyas, which has been famous for ten
* '
generations
for learning
and character
).
Therefore
when
in
certain cases a person is named after his mother or after the gotra of his mother's father, all that is intended to be conveyed is that he is descended from worthy male and female ancestors.
There
is
no question in such cases
of matriarchy.
In the Nasik
Inscription No. 2 ( E. I. vol. VIIL p. 60) siri Pulumayi is described as Vasithlpufca and in E. I. vol. VIII. p. 88 the Abhlra
king Isvarasena
Inscription
(
is
I.
described as Madharlputra. 575

vol.
In a Scythian
'
E.
X at page 108
we have mention
of
the
son of Bhargavl '. In all these cases the mother's gotra name is specially emphasized probably to convey that the mothers were of the bluest blood. Comparatively late writers mention the
gotra in which their mother was born ( e. g. Bhavabhuti who flourished about 700-750 A. D. says that he was a Kasyapa while his mother was a Jatukarnl ). From a Karika in the
Mahabha^ya we learn
the son of a Daksl.
574.
that the great

576
grammarian Panini was

(
Panini himself
^r
IV.
1.
147
i
delivers a
$dq
sft.
.
TOra
IX.
3.
^T^cf: TClcrerfa ?ngcl:
wN?
ft?T**
The
3U*?.
20 has '%
S*sn^ 3n5T. 1. ! 5- 1. ^5T$^ *T*3%<TT f^Tt<T-
The printed text reads 5TiWTfn^f which practically convoys the same sense. 575. Vide E. I. vol. XX. p. 6. for other examples of MSdharlputa
and Vasithiputa.
576.
*^
^m^rrt?rT ^refis^r
<nior5:
USHW
Ad >!
vol.
I.
p.
75 on
<nfrf^ (I.
<nton^ was also called Ûdigtfq (from his place $ranjr)' II ( E. I. vol. Vide trras's *til<jldfcK VI. 62 and Nogawa plate of jp^R
1. 20).
VIII at
p. 192,
dated Gupta era 320
i.
e.
649-50
Panini (IV.
3. 94)
derives the word
Oh.
VI
Safaskaras-Namakaraya
253
for a
special rule about the formation of a
name
man from
the
of his mother to convey contempt ( e. g. Gargah or 577 ankhSGargikah, a rogue, from his mother's name Gargl). 52 B. 25. S. E. I. vol. yana grhya ( 29, p. ) prescribes that 2-9,
gotra
name
the father
and mother (having bathed themselves and the child) should put on new clothes, that the father should cook a mess of food in the sutikagni, that he is to offer oblations to the tithi of the boy's birth and to three constellations with their presiding deities, that he is to place in the middle the oblation to the naksatra of birth and he should make two other oblations to fire with two mantras and then the 10th oblation is made to Soma with Rg. I. 91. 7. The father pronounces aloud the child's
name and
causes the brahmanas to say auspicious words,

gr.
The Asv.
does not describe Namakarana.
Many
of
the other grhyasutras prescribe that the sutikagni is to be removed and the homa for namakarana is to be performed in
Aupasana ( grhya ) fire. The BhSradvaja gr. prescribes the repetition of the Jaya, Abhyatana and Rastrabhrt mantras and the offering of eight oblations of ghrta with the eight * raantras may Dhatr bestow on us wealth ( Ap. P. II. 11. Iff).
the
'
578
The Hir.
*
gr.
II. 4.
similar rules.
6-14, S. B. E. vol. 30 pp. 214-215 ) contains It prescribes twelve oblations with the mantras
'
on us wealth and gives two names ( a secret naskatra name and an ordinary name ) to the boy. The twelve oblations are as follows four to Dhatr, four to Anumati, two to Raka, two to Sinlvall. According to some a
may
Dhafcr bestow
thirteenth oblation to
Kuhu was
to be offered,
to set out.
works state many details which it is unnecessary The mother with her child on her lap sits to the Some late writers prescribe that the fathei right of the father. is to give a secret name to the boy and should spread huskec
The
later
577.
The
JT^nTOTiHT
IV. gives several Vffrtikaa on PSnini
1.
147 and
the KSdikS remarks
would moan wrf: 3^:

578.
e.
whose father was unknown

I-
).
g. vTRsrsr S-
26
'
^r^rt ^rm *rarsft

I .
3*Tf cft^nifr
(
*TT?TT
^pfTg
5ft
TT^r?^
4.
4.
The Jay as are certain mantras

1
*T.
13 in all
which are
Tai. S.
f%f^W- OT*P)i
'
in ^. H. III. 4. 5.
4.
7.
1.
( vide anT. ^'nrTTTS are 18 viz. 1; the Ua^trabhrts are 22
III.
TTS
I-
10.
'
( s
in ^.
3 HI.
Other sutras specify other mantras from their
respective
254
Oh.
VI
pen
grains of rice in a vessel of bronze, write thereon with a golden * fche words salutations to Sri Ganapati and then write four names of the boy, viz, kuladevata nama ( such as Yogesvarl*
bhakta
),
then
masanama
vide note 566 above), a vyavaharika^
nama, a naksatranama.
57d
sutra works add a detail immediately after NamaFor example, Asv. gr. ( I. 15. 11 ) says when a father returns from a journey he holds in his hands his son's head, mutters the verse 'angad angad &c.' and thrice smells (kisses) his son on the head. Ap. gr. 15. 12 58 prescribes that on returning from a journey the father should address his son ( abhimantrana ) with the verse angad/ should smell the child on the head with the verse be thou an axe and should mutter in his right ear five mantras. These rules have a very ancient origin. The Kausltaki Br. Up. II. 11 says that on returning from a journey the father touches the head of a son with the verse angad-angad &c.' and takes the name of the boy and also repeats the verse asma bhava In the case of the girl there is no &c. smelling of the head nor muttering in the ear, but only address ( with a prose formula ). This no doubt indicates that greater value was attached to a son than to a daughter, but it also shows that the daughter was not altogether neglected.
Some
karana.
'
'
'
Karnavedha the child ). ( piercing the lobes of the ears of In modern times this is generally done on the 12th day after In the Baud. gr. sesa-sutra ( 1. 12 ) karnavedha is presbirth. cribed in the 7th or 8fch month, while Brhaspati quoted in Sarhskaraprakasa ( p. 258 ) says that it may be performed on the 10th,
:
12th or 16th
birth.
581
The Sm.
day from birth or in the 7th or 10th month from C. has a brief note on karnavedha. The grhyafirst
parisista says that the father sits facing the east in the of the day and first addresses the right ear of fche boy
'
'
half
89.
with the
I.
mantra Oh gods, may we hear bliss with our ears ( Rg. 8 ) and then also the left ear. If the boy cries honey is
579.
to be
The
p.
CT5)?*r
in
ii+icnt w i is
'
861.
580.
For
is
3JT*T. *T. TT. ( II.
&J{f(<jîoH'vreffr 14. 3 ) the reading is
and for
3T$HT vnr vide
note 537 above.

II. 14.
In
a
ifcff
^ ^Himifj.
The formula for

<TT.
daughter
581.
fl-JwrifWms H^cfri^r^ 5fh STC^t SKTU
( 3TTT. *T.
10).
The flfrhKi^Hmwi (p. 873) quotes from

p.
ir^TT??r the
verse
379
Ch.
VI
Satiiskaras-Karyavedha
after the rite
255
In modern
given to him
brahmanas are
to be fed.
times, generally a goldsmith is called who pierces the lower lobes of the ears with a pointed golden wire and turns it into
a ring round the lobes.

pierced
first.
In the case of girls the
left
ear is
'
That ears of boys were pierced even in ancient 582 He times is suggested by a mantra quoted in the Nirukta. the ear with without teacher who the ( ) causing truth, pierces
pain and yet bestowing ambrosia, should be regarded as one's father and mother '.
Niskramana: (Taking the child out of the house in the open ). This is a minor rite. Par. gr. I. 17 gives the briefest description. Vide also Gobhila II. 8. 1-7 ( S. B. E. vol. 30 pp. 56-57 ), Khadira II. 3. 1-5 ( S. B. E. vol. 29.p. 396), Baud. gr. II.2, Manava gr. 1. 19582 This was done according to most 1-6, Kathaka gr. 37-3S.
authorities in the 4th month after birth. Apararka (p. 28) quotes a purana that the going out of the house may be done on the 12th day or in the 4th month. According to Par. gr. the father makes the child 584 look at the sun pronouncing the verse that
'
eye'
to
(Vaj. S. 36. 24). The Manavagrhya prescribes that the father cooks a mess of food in milk and offers oblations thereof
the
sun with the verses

'
the brilliant sun has risen in

is
the east
'
Mait.
f
S.
4. 14.
),
'he
the haritsa sitting in pure
12=Tai. S. I. 8. 15. 2 ), whenever him ( Rg. X. 88. 11 ) and then he worships the sun with the verse that Jatavedas ( Rg. I. 50. 1, ifc occurs in all Samhitas ) and then he should present the child turning its face towards the sun with the verse salutation to thee, Oh divine ( sun ) who hast hundreds of rays and who dispellest darkness, remove the misfortune of my lot and endow me with blessings'; then brahmanas are to be fed and the fee is to be a bull. Baud.
worlds' (Rg. IV. 40.
'
5= Mait.
S. II. 6.
'
'
582.
^^^
nHrh
II.
*r
aTTgon^cHfa <h<j|:^ ijMW^d

u.
JW^-H
Hr
^ ftT^HlPTTf
;
This verse also occurs in Vas.
II. 10 and Visnu Dh. S. 30. 47 vide srTFcnrf 108. 22-23 where there is a II. 144. very similar verse ( *raTf ofTc*ri%$*T ) and irg These two chapters of the ^r^T^T seem to bo later additions. 583. G The com. wigim^ remarks
*
584.
^3f jrrftr
f^rjrfot^r
^54T^rm
crarftfw
MKWI
1. 17.
The
verse
5.r. 4.
is
i .
Vido Tal-
42 for this benediction*
256
gr. (
History of Dharmaiasfra
Ch,
VI
IL 2
speaks of candradarSana.
prescribes a hotna with eight oblations. Gobhila It says that on the 3rd tithi of the
third bright fortnight after birth, the father bathes the child in the morning, worships in the evening the moon with folded hands, then the mother, having dressed the child, hands it with
its
herself passes behind the
face to the north from the south to north to the father and back of the father and stands to the
'
*
north of him, who worships with the three verses 58S Oh thou whose hair is well parted, thy heart ( Mantrabrahmana I. 5, 10-12 ), then the father hands back the son to the mother with
the words
'
that this son
may
not
come
to
harm and be
torn
from his mother'.
in the following bright fortnights, the father filling his joined hands with water and turning his face towards the moon, lets the water flow out of his joined hands
Then
once with the Yajus what 5. 13 ) and twice silently.

the
'
is
( Mantrabrahmana I. The Khadiragrhya has practically
the
moon
'
same
rules, except that
it
will be noted that both omit the
does not speak of two times. It sight of the sun, but only
mention the seeing of the moon, Laghu-Asval&yana VII. 1-3 speaks of the performance of abhyudayika sraddha, then reciting the sukta from 'svasti no mimltam' ( Rg. V. 51. 11 ) and asu sisanah ( Rg. X. 103. 1 ), showing the boy to the sun in the courtyard of one's father-in-law or in that of another and
' '
then repeating the verse

0.
'
'
that eye
Vaj. S. 36. 24
).
The Sm.
remarks that those in whose sakha this rite is not mentioned need not perform it. The Samskarapraka&a pp. 250-256 and Samskararatnamala pp. 886-888 give an extensive description and make of this sarhskara a matter of great pomp, festivity and rejoicing. Yam a 586 quoted in Sam. Pr. says that seeing the sun and seeing the moon should be done respectively in the 3rd and 4th months from birth.
( making the child eat cooked food for the Annapraiana Vide Asv. gr. 1. 16. 1-6 (S. B. E. vol. 29 p. 183), San. time).
:
first
gr.
I.
27
283
S.
B. E. vol. 29 p. 54
),
Ap.
gr. 16.
1-2
S. B.
E. vol.
30, p.
II. 5.
), Par. gr. I. 19 ( S. B. E. vol. 29, pp. 299-300), Hir. gr. 1-3 ( S. B. E. vol. 30, p. 216 ), Kathaka gr. 39, 1-2, Bhar.
gr. I. 27,
Manava
gr.
gr. I. 20.
1-6, Vaik. III. 22.
Khadira
omit this saihskara.
The Gobhila and Most smrtis prescribe the 6th

TT. II. 13. 4.
585. 586.
The verse *r%

*n*:
i
^giftiT
^4 occurs in a^T-
*?.
crcrcgtfft
3u
P, 250.
jfcMWMfr
Ch.
VI
Saihskaras-Annaprafana
birth as the time for this
;
257
month from
gr.
says
it
may
it
Apararka says
samskara but Manava be the 5th or 6th while Sankha quoted by should be performed at the end of a year or at
;
.
The Kathaka gr. the end of six months, according to some 587 enjoins the sixth month from birth or the time when the child
first strikes teeth.
The procedure is very brief in all except San. and Par. San. says that the father should prepare food of goat's flesh, or flesh of partridge, or of fish or boiled rice, if he is
lustre,
desirous of nourishment, holy

respectively
swiftness or splendour
and mix one
of
them with curds, honey and ghee
and should give it to the child to eat with the reciting of the Mahavyahrtis ( bhuh, bhuvah, svah ). Then the father is to 588 offer oblations to fire with four verses Annapafee Rg. IV. 12. 4-5 and him, Oh Agni, lead to long life and splendour &c '. The father recites over the child the verse Rg. IX. 66. 19 and then sets down the child on northward pointed kusa grass with IJg. I. 22. 15. The mother is to eat the remnant of the food thus prepared. Av. has almost the same rules as to food
*
'
but prescribes only ona versa Annapata '. Ap. prescribes feeding of brahmanas, making them give gr. benedictions to the child and thon making the child eat only once amess of curds, honey, ghee and boiled rice mixed together,
omitting fish
589
)
'
with the recitation of a mantra joined to the three vyahrtis singly and collectively and says that according to some the flesh of partridge may also be added. Bhar. says that the method of making a child eat is the same as in Medhajanana and is Par. gr. ( I. 19 ) prescribes the cooking silent about the food. of sthallpaka and offering the two ajyabhagas and then two
offerings of ghee with the mantras 'the gods generated goddess of speech &c ( Rg, VIII. 100. 11 ) and the verse
'
590
'
the
may
vigour to-day produce for us gifts &c ( Vaj. S. and Vaik. are entirely silent about
18,
33
).
Manava,
flesh.
Kanaka
587.
^^WSRT^fsNrctf* f&$
aren-Jts'sr^r
*ft
5Tf. 1i
by
3mr& p.
28.
588.
%fFnft***r gfi&ro'-
si
srîcrrf
cirRr 373?
589.
-
nj<rt
WWaffai
a*te<rt
*rf srrsnmfr
firmer
i
am
i
?^
s^rt vft
namo
ixi
i&r: ^rrrf
is to
îq-.
IT.
in. II. 14.
11-14. After
590.
s^n
tbo child's
the yooative
<nfpft
be uttered.
i
%^f ^r^rsnr^pcf %*TIR\ ff ^^TT:
^T^T
Hf
D. 33
258
Oh.
VI
591 and the other two prescribes the cooking of all havisya food works prescribe food cooked in milk.
It
sarhskara
will be seen from the above that the principal part of the Some writers add is making the child taste food.
The Sarhskarahoma, feeding of brahmanas, and benedictions. prakasa ( pp. 267-279 ) and Samskararatnamala ( pp. 891-895 ) have very detailed notes on this sarhskara. One interesting
matter quoted by Apararka
(
p.
28
from Markandeya
is
that
on
the day of this ceremony, in front of the gods worshipped in the house, tools and utensils required in various arts and crafts, weapons and sastras should be spread about and the child
should be allowed to crawl

seizes at first should be noted
is
among them and what

and
it
the child
should be deemed that he
destined to follow that profession for his livelihood

first
which
is
represented by the thing
touched by him.
:
In some of the sutras proviVarsavardhana or abdapurti is made for some ceremonies every month on the day of the birth of the child for one year and on every anniversary of the day of birth throughout life. For example, Gobhila gr.
sion
every month of the boy's birth for one year on the parva days of the year he should sacrifice to Agni and Indra, to Heaven and Earth and to the Visve devas. Having sacrificed to these deities he should sacrifice to the tithi and
(
II. 8.
19-20
says
or
naksatra \ 5
*2
The San.
l
gr.
I.
25.
10-11
S. B.
E. vol. 29,
p.
52
similarly says having sacrificed in the same way every month on the tithi of the child 's birth, he sacrifices when one year has
'
domestic fire '. Baud. gr. III. 7 59 * prescribes an offering of cooked rice for life ( ayusyacaru ) every year, every six months, every four months, every season or every month on the nakaatra of birth Ka^haka 12 and 14 ) prescribes a homa every month after ( 36. gr.
expired in the
(
ordinary
'.
namakarana
or jatakarma
591.
for a year in the same way as in namakarana and at the end of the year an offering of the
P.
irc^Tc^T^C
400 quotes a vorse

n
>
and quotes
592.
>
EJpTlT^T *TTT*T *TT?H
^<c^K
n.
8.
19-20.
Tho
^j are the amSv&syas

593.
sngdiss^Tî^M-ci^:
^T
5FBP^T%
fifc%T
^.
5J,
III. 7. 1-2.
Ch.
VI
Safiiskaras-Varsnvardhana
259
flesh of a goat and sheep to Agni and Dhanvantari and feeding the brahmanas wifch food mixed with plenty of ghee. Vaik. III. 20-21 speaks at great length of the ceremony called 4 Varsavardhana ( increase of the years of a person ) to be
'
performed on the anniversary of the birfch-day every year and lays down that in this rite the deity of the nakgatra on which a child is born is the principal one, that oblations of ghee are to be offered to that deity and naksatra and then to the other presiding deities of the naksatras and to the naksatras themselves, then an oblation with the vyahrti ( bhuh svaha ), then It describes in detail how different cereoffering^ to Dhata. monies are to be performed up to Upanayana, then up to finishing of Veda study, how ceremonies are to be performed on tho anniversary day of one's marriage, on the naksatra on which a person performed solemn sacrifices like Agnistoma and that if he thus lives till 80 years and 8 months he becomes one who has seen a thousand (full) moons and is called 'brahma6arlra ', in celebration of which several ceremonies are prescribed ( which for want of space are not set out here ). In connection with the anniversary of the marriage day, 594 Vaik. specially prescribes that whatever ceremonies women direct as done traditionally should be performed. Apararka (p. 29 )
quotes verses of Markandeya to the effect that all should every year on the day of birth celebrate a festival ( mahotsava )
in
which one should honour and worship one's
elders,
Agni,
gods, Prajapati, the pitrs, one's naksatra of birth and brahmanas. The Krtyaratnakara ( p. 540 ), the Nityacarapaddhati ( pp.
621-624) quote the same verses (as Apararka does) and add that on that day one should worship Markandeya ( who is 595 The believed to be immortal ) and the seven other drajtvins. Nityacarapaddhati ( p. 621 ) quotes a verse that in the case of kings the anniversary of the day on which they were crowned should be celebrated. The Nirnayasindhu, the Samskaraprakasa 281-294 gives the most elaborate treatment ) call ( which in pp.
594. ^f|? ferret vnrra *m%% itwfa ^rit m%rcc ^fssnr snf: TrlmjHw foeraT* cT*Tc5ftfn?T f^TW HI. 21. snq-. er. ^. II. 1.^1. 7^ also speaks of ^?nft: pH ÎxT^fftUqrfT^ tho anniversary of the day of marriage
*
'
'
595.
fatftaT:
sftig'qferer
The ft^r^TCTSfft has these verses î: Tt^juJT^r *n& ftrsftfcf: *T&n^: CT>ftri *Tt''i*m*nOTî *mf <TJ'*nPlfW3nrt '. The flnfaftr*3 quotes some verses from
i
the ^rf%*mirffi about flufofer.
260
'
Ch.
VI
abdapurti '. The Samskararatanamala contains a very extensive discourse on this rite ( pp, 877-886 ) and calls this festival ayurvardhapana '. The Nirnayasindhu and the
this festival
'
Sarhskararatnamala
set
out the verses that are addressed to
Markandeya and others. In modern times women do celebrate every month the birthday of a child and the first anniversary of birth, They make the child cling to the principal house-post or
to the post
used for churning out butter from the pail of curds
and water.
Caula or Cudakarma or Cudakarana cutting of ( the first This samskara is mentioned by ). every writer. Cuda means the lock or tuft of hair' kept on the head when the remaining part is shaved ( i. e. the sikha ); so
:
the hair on the cbild'd head

'
'
cudakarma
hair
is
*
or
(
'
cudakarana means that

first
'
rite
in
which a lock
*
of
'
kept
for the
596
'
from
cuda
'
a lock of hair
time after birth ). We get cauda meaning a rite the purpose of which is keeping and da and la often interchange places. So
* ' *
'
we
get
cauda
'
'
or
caula
'
also as the
name
of the ceremony.
in the
),
third year
According fco from

II. 35,
many
birth.
597
writers caula
gr.
was performed
4), Par.
gr.
Baud.
(II.
(II. 1
Vaik. III. 23 say that it may be performed in the 1st or 3rd year; Asv. gr. and Varaha gr. say it may be performed in the 3rd year or in the year in which it is the custom
of the family to perform it. Par. also refers to family usage. Yaj. specifies no year, but mentions only family usage. Yama quoted by Apararka (p. 29 ) allowed it in the first, 2nd or 3rd
Manu
while Sankha-Likhita allowed it in the 3rd or 5th Apararka p. 29 ), Sad-guru-sisya quoted in the Samskaraprakasa ( p. 296 ) and Narayana ( on Asv. gr. I. 17. 1 ) say that some performed it at the time of upanayana.
year,
596.
p. 295.
it
4
^JIT spTreremq ^Wfrs&qf^-^ SHÎ jtf*I[3

*
as
'
and
va
'
or
<Ja
The *TfnTT<T (vol. II. p. 362 on qr. V. 1. 97 ) explains ^T^ a nd we know from works on poetics that is no distinction between *ba' fHrj[ (there and la in Yatnaka, paronomasia and citrakarya ).
'
.&$ v. gr. I. 17. 1-18 ( S. B. B. 29 pp. 184-186 ), p. gr. 16. 3-11 (S. B. E. vol. 30 pp. 283-84 ), Gobhila II. 9. 1-29 ( S. B. E. 30 pp. CO-63), Hir. gr. II. 6. 1-15 (3. B. E. 30 pp. 216-218), Kathaka gr. 40, Khsdira II. 3.16-33 (S. B. E. 29 pp. 597-599), Par. 1 II. (S. B. B. 29 pp. 301-303),
597.
Vide
&5n. (I. 28. S. B. E. 29. pp. 55-57), Baud. 1-12, Yaik. III. 23 for a treatment of this
gr. II. 4,
Manavn
gr.
I. 21.
topic.
Oh.
VI
Samskaras-Caula
261
Whether such a ceremony was performed in the Vedic ages cannot be ascertained with certainty. Bhar. gr. I. 28 expressly 598 refers to the Vedic verse ( Rg IV. 75. 17 or Tai. S. IV. 6. 4. 5 ) ' as indicative of the practice of Caula in Vedic times where arrows fall together like boys having many tufts of hair '. Manu II. 35 also has in view this Vedic verse.
The principal act in this ceremony is the cutting of the hair of the child. The other subsidiary matters are the performance of homa, feeding of brahmanas, receiving of their benedictions
and giving of daksina, the disposal of cut hair in such a that no one can find them.
way
The ceremony is to be performed on an auspicious day as set out in note 494 above. Ap. gr. 16. 3 says ifc should be per-
when the moon is in conjunction with Punarvasu naksatra, while Manava gr. says thafc ifc should not be done on the 9fch til hi of a month. Later works like the Samskaraprakasa
(
formed
pp.
299-315
give very
intricate rules about the
auspicious
times, which rules are passed over here. The most exhaustive treatment of this ceremony in the sufcra works is to be found in
Asv., Gobhila,
Varaha
and Par.
II. 1.
The materials required in

follows
:
this
ceremony are stated as
(1)
To
is
tho north of the fire are placed four vessels
each of which
and sesame respectively

6-7
)
separately filled with rice, barley, masa beans ( Asv. gr. 1. 17. 2 ), but Gobhila (II. 9.
and San. say

;
says that they are to be placed to the east and Gobhila that these are to be given to the barber at the end
of the rite (2) to the west of the fire the mother with the boy on her lap is to be seated and two vessels one filled with the dung of a bull and the other with iaml leaves are to be also placed to the west ( Gobhila II. 9. 5 and Khadira II. 3. 18 place the dung to the north of the fire and Khaiira says that she sits to the north ) (3) to the right of the mother the father sits 599 of kua grass or the brahmS priest ( if holding 21 bunches there be any) may hold them (4) warm and cold water or only warm water (5) an ordinary razor or one made of Udumbara wood ( according to Khadira II. 3. 17 and Gobhila II. 9. 4 ) (6) a
; ;
598.
awFEî
sfacsrrem
^4 fpn%
*rofq
WIT^T
*r
%rnre
28.
^ TO
i
21 bunches arc required because he cuts off the hair four times 599. on the right side and three times on the left side and each time three ku&i bunches are required.
262
Ch.
VI
According to Gobhila and mirror (Gobhila and Khadira). Khadira the barber, hot water, mirror, razor and bunches of kusa grass are to the south of the fire and bull's dung and a
mess of
loha
(
Asv., Par.,
mixed with sesame are to the north of the fire. Kathaka and Manava say that the razor is to be of which the commentator Narayana explains as coppar ).
rice
After
homa
is
performed, the principal matter (of cutting the
hair)is to be begun. According to

*
Gobhilaand Khadira the
father,
having contemplated up:m Savitr, looks at the barber with the mantra here comes Savitr' ( Mantra-br. I. 6. 1 ) and contemplating on Vayu looks at the warm water with the mantra with warm water, Oh Vayu, come hither ( Mantra-Br. I. 6. 2 ). The father then mixes the hot and cold water and may put, in a part of the water, butter or drops of curds and apply the water to
* '
moisten three times the boy's head with the mantra may Aditi cut thy hair may the waters moisten ( thy hair ) for vigour
;
'
'.
Then 600 on the

'
right portion of the boy's hair the father puts three kusa bunches with the points towards the boy with the formula herb, protect him ( Tai. S. L 2. 1. 1 ). With the
'
words Axe, do not harm him ( Tai. S. I. 2.1.1) he presses a copper razor ( on the kusa blades ). The hair is cut with the mantra with that razor with which Savifcr, the wise, cut ( the hair > of king Soma and of Varuna, cut now his (the boy's hair), Oh brahmanas, so that he may be endowed with long life and 601 the cut Each time the hair is cut, he gives ( reach ) old age saml with east the towards turned with ends their together hair leaves to the mother, who puts them down on the bull dung. with what Cutting is done a second time with the mantra Dhata shaved ( the head ) of Brhaspati, Agni and Indra for the
'
*
'
'.
'
600. The several sutras generally cite different mantras at the time of the performance of the several acts. It 13 not possible for want of the mantras used in the space to set out all these different verses. Only are cited in order to convoy some idea of the rite as it was Aa>.
gr.
practised in ancient times.
cutting of the* hair.
himself performed the appears that originally the father Some of the grhya sutras liko those of Baud, and Hence it appears SSix. nowhere mention the barber in this ceremony. that later on the father performed only the homa and repeated the head, 'ifa mantras, while a barber was employed to shave the boy's
601.
It
snjsrfitsiw
Ch.
VI
Samkaras-Caula
263
sake of their long life, with that I shave thy ( head ) for the sake of long life, fame and happiness '. The cutting is done a with what he may after nighfc ( is third time with the mantra and with that I shave thy (head) sun the see again, again ) past
'
for the sake of long life,
fame and happiness

all the three
'.
The cutting
is
done for the fourth time with
mantras together.
'
hair is cut three times on the left side similarly. The edge of the razor is then wiped off with the mantra when thou shavest as a shaver the hair ( of the boy ) with the razor that wounds and is well-shaped purify his head, but do not deprive him of life '. Then he gives orders to the barber doing with lukewarm water what has to be done with water, arrange his hair ( well ) without causing him ( the boy ) any wound '. Let
Then the
him have the hair of the boy arranged according to the custom of the family. The rite only ( without the mantras ) is performed for a
608
girl.
According
of a bull
is
to several sutras, the cut hair placed in the
dung
buried in a
cow
sfcablu
603
or is
thrown in a pond or in
the vicinity of water ( Par., Bhar. ) or is buried at the root of the TJdumbara tree ( Bhar. ) or in a bunch of darbha grass ( Baud,, Bhar., Gobhila) or in the forest (Gobhila). The Manava gr.
prescribes that as the hair fall
down when
cut they are gathered
by some friendly person. The Kathaka gr. and Manava gr. say that the barber gets a sesame cake and a fine piece of cloth, while Vaik. says food is given to him. A bath for the boy is expressly prescribed by Baud, and some others.
a great divergence of views about the number of on the head and the portion of the head where they are to be left. Baud. gr. says that one or three or five 604 looks may be left on the head or according to family usage and he further says that some sages say that the locks should
There
is
locks of hair to be left
All tbe mantras in AsY gr. occur also in Manava gr., some 602. occur in Baud., Bhffr., PSr., and others. The mantras in A^v. viz grrofa ir^cfr are &r*. JT. <ir. II. 1. 1, 3-5 ^*r, ^nr, ^rm<fr ^r *TT<TT, and 7 with slight variations. The verse ^c^for JrlnffiT is. almost the
^^
samo
as
3W^ VIII.
make
it
5
2.
17.
and &iv. appears to have adapted
it
pur-
posely to
603,
.
suit the caula.

i
am* iftOTTTO tfte s^7F<r v<[mr$ q$*s*$ ^T ft^rcft

1^5 T%TR
II-
I.
28; 3
fr&
^^ ^*1^
urcgrar
II.
3T
<TR.
*J.
604.
.
264
Oh.
VI
be as many as the pravaras invoked by the father. 605 A6v. gr., andPar. gr.say that looks may be kept according to family usage. says that the locks may in number follow the pravara may be kept according to family usage. Gobhila and Khadirasay that the locks should be arranged according to
Ap.
gr,
or they
gotra the number of pravaras of the gotra or some rule such as the Kathaka gives is not clear. The Kathaka gr. says that the
gotra and
family usage. Whether they
mean by
'
'
Vasisthas keep a lock on the right, that persons of Atri and Kasyapa gotra ( or pravara ) keep locks both on the right and the left, that the Bhrgus shaves the entire head, that the Angiras
gotra keeps five looks or only a line of hair, while persons of other gotras ( like Agastya, Visvamitra &c. ) keep a 6ikha ( without any particular number of locks ) simply because it is
an auspicious sign or one
may
806 follow the usage of one's
807 family. Vaik. says that the locks may be one, two, three, 608 five or seven according to the pravaras. VII. 33. 1 Rgveda refers to the fact that Vasisthas had a lock of hair on the right
and so the rule of the Kanaka has a very hoary Up to modern times one of the characteriall Hindus was the sikha ( the top-knot ). A verse of Devala says that whatever religious act a man does without the yajnopavlta or without sikha is as good as undone and Harlta rules that a person who cuts off his sikha through hate or ignorance or foolishness becomes pure only after
side of the head
antiquity behind it. stic outward signs of
605.
The pravaraa
or rîs of the seveial gotras arc generally throe
but some gotras have one, two or five pravaras^ but never four.
Vide
below under marriage for pravara.

606.
^jfj 40. 2-8.

I. p. 23.
These
sfltras
are quoted
by smre?
]?
29 and by the
says
that
The
^m^
in explaining the words

size
u^rS
some
keep
tf.
a îkhs of the
form and
of the leaf of the Vata tree.
The
n.
p. 316 arranges the sutras differently
and remarks
607.
III. 23.
608.
fonrah
JTT
y^r
^f.
VII. 33.
1.
Oh.
VI
Scuhakaras-Caula
609
265
In the Mudraraksasa (1.8) performing the taptakrcchra penance. there is a reference to the sikha of Canakya having been kept
when he was angered by the Nandas. Sahara (on Jaimini I. 3. 2) remarks that the sikha (its position and locks) is a sign to indicate the gotra and quotes Rg, VI. 75. 17 ( yatra banah. &c. cited above in note 598 ). Vasistha ( II. 21 ) prescribes that members of all varnas ( including fche 6udra ) should
untied
arrange their hair according to the fixed usage (of their family) or should shave the whole head except the 6ikha. A Vedic 610 For is the head that has no 6ikh3 on it is unholy '. passage rules about the sikha of students vide later on under upanayana. During recent times men, particularly those receiving English education in towns and cities, are forsaking the ancient practice of keeping a sikha and follow the western method of allowing
*
the hair to
grow on the whole head. In modern times the rite of cudakarana generally takes
place
if at all on the day of Upanayana. Asv. gr. ( I. 17. 18 ) expressly says that the ceremony of cudakarana was to be performed for girls also, but no Vedic mantras were to be repeated. Manu ( II. 66 ) says that all the ceremonies from jatakarma to caula must be performed at the proper times for girls also in order to purify their bodies but without mantras and Yaj. ( I. 13 ) is to the same effect. Even such late writers as Mitramisra say that the caula of girls may
hair
be performed according to fche usage of fche family and that their may be entirely shaved or a 6ikha may be kept or there 811 should be no shaving at all.
children are shaved once,
In some castes even in modern times girls when mere it being supposed that the first hair are impure. The grhya sutras and dharmasutras are Vidyarambha entirely silent as to what was done for the child's education
:
609.
*
%^c?
finsi
n
^rf
is
n*3naror:
îfra,
both quoted in
*nTm*ran$T
P.
316.
verses 18-19
(Anand. Ed. ) are very similar to the 2nd verse. The first 4 and is quoted as ijij's in ^jf^. I. p. 32. iftftra^llr I. 610. 3THi# 3T tjcriÛ^ ?3"i?k^*i quoted by the commentators on
I
^0. 7.
611.
.
317
%&$ fftmTi9
' 1
vfhg^ 3
P. 34
266
Oh.
VI
between the third year when usually caul a was performed and
the 8th year ( from conception ) when the upanayana usually took place ( in the case of brahmanas ). They state that rarely
upanayana was performed even in the 5th year ( as will be Some faint light is thrown on this matter shown hereafter 618 which says that the prince by the Arthasastra of Kauîlya,
).
performance of caula is to engage in the study of the alphabet and of arithmetic, and after his upanayana he is to study the Vedas, anviksiki ( metaphysics ), varla ( agriculture and the science of wealth ) and dandaniti (the art of government)
after the
up
the 16th year when the godana ceremony is to be Kalidasa performed and after which year he may marry.
till
also (in Raghuvamsa III. 28) says that prince Aja first mastered the alphabet and then entered into the ocean of ( Sanskrit ) literBana has 61S probably the Arthasastra in view when he ature.
makes prince Candraplda enter the temple of learning ( vidyamandira ) at 6 and remain there till he became sixteen and he
(
like
Milton in his
letter to Hartlile
tells
us
how
extensive the
ideal curriculum of studies in arts
and sciences for the prince was thought to be. In the Uttararamacarita ( Act II ) it is said that Kusa and Lava were taught vidyas other than the Veda after their caula and before upanayana.
It appears that at least from the early centuries of the Christian era, a ceremony called Vidyarambha ( commencement
of learning the alphabet
was
and the Sm. C. (I. p

612.
'gri^HtfehiT
26) cite verses

feff
^fcTrnt
celebrated. Apararka (pp. 30-31) from the Markandeya-purana
aFgsrrerpr:
I. 5.
^Tg^fcf f^frwww 4i ar^r^ ^rftesrrs'q^

i i
*fri$r3fir
anffr
arts
Vide <ft!<jisffr para 69 for fisrrai^T and para 71 for the various and sciences
613.
*
vide
para 74 about 6 and 16 years.

614.
H. p. 321 )
^
says
t
*
3?rmi
pp. 30, 31.
wumumvil 3W*
The
%fc
\
f^wiNTT
(quoted in
ft.
IP,
Oh.
VI
Sathskaras-Vidyarambha
:
2<>7
about vidyarambha as follows in the fifth year of the child on some day from the 12th of the bright half of Kartika to
1st, 6th, 8th,
the llth of the bright half of Asadha, but excluding the 15th tithi or rikta fcithis '( i. e. 4th, 9th and 14th )
and Saturday and Tuesday, the ceremony of beginning to learn should be performed. Having worshipped Hari ( Visnu ), Laksml, SarasvatI, the sutra writers of one's sakha and the lore
peculiar to one's family, one should offer in the fire oblations of clarified butter to the above mentioned deities and should hon-
our brahmanas by the payment of daksina. The teacher should facing the east and the boy should face the West and the teacher should begin to teach the first lesson to the boy who should receive the benedictions of brahmanas. Thereafter
sit
teaching should be stopped on the days of anadhyaya will be specified later on ).
which
The Sarhskara-prakasa ( pp. 321-325 ) and Samskararatnamala (pp. 904-907 ) have an extensivo note, a considerable part of which is devoted to astrological matters. The Samskaraprakasa quotes passages from Visvamitra, Devala and other sages and works that vidy&rambha is performed in the 5th year or in any case before upanayana. It also quotes a verse from Nrsimha that SarasvatI and Ganapati should be worshipped and then the teacher should be honoured. The modern practice is to begin learning the alphabet on an auspicious day, generally the 10th of the bright half of Asvina, SarasvatI and Ganapati are worshipped, the teacher is honoured and the boy is asked to repeat the words *om namah siddham' and to write them on a slate and
*
then he
is
taught the letters

615
'
',
&c.) of the alphabet.
The
Samskararatnamala calls this ceremony Aksarasvlkara (appropriately enough ) and among other texts cites a long prose passage from Garga quoted in the Parijata and prescribes a homa also with ajyahutis to SarasvatI, Hari, Laksml, Vighnesia ( Ganapati ), sutrakaras and one's vidya.
615.
<KT
p. 906,
CHAPTER
*
VII
UPANAYANA
This word literally means leading or taking near But ' the important question is near what ? It appears that it ' originally meant taking near the acarya ( for instruction ) it may have also meant 'introducing the' novice to the stage of student-hood Some of the grhyasutras bring out this sense
. '
'.
618 clearly e. g. the Hir. gr. I. 5. 2 says "The teacher then makes ' the boy utter I have come unto brahmacarya. Lead me near me into it ). Let me be a student, impelled by the ( initiate
god Savitr' ". The Manava and Kathaka gr. ( 41. 1 ) also use the word upayana for upanayana and Adityadarsana on Kathaka gr. ( 41. 1 ) says that upanaya, upanayana, maunjlbandhana, batukarana, vratabandha are synonyms. A few words about the origin and development of this most important samskara would not be out; of place here. Comparison with the ancient Zoroastrian scriptures ( vide S. B. E. vol. V. pp. 285-290 about the sacred girdle and shirt ) and the
modern practices among the Parsis of India tend to show that Upanayana goes back to an Indo-Iranian origin. But that
is outside the scope of this work. Confining ourselves to Indian Literature, we find that already in the Rg. X. 109. 5 the word brahmacarl occurs oh gods he ( Brhaspati ), all pervading one, moves as a brahmacarl pervading all (sacrifices) he is only one part of the gods ( i. e. of sacrifices ) Brhaspati secured by that ( i. e. by his service to the gods ) a wife (me who
subject
'
am named
616.
: I
Juhu, who was
formerly
taken by Soma
617
*.
The
ftr*r. V.
vol. 30 p.
65
).
5T3TOI XI. 5. 4.
I.
vol. 30 p. 150) vido irtftraw II. 10. 21 ( S. B. E. The phrases Wfjr^Prnrnst and wjr^rnfcrrR occur in the 1 vide zm. *T- <n. II. 3. 26 f(V
I. 5.
i
( S.
B. E.
2
;
<m.
II
14 icmarks
I
cT^J ^T 3f&
'.
Vide mf^rT on f$<uq<$f?HJ.

H ^r'
I. 1. 1.
617.
to
to
Soma
sm^ V. 17. 5. The reference 44'^q^rT/ Every girl was supposed have been under the protection of Soma, Gandharva and Agni before
r
4rart
^t T %^rr:
X. 109.5
recalls
Rg
X. 85. 45
fT7*fr
her marriage with a hunian bridegroom.
Ch. VII
Upanayana
269
word 'upanayana' 618 can be derived and explained in two ways: (1) taking (the boy) near the acarya,(2) that rite by which the boy The first sense appears to have been the is taken to the acarya. original one and when an extensive ritual came to be associated with upanayana the second came to be the sense of the word. Such an ancient work as the Ap. Dh. S. 1. 1. 1. 19 says that upanayana
is
a sarhskara
purificatory
'
rifce )
laid
down by
revelation for
)
him who seeks learning ( i. or this sutra may mean

'.
e. it
accepts the second explanation
imparting the 6ruti ( viz. This would mean that upanayana principally is learning gayatryupadeâ ( the imparting of the sacred Gayatrl mantra ). This appears to be suggested by the Vedic passage quoted above (p. 154 /. n. 356) 'he created the brahmana with Gayatrl, the ksatriya with Trisûbh, the vaisya with Jagati *, and by
Sraufca one should initiate the brahmana with 619 also (in VI. 1.35) propounds the view Gayatrl'. Jaimini that upanayana is a samskara and has a seen result viz. thereby
a samskara brought about by Gayatrl mantra ) to him who seeks

it is
Katyayana
the boy
is
Rg.
III. 8. 4
brought near the teacher for learning Veda. 68 is a verse that clearly indicates that some
of the characteristics of
upanayana described in
There the
( i.
the grhya sutras

(
were well known even then. is praised as a young person

classical
sacrificial post
yupa
e.
rhetoricians
*
there
is
in the language of the later the first kind of the figure
here comes the youth, well dressed and encircled when ( the boy by his mekhala and the post by its rasana ); he, born, attains eminence wise sages, full of devotion to the gods
Atisayokti
in their hearts and entertaining happy thoughts, raise him up '. * Here in un-nayanti we have the same root that we have in upanayana. This mantra is employed in the upanayana by
'
several grhya sutras

618.
e.
g.
Asv.
I.
20.
who employs
it
for
T5T p.
334.
619.
^^n^r rT^fotsc f^Tt^t 3*q-Si%
^fTTTSr VI. 1.
35
620.
^ri ^RTT: TWi5f SKIT?^

^?.
is
T^^T *W1\ WST^TT %T^^T:

boy
is to
be adorned and
c.
^r 5rrF*riT^ ^rnr^R: HI. 8. 4. 3?r*. ^, 1. 19. 8 prescribes that the to wear new clothes
i
and
I.
20. 8
is
g*
270
Oh.
VI
the boy circumambulate ) and Par. II. 2. ( prescribe mantra is to be recited when tying the girdle round th 681 3. 10. 5 we have the f amou boy's waist ). In the Tai. S. VI. the words brahmacarl where debts the three to passage referring and brahmacarya occur. Every brahmana when born i
making
that the
'
'
sacrifice to the
indebted in three debts viz. in brahmacarya to the sages, ii gods and in offspring to the manes ; he indee<
sacrifices
becomes free from debts who has a son, who dwells ( with the teacher ) as a brahmacarl.'
and
wh
i
In the other Vedas and in the Brahmana literature there
ample material to show what the characteristic features o upanayana and brahmacarya were. The whole of Atharvavedi XL 7 ( 26 verses ) is a hymn containing hyperbolical laudatioi
of
the
be cited as a sample The brahmacai very incessantly covering ( the world by his glory ) roams in the tw< worlds the gods have the same thoughts ( of grace and favour Verse 3 sayi about him he fills his teacher by his austerities the teacher leading ( the boy ) near him makes the brahmac&r * like unto a foetus ( here the word upanayamanah occurs
first
brahmacarl 6M verse
Vedio student
and brahmacarya.
*
Th
may
'.
'
Verse 4 states that the heaven and the earth are the samidh ( the fuel stick ) of the brahmacarl and that the brahmacarl by hi mekhala (girdle), by his sarnidh and by his life of hard work fill Verse 6 tells us that the brahmacai the world with austerities. wears the skin of a black antelope and has a long beard; verse II says that the brahmacarl offers samidh into fire ( or if fire is no available) to the sun, to the moon, to the wind or into waters. Thi
thus brings out most of the characteristic features of th brahmacarl and of upanay an a ( viz. deerskin, mekhala, offerinj of samidh, begging and a life of hard work and restraint), Fron the reference to the beard and from the words this man ( ayan purusah)' occurring in the Atharvaveda VIII. 1. 1 and elsewher
'
hymn
it
appears probable that upanayana was performed rather late
in those ancient days than in the

621.
days of
fche
sutras.
1. tf.VI. 3. 10. 5.
622.
i^ft
*r
wgroriirotercft ft^rfr ;TH trfct?$9T: XL 7. 1. OTSTF? cT<mr ifa/Sn
sfr
sw&f
This verse
is
'
explained
ii
^VM^HIH! igi'viiftui $ns?f the idea is found in Ap. Dh. S. I. 1. 1. 16-18 /. ;*.443) and compare sWTOWf. XI. 5. 4. 12
"forsiTflsror II. !
STT^T*?
rWcT:
(
sww XL
7. 3
quoted aboye
p. 18!
7. 6.
Ch.
VH
Upanayana
871
In the Tai. Br. III. 683 10. 11 there is the story of Bharadvaja who remained a brahmacarl for three parts of his life ( i. e. till 75 ) and to whom Indra said that in all that long period of brahmacarya he had mastered only an insignificant portion
(
three handfuls out of three mountains ) of the Vedas, which were endless in extent. The story of Nabhanedistha, son of Manu, who was excluded from ancestral property at a partition made by his brothers, narrated in the Ait. Br. shows 684 that he was a brahmacarl staying with a teacher away from his father's The Sat. Br. XL 5. 4. contains many and almost place. complete details about the life of brahmacarms which bear a
very close similarity to those taught in the grhya sutras,

brief
summary
is set
'
out below.
*
The boy says

'
;
I
'.
have come
unto brahmacarya
teacher asks him
'
'
and what
;
let
is
me
be a brahmacarl
Then the
your name
then the teacher takes
him near ( upanayati ) the teacher takes hold of the boy's hand with the words you are the brahmacarl of Indra Agni is your teacher, I am your teacher, N. N. ( addressing the boy by his name)'. Then he consigns the boy to (the care of) the eledrink water, do work ( in ments, The teacher instructs him
;
*
the teacher's house

(
),
put a fuel stick

(
by day
).'
He
repeats the Savifcrl
Formerly it was repeated a year ( brahmacarl ), then at the end of six months, 24 days, 12 days, 3 days but one should repeat to the brahmani boy the verse at once ( on the very day of upanayana ); the teacher repeats it to him first each pada separately, then the half and then the whole. 685 Being a brahmacarl one should not eat honey.
;
on the fire ), do not sleep mantra sacred to Savitr ). after the boy came as a
(
623.
fri
fipftfiTT
rTTT
^
III. 10. 11.
m.
624.
'
^- WT. 22. 9.
This story occurs also in Tai.

i
S. III. 1. 9. 5.
625.
ar^rîTT'nmc^T^
5. 4. 1-17.
272
'
Ch.
VII
)
The word antevasl

Sat. Br.
lit
one
who dwells near a
teacher
occurs in the Sat. Br. V.
1. 5.
says ' It takes upon himself a sacrificial session of long duration. further says ( XL 3. 3. 3-6 ) that the boy when entering upon studenthood approaches giving a fourth part of himself to Agni, Death, the teacher and himself and that by the offering of
(XL
3. 3. 2)
626
17 and in the Tai. Up. 1. 11. The 'he who takes to brahmacarya indeed
samidh ( to fire ), by begging and by doing work in the teacher's house respectively ho secures freedom from the action of the first three. It also says that after one finishes studenthood and takes the ceremonial bath one should not beg. Vide Gopatha
Br.
( (
ed.
by
Gasfcra
)
2.
and Baud. Dh.

'
S.
I. 2.
53.
The
Sat. Br.
III. 6. 2. 15
further says
teacher, his house
and might be taken away from them
therefore brahmacarins protect the his cattle, with the idea that otherwise he
627
*.
Janamejaya Pariksita asks the hamsas ( who were the Ahavanlya and Daksina fires ) what is holy and the latter reply 'It is brahmacarya (vide Gopatha Br. 2, 5). Gopatha (2. 5)
'
'
'
further says
Vedas
is
the period of studenthood for the mastery of all 48 years, which, being distributed among the Vedas in
four parts, makes brahmacarya last for 12 years, which is the lowest limit; one should practise brahmacarya according to one's 628 bath.' The same work says ability before taking the ceremonial
that the brahmacarl should fetch samidhs every day for worshipping fire and beg and that if he does not do so continuously for
seven days he has to undergo upanayana again
( 2.
and that
the lady of the house should daily give alms to a brahmacarin with the idea that he may not deprive her of her wealth, of merit due to istapurta. It also says that a brahmacarl should
should not roam 689 to a cemetery.

626.
in Baud. Dh.S. 1.2.52.
'
not sleep on a cot, should not engage in singing and dancing, about, should not spit about nor go
$\3lT3 *T fTTj^ra *n w^r^fTH 5ra*ro XI.

1
The words
'anrts^n^r' refer to
3. 3. 2. This is quoted sipping water before
and after bhojana respectively with the words amrtopastaranamasi svahS and amrtSpidhSnam-asi svaha.' Vide tf*35TO^ p. 893. These two w?W8 occur in am. *T. TT. II. 10. 3-4.
*
627. H<wi III. 6. 2. 15.
wgi'yiRur
3TP^F?
*frrnrf^T
*TT^T$ u< 1 ^ ^jsfofoTf *
628. 3*ET^rf<NT5$ S&îgRtf cfgg wwcraHffi CTrera<4!i*4 w i%i ifiTO 2. 5. 629. d-Hiw^^rf^ 5-7,
Ch. VII
Upanaycma
27ff
from the above and from the Upanisad passages immediately below that originally Upanayana was a very simple matter. The would-be student oame to the teacher with a samidh in his hand and told the teacher that he desired to enter the stage of studenthood and begged to be allowed to be a brahmacarl living with the teacher. There were no elaborate ceremonies like those described in the grhya sutras. The word brahmacarya occurs in the Katha. Up. 1. 1.15, Mundaka II. 1. 7, Chandogya VI. 1. 1 and other Upanisads. The Chandogya
It appears
set out
and the Br. Up., probably the oldest among the Upanisads, furnish very valuable information. That some ceremonies were required before a young boy was admitted as a student even in
Upanisadic times
is
clear
from the statement in the Chandogya
V. 11. 7 63 that when Asvapati Kekaya was approached by Pr&clna6ala Aupamanyava and four others who carried fuel in
their
hands (like young students) and who were grown-up he ( Asvapati ) without submithouseholders and theologians,
*
ting them to the rites of Upanayana began the discourse*. When 631 Jabala tells the truth about his gotra to Gautama Satyakama
Haridrumata,
initiate you.
the
latter
You have
says 'fetch, dear boy, fuel, I shall * not swerved from the truth ( Chando-
gya IV. 4. 5 ). Similarly in the Br. Up. VI. 2. 7. it is said that former students ( i. e. students in former ages ) approached ( the teacher for brahmacarya ) only in words ( i. e. without any 63a In the most ancient times further solemn rite or ceremony ).
it is
But
6SSI probable that the father himself always taught his son. it appears that from the times of the Tai. S. and the Brahmanas the student generally went to a guru and stayed in
his house (vide note 624 about Nabhanedis^ha ). Uddalaka Arum who was himself a profound philosopher of brahma asks
his son Svetaketu to enter
63 teacher to learn the Vedas.
upon brahmacarya and sends him to a * The same Upanisad describes the
630.
%
*rftn*
V.
11. 7.
631.
*fo*rmfr ^r
$**t
* mi4*ii sfa srr^T

i
IV.
4. 5.
632.
Tq
Vide f^. T. VI. 2. 1 IS remarks ajtfirg'oi fj *f*?Hf (Qd^^^cTiHi^ STT^n T^pt 3 WTfTT
I
1
T. VI.
2. 7.
'
633.
on
*TT.
STOT
634.
^J^sJsWfa
3TTW
^W
H. P. 35
JJ74
'
Oh, VII
airama of brahmacarya dwelling as a brahmacarl in the house of a teacher, mortifying his body in the house of his teacher end '. Chandogya IV. 4. 4. shows that the teacher till his asked the pupil his gotra ( in order that he may address him by that name ). The same Upanisad shows that the brahmacarl had
to
beg for food
IV.
3.
),
that he
teacher (IV. 10. 1-2) and that he
had to look after the fire of his had to tend his cattle (IV. 4. 5).
is
The age when upanayana was performed
in the Upanisads except in the case of Svetaketu The period of student-hood ( vide note 634 above ).
not expressly stated who was 12
was usually twelve (Chandogya II. 23.1, IV. 10.1, VL1.2), though the Chandogya ( VIII. 11. 3 ) speaks of Indra's brahmacarya for 101 years and Chandogya II. 23. 1; speaks of brahmacarya for life.
and smrtis.
now turn to upanayana as described in the sutras The following matters fall to be treated under Upanayana The proper age for upanayana, the auspicious seasons for it the skin, the garments, the girdle and the staff the for the brahmacSrins of different varnas the yajnopavlta preliminaries of upanayana, such as homa, taking of curds by the boy, afijalipurana, asmarohana; the principal rites of upanayana viz. taking of the student's hand by the teacher*
:
We shall
touching the chest of the student expressive of acceptance as pupil, handing the boy to Savitr and other gods (paridana),
( such as putting fuel on begging &o. ), instruction in the famous Savitrl mantra medhajanana study of the Vedas and daily recitation of Vedic texts ; special vratas of the brahmacarl Patitasavitrlka ( those whose upanayana has not been performed at all ) and rules about them. These matters will now be dealt with in order. It should be remembered that all these matters are not dwelt upon by all the smrtis nor are they treated of in the same order. Further the Vedio mantras often differ in the different sutras.
instruction in the duties of the student
fire,
The proper age

636
for
Upanayana *s
TheA6v. gr. (I. 19. 1-6) says that a brahmana boy should undergo upanayana in the eighth year from birth or from conception, a ksatriya in the llth year, a vai&ya in the
635.
636.
unfaT
II. 23. 1.
This refers to the

i
are^ q^snran*T*j*T'ri?^
I* 19.
ITHTS^ WT
i|chi^^ sfiihrac
143)
Clx VII
Proper age for Upanayana
&!&
three varnas
12th and that to the 16th, 22nd and 24th years respectively for the it cannot be said that the time for upanayana has
passed.
(1. 1),
1.
Ap. Gobhila
687
(
10. 2
),
San,
(II. 10. 1)
( II. 1 ), Baud. grhya sutras, Yaj.
II. 5.
and Bhar.
S. 1. 1.
1.
14,
Ap. Dh.
19 expressly say that the respective years are calculated from

(
The Mahabhasya 6JB also refers to the brahmana's upanayana is to be performed in the 8th 639 gr. ( II. 2 ) allows upanayana conception. Par. or from birth and adds that in the conception year
conception.
rule that a
year~from
in the 8th
case of all
varnas family usage may be followed. Yaj. 1. 14 also refers to family usage. San. gr. ( II. 1. 1 ) allows upanayana in the 8th or 10th year from conception, the Manava gr. ( I. 22. 1 ) allows ifc in the 7th or 9fch year, the Kathaka gr. ( 41, 1-3 ) prescribes 7th, 9th and llth years for the upanayana of the three varnas In some smrfcis upanayana is allowed to be respectively. performed even earlier or at different ages, e. g. Gautama (I. 6-8) prescribes that upanayana for a brahmana is in the 8th year
from conception but it may be in the 5th or 9th according to the result desired ; and Manu. II. 37 says that if spiritual eminence
(
for the boy ) is desired ( by his father ) then upanayana may be performed in the 5th year for a brahmana, in the 6th year for a ksatriya if there is a desire for military power, in the 8th for
a vai&ya if there is desire for endeavour to accumulate wealth. Vaik. ( II. 3 ) also prescribes the 5th, 8th, 9th years from conception for a brahmana if there is a desire respectively for
WTsrq^^nfra T^RT^S nsFtf *T*STT^ 3$*nj OTT. 5, there is option ST. pp 340-341 for discussion whether of counting the years from conception or birth in the case of k?atriya and vaidyas. Ap. and several others emp'oy the Atmanepada while Adv., Khffdira (II. 2. 1) and P5r. employ the Parasmaipada It should be noticed that in the Atharvaveda XI. 7. 3., 5RTTr XI. 5. 4. 1, 3JT. 3". IV. 4. 5 and elsewhere in the Vedic texts it is the Atmanepad'a
637.
wfe^f
tf.
10. 2-3.
Vide
that
is
found.
Psnini
alone
(I. 3.
Atmanepada
*h<ui (
in the case
ni takes the 36) lays down that the root of several senses one of which is
'
*
that the
and so we should have ^MH^d only ). %<-<(T< quotes a is a mistake TOta?<Treterat&f art *TOT?*Tj n. Vide tf*3nvren?r P- 339 for criticism of [ Vide s$T*TC quoted above ( p. 269 /. n. 619). view.
<iwk?
638.
III.
*nrfeft wTfjror sr<r^r
f ft
*r^fT^ffa
$<r:
5rraf&
*r?row
vol.
p. 57.
639.
i
<rrc*ira.
H.J2.
ift.
3. adds
278
Ch. Vlt
1.
spiritual eminence, long life and wealth. The Ap. Dh. S. I. 1. 21 and Baud. gr. (II. 5) prescribe 7th, 8fch, 9th, 10th, llth, 12th
life,
years respectively for one desiring spiritual eminence, long

brilliance,
abundant food, physical vigour and
cattle.
va'rnas are the principal
Therefore, the 8th, lltlfand 12th years from birth f orjkhejbhree time for upanayana ; while the years
from 5th onwards up to llth are the secondary time ( gauna ) brahmana, 9th to 16th are secondary for ksatriya and so From 12th to 16 is gauriatara for brahmanas and after 16 on. gaunatama for them. Vide Samskara-prakasa p. 342.
for a
TheauspicioustimesaccordingtotheAp.gr. and Ap. Dh. 19, Hir. gr. ( I. 1 ) and Vaik. are vasanta ( spring ), grlsma ( summer ), and sarad ( autumn ) for the tlaree varjpas. The Bhar. gr. ( I. 1 ) says that upanayana for a brahmana
S.
1. 1. 1.
should be performed in vasanta, for a ksatriya in summer or hemanta, for a vaisya in sarad, in the rains for a carpenter in sisira for all. Sahara in his bhasya on ( rathakara ) or Jaimini VI. 1. 33 where upanayana is denied to 6udras quotes vasante brahmanam upanaylfca as a Vedic text. Asv. gr. I. 4. 1 (quoted above in /. n. 494), Hir. gr. (I. 1. 5, S. B. E. vol. 30 p.l 37 ) and Bhar. gr. that upanayana ( 1. 1 ) say should be performed in the bright half of a month, on an auspicious naksatra, particularly under a naksatra the name of which is masculine. 640
1 '
Later works introduced
very intricate
rules about the
proper months, tithis, days and times for upanayana. It is neither possible nor very necessary to go into these astrological details. But a few words must be said as in modern times upanayana is
performed only in accordance with these rules. Vrddhagargya* laid down that six months from Magha were the proper months fqr upacayana, while others say that five months from Magha are the proper ones. Then 1st, 4th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 13th, 14th, 15th i. e. ( full moon and new moon ) tithis are generally avoided
(
41
here
though there are some counter exceptions which are not set out It is stated that upanayana should not be performed ). when Venus is so near the sun that it cannot be seen, when the sun ig in the first degree of any zodiacal sign, on anadhyaya
640.
sH^feiuiMfr see note 512.
qqfc f^far
ssrm^ TTWST
i
I.
1.
For 5*1quoted in
4^>
p.
3 *toSr5WH *&t*$
355
1. p.
27.
Oh. VII
Proper times for Upanayana
27T
* 42 days and on galagraha Jupiter, ( the tithis specified above ). 643 Venus, Mars and Mercury are respectively the presiding deities of the Rgveda and the other Vedas. Therefore the upanayana of those who have to study these Vedas should be performed on
the
week days presided over by these planets. Among week days Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are the best, Sunday is middling, Monday is-the least suitable, but Tuesday and Saturday are prohibited (except that for students of the Samaveda and ksatriyas Tuesday is allowed ). Among the naksatras 644 the proper ones
are Hasta, Citra, Svati, Pusya, Dhanistha, AsvinI, Mrga&iras, Punarvasu, Sravana and Bevatl. There are other rules about
naksatras with respect to those who follow a particular Veda which are^ passed over ). One rule is that all naksatras except
BharanI, Krttika, Magha, Vi&akha, Jyestha, Satataraka are good for all. The Moon and Jupiter must be astrologically strong with reference to the boy's horoscope. The rule about Jupiter probably arose from the facb that Jupiter was supposed to rule over knowledge and happiness and as upanayana was meant to be
the entrance for Veda-study, Jupiter's benevolent aspect was thought to be necessary. If Jupiter and Venus are not to be seen owing to nearness to the sun, upanayana cannot be performed. Jupiter when in the 2nd, 5th, 7th, 9th, llth zodiacal sign from the sign of birth ( calculation to be made inclusive of the sign of birth ) is auspicious, when in the 1st, 3rd, 6th, 10th place from the sign of birth it is auspicious after the performance of a propitiatory homa and when it is in the 4th, 8th, 12th place
from
The moon is supposed to be inauspicious. in the 2nd, 4th, 5th, 8th, 9th or 12th place from the sign of birth. Four hours from sunrise is the best for upanayana, from that time to noon is middling and afternoon is
birth,
it
is
malefic
when she
is
Some said that a person's upanayana should not be performed in the month in which he was born, others restricted the prohibition to the paksa ( the half ) of the month in which he was born. There are other rules about the Lagna ( the rising
prohibited.
642.
I. p.
27
atwcft p. 32 cites the
first
as
from
differently
p. 27.
643.
The fiuTq^g quotes
?TTT^ as to
*Tc*!Tf
644.
f^cnfl^ sinref^rerifaf M \ WH f^rcri^ i (^ (5(5 3j4*r5

rnff Q^HitiMHi^Hi ftfih
ii
$nifr
fttft
avrtrwr
!?
32, *qpf*fco i. p. 27,
J78
Ch.
Vll
zodiacal sign at the time of upanayana ) which are nofc set out here. There are other prohibited astrological conjunctions like
Vyatlpata, Vaidhrti &o. For detailed rules on these, works like

the Sam. Pr.
(
pp.
355-385
),
Nirnayasindhu and Dharmasindhu

of a
may
be consulted.
For persons who are entitled to perform the boy, vide note 480.
upanayana
to wear two garments, one for the lower body (vasas), another for covering the upper part of the body (uttarlya). Ap. Dh. S. (1. 1. 2. 39-1. 1. 3. 1-2) says that the 645 garment (vasas) for a brahmana, ksatriya or vaisya brahmaoSrl is respectively to be made of hemp, flax, ajina ( deerskin ), some teachers prescribe that the lower garment should be* of cotton but coloured reddish-yellow for brahraanas; dyed with madder for ksatriyas, dyed with turmeric for vaisyas.' Par. gr. (II. 5), Manu
A brahmacarl had
part of the
II.
41
'ajina'.
speak of avika ( made of wool ) for vaisya instead of Vas. Dh. S. (XL 64-67) says that a brahmana (brahmacarl)
'
'
should wear a (lower) garment which is white and unblemished (or new) and for a ksatriya or vaisya it should be the same as in
Ap. Dh., but for vaisya Vas, prescribes also one made of kusa grass or he says that all should wear cotton cloth that is undyed.' Gaut ( 1. 17-20 ) on the other hand says for all the lower garment may be made of hemp, flax or kusa grass ( cira ) or of the hair of the mountainous goat ( kutapa ) other teachers prescribe coloured garments, one coloured with the juice of trees for brahmanas and madder-red and yellow for ksatriya and vaisya. Asv. gr.'(I. 19. 8), Par. gr. (II. 5), Vas. Dh. S. (XI. 61-63), Baud. gr. ( II. 5. 16 ) say that the upper garment for a brahmana should be the skin of a black deer, for ksatriya the skin of ruru deer and for a vaisya of cow-skin or of goat skin. Baud, and Asv. prescribe only goat skin. Par. gr. adds that if any one cannot secure a skin suited to one's varna, he may wear an upper garment
4 ;
of cow-hide as the
II. 5.
cow
is
the chief
among
animals. 848
Baud.
gr.
16 prescribes the skin of black deer for all in the
same
645.
srrcr:
W. *.
XI. 64-67
2 - 39-41-1.
*
1.
3.
1-2;
what
rt
1*9
3*f?T is
^ T^rT^TF^^^
II. 5.
defined by 3j%r^
<rnnrac n
7
fq^fa
*cfr
I. p.
quoted in ^fifar.
29.
646.
Ch. VII
Garments worn
at
Upanayana
279
circumstances. Ap. Dh. S. (1. 1. 3. 7-8) gives the option to all varnas to use a sheep skin ( as upper garment ) or a woollen plaid ( kambala ). &6v. gr. ( 1. 19. 8-9) appears to suggest that the lower and upper garments may be of the same skin or that the lower garment may be white or coloured ( as stated above by 647 13 ) says that the upper Ap. Dh. &). The Kanaka gr. ( 41. for three varnas the should be respectively of the skins garment of black deer, tiger and ruru deer. A vestige of these rules
survives in the modern practice of tying a small piece of deer skin to the yajnopavlta of the boy when his upanayana is
performed.
That the rules about the lower and upper garments go back
to great antiquity is shown by a reference to a Brahmana 648 1. 1. 3. 9 'one should wear only deerpassage in the Ap. Dh. S.
skin
of
Yedlc
as lower and upper garments ) if one desires the increase lore, only ( cotton ) garments if one desires the increase
of martial valour
and both
if
one desires both
'.
Darifa (staff). There is some divergence of view about the trees of which the staff was to be made. Asv. gr. ( I. 19. 13
and I. 20. 1 ) says a staff of the palasa wood for a brahmana, of udumbara for a ksatriya and of bilva for a vaisya or all the varnas may employ a staff of any of these trees.' The Ap. gr. 11. 15-i6 (this is the same as Ap. Dh. S. 1. 1. 2. 38) says that the staff should be of palasa wood for a brahmana, of the branch of the nyagrodha tree ( so that the downward end of the branch forms the tip of the staff) for a ksatriya, of badara or udumbara wood for a vaisya while some teachers say that the staff should be made of a tree ( which is used in sacrifices ) without reference to any varna. Gaut. ( I 21 ) and Baud. Dh. S. ( II. 5. 17 ) say that the staff of palasa or bilva should be used for brahmana and Gaut, ( I. 22-23 ) says thab asvattha and pllu wood staff should be used respectively for ksatriya and vaisya or of any sacrificial
;
'
tree for all varnas.
Baud.
gr. prescribes
nyagrodha or rauhitaka
for
for
ksatriya,
647.
and badara
or
udumbara
vaiSya.
Par. gr.
41. 13.
648.
i
air<r.
t*.
I. 1.
3.
9-10
compare
compare the iffawr.
2.
en*?nf sffar
280
(
History of DharmatUstra
)
Oh. VII
IL 5
recommends a
respectively
staff of palaSa, bilva and udumbara for the three varnas ( or any of these for all ).
Kanaka gr.(41. 22) recommends palaSa, a&vattha and nyagrodha respectively for the three. Manu (11.45) prescribes bilva and
palaSa for br&hmana, vaâ and khadira for ksatriya, pllu and udumbara for vateya, and Kulluka adds that two staffs should be used by the boy, as two are recommended in a compound.
The
staff
was required
(
for
support, for controlling
the
which the student was to tend ), for protection when going out at night and for guidance when entering
cattle of the teacher
a river or the
like.
649
The length
of the staff varied according to the

I.
)
boy. SAv. gr. 1. 19. 13, Gaut. Par. gr. ( II. 5 ), Manu ( II. 46
25,
Vas. Dh. S.
varna of the XI. 55-57 ),

the
staff
prescribe that in the case of the
brahmana,
ksatriya
or
vai&ya boy respectively
should be as high as his head, forehead or the tip of the nose. The San. gr, ( IL 1. 21-23, S. B. E. vol. 29. p. 260 ) on the other
hand reverses
this
the
brahmana having the
shortest staff
and
the vai6ya the longest ), Gaut. I. 26 says that the staff should be one not eaten by worms, should have the bark attached to it,
and should have a curved
tip, while Manu II. 47 adds that the staff should be straight, pleasing to look at and should not have come The San. gr. (II. 13. 2-3) prescribes that into contact with fire. the brahmacarl should not allow any one to pass between himself
and his staff and that if the staff, girdle or the yajnopavlta break or rend, he has to undergo a penance ( same as the one for the
breaking of a chariot at a wedding procession ) and that at the end of the period of brahmacarya, he should sacrifice in water 65 with a mantra the yajiiopavlta, staff, the girdle and the skin
to
Varuna
II.
Manu
Rg. I. 24. 6 ) or with the sacred syllable om 64 and Visnu Dh. S. ( 27. 29 ) say the same thing.
(
(
'
*.
Mekhala
gr. (II. 5. 13),
girdle
Gaut.
Manu
II. 42,
and others prescribe that

649.
(1. 15), A&v. gr. ( 1. 19. 11 ), Baud. Kathaka gr. (41. 12), Bhar. gr. (I. 2) a girdle made of munja grass should be
staff
A.S the carrying of a has a seen result, it need not be carried at alt times, according to AparSrka ( p. 57 ), but the others having unseen results must be worn
always.
650.
I
5IT.
^ II.
30. 31. Ttf
means
Oh. VII
Mekhodd,
girdle
at
Upanayana
881
tied round a brahmana boy's waist, one made of mflrvS grass (which- is used for making a bowstring) for a ksatriya and one of hemp cords for a vaisya. Paraskara says that the string of a bow
should be used for a ksatriya and of murva grass for a vaisya and adds that in the absence of these the girdle should respectively be made of kusa, asmantaka and balvaja grass ( for brahmana,
ksatriya and vaisya ). Manu (II. 42-43) gives the same rules as Par. gr. Ap. Dh. S. (1. 1.2. 35-37) 65! optionally allows a girdle of
munja grass with an iron piece intertwined in it for kâtriyaa and woollen string or the yoke-string or a string of tamala bark for vaisyas ( according to some ). Baud. gr. ( II. 5. 13 ) allows Some of the sutras ( e. g. Baud, gr,, raaunjl girdle also to all. Ap. Dh. S.) further prescribe that the girdle of munja grass should have three strings to it and the grass should have its ends turned to the right and the knot of the girdle should be brought
near the navel.
Manu
II.
43
says that there
may
be one knot
8lt
or three or five (according to family usage, says
Kulluka ).
In order to convey an idea of the rites of upanayana in the days of the grhya sutras the ceremony as contained in the Asv.
sutra ( which is among the shortest ) is set out in full.' 8* Let him initiate the boy who is decked, whose hair ( on the head ) is shaved ( and arranged ), who wears a new garment or an antelope skin if a brahmana, ruru skin if a ksatriya, goat's skin if a vaisya if they put on garments they should put on dyed ones, reddish-yellow, red and yellow ( for a brahmana, ksatriya, vaisya respectively ), they should have girdles and staffs ( as described above ). While the boy takes hold of ( the hand of ) his* teacher, the latter offers ( a homa of clarified butter oblations ) in the fire ( as described above ) and seats himself to the north of the fire with his face turned to the east, while the other one ( the boy ) stations himself in front ( of the teacher ) with his face turned to fche west. The teacher then fills the folded hands of both himself and of the boy with water and with the verse we choose that of Savifcr ( Rg. V. 82. 1 ) the teacher drops down the water in his own folded hinds on to the water in the folded
gr.
*
;
'
651.
3TTT.
^T.
s*
I. 1. 2.
^.
II- 10.
34-37. tn*T(7 is explained ag ^pir (hemp) in the com. on 10 and by $*^si aa trnicft ^Tûtf^ft 1ST: CT^T **w urfihn
i
The number of knota was probably regulated by the number 652. of the pravara sagos invoked by a person. Vide Appendix for the text of Asv. gr. and for a very concise 653.
form prepared recently.
H. D. 36
28?
History of
of the
Vharmamstra
Ch.
VII
bands
with his
own hand
boy; having thus poured the water, he should seize the boy's hand together with the thumb ( of
the boy) with the formula 'by the urge (or order) of the god Savitr, with the arms of the two A6vins, with the hands of Pusan, I seize
653 with the words Savitr has seized thy thy hand, oh so and so '; and a time ( the teacher seizes the boy's second so* ob so hand,
*
!
band
sun,
with the words

the
third time,
thy teacher, ob so and so a The teacher should cause ( the boy ) to look at the
'
Agni
is
God Savitr this is thy 654 and ( the teacher brahmacarl, protect him, may he not die Whose brahmacarl ? thou art the art thou further should ) say brahmacarl of Prana. Who does initiate thee and whom ( does 655 thee to Ka ( to Prajapati ) With the he initiate ) ? I give
while
teacher repeats
'
!
'
'.
half verse (Rg. Ill 8.4.) 'the young man, well attired and ' 656 hither be ( the teacher ) should cause him to dressed, came
turn round to the right and with bis two bands placed over (the boy's ) shoulders he should touch the place of the boy's heart
repeating the latter half ( of Rg. III. 8. 4 ). Having wiped the ground round the fire the brahmacarl should put ( on the fire ) a ' fuel stick silently, since it is known (from 6ruti) what belongs
to Prajapati is silently
(
done
) ',
Prajapati. 1 to Agni I
Some do
this (offering of
and the brahmacarl belongs to a fuel stick) with a mantra

stick, to the great
have brought a fuel
Jatavedas
by
(
the fuel stick mayst thou increase,

)
Oh Agni and may we
57 through brahman (prayer or spiritual lore), svaha'/ Having put the fuel stick ( on the fire ) and having touched the I fire, he ( the student ) thrice wipes off his face with the words
increase
'
653 a.
1
Here the boy should be addressed by

'
his
name. The formula
occurs in several connections (e. g. in adoption etc. ) in several samhitSs. Vide for this srrsr. tf- II- H, & tf. II 6. 8.6. A similar
airg.
devaaya tv5
formula occurs in
ns-^mg
5.
II. 3.
24 and
II. 9. 5, nfT"nr. aj.
I.
11. 17,
HfTTO- I- 22 - 5 A. $. H. ft. TT. ) ( reads as in

654.
3.
28
(%?w
S*cnTO^S*TT ),
9jre5JT. 41. 16
%^
u( ^r.
This TT^T occurs also in the

i&X
)
am.
$rf.
*r?sr<rre
II.
31
arcn^T
%* ^J
and in
HM^^J
I. 22. 5,
II. 18. 4
and
ofhors.
655.
The words ^^r

2. 5,
<mf?rft occur
with variations in
in arnr.
all )
<TT.
II. 3. 29,
qrc^
II. 2 (
656.
657.
For the whole verse g*r S^THT: vide note 620 above.
ai?r^
trftnn?T$ &c
.
The
first
half occurs in
II. 10.
3iror. IT. <rr. II. 6.

I.
2
^
I. 4,
f|^.
I. 7. 2,
iftfvtew
46,
Hl^M^.
8, all of
which have a Ion?
latter half like
Ch, VII
Procedure of Upanayana
'
283
'
anoint myself with lustre ; it is does anoint himself with lustre*.

insight, offspring
;
known
from
Sruti
for he
and lustre on and vigour ( indriya ) insight, offspring and radiance ; what thy lustre is, Oh Agni f may I thereby become lustrous what thy strength is, Agni may I thereby become strong what thy consuming power is 658 Agni, may I thereby acquire consuming power'. Having waited upon (worshipped) Agni with these formulas, (the student) should bend his knees, embrace ( the teacher's feet) and say to
offspring
;
;
'May Agni bestow on me, me may Indra bestow insight, on me may the sun bestow
f
him
recite, Sir, recite, Sir, the Savitrl
'.
Seizing the student's
hands with the upper garment (of the student) and his own hands the teacher recites the Savitrl, first pada by pada, then hemistich by hemistich (and lastly) the whole verse. He (the teacher) should make him ( the student ) recite ( the Savitrl ) as much as he is able. On the place of the student's heart the teacher lays his hand
* with the fingers upturned with the formula *I place thy heart 85 mind mind follow my unto duty to me may thy may you attend on ray words single-minded may Brhaspati appoint thee unto me Having tied the girdle round him ( the boy ) and having given him the staff, the teacher should instruct him in 880 the observances of a brahmacarl with the words a brahmacarl art thou, sip water, do service, do not sleep by day, depending He (the student ) Veda ( completely ) on the teacher learn the should beg ( food ) in the evening and the morning he should put a fuel stick ( on fire ) in the evening and the morning. That has received by begging ) he should announce to ( which he the teacher he should not sit down ( but should be standing )
;
'.
'
'.
the rest of the day.
"
8C1
The whole procedure of upanayana is more elaborately few points described in the Ap. gr., in Hir. gr. and Gobhila.
658,.
irf^ 3tet
5. 3. 2
also in
^rq
&c. These mantras occur in &. I]C 5 62 &c $., *ft.

1
tf.
HI.
3.
1.
and
III.
'
*w s& &c. Those words also occur in giWiHl* II. 2,, HIVHJJ. 1. 22. wo have ire f^3 ). These words also occur in the ( whore marriage ceremony (as addressed by the husband ) vide m<^<^. I. 8.
659.
10, fg* u *J*|.
?
660.
several others.
II. 6. 14, <TK^^ H- 3, î^^ 41. 17 and These are based on the $ra<W passage quoted in note 625 above. In some it is said simply do not sleep and this is explained in
sions
*grer*fffi &c. occur in arnr. *r. <rr
These words
with some additions and omis-
'
'
am.
*j.
1. 4. 28.
as
661.
Veda has been
3j%Mq^*fiq sacrifice is to be performed after & part of the learnt. vide arr^. ? l 22. 10-16, iftftreTOT HI. 2. 46-47.
,
$&4
History of Dkarmaiastra
Oh. Vll
It is
say that the the homa begins boy is given the yajnopavlta and then made to recite the well-known mantra ' the Yajnopavlta is extremely sacred* and the Vaik. smarta ( II. 5 ) Bays that the teacher gives the upper garment to the boy with M * the verse parldam vasah ', the sacred thread with the mantra Yajfiopavltam and the black antelope skin with the Sudarsana on Ap. gr. 10. 5 says that mantra the eye of Mitra the boy puts on the yajnopavlta with the mantra before he takes 4 his meal ( according to some) or (according to others) before" he stick on fire and relies on 1 the the 5. 15. fuel I. Dh. S. puts Ap. for support. According to Karka and Harihara ( on Paraskara )
22. 2
)
'
* ' '
of interest and divergence may be noted remarkable that A6v., Ap. and several other say a word about the sacred thread, while a ( I. 2. 6 ), Bhar. gr. ( I. 3 ) and Manava gr. ( I. boy already wears the yajiiopavlta before while Baud, gr. 662 ( II. 5. 7 ) says that the
here briefly.
sufcrakaras do not
few
like
Hir. gr.
'.
the yajfiopavlfca was given to the student by the teacher after the lying of the girdle. The Samskaratattva p. 934 says the same. Late works like the Samskararatnamala ( p. 202 ) prescribe the
wearing of the sacred thread before the boma. The origin and development of the ideas about yajnopavlta will be dealt with separately later on. Ap. gr. ( X. 5 ), Baud gr. ( II. 5. 7 ) and Par. gr. (II. 2 ) prescribe a dinner to brahmanas before the ceremonies begin and receiving their benedictions. Ap. gr. cfl5 ( X. 5 ), Bhar. gr. ( 1. 1 ), Baud gr. ( II. 5. 7 ) say that the boy also is made to take food ; according to later works ( e, g. SamskSraratnamalS ) the boy takes his meal in the same dish with his mother (for the last time) and other brahmacarins (eight in number ) are also invited at the same time for meals in the
jfta
%<|4j>dMg<|'H4ji^
'
^<-
^T-
H-
S.
7-8
the verse
quoted aa from ^fsreft?$re in ^fô ( I. p. 31 ) and is repeated even in the island of Bali by the pedandas. In some mss. of P5r. gr. this mantra occurs, but it is an interpolation, as Karka, Jaya-
rsma and Harihara say

663.
iTT.
'
<pft^
^m: ~ this
ipmq ^r^ri^T ^HTOcr^Rot T ^dft. (fftf ^). is 3?rr. H. n. II. 2. 8 f&*Fr ^lg: is airr. *f.
'
;
II. 2. 11.
664.
Ace. to
snfnHW
II. 2. 3
the
an^pf says
^fflM*fUmffl
inpff^r
665.
Oh. VII
Procedure of Upanayana
of the boy.
this
285
company
times.
This practice
also is
is
observed even in modern
Almost (asincaula);
fl<58
is shaved on this day done in modern times. But in anoient times the shaving was done by the acarya himself as sfcated by Sudar6ana on Ap. gr. 10. 6-8. There are several other matters detailed in Ap. and others, on which A6v. and some others are silent. The important ones are mentioned below.
all prescribe that the
boy
(a)
(II. 5, 10),
Ap.
gr.
(10.9),
gr.
(
Manava
4
)
gr.
(1.23.12), Baud.
gy.
(
gr.
Khadira
II.
and Bhar.
fire
I.
make
the boy
tread on a stone to the north of the
with his right foot after
homa. The mantras repeated in the several sutras are significant 667 asking the boy to be firm like a stone.
after
'
gr. (1.22.3) and Kathaka gr. (41. 10) prescribe the tasting of curds thrice after repeating the verse Dadhikravno akarisam ( Rg. IV. 39. 6 = Tai. S. I. 5. 4. 11 ).
(b)
Manava
homa
(c)
'
Par. gr.
II. 2
),
BhSr.
gr. (1. 7),
Ap.
gf.
11.
1-4,),
Ap.
Mantrapa^ha (II. 3. 27-30), Baud, gr, II. 5. 25 ( quoting Sa^yayanaka ), Manava gr. I, 22. 4-5, and Khadira gr. II. 4. 12 refer to the fact that the teacher asks the boy his name and the latter pronounces his name. The teacher also asks whose brahmacarl
the
boy
is.
A person was given ( as shown above at pp. 246-247 ) an abhivadanlya name either derived from the naksatra of birth or from a deity name or the gotra name. This was necessary for several purposes. The teacher had to know that the boy came from a good family, he had also to address him by name ( as there might be several pupils ). It is wrong to e68 from the story of Satyakarna Jabala ( where the suppose
666.
'
SIFT.
'J.
X.6-8. tsqî on sutra

I
'
says
M^l
<^
h< u ir?^lcflthiuinc?n^nf^^'
cfcft ^TrnVcT:
'
ft
nd on sutra 8
i^nt. M^MIC?
I
-H ^LH rf^?WI l^'i'^^
^4^
I
^T
tflvrsi
w^rmr^Tc!;
667.
3IT<T. *f.
aîRSn^îHH^^
which
is
?TT
ilffyT^ fff^Wt
'
cr?5fic*r*rqi
^rg^q^^nrr^T^
?*^ on sn^r.
wbich
^j.
X. 6 says
ia
combated
^
ffîrt
?tf
^r
srr^ f?te 2'^r^m:
qt. II. 2. 2,
the unr in
a?rr. ^.,
HTC
^.,
T
$.
Ancient Indian Education p. 23 where he says 1 it was still the rule for br&hmanas to be received as students/ Dr. ' ' Ghurye in Caste and race in India p. 43 merely repeats this dictum.
668.
Vide Koay in
286
teacher asked
Oh.
him his gotra ) that only brahmanas were admitted brahmacarya. All smrtis, even the latest, contemplated that the three castes had the right to learn the Veda. It is one thing to have a right and another to exercise it. Probably very few ksatriyas oared to submit their sons to the rigorous discipline of brahmacarya as laid down in the smrtis and cared much less for Veda studies. In the Mahabharata and in the Kadambarl it is said that the princes were taught in a special house constructed for the purpose and teachers were paid handsomely
to
and brought there

teachers.
to teach instead of the princes
going to the
want of space to show how the greatconfusion prevails as to the order of the various components of the ceremony of upanayana, But a few striking examples may be given. Asvalayana gr. treats of the tying of the girdle and the giving of the staff almost at the end of the
It is
not possible for
est possible
ceremony, while Ap. gr. puts this after horaa and immediately before anjalipurana ( filling the folded hands of both with water ) A6valayana puts adityadar&ana after the boy's hand is held by the teacher and before paridana ( handing the boy over to the deities ), but Bhar. ( I. 9 ) puts it after the instruction in the observances of brahmacarya. The Bhar. gr. ( I. 9 ) treats of adityadarsiana almost at the end of the rites, while, A6v. places it among the earlier ones after homa. Besides the same mantras are employed by different sutras for different purposes;
;
for example, the

1
mantra
the time of taking the staff

II. 5.
( I.
),
suSravali &c.' is employed by Ap. at 14 and Mantrapatha by the boy (
XL
while
)
Asiv. gr.
( I.
*
22. 19
),
Bhar. gr.
'
( I.
10
),
Manava
gr.
'(
employ it in medhajanana ( on the 4th day after upanayana ) and Par. gr. (II. 4) employs it at the time of putting a fuel stick on fire. A6v. employs the verse yuva suvasah Rg. III. 8. 4 ) for making the boy turn round ( first half ) and for touching the region of the boy's heart ( latter half ), while the same verse is employed at the time of tying the girdle round the boy's waist by the Manava gr, ( I, 22. 8 ) and Par.
23, 17
'
'
gr.(II.2).
Later writers went on adding mantras and details.
On
the day prior to upanayana the Nandl6raddha was performed as said by Haradatta on Ap. gr. 10. 5. Qrahamakha ( a sacrifice to
the planets
) also may be performed the previous day or on any day within 7 or 10 days of the upanayana. Then before the actual upanayana, there is the worship 'of Ganapati and of
Oh. VII
Procedure of Upanayara
287
Kuladevatas, punyahavacana, the worship of Mates and the consecration of the mandapa-devatas. For the detailed modern procedure ( prayoga ) of upanayana, the S. R. M. ( pp. 197-210 ),
which in the main follows the

sutras,
may
it
be consulted.
it
Up
669
briefer procedure in the grhya to the act of making the boy
dine with his mother

thereafter
of
is
is
is
the father
who
does everything
the acarya
who
.
does the
rest.
The samkalpa
upanayana
given below
Yajftopavita
yajilopavlta
A few words must be said on the history of from ancient times. Among the earliest references is
: *
one from the Tai.

for
S. II. 5. 11. 1
is
the nivlta
871
is
(used in actions)
used in rites ) for pitrs, the upavlta men, the praclnavlta ( (in rites ) for gods he wears it in the upavlta mode (i.e. slung from the left shoulder ), thereby he makes a distinguishing sign of the gods'. In the Tai. Br. (I. 6. 8.) we read wearing in the praclnavlta form he offers towards the south for in the case of
; * ;
pitrs, acts
are performed towards the south. Disregarding that one should wear in the upavlta form and offer in the north only,
three words nivlba, praclnavlta
since both gods and pitrs are worshipped (in this rite) '. 87a The and upavlta are explained in the
Gobhila gr. (I. 2. 2-4) which says raising his right arm, putting the head into ( the upavlfca ) he suspends ( the cord ) over his left shouêr in such a way that it hangs down on his right side thus lie becomes yajnopavltin- Passing his left arm, putting the head ( into the upavlta ) he suspends it over his right
;
'
in this way it hangs down along his left side he becomes pra*clnavltin a person becomes praclnavltin only C7S To the same effect is in the sacrifice offered to the Manes'
shoulder, so that
;
669.
670.
Vide
'
Orion
'
by the
late Mr. Tilak pp. 145-148 for discussion
on
this.
671.
$. 4. II. 5. 11.
1.
672.
673.
***
I. 2.
2-4.
288
gr. 1. 1. 8-9,
Oh. VII
KhSdira
2.
Maim II.
63,
Baud.
gr.
gr. paribhSsS-siitra II.
and
'
10, Vaik. I. 5.
says
chest
when
and
is
paribhasa-sutra II. 2. 3 it is carried over the neck, both shoulders and the held with both the thumbs ( of the two hands )
The Baud/74
lower than the region of the heart and above the navel, that is niwta ; (when the sruti says it is) for men, what it means is that it is for sages. The occasions when nivlfca mode is used are :
rsi-tarpana, sexual
except
when homa
is to
intercourse, sarhskaras of one's children be performed, answering the calls of
nature, carrying a corpse and whatever other actions are only for men; nivlfca is what hangs from the neck '.
meant
"
The
Sat. Br.
II. 4. 2. 1, S. B.
E. vol. 12,
p.
361
says
the
gods being yajnopavltins approached near, bending their right * the sacrifice is your knee ; he ( Prajapati ) said to them
your light ; then the pitrs approached him, being praclnavltins and bending their left knee and then men approached him covered with a garment and bending their bodies" etc/ 75 It is important to note here that men are said to have been covered only with a garment and there is no reference in their case to any mode of wearing This rather either as yajnopavlta or nivlfca or praclnavlta. suggests that men wore only garments when approaching gods and not necessarily a cord of threads. In the Tai. 678 Br. III. 10. 9. it is said that when vak ( speech ) appeared to Devabhaga Gautama he put on the yajfiopavlfca and fell down with the ' words namo namah
food, immortality is
is
'.
your strength, the sun
'
It
seems to follow from a passage in the Tai. A.

'
II. 1
that a strip of black antelope skin OP of cloth was used in ancient times as upavlta 677 the sacrifice of him who wears the
674.
^.
i
^. fn^vr(qnr^r II.
sj|
2. 3
and
6.
675.
ft?ffr
^T Tfcfil'Ji feint ^c^T cff&'T

s?9
II. 4. 2. 1.
676.
10. 9
.
iT^rnrf^
ftcnr:
'
q^npr remarks 677 3TOT" f t

.
^^gi
^fhr^Tcf g
I^T sr^t f^T^TRr
nft *&* ffr
^.
wr.
wr
3?r. II. 1.
Kanaka
in the apgrcrf&ff on
^fSr
I. 3.
This passage is quoted as from the 7 ( p. 201 ).
Oh. VII
Upanayana-yajflopavita
289
yajnopavlta becomes spread out ( prosperous, famous ), while the him who does not wear it does not spread ; whatever a brahmana studies, wearing a yajnopavlta, he really ( therein ) performs a sacrifice. Therefore one should study, sacrifice or officiate at a sacrifice wifch the yajnopavlta on for securing the
sacrifice of
spreading of sacrifice having worn an antelope skin or a garment on the right side, he raises the right hand and keeps the left down this is yajnopavlta; when this position is reversed
;
;
the position called samvlta is for men.' It is remarkable that here at any rate no cord of threads is meant by The Par. M. upavlta, but only a piece of skin or cloth. 878 a portion of the above passage ( I. part 1 p. 173 ) quotes and remarks that the Tai. Ar. lays down that a man becomes ah upavltin by wearing one of the two, viz. antelope skin and
it is
praclnavlta
cotton
garment.
(III. 1. 21) it is established (with reference to the words) in the Tai. S. II. 5. 11. 1 (upavyayate etc. quoted in/, n. 671) that one has to be an upavlfcin throughout all
In the Purvamlmamsasutra
sacrifice
the actions, prescribed in the sections on the Darsa-Purnamasa and not only when the SamidhenI verses are recited.
first
)
The
4.
1-9
and
part of the same passage is discussed by Jaimini ( III. it is established that the passage enjoins the wearing
is
of upavlfca in Darsa-Purnamasa which
devakarma and that the
reference to praclnavlta and nivlta is only an anuvUda intended to emphasize the desirability of the wearing of upavlta in sacri-
explains that nivtta is tying the upavlta round the throat like a braid of hair (according to some), while according to others it is tying it round the waist as
fices to gods.
if
The Tantravarfcika
679
for girding
up
the loins
and that the
first is
not done except in
while the latter has to be resorted to in all acts in order to devote sole attention to them. So according to the Tantravartika, the Tai. S. is not referring (in II. 5. 11. 1) to a cord of threads but to
battle,
a piece of cloth. Some of the sutrakaras and commentators drop hints that garments were used or could bemused as upavlta. Ap. Dh. 5. ( II. 2. 4. 22-23 ) says that a householder should always wear an upper garment and then adds or the sacred thread may serve This shows that originally the purpose of an upper garment.
'
'
678.
.
*TT. I. I-
P- 173.
679.
4. 2
l.
(p. 891).
H. D, 37,
290
upavlfca threads.
1
History of Dhamaidztra
Oh,
VII
meant an upper garment and not merely a cord of In another place the same sutra says (II. 8. 19. 12 )
partakes of sraddha dinner) should eat covered with
one
who
an upper garment slung over tho left shoulder and passing under the right arm*. Haradatta gives two explanations of this, viz, that one should wear an upper garment ( while dining at a sraddha) like a yajnopavlta i. e. under the right arm and over the left shoulder, that is, a brahmana cannot rely on Ap, Dh. S. II. ?. 4. 23 and wear at sraddha repast only the sacred thread ( but he must wear the garment in that fashion) and give up the sacred thread for the time. 68 While another view is that he must wear the sacred thread and the upper garment both in the fashion of upavlta. Ap. Dh. S. ( I. 2. 6. 18-19 ) prescribes that when a student wears two garments he should wear one of them ( i. e. the upper 'one ) in the yajfiopavlta mode, but when he wears only one garment then he should wear it round the lower part of the body ( and should not cover
the upper body with a portion of the garment though it may be long enough for that ). Ap. Dh, S. I. 5. 15. 1 prescribes that a man must be yajfiopavltin at the time of waiting upon teachers, elders, guests, at the time of horna, injapa ( murmuring prayer), at meals and in taking acamana and at the time of daily vedic study. On this Haradatta says yajnopavlta means a particular
*
mode
of wearing the ( upper ) garment; if one has no upper garment, then there is another ( but inferior ) mode stated in Ap. Dh. S. II. 2. 4. 23 and that at other times it is not necessary to have the yajnopavlta '.
The Gobhila gr. ( I. 2. 1 ) in treating of upanayana 681 says the student takes as yajnopavlta a cord of threads, a garment
680.
Priori 3 ^nr: srrnj
srft *n
3?rWhnforwri
i
an*?, v.
22-23
II. 2. 4.
;
tfiw<i'**n3ranr
explains
^nffcft ssfar am. *r. % II. 8. 19. 12 Ttm^^pmsTO: ^r ^rniS^T irîtafia $rm spfra
i
3T:
3WT.
*
ST.
^.
I.
2. 6.
18-19
*ij?iu<foff
T.
^.
\
5. 15. 1,
where
g-^prT says
Wtt p. 502
^ mmfTTtl
)
^TTt?P^( ?TT^r*rnr:
*[*ti
'a^qrm^
ftS
jfo *t&
^^
'
*;
vi(ie
\
3^M^^TcT (JivSnanda, part I. m*n% -ftzfo f$R4 gn^^Hi ^

f
681.
^n^^^^^^ ^r^^r
ifrfiteOT 1.2.1;
Oh, VII
Upanayana-yajfiopavita
291
or a rope of ku&a grass '. This indicates that though a cord of threads was considered in Gobhila's days as the appropriate
yajnopavlta, that was riot an invariable rule in his day and that a garment could be employed instead. The commentator being
brought up in the latter day tradition explains by saying that the sutra was lost in a forest then a garment may be worn like the sacred thread and if even that was lost a rope of kusa. But this appears to be rather far-fetched as an explanation of
if
Gobhila's unqualified words. Manu (11.44) says that 'the upavlta of a brahmana should be made of cotton its strands should be twined with tha right hand moved over them ( or the twist of the strands must be upwards ) and it should have three threads '. Medhatithi comments on this that upavlfca means a particular mode of wearing a garment or a particular position of it and therefore here by upavlta is meant that which can be worn
,
*
'
The Sm. 0. quotes a prose passage from Bsyasrhga carry out all the purposes for which yajnopavlta is required by means of a garment and in its absence by a string From the above passages, from the fact that of three threads '.
in that mode.
or one
may
many
of the grhyasutras are entirely silent about the giving or
wearing of the sacred thread in upanayana and from the fact 888 is cited from the Vedic Literature for the act that no mantra of giving the yajfiopavlta ( which is now the centre of the upanayana rites ), while scores of vedic mantras are cited for
the several component parts of the ceremony of upanayana, it is most probable, if not certain, that the sacred thread was not
invariably used in the older times as in the times of smrtis and in modern times, that originally the upper was used in various positions for certain acts, that it laid aside altogether in the most ancient times and
cord of threads came to be used
first
the later
garment
could be
that the
as an option and later
on exclusively for the upper garment.

about yajfiopavlta may now be stated here. 888 The yajfiopavlfca is to have three threads of nine strands well
The mantra ^^frr^lcf *T*# &c. is cited only in Baud. gr. ( note a comparatively modern ) and in Vaik. ( tl. 5), has certainly ring about it and is not cited in any well-known ancient work. 683. Vide *$^*f*m P- 4 and tf. si. pp. 416-418 as to how the upavlta is to be manufactured and who is to manufacture it, one interesting fact being that an upavlta prepared by a maiden was to be preferred to
682.
l
A few rules
662 above
one prepared by a widow.
*T^r*oT quoted in the aJi^fKi^ defines
1$
in
Manu
II.
44 as
'
'(P- 2).
292
tfistary of
DharmaSastra
Oh.
Vlt
in the Sm. C.
twisted (for each thread). Vide Baud. Dh.S.L 5.5., Devala quoted 884 The nine devatas of the nine tantus ( strands )
.
by Devala viz. Orhkara, Agni, Naga, Soma, Pitrs, 885 all gods. Medhatithi on Manu 11.44 says Prajapati, Vayu,Surya, that in istis, animal sacrifices and soraa sacrifices, the yajriopavlta was to have only one thread of three tantus, but it was three-fold in three classes of ahlna, ekaha, and sattra sacrifices as they required three fires and in the seven somasamsthas seven-fold and five-fold when viewed with reference to the three savanas and two samdhyas. The yajfiopavlta should reach as far as the navel, should not reach beyond the navel, nor should it be above 688 Manu II. 44 and Visnu Dh. S. 27. 19 prescribe that the chest. the yajfiopavlta for brahtnana, ksatriya and vaisya should respectively be of cotton, hemp and sheep wool. Baud. Dh. S. (I. 5. 5),
are given
Gobhila gr. (1. 2. 1) say that it may be of cotton thread or of kusa grass and Devala as quoted in Sm. 0. says that all twice-born
persons should make their yajfiopavlta of cotton, of ksuma, hair of cow's tail, hemp, tree bark or kusa according to the availa687 bility of the material.
The remarks
of the
'
Samskaramayukha
after quoting Manu II. 44 are interesting we do not know the origin of (or authority for) the practice of present-day ksatriyas and vaisyas, viz. of wearing cotton yajfiopavlta '. This shows
that in the 17th century A. D.

yajfiopavlta.
888
many ksatriyas and vaisyas put on Kumarila also says that wearing yajnopavlfca and studying Vedas is common to all the three varnas.
The number
of yajiiopavitas to be
to circumstances.
Abrahmacarl was
to
worn differed according wear only one yajnopavlta

at all, also
and samnyasins, when they kept yajnopavlta

&i
wore
faafeijrnrwmq:
*n$r:
prrf
685.
$r
u.
^.L
5. 5- 6;
?i*ifh'jC
ffft
^ffirg'. I. p. 31.
686.
fchimi'iH'td Q'K'TrTT^T'TT^'
S^Ht
^Jô ^ TT*Tt ^ ^
:
I
I.
p. 31
I.
p. 31
687.
taw ^KNfo
II
I. p.
32
t^T.
TTT. I. 2.
p.
36
f^fR?cf (VIII. 47-48
has a
similar verse.
688.
(ra
OH.
VII
Updnayana-yajftopavlta
293
only one.
to
snataka
689
( i.
e.
teacher's house after
brahmacarya
one who has returned from the were ) and a house-holder

*
wear two while one who desired long life may wear more than two. Vas. Dh. S. XII. 14 says snatakas should always wear a lower garment and an upper one, two yajnopavltas, should have a stick and a pot filled with water Kasyapa allowed a householder to wear any number up to ten, Whether yajiiopavita as worn in modern times was worn from the most ancient times or nofe, it is certain that long before the Christian era it had come to be so worn and it had become an inflexible rule that a brahmana must always wear a yajnopavlfca and have his top-knot (of hair) always tied up if he did any act without observing this rule, 891 690 it was inefficacious. and Baud. Dh. S. ( II. 2. 1 ) both Vas. a man that must say always wear yajfiopavlta. If a brahmana took his meals without wearing yajiiopavlfca, he had to undergo prayascitfca viz. to bathe, to mutter prayers and fast vide Laghu-Harlta verse 23 quoted by Apararka pp. 1171, 1173. The Mit. on Yaj. III. 292 prescribes prayascitta for answering calls
'.
;
ear
of nature without having the yajnopavlta placed on the right ( as Yaj. I. 16 prescribes). Manu IV. 66 forbids the wearing
(
of another's yajnopavlta along with several other things
such
as shoes, ornament, garland and kamandalu ). In Yaj. ( I. 16 and 133 ) and other smrfcis the yajnopavlfca is called brahmasutra.
An
nayana performed
interesting question is whether women ever had upaor whether they had to wear the yajfiopavlba.
Several smrtis contain instructive dicta on this point. 892

689.
>
The
^HTcTSTRT jj T%c*T ^r^^^TOTOfxT^ T5fi*hfi& ^fi XII. 14 TCinjErrfgsT 71. 13-15 has similar r verso of Vasi^tha is quoted by the Mit. on Sj I. 133. compare *rg. IV. 36;
I
"
^! wre
II
'
.
VIII. 44-45.
.
Vide
%grc3
quoted in
I-
p.
32 and
^^TT quoted
690.
in tho
691.
Rf5^^ ^^r wisrr*rA arsrcyNn^ n î%s

40. 25. the first pffda is
nrc^sfr f^nr^Tftrfhnr T^^^^TVTTT^T m^crrer^f 8. 9, $. u. II.

i
2. 1,
quoted in the
cFsrsnfS'SK' p.
896.
602.
quoted in *gfNro
-
I. p.
24
402.
294
Oh.VII
says
Eferlfcadharmasutra as quoted in the Sm. 0. and other digests there are two sorts of women, those that are brahma*
*
vadinls
vadhtis
( i. e.
( i.
students of sacred lore
e.
who straightway marry
).
and those that are sadyoOut of these brahmaj
v&dinls have to go through upanayana, keeping fire, vedio study and begging in one's house ( i. e. under the parental roof ) but in the case of sadyovadhus when their marriage is drawing near, the mere ceremony of upanayana should somehow be In performed and then their marriage should be celebrated. " the Gobhila gr. 693 II. 1. 19 it is said leading forward towards the sacred fire ( from the house ) the bride who is wrapped in a robe and wears the sacred thread (slang from her left shoulder, in the yajiiopavlta mode ) he ( the husband ) should murmur the verse Soma gave her to Gandharva ( Rg. X. 85. 41 ) ". It is clear that the girl, according to Gobhila, wore the yajnopavlta as a symbol of the ribe of upanayana. The commentator to whom this procedure naturally seemed strange explains yajnopavltinlm as meaning whose upper garment is worn in the fashion of the sacred thread*. In the Samskaratattva of Raghunandana it is stated that Harisarma held that according to Gobhila the bride was to wear a yajiiopavlta,
' *
'
'
'
though Raghunandana himself does not approve of this explanation. In the ceremony of Sanaa vartana, Asv. gr. III. 8, on the subject of applying ointment says after having smeared the two hands with ointment a brahrnana should salve his face first, a ksatriya his two arms, a vaisya his belly, a
'
woman her private parts and persons who gain their liveIt is improper to say, lihood by running, their thighs '. as some do, that as to women this is a general rule interpolated in the treatment of sama vartana and has nothing to
should rather hold that Asv. knew Vedic study and so prescribed what they should do in their samavarfcana. In the Mahabbarata a brahmana is said to have taught to the ( Vanapaiva 305. 20 )
do with the
latter.
We
of
women undertaking
m
:
693.
II. 1. 19
;
Xir^cTt
^;?flM*fiR fi*i*<jîi<!3C 3fthj Wfaft

*
the com. says

p. 896.
^^d^dMiN IH
'
'
<rh
r
i
^renrere
694.
&i
^m
srg&cR?T m*f
sft
i
ire
sreoFSTff^r,
3?rsr. *r . III. 8. 11.
695.
dcitnWH 44n
305. 20.
^^l U *^&
Ch.
VII
Uvanayanaryajftopavlta
295
mother of the Pandava heroes a number of mantras from the

Atharvasiras.
Harlta* 98 prescribes that in the case of
women
samavartana took place before the appearance of menses. Therefore brahmavadinl women had upanayana performed in the 8th year from conception, then they studied Vedic lore and finished
student-hood at the age of puberty.
Yama m
'
says
in former
ages, tying of tha girdle of munja ( i. e. upanayana) was desired in the case of maidens, they were taught the vedas and made to recite the Savitrl ( the sacred Gayatrl verse ) j either
their father, uncle or brother taught them and not a stranger and begging was prescribed for a maiden in the house itself and she was not to wear deer-skin or bark garment and was not to have matted hair '. Manu seems to have been aware of this usage as prevalent in ancient times, if not his own. Having spoken of the samskaras from jafcakarma to upanayana, Manu winds up ( II. 66 ) these ceremonies were to be performed in their entirety for women also, but without mantras' and adds the ceremony of marriage is the only samskara per( II. 67 ) formed with Vedic mantras in the case of women ( in their case ) attendance on the husband amounts to serving a guru (which a student had to do) and performance of domestic duties to worship of fire (which the student had to perform by offering a fuel-stick in the evening every day ). This shows that in the day of the Manusmrfci, upanayana for women had gone out of practice, though there were faint glimmerings of its performance for women in former days. Relying on the words in former ages occurring in the verses of Yama quoted above medieval digests like theSm. 0., the Nirnayasindhu and others say that this practice belonged to another yuga. In Bana98 Mahasveta (who was practising tapas) is bhatta's Kadambarl,* described as one whose body was rendered pure by ( wearing ) a brahmasutra ( i. e. yajnopavlta ) '. The yajnopavlfca came to have superhuman virtues attributed to it and so probably even women who were practising austerities wore it. The Sam. Pr.
*
'
;
'
'
'
'
& stfr^F^r-H^rc^RT
697.
intfft
mravfr ^JTrf<ort
f^rnft
ft9**ifa&
ai
wwrf
fan
fr
wwr
*rr
^wre^rsr pp. 402-403 ; these qr^frqfiH *ftf <sreTOR<jrfo versos are ascribed to Manu in the ^f^fr^^T ( I. p. 24 ) edited by Mr. Gharpure, but this seems to bo a misreading for TJTT ( which
H
\\
is
the reading of the Mysore ed.

698.
sffrôy rRift$dfrNK
in para 133 of
296
Ch. VII
( p. 419 ) quotes a verse saying that the Supreme Being is called yajna and yajnopavlta is so called because it belongs to the Supreme Being ( or is used in sacrifices for Him ).
the
it
Though ksatriyas and valsyas also were entitled to have upanayana performed, it appears that they often neglected
wearing of yajfiopavlta, so
so that from comparatively early times the yajfiopavlta to be regarded as the peculiar indicator of the wearer's being
or at least neglected the constant
much
came
of the
brahmana
?0
*
wearing the upavlta, which was the heritage that his father, and holding a formidable bow that the side of his mother ( who was a ksatriya to princess )'. If the upavlta had been as constantly worn by the ksatriyas as by brahmanas in Kalidasa's day he would not have spoken of it as the peculiar sign of a brahmana. In the drama Venlsamhara ( Act III ) when Karna resented the attitude of Asvatthaman, who raised his left foot for kicking Karna, and said that he could not cut off his leg as by virtue of his caste ( as brahmana ) he could not be punished in that way, Asvatthaman replied by throwing away his sacred thread with the words 'here do I give up my caste 701 That shows that in the days of the Venlsamhara ( not later than about 600 A. D. ) the yajfiopavlta had become the peculiar indicator of the caste of brahmanas only.
(XI. 64) rama says
For example, Kalidasa in Raghuvamsa caste. while describing the irate brahmana hero Parasu-
came came
to
him from him from
*.
The Baudhayana-sutra quoted in the Samskara-ratnamala 188) says that yarn spun by a brahmana or his maiden (p. daughter is to be brought, then one is to measure first 96 angulas of it with the syllable bhuh, then another 96 with bhuvah and a third 96 with svah, then the yarn so measured is to be kept on a leaf of palasa and is to be sprinkled with water to the accompaniment
9.
of
the three mantras

*
'
apo hi stha
'
'
Jig.
X.
with the four verses Hiranyavarnah ( Tai, S. V. 6. 1 and Atharva I. 33. 1-4 ) and with the anuvaka beginning with pavanianah suvarjanal ( Tai. Br. 1. 4. 8) and with the Gayatrl, then the yarn is to be taken in the left hand and there is to be a clapping of the two hands thrice, the yarn is to be twisted
1-3
),
*
'
699.
.
ST.
P. 419.
700.
ifcznro^fraeranJT *nf!t ^r srg^&tf

sn??n %^pr\"^ts?f^f *n snSh
701.
*3^r XI. 64. Tw^rar ^fh-hn* III.

i
^^
Cb.
VII
Upanayand-yajnopavita
' '
297
with the three^verses bhuragnira oa ( Tai. Br. III. 10. 2 ) and then the knot is to be tied with the formula 'Bhurbhuvah evascandramasam ca ( Tai. Br. Ill, 10. 2 ) and the nine deities ' orhkSra, Agni (quoted above in note 685) have to be invoked on the nine strands, then the upavlta is to be taken with the mantra devasya tva and then it is to be shown to the sun with the verse ud vayam tamasaspari ( Rg. I. 50. 10 ) and then the yajnopavlta is to be put on with the verse yajiiopavltam &c.' Then there is to be a japa of the gayatrl verse and then Scaraana. For a brief statement of the mode of putting on a fresh sacred thread vide note below. 702
'
'
'
'
'
'
The BaudhSyana-grhyasesasutra ( II. 8. 1-12 ) gives a few insignificant points of difference as to the upanayana of ksatriyas, vaisyas, ambastha and karana ( son of a vaisya from a sudra female ). It is not necessary to go into these
details.
The next important question is as to whether upanayana was performed in the case of the blind, the deaf and dumb, the idiotic &c. Jaimini has established that those who are devoid of a limb703 are not eligible for agnihotra, but this inability arises only
when the defect is incurable. Similarly the Ap. Dh. S. II. 6. 14. 1 , Gaut. 28. 41-42, Vas. 17. 52-54, Manu 9. 201, Yaj. II. 140-141, Visnu. Db. S. 15. 32 ff. lay down that persons- who are impotent, patita, congenially blind or deaf, cripple and those who suffer
to share property on a be are entitled to maintained. But they all but only partition, allow even these to marry. As marriage is not possible for dvijatis unless upanayana precedes it, it appears that the ceremony of upanayana was gone through as far as it could be
from incurable diseases are not entitled
carried out in the case of the blind, the deaf and dumb &c. The Baud. gr. sesasutra (II. 9 ) prescribes a special procedure for the upanayana of the deaf and dumb and idiots. The principal
702. In modern times whenever a new yajnopavlta has to be worn because the one worn is lost or cut <&c.) the ceremony briefly consists in repeating the three verses ( Rg. X. 9. 1-3 ) over water ffpo hi ?tbs with which the yajnopavlta is to be sprinkled then there is the repetition of the GByatri ten times (each time preceded by the vysbttis, as
(
'
'
' om bhQr bhuvah svah ) and then the yajnopavlta is to be put on with the mantra 'yajnopavitam parainam' (cited above in note 662 ).
'
*wft f^rtWnmil ^. VI. 1. 41-42. 703. aif^f** a^prf exclusion of these from inheritance will be dealt with later*
The
&P8
History of DJmrmaiastra
Ch. VII
points in which their upanayana differs from that of others are that the offering of samidh, treading on a stone, putting on a garment, the tying of mekhala, the giving of deer skin and
staff are
it is
done silently, that the boy does not mention his name,
the acarya himself who makes offerings of cooked food or of clarified butfcer, all the mantras are muttered softly by the
acarya himself.
The sutra 704 says that according

is
to
some the
followed as to other parsons who are impotent, blind, lunatics, or suffering from such diseases as epilepsy, white leprosy or black leprosy &c. The Nirnayasindhu quotes a passage from the Brahmapurana cited in the Prayogaparijafca about the upanayana of the impotent, the deaf and others which
contains rules similar to Baudhay ana's. The Sam. Pr. ( pp. 399-401 ) and S. B. M. ( pp. 273-274 ) also quote the passage and explain it. The purana 7 5 says that those who cannofc repeat the Gayatrl ( such as the deaf and dumb ) should be brought near the teacher or fire and that the teacher should then
same procedure
touch them and then mutter the Gayatrl himself, but that in other cases such as lunatics, they should ba made to repeat the Gayatrl at least if possible and if that too is not possible, then
on touching them the acarya should repeat it. The same purana prescribes that kunda and golaka (the first being the offspring of an adulterous intercourse when the husband of the woman is
living and the second when the husband is dead) should have upanayana performed in the same way as for the deaf and dumb, if it is known that the adulterer and the woman were both of the brahmana caste. There is some difference of opinion as to kurifa and golaka. Manu ( II. 174) defined them as above. 706 Ap. Dh. S. II. 6. 13. 1, Manu ( 10. 5 ) and Yaj. ( I. 90, 92 ) expressly say that a person born of a brahmana from a brahmana woman belongs to the same caste only if he is born in lawful wedlock and that even the anuloma sons must be born in wedlock. The kuntfa and golaka being the offspring of adultery
704.
<?<^^^?>*wf^Tf^V*r^
II. 9, 14.
Kl
705.
I
ch&eHltfciKIW
^Tfactf
*Tn%
i
the ^gcinfcnt
( P-
H w^rôr quoted in fôfai%*$ and quotes some of these verses.

ft
706.
fai^ ffikt
(*:
*T. I. 92.
Cb. VII
Upanayana of
the blind
and
others
299
would not really be brahmanas even though both parents were Thus, though these two are not strictly brahmanas, upanayana of a secondary kind is allowed to them. Manu ( III. 156 ) included the Icunda and golaka among brahmanas not to be invited at sraddha. Elaborate discussions have been held why they were so specially mentioned, when they were not on Manu's own dictum brahmanas. Some like the author of the Samgraha held that the kun$a and golaka forbidden by Manu in sraddha were those born under the ancient practice of niyoga
brahman&s.
;
while others repudiated the idea that those born under the 707 practice of niyoga had any taint attaching to them.
It ia not necessary to
go into the question

41
)
of the
upanayana
of
mixed
708
castes.
Manu ( X.
says that the six anulomas are
( and so for upanayana ) and the on Yaj. I. 92 and 95 says that the anulomas have upanayana performed according to the rules of the caste of the mother and further mixed castes arising from the six anuloma
eligible for the rites of dvijas

Mifc.
castes in the
anuloma
order are also eligible for upanayana.
The Baud.
sesasutra II. 8 gives rules for the upanayana cf ksatriyas, vaisyas and of mixed castes like rathakara, ambas^ha 709 IV. 21 made an exception in the case of the son &c. Gaut.
gr.
brahmana from a sudra woman. All pratilomas were like sudra according to Manu ( IV. 41 ) and the offspring of a brahmana from a sudra woman, though anuloma, was like pratilomas. A sudra is only ekajati and not dwjati ( Gaut. X. 51 )
of a
and for the pratilomas no upanayana.
as well as for the sudra) there
was
Upanayana was so highly thought of that some of tbe ancient texts prescribe a method of upanayana for the Asvattha tree. Vide Baud. gr. sesasufcra 11.10. In modern times also rarely
this
upanayana
is
homa
performed. To the west of the Asvattha tree performed, the sarhskaras from pumsavana are imitated
is
but with the vyahrtis only,, the tree being touched with Ilg. III.
707.
Vide *3nNf$f37T on 3?r^

;
( II.
pp. 399-400,
Gharpiire's ed.)
for this elaborate discussion
vide also *ft3TTOreft$T PP 307-398.
708.
I
WTT on
*rr. 1.
92 and
'
on
709.
T^.
I.
95.
xm^wrea
qn&sffar;
^nrt ^
?R IV. 20-21
1
3?nr.
t*.
^.
1. 1. 1.
300
8.
History of DharmaiOatra
'
Ch.
VII
11
vanaspate '.
A piece
of oloth
IB
held between the tree and
the performer, then eight auspicious verses are repeated ( mangalastaka), the cloth is removed and then the hymn called Dhmva-
sukta ( Rg. X. 72. 1-9 ) is repeated. Other mantras ( like Rg. X. 62-63 ) are a] HO recited. Then a piece of cloth, yajnopavlta, girdle, staff and deer-skin are given with appropriate mantras and lastly after touching the tree, the Gayatrl is repeated. In E. C. vol. III. Malavalli No. 22 there is a reference to the
upanayana of Asvattha
in 1358 A. D.
trees
performed by
one
Bachappa
Sat. Br. quoted
It will be seen from the passage of the above (in note 625) that the sacred G&yatrl verse was imparted in very ancient times to the student by the teacher a year, or six months, 24, 12 or 3 days after upanayana and that the Sat. Br. prescribes that in the case of brahmana students this must be done immediately. This ancient rule was probably due to the fact that students in those far-off
Savilryupadesa
when they came to the teacher at the age of seven or eight had hardly any previous instruction and so must have found it difficult to pronounce properly and correctly the sacred verse immediately on initiation. It is for this reason that so modern a work as the 8. R. M. ( p. 194 ) says that such mantras * as San-no devlrabhisfaye ( Rg. X. 9. 4 ) which have to be repeated by the brahmacSrl in the rites of upanayana should be taught to him even before upanayana, just as the wife ( who being a woman had no upanayana performed ) was taught the Vedio mantras accompanying such acts as that of examining
times
'
710 The same rule711 of postponing the instrucajya in sacrifices. tion in Gayatrl is stated in San. gr. II. 5, Manava gr. I. 22. 15, Bhar. gr. 1. 9, Par. gr. II. 3. The general practice however seems
to
have been to impart the Gayatrl that very day. According to most of the sutras the teacher sits to the north of the fire facing the east and in front of him the student sits facing the west and then the student requests the teacher to recite to him the verge sacred to Savitr and the teacher imparts to him first one pada at a time, then two padas and then the whole. According
II.
*r
.
9.
Cb.
to
VII]
Baud.
gr.
II.
Upanayana and
the Gayatri
301
fuel
5. 34-37 the student places on the fire four the palsâ or other sacrificial tree anointed with clarified butter and repeats mantras to Agni, Vayu, ' 718 Aditya and the lord of vrafas with svaha when offering
sticks
of
'
Various intricate modes occur in the sutras and the commentaries thereon about how this first instruction in The differences are due to Gayatri is to be carried out. the place assigned to the vyahrfcis713 ( bhuh, bhuvah, svah ). Two illustrations are set out below from Sudarsana 7U on Ap. gr. II. 11. The syllable om has been looked upon as very sacred from ancient times and is a symbol of the Supreme Being. The
them.
' '
Tai.
Br. II.
1.
*
Bg.
contains a eulogy of omkara rco aksare parame &o. 164. 39 in support

11
'
'
'
'
and quotes
'
taking the
I.
word
*
aksara
to
)
says
syllable
mean the omkara om is Brahma om is all

;
'
'.
The
this
(
Tai. Up.
8.
universe
)'.
'
A
'
brahmana about
prayava.
to begin the teaching ( of the Veda ) says om f with the idea that he may reach near brahmi. 'Om is called
Ap. Dh.
S.
I.
4.
13. 6
says
omkara
is
the door to
712.
arir a<rcra
mft^r
snf
II. 5. 36-37.
: are sometimes called 713. The mystic words ^:, $3*":, vide Gobhila gr. II. 10. 40, Mann II. 81 ). They are also called simply Tho number said to be the 4th. "TTijf^ 8 J vide ^. grcr- I. 5. 1, whore rr^t is
of vyKhrtis is usually seven, ^:, 5^:, ^:, *?^:, 3nr : cT^:, ^?4 ( Vusi^tlm Gautama ( 1. 52. and 25. 8 ) speaks of only ave, 25. 9 f Vaik. VII. 9 ). viz ^t, ^:, W:, SW:> fT^, while the u?TgT?Nn*T has the same five,
,
but
^q
714.
;
is last.
11. 11
on which
?f:
;
g^fa
i
says
'ajf
^TcHctg^^^
is
aft
g^:
JTiTFj
this is
aft
i
aft s^ one method; another

'
end
e. g.
fttffftcl&nf ^?
an ennfts'J ...... ajf ffcHRg ... IT^^T: compare BhaT. gr. as aw. 1. U. 11. ^: is often pronounced
M^ftîti ^r:
:
*mf %^^T tfWt ^ aft

i
to put the vyShrtis at the
mml
fWlr 5^:.
5^:
3H
JT
5
fitft ^rt
?T:
i
I. 9. stf.
afl
q. II.
*^!^ ^t 5. 40 is the same

srgr
i
I
sfrmf^
arHJrcfhf
I.
...
I.
afrmni arr^ror: TI^J^TTOT? T^riTJir^nnf5 1 ^^îjftf^ 27 declares ^T^^: **Fr: '. arrant ^fts %mo on ??g II. 74 ^r. ^. 1.4.13.6.
d. ?.
*
n^
...
3T<fV
the
muym>yfl^ ( 12 )
supreme
and in iftsTT^'B Sfufnra Brahma,
( I.
24-29
a?fcrc is identified with the
302
;
Oh. VII
about to study the Veda, should Manu ( II. 74 ) prescribes the repetition of pranava at the beginning and at the end of daily Vedio study and further on ( II. 76 ) says fchafc the three
heaven therefore one

study by
who
is
start his
first
repeating OM.'
( in om ) and the three vy ahrtis were distilled from the three vedas by Prajapati as the essence. MedhStithi on Manu ( II. 74 ) says that om must be uttered at the beginning of the daily Vedio study by the student or by the house-
'
letters
'
u ',
'
'
holder ( when performing brahmayajna ), but it is not necessary in japa' &o. In the Markandeya-purana chap. 42, Vayu chap. 20 , Vrddha-Harlta-smrbi VI. 59-62 and in numerous other places there are hyperbolical or esoteric identifications of the three
letters of
om with Visnu, LaksmI and the jlva, with the three In the Vedas, with the three worlds, with three fires &o. Katfiopanisad I. 2, 15-17 om is said to be the end of all Vedas,
its
the source of the knowledge of brahma and also
symbol.
The sacred Gayatrl verse is Rg. III. 62. 10 and occurs in the other Vedas also. It is addressed to Savitr (the sun) and may also be interpreted as a prayer to the Source and Inspirer of everything. It literally means we contemplate that esteemed
'
( longed for) refulgence ( glory ) of the divine Savifcr who may inspire our intellects (or actions) '. Some grhya sutras prescribe the same verse for all students, whether brahmanas, ksatriyas or vaisyas. But others say that for brahmana the Savitrl verse
is the Gayatrl, but for ksatriyas and vaisyas, a savitrl ( verse addressed to Savitr ) in the Tristubh ( having 11 syllables in each quarter ) or Jagatl ( 12 syllables in each quarter ) should be the proper one. Here again there is difference. According to the commentators on the Kathaka gr. ( 41. 20 ), the verse
'
adabdhebhih savita
'
rupani
( Kathakam IV. 10 ) and the Kathakam XVI. 8 ) are cited as the

;
'
verse
'
Visva
Savitrl for a
ksatriya and a vaisya respectively while the commentator on San. gr. (II. 5. 4-6) says that the Tristubh which is to be taught as the Savitrl to the ksatriya students is a krsnena rajasa
'
'
HiranyaRg. IV. 40. devo yati savita and 5 ). According to the Varahagrhya (5) 'yufijate manah ( Rg. V. 81. 1 ) are the Tristubh and Jagatl meant as Savitrl for the ksatriya and vaisya respectively. According
Bg. I. 35. panih savita
is
(
*
2) and the Jagatl

(
Rg.
'
I.
35. 9
Savitrl for the vaisya ' ' or hamsah sucisad

'
'
'
to Satatapa quoted in the
Madanaparijata
p.
23
the verse
Deva
'
savitah' (Tai. S. I. 7. 7. 1, Kathakam XIII. 14 ) is the savitrl for the ksatriya. According to Medhatithi on Manu II. 38 a krsnena ( Rg. I. 35. 2 ) and visva rupani ( Kathakam XVI. 8 )
' '
Ch. VII
are the
Upanayana and
the
Gayatrl
303
two
all these rules
Savitrls respectively for ksatriya and vateya. That about the Savitri being in the Gayatrl, Tristubh
for the three varnas respectively are probably vary ancient follows from the text 'gayctrya brahrnanamasrajattt tristubha rajanyam &c.' (quoted in note 356 above). The Asv. gr.,
and JagatI metres
Ap. gr,, and some other sutras are entirely silent on the point, while Par. gr, IF, 3 allows an option viz, all varnas may learn
the Gayatrl or the Savitri verses in the Gayatrl, Tristubh and 715 the Gayatrl verse ( Rg. III. 62. 10 ) JagatI respectively.
Why
difficult to say. Its fame was probably grand simplicity and to its adaptability to an idealistic conception of the world as emanating from an all-pervading Intelligence. The Gopatha Brahmana ( I. 32-33 ) explains the Grayatrl in various ways. In the Tai. Ar. ( II. 11 ) it is stated that the mystic words 'bhuh. bhuvah, svah* are the truth (essence) of speech and that Savita in the Gayatrl means 'one who en716 Atharvaveda 19. 71. 1 calls it vedamata genders glory *. and prays that it may confer long life, glory, children, cattle &c. on the singer. 717 The Br. Up. V. 14, 1-6 718 contains a sublime eulogy of Gayatrl which word is there derived from gaya meaning prana ', and the root trai ( to save ) and it is said
came
to be
its
famous
it is
due to
'
'
'
'
'
'
when the teacher repeats the Gayatrl for the benefit of the young student he thereby saves the boy's life ( from ignorance and the effects of sin ). The Ap. Dh. S. I. 1. 1. 10 mentions a brahmana text to the effect that the Savitri is recited for all the Vedas ( i. e. by its recital all Vedas become recited as it is Manu II. 77 ( = Visnu Dh, S. 55. 14 ) says that their essence ). each pada of the Savitri was as if extracted from each of the three Vedas and that ( II. 81= Visnu Dh. S. 55. 15 ) the Savitri
that
together with
om and the three
mouth
Dh.
of Vedic lore (since Vedic study starts with

'
'
mystic syllables (bhu. &c.) is the it, or 'brahma*

).
may mean
S. 55.
the Supreme Being
Manu
II.
(
77-83, Visnu
),
11-17, Sankhasmrti XII, Sarhvarta
verses 216-223
715.
nmff
716.
3ft. II.
11
( STJTOTST
means without stopping

*
or break*).
3*13: 19. 71. 1.
i
717.
^gm
fTT
JT^T
^T?T
t^JTrarr
3T^^cft qr^rrm fit^T'TH
sw^t
718.
i^f i^l^d5 TITt ^ ^HiW^T
Tt??f% rl^
i
T. V, 14. 4.
364
History of Jbharmafatra
QHT Vll
Brhat-Par&sara chap. ( where the mystical significance of each of the 24 letters of the Gayatrl is explained ) and numerous 719 other works contain hyperbolical eulogies of Gayatrl. Parasara
Vedamata'. The words Apo jyotl rasomrfcara brahma bhur-bhuyah svarom' are said to be the $iras ( head ) of the Gayatrl ( vide Sankhapmrki XII. 12 ). Manu ( II. 104 ) and others prescribe that every day a brahmacari ( as well as others) must perV. 1 calls
it
'
'
form japa of Gayatrl. Baud. Dh. S. II 4. 7-9 prescribes that in the evening Sarhdhya adoration one should murmur the Gayatrl a thousand times, or a hundred times with pranayama each time
*om* and the seven vyahrtis.720 Vas. Dh. S. 26. 15 prescribes that a man desirous of purifying himself from sin should repeat the divine Gayatrl 1000 times (daily) as the maximum or 100 times (as the middle way) or at least ten times. There are mantrasfor invoking the Gayatrl and for taking leave of it. 781
or ten times with
Brahmacari-dharmah Certain rules and observances are 788 . prescribed for all brahmacarins They are of two kinds, some are prescribed for a very short time and some have to be
:
observed for all the years of studenthood. The As v. gr. 1. 22. 17 7?3 says "for three nights, or twelve nights or a year^ after upanayana
Vide Siu. C. I. pp. 143-152 for lengthy remarks on seveial 719. matters connected with the GSyatri ; on p. 145 there is a dhyana of the 24 letters of the sacred verse. *n^. I. 23 refers to the diras of GSyatri.
720.
f^roq on
I
TH. I.
25 quotes a verse of sifter

'
%*
sft^cf: *TS ^rprft STcTHvtf
^simi**
and adds
35
721.
The
air^rf
^H^ ace.
to
H
ftf^
is
'
quoted in f^ftHr
p.
( I. p.
143) and the

( I.
'
quoted in the ijfW^renc

*
241.
The
I
^rô
4.
p.
'
151
quotes from iftf^

also
*
*rtJTC5*traWT fi^l^^H^T wamr ... *rctaraf and T Ttlft fireft 'sn^ &o. These are recited in the modern SatfidhyV also.
722.
723.
.
3m q*mttmi:
snr
snffarefan^ft
w^
nh^ 2.
^j. I.
22. 17; 5*ni*fa*n3 un^rinT
^ i<w^fy^^^:5T^r
.
^r HIT. n.
H.
5. 55;
II. 4. 33.
There
is
great divergence
of views on the
^.
I. 8.
meaning of
$nTc3^nr.
According to NaTSyanaon
I
10
*
$m means certain
cereals
OTCfff^TcTT:
^n on H^ V. 72 explains that s^r(^1gf^FR: ^Ki means such salts as tr^ri^ and ^trr means Ihtft- 5^rT on 3TTT. tf.
explains
7
-,
HT^M
on fgiuifjhftq.
I. 8. 1
II. 6. 15. 12
on
i explains V. 72 explains
WCOTT as
manufactured
salt
'.
Oh. VII
Upanay^na and brahmacaridharma

'
305
'
the brahmaoarl should not eat
ksara
'
and
'
lavana
and should
The same rule is stated by Baud. sleep on the ground". gr. II. 5. 55 ( adding the maintenance of the fire kindled at the upanayana for three days), BhSr. gr. 1. 10, Par. gr. II. 5, Khadira
33 (adding avoidance of milk also for three days). Hir. 2 ) specially prescribes for the first three days the avoidance of ksara, of lavana and vegetables, and the duty of
gr. II. 4.
gr.
( I. 8.
sleeping on the ground, of not drinking out of an earthen vessel, of not giving the remnants of his food to sudras and several other observances which he has to continue throughout the
period of student-hood. These latter are briefly indicated in Manu II. 108 and 176 viz. offering samidhs into fire, begging for
food, not using a cot, working for tarparia of gods, sages and pitrs &c.
the teacher,
daily bath,
hood are
that last throughout the period of studentseen in the passage of the Sat. Br. (quoted above in note 625 ). The same are laid down in Asv. gr. I. 22. 2 ( quoted on p. 283 above ), Par. gr, II. 3, ip. Mantrapatha ( II. 6. 14 ),
first
The observances
K&thaka gr. ( 41. 17 ) and other texts. These are principally acamana, guruûsrusa, vaksamyama ( silence ), samidadhana. When the teacher says in the upanayana drink water, do work &c ', the student is to reply with the word yes ( 'badham' or om ). But the sutras and smrtis lay down many rules about these and other observances vide Gaut. Ill 10-40, San. gr. II. 6. 8, Gobhila gr. III. 1.27, Khadira gr. II. 5. 10-16, Hir. gr.8.1-7, Ap. Dh. S. I. 1. 3. 11-L 2. 7. 30, Baud. Dh. S. I. 2, Manu II. 49-249, Yaj. 1. 16-32 &c. The rules centre principally round agnipa'
'
for food ), ( begging ricarya ( worshipping- fire ), bhiksa sarhdhyopasana, study of Veda and its methods and duration, avoidance of certain foods and drinks and other matters like
singing &c., guru6urusa ( including honouring him and his family and other elders ), arid the special vratas of the brahmaThese principal topics will be dealt with in some detail c&rl. now. Before doing so some other matters will have to be
briefly disposed
off.
On
724.
the 4th day after

724
(
upanayana a
rite
Medhajanana
generation of intelligence
'
was performed called ) by virtue of which

3.
ST.
Compare fornr^PT
in ana ^4 above (on p. 233).
*w? quoted in
p. 446.
Three directions
(
viz, south, south-east
f^^?T )
445
*
the rest
and south-west arc objectionable are unobjectionable, sfcre? (quoted in
p.
^wfu^S
.
D. 39
306
Ch. VII
it was supposed that the student's intellect was made capable of mastering Vedio lore. Asv. gr. I, 22. 18-1,9 deals with this. The teacher makes the student sprinkle water in an unobjectionable direction thrice from the left to the right with a pot of water round about a palasa tree that has one root, or round a bunch
of
the
kusa grass if there is no palasa, and makes him repeat mantra 'Oh glorious one, thou art glorious. As thou,
glorious one, are glorious, thus, glorious one, make me full of glory. As thou art the preserver of the treasure of sacrifice for the gods, thus may I become the preserver of tho treasure of
Veda among men' 725

rite
The Bhar. gr. ( I. 10 ) also prescribes this on the fourth day after upanay ana and says that a palasa tree with one root is to be anointed with ajija and the mantra * susravah (the same as in Asv. ) is to be muttered.
.
'
Kathaka gr. 41. The Sam. Pr.

cription.
18,
(
Manava
444-446
gr.
)
I.
22.
17 also refer to this.
pp.
In addition to what
gives a more elaborate desis stated in Asv. gr. it quotes

details,
viz.
from Saunaka and adds a few more
the student
deposits at the root of the palasa his garments already worn, the staff and (he girdle and then wears new ones and then
when
is
the
boy returns
to
the
house,
a stream
of
water
poured before him.
by the boy.
Tho
the garments &c. left Ap. gr. 11. 24 says that on the fouith day the
The teacher tukes
teacher takes the garments worn on the day of upanayana by the student and the boy wears new ones. Sudarsana on Ap. 11. 24 speaks of palasa-karma on the fourth day. The boy goes out with his acarya to the east or north and three
sthandilas are prepared to the north or east of a palasa tree and three pranava ( om ), sraddha and medha are invoked, are worshipped with unguents, flowers, lamp &c. ( as in the
on these
regular worship of an image ), then the pranava is worshipped ' with the formula yas-chandasam to 'srutam me gopaya' ( Tai. ' Up. L 4.1 ), sraddha with the hymn sraddhayagnih Rg. X. 151
*
and Medha with the anuvaka
'
Medha
devl
'
Tai. Ar. X. 39
).
Then
is
the staff
is
deposited at the foot of the palasa, another staff
taken and the student returns to the house with the acarya, In modern times in the Decoan a similar ceremony is gone through under the ( Marathi ) name Palasula \
*
(i. o.
has two meanings (1) glorious, 1 (2) who hears well Veda well by hearing it from tho teacher). This occurs in ann. *. <n. II. 5. 1 also XL 14 it is the JR^ ( but in sire. for taking the staff).
725.
gsrsrrs
*
who
learns tho
Ch. VII
Upanayana awl brahmacaridharma
307
seon above that the student has to offer samidh fche fire on the day of upanayana. The fire kindled at the time of upanayana was to be kept up for three days
fuel stick
)
Wo have
into
and fche fuel-sticks were offered in that fire during those days. Afterwards samidh was to be offered in the ordinary fire ( vide Baud. gr. II. 5. 55-57, Ap. gr. 11. 22 ). The student is required to offer every day after upanayana a samidh into fire in the evening and in the morning. Asv. gr. I. 22. 6 prescribes this and the commentator Narayana adds that in so doing he has to observe the procedure prescribed in Asv. gr. I. 20. 10-1. 21. 4 for the putting on of samidh n the first day. San. gr. II. 10, Maim II. 186, Yaj. I. 25 and almost all others prescribe the offering of samidh into fire in the evening as well as in the morning but Ap. Dh. S. I. 1. 4. 17 notes that according to some agnipuja
;
'
to be performed in the evening only. Ap. Dh. S. (1. 1. 4. 786 should 14-20) lays down the following rules *the student on a low place always bring fuel from the forest and heap it ( otherwise if placed high it may fall on anybody's head), one should not go out after sunset for bringing fuel-sticks. Having kindled fire, having swept round it he should offer fuel-sticks in the evening and tha morning as already directed ( in the grhyasutra \ One should sweep round the fire that 19 burning red-hot with the hand and not with a broom ( of kusa grass ).' The Ap. Dh. S. I. 5. 15. 12 further prescribes that no fuel is to be placed on fire ( in srauta and smarta rifces ) unless water has been sprinkled over it. The student had not only to offer saraidhs on his own account into the fire, bu& he had to help his
:
was
acarya in the
latter's
worship of
fire
by bringing
fuel and by
offering oblations for his acarya when the latter was away on 787 a journey or was ill. The Asv. gr. I. 9. 1 says 'beginning from
marriage a householder should worship grhya fire himself or his wife or son or maiden daughter or pupil may do so/ The Chandogya Up. IV. 10 contains the story of Upakosala Kamalayana who was a student of Satyakama Jabala and looked after his teacher's fires for twelve years and whom Satyakama did not teach anything, though the wife of Satyakama interceded on behalf of the dejected pupil.
726.
frftra
!
3*r^wc*mf
*iTrq-f
^.
5. 15. 12.
I.
1. 4.
14-18
727. $. I. 9. 1.
Tnî3r^nf%
;
2
The various
kind a
vide also srt $. II. 17. 3 to tho same effect. of fires will be discussed later on under 'marriage. 1
308
History of DharmaiOstra
Oh.
VIl
A few words about samidhs may be said here. The samidh 78 must be of palasa or some other yajriiya tree ( used in sacrifices ). Such trees are pal a a, a&vattha, nyagrodha, plaksa, vaikankata, udumbara, bilva, candana, sarala, sala, devadSru and khadira. The Vayupurana quoted by Apar&rka in their ( p. 51 ) says that palasa samidhs should be preferred, absence samidhs of khadira, in the absence of the first two, of daml, rohitaka and as vat th a and in the absence of all these of The Trikanda-mandana ( II. 82-84 ) has arka and vetasa. several rules on this point. The principal trees for fuelsticks (saraidh)are palasa and khadira, but samidhs of kovidara,
kapitfcha, karabha, rajavrkaa, sakadruma, nlpa, nimba, karanja, tilaka, slesm&taka or salmali are not to be employed. The samidh was not to be thicker than the thumb, was to have its bark on it, was not to be worm-eaten nor divided, nor longer nor shorter than the span ( pradesa ) nor
bibhltaka,
having two branches, it was to be without leaves and was to be 729 strong. According to Harlta when death wanted to seize the brahmacarl formerly, Agni saved him from death and so a brahmacarl should serve fire \ 7SO
'
The number of samidhs varied as shown above and not only in the worship of Agni by the brahmacarl, but also elsewhere.
BUksa
states
( I.
The Asv.
7-8
)
22.
gr. after prescribing begging for food that the student should first beg of a man
who would
not refuse or of a
woman who would

'
not refuse
and
that in begging he should say rules are laid down by others.
sir,
give food
'.
More
"
affcer
detailed
The Hir.
gr.
S. B. E, vol.
30
p.
157
says
(
giving
the student the staff the teacher gives

728.
him a bowl
for collecting
p.
61,
where aragrm^nnw
is
said to
n W^T^rr quoted in mean aronra'gîft TO
the
same
verses are quoted in t*Trrif, y(3W*3 part 1 p. 76 as ^T^TcJTJn'^rftU J compare *JT. I. 302 for the nine tffaq;3 for the nine grahas. *n^r, I. 302 is the eaino as 93. 27. Vide^jgttoTVol. 13. 70-72 for similar vei sea.
17^3^
'
729.
i
quoted by WTTRf iftftc*3ft I. 114-115).

T H
p.
51 and ^tftô
( I. p.
33
as
730.
\$
quoted in
^[mô
I, p. 33.
Ch. VII
Vpanaijana and bhiksa

'
'.
309
alms ) and says

mother
disposed
first,
;
to him go out for alms Let him beg of his then in other families which are generously he brings the f eod to his guru and announces it to
'
and then the teacher ( these are ) the alms ' The Baud. gr. accepts with the words these are good alms 731 II. 5. 47-53 gives the same rules and adds that a brShraana * student should bog with the words bhavati bhiksam dehi (lady, ' give me food ), a ksatriya with the words bhiksam bhavati
him with
the words
'
dehi bhiksam bhavati/ 5, Ap. Dh. S. I. 1. 3. 28-30, Band. Dh.' S. I. 2. 17, Manu II. 49, Yaj. I. 30 and others contain the same rules about 738 Par. gr. II. 5 says that the addressing the ladies for alms. student should first beg of three women who would not refuse or of sir, of twelve or of an unlimited number and that according to some he should first beg of his mother. Manu II. 50 says that he should first beg of his mother, sister or mother's sister. Ap. Dh. S. I. 1. 3. 26 says that if women refuse to give alms to a devout brahmacarl he
dehi
and a vaisya with the words
'
Par. gr. II,
snatches
away
or destroys their merit arising from sacrifices,
gifts and burnt offerings, progeny, cattle, spiritual glory food and quotes a Brahmana their families ) and ( of
therefore indeed one should not refuse to give food a crowd of students moving about ( for alms ) for fear that among them there may be some one who is like this ( a devout student), and who has carried out all the observances for If a brahmaoarl cannot get food elsewhere he may students.' his own family, from his elders (like maternal uncles), from beg As to the his relatives and lastly from his acarya himself. 732 from whom to beg for food, one sees how the growing persons
passage
to
strictness of caste rules about food during the lapse of centuries
affected the brahmacarl.

731.
Ap, Dh.
snrerarf
msfcr
\
i
S.
734
1. 1. 3.
25 prescribes that
anmft sif^F
qrsr
*neK&rr&
ftsri *refit
w^r firsrt
3.
II. 5.
%m
srwft
47-53.
732.
733.
*ri2 II.
Vide
ifhm
*
i
$ri.
*. II. 6. 5-8, tffa<3* II. 10. 42-44, *?rn^!. II. 4. 28-31
for similar rules.

II.
43-44
airaT^m'^^cTT^re ?W $?
I
? T?**^
184 has tbo same rule.

wwr.
734.
1. 1.
3 25
-
m^W^^^^mwrfcr^tr^c
;
ift.
II. 41*
variously explained
on
arrr.
qr.
^.
I.
7. 21. 6
q^f^t
^<HgH>
nh 5Tf^
explains as ^FSTcTT^; (with ( Continued on next page)
whom
no social inter-
310
Histonj of DharrnaSastra
Ch.
Vll
he could beg food from anybody except apapatras ( poisons like candalas ) and abhisastas ( i. e. those who are guilty of or suspected of grave sins X Gaut. II. 41 expressly says that a brahmacarl may beg food from all the varnas except from those
who are abhisasta and patita. Manu ( II. 183 and 185 ) says a brahmacarl should beg for food at the houses of those who study the Veda and perform sacrifices, who are devoted to their duties and are virtuous in their conduct; if from such persons food cannot be had he may go about the whole village, but should avoid those who are abhisasta. Yaj. I. 29 says for his own maintenance a brahmacarl should beg food from brahtnanas who are blameless and the ancient commentator Visvarupa
'
'
says that the best way is to bog at brahmana houses, the next best is to beg of ksatriya and vaisya houses and to beg of sudras Ausais allowed only in apad (time of distress or difficulty ). nasa ( Jiv. ed I. p. 505 ) says that a brahmacarl should beg only from houses of his own caste ( as the best way probably ) or he may beg at the houses of all varnas, while Angiras quoted in the Par. M. ( I. 2, p. 41 ) says that even in a season of distress a
brahmacarl should not beg for cooked food from sudras. The p. 33 quotes a passage from the BhavisyapurSna to the effect that a brahmacarl may beg food from anybody
Madanaparijata
except a sudra.
Food obtained by bagging was supposed to be pure as said by Manu II. 189, Baud. Dh. S. I. 5. 56 and Yaj. I. 187. It was further said thafc a brahmacarl who subsists on food obtained by begging is like one observing a fast ( Mauu II. 183 and BrhaWParasara p. 130 ). The brahmacarl was to eat food collected from several houses and was not to take food at a single person's house, except that when he was requested to dinner in honour of gods or the Manes he might do so by partakContinued from last page)
srnr.
*7-
course was possible), while on

*ff?lc3T*TTt
I. 1. 3-
25 he explains
means those who cannot bo allowed to use the vessels out of which members of other castes are to take food ( i. e. those vessels when used by them have to be broken or thrown away). 3?ro& P- 720 explains (i. e. one who has lost caste through the commission of some mortal sin). According to p. Dh. 8. I. 9. 24. 7-9 an abhisasta is one that kills any brtthmana or kills a brahmana woman who is Atreyl. According to &p. Dh.
<T3raTT^T:
>.
The word
literally
8,1. 7. 21.
f
as
Bbhidaatya is one of the grave ^sins ând is explained by wgrf^n, but 3*3^1 explains 3ifvr*Tf?fT; as ^Tq (cTi%Tt on rV II. 41.
>
'
Oh. VII
Upanayana and bhiksa
311
ing of such food at such dinners as would not violate his vows. Vide Manu II. 188-189 and Yaj. I. 32.
Corresponding to the dufcy of the student to beg was the obligation cast on householders to serve food according to their ability to brahmacarina and yatis ( ascetics ). Gautama
V. 16 prescribes that after performing the daily yajfias to gods offering bait to bhufcas, the householder ( vaisvadeva ) and should offer alms ( of food ) preceded by the word svasti and by water. Manu III. 94, Yaj. I. 108 and others say that alms should be given to ascetics and brahraacarins with honour and welcome. The Mit. on Yaj. I. 108 says that alms should be ordinarily one morsel of food as large as the egg of a pea-hen
*
'
and quotes a verse
of Satatapa
is
725
saying that 'bhiksa

is
is
as
much
is
as one morsel, that puskala
equal to four morsels,
hanta
equal to four puskalas and agra
equal to three hantas*
fuel-sticks
The idea that a brahmaoarl must beg for his food and offer every day was so ingrained in ancient times that the Baud. Dh. S. I. 2. 54 and M&nu II. 187 ( = Visnu Dh. S. 28. 52 ) prescribe that if for seven days continuously a brahmacarl who was not ill failed to offer fuel-sticks and to beg for food he violated his vow and had to undergo the same penance 726 as was prescribed for a brahmacarl having sexual intercourse, Even in modern times many brahmana students ( not only those who sfcudy the Veda from orthodox teachers but even those learning English) begged for their daily food and by dint of hard discipline, patient industry and integrity rose to high positions in public life. However the practice of poor
begging students attending English schools in this way is dying out, since English education does not now ensure for the poor brahmana students even a bare maintenance.
Other important rules about the begging of food are that
the student should not beg for his sake alone, should
735.
THSTT
announce
on Tn*T
I-
108
siTO*
P-
153 quotes a verse from the

'a
are defined differently

'
*5!5TTcrrcl<T
57
is
very similar to the verse quoted
by
736.
.
( XI. ^. ! 2. 54. states the penance for him.

ft.
t*.
Mann
118-123
explains
who
ia
avaklrnin and
312
Oh.
VII
he has brought and eat only that which if the teacher is gone on a journey the teacher's family ( wife, son ); if even these are absent, then to other learned brShmanas and eat with their permission. Vide Ap. Dh. S. 1. 1. 3. 31-35, Mann He should leave no residue in his dish and wash it II. 51.
to the teacher all that
him to take then he should announce it to

the teacher directs
meal therein. If he is not able to eat the whole that he has brought he should bury it underground or consign it to water or place that which is more than he can eat near an arya or give it to a sudra who works for his teacher Ap. Dh. S. (1. 1. 3. 43-44) says that ( Ap. Dh. S. I. 1. 3. 37-41 ). alms are held to be equal to sacrificial food, the teacher holds 737 the place of the deity and of the ahavanlya fire. Other miscellaneous acts that the students had to do were
after taking his
bringing
728
cowdung,
earth,
:
water for the acarya in pots, collecting flowers, kusa -grass &c. ( vide Manu II. 182 ).
Samdhya
Gayatrl there
On
samdhya. Jaimini
is
long as there is no imparting of the no gamdhya.' So the student begins his sarhdhya
'as
day m says
the
of
upanayana
there
is
no morning
in the noon of the
day of upanayana.
As however on
that
day
he knows no Vedic text except the Gayatrl, his whole aamdhya
worship consists of the Gayatrl.

twilight ', but also indicates the action of prayer performed in the morning and evening twilight. This act is generally styled 'sarhdhyopasana' ' ' ' 74 This act of or samdhyavandana or simply samdhy a.'
The word sarhdhya
'
literally
means
adoration
is
at day-break, in the
sometimes prescribed as necessary thrice a day viz. 741 noon and at sun-set e.g. Atri says 'a twice-
born person possessed of the knowledge of the Self should perform three samdhya adorations/ These are respectively named Gayatrl ( morning one ), Savitrl ( noon ) and Sarasvatl
737.
srg II. 231 also calls the
sno*
,
guru ahavanlya
fire.
i
738
739.
_
II
tr
4
f
i^v mî j.-vi- *%rm^j^gj
TPRC srsnq^r
^fftft quoted
anrcfrwn^ *r
*. p. 439.
*
SCTT
m;?rTir
by #.
f^cfi.
740.
R*a^T on
*TT- I.
JfHcTO^ aad the

37T5T
25 says tft^rra :JTT^1^^4on (on the same verse ) say a

'
WT *h*n
3
'
I
and on IV. 94
34114 (<
^^TO
H^T
3HTrf%fih*T
\
#
*^r
741.
^rtrqr^r
atfaT
3vch4 %^ficnf^r^T
^J^T
$\ft
*R'iWr
^sÛf
II
quoted by
P49
ypfi Ht*TT
3 *TW?(\ HTlWr IHT

).
"*H ^^R'Cn&IJTT
tf*Tf 'ETT fi^fn H^^^TT U ^tirr. ( in S^nmcR p.49 says that JTv^gTFt^T should not bo performed in the house.
Ch.
(
VII
Upanayana and samdhya
313
evening one ) by Yoga-yajnavalkya. Generally however th* samdhyS prayer is prescribed twice ( Ssv. gr. Ill, 7, Ap. Dh. S. 1 11. 30. 8, Gaut. II. 17, Manu II. 101, Yaj. I. 24-25 &c).
All prescribe that the morning 748 prayer is to be begun before sunrise and should be carried on till the disc of the sun
is
seen on the horizon and the evening prayer begins when the sun is about to set and goes on up to the appearance of stars. This is the most proper time but a secondary time was allowed up to three ghatikas after sunrise and sun-set. The duration of the prayer each time was to be one
disc of the
;
( i. e. two ghatikas, according to Yoga-ySjnavalkya ) whatever the length of the day may be. 748 Manu ( IV. 93-94 ) however recommends the prayer to extend as long as one could
muhurta
afford, since the ancient sages secured
long
life,
intelligence,
glory,
fame and
spiritual
eminence by long samdhya prayers.74 *
According to most writers japa of GSyatrl and other sacred mantras is the principal thing in samdhya and other things such as marjana are merely subsidiary, but Medhatithi on Manu II. 101 (where the words are 'japanstisthet' and not tisthan japet ') says that japa is subsidiary or secondary and the place of the prayer and the posture of the praying person are the principal items. When it is said one should perform the samdhya' what is meant is that one should contemplate the deity called Aditya represented by the orb of the sun and should also contemplate on the fact that the same Intelligence dwells in his
'
'
heart.
The proper place

(
for
samdhya prayer
Gaut.
II. 16,
is
outside the
gr. I. 2. 2), village * ' in a lonely place ( San. gr. II 9. 1 aranye ) or on a river or other sacred spot (Baud. gr. II. 4. 1). But this does not apply to the
S.
1.
Ap. Dh.
11. 30. 8,
Manava
agnihotrin,
742.
745
who has
to perform
w3*frm<Hrr
ved Jo
rites
and repeat homa

i
fo^ûnrfferhrei
3it<?T ^tjtawTO:
7. 4-6;
ft.
II.
17
JTT?r:
qiij-iimRtJSW
l^W^TT^
sn*. ^. HI.
p. 49 (
vide also *gll. 101.
743.
quoted by arqrraf
II. 101.
on
*rr. I.
25
and by
744.
*T3lV.
)
745.
-
^fR^r^csrT^^TW^^rTcg^: is the same as 3*g$rnT^4 104. 18 (i%**pfrw> for and giff^Q- X. 20. on Vide forr. on *g. II. 101 and 5 r. I. 11. 30. 8 about
si?<rft
94.
This
^^
aw
& sri to show that warriors, when tfvwrar awt^T%WTari^l* engaged in battle, performed only the upasthana and omitted all else.
I.
The s^fiN.
P-
136 quotes VyKsa
H. D. 40
314
Ch. VII
who therefore may perform samdhya Vasis^ha quoted by Aparftrka says that samdhyS performed in a oowpen or on a river or near the shrine of Visnu ( or other deity ) respectively is ten times, 100000 of
mantras at sun-rise and
adoration in his house.
times or numberless times better than samdhySvandana in the 746 All prescribe that the morning samdhya is to be house. performed standing and the evening one in a sitting posture and ( A6v. gr, III. 7. 6, San. gr. II. 9. 1 and 3, Manu II. 102 )
the morning
samdhya is to be performed facing the east and the evening one facing the northwest ( A&v. gr. III. 7. 4, San. gy. He is to bathe, to sit in a pure spot on a seat of kusa II. 9. 1 ). grass, should have the sacred cord in the usual position and restrain his speech ( i. e. should be silent and not talk in the
midst of samdhya ).
The principal constituents of samdhyopasana are these acamanas (sipping of water), pranayama, marjana thrice himself with water to the accompaniment of ( sprinkling several manfcras ), aghamarsana, offering of water to the sun ( arghya ), japa of Gayatrl, and upasfchana ( reciting mantras by way of worship of the sun in the morning and generally of Varuna in the evening). Among the earliest references to 747 where it is said Samdhyopasana is the one in the Tai. Ar. II. 2 t the throw up water east when brahmavadins that facing consecrated by the Gayatrl, the evil spirits that fight with the sun are sent tumbling into the country (called) Mandeha Aruna This shows that in ancient times samdhya ( of the evil spirits ). consisted principally of offering water ( arghya ) to the sun in
:
worship and japa of Gayatrl. Asv. gr. III. 7. 3-6, San. gr. II. 9. 1-3 and others refer only to the japa of the Gayatrl mantra in
746.
II
wffoj quoted in 3<miJ> p.
50,
while *&frc??TT3rc p. 224 quotes
747.
wtffir ^jifiûi
p.
^
n
fTT
nf^r^tr &. &\.

i
II.
as
134 quotes some verses from *ft*iqr$Tqfr*Hi mggtiui vol. I. 50. 163-65 )
which are
The f^Sh?o I. almost the same
i-q fsf
Similar verses occur in ssifrita

P-
IV
( Jiv.
part I.
183
f^?^T5^
p. 64,
TOijWp. 560.
Oh. VII
Vpanayana and saihdhya
315
Mftnava gr. (L 2. 1-5) refers only to the arghya sun and japa of Gayatrl. It is in the Baud. Dh. S. IL 4 that we find an elaboration of samdhyopftsana into various components such as Scamana, marjana, japa of G&yatrl and upasthana (worship) of Mitra and Varuna ( respectively in the morning and evening with only two verses in each case ). 748 Modern writers went on adding details e. g. it is now the practice in the Deccan to repeat the 24 names of Visnu at the very beginning of the samdhyop&sana, but this is hardly anywhere prescribed by any smrti or early commentator. Similarly elaborate rules are laid down about mystic nyasas with the sixteen verses of the Purusasukta ( vide Apararka p. 140 ), of the nyasa of the NSrayanamantra of 25 letters on 25 parts of the body ( Vrddha-Harlta VI. 16-19 ) and of the letters of the Gayatrl BrhatparS6ara chap. V. p. 83 ). In modern times acamana is performed with the three names of Visnu, viz. Ke6ava, Nftrayana and M&dhava in the form om Kedavaya namah.' The 24 names are given below. 748a
SaihdhyopSsana,
offering to the
'
A
samdhya
laid
5. 15.
few words on each
of
the principal
components of
may
be said here*
;
Elaborate rules about acamana are

vide Gaut.
II.
I. 35-40, Ap. Dh. S. I. 58-62, Yaj. I. 18-21. Such rules must have been elaborated from very ancient times. The
down
in several smrtis
2-11 and 16.

I.
l-16,Manu
)
Tai. Br.
5.
10
acamana with water

( 1.
prescribes that one should nofc perform that is in a cleft of the earth. Ap. Dh. S.
749
5.
15.
says the same thing.
One should perform
748.
*nfr**rm^rnte f^r^FT ôftgcfr ftrsft The verses frf ft ^ôr and <TTWT ^Tft are respectively WmtJST> and foift SPTT^ are respecRg. 1. 25. 19 and 1. 24. 11 ; and tively Rg. III.59.6 and 1. Gobhila-smiti II. 11-12 prescribes the two
fasqc
ii
4. 11-14.
W3W
citram and in other Vcdas also ) and devSnSm ( Rg. I. 115. 1 and in other Vedas also ) as the upasthSna in both samdhySs. In modern times the usages vary, many recite the whole of Rg. III. 59 in the morning adoration and Rg. I. 25. 1-10 The Sm. C. ( I. p. 139 ) says ( addressed to Varuna ) in the evening. that the worship of the Sun should be done by the mantras from that tJSkhS of the Veda to which one belongs.
verses
*
udu tyain
'
'
Rg.
I.
50. 1
'
748a.
T bey
in the srfitgtM chap. 48.
749.
15. 4-5.
f
are enumerated
Vide note 567 for the
first
twelve names.
frc*mM<ma4*h' innfa[
i.
rr. I.
5.
10; compare sx\*. u.
I. 5j
^TKTWnn^ T
I
316
History of DharmaiZstra
Ch. VII
acamana in a sitting posture ( and not standing nor bent ) in a water thrice pure spot, facing the north or east, one should sip foam or from free is and that with water that is not hot twice the water after lips should wipe sipping bubbles, one
(thrice according to Ap.)and should touch
with the wet right hand

for
one's eyes, ears, nose, heart and head. should be as much as would penetrate
The water
(
Soamana
or reach
to the heart in
the case of brahmanas, to the throat in the case of ksatriyas, to the palate in the case of vaiSyas ; women and Sudras should sip
on occasions of acamana only once as much water as would reach the palate. Manu (II. 18) and Yaj. (L 18) say that water should be 750 The sipped by the brahmatlrtha (i. e. from the root of the thumb). Gobhila as smrfcis such gr. in down laid rules elaborate further
(
for
5-6 ), Sankhasmrti 10 are not set out here. The occasions 751 gr. 1. 1. 2 one acamana are many. According to Gobhila must do every grhya rite with yajnopavlta^worn in the usual
2.
way and
after
acamana.
Haradatfca on Ap. Dh. S.
I.
5. 15. 1
says that acamana is a subsidiary matter in all religious acts. There are several occasions when the sipping of water twice is
necessary, the principal being before and after bhojana ( meals ) ; vide Gautama I. 40, Vas. 3. 38, Yaj. L 196, Sm. C. I. p. 100, Madanaparijata p. 57, Par. M. L part 1. pp. 241-243. Both the
Br. Up.
2 refer to the practice of ( VI. 1. 14 ) and Chan. Up. V. 2. sipping water before and after bhojana and the Vedantasutra III. 3. 18 is based on these upanisad passages and says that 75B Numerous water is looked upon as the garment of prftna. occasions when acamana is necessary are stated in Ap. Dh. S.
I. 5.
16. 15-16,
Manu
V. 138 and 145, Yaj.
1.
196,
Kurmapurana
I. 2. 13.
1-8 &c.
The roots of the smallest finger, the index finger and of the 750. thumb and the tips of the fingers of the hand are respectively called the MMWU ( or girq), fte^T, wigr *&d $* rfpja. Vide Yaj. 1. 19. Visnu Dh. As everywhere, S. 62. 1-4, Vas. Dh. S. III. 64-68, Baud. Dh. I. 5. 14-18.
there are differences here also.
forefinger
Vus. holds that pitrya

tirtha is at
is
between the
the tips of the lingers. Others say that the roots of the four fingers constitute 9rsa tirtha (Baud. Dh. S. I. 5. 18 ). Vaik I. 5. and P5r. gr. paridi^tj* mention five
(ir*/ia( the 5th being in the styled Saumya by others.
and the thumb, and that mSnufa
palm
is
called Sgneya).
Agneya
is
also
751.
^JjO'JtfilcHr
3<ru-dV<|5T
VI.
1.
fjW?
'ftPTeniiT
I. 1. 2.
14 ;
V.
2. 2.
Oh. VII
Samdhya and pratfayama

( )
317
Prarfayama
sutra
of
restraint of breath
is
defined
by the Yoga-
(II.
49
air.
lasts for
Dh.
Baud. Dh. S. IV. 1. 30 ( = Vas. ) and Yaj. I. 23 say that the iiras of Gayatrl, the three vyahrtis each preceded by om and the Gayatrl verse are to be rehearsed mentally during the time of pranaySma. According to Yoga-yajiiavalkya, one should first revolve in the mind the seven vyahrfcis, each preceded by om/ then the Gayatrl and then the siras of Gayatrl. 754 Pranayftma has three components, puraka ( inhaling the outside air ),
(
Gaut. I, 15 matras
as the regulation of inhalation and exhalation 50 prescribes three pranSyamas, each of which
moras
).
S. 25.
13=Sahkhasmrbi VII. 14
'
'
kumbhaka
air nor giving
keeping in the inhaled air i. e. neither taking in it out) and recaka ( exhaling air from the lungs ). Manu VI. 70-71 highly praises the utility of pranayama in purifying the mind of sin.
(
Marjana is performed by means of ku6a grass dipped in water kept in a vessel of copper or udumbara wood or earthen' ware and while doing so one is to repeat om/ the vyahrtis, three and the verses Gayatrl apo hi stha ( Rg. X, 9. 1-3 ).
' '
Baud. Dh.
adds more Vedic mantras for marjana. 75S Manava gr. 1. 1. 24, Yaj. I. 22 and others prescribe marjana only ' with the three verses apo hi stha ( Rg. X. 9. 1-3 ).
S. II. 4. 2
'
AgJiamarsana
in the right
it
(
driving out sin
consists in taking water
of a cow's ear, holding near one's nose, breathing out from the nose on the water with the idea of driving away sin from oneself ) to the accom'
hand formed in the shape
paniment of the three verses rtam ca

then casting the water
753.
II. 49.
away
to one's left
Rg. X. 190. 1-3 on the ground.
and
754.
^J^:^J%5focTT: H?4 cT&f

i
quoted in
^fô
I. p.
141.
755.
^fWTc^T
c.
3n5fr^ffaw<W TW& *refiri ^. *. ^. II. 4. 2. $*nr*cft is the verse (Rg. IV. 39. 6), ani?yf verses are Rg. X. 9.1-3,
verses are fir $ ÔT ( Rg. I. 25. 19 ), ?T^T Tim ( Rg. I. 24. 11 ), and ^f^>^f ( Rg. VII. 89. 5 ). qmrr^T: are all verses ( Rg. I. 24. 14 ) like ??rrf^5r*rT Tf^S^rr ( ?g- IX. 1. 1 ) of the IX mandala of the Ijjtgveda
or according to
II.
some Rg. IX.
67. 21-27.
4-5
,
a?4^f^ is
*% X.
9. 1-3.
The
&. WT.
HI.
9.
7 has
318
Ch. VII
75e ( offering water oufc of respect to the sun ) Arghya consists in taking water in one's joined hands, repeating the
G&yatrl verse over it and standing facing the sun and casting it up thrice. If a man cannot have water ( being at the time of Sarhdhyft on a road or in jail &o. ) he could use dust for water.
The
Tai. Ar. II. 2 says that a
brahman a contemplating the
rising and setting sun and doing obeisance to it by going from left to right attains all bliss, since this Aditya is Brahma.
japa of G&yatrl, vide above under Savitryupadefca There is an extensive literature about the greatness of the japa of Gayatrl and of other holy vedic mantras which are passed over here and for which reference may be made to AparSrka pp, 46-48, Sm. C. I. pp. 143-152, Gr. R. pp. 241-250, AhnikaprakSsa A few details will be given under ahnika. pp. 311-316.
to
(p. 304).
As
As to upasthana vide above (p. 315, note 748). According to Baud, the worship 757 of the sun is done with the verse? 'udvayam' (5g. I.
(ftg.
Udu tyam* ($g. 1. 50. l),'citram'(g. L 115. 1), 'tac-caksur' VIL 66. 16), 'ya udagaf (Tai, Ar. IV. 42. 5). Manu IL 103 prescribes that he who does not perform the Samdhypp&sana in
50. 10),
the morning and evening should be excluded from all actions meant for the benefit or honour of dvijas. Gobhila smrti II. 1 says the same and adds that brahmanya resides in the three
that he who has no concern for samdhyopSsana a brahmana. Baud. Dh. S. II. 4. 20 calls upon the religious king to make brahmanas, who do not engage in sarhdhyopasana thrice a day, perform the work peculiar to sfldras. The 759 Kurma-purana goes so far as to say that even if a person actions which are religious but gives up the in other engages performance of sarhdhyopasana, in so doing he falls into numerous
eamdhyas and
is riot
hells.
Manu declares (II. 102) that sins committed at night

(
through
ignorance
756.
or oversight
are removed
by the performance of
kft
3. 3?T. II. 2.
757.
t.
miji<<i*iq quoted in tUthlUcHmdT p. 237 which adds

758.
3T^
snfrrf
ftq : jmtiifi ^f: ^?fs
iftfira^ft
ILL;
n
15-16
,
^.
^ ^. II.4.19 is similar
^ft^ffi
II.

759 -
*
T
*w* nfcsrtT fil^nT: quoted in fqffcp I. p. 139.
fi^nr
Oh. VII
Safhdhya
319
morning samdhya and the sins committed in the day are removed by the evening samdhyS. Baud. Dh. S. II. 4. 25-28, Yaj. HI. 307 are to the same effect. When a person is impure owing to mourning or birth in the family, he is to perform saihdhyft only up to arghya to the sun but not japa nor
upasthana.
In modern times the samdhyopasana has become a lengthy

business by the addition of materials from puranas and the tantras. But as observed by the Samskararatnamala rituals like
and many do not perform them. For nySsa are non-Vedic 76 various nyasas and mudras ( postures of the fingers, hands etc. ) one may consult the Smrti-muktaphala ( ahnika pp. 328-333 ), 8m. C. I. pp. 146-148.
Nyfcsa means
'
mentally invoking god and holy texts to
come
fit
to occupy certain parts of the body to render it a pure and receptacle for worship and contemplation.' The sixteen verses
of the Purusasukta (Rg.
X, 90) are respectively invoked to reside in the left and right hands, the left foot, the right foot, the left and right knees, the left and right sides, the navel, the heart, the throat, the left and right arms, the mouth, the eyes and the
head
recommends
vide AparSrka p. 140 ). The Bhagavata ( VI. 8. 4-5 ) that one should perform nyasa on the hands and limbs of one's own body with the two mantras of NSrayana
(
(
and thus make N&rayana one's armour when some danger om and and that one should perform nyasa with other syllables on one's feet, knees, thighs, belly, heart, 768 The Sm. C. I. p. 144 quotes verses chest, mouth and head. from Vyasa and Brahma as to the nyasa of the letters of the Gayatrl with om and namah on the several parts of the
'
arises
'
'
'
'
760.
p 229.
761.
practice, the following
mBla", vol.
For the influence of tantra rites on the snutis and Indian may be consulted The Introduction to Ssdhana2 ( Gaikwad's Oriental Series ), Indian Historical Quarterly
:
vol. 6. p. 114, vol. 9. p. 678, vol. 10 pp. 486-492, Sylvain Levi'a Introduction to 'Sanskrit texts from Bali', Modern Review for August 1934
pp. 150-156.
762.
fttumhwwi
*rarp*f t
i
5^
i5w<n-i<in
*rnwRi VI. 8. 4-5.
snapgrir 3
'irf^*-c(
nvn'-it
3
Vide
^5.
3n^T p.
331
for these Utter verses
320
Ch.
VII
body. Vrddha-Harlta VJ. 16-19 speaks of the nyasa of the twenty-five letters of the mantra about Narftyana on the The twenty-five parts of the body. Nityacfirapaddhati ( pp. 578-579 ) describes the nyasa of the letters of the alphabet ' ' * ksam Nrsimhaya ( 51 in all ) from Kesavfiya naraah to
Om
is to assign Govinda, Mahldhara, Hrslkesa, Trivikrama, Visrm, Madhava respectively on the tips of the thumb, the index finger, the middle finger, the ring-
namah.' One well-known mode
small finger and the middle of the palm. Manu II. 60 enjoining the touching of the limbs and head with water appears to contain the germ of this practice of nyasa.
finger, the
The Sm. C. I. ( pp. 146-148 ) quotes long passages about the mudras ( hand poses ) to be made in the sarhdhya adoration. The 762 quoted in the Pujaprakasa ( p. 123 ) states that the Samgraha mudras are to be made in worship, at the time of japa, dhyana (contemplation ) and when starting on kamya rites ( performed for securing some desired object ) and that they tend to bring The names and mudras differ considerably. For example, the Sm. C. and Smr. Mu. (ahnika pp. 331-332) quote passages defining the following mudras viz. sammukha, samputa, vitata, vistlrna, dvimukha, trimukha, adhomukha, vyapakanjalika, yamapasa, grathita, sammukhonmukha, vilamba, mustika, mlna, kurma, varaha, simhakranta, mahakranta, mudgara and pallava. The Nityacarapaddhati p. 533 derives the word mudra from mud '( joy ) and the root *ra' (to give) or 'dravay* (causal " " is mudra so of dru, to put to flight ) and says that called because it gives delight to the gods and also puts to That work and the Puja-prakasa flight asuras ( evil beings ). (pp. 123-126) give the names of mudras. They are avahanl, sthapinl, samnidhapanl, sarhrodhinl, prasadamudra, avagunthana-mudra, sammukha, prarthana, sankha, cakra, gada, abja, ( or padma ), musala, khadga, dhanus, bana, naraca, kumbha, vighna ( for Vighnesvara ), saura, pustaka, laksml, saptajihva ( for Agni Vaisvanara ), durga, namaskara ( bringing together
the deity worshipped near to the worshipper.
of
number
both hands from the wrist to the tips of the fingers
),
anjali,
samhara (in
The Nityacarapaddhati (p. 536) says that sankha, cakra, gada, padma, musala, khadga, srlvatsa and kaustubha are the eight mudras of Visnu. The Sm. C. quotes a
all 32).
763.
tms
:
SRKfr -oiM^hid
ijsns^T?? p. 123.
Oh. VII
Sctfndhya
and mudras
321
work called
m
(
performed in the presence of a deities become angry and the

Saradatilaka
23.
MahasarhhifcS that the mudras are not to be crowd and if so performed the
mudrag become
fruitless.
The
106
states that all deities are
gladdened
by
the
mudras and in verses 107-114 describes the following

viz.
mudras,
sammukha,
(
avahanl, sthapanl, sarhnidhSpanl, samrodhinl, The sakala, avagun^hana, dhenu, mah,mudr. AoSra-dinakara of Vardhamana-suri composed in samvat 1468
1411-12 A. D.
(
for Jainas
enumerates 42 mudras and defines

).
them
1923, part II. pp. 385-386

influence of these
mudras spread outside India and they are still practised in the island of Bali. Miss Tyra de ' Kleen has brought out a very interesting book on the mudras the hand Buddhist and Saiva priests ( poses ) practised by
(
The
'
called pedandas
).
in Bali, with 60 full page drawings
1924,
New York
Study a f the Veda
detailed examination
of
the educaits
tional system from ancient times onwards, together with
methods, courses of study and kindred topics will require a
volume by
itself.
may
be read for
set out.
The works 765 mentioned in the note below that purpose. Here a few salient features alone
can be
pivot of the whole educational system of ancient India the teacher (variously called Scary a, guru, upadhySya). The instruction was oral. ftg. VII. 103. 5 ( speaking of frogs ) says
The
was
when one
of these frogs follows another in
making
'.
as
a learner repeats the words of the teacher
noise just Vide the
(/. n.
quotations from the Atharvaveda and the Sat. Br. cited above 622 and 625 ). In the beginning the father alone may have
taught his son.
The
the story of Svetaketu
story narrated in the Br. Up. V. 2. 1 and Aruneya who was taught by his father
everything he knew ( Br. Up. VI. 2. 1 and 4 ) illustrate this vide/, n. 633 ). But even from very ancient times the practice
764.
OT
I.
'
p. 148.
'
Vide Rev. F. E. Keay's Ancient Indian Education ( 1918 ), Education in Ancient India ( 1934), S. K. Das on Educational system of the ancient Hindus ( 1930 ) and Dr. S. C. Sarkar's Educational ideas and institutions in ancient India ( 1928 ). The last work is based entirely on the Atharvaveda and the
765.
Dr. A. S. Altekar's
4
*
'
>
'
H. D. 41
322
of
History of Dharma&slra
Oh. VII
boys to learn from an acarya had become The Chan. Up. itself says in one passage ( VI. 1 ) that Svetaketus Aruneya was placed by his father for twelve years as a student with a teacher. The same upanisad ( III. 11. 5 ) says
sending
usual.
766
that the father should impart the madhuvidyS to his eldest son or to a worthy pupil only. As the boy stayed with the
'
'
teacher in the latter's house and all instruction

teacher's position
assumed the greatest importance.

'
was oral, the Satyak&ma
Jabala 767 says to his teacher ( in Chan. IV. 9. 3 ) I have heard from persons like your revered self that knowledge when learnt from an acarya reaches the highest excellence The Sveta^va768 VI. the 23 on a levej with almost ( ) places taropanisad guru God and inculcates the highest devotion to him. The Ap. Dh. S. I. 2. 6. 13 says the pupil should wait upon the acarya as if
'.
'
he were
to take
The story of Ekalavya, whom Drona refused God. a pupil because he was a nisada and who by worshipping the image of Drona is alleged to have become
as
789
illustrates two points viz. the prevailing notion of the greatness of a guru and the necessity of singleminded devotion to bim for attaining proficiency ( vide
an adept in archery,
Adiparva 132 for the story and also Dronaparva 181. 17 ). The Mahabharata condemns him who learns the Vedas at home and says that Raibhya became superior to Yavakrlta 770 because the former learnt from a guru, while the other did not do so. In Manu and other smrtis there is some divergence about the
766.
argfirtft -iffT
i
ff
fi%c*ftmft fffara 1^. ^. VI. 2. 3-. VI. 2. 4 ^mrrg c*m%<rf&%ra

I
1;
i
tn^Mr
V.
3. i.
'. *3 II. 142 and *TT5T I 3TrgrTCT*cT?T<Tr^Pto f^Tf^JTTT f^rfcf 34 show that guru primarily means the father but irg II. 69 and 149 show that the word guru was also applied to the ScSrya and upffdhy 5ya .
:
I
Vide
fr?TT.
on w.
$jef
III. 259.
ft wkf^pfcr sTT^T^rr^cr n?n Qi^dt arr^r^F^ff *? Î^T^T VI. 14. 2
I
767.
ifa
3
:
Êrrf^ny
TTTTcftfw
II. 9,
^F^T IV.
*
9.
vide
^n.
I
<i^nqo 1,2.3 for the importance of guru in brahmavidyS. Alstfui^n-q III. 11. 5 cJ^STPT ^TCT f^cTF WgT ywqit%viTZW3 WT^^rTf^t '. %$
768.
^-^T
.
%^
IRT vrni
&n %^
1
rrr
3^
cnpHr ^Rrcrr: ?i^f ; ^f T?F^ Hgreywt n
VI. 23.
769.
770.
Itf^^ras'TTtfra Vide argsmnfirf
3T(T *r ^.
I. 2. 6. 13.
36.
15
H
'
srw
;
^ ^rnr^m:
25-26
'
%:
^r^trf 138.
Ch. VII
Upanayana and
the acarya
323
greatness of the acarya. Manu II. 146 ( = Visnu Dh. S. 30. 44 ) says that both the father (janaka) and the teacher are called father ( pita ) but the father (i, e. acarya) who imparts the sacred
Veda is superior to the father that gives ( physical ) birth, since the birth in spiritual learning is for a brahmana of eternal But in 11.145 Manu 771 says that benefit here and hereafter.
an acarya is ten times superior to an upadhyaya, the father is superior to a hundred acSryas, while the mother is thousand-fold superior to the father. Gaut. II. 56 declares that the acarya is
the highest among all gurus while according to some the mother is the highest. Yaj. I. 35 also places the mother higher than
s
Gaut. 1. 10-11, Vas, Dh. S. III. 21, Manu II. 140, 34 define 778 the acarya as one who performs the upanayana of the student and imparts the whole Veda to him. The Nirukta 773 ( I. 4 ) derives acarya as follows: 'he makes the
the aoarya.
Yaj.
I.
student understand the proper course of conduct, or he collects wealth ( i. e. fee ) from the student ( or gathers together the meanings of words ), or he increases the intelligence ( of the
student)'.
Ap. Dh,
S. 1. 1. 1.
14 says
The acarya is so
called since
the student gathers his duties from him.* Manu II. 69 gays that the teacher, after performing upanayana, teaches his pupil the rules
about 6auca (bodily purity), acara (rules of conduct in every day life), the offering (of fuel-stick) in fire and sarhdhya adoration. Yaj. 774 and 1. 15 is to the same effect. Though the words acarya, guru upadhyaya are very often used as synonyms, ancient writers made a distinction between them. According to Manu II. 141 and 142, an upSdhyftya is one who teaches to a student a portion of the
771.
Veda
or the
Vedangas
II.
775
(subsidiary lores of the
*i*T5 13. 48 quotes *rg
145 (but the
(108. 18-19) says
3rd <n^ in *TT%E ia 'i^nKtoT^fifSt srirmslfa ft *rm:

s?nif
:
nrgsw.
\
STHTT^TST *TT
10-11.
m f^wrr ^r^TT^n
'
3qw4n:3
*ft- 1.
772.
ip
I. 34.
773.
1. *
;
ainrnf: frwiqiît irif ^ i ft nN Whnf5r?ftffr 5 1- 1*; I. 1*re*TO*frTTf^(ft fr arr^rf: JKFT. v.

i
vi
rol. I. 59. 30.
774.
Vide
f5flTT
on
TJT
III.
259 for a discussion of the meaning of

six
the word guru.

775.
The ^T^fs have been

), f5ftrtfi
from very ancient times,

?%i or
viz.
(phonetics),
(
(
^w (ritual of solemn Vedio and domestic sacrifices),

(
grammar
etymology
ir*f;
),
g^ftftft
metrics
;
),
astronomy
).
The sm*iqfcq%
i
I. 1.
5 names these six
3.8. 10-11
îft ^t
ê*r ^^wjr'r 4rtW
Ww* tfw ^^
a^rr.
q. ^. II.
324
History of Dkarmatastra
of his
Oh.
VII
Veda) as a means
latter definition
own
performs the samskaras and
who maintains
livelihood and a guru is one who the child. This

here.
I.
Dh.
S.
III.
22-23
shows that guru means the father Dh. 8. 29. 2, and Yaj. ), Visnu
Vas.
35 define
upadhyaya in the same way as Manu. According to Yaj. 1. 34 the guru is one who performs the samskaras and imparts the Veda. This corroborates the statement made above that originally the father himself taught the Veda to his son. The word guru is often used in the sense of any elderly person, male or female, who is entitled to respect. Vianu Dh. 77e S. ( 32. 1-2 ) says that the father, the mother and the acarya are the three highest gurus of a person and Manu II. 227-237 contain the most
sublime glorification of these three, Devala 777 says that among gurus five deserve special honour, viz. father, mother, acarya,
eldest brother
(
'
and husband
in the case of
women )
'.
Manu
says that whoever confers on another the benefit of knowledge, whether great or small, is the latter's guru.
II.
149
deal is said about the qualifications of the acarya perform the upanayana of a person and to teach him 778 1. 1. 1. 11 refers to a Brahmana text to the Veda. Ap. Dh. S. he whom a teacher devoid of learning initiates the effect enters from darkness into darkness and he also ( i. e. an acarya ) who is himself unlearned ( enters into darkness)/ Ap. Dh. S. 1. 12-13 ) further provides that one should desire a ( I. 1. performer of one's upanayana who is endowed with learning
A great
is to
*
who
and whose family
mind and
the end
off
is hereditarily learned and who is serene in that one should study Vedio lore under him up to
not fall ( of brahmacarya ) as long as the teacher does from the path of dharma. Vyasa ( quoted in Sam. P. p. 408 ) 779 that the acarya should be a brahmana who is solely says
776.
-5^:
^Twfa*j*sft VR^CT
f^
*rrarenfr
ft*^nfesr
32. 1-2
JTg II. 225-232 are the same as ireR3*m 211. 20-27; ^230,231, are the same as $ni%tnf 108. 6, 7, 12 ; *g 11. 230, 233, 234 31. 7, 9, 10.
234
777.
$& H ^jt
ggwwPr *r$rt sprr* i nitaar: *ft vrr^rra *n rar ^ Hcrr T| <?H& 5^: f^cft: ftrrmtTW?: sfarc^ri *r rar s^Rren
i
^W^y in **jRi^
}
are ffcty Vide smnfc PP- 398-401 for a long aj^. quotatioD from ^Jp^^TTT on the greatness of guru.
778.
^TT^ n\m &{$, 3?r?m and

I. p.
;
35
(214. 28-29) speaks of five gurus, but they
cwtft ^T q<? fTT: ^^fitf
wRinsSM^^
'Wrfiil'rf'ffiT
ft
Hw*i
>ixn
.
*T.
^. I.
1. 1.
11-13.
779.
^f^M^ ml^ 5"c^

in
tf. ij.
p. 408.
Ch. Vll
Upanayana and
qualifications of the acarya
325
devoted to the Veda, who knows dharma, is born of a good family , who is pure, is a srotriya that has studied his Vedic Sakha and who is not lazy. Srotriya has been defined above (/. n. 290 ). Ap. Dh. S. II. 3. 6. 4 and Baud. gr. I. 7, 3 define a srotriya as one
who has
Vide Vayupurana vol. I. upanayana must be a brahmana as to the study of veda one should ordinarily learn the Veda from a brahraana teacher in times of difficulty ( i, e. when a brahmana is not available ) one may learn the Veda from a ksatriya or
studied one sakha of a Veda.
780 59. 29 also.
The acarya
;
in
vaisya teacher; but in such circumstances the only service that a brahmana student rendered to the guru would be following after
the non-brahmana teacher he had not to render bodily service (such as shampooing or washing the feet &c.). Vide Ap. Dh.S.II. 2. 4. 25-28 (quoted above in note 229), Gaut. 7. 1-3, Baud. Dh. S* 1.2,40-42, Manu II. 241. Manu II. 238 allows even a brahmana
;
to learn
6ubha vidya
visibly beneficial knowledge
even from
781 The Mit. on Santiparva 165, 31 does the same. Yaj. 1. 118 remarks that a ksatriya or vaisya should teach a brahmana only when urged by him and not at his sweet will.
asfldra.
Apararka
p.
160
says that
Manu
II.
to a ksatriya, but does not allow
him
to
241 allows only teaching make it a means of his
livelihood.
782
We saw above (p. 321) that the instruction was entirely oral
The
thing that was taught to the boy was the pranava and the vyahrtis and the Gayatrl. Then the boy was to be taught othei parts of the Veda. It is desirable to set out briefly the method
first
of teaching the
(
Veda followed
in ancient times.
:
IV. 8
describes the
method as follows
the east or north, while the other ( i. e. right facing the north or two students
The San. gr the teacher sits facing the strident ) sits to his
may
sit
in that
way
there are more than two they should sit as the available 788 The student should not sit on a high seal space will allow.
but
if
780.
trik frjHiitfU srnjrnrtfter ft. g. 1. 7. 3 srrenmfter sftBnr:
*ftfsr*ft
;
**ft an*.
i
u.
II. 3. 6.
f^r 3rete'n*J
pr vol. 1. 59. 29.
781.
5NiixH4 165. 31.

i
Prato on
*rr.
118; H^f^llH^l^nqcq*iirnji^ltMi*i^sn'm'cJ
783.
Ttf
*T
^rticî*}
STOtraf
p 160.
***',
Compare wroVide
t*.
5.
I* 2..6,
24-25
also
H3
II. 193.
326
History of fiharma&aslra
Ch. VJtt
before the teacher nor on the same seat with him he should not sfcretch out his feet, nor should he sit seizing his knees with
;
his arm, nor should he lean against a support, nor should he place his feet on his lap nor should he hold his feet like an axe. ' 784 After the student utters the teacher should Recite, Sir,'
om the other ( i. e. the student ) urge him to pronounce should reply 'oin*. Thereafter he (the student) should recite continuously. he should clasp the After reciting teacher's feet and say 'we have finished, Sir' and go away to his
;
'
business,
let
Some
us stop '. description of the method of teaching the Veda, which closely agrees with the above quotation from the Sail. gr. It adds
that the teacher
teachers say that the teacher should say Leave, In the Rk Pratis5,khya, 785 15th patala, there is a
'
may also sit facing the north-east. When the teacher recites two words or more, the first pupil ( to the right of the teacher ) repeats the first of the two or more words
recites
and the other pupils repeat the rest afterwards, The teacher one word if it is a compound, two words if they are
;
un-compounded; the teacher also clearly explains how to recite if there is any difficulty in this way the whole prasna is finished and all the pupils repeat again the whole of A prasna generally has three mantras and each adhyftya it. has about sixty prasnas. Manu ( II. 70-74 ) also prescribes certain rules the student should sip water ( acamana ) when about to begin Vedic study, should face the north, should fold both hands 785 together (and place them on his knee), should wear light ( pure ) clothes, should afe the beginning and end of
the words
:
Vedic study clasp the feet of the teacher with crossed hands
According to the com. ?TKTO0r on Ssh. gr. II. 5. 10-11 ( S. B. E. words 'apsftil'Tt:' are uttered by the teacher. But this does not seein to be correct. In &. gr. III. 1 we read
vol. 29 p. 67 /. n. ) the
784.
^f
1. I
ST*R:
Wfr Rd<*4MÛK CTJKt WSTT

I
aifrfa
we have
785.
3j\fnt
>m
|q%
%ft itatfHT? *HK

*rrfa%
srr
*H
and in m*^fr*r VII. ^TT: '. The
supports the above tianslation.

atfvrafrper
unta
W?.
503
ff.
*n6ltfttalOT> 15th <i*ff. Vide for further details.
Max
Midler's History of A. S. L. p.
wsrrof& is explained differently from Manu by 3Trg^f*T^fir quoted in tf. *, p. 524 viz. the left hand should be turned upwards, the right hand should be placed on it with the palm turned downwards, and the fingers of the two hands should firmly hold the
(in verse
)
786.
backs of the hands.
^
*
\\
quoted in tgft*.
( I. p.
51
reads
fft g
tfi?*ft
Oh, VII
Upanayana and method of teaching
327
and should touch the right foot of the teacher with hifl own hand and left foot with the left hand, should repeat om at the beginning and at the end of Vedio study. The teacher should say to the pupil repeat i and should stop from
right
1
'
'
teaching with the words let there be a pause '. Gaufc. (I. 49-58) gives similar rules. The Gopatha Br. I. 31 uses the expression ' sarve veda mukhato grhltah. ', which is current even in modern times ( ifc means all Vedas were committed to memory
by word
of
mouth
).
Veda was the first duty of every twice Vedic Literature had grown to vast born person ( dvijati ). proportions even in the times of the Tai. Br. ( III. 10. 11 ), as the story of Indra and Bharadvaja cited above (p. 271 ) shows. The ideal was set up by Manu II. 165 viz, that the whole Veda together with secret doctrines ( Upanisads ) was to be learnt by every The Sat. Br. XL 5. 7 contains a eulogy of Veda study dvijati.
The study
of the
,
svadhyaya ) and the injunction svadhyayosdhyetavyah. The ( one must study the Veda ) occurs there very frequently. 787 the Tai. A. II. 14, 3 thaUhe Ap. Dh. S. (I. 4. 12. 1 and 3) quotes study of the Veda ( svadhyaya ) is austerities and also the Sat. The Mahabhasiya ( vol. I. p. 1 ) quotes a Vedic Br. XI. 5. 6. 8. text a brahmana should study and understand without any purpose ( or desire of reward ) dharma and the Veda with its six angas.' * 89 The Mahabha*rata says that a brahmana may bo deemed to have completely accomplished his duty by the study
(
'
'
of the Veda. 789
Yaj.
I.
40 says that
it
is
Voda alone
that
confers the highest bliss upon dvijatis by enabling them to
understand and perform sacrifices, austerities and auspicious The Mahabhasya ( vol. I. p. 9 ) contains ( like samskaras ). the traditional extent of the four Vedas, viz. that there were 101 Sakhas of the Yajurveda, 1000 of the Samaveda, 21 of the 79 Concessions had to be Bgveda and nine of the Atharvaveda.
acts
787.
<?
err:
^n*rnr %ft
:
ariiran^
...
awrm
12.
II.
^risr^Rrarrsro^
^c^nrqr*T
V
3TTT.
*T.
^.
I-
4.
;
1%
f^?T
WT; <T*ffn^*m
and 3;
ia to
33
compare ng the same effect

tf. ST.
II.
166
P. 504. vol. I. p. 1.
788.
srrsroto nr^TTuft r& <reff %^h$*ft
$* f
far
*% mm^r
on
789.
*3
III.
explains
f^c^T^
as
^TT^TJ
790.
239. 13
the latter half
is *rg II.
87
328
History of Dharmatistra
to the shortness of
Oh. VII
made
human
life
and
the weakness of fche
Therefore Gaut. II. 51, Vas. Dh. S. VII. 3, Manu III. 2, Yaj. I. 52 and others allowed a person to study only one Veda. After a man studied his own Veda, he could if so minded study another 6akha of another Veda or other Vedas.
human mind.
The
rule laid
the s&kha of the
down by many smrtis is that one should study Veda which his ancestors studied and should
parform religious rites with mantras derived from that sakha. Vide Medhatithi on Maim III. 2 and Visivarupa on Yaj. I. 51. 791 That person who does not study a Vedio $Skha studied by his ancestors and studies another Sakha altogether was called SakhSranda '. Whatever religious rites a man did with the procedure and mantras of another sakha giving up his own
4
6akha becomes fruitless.

effect that if
But an exception was made to the some 782 religious rite was omitted in one's sakhS, but was dealt with in another sakha and was not opposed to the
teaching of one's gakha, it may be performed as in the case of Agnihotra ( which is not dealt with in all sakhas, but is to bo
performed by
all
).
Teachers mostly confined themselves to one place. But we that even in ancient times there were teachers who wandered from one country to another. In the Kaus. Br. Up.
find
IV. 1 we find that the famous Balaki Gargya moved about in the countries of Uslnara, Matsya, Kuru-Pancala and Kasivi-
In the Br. Up. III. 3. 1 Bhujyu Lahyayani tells deha. Yajfiavalkya that he and others wandered about in fche country of Madra for study. Students generally stuck to one teacher ;
but
it
as waters flow
also students
appears that they sometimes flocked to renowned teachers down a slope 7M ( Tai. Up. I. 4. 3 ). There were
who wandered from teacher
to
teacher and were
791.
quoted in î?ô Shrr on *rg III. 2

57. ffc^T
1.
;
p.
49.
TJT
*& RiTT/tft:
^mi
3im?rT
I.
onjn.
*W UN* ^? TO^flft TT^T 3

24. 19;
$TH?m0:
*T fitfhf:
^^f:
792.
c^^T^^Fni
Vide
^^rT on
I.
i^T^r IX. 53 quotes a
verso which
extends the rnlo to giving up one's 3^.
iftw?^m
I
34-35 quoted
by
ApaiSrka
:
p.
8 ar.d
I. p.
50 and ffgTHHf ( B. I. cd ) II. 91 and 93 3n?*RT**|j[ f^PTT: ^Q WTTTF^T ^ ^nfTf ÎT^T: ty

u.
793.
:
T.
I. 4. 3.
sjr^ft
means
Ob*
VII
tfpanayana and duty to teach Veda

*
329
therefore derisively called tlrthakaka place),' as the Mahftbhasya states.
crowa at a saored
As the study of the Veda was a duty enjoined upon a br&hmana, so teaching Veda to another was a duty. Medh&tithi on Manu ( II. 113 ) quotes a Vedic text 71 * 'He who having studied the Veda would not teach one who requests him to do so would be one who destroys his own good acts ( I.e. would lose the benefit thereof), would shut the door leading to happiness; therefore he should teach; it leads to great glory*. When Satyakftma Jab&la did not teach his pupil Upakosala anything for twelve years, though the latter served assiduously by
attending to the sacred fires of the teacher, the teacher's wife remonstrated with the husband by saying this student has worked hard and attended the fires, may the fires not censure
*
you and order (Chan. Up. IV.
you
10.
to
teach
him the
vidya"
he desires
'
1-2). The Prasna Up. 79<! VI. 1 gives expression to the view that if a teacher keeps back anything he
knows he
expressly
dries up entirely. The Ap. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 2-3 ' the teacher whom a student asks for proscribes instruction should not refuse him, if he finds no defect in the
student/ 797
Ap. Dh. S. (I. 2. 8. 25-28) lays down certain ' excellent rules for the teacher the teacher, anxious for the welfare of the student as if he were his son, should attentively impart learning to the student without hiding anything
from him
in
all
matters of duty
restrain the student for his
own work
in such a
nor should the teacher way as to cause

distress.
obstacles in his study except in seasons of
A
*
teacher
becomes no teacher if he avoids giving instruction ( L e. he may be abandoned ). The Dronaparva ( 50. 21 ) says that a pupil comes only after the son according to the idea of those
794.
^fr
795.
ifrtarer
*ft
**nntr
I. p.
391
on
<rr II. l.
41
).
L
is
113 I.
The P
p. 53.
rtion
'
quoted as
796.
from trf&s by tbo *qft<*
*in*f
wr
w vftwffit 4tvwf^rw^fR ?rw*rrf!*TOrf TO^

797.
1. 4.
5pimww
t
Mmfftrt
^ TOsf&
)
srvhr. VI. 1.
n. ^.
nwrr^rfhr wTHRpfa v ^t^r 14. 2-3 fhwftWr f?t^ n^^HnPifi

i
TOt nftt " ^5WT

as
5T^tri 14. 39
quoted in TO. W.
I,
part
1. p.
146
W8
in cgfitaI* P 53.
B.D.4*
330
Ch. VII
who know dharma. If a teacher does not teach a pup&l anything even after his pupil has stayed with him for a year, 4ke former receives all the sins of the pupil. teacher 7W who did
was sinful was to be abandoned. Similarly a teacher, who became puffed up, did not care for what should or should not be done and took to a sinful path was to be abandoned. 799 ip. 1. 1. 1. 13 lays down that a student must
not teach or
stay with his teacher who performs his upanayana till he completes his etudy, unless the teacher himself swerved from the path of dharma and became a sinner and ( I. 2. 7. 26 ) that if the teacher cannot teach the subject, the pupil may resort to another teacher.
The smrtis lay down

student
rules about the qualifications of a
deserves to be taught. In the Vidyasukfca quoted in the Nirukta 800 ( II. 4 ) we see that the teacher was not to impart
to one who was jealous (or who treated vidya with contempt), was crooked and was nob'self^restrained and that learning was to be imparted to one who was pure, attentive,
who
vidyS (knowledge)
intelligent and endowed with brahmacarya ( celibacy ), who would never prove false ( to his teacher ) and who would guard what he learnt as a treasure, Manu (II. 109 and 112 also)
says that ten persons deserve to be taught
viz. the
son of the
teacher, a student who serves his guru, one who gives some knowledge in exchange, one who knows dharma or who is pure ( in body and mind ), who is truthful, who is able to study and
retain
it,
who
is
gives
money
for teaching
(
),
who
Yaj.
is
and who
all
one's near relative
agnate
).
I.
well-disposed 28 mentions
these and adds that the student must be grateful, not inclined to hate or prove false to the teacher, healthy and not disposed to find fault. The student should always be dependent
798.
II
Tsft*T1^ 33. 79
3JffT^l^^lM'HTl?3rrarff
50.
<TcRr*TO^!*Tt
tpft
flcro 21.
12
vide also
*rfite 13.
799.
178. 48; 5TT,?cnr4 57. 7
is
;
140. 48 &c.
5- 6 7
In some places the last

quotes
it
read as
qfrn?
mft ?IT^!^.
)
3TTO%
as
wg.
Vide
KW 14. 25
800.
for the same.
<rr%3r II.
8-9
{^jojuif^ 29. 9-10).
*3
( II.
114-115)
is
very similar.
Oh. VII
tfpanayana-qwliftcations of a good student
331
on and under the control of the teacher (as Ap. Dh. S. 801 1 1. 2. 19 and Narad a say ) and should stay with no one but the teacher. We saw above (p. 274) that from ancient times the student had to serve the teacher by tending his cattle ( ChSndogya IV. 4. 5), had to beg for food and announce it to the teacher ( ibid. IV. 3. 5 ) and to look after his sacred fires and to learn the Veda only in the time that would be lef after doing work for the guru*.
fc
Besides these, the rules concerning his conduct towards the teacher, the teacher's wife and son, concerning the method
of salutation
and showing
respect, the food, drinks,
and actions
allowed or prohibited to students are too numerous to be set out in detail. A few important ones from Gautama, Ap. Dh. S., Manu II and Ysj I. 33 are stated below. Gaut. ( II. 13, 14, 18, 19, 22, 23, 25) says that the student should speak the truth, bathe everyday, should not look at the sun; should avoid honey, flesh,
perfumes, the wearing of flowers, sleeping by day, rubbing oil on the body, putting collyrium in the eyes, going in a cart, 803 wearing shoes and holding an umbrella, love affairs, anger, covetousness, infatuation, vain discussions, playing on musical instruments, luxurious baths with hot water, meticulous cleans-
ing of the teeth, ecstatic states of mind, dancing, singing, of others, dangerous places, gazing at women or touching young women, gambling, serving a low person ( or
calumny
doing very low work

talk, wine.
injury to animals, obscene or harsh 198 and 180-181 ) prescribes that he should not sleep on a cot and should observe complete celibacy, but if he suffers from night emissions he should bathe, worship
),
Manu
II.
( Tai. Ar. 11-24 ) contains similar rules of conduct. Ap. says ( I. 1. 2, 28-30 ) that the student should not wash his limbs with hot water ( generally ), but he may do so if they are smeared with dirty and impure matter provided he does it out of the sight of the teacher and
the sun and repeat thrice the mantra The Ap. Dh. S. ( 1. 1. 2. 21-30, I. 30 ).
punar
mam
'
1. 1. 3.
that he should not bathe in water in a sportive manner, but
801.
.
QdchiO
802.
s^rffofawr^T
nren
i
anr. *.
1. 1. 2.
17,
).
19-20
m^
15. 1
SOTT^TT verso 33
or. 3T. VIII.
803.
journey
1
31^. I. 2. 7. 5, but when on a !T<n*r|t 9T* ^n^fofr *3%^ the atudent may sit in a cart, if ordered by the teacher
\
'
332
tiistory of
Dharmafaalra
Ch. VII
should bathe in it motionless like a stick. Ap. not only prohibits him sexual intercourse ( I. 1. 2. 26 ) but ordains that he should speak with women only as much as is absolutely necesfor
laugh, but if he could not help laughing he should do so covering his face with his hands ( says Ap. ).
sary.
to
The student was not
804
Gautama and Baud. Dh.

student
is to
S.
( I.
2.
34 and 37
say that the
serve his teacher by following after him when he goes anywhere, he should help the teacher in his toilet and bath and should shampoo his body and take food left by him
he should be diligent in doing work that would be pleasing and beneficial to the teacher he was to study when the teacher called him, he was not to cover his throat with a
(
ucchista
805
piece of cloth, or was not to sit in the presence of his teacher with his feet on his lap, was not to stretch his feet, he was not
to clear loudly his throat, nor to laugh, yawn or crack the knuckles ; he was when called by the teacher to reply at once
leaving his seat or bed and was to approach the teacher even when he called from a distance ; he should always occupy a
seat lower than that of his teaoher
his teacher
and should go to sleep
after
).
and
rise before
him
(
Gautama
II.
20-21, 30-32
Manu
II.
194-198 and Ap. Dh.
S.
2. 5.
contain similar rules.
Manu
II.
199 )
26 and L 2, 6. 1-12 says that a pupil should
$04. Vide Yffj. I. 33 which contains many of the above. YSj. forbids the eating of ncchi^ta (leavings of food) of anybody (except the teacher). Manu (11.177-179) practically contains the same rules as
those of
Gautama
set out
above.
list
pp. 512-513) contains a long
Audanasa-smfti III. (ed. by Jiv. of what the student should eschew.

rorct
#w. tr.
2. 7.
7-s.
80S.
The word
is left out.'
It literally means 'what The most usual senses are three, viz. (1) food left in the plate from which one has eaten, (2) food taken out in a vessel for serving to a person but not exhausted by being served in his plate, and ( as applied to a person), (3) one who has not washed his hands, and mouth
Medhxtithi on
Manu
ucchi>ta VI. 80, in several senses.
'
is
used, as exhaustively pointed out by
after eating food ( or as applied to a plate
the plate ( not yet cleaned )
from which one has taken his, meal. Vide 973 IV. 211 for the 2nd meaning. Another meaning is (4) one who has answered a call of nature and not yet performed the purificatory acts like Kcamana is said to be ucohiefra. Vide Manu IV. 142 (for this and the 3rd meaning ) andV. U3(for3). Sometimes the word is used in its literal aense (vide Ap. Dh. 8. 1. 1.4, 2). Vide Manu V. 141 for another appli:
cation of the word.
Oh. VII
not
Rules of conduct for a student

the gait, the
(
333
manner of speech and the actions of the 200-201 ) calls upon the pupil to close his ears ( with his hands or fingers ) or to leave the place where somebody indulges in calumnies about the teacher or points out the faults in him, and states that if the pupil himself finds fault with his teacher or calumniates him, the pupil ( in the next life ) is born as an ass or a dog. Visnu Dh. 8. 80 ' 28. 26 says the same.
teacher.
mimic
Manu
II.
Some rules are laid down as to how the brahraacarin is to deal with the hair on his head. Even the Rg. speaks of boys
with several sikh5s (topknot). Vide note 598 above. Gaut. I. 26 and Manu II. 219 say that a brahmaoaTin may either shave his entire head, or may allow all the hair to grow as matted or should keep only a tuft of hair on the head ( and shave the
rest
807
).
Ap. Dh.
S, 1. 1. 2.
31-32, Vas. VII. 11 allow only
two
alternatives viz. growing all the hair or keeping a tuft of hair, while Visnu Dh. 8. 28. 41 says that a student may either shave
the entire head or grow matted hair. one's sikha, while on the public road. 808
One was
not to untie
One
of the rules for the student
pronounce the
(
name
of his teacher even
not present without prefixing or such as srl, bhatta, ftc&rya ). Gaut. ordains that the student
was that he. was not to when the teacher WEB affixing an honorific addition
should not speak of his teacher, the teacher's son or wife or of a man who has been initiated for a srauta sacrifice by their bare'names 809 and then says that when it is absolutely necessary
806.
*mw faffrffen^ wat * wr fifot
fowfs?i
28. 26,
is
ft^ is
declaring faults that really do not exist and tftaT?

faults that do exist.
807.
fpr
pointing out
HI* *.!.!.!.
808.
*r trft
81-8!.
I
firat ft^fcj
frfte quoted
I
by snmrf P.
m*ii7%
225.
809.
I.
atTOiJiTtUWtft^ftwilWN^
24 and 28. "I* the dlkaita
......
gftt <f*H*lw
*
'
present he may be addressed ae absent as *!!*imr and when or *ft T5WW ) tt'f*' ( Ac. Of Gaut. II. 28 Haradatta gives two explanations (
is
either
means
trrta
3? or
Sftrf.
*r?trr
amrm
and he takes 28
to refer to the
p.
pupil's name.
Vide
explain
3mWT*ft
on ug. II. 128 for explanations, tf. IT. EWWfgl. Vide mi II. 199 and AiQvhpr !8,
492
U.
33i
to refer to these
tiistory of
DharmaiQatra
Oh. Vli
by name the student should not pronounce name and gotra of his teacher as they are, but by means of a synonym ( e. g. if the teacher's name is Haradatta or Devesthe
vara the pupil should respectively say Devar&ta or Suresvara ). Ap. Dh. S. I. 2. 8. 15 says that even after returning home a snataka should avoid touching his former teacher with hia
fingers (to call his attention), frequent muttering of something in his ears, laughing into his face, calling him out loudly,
taking his name, ordering him about. Manu II. 128 and Gaut. VI. 19 say that a man who has been initiated for a sirauta sacrifice should not be addressed by his name, even though he be younger than the person addressing, but that one should use * the words bhoh and bhavat when addressing him or speaking about him and may refer to him by words like dlksita &c.
'
'
There are other rules about addressing or referring by name which may be set out here for the sake of completeness. The 810 Sm. C. ( I. p. 45 ) and Haradatta on Gaut. II. 29 quote a smrti that one should not mention by name only one's teacher, teacher's son and wife, a dlksita, any other guru, father, mother, paternal and maternal uncles, one's benefactor, a learned man
one's father-in-law, one's husband, one's mother's sister. The MahSbharata says that one should not mention by name or
address as
tvam
'
thou
one's elders, but one
may
speak of
81
1
one's contemporaries or those who are younger by their names. Another verse says that one should not mention one's own
one's wife
name, the name of one's guru, the name and one's eldest child.
of
a mean person, of
Upasamgrahana consists in repeating one's gotra and name, saying 'I salute', touching one's ears, clasping the feet (as stated above ) and bending one's head while so doing. In abhivadana there is no clasping of the feet with the hands one
;
810.
trot
an^rtf
^r ^5^ TO nft sfHSra ?FR

i
far* wi
%4 ^
*ng?y irwt
ft^Sntf
I. p.
^ ftsitf **rfj* qrfafr* sr

45 and
w*n*rm*ft
^psr on
ifi-
II. 29.
811.
3.
25
ride also Vi?nu Dh. S. 32.
o;
3TR*5fm IS?rT!*
p. 27 (
quoted by the utfMMiR^KI but in arfvftr^ one has to take one's name ) and on p. 119 ( 1st it quotes from sft^feffc*^ ma??B**r 9RHf i *l3ffm> l
^T
I
sN^Ffnft
*|# I *n**3 JT
WWWnft:
w^
Ob. VII
Rules about saluting
abhivadana
33S
may
or may not touch the feet of the person to be honoured. Abhivadana must always be preceded by pratyutthana. 818
Very detailed rules were laid down about pratyutthana ), abhivadana ( saluting a man), upasamgrahana (saluting by clasping the feet of the teacher or another with one's hands ), pratyabhivada ( returning a salutation), and namaskara ( bowing with the word namah ). According to Ap. Dh. S. 1. 2. 5, 19 and I. 3. 10. 17 the student must,
rising from one's seat to receive a person
*
when he meets his teacher after
sunrise, clasp his teacher's feet
and also before beginning the day's lesson of Vedic study and
also after finishing it, Manu II. 71 says the same. Gaut. (1. 52-54) prescribes the clasping of the feet every day in the morning and at the beginning and at the end of a lesson in the Veda.
According to Ap. Dh. S. 1. 2.5. 20 on other occasions whenever the student meets the teacher only abhivadana is sufficient, though
feet is necessary
according to some teachers (Ap. I. 2. on each occasion.
5. 21)
Ap. Dh.
clasping the teacher's S. I. 2. 5. 23 states
that in
upasamgrahana
the teacher's right foot is to be stroked
below and above with the student's right hand and the foot and ankle are both to be taken hold of, while according to some teachers, the student must press each foot of the teacher with both hands and clasp them. Manu II. 72, Visnu Dh. S. 28. 15, and Baud. Dh. S. I. 2. 24 say that the student is to clasp the feet of the teacher with crossed hands, touching the right foot with the Kulluka on right hand and the left foot with the left hand.
Manu II. 72 quotes Paithlnasi that the student should clasp the teacher's feet with his hands turned upwards. Baud. Dh. S.
I. 2. 28 adds that clasping should not be done when either the teacher or the pupil is seated, or is lying down or impure. According to Gaut. VI. 1-3 one must clasp every day on the first meeting and particularly on his or their return from a journey*
the feet of one's parents, of the blood relations of parents ( e. g. paternal and maternal uncles ), of the elder brother, of the guru and of persons venerated by one's ( i. e. acSrya, upadhyaya )
gurus.
812.
Ap. Dh.
S.
( I.
4. 14.
7-9} says that even after finishing
4H
r.
we
<g. ( I. 2.
arnfaTîr <rr^fawrr Differ i TftfW&f 3ft *f 9T i ^c*T*feir p- 7 ; 26 anrra? *?r gft srfr% *ft57 TR'.snrrwTr^ ) says that tho
;
ears are touched for concentrating one's mind nr^\T on that touching the ear 13 the usage in 3orao countries only,
i
*JT. !
26 aayg
WT. *
*c
I- 4. 14. 16.
336
Hiatow of DharmaiOslra
Ch. VII
one's studies and returning home a man must every day clasp the feet of gurus ( father, mother, teacher and other venerable persons ) and of elder brothers "and sisters according to their
seniority.
Abhivftdana is of three kinds, viz. nitya ( obligatory every naimittika ( to be done only on certain occasions ) and k&mya ( to be done only if a person has certain rewards in
day
),
view
).
As examples
of nitya abhivSdana one

( I. 2.
the rules of Ap. Dh. S. 813
every day a student should get up from bed in the last watch of the night and standing near his teacher salute him with the words I so and
5.
)
*
12-13
"
may
instance
ho ( salute thee ) and the student should also salute other very aged (and learned br&hmanas) who may reside in the same village before his morning meal." Yaj. I, 26 also speaks of the The occasional abhivftdana is done on certain occasions latter. such as return from a journey ( Ap. Dh. S. I. 2. 5. 14 ). A person may salute elderly persons whenever he chooses, if he is
so,
;
'
desirous of long life or ( bliss in ) heaven ( Ap. Dh. S. L 2. 5. 15 and Baud. Dh. S. I. 2. 26 ). Manu 8U ( II. 120 and 121 ) says
4
approaches but by rising to meet him and salutation ( to him ), he ( the young man ) recovers them. He who habitually salutes and constantly pays reverence to the aged obtains an increase of four things viz. length of life,
when an
the prSnas old
vital breaths
of a
;
young man mount upwards
man
815 Baud. knowledge, fame and strength. Ap. Dh. S, I. 4. 14. II, Manu 130 and II. 41 Vas. Dh. S. 13. Dh. S. I. 2. 44, prescribe that a person must honour by rising and mentioning one's name an officiating priest, one's father-in-law, paternal and maternal uncles, even though these may be younger than oneself in
813.
5R<|T
*i#i
dHmnrbi*i<w*r
*i>0 fi-Hfijwifcf jf*farcf ^ fîif^ni
m wi
*fV
2. 6.
3r3Rrrm<*)'sn*iR
^dn^rt
*n<wicrcn?TRj
SHT
tr-
12-13
compare
*rg II. 122, 124.
814.
II. 120.
This Terse occurs in
^jsftirrf 38. 1
104. 64-65
and
.
also in the
iTfTWT
vol. III. p. 58,
and where we have

)
Vide
w*q^
109 (ed. by Fausbell, 1900
for a verse closely

i
parallel to 815.
TTI^
I
Manu
II. 121.
jjrofif
8TTT
^f^9^f^^TTgaT^rr^rHJ U^NMH^cl * ^ I. 4. 14. 10-11 sft. ^. g;, 1. 2. 44

; I
^qrtffdft-
ynî
read Rrwr^T^) *rg II. 130 says ( but some rass. 5 while iffer*? VI. 9 is ^fâ^f^nuTrqpjT^t 3
Ch.
VII
ftules about
abhivadana
33?
Gaut. ( VI 9 ) however says that in the case of these one need only rise from his seat to receive them but it is not necessary to salute them ( abhivadana is not necessary ). Visnu Dh. S. 32. 4 expressly says that in the case of officiating priests and others specified by Ap. and Gaut. and who are younger, rising from one's seat is tantamount to abhivadana. Manu II. 117 says that one must perform abhivadana to a person from whom one learns secular, Vedic or spiritual knowledge of any kind. There is some difference in the words used at the time of abhivadana. Usually the words are abhivadaye devadattasarma-ham 818 bhoh' (vide Ap. I. 2.5.12, Gaut. VI, 5, Baud. Dh. S. I. 2. 27, Vas. XIII. 44, Manu II. 122 and 124 ). But this
years.
;
'
mode is appropriate only if the person addressed knows how to return the salutation. Manu II. 123 and 126 and Vas. Dh. 8.
13. 45
declare that
in the case of those
who
do not
know how
to return a salutation (pratyabhivadana, and according to Manu ' ' bhoh in the case of women also ) one should omit the word
and simply say
abhivadaye aham ( omitting one's name ). Ap. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 20 similarly says that in saluting women, a ksatriya or a vaisya one should use a pronoun and omit 817 one's name.
The manner
of abhivadana
was as follows
818
:
'A brahmana
shall salute stretching forward his right arm on a level with his ear, a ksatriya holding it on a level with the chest, a vaisya holding it on a level with the waist and a sudra holding it low
(
be by joining ) and that the salutation shall Ap. Dh. S. I. 2. 5. 16-17 ). The Madanaparijata adds that abhivadana is with both hands when the person to be saluted is learned, but with one hand only if he is not learned ( p. 27 ) and the Sm. C. ( I. p. 36 ) quotes Visnu and Atri to the
up
to his feet
'
one's hands
one has to take one's name in abhivSdana; but one of the person who is saluted ( Gautama VI. 12 ). The ^^rf^rc p. 7 says that in armûi ( and in arf^T^r also ) the person saluting says arspTirraft %*r^rT?mfe Ht aJpNT^j frw- on rg 11.122 says the words are arflfar?^ jqJTHimg Hfc 3<<M on ft. VI. 5 states that ' arfttaKf'H should be arfSnr^r ft^rTtfH? nmugmfof *t: J while g^j^ on 124 it II. should be arfvr^Fcf^ fg*r?T*rc?TTffR vfh ( i. o. he omits the ng says word ^TTT, which *TSJ II. 122 appears to require and which ift. VI. 5 does
816.
That
is
does not take the
name
'
not require
817.
I. 4.
^.
14. 20-22.
818.
^%or
^r
sn*c(S
I
*Mt
ft%t
^:
3TTT.
vr. I.
2. 5,
16-17
vido
tf.
ST.
p. 454.
H. D. 43
338
Histoni of DharmasUstra
effect.
Oh. VII
game
The stretching of the hands up

far the head
is
to
the ear
&c.
indicates
how
to be bent in each case.
There were also other rules about honouring one's elders In the presence of one's teacher or honouring the teacher's teacher or about one's behaviour when a gentleman comes to
see one's acarya and leaves him, which are here passed over for want of space. Vide Ap. Dh. S. I. 2. 6. 29-32, Manu II. 205.
brahmana who does not know the form of returning a salutation must not be saluted by a learned man he is like a 6udra (Manu II. 126). Similarly a brahmana was not to perform
;
abhivadana to a ksatriya or a vaisya however learned the latter be, but one should simply say 'svasti'; those who are of the same caste should do abhivadana. 819 The Mit. on Yaj. III. 292 and Apararka p. 1188 quote sutras of Harlta prescribing aa prayaScitta a fast of one, two or three days respectively for a brfthmana saluting a ksatriya, vaisya or 6udra and also for
may
saluting
when
the persons saluted or the
man
saluting are in
such a condition as to make them unfit for abhivadana. One should not salute with the shoes on or when one's head is wrapped up or one's hands are full ( Ap. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 19 ) or if one carries a load of fuel-sticks or holds a pot of flowers or food in one's hands one shall not salute, nor shall one salute on occasions similar to the preceding (such as one being
;
fire or other gods or when one's so engaged), nor should one salute a teacher standing very close to him ( Baud. Dh. S. I. 2. 31-32 ). When one is impure or the person he meets is impure ( owing to asauca or
engaged in worship of manes, of

is
teacher
S. I. 4. 14.
no salutation is to be made or returned ( Ap. Dh. Gaut. IX. 45 says that one should not occupy a seat or perform abhivadana and namaskara with shoes on. One need not salute a person who is not a guru or who stands in a lower or higher place than oneself (Ap. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 14 ). Sp. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 23, Manu II. 135 and Visnu Dh. S. 32. 17 say that a brahmana ten years old is like a father to a ksatriya even 100 years old and so deserves salutation from the ksatriya.
other causes
)
17
).
819.
*T|f*J9l%jn5I IHM"! 9fRr<7KJf:

:
i
^QT^^
I.
IH 'R*i>4 ofi5<n'
l
quoted by 3Wtr4?
ipT for the
p.
52
j
'
vide
^jQô
p.
37 quoting
nft'^r^'Cr^
and
292;
meaning of
quoted by f^n. on
*nrra:
^T.
III.
5Tf quoted by fan. on *u. III. 292.
Ch. VII
Rules about abhivadana
3&9
Ap. Dh.
S. ( I. 4. 14. 12 ) gives a special rule that a friendship kept for ten years as fellow citizens, a friendship contracted at school for five years, the fact of a Srotriya being three years older entities the friend or srotriya to a salutation. But
Gaut.
VI. 14-17
and
Manu
*
II.
134 give somewhat different

' '
rules viz. contemporaries who are born in the same year are to be addressed with the word bhoh or ' bhavat and a fellow
who is ten years older than oneself and an artist who is years older than oneself and a Srotriya studying the same Vedio school as oneself who is three years older are to be addressed similarly. Manu adds blood relations to the list
citizen
five
when
p. 7
gives a long
the difference in age is very small. The Smrtyarthasara list of persons whom one should never salute
viz.
an heretic, a person guilty of grave sins, an atheist, gamblers, thieves, ungrateful persons, drunkards. Vide also Manu IV. 30 and Yaj. 1. 130 ( as to showing no respect even by
words
to heretics
&c ).
In the case of certain persons one was to show honour only by rising from his seat and not by abhivadana. Gaut. ( VI. 9 ) mentions some such persons who are already referred to in note 815. Headds that (VI. 10-11) even a sudra of eighty years or more must be honoured by rising by one ( even though the latter be of a higher variâ ) young enough to be his son ( but there will be no abhivadana ) and that an arya ( i. e. one belonging to the three higher castes ) must be honoured by rising by a Sudra even if the latter be older ( and so a vaisya must honour a ksatriya though the latter be younger). Haradacta explains that the word sudra in Gaut. VI, 10 is only illustrative and that an old vaisya must be honoured by a young ksatriya or brShmana by simply rising from his seat and an old ksatriya by a young brahmana in the same way. &p. Dh. S. ( II. 2. 4. 16-18) lays down that if a brahmana who has not studied the Veda comes as a guest one may give him a seat, water and food but one should not rise to receive -him, but should rise to receive him if he is entitled to abhivadana on account of age ( as stated in Ap. I. 4. 14. 12, and Manu II. 134 ) similarly a brfihmana need not rise to receive a ksatriya or vaiSya ( except on the same ground of age ).
;
are
The rules about returning a salutation (about pratyabhivada} made somewhat intricate and obscure by the varying
commentators. Pratyabhivada consists in in the a benediction proper form given by a gun pronouncing
interpretations of
340
or other person
Ch. VII
is
who has been
saluted.
*
Among
the oldest 8 *
when returning the salute of the rule in &p. Dh. S. I. 2. 5. 18 one belonging to the first three castes, the ( last syllable of the )
name ( of the person whose salutation is to be returned ) shall be lengthened to three moras', Vasistha's rule (XIII. 46)
*
is
when
)
standing
the salute is returned, the last vowel ( of the noun in the vocative is protracted to the length of three
if it
' '
'
is a diphthong ( i. e. e or o but not of the dual becomes ay or av e. g. bho becomes bhav f Manu II. 125 prescribes " a brahmana should be thus saluted in and the vowel return, mayst thou be long-lived, O gentle one * a or any other vowel at the end of the name ( of the person
moras and
number
'
'
it
'
'
addressed
and
is
if
the
should be made pluta (i.e. lengthened to three moras) name ends in a consonant, the preceding vowel
made pluta"
That these rules are very ancient follows from Panini's
sutra
VIII.
is
a sudra
name
when the salutation of a person who is not returned by the person saluted, the final vowel in the that occurs at the end of the sentence of pratyabhivada )
2.
83
'
becomes
pluta.
The MahabhSsya comments on
this
and two
it
vartikas thereon say that this rule does not apply a woman to whom the salutation is returned and
optionally
when
it
is
when the person whose salutation is All these rules are exemplified in the ksatriya or vaisya. 821 foot-note below. Ap. Dh. S. agrees with this rule of the ancient grammarians. The verse of Manu ( II. 125 ) also really means the same thing but there the word akara* is only
'
;
applies returned is a
820. 453;
sTc^riwi^t ^snnrerf^far *J*MI^HT
$re4 ^ TT^TstHWr^ff^rq^f^
i
^ S^?t WfP*
H u?cf ^T^TT^^H ^
I
*T.
*r.
p.
3?fT.
ST.
^.
I.
2. 5.
18
sftrer
XII I. 46
nc:
WT-
STT^WTF^ &*q{iT *rft fWVsPfcn^r *g II. 125. Some MSS. read

<nf5(ft VIII.
2.
one word.
is a sn^TT who pratyabhivada is an*r*Tl^fa ^^rr * (3 indicates that the vowel preceding it is pluta i. e. drawn out to the length of three moras). If the name ends in a consonant the srr*mr*T^ will be 37T5<Tp*nr OTJTSTOTS^. If a woman
821.
S^TvrerfS^t
atftftT^T
(
83
if
it
performs
as
in
anvr^T^
^Ter'ifTW
tft: )
salutes
as in
arwrr^
li*$j Ht: ) the return is
3*13**^! vrw
npf
( i.
o.
there
If a k?atriya f^^^q; salutes the return is either 33 ). 3 or arrîWTr^rT^^c. If a ^r ^^rr^T salutes, the ^ w?ûl3fi^*JT?
is
no
m^î^ is aniwrnfrtfternfam 3 or-iDrepnfito.

alutes, the *Frivhn<f is
If
it is
sn^m^ft 5T3T9T
( i. e,
there is no pluta
^ ^^^ w
).
ho
Ch. VII
Rules about pratyabhivada

88*
341
illustrative
*
and stands
for all vowels.
The ancient com-
mentator Medhatithi interprets Maim so as to agree with Panini and says in the realm of the use of words and their senses Panini has higher authority than Manu, that the pratyabhivada words containing the benediction about long life are not stereotyped, that when a ksatriya returns the salutation of a ksatriya or a vaisya of a vaisya, the same rules hold good '. As a person of a higher varna was not to do abhivadana to one of lower varna ( vide note 819 above ) there would be no occasion for pratyabhivada from the side of the latter. The verse of Manu is interpreted by Haradatta and a few others in a
According to them the last vowel in the whose salutation is to be returned is pluta and then a is added to it, and that if the vocative ends in e ' or o, it becomes aya or ava ( with a added ). 88S This view is
different
manner.
*
name
of the person
'
'
opposed to Panini, the Mahabhasya, the Kasika, Apastamba and

several writers of digests.
like Haradatta.
824
the interpretation put upon Manu's verse by
Apararka and the Sm. C. condemn commentators
What great importance was attached to the correct utterance of the return salutation can be seen from the fact that one of the miscellaneous reasons assigned for the necessity of
grammatical studies in the Mahabhasya is that ( as stated in a verse ) a person who returns from a journey will perform
salutation to ignorant persons ( who do not know how to utter pratyabhivada) as if to women with the words 'abhivfidaye
828.
ihno on *rg
823.
97
'.
II. 125.
Thesn^^T^ according to f^^tT will bo 's

name
is <gsFTTf5r
If the
ty
or fôoTi 3 ^.
If tho
name ends
or f%5^ it will be in a consonant, the sr^rfH^f^f will be
like 3TT^TT*>T* *ft*TT 3li?r^T 3 ^ (the KIT and 3f is added to tho consonant
name
^ ).
is 3rf?rf%^ and so f% is made Vido î^TTT^. pp. 451-454.
824.
drorear
^n^ ^^
* ?K
)
'
Rî* ?mî*fi^ *TîHwf4d

||
ijw ît:
;
$MHI*J:
I.
H
37
p-
53
repeats the words

f^nft ......
......
tftm. 3WTfT? reads *%ff>s
^muKT^vrm ^ and
vocative
^f^
as
p.
(iT^P^
gives as examples ( 9n$VTT?)TO ) or i^^PTT^ ( f^pft is vocative ).
34$
'
History of DharmatHstra
885
(
i.
Ch. VII
for fear
ayamaham
thai they
e.
grammar
is
to
be learnfc by
men
may
be treated as
women when a
person salutes
them).
Ap. Dh. S. ( I. 2. 7. 27 ) prescribes that tbe student shall behave towards his teacher's wife as towards the teacher himself
888 but he shall not clasp her feet or eat the residue of her food. Gaut. ( II. 31-32 ) also says the same thing and adds that the student shall not assist the wives of the teacher at their toilet Manu II. 211, or bath nor wash their feet nor shampoo them.
Baud. Dh. S. I. 2. 37, Visnu Dh. S. 32. 6 have the same rule. But Gaut. II. 33 states an exception that on return from a journey the student shall clasp the feet of the wives of his teacher (also Manu II. 217 and Visnu Dh. S. 32. 15). Manu (II. 210) gives special directions the wives of the teacher who belong to the same caste must be treated as respectfully as the teacher but in the case of those who belong to a different caste he need * only rise from his seat and salute ( Visnu Dh. S. 32. 5 also is similar ), and a student who is full twenty years old shall not honour the young wife of a teacher by clasping her feet ( Manu 11.212 and Visnu Dh. S. 32.13); but even a young student may prostrate himself on the ground for honouring the young wife of his teacher without clasping her feet ( with the words
'
*
abhivadaye amukasar ma-ham bhoh
'
).
As regards women who are not wives of the teacher, the following rules deserve attention. The first rule is that married women, whatever their age may be, deserve honour
and so he must salute &c. ) according to the ages of their husbands 827 ( Ap. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 18 and Vas. Dh. S. 13. 42 ) Visnu Dh. S. 32. 2 gives the same rule, but restricts it to wives of the same caste. Ap. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 6 prescribes that the same honour must be shown to the mother and father as to a teacher i, e. their feet must be elapsed on those occasions on which a teacher's feet are to be clasped and Ap. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 9 extends the rule to elder sisters. Gaut. ( VI. 7-8 ) states that the feet of the wives of (elder) brothers or of one's mother-in-law
(
825.
l. I.
p.
3.
This passage
is
quoted by
on
*g
II. 123.
827.
'ufoqgg;
ffcrrt
\
an<r. *.
I. 4. 14.
18
,
*f%s
13. 42-43.
Ob. VII
AbJUvadana
to
women
343
need not be clasped on any occasion; and the feet of a paternal uncle's wife or of elder sisters need not be clasped except when one returns from a journey. But Manu (IL 131-132)
maternal or poternal aunt, a maternal gives different rules. uncle's wife, a mother-in-law are equal to one's teacher's wife and must be honoured like her ; one's elder brother's wife's feet
must be clasped every day

feet of the
if she is of the same caste, but the wives of one's other paternal and maternal relatives need only be clasped on one's return from a journey. Visnu Dh. S. 32. 3 places a maternal or paternal aunt and the eldest sister on an equality with the teacher's wife. As already stated above in the case of all women the salutation is simply 'I salute*
(
abhivadaye aham
'
)'
without mentioning one's name.
Devala
says
the mother, mother's mother, teacher's wife and the full brothers and sisters of one's parents, paternal grand-mother,
mother-in-law, elder sister and the foster mother are who are ( to be honoured like ) gurus *. 888
women
S.
Ap. Dh.
28. 31,
S. I.
2. 7.
30, Vas. Dh. S. XIII. 54,
Visnu Dh.
require that the student will behave towards the teacher's son as towards his teacher. That this rule
Manu IL
207
829 in the Mahabhasya* very ancient follows from a passage where it is stated and a proviso is added that the student will not however clasp the son's feet nor eat the leavings of his food. Ap. Dh. S. 1. 2. 7. 30 only mentions as prohibited the eating of the leavings of food, but Visnu Dh. S. (28. 32-33) prohibits also the
is
washing
if
of the son's feet.
Manu
(II.
that the son of the teacher deserves the

latter is otherwise
208) gives a restrictive rule same honour as a teacher,
he imparts instruction in place of the teacher ( because the engaged ), whether the son be younger or of the same age as the student, but that the student in any case
must not shampoo the limbs of the son nor assist him in his bath nor wash his feet nor eat the leavings of his food.
From Ap. Dh.
S. I. 2. 7.
28 and
(
I. 4.
13. 12
8*
it
'
the system of pupil teachers

828.
tJtW:
who were
i
called
appears that * samadisâ )
TOT TORSI sfc

II
^*c7 in H (Jiv. ed.)I.j>. 503.
f$ro
ST.
p>
ft3*rnjf tft^ro **<% fonqfl ^rs\ wft 471 almost the same vcrae occurs in
;
829.
<)
q < lt^ iJ4^^'^
Wrfr^^
i
srfof HsrfS
56, qrfSraj
*frwr vol.
1
I. j.
135 (on
<nfa^
I.
l.
830.
8) fwr tfiTTf^ 3wi<nrft
sTiq .
^. s,
.
I. 2. 7.
28
*mTT^wrmrf
12-13.
*!
%I
4. 13.
fr44
Ch. VII
shall
obtained in ancient times and Ap. prescribes that the student behave towards a pupil teacher who teaches him at the
teacher's
command
as towards the teacher

feet, as
also
by clasping his
long as he
is
and shall honour him giving instruction.
Further rules are laid down about showing courtesy to a who is not a relative or who is not a teacher &c. Ap. Dh. S. I. 4. 14. 26-29 and Manu II, 127 lay down that one should, on meeting a brahraana, ask after his health with the word 'ku&ala,' a ksatriya about his health using the word anSmaya ', a vaisya by using the word ksema ( or anasja according to Ap. ) and a sudra by employing the word Srogya. Thus one who is older to the rule in Manu II. 134 cited above on ( according p. 339 ) should be saluted, while one who is of the same age or younger should simply be asked 'kusala' &c. Gaut. V. 37-38 gives similar
person
4
( II. 129 ) enjoins that one should address the wife of another mart and who is not a blood relation as lady ( bhavatl ) or beloved sister ' and ( Ap, Dh. S. L 4. 14. 30) that one should not pass a learned brahraana without
directions.
831
Manu
is
f
woman who
'
'
addressing
'
in a forest or and Visnu Dh. S. 32. 7 says that in such circumstances he must address her ( in order to assure her ) as sister is of the same age as himself ) or ( if she daughter ( if she is younger ) and mother ( if she is older than himself ).
other lonely place
*
'
him nor a woman whom he meets
'
It is stated in the Udvfthatatfcva 838

'
f
p.
srl
is to
be prefixed
when
referring by name
144 ).that the word to a deity or a
teacher, to the place of one's teacher, to a holy place or to the presiding deifcy of a holy place, to one who has secured Yogio
siddhis or to those
bliss
;
who have secured by sacrifices the worlds of and Raghunandana adds that according to the usage of rl is prefixed to names of such persons respectable people while they are alive. The same work also tells us that women of the dvijatis were to have the honorific suffix devl added to
*
'
'
'
831.
According to fTfrT the questions would be in the case of

respectively,
:
i
members of the four varnas

TT.
V. 37-38
WRW
832.
^^ on
these flays
3^ yqaqiigmflrffr
WT3PT:
144.
Oh. VII
their
Grounds for tJiowing

of the iudra caste
respect
*
345
is
word d&sl *. This the practice particularly in Bengal and Northern India.
the
names and
The works on Dharmasastra give very interesting rules about the grounds on which respect was to be shown to a 833 consists in saluting a person, or rising to person. Honour
meet him or allowing him to walk in front of one or giving him a garland, sandal- wood paste on festive occasions and the like* Manu ( II. 130 ) and Visnu Dh. S. ( 32. 16 ) say that wealth kindred, age, ( performance of ) religious rites and sacred knowledge confer title to respect, but each succeeding one out of these five is superior to each preceding one, Gaut. ( VI. 18-20 ) is slightly different; he says 'wealth, relations, occupation, birth, learning and age must be honoured ; each later named is more important than each preceding one ; but Yedic learning is more important than all (the rest)'. Vas. Dh. S. 13. 56-57
also says that learning, wealth, age, relationship and religious actions are titles to respect, but each preceding one is more
important than each succeeding one.
Yaj. I. 116 puts the order as vidyS, karma, age, relationship and wealth ( i. e. wealth is the least ground for giving honour ). Visvarupa on Yaj. I. 35 says that if respect is not paid to guru (parents), ficarya,
upadhyaya and rtvik
descending order ) ( they are arranged in one incurs Bin, but if honour is not shown on the ground of ^learning, wealth &c. there is no sin but one loses happiManu II. 137 says that a sudra who ness and success. is beyond 90 years is still a child to a learned brahmana.
of age of the
1
In order to show that Vedic learning is superior to seniority Manu ( II. 151-153 ) narrates the story of a young scion
little
Angiras gotra who taught his pitrs and addressed thorn as sons' and whose action was supported by the gods with
the remark that a man destitute of knowledge was a child and he who taught him the Veda was his father. This story is referred to expressly by Baud. Dh. S. 1. 4. 47 and tacitly by Gaut. VI. 20. It is borrowed from the Tandya Mahabrahmana 824
833.
^srr
ôfe^nmt
grnr?
i^fCFTi
wre. *.
1. 4.
13. 2-3;
^^ says
u!fifrwretf& VI. 18-20.
834.
^ %^r 3*^
of the sage.
wr *re fist
3irH?rwrsri
13. 3. 24.
jr
was the
S.D.44
346
(
'
Ch. VII
13. 3.
24
).
Manu
II.
155
clinches the argument
by saying
the seniority of brahinanas springs from ( sacred ) knowledge, of ksatriyas from valour, of vaisyas from ( the possession ) of corn and other wealth and only among sudras is age a
ground of seniority
'.
Kaut. says that
men
deserve honour according
to their
learning, intelligence, valour, high birth
and eminent deeds.835

'
One has to distinguish between abhivadana and namaskara. In the former one not only bows but utters words like abhivadaye &o.* while in the latter one only bows and folds one's hands. The latter is done only to images of gods, br&hmanas,
f
samnyasins and the like. The Smrtyarthasara p. 8 prescribes a fast for one day as a penance for not bowing to images of gods, 826 samnyasins &c. Vis$u ( quoted in the Sm. 0, ) says that one should not salute ( abhivadana ) a brahmana, but should only perform namaskara in all public assemblies, in sacrifices or in palaces or royal courts. The posture of the hands in namaskara is stated as follows One should join the hands in the shape of a shegoat's ear in namaskara to a learned man, one should fold the hands together in bowing to an ascetic, one should salute an ignorant man with one hand and should not perform abhivadana to one who is younger. 837
'
from left respect by circumambulating to right temples or images of gods, bulls, cowpens, cows, ghee, honey, sacred trees that had brick or stone platforms built
to
One had
show
828
round them (like asvattha) and squares (where four roads meet), a teacher who is very learned, a learned and religious brahmana, clay from sacred places.
One wag not

acarya, sacred
to
fires,
approach empty-handed one's parents, houses and the king, if the latter has not
heard of him before. 839

835.
836.
<j
i
^nn fîii^cftîm^-^nSsTTicra jprn SJ^T^

i
III. 20.
re*^:
s^nN*
Sfffite
I.
p. 38.
837.
ranwrretf R*jc
STTfSfaT^^
I
TO^T
838.
3.
'sr
*. P-
468.
i
^^ri?^f
.
^^T?^ ?i*hr
41-42
li
^JB<TO^
!^
$nf^ra<f 193. 8 fvido also 163. 37 for
and
3TST3TTOT 113. 40,
*w^
T ar
14. 52,
^ w IX.
a similar verae
I.
66, 1*3 IV. 39, *a.
133.
Oh. VII
Learning from books
347
matter closely connected with the showing of respect is that of the rulea about the preference to be given on the road.
of
This has already been dealt with in speaking of the privileges brShmanas above pp. 140-147.
One striking point about the imparting of knowledge ( particularly Vedic) in the ancient educational system of India was the great prejudice against learning from books. The
greatest importance was attached to handing down the Veda intact and various devices were discovered and employed for
securing this end, such as the various modes of repeating the Veda only in padas, in the krama, jata and other formations. Great care was taken to preserve the proper accentuation of the Vedic texts. There is a well known story how Tvasfcr repeating
Indraâtrur-vardhasva 840 in wrong accents caused the fire to be extinguished instead of inflaming it against Indra as he intended. This story is alluded to in the P&ninlyasiksa.
the words
*
'
( in verse 32 ) condemns one who learns from a manuscript as among the worst of learners. The Veda was to be recited not only with proper modulation of the voice to convey the accents, but the accents were indicated also by the movements of the fingers ( vide verses 43-45 of the Paninlya6iksa). All these intricate matters could be learnt only by
The same work
oral instruction.
Great controversies have raged round the question whether was known in India in very ancient times, whether it was used for literary purposes in the times of Paîni and whether the Brahml alphabet was an indigenous product or whether it was imported into India from some foreign land. Max Muller in his History of ancient Sanskrit Literature started the astounding and absurd theory that writing for literary purposes was unknown to Panini ( p. 507 ). Later on that position
the art of writing
' '
840.
Terse 52 of tho
rTOT
<rrPrWrqf?teH}
ifitonmi
verso 32.
1.6.3.8. &[E
The legend is narrated in tho &. tf. II. 4. 12. 1 and the wanted to pronounce tho word $-ffiMi [(meaning 'destroyer
) aa a Tatpuruâ compound (in which the last syllable of the compound has the udatta accent), while he actually pronounced the word as a Bahuvrihi ( meaning whose killer would be Indra 1 ), in which cage the first word of the compound has the udatta accent as in ( 5^51^: ^ ). Vide infSrfr VI. 1. 223 and VI. 2.1.
of Indra 1
348
tiistory of
Dharmaiastra
Ch. Vlt
'
Then Biihler wrote his famous work on the origin of the Brahml alphabet mainly relying on the resemblances of a few letters of the Asokan script with an ancient Semitic alphabet and came to the conclusion that the Brahml alphabet was derived from a Semitic scripb sometimes about
was given up.
'
It never occurred to that learned scholar to advance and carefully examine the other possible hypotheses which any unbiassed and cautious scholar should have ordinarily advanced viz. that the Semitic script might have been derived from the Brahml alphabet and was later on developed or both might have been derived from some unknown ancient script. All these theories are now in the melting pot on account of the seals bearing writing in some undeciphered script found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa, some of which are at least 5000 years old. So if the Brahml alphabet was at all borrowed, it is clear now that it was not necessary for Indians to travel so far as Westernmost Asia for that purpose.
800 B. 0.
Oral instruction was the cheapest and most accurate In ancient times writing method of imparting learning. materials were not easily available and written texts could not be handled easily and would have been extremely costly. Therefore the method of oral instruction was resorted to and having been hallowed by the lapse of thousands of years it has
been persisted in to the present day. Even in the 20th century after writing has been known for not lees than 3000 years according to scholars like Biihler there are hundreds of brahmanas who
heart, but also
learn not only the whole of the Bgveda (about 10580 verses) by commit to memory the pada 841 text of the Rgveda,
the Aitareya Brahmana and Atari yaka and the six VedShgas ( which include the 4000 aphorisms of PSnini and the extensive
Nirukta of Yaska
without caring to understand a word of this
enormous material.
Par.
'
what
154) quotes a verse of is learnt from reliance on books

(1. 1. p.
M.
Narada to the effect 848 and is not learnt from
841. nepada text of the Rgveda is the work of Sakalya and the padapStha is supposed to be pauru?eya (composed by a human author). The Nirukta (VI. 28) criticizes &5kalya's division of the pada text. Vidvanlpa on Y5j. III. 242 says that pada and krama are of human
authorship.
842.
*n^ in
TO.
s^TOfirirotfa *rt$ra w^rfÂ ni. I. part 1 p. 154 ftfiNp

;
srsffc
I, p.
*o?rotft
snwl w* ftrer:
51 alao quotes this vene.
Ch. VII
Learning from booh
343
a teacher does not shine in an assembly '. Vrddha-Gautama 843 condemns to hell those who sell the Veda, who condemn the Veda and those who write it down* AparSrka (p. 1114 on Yaj. III. 267-268) quotes verses from the Caturvim&atimata which prescribe various prayascittas for selling the Vedas, the ahgas ( of the Veda ), the smrtis, ibihasa and purana, the secret The prejudice pancaratra (system), gathas, nltisastras &c.
against using books for learning was carried so far that among the six obstacles in the path of the acquirer of knowledge, reliance on books is mentioned as one. 844 Apararka ( p. 390 )
quotes a long passage from the Bhavisyottarapurana about the rewards of gifts of books of the epics and puranas to a brahmana or to a matha for the use of the public. grant of
the Valabhi king Guhasena I dated 559 A. D. refers to a collection of books on the true dharma. 845 In the Kadambarl
(
para 88
ascetic
itihasa.
women who
846
the queen VilasavatI is described as surrounded by held books in their hands and read
Vide under dana and matha-pratistha.
The teacher was expected to make the student understand by explanations in Sanskrit or in the pr&krits or even by 847 employing the current languages of the various countries.
It appears The Duration of studenthood ( brahmacarya ) from certain passages of the Upanisads that the usual duration 848 Svetaketu Aruneya is said of brahmacarya was 12 years to have become a brahmacarl when he was twelve and to have mastered all the Vedas at the age of 24 vide Chan. Up. VI, 1. 2
:
843.
p.
582
the same verse occurs in aiaiKH<rf 23. 72
844.
?ttT3
quoted in the
I.
*
^r^^
p. 67.
p. 52.
845.
846.
A. vol. VII.
^H^WT
para 88.
847.
^cf;
ff^: w^faft^: quoted from the f^gqif by
Cm^T^ (*^WfIT, od.
by Jivananda,
p 72).
848.
IV. 10.
l.
350
History of DharmaiVstra
Oh.
VII
quoted in/, n. 634). Similarly ChSn. IV. 10.1 appears to suggest that students left their teacher after twelve years of study. But
a long period of brahrnacarya was not unknown to the sages of the Upanisads. Chandogya ( VIII. 11. 3 ) declares that Indra remained as a student with Prajapati for 101 years (three periods
of
32
years plus five
).
The story
(
of
)
Bhradvja
narrated
in the Tai. Br. quoted
above
at p. 271
states that
Bharadvaja
studied the Vedas three parts of his life ( at The Gopatha Brahmana 849 (II. 5 ) states studenthood for learning all the Vedas
least till 75 years). that the period of
is 48 years; that distributing that period in four portions among the vedas student-hood is for 12 years (for mastering one Veda ), that
period (12 years) is the shortest (for brahmacarya) and that one should learn of the Veda as much as one can before he
is
about to return from his teacher.
Some of the grhya and dharina sufcras contain these very words of the Gopatha Brahraana e, g. Par. gr. II. 5 says one
*
should observe brahmacarya forty-eight years for the ( four ) Vedas, or twelve years for each Veda or until one has learnt one or more Veda '. The Baud. gr. ( I. 2. 1-5 ) has a very
"
(
suggestive passage
forty-eight years for
for each
the ancient period of studenthood was the four Vedas ) or 24 years, or 12 years
or at least one year for each kSnda ( section of the Vedic samhitas like the Tai. S. ) or until the student learnt
(
Veda
),
one Veda
as life
is fleeting
(
and as
)
there is a Vedic text

fires,
'
one
should
is still
(
consecrate
tho
three
I.
sacred
3
)
while his hair
dark
".
On
Jaimini
3.
Sahara
that
states the objection
among
other
'
similar
matters
the smrtis
of
brahmacarya
for f ortyeight years are opposed to the
speaking Vedic
injunction that a man who has a son and whose hair is still ' dark should consecrate the ( three sraufca ) fires ( i. e. he must do
BO in middle life, not
when
his hair
is
turning grey
).
Sahara
gives his opinion that such smrtis being opposed to iruti are to
849.
erem
iraFjffaFsrr
.
H. 5 quoted in
/. n. 628
above
sisT
arnt. U.
^.
I. 1. 2.
16 has the ^jr
850.
II.
5;
I
I. 8.
14
^m
WSfSfJU
<n
I
I.
vide alao ffrr^^ftpCTT

2. 6,
II.
51-53
srtflnnW IL
I
10
I
I. 1. 2.
12-15 3OT*W%Ttc'rf*T
*$T
*lT*f T I. ftft* I.
Ch. VII
Duration of brahmacarya
851
351
and makes fun of them by saying that some persons desirous of concealing their lack of manhood observed brahraacarya for forty-eight years and the prescriptions in these smrtis to that effect are due to this fact. 858 The very orthodox
be disregarded
KumSrilabhatta could not tolerate this light-hearted statement of Sahara and rebukes the latter by saying that there is really no contradiction between the sruti text and the smrti passage, since
the smrtis themselves prescribe other lesser and alternative since it is possible to hold that smrtis speak of brahmacarya for 48 years only with reference to him who
periods,
wants
or
to
who
it
desires to
become a samnyasin immediately after brahraacarya become a perpetual student. 852 *
as
As the Vedic literature had grown to vast proportions and was thought necessary to preserve this ancient heritage,
the ancient sages hit upon the plan of enlisting the whole population of the three varnas in the task of preservation by making -it as their duty to devote as much time as they could
to the study and conservation of the Vedic literature. Therefore various alternatives were proposed viz. studying all the four Vedas for 48 years, three of them for 36 or if a man was very
clever he
may
finish the study of three
Vedas
in 18 years or in
9 years or he should devote as much time as he would require for learning one Veda or more. Vide Manu III. 1-2 and Yaj. I. 36
and 52
for the various alternatives.
Spending 12 years for Vedio
As upanayana was usually performed in the 8th year from 851. conception or birth, the period of studenthood (if it was to be 48 yeara) would not end till a man became 56. Only a householder could consecrate the drauta fires. So if the man waa to marry after fifty-six his hair would be turning grey and by following the smrti rule he would run counter to the Vedic injunction. Thus smrtis would be opposed to druti
and Jaimini's conclusion in
to be disregarded.
I. 3.
3 is that
when
that
is
the case smrti is
852.
Ir.
:
I
I. 3. 3.
p 169.
I
?TcT
tJTT
îmf^^^T^^
5TTC on ^,
I. 3. 4. p.
186.
85?a.
*rg
3.
2)
:
II
192-193.
352
History of DharmatQslra
Oh. VII
study must have been found even in ancient times impossible many among the brahmanas and therefore the BhftradvSja grhya ( quoted above in note 850 ) allowed the alternative that
for
shall see later on
one should study the Veda till the Godana ceremony (which as we Adv. gr. sutra ) took place in the 16th year.
22.
3-4 also prescribes only two alternatives for brahmacarya 12 years or as long as one oould learn the Veda ( so Adv. contemplated brahmacarya for less than 12 years), Haradatta remarks on Ap. Dh. S. I. 1. 2. 16 8J* that reading Ap. I,
viz. for
1. 2.
12-16,
1.
11. 3. 1
and
Manu
III. 1
together
it
follows that
at least
every one must observe brahmacarya for three years for each Veda and when it is said that one may brahmacarya till one learns the Veda, that means three years for each Veda. This appears somewhat to the words of Asv. and BhSradvaja.
observe
beyond
opposed
Not only was the study
of the
Veda made an
absolute duty
for all persons belonging to the three higher varnas, but the study of Veda was essential for the performance of the solemn
Jaimini 85 * lays down that it is only he who knows the Vedic portion necessary for a Vedio sacrifice, that is
Vedic
sacrifices.
entitled to
perform that
sacrifice.
Subjects of Study: The study of the Veda means the study of the Mantras and the Brahmana portion of the particular sakha or
6akh5s. 855 The
Veda was deemed

author
(i. e. it
to be eternal
and not composed

1. 1.
by any human
that
(
is
apauruseya). Jaimini ia
6-23
establishes that the relation of
word and sense
is
eternal
and
the Vedas are apauruseya. This is not the place to set out or examine the arguments. All) dharma&astra The writers proceed on this axiom of the eternity of the Veda.
in
1. 1.
27-32
Vedantasutra (L 3. 28-29) says that the Vedas are eternal and the whole universe ( including the gods ) emanates from the Veda
853.
IT
( ITS 3. 1
)
sfa <r%3TCf ft**r

2. 16.
3?irfrrpnr*ft r
srftcroT
^n^:
ww^
on
H. ^. I. 1.
854.
5n&
^ *nN T srRrsR R(|?ftiT%
III. 8. 18
on which
i
^fir
......
855.
Vidca^. W*. *ft*.24.1.31andifT. *ft *. 24. 1. 31 and ift. g. ^. II. II ^T^ r^ on ^. II. 1, 33 qry\i% Wt^Tit ^
.
6.
'
Oh. VII
Greatness of the Veda

is
353
placed on certain Upanisad passages and on and other smrtis. The Br. Up. IV. 5. 11 says that the Vedas are the breath of the great Being the Creator ( i. e. the Supreme Spirit, God ) ; in Br. Up. I. 2. 5 (PrajSpati) is said to have evolved all this viz. Rgveda,
and reliance
Manu L
21, Santi-parva 233. 24
Yajurveda, Samaveda, yajnas and so forth. The Svetasvatara Up. VI. 18 says that the Supreme Being evolved Brahma and 856 The Santiparva 857 says that imparted the Vedas to him. speech in the form of Veda is without beginning and without
end, from which all activities and creation proceed, and that the Vedas become latent at the periodical dissolution of the
world and become manifest to the great sages again when the world is recreated. But the eternity of the Veda and apauruseyatva of the Veda were interpreted in various ways e. g. the
Mahabh&sya says that, though the purport of
the
Veda
is
eternal ,
yet the arrangement of words is non-eternal and therefore there are various sakhas ( branches or recensions ) of the Veda,
named Kathaka, Kalapaka &c. 858

to
From very ancient times the literature to be studied appears have been vast. Vide Tai. Br. quoted above ( at p. 271 ) where the Vedas have been declared to be endless. In the Rgveda itself ( X. 71. 11 ) reference is made to the verses learnt by the four principal priests ( hota, adhvaryu, udgata and brahma ), it is also said that parsons who studied together showed great disparity in their mental advancement ( Kg. X. 71. 7 ) and that co-students feel elation when their friend wins in a debate in an assembly. The Sat. Br. ( XL 5. 7. 4-8, S. B. E. vol. 44, rks, yajus formulae, pp. 97-98 ) enumerates under svadhyaya sSmans, Atharvangirasah (Atharvaveda ), itihasa-purSna, gathag in praise of heroes ( called Narasamsls ) The Gopatha BrShmana II. 10 also says in this way all these Vedas were doctrines ), created together with kalpa, rahasya ( secret
*
'
'.
'
856.
T*amt
I.3. 30.
xraifr
II
*%cn*. Î. VI. 18 quoted by
857.
233. 24;
n
srrfcm
I. 3.
210.
19.
Both these rerses are quoted by
on
858.
tjtjl^dq^
28 and 29 respectively.
fifc^
*rg
^t * T
5
?Fftr?
ffjtar4<r:sr*
IV.
3. 101, vol. II, p, 315.
a. p. 45
354
History of Dharmaiftatra
Qu VII
Brahman as, Upanisads, itihfisa, anvikhySna, purftna, anufrfganas, vakovakya &c '. In the Upanisads frequent mention is made of the literature studied by persons before they became
For example, in seekers for the knowledge of brahma. Chan. Up. VII. 1. 2 Narada tells SanatkumSra that he had studied the four Vedas, ItihSaa-purana as the fifth Veda, the Veda of Vedas ( gr&ranaar ), pitrya ( treatise on sraddhas ), rii daiva ( portents ), nidhi ( finding out hidden ( arithmetic ),
treasures
(
), ),
vakov&kya
dialogue
or
dialectic
),
ekayana
devavidya ( Nirukta ), brahmavidya ( metres and ( exorcising ghosts ), phonetics ), bhutavidya ksatravidya ( dhanurveda ), naksatravidya ( astronomy ), sarpavidya ( snake charms ), devajanavidya ( arts like dancing, singing, preparing unguents &c. ). The same list is repeated in Chan. Up. VII. In the Br. Up. 859 II. 4. 10 and IV. 5. 11 1. 4andVIL7. 1. there is a similar smaller list. In the Mundaka Up. I. 1. 5
politics
it is said that the aoarya Angiras told Saunaka who was a great householder that the four Vedas and the six angas ( mentioned in note 775 above ) are inferior knowledge and that
the highest knowledge is that by which the Imperishable One is apprehended. Gaut. XI. 19 exhorts the king to rely upon the Veda, dharrnasastras, the angas, Upavedas and Purana for regulating the conduct of his subjects. Ap. Dh. S. ( quoted above in note 775), Visnu Dh. S. 30. 34-38, Vas.IIL 19 and 23, VI. 3-4 mention the angas of Veda. Panini shows acquaintance not
only with the Veda and Brahmanas but he knew ancient Kalpasutras, Bhiksusutras and Natasutras, secular works on various subjects ( IV. 3. 87-88, 105, lio.lll, 116 ). Patanjali 160 ( 2nd century B. C. ) mentions how vast the field of Sanskrit literature had become. Yaj. I. 44-45 calls upon the student to
study every day according to his ability also Vakovakya, 861 gathas, itihasa, vidyas if he desired to Purana, Narasamsl,
859.
f-
3*.
H-
4. 10.
This
is
the baaia of
^^RT^ I.
1.
they are enumeration of literary works.

860.
Samkara explains those in such a way as to show that parts of TF^ and STT^roT. f^"- TT. IV. 1. 2 also contains a similar
vol.
I.
p.
thousand
861.
Sffmayeda that is sung in a numerous ) ways and modifications '. Mit. on Y5j. I. 45 takes mf^TT: as distinct from
9.
fni^r^r} 5RTiT^:
moans
Oh. VII
Extent of ancient learning
355
please the gods and manes. enumerated as in Yaj. I. 3 (

vol.
Fourteen vidyas are generally Matsya 53. 5-6 ), Vayupurana
1. 61. 78, Vrddha-Gautama (p. 632) and other works, viz. four vedas, 6 angas, -purapas, nyaya ( logic ), mlmamsa and dlrarma&astra. Some added four more to these, viz. the Upavedas of
Ayurveda, Dhanurveda, Gandharvaveda and ArthaSastra (which were affiliated respectively to the four Yedas) and thus the vidyas
are also spoken of as 18. 862 Kalidasa in the RaghuvamSa (V. 21) expressly says that Varatamtu taught his pupil 14 vidyas. In
517-18 A. D.)
( in an inscription of 199 Guptasamvat i.e. said about Suârman, an ancestor of Maharaja ' Samksobha, that he knew the highest truth because of his in the 14 vidya-sthSnas Kumarila 863 in his proficiency
E.I. vol. VIII. p.
287
it is
'.
Tantravartika
says that vidya-sthanas that are looked upon as authoritative in knowing dharma are 14 or 18. The
(
p.
201
Varahagrhya
people,
viz.
refers to different preparations for different
kalpa
a yajnika had to study mantra and Brahmana, vedic ritual ) and mlmamsa and one could study at his
option grammar, the smrtis and vaktra(?) and the Srotriya only committed to memory the Veda the first two were called
;
Numerous grants and inscriptions testify to the provision made by kings and well-todo donors for all branches of study. In E. 0. vol. III. T N. 27 there is a grant made by the minister Perumal under the Hoysala king Vlranarasirhhadeva in 1290 A. D. which provided that each teacher of the Rgveda and the other Vedas was to receive a salary of six gadyanakas
snatakas.
of gold a
year and the teacher

(
Nagara, Kannada, Tigula

receive the
same
salary.
who taught the boys to read Marathi ) was to ) and Arya The Gadag inscription of the time of
Tamil
(
Vikramaditya VI. (1098 A. D.) refers to the founding of a school Prabhakara's system of Mlmamsa at Lakkigundi I. vol. 15 p. 348 ). Vide E. I. vol. I. p. 338 ( for endow( E. ment for teaching an astronomical work of Bhaskara).
for teaching
Even in early times a very extensive literature on Dharma- âstra had come into existence. The literature of the epics, of kSvyas, drama, fables and romances, astrology, medicine and several brandies of speculation had grown to an
862.
.
sngsTFT
6
)
vol.
I.
61. 79,
ire^STFT 223. 21, ftctggtm (quoted by
name the
18
863.
p. 201
on 3.
1. 3.
vide also p. 195,
356
History of tiharmatilslra
extent.
Gh. VII
enormous
On
account of this vast literature
many
portions of which appealed more to the emotions and intellect than the Vedas could, the study of the Veda receded in the
background and the study of subsidiary works became more popular. Therefore the smrtis again and again raise their voice and try to impress it upon all that the first duty of a dvijati is to study the Veda. The Maitrl Up. VII. 10, though comparatively a late work, inveighs against brahmanas studying non-vedic 864 texts. Manu (II. 168 ) says that the dvija who, without studythe Veda, bestows labour upon another lore, is quickly ing reduced to the status ef a sudra in this very life together with Kulluka on this verse cites the aphorism of his descendants. Sankha-Likhita 865 'one should not, without studying the Veda Vas. first, study another lore, except the Vedangas and smrtis'. Dh.S. III. 2 expressly quotes the verse of Manu II. 168 as Manava
The Tai. Up. I. 9 speaks of svadhy ay a (study of the Veda) and pravacana (teaching it or daily repeating it) as tapas and 866 dama, 6ama, fires, joins these two with rta, satya, tapas, agnihotra and progeny in order to emphasize that these two are the most important and it also exhorts the student on the eve of his return home not to neglect his study of the Veda.
sloka.
the mantras by heart.
Veda did not merely consist in learning Samkara in his bhasya on Vedantasutra I. 3. 30 quotes a Brahmana text to the effect that he who teaches a mantra or officiates at a sacrifice with mantras of which he
The study
of the
does not
know
employment
or use) falls
the seer, the deity or the Brahrnana on a stump or in a pit. 867
(i. e.
viniyoga
Yaj. III. 300 quotes a verse of Vyasa to only was the Veda to be committed to
The Mit, on the same effect. Not
memory
to
only was there to be patha
but one had also
e. not ( i. understand
864.
i
^fr &*. VII.
10.
865,
3Jcf tj^
^T^
irg II. 168
:
;
quoted by
^<K cm
^r
3?ftTOr
( Jiv. ed,
part
1 p.
517
).
866.
:
l^. ^T.
I. 9.
867.
gjfcfo
^rfTRr
Jpin'f 'r wm^fir i

i
^rt
^Ti'w^
I. 3- 30,
Oh. VII
Meaning of Veda study
357
861
the meaning.
18) quotes two verses which condemn in very strong language one who only commits to memory the Veda and does not know the meaning that man, who having studied the Veda, does not know its meaning, is indeed a tree, a stump, a mere carrier of a load ; he alone who knows the meaning secures all happiness; his sins being shaken off by knowledge, he reaches heaven Daksa 86J II. 34
The Nirukta
(I.
'
'.
says that the study of Veda involves five things viz. first committing to memory the Veda, then reflection over its
meaning, keeping it fresh by repeating it again and again, japa (inaudibly muttering by way of prayer) and imparting it to Manu XII. 103 says * those who have committed to pupils.
memory the Veda are superior to those who are ignorant of it those who retain their Veda ( i. e. who do not allow it to be forgotten ) are superior to those who only studied it ( and then forgot it ), those who know its meaning are superior to those who simply retain it in memory, those who perform what the meaning of the Veda dictates are superior to those who know
Sahara meaning says that the real purpose of the study Veda is the knowledge about religious actions that it conveys and that from the mere memorizing of the Veda, no rewards are promised by those who know the lore of the
its
'.
87n
of the
87i on Ysj. I. 51 says that he alone is Visvarupa made the Veda his 'own as to the who has really vedaparaga spirit ( the meaning ). Apararka ( p. 74 ) quotes a long passage 878 from Vyasa condemning the mere memorizing of the Veda. on Manu 19. also Vide Medhalithi III.
sacrifices.
868.
869.
^r
870
II.
34 quoted by the f&TTo on
^rr III.
310 and ami!?
p. 126.
P. 6.
This passage
ta
quoted by fono on *rg III.
1.
871.
^^r <TrR^
on
^T.
I.
61.
872.
r:
i
Two
or three verses
gr^nr^Ml if
14.
may
be quoted:
$cfm<5fll3<JT tftfltf
Rt arm^ PP- 74-75 quoting 86-87) has the irr^ ^..."sroc^T.

'
rnr;
(
printed
3m^(^
Jiv.L p
517
has the
first
two verses quoted here.
358
History of Dharmaiastrct
Oh. VII
In spite of these excellent precepts it appears that front very ancient times the Veda was only committed to memory and most men learned in the Veda never cared to know its meaning.
The Mahabharata 87J speaks disparagingly of the srotriya as having an intellect dulled by the constant repetition of the anuv&kas of the Veda. Further there was always an undercurrent of the belief that the mere memorizing of the Vedic texts conferred great sanctity on the memorizer and removed all sins. As time went on these ideas became supreme and the neglect of the meaning of the Veda has gone so far that among many modern orthodox bra hm anas there is a belief that the meaning of the Veda cannot be known and it is futile to try to The Tai. Br. says that a man's sins are find its meaning. and by svadhyaya. In Vas. Dh. S. 27. 1, Veda the destroyed by Manu XL 245, Yaj. III. 310 and in numerous other places it is said that sins do not affect a man who studies the Veda and that
the study of Veda destroys sin. Vas. Dh. S. 28. 10-15 speaks of about 35 groups of Vedic hymns ( like the Aghamarsaiia, ftg.
X. 190 ) by silently muttering which a man is purified of his sins; but Vas. Dh. S. 27. 4 is careful to add that Veda study
carelessness.
only removes such sins as are committed through ignorance or 874 Similar provision for removal of sins by the
S. 56.
muttering of the Vedic mantras is made in Visnu Dh. 1-27, Yaj. III. 307-309, Manu XI, 248-260 &c.
Not only was the Veda to be committed to memory, but learnt it was not allowed to slip from one's mind. S. I. 7. 21. 8 makes 'brahmojjha* (i. e. abandoning what Dh. Ap. is learnt) a grave sin along with drinking wine and others. Similarly Manu XL 56 and Yaj. III. 228 also treat it as equal to drinking wine or the murder of a brahmana.
when
is
87 ' Similarly Manu IV. 163 forbids nastikya (holding that there no soul or no Hereafter ) and the reviling of the Veda and in
873. 6
874.
3(tfB 27. 4
;
and snfonrf
10. 1.
this verso is also
3rf^T^( Anan. ed
v. 102.
875.
look upon that the dasyus are often spoken of as ( vide Rg. I. 61. 8, 1. 75. 3, VII. 6. 3 ).
in the I^gveda reference is made to people who did not Indra as a god ^|%qn*HH* 97- X. 86. 1. saw above (p. 26)
Even
'
We
'
avrata, ayajna
and adraddha
( I.
'
In the Kathopanifad
that there
20
Naciketas
says that people existed

(
who thought
)
was no
Oh. VII
Reviling the
Veda
35$
XL 56 regards the
latter as a grave sin equal to drinking wine, while Yaj. III. 288 treats it as grave as brahmahatyfi. Gaufc. 21. 1 mentions the nastika among patitas along with br&hmana murderer and drinker of wine. Visnu Dh. S. 37. 4 includes the
reviling of Veda among upapatakas ( lesser sins ). gays that he who disrespects veda and smrti by
syllogistic reasoning is a reviler of Veda and should be excluded from social intercourse
Manu
II.
11
relying on and a nastika (atheist)
by good men,
Vas. Dh.
to carp
S.
XII, 41 says
the words
afc
to hold the vedas as unaufchoritative, of the sages, and to ba wavering on all
'
points lead to one's destruction '. Vide Visnu Dh. S. 71. 83 and Anu&asanaparva 37. 11 for the same ( in the latter the 2nd pada
is
dastranam cabhilanghanam X
Another striking feature of the ancient educational system the total absence of any prior agreement about fees foi teaching students. So early as Br. Up. IV. 1. 2 we find Yajnavalkyt
was
Continued from last page
survival of the soul after death and
Yam a
declares that he
who does
not
believe in the- world hereafter again and again comes within his grasp (2.6). is derived by tnftrfo in IV.4. 60 The word 3TfSr*mTf^ JT^:
m%5T
The 5 ^fr ( of swraTC ) the meaning being HrftcT WcSto fHT *TfiT*fo'). on the qfoffotmqft p. 284 ( Madras ed.) regards ff^crnr as the founder of materialism and the com. ^?vf%*T?5T on the same quotes a verse ( p. 285 )
on
This verse is quoted in the U4<{M*JJJ$ ( ^rafe^fa ) also. TOT IV. 163 says SywimqiHwyhri frc^wTnrtf nft qnrfcre^ w*%
' \
explaining
Manu
(
for heretics
while ^^fô ( II. p. 395 ) 150 says rr Manu IX. 225 prescribe banishment from the capital pSs.andaatha ). r^B^^nar HI. 18. 27-28 speaks of th<
III.
*
teaching of irnrmts as
crert
TÎ>^?^rfTc^âr
i
q^^q^j: n f^cr^r TÛ% ^^Tfir^^T^ ^^n TO*wqr f^r g ? ^T^ TH^( 5ffon^[R rot so 180 ) regards a ffTi%rar a an unfit witness in general. The Sarvadardanasamgraha gives a synopsis 06 the viowe of CSrvSka and the q^f^T^ng^T of ffw^T composed about 528 (A. D.)
also summarises the
Suali
).
^^m
^r^nff ^f
views of
(vol.
fyfajnTcT
od.
in B.
I.
series
by
L,
The Mahabhjlsya
' II
III.
pp. 325-326
The well-known vorse '^nn^pj gw sfr^fof ft%^ vrrfn^cR^r %?^ ^c^r occurs in tho fT^^^nHTf in its summary at the end ^TTTTRsf |jcT: of] the section on ^r^r^^R. The Tf;?$Rtf5^rq- verso 80 sticcintlj
I
refers to LokSyata,
expresses the cft^T^tT view
'
firfW: means *rf$r. A comprehensive ^"Wrnnft: II history of Indian Materialism would be a very interesting work but i has yet to be written,
|J?fHf^^
^recTr^^??^ 5TTt%
.
sfrft
f Rfm:
OT?
Fc7
360
Histwy of DharmaiGstra
Oh.
VII
saying to king Janaka who offered to give him a thousand cows, an elephant and a bull ( or as Samkara explains an elephant* like bull ), my father was of opinion that without fully teaching a pupil one should not receive any reward from him '. 8T8 Gaufc. 877 ( II. 54-55 ) says that at the end of his studies the student should request the teacher to accept the wealth that he could offer or ask the teacher what should be given and after paying or doing what the teacher wants or if the teacher allowed him to go without demanding anything, the student should take the ceremonial bath ( i. e. return home ). The Asv. The Ap. Dh. S. 878 gr. ( III. 9. 4 ) has almost the same words. the student to offer at the end of his ( 1. 2. 7. 19-23 ) requires studies, whatever their extent may be, a daksinS obtained from proper sources to his teacher according to his abilities and that
if
the teacher is in straightened circumstances, to offer
him a
fee
even by begging from a person who is of the ugra caste or from a sudra and that after offering a fee or doing even a very strikingly good turn [to his teacher he should not boast of it to others nor should he ever dwell in his mind over it. The ideal was that the daksina ( fee ) offered to the teacher at the end of study was simply for pleasing or propitiating the teacher and was not a complete equivalent of or compensation for the knowledge imparted. Manu ( II. 245-246 ) says that the student need not give anything to the teacher till his snana when he is about to return home, he may offer to his guru some wealth; that the gift of a field, gold, a cow, or a horse, of even shoes or an umbrella, of a seat, corn, vegetables and clothes (either singly or 871 together) may engender pleasure in the teacher. The Chan. Up.
;
brahmavidya by declaring it to be more valuable than the gift of the whole earth together with all its wealth. The smrtis880 declare that even if the guru teaches a single
III. 11. 6 eulogises
876.
877.
fi$ntf s^sfcr
fifl***J"J
^îgîcitM 3T ^TTT^C
i
*n- II. 54-55;
ifo {2frnp=fr
^fussrnre^
*i **T*n*
STI**.
%. III.
9. 4.
878.
SIFT- v- 1. 2. 7.
19-23.
879.
III. 11. 6.
880.
^^fi*^
<Hf.
wKUfiiHt *n=3 3*: f$t^ Pft<|<>g c*Sfrra according to ^f^^p I. p. 66 and

I
ff^
according to
m.
1. 2. p.
63,
Oh. VII
letter to
Guru when and how remunerated
36f
the pupil, there is nothing in this world by giving which the pupil can get rid of the debt he owes. The Mahabharata says ( A&vamedhika 56. 21 ) that the teacher's satisfaction with the student's work and conduct is indeed the proper
daksina.
881
Yaj.
I.
51 says that one should give to his teacher
what he chooses to ask as daksina and Katyftyana888 quoted by Apararka ( p. 76 ) prescribes that a brahraana pupil may give a
cow, a princely one a village, a vai&ya a horse (if able to do so). It has been shown above ( p. 355 ) how kings and others made One of the gifts of lands or provided for salaries to teachers. earliest record about university scholarships is contained in the Bahur ( near Pondichery ) plates of Nrpatungavarman in which we find a grant to a Vidyasthana ( a seat of learning ) for
there
promotion of learning ( E. I. vol. 18 p. 5 ). In E. I. vol. 15 p. 83 is provision of 30 mattars of land for professors lecturing
to ascetics
and of eight mattars

(
youths in a monastery
at
in the times of
to teachers giving lessons to the Caiukya Somes vara I

).
Sudiin Dharwar
District in take 981
The Peshwa
distri-
buted to learned brahmanas every year daksina which rose to 4 lakhs of rupees a short time before 1818 A. D. It may be stated that even in the 20th century there are numerous, brahmaiâ teachers of the veda and the dastras who. teach pupils for
years without -stipulating for any fee or even receiving anything from them.
According to Manu II. 141, Sankhasmrti III. 2 and Visnu 2 a teacher who teaches the Veda or the Vedangas for money or for his livelihood is called an Upadhyaya. Yaj. III. 235 and Visnu Dh. S. 37. 20 and others include teaching for money ( and also learning from a paid teacher ) among upapatakas ( lesser sins ). Manu III. 156, Anui&sana 23. 17 and Yaj. I. 223 say that he who is a hired teacher ( bhrtakadhyapaka ) and he who learns from such a teacher are not fit to be invited at a foaddha. ButMedhatithi(on Manu II. 112 and III. 146), the Mit. ( on Yaj. III. 235 ), the 8m. C. and others say that a person does not become a hired teacher by accepting something from a pupil, but that what is condemned is making a stipulation beforehand that one would teach only if a certain sum or if so much
Dh.
S. 29.
881. 882.
qfitm
Iffcfoft
$ S*Prt *ftr*^ 3IT**ft

I
56.21.
iHi94Vit?r
^V
irnrt
ia
^rsF'npn'^t ^STPT
9?n*rnnT quoted by
*n.
I.
p. 76.
The same
quoted as iffTOK's by ft^$<r on
51.
H. D. 46
36*
History of Dharma&nslra
Ch.
VII
were paid or delivered. 883 In distress, Manu X. 116 and Y&j. III. 42 allow even such stipulations for the purpose of securing
one's livelihood.
The Mahabharata ( Adi. 133. 2-3 ) shows that when Bhlsma appointed Drona as the teacher of the Pandava and Kaurava princes he bestowed on him wealth and a well-furnished house
full of corn
;
but there was no stipulation.
It has been shown above (p. 113) that ifc was the king's duty to support learned men and students and to see that no brahmana died of hunger in his kingdom ( vide Gaut. X. 9-J 2, Visnu
79-80, Manu VII. 82-85, Yaj. I. 315, 333 ). So a the teacher demanded a heavy fee at the end of studies, could theoretically at least approach a king for the fee. Kalid&sa draws in Raghuvarhsa a graphic picture how Vara-
Db.
III.
student,
when
tantu demanded a daksina of 14 crores from his pupil Kautsa who approached Raghu for the same and would not take more
Sometimes the teacher or his wife, according to legends, demanded fanciful dakînas. For example, Uttanka was asked by his teacher's wife, when he urged her to
king
take something, to bring the ear-rings of the queen of the reigning ( vide Adiparva chap. 3 and A6vamedhika-parve 56 ).
It
than his requirements.
of pupils
would be interesting to see how far corporal punishment was allowed in ancient India. Gaut. 884 ( II. 48-50 )
that pupils are to be regulated ( ordinarily ) without if it is not possible to control the pupil ( by words may be struck with a slender rope or with a split that if the teacher struck (the pupil ) in any other way
lays
down
beating ; but &<% ) then he
bamboo
( e.
) the teacher should be punished by the king. The Ap. Dh. S. I. 2. 8. 29-30 calls upon the teacher to censure ( by words ) a pupil when he commits a fault and to employ according to the gravity of the offence any one or more
g.
with the hand &c-
of the following punishments till the pupil desists, viz. threatening ( the pupil ), refusing to give him food, drenching him in cold
water and not allowing him to come in his presence. 885
The
*3
:
II. 112.
mw II. 48-50.
ami^f IR *raT3<nrapfcr
i$:
i
885.
3*TT.
t*.
^.
I.
2. 8.
29-30.
Ch.
VII
Corporal punishment of students

889
363
MahabhSsya
the
(vol.
I. p.
41) refers to the fact that

( e.
when a
pupil
pronounced a wrong accent
upadhyaya slapped him ( VIII. 299-300, Visnu Dh. S. 71. 81-82, Narada ( abhyupetyS6urusa, verses 13-14) follow Gautama as to corporal punishment, but add that beating should be on the back only and never on
the head nor on the chest, while beating should not be excessive.
anudatta in place of udatta ) on the back probably ). Manu

g.
Narada further rules that the
Manu ( VIII. 300 ) says that the punishment in case of violation of these rules by the teacher is that for a thief and ( VIII. 299 ) extends the same rules to the son and the wife. Manu II. 159 recommends that
in imparting instruction about the right path of conduct, one should use sweet persuasive ( not high-toned ) words.
ksatriyas, vaisyas
words must now be said about the education of and Madras. According to Gaut. XI. 3 a king should be well-grounded in the three Vedas and in Anvlksikl (i. e. metaphysics) and in XL 19 Gaut. says that the king has to rely for carrying out his duties on the veda, the dharraaSastras, the subsidiary lores of the veda, the upavedas and puranas. Manu VII. 43 and Yaj. I. 311 say that a king should be profiart of
A few
cient in the three Vedas, in metaphysics, in dandanlti ( the government and statecraft ) and in varta ( economic life
and production of wealth). These directions were probably meant to be an ideal and very few kings ever went through all If any conclusions are to be drawn from the stories in the this. Mahabharata, we may say that princes at least hardly ever went to a guru's home, but teachers were engaged to teach them ( as Drona was engaged by Bhlsma ) and they became proficient in military skill. Alberuni(tr. by Sachau 1888, vol. I p. 125) says that brahmanas taught the veda to ksatriyas, but he is probably drawing only on the rules given in the smrtis. Kings left ecclesiastical matters to their purohita and were always to rely on him for advice. Gaut. 887 XL 12-13 and Ap. Dh. S. II. 5. 10.
16 require that the purohita was to be a learned man of good birth, endowed with polished speech, a fine form, middle age and high character and that he was to be well- versed in dharma
and artha.
A6v.
gr.
III.
12 describes
how
the purohita
is
to
prepare the king for battle.
Kaut. in his Arthasastra after
**wnr vol.
I
I. p.
4L
887.
ingrof ^f jj^tffar
WTfft
1% A XL 12>13,
364
History of Dharma&asira
Ch. VII
stating several views gives his own opinion that the vidyas for a prince are four ( the same as those of Manu and Yaj. above ),
is performed the prince should learn the alphabet and arithmetic and when upanayana is performed he should learn the four vidyas till he is 16 years old and may then marry (I. 5), that in the first part of the day he should have instruction in elephant riding and horse riding, riding in chariots
that after the caula
and in arms and the latter part of the day he should devote to hearing puranas, stories, dharmaS&stra and arthasastra (politics). In the Hathigumpha Inscription ( 2nd century B. C. ) there is
currency ), gariana ( finance and treasury correspondence ) and vyavahara ( law and judicial administration ) as the subjects which Kharavela mastered as heir-apparent from his 15th year to his 24th ( vide E.L vol.20 p. 71 at p. 81, J. R. A. S. 1918 p. 545, I. H. Q. vol. 14
a reference to rupa
accounts
),
lekha
( official
for 1938 p. 459 ff. ). In the Kadambarl also Bana shows that prince Candraplda did not go to a teacher's house but that a school was built for him outside the capital where he learnt from his 7th to the 16th year.
any
As to the education of ksatriyas in general we have hardly directions in the dharmasastra works. But that there were
several learned ksatriyas and vaisyas who sometimes became teachers cannot be denied. Kumarilabhatâ says ( on Jaimini
I.
2.
that
adhyapana
recognising that a
and vaisyas who

rules also do so.
is not a special characteristic for a brahmana, since certain ksatriyas have given up the observation of the caste
888
man
is
About the education of vaisyas there
is still
less material.
X. 1 lays down generally that the three varnas ( including vaisyas ) are to learn the Veda, ( X. 79 ) that trade, cattle* rearing and agriculture are the means of the vaisya's livelihood and that (IX. 328-332) the vateya should never think of giving up cattle rearing, that he should know the prices of jewels, coral and pearls, of metals and clothes, of perfumes and salt, the sowing of seed, the qualities and defects of soils, measures and
weights, the different grades of qualities of goods, the profit and loss in trade, the rates of pay for servants, various alphabets
Manu
and the places where saleable
articles are
produced or
manufactured.
888.
108.
Ch. VII
Education of vaisyas and tudras
365
Y&j. II. 184, Narada ( abhyupetyaSugJrusa 16-20 ) indicate that boys were apprenticed with master artisans to learn several 889 ittpaa (crafts) like preparing ornaments of gold or for learning
dancing, singing
&c.
An
apprentice was to stipulate
how
long he would stay with the master craftsman, that even if he learnt the craft earlier than the stipulated time he was still to stay with the teacher and work for him till the period was
over,
that the teacher was to give food and lodging to the apprentice and to appropriate the proceeds from his work, that if the apprentice left the teacher before the time fixed even
though the teacher was ready to teach him, he was to be compelled to stay with the teacher and to be imprisoned or sentenced to whipping by the king if he would not stay.
As
in
the
for the education of the sudra, there are
hardly any rules
gradually, as stated above ( at was allowed to engage in crafts' and rose in status pp. 120-121), and agriculture and so the same rules might have been applied> to him as to vaisya apprentices. The sudra could listen to
dharmasa'stras.
the recitation of the
He
Mahabharata and the pur&nas as shown

).
above
It
at pp. 155-156
appears that in very ancient times the status of Indian women as to education was much higher than in medieval and modern times in India. Several women are stated to have been the composers of Vedic hymns e. g. Rg. V. 28 is ascribed to
;
Visvavara of the Atri family $g. VIII. 91 to Apala of the same family and Rg. X. 39 to Ghosa Kakslvatl. The Br. Up. II. 4. 1. shows that Maitreyl, one of the two wives of Yajnavalkya, the great philosopher of ancient India, was herself a very earnest seeker after true knowledge and she prayed to Yajnavalkya that he should impart to her such knowledge as would make her immortal. 890 In the same Upanisad (III. 6 and 8)
;
we
find that
among
the several interlocutors in the court of
Janaka, king of Videha, who propounded several questions for solution before Yajnavalkya, Gargl Vacaknavl occupies a very prominent position. She pursued Yajfiavalkya with subtle and searching questions till ultimately he was forced to warn her
quoted in
^f%^
II. p.
on
890.
T?T.
11.184 regards
3JT^%
as
195. It is interesting that the a fjfar to be learnt under tho
apprentice system.
OT iftaTO
I
%*fc Sfarw *THJ?TT
&
rfffo
f?.
TO
II. 4. 3
and IV.
5, 4.
366
not to probe too
Ch. VII
much
into the nature of the First Principle
which was beyond mere human reason and logical questioning or otherwise she might die by the fall of her head. Then she desisted, but her unquenchable thirst for philosophical knowledge again swelled up and she put two questions to Yajiiavalkya hoping to confound him. In the same Up. ( Br. 891 for one who desires Up. VI. 4. 17 ) there is a rifce prescribed to have a learned daughter. As in the very preceding sentence a prescription is given for one desirous of having a son who would master the three Vedas, it naturally follows that the learning of the daughter must refer to the same topic. But Sarhkara, in whose day women were debarred from learning the
Vedas, could not but explain the word pandita* as referring to proficiency in domestic work. It has been shown above (p. 294) that upanayana and veda study were allowed to women by Harlta. In the daily rsitarpana ( Asv. gr. III. 4 ) among a host
of sages water
is offered to
*
three
women
as teachers viz. GargI
Vacaknavl, Vadava Pratitheyl and Sulabha Maitreyl. The very fact that the Kasika on Panini IV. 1. 59 and III. 3. 21 teaches the formation of cary& and upadhyaya as meaning a woman who is herself a teacher ( and not merely the wife of a teacher )
establishes that the ancient
women
teachers.
Patanjali
grammarians were familiar with a teaches 8 * 8 how and why
brahmana woman is called ApisalU ( one who studies the grammar of Apisali ) and Kasakrtsna ( one who studies the mlmamsS work of Kaâkrfcsna). He also states the formation of the appellation Audameghah ( meaning the pupils of a woman 89S teacher called Audameghya). Gobhila gr. II. 1. 19-20 prescribes that when the bride pushes forward with her foot a mat the bridegroom should make her repeat the mantra may the way which my husband goes by be also assigned to me and that if she does not repeat this mantra ( through bashfulness &c. ) he
' '
'
891.
am n f^ff?fT d <Tftsm
STT^T&C.
I*. T. VI.
4.
17;
892. 3nf^Tc5T^ *rT3pft anf^rar arrgrofti JTSTWT vol. II. p. 205 (on wrf&fT 3 on qrPTR IV. 1. 14); STf^faRT tfnfTT tffatflT WfT^T^gFl snsr^ftmfnr ^r^rirmr ansrofr sm *mfh% JTSTW^T vol. II. p. 206 on mfita
i
5 on
<n.
IV.
I
1.
14
3?îfcm
893.
vol. II.
vide also usimcq vol. p. 229 ( on *n. IV. 1.78 ).

;
II.
p.
249
3ttq$torraT&nrr
IT fc
qrîh
\
*ftf|tf
**nf
s^^srmnf s^sni'c^ srr^r %fo

)
*wy
i
srwfcn'eFf
IF&Z
1.
^nrm:
The
*ftw5'!ju II.
19-20.
1. 1.
ir
Oh. VII
Education of women in ancient India

'
367
'
should repeat it substituting the words to her for to me '. In the Kanaka 894 gr. 25. 23 it is said that the Anuvaka * beginning with 'sarasvati predam-ava ( of 21 verses) was to be recited both by the bride and the bridegroom according to some All this shows that women could recite Vedic teachers. mantras in the sutra period. The Kamasutra of Vatsy ay ana, 8W a
remarkable though in some places a filthy work, prescribes that women should study the Kamasufcra and its subsidiary angas (viz, the 64 kalas such as singing, dancing, painting &c. ) before
they attain youth ( i. e. in their father's house) and after marriage with the husband's consent. In the 64 kalas enumerated in
that
work
( I. 3.
16
(
are included prahelikas
riddles of
words
),
chanting from books ), kavyasamasyS-purana ( composing a suitable portion of a verse to fit in with a portion given ), knowledge of lexicons and metres &c. Wo read in the
pusfcakavacana
epics
the Sakuntala of women writing In the Malatlmadhava Bhavabhuti tells his readers that the fathers of -the hero and the heroine studied in their youth together with KamandakI at the feet
and the dramas
like
messages
to their lovers.
of the
same master.
Saktimuktftvali
we
From anthologies like Rajagekhara's learn that there were poetesses like.ViJJ*. Slta
All these facts tend to indicate that literary attainments among women were not totally unheard of in ancient India.
&c.
the position of women became worse and In the Dharmasutras and Manu woman is assigned a came position of dependence and even women of higher classes and Vedic far as sudras so to study to be looked upon as equal several other matters were concerned. Gaut. 18. 1, Vas. Dh. S. VI. li Baud. Dh. S. II. 2, 45 and Manu IX, 3 say that women have no independence and in all stages depend upon men. We have seen (at p. 265) also that all the samskaras (except marriage) were
But gradually
worse.
performed in the case of girls without Vedic mantras. Though according to the Purvamlmamsa the husband and wife were to perform Vedic sacrifices together (Jaimini VI. 1.17-21) still women898 were only associated with their husbands and all the
894.
^qreT^^raH^qra3^<qamH ^nf^
)|
.
2. 1-3.
'
896.
Qfrri
Miq^-mHi^n^w^s+ia^în,
^T-
VI.
1.
24; 3ijjF*n ft $fr g^
368
Oh. Vlt
actions to be done by the sacrifioer ( yajam&na ) were to be done only by the kusband except where the texts expressly requested the wife to do certain things such as examining the Sjya or repeat-
ing certain mantras (VI. 1. 24). Jaimini says that the husband and wife were not equal and Sabara explains that the yajamana is a male and is learned, while the patnl is a woman and has no vidyS. Medhatithi 897 on Manu II. 49 raises the interesting
question why brahmacarins when begging for alms used a Sanskrit formula (bhavati bhiksam dehi) which language ladies do not know. He replies that women can understand that
vernacular words which they use being similar to Sanskrit words must be derived from them and that these few wellknown Sanskrit words they can easily grasp. Besides even in Vedic times there was a tendency as in many other countries to
make sarcastic references to women. The Rgveda898 VIII. 33. 17 " says Even Indra said the mind of woman cannot be control'
intellect ( or power ) is slight ; in Rg. X. 95. 15 Mf 'there is no truth in the friendship of women they have the hearts of hyaenas The Sat. Br. XIV. 1. 1. 3 exhorts a person studying the Madhu-vidya not to look at woman,
; ;
led
and also her
'
"
'.
6udra, the dog
and the black bird that are
all
untruth
'.
In
Manu II
213-214, Anusasanaparva chap. 19. 91-94, chap. 38 and 39 there is severe condemnation of woman. Such ideas, and ideas about pollution and the early marriage of girls are
of
probably responsible for the great lack women in medieval and modern times,
literacy
among
among women was in a languishing almost nil, the question of co-education hardly arises. There are no doubt faint indications that when women could at all devote themselves to learning, they must have been taught with male pupils. Poets like Bhavabhuti (in the Malatlliterary education
state or
As
madhava ) envisage a state Kamandakl ) learnt at the
of society in
feet of the
which a woman
like
same master along with

later
male students (like Bhurivasu and Devarata, who became ministers of states ).
on
897.
a:
t*ii*<fiT*
mw
err**
on *g. n.
B98.
VIII. 33. 17.
49.
V. X.
96. 15.
Ch. VII
Education in ancient India
The house of the aoarya where the student learnt was called acaryakula (vide Chan, Up. II. 23. 2, IV. 5. 1., IV. 9. 1, VIII. 15. The teacher who presided over a large establishment of 1).
pupils was called kulapati ( e. g, Kanva the Sakuntala, vide note 134 above ).
It
is
is
so referred to in
outside the scope of this
work
to
show from the
inscriptions and copper-plate grants that have been published so far, how ancient kings and rich private persons made substantial grants to famous schools, colleges and universities.
numerous
Taxila
),
There were famous universities at Taksasila Valabhi, Benares, Nalanda, Vikramasila &o.
of the
modern For an
account
reference
travellers
university
of
may
be
made
to the accounts
Nalanda in the 7th century given by the two Chinese
Yuan Chwang ( vide Watters vol. II. pp. 109, 246 ) and Itsing ('Records of the Buddhist Religion* by Dr. Takakusu pp. 154, 177 &o.). Most of those seats of learning were endowed. One of the earliest of such grants is that of the Pal lava
( Bahur Plates, E. 1. 18 p. 5 ) whereby three as a source of revenue ( vidyabhoga ) were bestowed villages for the promotion of learning to the residents of a seat of The Kavyalearning ( vidyasthana, a college ) at Vagur. mlmarhsa of Rajasekhara ( in chap. 10 ) calls upon the king to
Nrpatunga-varman
hold assemblies of poets and learned men, to arrange for their
examination and to distribute rewards

of such ancient
to
them
in the
manner
kings as Vasudeva, Satavahana, Sudraka, Sahasanka. It also says that in UjjayinI such poets as Kalidasa, Merrfcha, Bharavi, Haricandra were examined and in Pataliputra ( modern Patna ) such famous sastrakaras as Panini, VyadiJ Vararuci, Patanjali, Varsa, Upavarsa, and Pingala were examined.
The salient features of the educational system outlined in

the Dharmasastra works are the high and honourable position assigned to the teacher, the close personal contact of the pupil
with the teacher and individual attention, the pupil's stay with
the teacher as a
member of his family, oral instruction and the absence of books, stern discipline and control of emotions and The fche will, cheapness (as no fees were stipulated for). Indian system compares most favourably with any system of education of the West, whether in Greece or Rome or any other
country.
It
tion, particularly of the
gave to the students a more or less literary educaVedio literature and of philosophy,
other subjects ancillary thereto,
grammar and
H. D. 47
The principal
370
effort
Oh. VII
conservation of the ancient than to the creation of fresh literature. In these respects it was similar to the Grammar Schools of England and to the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge as they were till about the middle of the 19th century. The defects of the Indian system were that it was too literary, there was too much memorizing, boys under it had hardly any instruction in useful manual arts and crafts, the studies were not brought in contact with practical life. The discipline was rigorous and joyless. Many of these defects were due to the exigencies of the
literature rather
was
directed towards the
caste system
castes.
We
which assigned particular avocations to particular cannot and should not compare the system with
the systems of education prevalent in the 20th century, when several subjects such as literature, music and the fine arts,
handicrafts, mathematics, science, history and geography are taught in the schools to all boys and when it has been recog-
nised that education
is
a prime concern of the State.
The four Veda-vratas:
Among
the sarhskSras enumerated
VIII. 15 ). ( Gaut. These four are also included in the 16 samskaras by several Their names and procedure differ considerably in the smrtis. Some grhyasutras like Par. do not several grhyasutras.
there
describe them.
by Gautama
are four Veda-vratas
A brief reference will be made to them here.

20
90
The
Asv.
all
gr. I. 22.
the
says in general words that in the vratas ceremonies beginning from shaving the head up to
paridSna
the
( i. e.
Asv.
gr.
19. 8 to
I.
20. 7
that are performed at
upanayana are repeated each time with each vrata. And the four vratas according to the Asvalayana srarti ( in verse ) were
MahanamnI
vrata,
vrata and Godana.
be performed for a year. Vide Laghu Asvalayana llth section ( Anan. Ed ). The San. gr. ( II. 11-12 ) describes, after the student is instructed in the sacred Gayatrl, four vratas ( observances ) called Sukriya
is to
f
Mahavrata Each vrata
Ait. Ar.
I.
and
),
Upanisad
the
which precedes the study of the main part of the Rgveda ), Sakvara, Vrfitika and Aupanisada vratas ( which three
precede the
study of the different sections of the Aitareya The observance of the first of these ( viz. Sukriya ) lasted for three days or twelve days or one year or as long as the teacher liked and the observances of the other three were to be kept for one year each ( San. gr. II. 11. 10-12, S, B, E. vol. 29
Aranyaka ).
900.
^f *mri% tri^r*n*t mruw'
rre*mrac
aw**.
*r- I.
22 20.
Ch.
VII]
The Veda-vratas
371
At the beginning of each of these three vratas there is p. 77 ). a separate upanayana, followed by a ceremony called Uddlksanika ( giving up the preparatory observances ) anu then the vrata is to be performed for one year. The Aranyaka is to be studied in the forest out of the village. Manu II. 174 prescribes
that at the time of the beginning of each of these vratas the student had to put on a new deer skin, a new yajnopavlta and a new girdle. The Gobhila grhya III 1. 26-31 ( which is
the connected with Samaveda) mentions the vratas as Godanika, Vratika, Aditya, Aupanisada, Jyestha-samika, each lasting for one year. Ifc adds that some do not observe the Aditya-vrata. The godana vrata is connected by the Gobhillya with the samskara of godana ( to be described below ) and it prescribes certain observances for ifc such as removing all hair
on the head, chin and
lips
avoiding false-hood, anger, sexual
intercourse, perfumes, dancing and singing, collyrium, honey and meat ; not wearing shoes in the village. It also prescribes that wearing the girdle, begging for food, carrying a staff,
daily bath, offering a fuel-stick, and clasping the teacher's feet in the morning are common to all vratas. The GodSnika
enabled the student to study the Purvarcika of the Samaveda ( i. e. the collection of verses sacred to Aghi, Indra and Soma
Pavamana ). The Vrafcika was introductory to the study of the Aranyaka ( excluding Sukriy a sections); the Aditya vrata to
the study of the Sukriya sections ; the Aupanisada-vrata to the study of the Upanisad-brahmana ; the Jyes^ha-samika to the study of the Ajya-dohas. The Kb. gr. II. 5. 17 ff. speaks of the
as Gobhila. Those who observe the Adityavrata wore one garment, did not allow anything to come between them and the sun ( except trees and the roofs of houses ) and did not descend into water more than knee-deep. The Sakvara vrata was kept for one year, or for three or six or nine. Those who observe this vrata study the Sakvarl or MahanatnnI verses. Vartika 901 on Panini V. 1. 94. (tadasya brahmacaryam) mentions the Mahanamnls and teaches tha derivation of Mahanamnikam
same vratas
as the period
).
Mahanamnls
901.
of brahrnacarya devoted to the vrata of the There were certain peculiar observances for
The
wrfifojs 1
and
on
err.
V.
1.
94 are
explains
n.
p. 360.
372
this
History of DharmaiHstra
Oh.
VII
such as bathing thrice a day ( Gobhila III. 2. 7-46, Kh. 23 ff. ), wearing dark clothes, partaking of dark food, standing by day, sitting by night, not seeking shelter when is it raining, not crossing a river without bathing in it
gr. II. 5.
is centred in water ). After the ( the virtue of the Mahanamnls student has kept his vow for one-third of the time prescribed^ the teacher is to sing to the student the first stotriya of the Mahanamnls 902 (viz. the three mantras, vida maghavan,
abhistvam, evahi sakro ) and in the same way the They ( each consisting of three mantras ). the student who has fasted, has closed his to sung dipped his hand in a brass vessel full of water in
stotriyas
two other
are to be
eyes, has which all sorts of herbs are thrown and whose eyes are veiled with a new piece of cloth, the student is to keep silent and abstain from food for one day and night ( or three ), to stand in the forest till sunset ( and return to the village in the night ),
should sacrifice with mahavyahrtis look at fire, clarified butter, the sun, a brahmana, a bull, food, water and curds; then salute
;
the teacher, break his silence

offer
and give a
fee to the teacher
and
a mess of cooked food to Indra and give a dinner to the
The same rules apply to the Jyesthasamika vrata ( introductory to the study of the three 903 murdhanam divah, tvam visve, nabhim viz. Ajyadohas yajnanam). The student who undergoes this has to observe certain rules throughout his life viz. he cannot marry or have sexual intercourse with a sudra woman, cannot eat bird's flesh, he should not restrict himself to one kind of corn or one country and should always wear two garments, should bathe in water drawn with a vessel and should not eat in an earthen pot or drink water from it.
teacher and all co-students.
'
The Baud. gr. III. 2. 4 ff says that there are vratas of one year each which precede the study of certain brahmana texts ( of the Krsna Yajurveda ); they are hotarah 904 , sukriyas, upanisadah,
902.
iRfiwfrs are verses beginning with f^r
H^^
ft^T which
at II. 7 ( ed.
occur in
q^r 3W"TO IV,

)
in the
^ghftqqfon of the qmj<j

I.
),
by Dr. Ilaghu Vira

903.
r
and
also in several other *n%OTs.
The mantra
jj*r?4
(
%t is at *n*%
and
67
tf|
ft$ is at *rmfcf II. 491 2.492($g. VI. 7. 2).

904. The ^forc or beginning with
%.
VI.
7.
srrfft
(and Rg. VI. ^jcmrn ia

Tai.
7.
1),
wfi?
1-5
^fWT:
are the mantras in
Ar.
III.
Ch.
VIII
The Veda-vralas
it
33
For
godanam and sammifcam and

want
(
describes them in detail.
of space all these are passed over. The SamskSra-kaustubha pp. 571-580 ) gives in some detail the procedure of the Maha-
namnl vrata, states that the
Upanisadvrata and Godanavrafca. It Mahanamnlvrata is performed in the 13th year from birth and Godanavrata in the 16th. It appears, however, that these vratas gradually fell into desuetude and medieval writers often pass them over altogether or barely mention them and emphasize only the general observances of brahmacarins viz. celibacy, begging for food, avoiding honey, wine and 905 ( p. 6 ) refers singing &c. For example, the Smrtyarthasara to Savitrlvrata, then the vrata for Vedic study and then the Aranyaka vratas. The Mit. on Yaj. I. 52 ( vedam vratani va param nltva ) explains vratam as simply the duties of the student already enumerated by Yaj. ( among which the specific vratas of MahanaranI &c. do not figure ).
* '
M aha vrata,
If the student failed in observing the specific vratas, he had to perform piayascitta by undergoing the prajSpatya If the brahmacarl penance thrice or six times or twelve times. is guilty of failing in his daily duties of observing sauca and
aoamana, of the performance of samdhya prayer, of using darbho, of begging for food, of offering fuel stick to fire, of avoiding the touch of sudras and the like, of wearing the
cloth
( for covering his 'private parts ), the loin thread, the yajnopavlta, the girdle and the staff and deerskin, of not sleeping by day, of not holding an umbrella over his head or of not wear-
ing shoes, or not putting on garlands, of avoiding luxurious bath, sandal paste, collyrium, of not sporting in water, of avoiding gambling, and addiction to dancing, singing and music, of not engaging in conversation with heretics, he had
undergo the penance of three krcchras ( according to Baudha) and to perform a homa with the vyahrtis separately and together ( i. e. four oblations of clarified butter were to be 908 If he was guilty of other more serious lapses he offered).
to
yana
905.
xs
w^5
906.
^<ji*3dd 9cT*m w 4h3icuft *rraacf ^fr *r Hcnnf *?tat *r sr^sr ^r JTnn^*rt**ft*rT $ ofttrrarfta fac
i
P- 6.
^îl^îi'^T^*^î^îH^^^K"ÎJ
*
p. 563.
^w
374
History of DharmaSastra
Ch. Vll
had to undergo heavier penance. The most reprehensible act in a brahmacarin was to have sexual intercourse with a woman. The Tai. Ar. II. 18 speaks of the prayascitta for such a
brahmacarin who
Tai. Ar.
is
called avaklrnin.
)
"
they (the sages
Gaut.
25.
1-2 quotes the

(
say
in
how many
deities
the
avaklrnin enters ; ( the answer is ) he enters the Maruts with his breath, Indra with his strength, Brhaspati with his spiritual " eminence and fire with the rest ( of his senses ) and Gautama
'
moon day and then

with the
further provides that he should kindle fire at midnight on a new offer two ajya oblations by way of penance
two mantras
kamava- and Kamavadrugdhosmi
'
'
'
&c., place a fuel stick on fire, sprinkle water round the fire, offer the yajnavastu oblation ( for which see Gobhila gr. I. 8. 26-29 ) and standing near the fire should worship fire thrice
with the verse sam ma sincantu '. Baud. Dh. S. ( IV. 2. 10-13 ) contains the same rules. Jaimini 908 ( VI. 8. 22 ) prescribes that ordinary ( laukika ) fire is to be used for the pasu to be sacrificed
(
viz.
ass to Nirrti, which

is
is
symbolic of the stupid lapse the

'
student
and Sahara quotes a Vedic passage that a brahmacarin who has become avakti-nin should sacrifice an ass to Nirrti Ap. Dh. S. L 9. 26. 8, Vas. 23. 1-3, Manu XI.
guilty of
)
'.
118-121, Yaj. III. 280 contain similar provisions ( Vasistha allowing in the absence of an ass oblations of boiled rice with
by Gautama ). Manu XL 122-123 and 49-50 prescribe that the brahmacarl so guilty should for one year wear the skin of the ass, should beg for food at seven houses announcing to them his lapse, should take food only once, should bathe thrice and then only he becomes pure. Manu II. 187 ( = Visnu Dh. S. 28. 52) prescribes similar penance for a brahmacarl who without being ill gives up begging for food and offering fuel to fire continuously for
the mantras mentioned
Visnu Dh.
S.
28.
seven days. Prayascitta vlta or its being torn, or

18 is
c
is
its
prescribed for loss of yajfiopa-
being polluted by impure things
907.
&. an. II.
908.
3TC3?H3rcr4?
cTÎ^n^^TWrH* W^f^
5f
VI. 8. 22
i
?:
Ch.
VII
Perpetual student-hootl
It consists in offering
375
like blood &c.
homa and wearing a new

).
one.
Vide Sarhskara-ratnamala
Naisthika brahmacarin
(
pp. 365-367 for details.
perpetual student
two kinds, upakurvana ( the student Brahmacarins who offered some return to the teacher, vide Manu II. 245, for the word upakurvlta ) and the naisthika ( the student who remains so till his death ). These two names occur in Harlta Dh. S., Daksa I. 7 and in several smrtis. The word naisthika occurs in Visnu Dh. S. 28. 46, Yaj.' I. 49, Veda-Vyasa 'l. 41. The idea of perpetual studenthood is very ancient. In the 910 Chandogya Up. II. 23. 1 we read that the third branch of dharma is the ( status of a ) student who stays with his teacher's family and who wears out his body to the end in the family of the teacher. Gaut. III. 4-8, Ap. Dh. S, L 1. 4. 29, Harlta Dh. 91i S., Vas. VII. 4-6, Manu II. 243, 244, 247-249, and Yaj. I. 49-50 say that if the student likes he may stay with his teacher till life lasts and should serve his guru and in the rest of the time repeat the Veda ; that if the teacher be dead he may stay with and serve the teacher's son if he is worthy or the teacher's wife or he may worship the fire kindled by his deceased guru he should thus wear out his body he obtains the highest worlds of bliss and is not born again. He has to perform throughout
were of
'
his life the duties of offering fuel sticks, Veda study, begging for food, sleeping on the ground ( not on a cot ), and of self-restraint
(
Brhaspati quoted in Sm. C.

918
I.
p.
62
).
According to Visnu quoted in Apararka
p.
72
and the
Sm.
C.
( I.
p.
63
'
quoting the Samgraha persons
who
are
909.
on Ysj.
910.
I.
f^HT means end or death' and%%^j is derived by tho Mit. 49 as 3^c*ti*f f^rcyi ^cîPtiSRTcS *nicftf^ Hia^: '.
*
>
This Up.
911.
TbiB is quoted by ft9^T on ^rr. I. 49-50. fl-jV*T 3TT. II. 23. 1. passage is tho basis of VedHnta-sHtra III. 4. 18-20; vido ulao
fi?f%tft
ibid III. 4. 49. arsr^rft
^TT^
^
^rasr
stflr
nnj
VII. 4-6.
II. 2.
sir^T^
*
ff^T^r^^m^r ^ns^rm: by amr^ P- 71. flr^r^nrf^T^

i
The worda
an^TTr^nffcT^r
occur in tbeg^rT^f ritual; vide
912.
f%^ quoted
^fe ^rorn
I. p. 63.
i
in 3rro4f
P-
72 and
^J^TO
I.
p.
63
f^r
^ri:^^ ^m^^f^rfiwnpc^:
wr*
quoted by
376
Ch. VII
dwarfs, ill-formed, congenitally blind, impotent, cripples and those suffering from incurable diseases should become perpetual students, as they are not entitled to perform the Vedic rites and
are not entitled to inherit.
We saw
above that Kumarilabhatta
accepted this view ( vide note 852a ). But this does not mean that the blind and other partially defective people could not marry at all. They could marry if they had sufficient wealth.
For example, Dhrtarastra, though congenially blind, married and had sons. Apararka ( p. 72 ), the Sin. C., the Madanaparijata ( p. Ill ), the Par. M. ( I. 2. p. 51 ff ) and others say that perpetual student-hood is not restricted only to the blind and the cripple, but it may be resorted to by even able-bodied men at their choice ( vide Manu II. 243-44 ).
913 that if a person undertakes to be a says perpetual student, but falls from that ideal, there is no prayascitta for that lapse. Some interpret this as applying to one who
Atri
VIII. 16
becomes a sarhnyasin and then gives up that mode of
life
while others like the Sarhskara-prakasa ( p. 564 ) interpret it as meaning that the prayascitta is double of what the upakurv&na
would have
yana and
to undergo.
(
Patitasavitrika
those for
whom
therefore no instruction
there has been no upanain Gayatrl and who are
therefore sinful
and outside the pale of Aryan society ). The grhya and dharma sutras are agreed that the time for upanayana has not passed till the 16th, 22nd and the 24th year in the case of brahmanas, ksatriyas and vaisyas respectively, but that after these years are past without upanayana taking place they become incompetent thereafter for learning the Savitrl ( the sacred Gayatrl verse ), Vide Asv. gr. I. 19, 5-7, Baud. gr III.
t
Ap. Dh. S. 1. 1. 1. 22, Vas. XL 71-75, Manu II. 38-39, Such persons are then called patitasSvitrlka or 37-38. I. Yaj. cavitrlpatita and also vratya ( Manu II. 39 and Yaj. I. 38 call also declare that the consequences of them so ). These works this are that no upanayana is to be thereafter performed for them, they are not to be taught the Veda, nor is any one to officiate at
13. 5-6,
913*
H
3Yi% VIII. 16
the ^foCTTOCT^T P- 564 ascribes a rery

snt*:
similar
Terse to
914.
an
I.
ifteMrj. wrgrar^nTcftr:
an $ifif$uHi3<m
sir
19.
5-7
;
*ft
3j. (
or rqqg^;:
mj.
^j.
II.
reads ft*$g: for nrcrf^ ), *ftre reads 5 has almost the same words.
Oh. VII
Patita-savitrtka
377
their sacrifices
(
i.
e.
( 1.
1.
and there is to he no social intercourse with them no marriage takes place with them ). Dh. S. Ap. 1. 24-27 ) prescribes that after the 16th or 24th year,
the person should undergo the rules of student-hood two months just as those who meant to study the three Vedas
and whose upanayana has been performed observe (viz. begging for food &c. ), then his upanayana should be performed, then for one year he should bathe (thrice if possible ) every day and then he should be taught the Veda. This is a somewhat easy penance. But others prescribe heavier Vas. Dh. S. XL 76-79 and the Vaik. smarta II. 3 penalties. prescribe that one who is patitasavitrika should either perform the Uddalaka vrata or should take a bath along with the performer of an Asvamedha sacrifice or should perform the 915 and the Vaik. smarta Vratyastoma sacrifice. Both Vasistha
explain that the Uddalaka vrata consists in subsisting on barley gruel for two months, for one month on milk, for half a month on.amiksS ( the whey that arises by pouring curds in
hot milk
), for eight days on ghee, for six days on aims obtained without begging, for three days on water and in observing a The Sm. 0. ( I. p. 28 ) says that total fast for one whole day.
this vrata is so called because
it
was promulgated by Uddalaka.

26 prescribe a mild praysa918 three prajapatya penances ;
Manu XL
while Yaj.
191 and Visnu Dh.

viz.
gr.
I.
S. 54.
citta for patitasavitrika^ ,

38,
Baud.
III. 13. 7,
Veda-Vyasa
I.
21 and
several others prescribe only the Vratyastoma for those who 917 are patitasavitrtkas. Visvarupa (on Yaj. III. 262) tries to reconcile these contradictions by saying that the easy penance
prescribed by Manu applies to a brahmana whose upanayana is not performed before the 16th year, but whose upanayana is sought to be performed before the 22nd year, while the Vratya-
stoma
is
to
be performed for him whose upanayana
is
not
915.
XI. 76-79.
For the m*ng**r vide jqg XL 211 and m. HI. 320. It lasts for 12 days and consists in taking only one morning ineal for 3 days, only one meal in the evening for three days, subsisting on alms obtained without begging for three days and total fast for three days.
916.
917.
on
H. D. 48
^T. III. 262.
S?8
History of Dharmalastra
Oh, VII
performed for forty-eight years from the first prescribed period The Mifc. on Yaj. III. 262 viz. 8th year, llth year or ). also tries to introduce vyavastha ( order ) in the contradictory dicta of the smrtis. According to Gaut. 21. 11, Yaj. III. 234 and
(
mh
others vratyata
Manu XI.
also
( being pafitasavitrlka) is only an upapataka and 117 prescribes an easy penance for all upapatakas.
Ap. Dh.
S.
918
'
says
if
had not the upanayana performed
a person's father and grandfather for them, then they ( i.e.
the three generations ) are called slayers of brahma ( holy prayers or lore ) ; people should have no intercourse with them, should not take their food nor should enter into marriage alli-
ances with them ; but if they desire then penance should be administered to them '. It then prescribes that they have to perform the penance (observing rules of student-hood) one
year for each generation ( that had not the upanayana performed), then there is upanayana and then they have to bathe ( thrice or once ) every day for a year with certain mantras viz.
P&vam&nl verses beginning with *yad anti yacca Bg. IX. 67. 21-27 ), with the Yajus pavitra ( Tai. S. I. 2. 1. i=Rg. X. 17. 10), with the samapavitra and with the mantra called Angirasa ( Rg. IV. 40. 5 ) or one may pour water 919 . After all this is done, one may be only with the vyahrtis taught the Veda. Ap. Dh. S. goes further ( I. 1. 2. 5-10 ) and
the seven
(
dflrake'
says
the generations 92 beginning with the great-grandfather had not the upanayana performed ou them, they are
if
'
called
the cemetery
and
of
that
if
there is
for
desire
they
may
observe
918.
the
rules
student-hood
twelve
years, then
am
*rw (far
i
^qri^gicTt srnrf^rxnj
TOT sjsrer
STR. U. I. 1. 1. 28-1. 1. 2. 1-4. verses are those that are addressed to Soma and according to some they are all the verses of the 9th mapdala of the Rgveda beginning with
4
tithi
svBdi^thayS madithayS (vide Haradatta on Gaut. 19. 12 and Medhffon Manu V. 85 ). The ^gsqrft^ is the ^2r SH'flSCTWmTT: pW?a* ; tTl^MNÎ is the S^rnan beginning with 4 kaya na^citra Sbhuvat which is
'
4
'
Rg. IV.
is
*
31. 1
and occurs
'
in all other
SaihhitSs
).
and the Angirasa mantra
Hamsah
919.
ducisad
Eg. IV. 40. 5
Haradatta explains that one is to pour water over one's head with the folded hands after repeating these mantras.
920.
The generations
man
will be four sjfatnTf,
famHT,
Rm
and the
himself.
Oh.
VII
Pattta-savitrika
379
then the person so with the PavamSnl and other verses ( as stated above), then instruction in the duties of the householder may be imparted to him ( i. e. to the 4th); he cannot, however, be taught the Veda; but his son may have the sarhskara performed as in the case of one who is himself patitasavitrlka and then his son will be one like other Haradatta 921 remarks that Ap. does not declare the aryas
upanayana
may
be
performed
and
desirous of
upanayana will have
to bathe
'.
prayascitta for
him whose
great-grandfather's father also
was
without upanayana, but that those who know the dharmasastra should find out a proper prayascitta even in such cases. It is
clear that Ap. contemplates cases where for three generations no upanayana and the fourth generation also had not the upanayana performed at the right time and desired
there had been
to
have
it
performed for him.
Par. gives a brief rule
when
three generations are patitasavitriJta, their offspring ( i. e. the fourth generation ) is excluded from the sacrament of
upanayana and he cannot be taught the Veda.' 92 is more restrictive than Apastamba.
There
is
So Par.
a famous historical example of the application of Gagabhatta, a profound scholar of Benares, at the coronation of Shivaji, the founder of the officiated Maratha Empire, in 1674 and performed the upanayana of
these
rules.
Shivaji before the coronation, old and had even two sons.
late Mr. Justice
when Shivaji was about 45 years Some eminent scholars like the
Telang
928
have found fault with Gagabhatta
921.
itreftan*
922.
<rt
a<n sSrarftr
313^ on
JHTT.
sr.
1. 1. 2.
10.
f^^t? <d*taCTf^^twnr<T&&TOnrcfr wrrttf

In
'
TO. n.
II. 5.
Gleanings from Maratha Chronicles appended to the late Mr. Justice Ranade's Rise of the Maratha Power ', Mr. Justice Telang observes (p. 286 ) they had also to strait! a point, when as a prelimi923.
4
'
nary
to the installation, the thread ceremony essential for a kâtriya was performed on Shivaji at a time when he was forty-six or fifty years old and had already had two sons, an irregularity which also was, we are the brShmanas and pandits. How told, expressly assented to by all the brShmanas and pandits worked their way to this decision, none of
our authorities state'; and further on (p. 288) he casts undeserved whole evidence together it looks like a case of a aspersions taking the more or loss deliberate manipulation of facts and religious rites in aid
'
of a foregone conclusion adopted for a purely political purpose . Mr. Justice Telang writes rather like a judge than like a scholar or a
(
Continued on next
380
History of Dharma&asfra
;
Ch.
VII
and the other brahmanas of that time but these scholars are wrong and Gagabhatta had behind him weighty and ancient authorities like Ap., Paraskara, Visvarupa and Haradatta as
shown
above.
of the man ( II. 37 ) adds that in the case himself patitasavitrlka the samskaras ( from Garbhahave to be again performed ( with Vedic mantras ) and
is
The Vaik. sutra
who
is
)
dbana
then the upanayana
performed.
One very important question that exercised the minds of some writers in medieval times was whether ksatriyas and vaisyas existed in the kali age. In some of the puranas it is said in a prophetic vein that MahapadmaNanda will destroy the ksatriyas and thereafter rulers will be of the sudra caste. For example, the
Visnupurana IV. 23. 4-5 says Mahapadma Nanda, the son of MahSnandi, born of a sudra woman would be extremely greedy (of power) and will destroy the whole ksatriya race as if he were another Parasurama; thereafter sudras will be kings'. The Matsya 272. 18-19 and the Bhagavata-purana XII. 1. 6-9 declare the same prophecies. The Visnupurana IV. 24. 44 remarks that Devapi, descendant of Puru, and Manu, descendant of Iksvaku, stay in
(
Continued from last page}
The judge has to give a decision on the evidence adduced by the parties before him; it is no part of his business to collect evidence But the role of a historian is entirely different. He for himself. must not only try to read all evidence available till the time he
historian.
writes but he must himself ferret out all possible evidence and make Above all he searches in places where evidence is likely to be found. must be cautious in his condemnations of persons long dead on the
strength of the meagre evidence read by him. Mr. Tclang wrote the paper above referred to in 1892, but long before that Pa"raskara ( in 1886) and Apastamba (in 1885) had been translated and published in 'the Sacred Books of the East series/ But he, though a great judge and also a great Sanskrit scholar, nowhere shows that he cared to see whether sastric rules allowed the upanayana of a man himself at any age whatever If he had seen those rules he would not have ( after some penance ).
him and attributed he made any search
unjustly taken to task pandits that flourished two hundred years before irregular motives to them. It does not appear that
in the archives of the Udaipur Durbar to see how Shivaji traced his descent from the Sisodia clan, nor does it appear that he even went to Mudhol and other places in MahSrS^tra where ancient Maratha families have been holding sway for centuries. The papers recently published from the records of the Mudhol State amply establish
Shivaji's claim to a Rajput lineage.
Ch. VII
Ksatriyas and Kaliyuga
381
Kalapagrama, are endowed with great yogic powers, will revive

the ksatriya race when the krta age will start again after the present kali age comes to an end and that some ksatriyas exist on
the earth like seed even in the kali age. V.yu(vol. I. 32, 39-40), Matsya(273. 56-58) have similar verses. Relying on such
passages some medieval writers stated that there were no ksatriyas 923 * of Raghunandana(p.268)after in their times. The Suddhitattva
quoting the Visnupurana IV. 23. 4 and Manu X. 43 declares that ksatriyas existed till Mahanandi, that the so-called ksatriyas of his day were siudras and that similarly there were no vai&yas
also.
In the Sudra-Kamalakara occurs this verse
'
The varnas
are brahmanas, ksatriyas, vai^yas and &udras, the first three being twice-born ; all these exist in the several yugas;
but in the kali age
only
half
the
of
first
and the
century
last
92Sb
)
remain*.
in
his
Nageâbhatta
(first
18th
VratyataprayaSoittanirnaya ( Chaukhamba Series) examines all the relevant Purana passages and states as his conclusion that real ksatriyas do not exist and so those, in whose families no upanayana had been performed for ten or twenty generations, are not ksatriyas even though they rule over kingdoms and no
upanayana can be performed for such kings. It must be stated that such views, though held by some rigidly orthodox writers of extreme views, were not shared by most writers. All the
smrbis speak of the duties of the four varnas even in the kali age. Parasara-smrti which is said to be the smrti par excellence for the
does so. Almost all nibandhaand commentaries ) discuss the privileges and duties of all varnas. The author of the Mitaksara, who is rightly described as the best of all nibandhakaras nowhere says that ksatriyas do not exist in the kali age. Numerous kings claimed to be descended from the Sun and the Hemadri in his Caturvargacintamani states that his Moon. patron was a scion of Somavamsa ( vide H. Dh. vol. I p. 356 for quotations). The- princes of Raj putana and Central India claimed to have sprung from the Agnikunda on Mount Abu, viz. of the
kali age
(
as stated in
of
I.
24
karas
authors
digests
923
a.
sf^Fffp<T5l$rrM ^ Wl^
*T3"pTt%cT: ^J^TTHfcff^TSf^QSvfT TfTWT f^: <T n%*ri*TOrft HT%?TT *rar: *? ^rn?T *rf%^n% ynr
*^J5TT"m
w ^r
268.
923 b.
p. 1.
382
four
History of JDharmaiastra
Ch. VII
Calukya),
(
clans of Chohan, Parmar (or ParamSra), Solanki (or Padihar (or PratlhSra ). Vide Tod's Rajasthan Madras ed. of 1873 ) vol. I chap. VII pp. 82 ff. . This theory of
the
Agnikulas
is
at least as old as 1000 A.
D.,
since
it
is
referred to in several inscriptions of the llth century A. D. Vide the Vasantagadh Inscription of Paramara Purnapala
dated sam. 1099
1042-43 A. D.) in E.
I.
vol.
IX p.
10 and the
inscription of Camimdaraja dated sam. 1136 (1079-1080 A. D.) in E. I. vol. XIV. p. 295.
This question is now largely of academic interest. Whether a person is a sudra or a member of the regenerate classes assu-
mes great importance
in adoption, inheritance and succession.
Therefore the question, whether ksatriyas exist in modern times, came before the British Indian courts over a hundred years ago.
In Chouturya Run Murdun Syn v. Sahub Purhulad Syn 7 Moore's Indian Appeals 18 this question was argued and the Privy Council citing the authorities on both sides set the question at rest by remarking ( p, 46 ) Their Lordships have nevertheless
*
no doubt that the existence of the Khatri caste as one of the

regenerate tribes is fully recognised throughout India and also are considered to be of that that Rajputs in central India
class
classes
is
The courts in all cases assume that the four great The only question that is now permissible remain
'.
whether a particular caste belongs to the regenerate classes or to the 6udra class. On this the courts often differ. Vide p. 75 under Kayastha. In Maharaja of Kdhapur v. Sundaram Ayyar 48 Mad. 1 it was held ( in an exhaustive judgment extending over 229 pages) that the Tanjore Maratha princes descended from Venkaji, the step-brother of the founder of the Maratha Empire, were fcudras and not ksatriyas. The learned judges ( at p. 51 ) quote Telang's dictum criticized by me above ( note 923 ), but refrain from expressing any decided opinion about the claim of Shivaji to be of ksatriya descent. In Subrao v Radha 52 Bom, 497 it was held after a careful examination of authorities that the Marathas of Maharas^ra are sub-divided into
three groups, viz. ( 1 ) the five families, ( 2 ) the ninety-six families and ( 3 ) the rest and that the first two groups are
It was further held that the tests to be applied in determining the class ( varna ) of a particular caste are three viz. the consciousness of the caste itself, the acceptance of that consciousness by other castes, and lastly its customs and usages.
ksatriyas.
We have already seen ( in note 118) how even in the Vedic age there were non- Aryan tribes like the Kiffctas, Andhras,Pulin-
Ch.VH]
word that
2. 1.
Mlecchas
383
das, Mfitibas, that were described as dasyus by the Ait. Br.. One The Sat. Br. (III. is of striking importance is mleccha.
p.
23-24, S. B. E. vol. 26 defeated because they spoke
32
states that the asuras
were
an incorrect and corrupt
dialect
and that a brahmana should not, therefore, utter such a corrupt* 230 speech and so should not become a mleocha and an asura. Gaut. IX. 17 enjoins that one should not speak with m leech as, impure or irreligious persons and Haradatta explains that
mlecchas are the inhabitants of Ceylon and similar countries where there is no system of varnas and asramas. Visnu Dh. S. 64. 15 is to the same effect. Visnu Dh. S. 84. 1-2 and Sankha 14. 30 prescribe that one should not perform sraddha in a mlecoha country nor should one visit such a country ( except on a pilgrimage ). Visnu Dh. S. 84. 4 states that that country where the system of the four varnas is not in vogue is mleccha territory and Aryavarta is beyond it, while Manu II. 23 states that the mleccha country is beyond Aryavarta which land is fit for sacrifices and in which the black deer wanders naturally. Visvarupa on Yaj. 1. 15 quotes Bharadvaja to the effect one should not
'
study the language of the mlecchas, for it is declared ( in the Brahmanas ) that a corrupt word is indeed mleccha'. Vas. Dh. S. VI. 41 also enjoins that one should not learn the mlecoha dialect. Manu X, 43-44 knew that many of the tribes called Pundrakas,
Yavanas, Sakas spoke mleccha languages and also the language of the Aryas ( ralecchavacaS-caryavacah sarve te dasyavah In Parasara IX. 36 mlecchas are referred to as smrtah ). eaters of cow's flesh. That the mlecchas had affected the Sanskrit language by lending to it certain words follows from the discussion in Jaimini I. 3. 10 whether words like pika ( a cuckoo ), nema ( half ), sata ( a wooden vessel ), tamarasa ( a red lotus ) are to be understood in the sense in which mlecchas use them or certain meanings are to be assigned to them by
deriving them from some root according to the rules of grammar, Nirukta and Nighantu and Jaimini's conclusion is that they are to be understood in the same sense in which mlecchas employ them M3d Panini derives the word yavananl
.
923 c.
ifa^jtT
Wtllîfir focWfr fe&f

?r
iff^
Wq*nt
*TTW5
'
sniMûî
III. 2. 1. 23-24.
trHwt*rtw wriT^n ^cta5q$jJ iNr
wif^
923 d.
3ni
vi9w*4Mwf
wrcrcfa
H ^rafnf tft *ro on
Sr. 1. 3.
10.
384
History of Dharma&aatra
Ch.
VII
and Patanjali speaks of the siege of Saketa and Madhyamika" by the Yavana by whom scholars generally understand Menander. Asoka in his Rook Edict No. 13 refers to Yona kings and it appears from his reference that brahmanas and sramanas were not found in the Yona country. A Yavanara" ja TusSspha is mentioned as the governor of Kathiawar under Asoka in the inscription of Rudradaman at Junagadh ( E. I.
In the Prakrit Inscriptions the Yavanas vol. VII. pp. 53-55 ( vide E, I. at Karle No. 7 and 10 ) or Yona or Yonaka ( E. I. VIII. 90 Nasik cave No. 18). In Khara vela's inscription also the form is Yavana ( E. I. 20 p. 79 ). In the Mahabharata the words Yavana and Saka occur very frequently. Vide notes above on these words. In the Dronaparva 119. 45-46 Yavana, Kamboja,
vol. VIII. at p. 43
).
are referred to as
Yavana
Saka, Sahara, KirSta and Barbara are mentioned as one group fighting against Sfttyaki. In Drona 119. 47-48 they are referred to as dasyus and as having long and flowing beards. In the
Strlparva 22. 11 Jayadratha is said to have had Kamboja and Yavana women in his harem. The word Yavana is generally
taken as referring to the Greeks. But there are dissenting voices also. Dr. Otto Stein in Indian Culture denies that the word ever means Greeks and Dr. Tarn in his recent work on ' 1 Greeks in Bactria and India p. 254 argues that the Yavanas in the Nasik inscriptions were not Greeks but only Indian citizens of a Greek polis. The Santiparva 65. 17-22 prescribes for Yavanas, Sakas and similar tribes only the duties of obedience to parents and attendance on teachers and tending
' '
and looking after agriculture, dedication of wells and making gifts to dvijas, ahifasa, satya, absence of fury, Sauca adroha, maintenance of wife and child. Atri VII. 2 puts the
cattle
,
receiving of gifts from or eating the food of or having sexual intercourse with the women of Sakas, Yavanss, Kambojas, Bahllkas, Khasas, Dravidas on the same level with doing the
Apararka
same things with reference to nata, nartaka, svapaka &c. p. 923 quotes Vrddha^Yajnavalkya to the effect that the touch of Mlecchas is on the same level with that of cfind&la, Bhilla and Paraslka.
Prof. D. R. Bhandarkar in a very learned and scholarly paper in Indian Antiquary vol. 40 pp. 7-37 endeavours to establish that many non-Aryan persons belonging to tribes like the Yavanas, the Sakas became absorbed in the general mass of Hindu society,
that even several of the princely families such as those of the Guhilots were not of pure Aryan descent and that the pride of
Oh. VII
Nan-Aryan
elements
castes is
385
not justified by
the purity of caste
shown by many
history. He, therefore, appeals to modern Indians to forget all caste-exclusiveness and pride. But this appeal will be in vain.
Merely showing that non-Aryan elements were absorbed in the body of the Aryan community several thousands or hundreds of years ago will not probably lessen that pride. Such people may retort that, whatever may have happened centuries ago, for about a thousand years there has been no such fusion. Therefore the appeal should rather be based on the futility of caste
erclusiveness in the 20th century when owing to the exigencies of the times any one can pursue any occupation, when a sense of one nation and one people is absolutely necessary for secur-
ing to Indians their proper place in the society of nations.
The question of the re-conversion or re-entry of people converted to other faiths willingly or against their wishes will be briefly dealt with immediately below.
A few
words
may
first
be said about the Vratyastoma.
The
Tandya-Mahabrahraana ( or the Panca-virasa, as it is called from the number of Adhyayas) describes four vr&tyastomas in chap. 17. 1-4 ( khandas ). The meaning of many words and passages in that chapter of the br&hmana is uncertain and somewhat cryptic. The four vratyastomas were ekahas (i. e. sacrifices taking one day only ). Tandya 17. 1. 1 begins with the story that when the gods went to the heavenly world some dependents of theirs who lived the vratya life were left behind on the earth. Then through the favour of the gods the dependents got at the hands of Maruts the Sodasastoraa ( containing 16 stotras ) and the metre ( viz. anustubh ) and then the dependents secured The Sodasastoma is employed in each of the four heaven. vratyastomas, the first of which (17. 1 ) is meant for all vratyas, the 2nd is meant for those who are abhi&asta ( who are wicked or guilty of heavy sins and so censured ) and lead a vratya life, the third for those who are youngest and lead a vratya life, and the fourth who are very old and yet lead a vratya life. Some of the passages convey a tolerably clear idea 924 lead the vratya of what the vratyas were like. Those who life are base and are reduced to a baser state, since they do not observe student-hood ( brahmacarya ) nor do they till the It is by the SodaSastoma that they soil nor engage in trade.
924.
Q*hvT
HT
cfft
^fa*ft
wn*rt
17. 1. 2.
H. D. 49
386
History of Dharma&tfra
this
(
Oh.
VII
can attain
superior status
did not perform did they do even
This shows that the vratyas ). upanayana and did not study the Veda, nor what vai^yas do. Another passage says those
*
swallow poison who eat food of the common people as food for br&hmanas, -who call good words bad, who strike with a stick him who does not deserve to be beaten ( or punished ), who, though not initiated, speak the speech of the initiated, The Sodaâstoma has the power to remove the guilt of these. That ( in this rite ) there are four Sodas astom as, thereby they are freed from guilt/ 9BS This passage indicates that the vratyas spoke the same language as the orthodox people, but were rough in their ways and lax as regards the food they partook of. They were thus outside the pale of orthodox Aryan society and they were brought within it by the Vratyasfcoma described in the T&ndya. The origin of the word vratya is lost in the mists of antiquity. The 15th Kftnda of the Atharvaveda glorifies the vr&tya and identifies him with the Creator and Supreme Being. The word is probably derived from vrata ( group ) and means
fit
belongs to or moves in a group.' It is possible to Originally vrStyas appear to have been groups of people who spoke the same language as orthodox
he
who
derive the word from vrata.
ftryas,
but did not follow their discipline and habits. The word vrata occurs in Rg. 1. 163. 8, III. 26. 6, V. 53. 11. Sayana also perceived the difficulty raised by the glorification of the vratya
in the Atharvaveda 15. 1. 1 and his note is interesting, since he says that the description does not apply to all vratyas, but only to some very powerful, universally respected and holy vrfttya who was, however, not in the good books of the brahmanas that were solely devoted to their own rites and sacrifices. Katyftyanafcrauta XXII. 4. 1-28 and Ap. Srauta
4-14 also deal with Vratyastoma. Katyayana desand adds 926 by performing the cease to be vratyas and should vratyastoma sacrifice, they become eligible for social intercourse with the orthodox aryas.' The Par. gr. II. 5 quotes the last sutra of Katyayana with the
5.
XXII.
cribes the four vratyastomas
'
925.
ircffrc?
3T
WR:
$3KT
fte5TT
^|9cr eta
UWHhfmfr&Wff
m<W 17.
1. 9.
srnTO explains
wi3rnTi3*i
'sf
7CT&
926.
4.
wR
27-28.
XXII.
Ch.
VII
Re-conversion or re-admittance to caste
387
for such persons he who desires to have the sacrament sarhsk&ra of upanayana ) performed on them should perform the sacrifice of vratyastoma and then may indeed study the
remark
"
Veda
course
for a text says

'."
they become eligible for
social) inter-
027
In the VrStyata-suddbisamgraha provision is made 9Z8 for the purification of vratyas even after twelve generations ( vide pp. 7 and 22-24 ) and that work adds ( p. 42 ) that the Vratyastoma like the penance for an avaklrnin is to be performed in the ordinary fire ( laukika agni ). It also suggests easy substitutes for the lengthy and trying penance of twelve years prescribed by Ap.
Hinduism has not been an avowedly proselytizing

gion.
reli-
In theory it could not be so. For about two thousand caste system has reigned supreme and no one can in the years theory be admitted to the Hindu fold who is not born in it. A Hindu may lose caste, be excommunicated and driven out
Hinduism, if he be guilty of very serious and refuses to undergo the prayascittas prescribed by the srartis. Gaut. 20. 15 states that he who was guilty of a misdeed for which death was prescribed as a penance became purified only by dying. But Gaut. himself prescribed death ( 21. 7 ) as
of the fold of
lapses
penance only for the sins of brahmana-murder, drinking spirituous liquor and incest. Even as regards these three, lesser penances were prescribed by some smrfcis as alternatives ( e. g. vide Manu XI. 72, 74-8, 92, 108 ). Whon the sinner performed the prayascitta prescribed by the sastras, he was to be welcomed by his relatives, who took a bath along with him in a holy river
and threw therein an unused jar filled with water; they were not to find fault with him and were to completely associate with him in all ways (Manu XI. 186-187, Yaj.
or the like
III.
Vas. 15. 17 says that 295, Vas. 15, 20, Gaut. 20. 10-14). to all social re-admitted those who were patita were to be
927.
9rc s-
928.
HUf
42
(Gbaukhamba
:
'
series)
388
intercourse
(
Oh. VII
when they performed
the
prescribed
penances
patifcSnam tu caritavratanSm pratyuddharah. ). But if the sinner refused to undergo the prescribed praya&citta, then a peculiar procedure called ghatasphota (breaking a jar) was
prescribed.
In such a case the sinner*s relatives
sapindas
slave girl whose face was turned to the south thrust aside with her foot an earthen jar full of water so that all water flowed out of it, then the relatives were to observe mourning
for one day and night ( as he was deemed to be dead to them ) and from that day they were to stop speaking or sitting with him, and all other social intercourse and he was to be given no
( vide Manu XI. 183-185, Yftj. III. 294, Gaut. 20. In this way the obstinate sinner went out of the Hindu The ancient smrtis do not expressly prescribe any rites fold. for bringing into the brahmanic or Hindu fold a person who
made a
inheritance
2-7
).
But as Hinduism has or whose ancestors did not belong to it. * been extremely tolerant 928 (barring a few exceptional instances) it had a wonderful power of quiet and unobtrusive absorption. Jf a person, though of foreign ancestry, conformed to Hindu social usages in outward behaviour, in course of time his descendants became absorbed into the vast Hindu community.
928 a. A few striking instances of religious tolerance among kings and common people may be cited with advantage. The Psla king Mahlpsla I granted a village to a brShmana of the VsjasaneyasSkhS in honour of Lord Buddha ( E. I. vol. 14 p. 324 ). Similarly the king Subhakaradeva who was a great devotee of Buddha (paramasaugata) granted two villages to 200 brShmanas ( Neulpur grant in E. I. vol. 15 p. 1 ) vide also E. I* The famous Emperor Harga, whose father was ft great Tol. 15 p. 293. devotee of the Sun, and who was himself a great devotee of iva, pays the highest honour to hia elder brother Rsjyavardhana who was a very devout Buddhist ( paramasaugata ). Vide the Madhuban copperplate Inscription in E. I. vol. I. p. 67 and E. I. vol. VII. p. 155. CJs.avadSta makes large gifts to brShmanas as well as to communities of Buddhist monks (vide Nasik Inscriptions No. 10 and No. 12 in E.I. vol. VIII p. 78 and p. 82). The Valabhi king Guhasena-who was himself a M&hedvara
;
From the ( a fiaivft ) made a grant of four villages to a bhikû-sangha. Pftharpur plate of the Gupta year 159 (478-79 A. D. ) it appears that a brShmana and his wife deposited three dlnSras with a city council for
the maintenance of the worship of arhats at a vihSra ( E, I. Vol. XX. p. 59). The Mulgund inscription of the time of Bs^trakUta Krfna II. ( of 902-3 A. D.) shows that to a temple of Jina at Mulgund a field was given
Bice's
by a brahman* of the Bellsja family (E. I. Mysore and Coorg from Inscriptions
*
vol.
'
pp.
XIII. p. 190). Vide 113 and 207 for an
account
how
ft
Vijayanagar king settled the dispute between J*inaa
and
Srlvai^navfts in 1368 A. P,
Oh, VII
Absorption of non- Aryans
389
This process has gone on for at least two thousand years. The beginnings of it are found in the SSntiparva chap. 65 where Indra tells the Emperor Mandhatr to bring all foreign people like the Yavanas under brahmanioal influence. The Besnagar column inscription shows that the Yona ( yavana ) Heliodora (Heliodorus) son of Diya (Dion) was a bhagavata ( devotee of Vasudeva ). Vide J. R. A. S. for 1909 pp. 1053 and 1087 and J. B. B. A. S. vol. 23 p. 104. In the caves at Nasik, Karle and other places many of the donors are said to have been
p. 90,
yavanas (vide E. L vol. VII, E. I. vol. XVIII, p. 325 ).
Indian kings married Huna Quhila dynasty married a Huna princess named Hariyadevi of the Kalacuri ( L A. vol. 39 p. 191 ), king Yasafckarnadeva dynasty is said to have been the son of Karnadeva and AvallaThese and similar examples show that devl, a Huna princess. persons of foreign descent and their children were absorbed into the Hindu community from time to time. This absorption is illustrated in modern times by the case of Fanindra Deb v. Bajeshwar ( L. R. 12 I. A. 72 ) in which it was found that a family in Kooch Behar not originally Hindu had adopted certain Hindu usages and it was held that it had not taken over the practice of adoption. How Hindu customs and incidents persist even after conversion to Islam is strikingly shown by the Khojas and Kutchi Memons of the Bombay Presidency, who though made converts to Islam several centuries ago, were held by the courts in India to have retained the ancient Hindu Law of succession and inheritance. 928b The problem of taking back into the Hindu fold persons who were forcibly converted to other faiths has engaged the
E. I. vol. VIII, Several inscriptions state that princesses, e. g. Allata of the

pp. 53-54, 55,
Moslems first attacked India in the 8th of the province of Sindh. This from direction the century invasion led to the enslavement and forcible conversion of many people. It appears that Devala and other smrtikaras tackled with the problem of taking back such people. The Devala smrti opens with a question by the sages put to Devala who was sitting on the banks of the Sindhu at ease as to how
attention of smrtis.
928 b. The Cutchi Memons Act ( XLVI of 1920 ) aa amended by Act of 1923 now enables Cutchi Memons by observing certain formalities prescribed by the Act to become free from the application of
XXIV
Hindu Law.
By Act XXVI
of 1937
it is
declared that the personal law
will apply to all Muslims instead of customary certain procedure prescribed by the Act*
law on going through
390
Oh. VII
brSbmanas and members of the other varnas when carried off by Mleccbas were to be purified and restored to caste. The following verses of the Devala-smrti are very instructive on this point. Verses 7-10 declare that when a brahmana Is leeches and he eats or drinks forbidden food carried off by or drink or has sexual intercourse with women he should not have approached, he becomes purified by doing the penance of candrayana andparaAtt, that a ksatriya becomes pure by undergoing paralca and padakrcchra, a vai6ya by half of paraka and a sudra by the penance of paraka for five days. Then 928c When persons are forciverses 17-22 are most important and robbers, are comcfind&las bly made slaves by Mlecchas,
'
pelled to do dirty acts, such as killing cows and other animals or sweeping the leavings of the food (of Mlecchas) creating
the leavings of the food of Mlecchas or partaking of the flesh of apses, camels and village pigs, or having intercourse with their
penance for purihas stayed for a month in this way is prSjapatya, for one who had consecrated Vedic fires ( and stayed one month or less ) it is cSndr&yana or paraka; for one who
women,
or are forced to dine with them, then the

dvijati that
fying a
stays a year (with Mlecchas in this condition of things ) it is both cftndrayana and paraka a fctidra who stays ( in this condition) for a month becomes pure by krcchrap&da; a 6udra who stays a year should drink y&vaka for half a month. The
;
appropriate prSya&citta should be determined by learned brfihmanas when a person has stayed ( in the above circumstances
among Mlecchas) for over a year; in four years the person who stays in the above circumstances among Mlecchas ) is
( i. e.
reduced to their condition
becomes a mlecoha and there
928
c.
î^î^Ji^yi^
17-22. These six verses are quoted as 3rraW7'B
and by
flix
amr&
p.
1200
who reads
II.
f*rf$*
by the TOTP on ^n*. III.290 ^H^^ftnf^ in v. 22). These
rerses are quoted as sprsps in the m*j(Svfl\ifqq*K of
^mfir
( Jiv. ed. )
p. 455.
*H$Hmqu| on ng.
180 appears to regard them as Devala'a
as he says HJ^ÛH 4*4*^4 Mrfl^ IfTfft *i^WK*<JU^q<<i^ftl<^lHl$l^: \ The first verse occurs in ff^TT V. 5 ( nan. ed. ) after which we read srnr-
f*^ ^ W&3 fflW^H

1000 A. D.
IT
fff^; H
So these verges are certainly older than
Cb.
is
VII
Devata on âdmittance
to caste
391
states
no prSyaicitta for him).'

is
(
The PrSya6cittaviveka
the
ihat after four

'
years death Three more verses of Devala

;ion
only purifier for him.

)
md
53-55
also deserve considera-
forcibly seized by Mlecchas for five, six or seven years or from ten to twenty years, is purified by undergoing two Prajapatyas. Beyond this there is no purification ;
these penances are
One who was
among Mlecchas.
Sve to
meant only for him who has simply stayed He who had stayed with Mlecchas from twenty years is purified by undergoing two Candrayanas',
These verses are apparently inconsistent with the verses cited above ( 17-22 ), but they most probably mean this that if a man only stayed among Mlecchas for 5 to 20 years, but
has not done any of the forbidden things such as eating ucchista or the flesh of asses &o., then he can be taken back even after so many years. This would be an exception to the
There is no reason why the reasoning of Uevala should not be extended to persons who have been in the condition stated in verses 17-22 for over four years. In the Paficadal (Trptidlpa v. 239) we have the following very
rule contained in verse 22.
just as a brahmana seized by Mlecchas and afterwards undergoing the appropriate prayaficitta does not become confounded with Mlecchas ( but returns to his original
significant passage
988 '
'
status of being a
to
brahmana) so the Intelligent Soul is not really be confounded with the body and other material adjuncts/ This establishes that the great Vidyaranya, who after Samkaracarya, is the greatest figure among acaryas, approved of the view that a brfthmana even though enslaved by Mlecchas could
be restored to his original status.
Under Shivaji and the Peshwas it appears that several persons that had been forcibly made Moslems were restored to caste after under-going prayafccitta ( vide notes 2321-2 below for
examples
).
But
this
was done
is
in only a few instances.
In modern times there

called
a movement
among Hindus
patitaparavartana (purification or bringing back into the Hindu fold those who had fallen away from it ). In a very few cases persons born in western countries have been taken into the Hindu fold by the performance of vratyastoma
tuddhi or
928
d.
McfKl^lPT
ifr^^HiiJUSrf
^r^xu^^CMîvT ^rTT*^Ti
ji5 ii
H ^
p. 456.
392
rites.
Gh. VII
But such instances are very rare and are not by the vast majority of Hindus. It has been shown above that for taking back a man who was once a Hindu but had left Hinduism, there is smrti authority in Devala and others and the authority of the Nibandhak&ras.
and other
yet supported
( performing upanayana again ). In certain cases an upanayana has to be performed again. The Asv. 9M gr. ( I. 22. 22-26 ) prescribes that in punarupanayana
Punarupanayana
the cutting of the hair and production of intelligence ( medhSjanana) are optional, there are no rules about paridana ( giving in charge of deities ) and about the time ( i.e. it may be
performed at any time and no paridana is necessary ) and instead of the usual G&yatrl, he should recite tat savitur * vrnlmahe ( Rg. V. 82. 1. ). When a person in whose family one Veda is studied ( e. g. the Rgveda ) wants to study another Veda ( e. g. Yajurveda ), he had to undergo a fresh upanayana. The Asv. gr. sufcra is interpreted in this way by some. Haradatta on Ap. Dh. S. I. 1. 1. 10 says that as the Savitrl ( i. e. GSyatrl, Bg. III. 62. 10 ) is recited for all Vedas according to the Brahmana passage quoted by Ap. one upanayana is sufficient for the study of the three Vedas in succession, but if a person wants to study the Atharvaveda after studying another Veda, then a fresh upanayana is necessary. This is one kind
'
Another kind of punarupanayana takes upanayana the principal rite via;, placing his hands on the boy's shoulders and bringing the student near the teacher is left off through oversight or the first upanayana takes place in a season other than vasanta ( spring ) or in the dark half of a month or on a day which was anadhyaya 98 ( unfit for Vedic study ) or on a galagraha (vide note 642 above)
of punarupanayana. place when in the first or
in the latter part of the day.

is
third kind of
punar-
which is by way of prayascitta for 921 Gaut. 23. 2-5 certain sins or lapses from good conduct.
upanayana
929.
one
awtfo^^nET
$*U$d
qwmf
>
<tai4**in
^T
L
930.
22
RH^HT ^*i^f $r<w$
icjw$
541 and *Jt*hKfcwu$T p. 282
quoted in the s tf. n. p. 547 quotes a similar verse
from
931.
The d**U*flwT
(p. 536
with Marathi
tr. )
t
f'
treatment of
The ^^wtftîy (pp. 536-558
contains the most elaborate
Oh. Vll
Pimannunaijana
393
for
proscribes the penance called Tapfcakrcchra and punarupanayana one guilty of drinking wine ( sura ) in ignorance or partaking of human urine, faeces and semen and the flesh of
wild beasts, camels, asses, village cocks, and village hogs. Vas. 23. 30 ) also has a similar sutra. Baud. Dh. S. II. 1. 25 quotes a verse if a person belonging to the three varnas unknowingly drinks sura ( wino ) or faeces, he has to undergo punarupanayana ' and says ( II. 1, 29 ) that if a brahmacarl carries a corpse ( other than that of his parents or teacher ) he has to undergo punarManu V. 91 and Visnu Dh. S. 22. 86 prescribe tho upanayana same. In the Baud. gr. paribhasasutra ( 1. 12. 4-6 ) it is said that on partaking of honey, or flesh, sraddha food or food from those in impurity on birth, or the milk of a cow before the lapse of ten days or the milk of a sandhinl cow, mushrooms or the resin exuded from trees, vilayana (a product of milk?), the food prepared for a number of people in common or the food of prostitutes, a man has to undergo punarupanayana and, according to some, also if he goes to a forbidden coun9S2 viz. try, Sauras^ra ( Kathiawar ), Sindhu, and Sauvlra and the territory to its south and east ), Avanti ( Sind to undergo ( Ujjftin ), Daksinapatha ( Deccan ), a brahmana has punarupanayana ( except when he goes on a pilgrimage ). It then sets out the procedure ( such as a homa, putting a fuel stick of palasa on the fire and oblations of cooked food and ajya ) and adds that in punarupanayana shaving, daksina, girdle, staff, deer-skin, begging for food and vratas do not take
*
.
place.
The Vaik.
smarfca
933
VI. 9-10
)
(
for punariipauayana. to the effect that if

of sheep
to
Apararka a grown-up
contains similar rules 1160 ) quotes Paithlnasi person drinks the milk
p.
or
of
undergo punarupanayana
a she-ass, she-camel or and also
of a
woman, he has
penance called
the
prajapatya.
Anadhyaya
cessation
from Vedic study
holiday
).
932.
1.12.5-6.
933.
* *&fo * wr.
i
VI.
9.
EU D. 50
394
litstuiy of
Uhurwasusha
Cb. Vll
It appears that from very early times Vedic studies were 9S4 IL 15 has a very stopped on various grounds. The Tai. Ar. Indeed as to this yajtia important statement on this subject.
*
which the study of the brahmayajna ) Veda ceases, namely, when the man himself is impure or when the place is impure The Sat. Br. 955 has a passage in which several occasions when Vedic study was ordinarily stopped are mentioned and it is added that those occasions do not prevent
(
f
.
there are two cases in
the repetition of Vedic texts as
Brahmayajna.
Therefore one
knowing
this should certainly repeat the
Veda
as Brahmayajnî
when the wind blows, when lightning flashes, when it thunders or when there is a fall of thunderbolt, in order that vasatkaras
not be fruitless '. The Ap. Dh. S. ( I. 4. 12. 3. ) quotes tho " Vedic Vajasaneyi Brahmana ( the Satapatha ) to the effect that it thunders, when lightning study is Brahmayajfia; -when flashes, when there is a fall of the thunderbolt, when the wind 9S6 therefore when fruitless". blows, these are its vasatkaras The Aifc. Ar. ( V. 3. 3 ) notes that if there be rain when it is not the season of rainfall, he should make a break by observing 9S7 cessation of Vedic study for three nights.
may
anadhyaya is discussed in the grhya and and in almost all smrtis. It is not possible to give for want of space the differences between the several works* Among sutras and smrfcis the most exhaustive and lengthy treatment is found in Ap. Dh. S. ( I. 3. 9. 4. to I. 3. 11 ), Gaut. 16. 5-49, Sankhayana gr. IV. 7 ( S. B. E. vol. 29 pp. 115-118 ), Manu IV. 102-128, Yaj. I. 144-151. The subject is also treated
The
subject of
dharraasufcras
934.
gR*r *r t??rer
^srer
3j.
g-cw^Fn ^rcHT^f^ft^T:
4.
an.
II.
15.
This
is
quoted by
sji**.
ill.
IV. 127 conveys the same sense in almost the same words. be impure on account of births or deaths in his family or on account of mala (dirt on his body ) and a place may bo so because it is in contact with some impure thing (such as
Manu
A man may
935.
SKrowtsr'T XI.
in.
I-
5. 6. 9.
The words erw%t &c. arc quoted
by f^rer on
936.
145.
* '
The woid vaât or svaha is uttered when making an ollering to a deity. Thunder and lightning are said to be the vasatkaras of brahmayajna. Just as when the word raât is uttered some offering follows, so, when it thunders some Vedic text by way of brahmayajna
should be repeated.
937.
3wf ^rtf ftws* ^tofrerfttwaiwHi
SJT.
V.
b. 3.
Ch. Vlt
Anadhyayas
395
at length in the Srn. C. f Smrtyarthasara, the Samskara kaustubha ( pp. 564-570 ), the Samskara-ratnamala ( pp. 327-339 ) and other Nibandha works. In the following an attempt is made to present a tolerably exhaustive list of anadhyayas together with a few references to the original sources.
tithis the following are anadhyayas. On the first, 15th tithis ( PaurnamasI and Amavasya ) {there the 14th, 8fch, was to be cessation of Vedic Study for the whole day ; vide
Among
the
Manu
IV.
113-114, Yaj
)
I.
146
in both
pratipad
is
not
and Harlta. Pafcanjali in the Mahabhasya ( vol. II. p. 386 ) refers to anadhyaya on amavasya and 14th tithi. There is a famous verse of the Ramayana 9J8 which shows that pratipad also was a holiday. Gaut. says that there was no holiday on the full moon days of the twelve months, but only on the full moon days of Asadha, Kartika and Phalguna. The Baud. Dh. S. I. 11. 42-43 quotes a verse 929 '( Vedic study on ) the eighth tithi kills the teacher, 14th kills
expressly
mentioned
the pupil, 15th kills learning

verse.
'.
Manu
IV. 114
has a similar
Apararka
94
(
p.
189
quotes from the
verses to the effect that there
is to
Nrsimhapurana be no teaching ( of the Veda )
( 9th of Asvina, bright half ), on Bharam ( i. e, the tithi when the moon is in BharanI naksatra after Bhadrapada full moon ), Aksatatrblya ( 3rd of Vaisakha, bright half )
on MahanavamI
and Rathasaptarul ( 7th of Magha, bright half ). Similarly there is to be anadhyaya on what are called Yugadi and Manvantaradi tithis. Yugadi tithis according to Visnupurana 9il and Brahmapurana quoted by Apararka ( p. 425 ) are Vaisakhasuklatrfclya, Kartika sukla navaml,
Bhadrapada krsna trayodasl
and Magha Purnima
they are respectively the beginnings of the four yugas, krta, treta, dvapara and kali). The Sm. C. on the day when 58 ) quotes the Naradlyapurana ( I. p.
(
*
uttarayana and daksinayana

938.
*Tf
.
first
take place, on Visuva (the two
32.
fTTRT in
939.
^^mô
I.
p- 57.
940.
H
I- p-
58.
TnnTT^r 3 *r*î T^rT^rrrt g w^î; awra? P. These occur in ^fttegwr 58. 109-110.
i
189
941.
The verges on îrrf%(^T8
are
Rff^nur
III. 14. 13.

I.
ff.
The IT?^-
5^lor (17. 4-5)
givos aimilar versos. Vide f^^^fo According to some Mffgha AiuiXvHHyff is
p 59 for these verses.
396
Oh,
VII
days in the year when the day and night; are equal ), on the when Visnu sleeps and awakes from sleep ( 1. e. Asadhasukla-ekadasl and Karfcika-sukla-ekadasI ), on Yugadi and Manvadi fcithis there is anadhyaya. The tithis on which the
tithis
are supposed to begin are quoted a purana passage quoted in the Sm. C. there is anadhyaya on Sopapada tithis 943 ( viz. ( I. p. 58 ) Jyestha sukla 2, Asvina sukla 10, and Magha sukla 4 and 12 ).
fourteen
manvantaras
to
below.
948
According
laid
Sometimes on the same day there are two tithis hence the rule down is that if on any day a particular tithi ( which is declared to be anadhyaya) is shown in the calendar as extending for three muhurtas at sunrise or at sunset, then the 944 whole of that day is anadhyaya.
;
Yaj. ( I. 148-151 ) speaks of 37 tatkalilta aaadhijayas ( i. e. where Veda study is suspended only as long as the occasion or
disturbance stated lasts ). They are when there is noise created by a dog, jackal, ass, owl, singing of saman, playing on a flute and the cries of the distressed ( these are 7 ) ; in the
:
vicinity or presence of impure things, of a corpse, or a sudra or of the untouchables ), cemetery, a patita ( one ( i. e. one guilty of mabapataka ) when the place ( of study ) has become
antya
impure or when the
himself is impure ; when there is of lightning or continuous peals of continuous flashing thunder; while one's hands are wet after taking one's meals; in the midst of water at midnight when a violent wind is blowing when there is a rainfall of dust, when the quarters
;
man
are
lit
up by sudden
and strange
;
lights
at the
two twilights
when there is fog; when there is a fright ( caused by robbers &c. ) when one is running when the smell of something rotten or impure spreads when a distinguished visitor comes to the house when one rides an ass, a camel, a conveyance ( like a
;
chariot
),
an elephant, a
(
horse, a boat, or climbs a tree

place.
or is
in
a desert
942.
or
barren
few explanatory words
may
R*3Fcm^r*ft ^Tf^^m^^T^rr:
I.
n iraFrstm 17
6 ~8
quoted in the
p. 58; vide also *$?*Ttar*
p. 9.
943.
5^S s&fcitaT 3
quoted
in
3*rf*r$ ^?rjfr
P-
f^n
8;
^jwftm
jfaRiwgs quotes
it
as
from
944.
i^riîvr^
P. 8.
wrw
Ch, VII
Anadhyayas
39*
be added. According to Ap. Db. S. I. 3. 10. 19 when wolves howl, or when there is the sound of any musical instrument, or of weeping, singing or of the recitation of a Saman there is Gaut. 16. 7 mentions the sound of bana ( a anadhyaya. kind of vlna ), bherl ( a drum ), mrdanga, garla ( a chariot ) and the distressed. Manu (IV. 123-124 ) explains that when a saman is heard, one should not study any portion of tho Jfcgveda or Yajurveda, because the gods are the devatas of Rgveda, the Yajurveda deals with men ( it enjoins actions lo be done by men ), Samaveda has the pitrs as its deities hence its sound has something of the impure or uncanny about it. 945 that there should bo no Ap. Dh. S. I. 3. 11. 27 prescribes
;
Vodic study as long as there are clouds when it is not the season for clouds, when there is a halo round the sun or moon, when there is a rainbow, or when there is parhelion or a star with a tail ( like a fish ). Gaut. 16. 19, Ap. Dh.
11 say that there is anadhyaya as I. 3. 9. 14-15, Vas. 13. long as a corpse or a candala is in the village or town. Gaut. 16, 45 states the view of some that the Veda can never be studied in a city there is no Veda study as long as there
;
is is
an assembly of people
lying
Manu
IV. 108
or while the student
down
or has stretched his feet or placed
or stool, or while he sits on his haunches knees and hips a piece of cloth ( Mauu
S. 13. 23,
them on a cot winding round his IV. 112., Vas. Dh.

to be
Visnu Dh.
S.
30.
17
).
There
is
anadhyaya
when one is answering the calls of nature ( Manu IV. 109 }, or when one has not yet sipped water ( acamana ) after taking food, or after partaking of meat (Manu IV. 112), when
there
is
when one
(
wordy argument is wounded

IV. 122
)
or there or
is
an affray
when blood
suffers
(
flows from
or a fight or the body
Manu
or
when one
from indigestion
).
or
vomits or has sour eructations
Manu
IV. 121
In certain cases anadhyaya lasts only for a portion of

the day.
off
When
the
wind blows by day strong enough
to
clouds of dust ( Gaut. 16. 5 ) there is anadhyaya carry during the day ( but not at night even if the wind is still strong ) or when on a festive occasion like upanayana there is anadhyaya after dinner that day ( Gaut. 16. 43); when in tho morning twilight fire has been kindled for homa and there are
045.
r.
l
*.
jj,
1.
3. 11.
>
27
rr.
16.
9-10
' ;
qtacfact*r*i
explained by
398
flashes of lightning
ffisfory of
Dharmaiastra
Ch. VII
and thunder ( not accompanied by rain ) anadhySya till the sun sets. Gaut. ( 16. 32 ) prescribes anadhyaya for the rest of the day when the king in whose country a man dwells dies when a strong wind that was blowing stops, there is anadhyaya for a muhurta i. e. two ghatikas (Ap. Dh. S. I. 3. 11. 28) or when there is the howling of salavrka (hyaena?) or a jackal moving about alone there is anadhyaya till one gets up from sleep ( ibid I. 3. 11. 29 ). In some cases there is anadhyaya for the whole day and night. According to Yaj. I. 145-147 there is such an anadhyaya
there is
;
when there is thunder at the twilight time, there is a fall of the thunderbolt or earth-quake or the fall of a meteor, when one finishes Samhita or Brahmana ( of the sakha one is studying ) or when one finishes the study of the Aranyaka portion of one's
Veda; when there is an eclipse of the sun or moon, or when it is the first day after the season changes or when a person partakes
of sraddha food or accepts a gift on sraddha (except in Ekoddista sraddha); when a beast, frog, mongoose, dog, snake, cat or mouse passes between the teacher and pupil ( Manu IV. 126 also ) or when the banner of Indra is raised or taken down. Manu IV. 110 lays down anadhyaya for three days when one
dies or
accepts invitation for an Ekoddista sraddha or when the king when there is an eclipse. This last refers to an eclipse
where the sun or the moon sets while still eclipsed. Gaut. 1.60 prescribes cessation for three days when dogs and others come between. This is explained as referring to the first lesson in
Manu and Yaj. are held to refer to Raising the banner in honour of Indra was a festival prescribed for kings in the Kausika j-utra 140 and other works. The banner was raised usually iu Bhadrapada ( or sometimes in Asvina) on the 12bh of the bright half when the moon was in conjunction with utfcarasadha, sravana 01 dhanistha constellation and it was taken down in the same month on the bimranl constellation ( vide Sm. C, I. p. 59 ). According to the Brhat-Sarhhita ( chap. 43 ) of Varaha this festival lasted from the 8th to the 12th day of Bhadrapada sukla. Manu ( IV- 119 ) 9U prescribes anadhyaya for a day and night on the Asteka, days and on the last day of each of the six rtus ( seasons ).
Veda, while the words of
repetition.
946. The aytakS homa was performed on the 8th of the dark half of the four months from MgrgasJIr$a ( according to Adv. gr. II. 4. 1 ) or (according to others) of three months of Pau$a, MSgha and PhSlgiiua. Uaut. 16. 38-39 prescribed three days' anadhya"ya on each of (he throe
A^trtka* or according to
*ome only on
lite lust
A^takff.
Cb. Vll
Anndliyayitfi
399
for one
In a few cases the anadhyaya was akalika 947 i, c. lasted day (60 ghatikas) from tho time when tho cause began to operate up to the same hour next clay. Ap. Dh. S. ( I. 3. ll 25-26 ) lays down this kind of anaclhyaya if out of three viz. flashing of lightning, thunder and rain, one or two occur at a time when it is no season for rain there is this anadhyaya for
;
all vidyfts at all times,
moon
an eclipse of the sun or tho an earthquake or a whirlwind or fall of meteors. Manu IV. 103-105 and Gautama 16. 22-23 are similar to Ap. Dh. 8. 1. 3. 11. 25-26 and Manu IV. 118 prescribes akalika anadhyaya when a village is thrown into confusion by thieves or there is a commotion due to a conflagration and in the case of all portentous phenomena (such as rain of blood orstonos;
there is
or
when
there
is
of a sraddha
Gaut. ( 16. 47-48 ) adds that the performer ). whether he actually serves cooked food to brahmanas or only makes gifts of money and corn &c. ) has to
(
vide Vas. 13. 35
observe this anadhyaya (vide
Manu
IV. 117 also).
for three days was prescribed in a few cases. thunder and rain all appear together when it is not the proper season for them, there is anadhyaya for tbree days ( Ap. Dh. I. 3. 11. 23 ). Vide note 937 above. In the utsarga and upakarana of the Vedas, on the death of gurus (persons worthy of respect like the father-in-law), on the Astakas and on the death of near agnates ( like brother, nephew &c. ) there is anadhyaya for three days 948 ( Ap. Dh. S. I. 3. 10. 2-3 ). Gaut. ( 6. 38-41 ) is similar to Ap. The Harlta dharmasutra 949 prescribes anadhyaya for three days on tho death of one's upadhyaya, or of the king or of a srotriya or fellow pupil, on eclipses of the sun and the moon, on the taking down of the banner of Indra and on the death of one's acarya.
Anadhyaya
If lightning,
947.
The
f*Rn
on
^r. 1. 147
derives the word
as
follows
f^rHrT*
*N?if ^TTT^f 3JR. til. will be explained later. Tho sxltra rrTT ...... ^nf^J applies to a ar^rgru since others have to observe In this last case ajq-sj^vqrq- on tho death of agnates till Ssauca lasts.
35^[ffTW*r 3?l7reFTOT
5^51:
I
948.
^*pt
cHTT
I. 3.
10. 2-3. 3~q"|chim
(g-qr^r) and
3?flrf
(twr)
V*TPT
begins on tho day of death.
are the day previous to them, the day following which that rite is performed.
949.
In ^trr^jrT or 3"^^ the three days them and tho one on
SKT
^ sifto
1.
'
p.
,
190.
Tho
aa TT-
144 says, must bo one
who
has studied tho
400
History of Dhannasaslm
(Jh,
VII
Manu (IV. 110 and 119 ) prescribes anadhyaya for threo day a on accepting invitation for ekoddista iraddha^ on the death of the king, on eclipses and on upakarma or utsarga, Yaj. I. 144
contains similar rules.
Ap. Dh. S. ( I. 3. 10. 4 ) prescribes 12 days* anadhyaya on the death of one's parents and acarya. Baud. Dh. S. I. 11. 32 950 three days* anadhyaya on the death of one*s prescribes This rule must be taken as referring only to a father.
Vas. ( 13. 39-40 ) proscribes three days' anadhyaya on the death of one*s acarya and one day's on the death of tho
brahmacarl.
son or wife of the acarya.
The Smrtyarthasara ( p. 10) mentions some occasions when anadhyaya may extend to a month, to six months, or a year. Ap. D. S. I. 3. 9. 1. prescribes that, when upakarma is performed on tho full moon day of Sravana, for a month thereafter ono should not study Veda in the first part of the night ( ha may do
so after that at nighfc or in the day
).
951 that thero AparSrka (p. 192 ) quotes a verse from Yama can be no Vedic study under the shade of certain trees like SlcsmStaka, Salmali (silk-cotton), Madhnka, Kovidara and
Kapitthaka.
11. 34 state that ( 16. 49 ) and Ap. Dh. S. I. 3. anadhyayas expressly mentioned by them thero aro others which may be learnt from the several smrtis and from tho assemblies of learned men. 952
Gaufc.
Both
besides the
It
rather too
would be noticed how the number of anadhyayas is numerous for rapid and effective study. Therefore
certain rules are laid
down
to explain whafc is that is forbidden
on those days.
In the first place anadhyaya may be vacika ( concerned with the loud utterance of Vedic words ), manasa ( revolving
3-2
950.
ffaj|tTO[
f^nrec
*T. n. 1. 11.
wknn*
951.
:
*rfiro 13.
39-40.
$$
W
is
*HT quoted by awrrlr quoted aa from the

952.
p. 192.
In the
q^n. *H.
1.
P.
158 this
siftf^r ^r
^FWTI%
ft.
16.49;
^.1.3.11.34.
Oh. VII
the
Anadhyayas
in the
).
401
that the rule about
mind Baud. Dh. S. I. 952 11. 40-41 says anadhyaya on portentous happenings for a day and night does not apply to manasa study but even manasa study is forbidden when there is impurity due to birth
Veda
or death.
allows
days.
Gaut. 16. 46 says the same. Ap. Dh. S. in general ) mental study ( not vocal ) on Vide also Ap. Dh. S. I. 11. 32. 12-13.
I. 3.
11.
20
anadhyaya
The Ap. Srautasutra 954 ( 24. 1. 37 ) says that the rules about anadhyaya apply only to the learning of Vedic mantras but have no application to their employment in various rites.
955
Jaimini ( XII. 3. 18-19 ) establishes the proposition that the rules about anadhyaya being prescribed for acquisition of the Vedic mantras have no application to their employment in The Ap. Dh. S. I. 4. 12. 9 lias a sutra which shows sacrifices. remarkable agreement with the words of Jaimini.
We saw above that according to the Tai. Ar. the rules of anadhySya do not apply to the daily performance of Brahmato the repetition of the Vedic texts already learnt ). 105 says that there is no concern about anadhyaya as to the lores ( the angas like grammar, Nirukta &c. ) helpful to ( understanding of ) the Veda, the obligatory svadhya"ya ( i. e.
yajna
( i.
e.
Manu
II.
956 brahmayajfia ) and the mantras to be used in homa. Saunaka quoted in the Sm. C. says there is no anadhyaya as to repeating the Vedic texts in the obligatory rites and in japa nor in kamya
rites,
in sacrifices or in the parayana ( repeating the Veda already learnt); the anadhyaya rules apply only to the first learning of Vedic mantras and to their teaching. The Smrtyarthasara 957 ( p. 10 ) says that those who have a slippery memory or those who have to commit to memory extensive Vedic texts
953.
au^$
I
*rr*nnWKTT^:
<9Tftirn}
I
t*.
^.
I.
H- 40-41
ITT^H^C^T^:
i
16. 46
3OT. t* ^-
I- 3. 11. 20.
954.
955.
*WTV*TT^S?TWTOT JF^rrori
sRjfaW^cTTcsn^
3TTT- s?T. 24. 1. 37.

i
nîuit *fnSfNVtTc**n*#br *nfri: **n>gpfor 8rfof*Rn*m f^rt *rfir i%m*nsr fr^Ric? ww. ^n^r nhforcM *ft*\w ^. XI I. 3. 18-19. The first sutra contains the trjf<T$r view; compare firarr
i
^rîuii^
956.
anq-.
r. I.
4. 12. 9.
f^r
3T^f
^ *M*% *3
I.
Tmôtm
iTTf^^fJ Ift5f^rin ^^m^-o

p. 11.
p. .61;
vido similar verses in
957.
3*11
T%3Rfaflc5T*Tt Hlf^qcrTf^5fR
^TO*^ w^hn^frFBTf^r ^T^T%^

H. D. 51
*$?*T$*rn
10
402
Cb. VII
should study the Vedafigas, nySya (logic), mlmamsa and dharmasastras on all anadhyayas except on 1st, 8th, 14th and Some digests quote a verse from full moon and new moon days.
the
Kurmapurana
958
that there
is
no anadhyaya for the study of
Ved&ngas, of itihasa, puranas, dharmasastras and other sastras ; but on parva days the study of even these should be dropped*
tithis were the only close holidays on which there was complete cessation of all study, whether Vodic or non-Vedic. That is, these were what are called nitya holidays
This shows that these
while the rest are naimittika anadhyayas. Even now these nitya anadhyayas are observed by vaidikas and by Pandits in
their Sanskrit schools
(
particularly
amavasya
).
It will be seen that though some of the occasions for anadhyaya are somewhat strange and bizarre, underlying most of them there are reasonable and understandable principles. Vedic study depended in the first place on memoCommitting sacred texts to memory ( without in most rizing. cases understanding their meaning ) required close attention and concentration. Therefore, all occasions which caused disturbance or distraction of mind were held to be anadhyayas. But the same concentration was not necessary for reciting in sacrifices or japa or brnhma-yajfia what had already been Hence such occasions were not committed to memory.
anadhyayas
It
for those purposes.
was believed that 959 if a person taught the Vedic lore or studied it on anadhyaya days, he incurred loss as to ( long ) life, offspring, cattle, intelligence and the merit accumulated
by him.
Keianta or yodana
the head
and
also the hair on the other parts of the

).
as arm-pits, chin
This sarhskara consists in shaving body ( such Par. gr., Yaj. ( I. 36 ) and Manu ( II. 65 )
:
employ the word kesanta, while Asv. gr,, San. gr., Gobhila and 960 other grhyasutras employ the word godana. In the Sat. Br.
while speaking of the diksa (consecration of the performer
958.
^
14.
quoted from tgvfgwr by f3<fa%?g. This 82-83 and aJr?TOrei% ( <Hv. ed. I. p. 517 )
959.
T
is
J*TT
qwft
it
3*15: xrsit
I.
"T^
^î" itf n* ffgcf
^ *RJ
*^f?Nre
p. 61.
Vide two similar verses quoted in

$T?r*r III. 1. 2. 4.
p. 8.
960.
*r
^r%ontai$
T*re*STi%
Ch. VII
Keianta or Godana
) (
403
of a sacrifice
of the hair
the word godana is used in the sense of a portion on the head ) near the top of the ear. Most
year.
smrtikaras say that this samskara was performed in the 16th According to San. gr. ( I. 28. 20, S. B. E. vol. 29, p. 57 ) ifc may be performed in the 16th or 18th year. According to Manu II. 65 ke&anta is performed in the 16th, 22nd or 24tU year respectively for a brahmana, ksatriya or vaisya. The
smrbi XIV. 1 says that Godana may be performed in the 16th year or at the time of marriage. This last view seerns to have been known to Bhavabhufci who in his
96!
(
Laghu-Avalayana
UttararSrnacarita
Act. I)
makes
the heroine Slta say that
Rama and
formed
strange
his three brothers had the godana ceremony perimmediately before their marriage. Ifc is somewhat
1
that according to the Kausika sutra 962 ( 54. 15 ) godana precedes cuda karma and the commentator Ke&ava remarks that godana takes place at the end of the first or 2nd year ( from birth ).
There
I. 2.
is
from which 16 years are

(
great divergence of views about the starting point to be calculated. The Baud. Dh. S.
of years is to be calculated Following this rule the Mit.
has stated the rule in general terms that the number from the time of conception. 963
on Yaj.
I.
36 and Kulluka on
65 say that godana should be performed in the 16th while year from conception in the case of brahmanas, AparSrka says that it is to be performed in the 16th year from
II.
Man
birth.
Visvarupa
of
brahmacarya
if
on Yaj. I. 36 says that whatever the period that a student was going to observe ( whether
96S
12, 24, 36, 48
and
&c. ) kesanta must be performed in the 16th year any one had his upanayana performed later than the
16th year, then kesanta will not take place at all. Narayaija on A.SV. gr. I. 22. 3 notes that according to some godana takes
961.
962.
963.
^sTSFrrar
^ *TT3T^rsf
rn<nrRR
3F?H?rer$?f 54. 15.

i
*nrff^5*rr
^5TFtT:
w<srfru er?ff*f arrsrargTSTtfra
v.
2.7.
964.
55Trf^RF5^r ^f THf^K"T
fts?t
^wr^r
i
a*R*rTr ^*JT*T
ffrî mcrr on
965.
3^1^
^r. I. 36.
On ^TnT^g
:
I
'
^te?t %5TTssc
I* ......
frttwrfi
ft*^^??
T^T % on ^T.
I.
36.
404
Oh. VII
it
others celebrate place in the 16th year from upanayana, while in the 16th year from birth.
All sutrakaras are agreed that godSna or kesanta follows

the procedure of cudakarana with a few differences. The A&v. Caula is performed in the gr. ( 1. 18. 1-9 ) points these out.
3rd year, while godana is performed in the 16th. A6v. gr. further " says wherever the word kesa occurs ( in the mantras or procedure of caula ) he should employ the word 6masiru ( beard ). He moistens the beard here. (The mantra is) 'purif y his head and face, He gives orders ( to the barber ) but do not deprive him of life
'.
'arrange his beard, the hair of his body and his nails, ending in the north'. Having bathed and stood up silently during the rest of the day, he should break his silence in the presence The fee I give a gift'. of his teacher (saying to the teacher)
'
Let the teacher instruct him to keep the is a pair of cows. " 968 observances for a year Narayana notes that being grown up he should not sit on his mothers lap as in caula ( but sit to
.
her right ) and that the instruction is to be on the next day. Narayana says that the instruction referred to is the one mentioned in Asv. gr. I. 22. 20 from cutting the hair to giving in
'
'
'
charge i. e. from Asv. gr. I. 19. 8. to I. 20. 7. It is better to hold as Par. and Bhar, gr. ordain that the instruction is as to 987 in A6v. gr. I. 22. 17 ) or that brahmacaryavrata ( mentioned he is not to shave himself for a year, 12 days, 6 days or at least
3 days. Par. gr., fee of only one
(
'
II. 5. 3
Sankhayana and several others allowed the cow Gobhila ( III. 1. 5 ) and Khadira allowed optionally the gift of a pair of horses or a pair
of sheep for ksatriyas or

966.
vaisyas respectively.
According to
I. 17. 7 the mantra in q|fe is arf^fa: the mantra in godana is 3Tt%f& 3H9gj3t ^<Tg In ( I. 17. 8 ) prescribes the laying of kuda bunches on to the right side of the hair in ifi^tsr the kutia is laid on the beard (before it is cut). In
In an**. ^.
it
instead of
'
qW the
edge of the razor
is
wiped with the mantra

i5T?r
8<teren STHI wrfS"
?$rtîjf^r
*rnwnj:
suffafh
(arr^. ^.
instead in nr^*r> the mantra is ^[...wtr^r ^Rî^ M $n% In this way ^f (necessary changes in the words) is to be made.
in
*r?^Vl jHfacU I. 17. 15); f^t &a m^rr &c.

In
aiw.
I.
17. 16 the direction to the
barber
is
967.
.
a*
*?. I.
22. 17.
tri
968.
^TT^
L.
li.
Oh. VII
Re&nta
or Godtina
405
Gobhila and Khadira shaving the beard precedes a vrafca called godanika for one year and both state at length the observances of that vrata (Gobhila III. 1. 11-29, Khadira II. 5. 7-16 ).
San. gr. ( I. 28. 22 ) expressly says that the kesanta ceremony performed for girls but silently. Ap. gr. 16. 15, Hir. gr. 6. 16, Bharadvaja gr, I. 10, Baud.gr. Ill, 2. 55 prescribe in godana the removal of all the hair on the head ( including the sikha top-knot), while in caula it is not so.
is
This sarhskara gradually went out of vogue, so much so that most of the medieval digests like the Sm. C,,the Sarhskaraprakasa, and the Nirnayasindhu contain hardly anything about it.
Snana
house XII.
).
or
Samavartana
Taking the ceremonial bath

as Gaut.
(
after finishing Vedic study and returning from the teacher's
Some sutrakaras such

Hir. gr.
9.
VIII. 16
),
Ap.
gr.
and Yaj. I. 51 employ the word 'snana' for this eamskara, while Asv. gr. III. 8. 1, Baud. gr. ( II. 6. 1 ), Ap. Dh. S. I. 2. 7. 15 and 31, Bbar. gr. II. 18 employ the word The Khadira gr. ( I. 3. 2-3, III. 1. 1 ) and samavartana. Gobhila III. 4. 7 use the word means ( which aplavana snana ). Manu ( III. 4 ) uses both snana and samavartana " a dvija being permitted by his teacher, may take the in ceremonial bath and return from his teacher according to the rules laid down ( in his own grhyasutra ) and then marry a agirl&c". Apararka(p. 76) explains this verse by saying that it makes a distinction between snana and samavartana. The distinction consists in this snana or ceremonial bath
1,
'
'
'
'
'
man indicates the completion of the period of student-hood. who wants to remain a brahmacarin all his life need not
undergo this samskara. Samavartana from the teacher's house to one's home
his
literally
If
means return
no return
III. 4)
'
'.
a boy learns under

969
own
father, then literally speaking there will be
in his case from a teacher's house. Medhatithi
(on
Manu
puts this position forcibly. Samavartana is not a necessary anga of marriage and therefore he who learnt the Veda ( adjunct )
may, though there is no return ( to the from the teacher's house ), enter on matrimony. Some hold that Samavartana is an anga of marriage and consists
in his father's house
father's house
969.
r
* (%^
%|^ ml
406
in the ceremonial
bath,
If
it
Ch.
VII
be said that the gerundial
III. 4 ) conveys distinction between snana and samavartana, the reply is that Manu will later on speak of samSvartana as the samskara of enana.
termination
tva in snafcva in
Manu
treatment with the words vedam adhlfcya snasyan* (after learning the Veda and when about to undergo the ceremonial bath )/ Having these words in mind
gr. 12. 1
A p.
begins
its
remarks that in the words vedam adhltya snasyan' ib is samavartana that has been described. Hence the essence of samavarfcana is the ceremonial bath and return to the parental home is a subsidiary matter ( which may or may not occur in the case of a student). The Mahabbasya
Baud.
gr.
97
(II
6.
'
(vol.
says that a person after ho has studied the Vedft the permission of the teacher should begin to use a cot (for sleeping on ).
I. p.
384
and taken the ceremonial bath with
In the Vedic Literature both

IV. Chandogya Upanisad Kamalayana became a student
971
words are used.
In the
we read that Upakosala of Satyak&ma Jabala and tended his teacher's fires for twelve years; the teacher while making his other pupils return ( to their parental home ) did not make Upakosala return. Here it is clear that the Upanisad knew the term
10,
1
'samavartana'. Similarly in Chandogya VIII. 15 it is stated that having studied the Veda according to the rules in the time that was left after doing work for the teacher and having returned
4
from the teacher's house to his own family*.
(XI. ) says taking the ceremonial bath '. The Sat. Br. ( XII. 1. 1. 10 ) J7S a snataka from a brahmacarin (S. B. E. vol. distinguishes 44 p. 137 ). Similarly the Ap. Dh. S. II. 6. 14. 13 quotes a Brah3. 3.
hand the
after
'
Sat. Br.
m should not beg thatône
On
the other
mana
passage therefore the face of the snafcaka is as if resplen' one who 3. 3. remarks that dent with fire'. The Ait. Ar. V.
'
970.
^rcftc-g ^^rertSr?^ *r*rre&n*

i
A. ^.
II.
6.
1.
arcffar
^fifrg^rnTf ^*f[TtT5n
971.
10.
1
;
JT^TW^
vol. I. p. 384.
K% wF^T
4 <4 VIII. 15. 1.
1 1
3TM
<
972.
^ f ^ Wr*ri$ftra
!
2.
T ^973.
53
i 5TcWI art. XI. 3. 3. 7. This is quoted by the along with other passages of the same WTfror)
974.
also distinguishes tittrawT. (^M IV. 6 m IWI*H Kraft WT 3repnf4hrat ^riiraft ^rm ^w^pr^n| ^.w.
)
The
between
V.
3.
3;
ill. 9. 8.
Ch. VJI
lias
Snana or SamUvartana
407
snataka, even though he
The
not studied this (malmvrata) does not become a (true) may have learnt a good deal else/ Asv. gr. III. 9. 8 summarises a Brahmana passage to the
effect that
a snataka
(
is
indeed a great being.
) was ordained by the sutrakaras Vedic study. The Asv. gr. (III. 9. 4) remarks after having finished ( the task of learning ) vidya, they should invite his teacher to name the gift ( of wealth or otherwise) he desired or when the pupil has been permitted by the teacher, the pupil may take a ceremonial bath/ 975 This shows that one may perform snana either when he had finished his Vedic and other studies or he may do so even without
Snana
*
the ceremonial bath
after a student finishesd his
finishing his intended studies, if the teacher permitted him to ' do so. The Far. gr. II. 6 is more explicit The student should
take the ceremonial bath after finishing ( the study of ) the Veda or when he has gone through the period of student-hood
for 48 years, or for 12
(
he should
976 Gobhila (III. 5. 21-22), gr. (II. 5), Baud, gr paribhasa sutra I. 15, Harlta and others to be of three kinds, viz vidyasnataka ( or Veda-snataka as Baud. gr. paribhasa has it ), vratasnataka and vidya-vratasnataka ( or veda-
person who A snataka is said by the Par.
years according to some ( teachers ) take the bath when permitted by tho teacher.' A has taken tho ceremonial bath is called a snataka.
vrata-snataka as in
Baud
).
One who has
finished
Veda
study,
but has not gone through the vratas ( described above ) is called vidya-snataka ; one who has finished the vratap, but has nofc while one who finished his Veda study is styled vratasnataka has finished both is named vidya-vrata-snataka. Yaj. I. 51 in saying that a student 'after finishing Veda (study) or the vratas
;
observances of brahmacarya
the teacher
what the
latter
and after giving to ) or both, chooses to ask should take the

'
ceremonial bath with the teacher's permission impliedly refers These three alternatives to the three-fold division of snatakas. are due to the fact that a student may not have the ability or tho time to go through the full Vedic curriculum and the
075.
regrrefr
aj^fa i?m*w ^sTTsg^rre^
rr
SSTFT**
an**- 3. HI.
9. 4.
IT. 6.
976.
n.
as quoted in
^f^^.
I. p.
66
is
the same.
408
Ch.
VH
vratas. Medhatithi on Manu IV. 31 notices that according to gome vrata-snatakas are those who without finishing Veda study take the ceremonial bath three years after upanayana. Gobhila
(
III. 5. 23
the other
two being equal
says that of these, vidya-vrata-snataka is the best, to each other. Ap. Dh. S, (I. 11. 30.
division and adds that all three
1-5
refers to this three-fold
are to be honoured as snatakas, but that great reward follows
by honouring vidyS-vrata-snatakas.
A good deal of time may conceivably elapse between a man's taking the ceremonial bath and actually marrying a woman. During that period he is called a snataka; while after 977 As long as a marriage he comes to be called a grhastha person is not married after he takes the bath, he has to follow the observances prescribed for snatakas and grhasthas so far as
.
applicable to his position but not those of a student. Gaut. the position quite clear by prescribing the ( IX. 1-2 ) makes
same
states
rules of conduct for grhasthas and for snatakas. that whatever rules laid down for ( in III. 9 )
He
also
carins are not opposed to the special rules for to be observed by all, The latter means that the special observances of a brahmacarl are not applicable to him (such as
brahmaother asramas are
avoiding honey and

to fire
).
flesh,
living on alms, offering fuel-sticks
The most
Hir. gr.
I.
elaborate procedure of
samavartana
is
found
in
9-13, Baud. gr. paribhasa I. 14, Par. gr. II. 6 and concise statement is given below from Gobhila gr. III. 4-5.
The student who is about to return home from his teacher should get ready (eleven) things, viz. a jewel (to be suspended round his neck ), two ear-rings, a pair of garments, an umbrella, a pair of shoes, a staff, a wreath, (powder)
As v.
gr.
III.
8 and 9
).
for rubbing his body with, ointment, eye-satve, a turban, ( all If he these ) being meant for the teacher and for himself.
cannot afford to have these materials for both of them, then he

977.
I.
15. 10.
978.
Vide
f^T on
iftem IX. 2
I.
11. 30. 6
(3WWTOO sa y 8 that
to 5*3^7
80ine
*T
* tiie
I.
W^WcTa
are
on WR. common
u.
to
35WS. According
on
3?PT.
g"?rs
11. 30. 3
EnfTI^ in 3cf?Hl3<tt
does not stand for the special observances such
like JTffW'ft,
but for the general
Oh. VII
Procedure of Samavartam
409
fuel-stick
;
should prepare them only for the teacher. He should procure a from the north-east side of a sacrificial tree ( like palasa ) the fuel-stick may be undried if he wishes for the enjoyment of food or for prosperity or for splendour; it may be dry if he wishes for spiritual lustre or both dry ( in part )
;
and undried in the remaining part if he desires both. Having placed the fuel-stick on high ( not on the ground ) and having made gifts of food and of a cow to brahmanas, he should perform the actions prescribed in godana ceremony ( and not the observances like remaining silent ). He should 97d alter the mantras ( of godana ) so that they refer to himself. ( He should rub himself) with the powder of Ekaklltaka. 98 Having bathed himself in lukewarm water and having put on two garments which have not yet been washed ( or used ) with the mantra You two Mitra and Varuna ) put on garments 981 with fat
'
splendour* ( Rg. 1. 152. 1 ) he should apply eye-salve to his eyes * with the words thou art the lustre of stone, protect my eye.'
;
He
the lusfcre of stone
should fasten the two ear-rings with the words thou art protect my ear.' After having smeared his two hands with ointment ( saffron paste &c.) a brahmana should
;
anoint his face with it ( and then the limbs ), a Rajanya first, a vaisya his belly first, a woman her private parts, persons, who maintain themselves by running, their
first
his
two arms
free from distress art thou, may from distress he should put on the wreath, but not such a wreath as would be called a mala ( garland ). what to say) If some call it mala (through ignorance of as sraj ( wreath ). He he should cause them to speak of steps into the shoes with the words you two are the supports and with the of the gods, protect me from all sides
thighs.
I
With
free
the
words
'
become
ifc
*
'
instead of *3?fatar ^Frete **PI%*bf nhfr:' (an**. Sand ift^FT (by the arranf) the student repeated iii ' should himself repeat the mantra as adroit afPT^ *TT &{ffi *Tf *n fiNfr: 1 the Instead of the mantra 'gpfcrf^W 33*3 HPE*ng: smWfc repeated by in ift^nr, the student should himself say 'fjjptf f?Rr JTT ft
979.
I.
This means:
17.
8-9
^y
gw
980.
r on Wfsr. S. !!! 8. tains only one grain that
8.
is
It is the
seed of the qror tree which con-
to be powdered.
981. The mantra gw ^TTI^t is to be repeated with each garment. The eye-salve is to be applied to the left eye first and then to the right, says NSrffyana quoting a smrti. The ear-ring is first to bo fastened on the rigbt ear and then on the left.
H. D. 52
4iO
tiistory of
Dharmaiastra
Ch. VII
words 'heaven's covering art thou' he takes the umbrella. bamboo art takes the bamboo staff with the words all sides/ me from of a the child thou art tree, protect thou, 988 with the hymn Having tied round his neck the jewel and having arranged the ftyusyam \ beginning with turban ( on his head ) he should in a standing posture put a fuel-stick ( on the fire ), and should say at that time
He
'
'
'
memory and reproach, knowledge, faifch, wisdom as the fifth, what is sacrificed, what is given (as gift), what is studied and what is done, truth, learning, observances. O Agni, the
vow
(of thee) together with Indra, with Prajapati, with the sages, with the sages that are ksatriyas, wifch the Fathers, with the kings among Fathers, with men and with the kings among
men, with the glow, with the super-glow, with the after-glow, with the counter-glow, with gods and men, with Gandharvas and Apsarases, with wild and domestic animals, the vow belonging to
svaha'.
128. 1
)
entire vow.
self, dwelling in my own self, that is my OAgnil I shall on all sides becoma this vow, With the hymn 'mine, O Agni, bo the glory ( Rg. X,
'
my own
he should put fuel-sticks on fire one for each vorse. 984 He should stay for the night at a place where the people will do honour to him ( by offering Madhuparka )'. Madhuparka will be dealt with under marriage.
rite
The Baud. gr. paribhasa says (1. 14. 1) that the samavariana for him who is only a vratasnataka ( and has not studied the Veda ) is performed silently ( i. ,e. without the mantras prescribed ). The other grhya sutras have a similar procedure in samavartana, only the mantras sometimes differ and a few
details are added.
NSrayana on Ath^gr. I. 8. 16 says that the 'magi is 'suvarnamaya (made of gold). Ap. gr. 12. 8 speaks of 'maniin sauvarriam sopadhanam (a golden bead with two precious stones on two sides ).
982.
'
'
983.
3TFT.
*T. <Tf.
This sGkta
II. 8.
is
a khila sukta in the Rgveda.
It
occurs in the
It is in praise of gold.
his shoes
NSrSyana adds on &$v. gr. III. 8. 16 that he should keep aside and then offer the fuel-stick. Stenzler conjectures arlr: for sfir in 3ngr. ^J. HI. 9- 1, which is unwarranted and unnecessary. The eUkta Kg. X. 128 has nine verses. NSrSyana says th&t there is to be homa with ten samidhs the tenth verse, therefore, is the verse 5yu$y am which is the first verse of the KhilaeOkta after %. X. 128. The erstwhile tudent is to offer tamidht sitting and not standing and end the rite with
984.
C
'
the offering to
Svi^kit Agni.
Ch, VII
Procedure of Samavartana
411
bull's hide.
gr. ( III. 1. 2 ) makes the student sifc on Par. gr, ( II. 6 ) prescribes that eight jars full of water are to be placed on kusa grass and water therefrom is
For example, San.
is to worship the rising sun, to partake of curds or sesame seeds, to cleanse his teeth with an udumbara twig, he sees himself in a mirror ( after adorning himself ). Both Par. and Gobhila ( III. 4. 23 ) say that in this
to be poured over the head certain mantras, that he
and the body of the student with
rite
the girdle is taken off. Gobhila ( Ilf. 4. 31-34 ) says that at the end of the rite the student should mount a chariot
drawn by oxen, drive some distance in an eastern or northern direction, should then come back to the teacher who honours
Hir. gr, ( I. 9. 10 ) says that the girdle, the staff and the black antelope skin that he wore as brahmacarin are to be thrown into water. The Laghu-A&valayana-
him with madhuparka.
smrti
and samS( 14th section ) appears to suggest that godana vartana take place on the same day and that at the end of the horn a in samavartana a student of the Rgveda should unloosen
the
ud uttamam murnugdhi ( Rg. I, 25. 21 ). It is for this reason that in the Maratha country samavartana is called sodmunja ( rite in which the rnufija girdle is taken away ).
girdle
of
munja grass with
the mantra
'
'
'
the
The sufcras more or less prescribe expressly or impliedly same materials that are required by Asvalayana. Vide Bhar. gr. II. 18 ( which enumerates them in one place ), Baud,
gr,
paribhasa sutra
I.
13. 1.
Some
rite is to
be performed.
of the sutras specify the auspicious times when this Hir. gr, I. 9. 3 lays down that the
proper time for snana is during the northern course of the sun, in the bright half of a month when the moon is in conjunction
RohinI, Mrgasiras, Tisya ( Pusya ), UttarS PhalgunI, Hasta, Citra, or ViSakha. The Baud. gr. paribhasa ( L 13. 3-9 ) omits Mrgasiras out of these, while Bhar. gr. ( II. 18 ) omits BohinI and Mrgasiras and adds Svati. Medieval and modern digests add elaborate rules about the astrological details for the proper day of samavartana, which are passed over here.
with
Vide Samskaraprakasa
pp.
576-578 for some of these
details.
Numerous
rules are laid

(
down
).
in the smrtis
about snatakas
snatakadharmah
( i.
Many
and digests of these rules are

).
applicable to grhasthas also
e.
snatakas
to
who have married
Those rules are too numerous
enumerate.
But some idea
may
be cpnveyed by quoting in full the rules in iSv. grf
History of Dharnta&astra
Ch. VII
III. 9. 6-7 ) which has the shortest treatment and adding a few interesting items from other works. Asv. gr. ( III. 9. 6-7 )
(
He ( the snataka ) should not bathe at night, nor says bathe naked, nor lie down naked, he should not look at a naked woman except during intercourse, he shall not run
'
when
it rains, he should not climb up a tree, nor descend into a not cross a river ( by swimming) with his arms, he should well, should not expose himself to a danger. A great being indeed is a snataka so it is known (from the 6ruti)'. Ap. Dh. S. ( L 11. 30. 6-L 11. 32. 29), Vas. XII. 1-47, Gaut. IX, Yaj. 1. 129-166, Manu IV. 13ff, Visnu Dh. S. 71, Par. gr. II. 1 contain an exhaus-
tive treatment of snataka vratas.
Some
of these are concerned
with the rules about anadhyayas, about answering calls of nature, about persons whose food should not be taken, about sexual intercourse, about acamana, about daily observances like the five mahayajnas, about upakarma and utsarjana. These have been or will be dealt with in the appropriate places. A few of the other important rules of conduct are a snataka
:
should always be pure (in body), should daily bathe and should apply fragrant unguents (like sandal-wood paste) to
be always patient, persistent in his undertakings, self -restrained, generous and not disposed to cause injury to others ( Gaut. 9. 7 and 73 ); he should speak the truth
his body, should
and also speak what
is agreeable, but should not tell disagreeable truths, nor should he tell agreeable lies ( Manu IV. 138 and Gaut. IX. 68 ) ; he should' according to his ability try to
make
acts, satisfaction
his day fruitful as regards the performance of meritorious of ( legitimate ) desires and acquisition of wealth, but he should look upon dharma as the principal of
( Gaut. IX. 46-47, Manu IV. 176, Yaj. I. 156), though he should avoid even what is allowed by the 6asIras if it is hateful to the people ; he should not beg (for his liveli-
the three purusarthas
hood ) of anybody except the king or his pupils, but when oppressed by hunger he may beg a little such as a cultivated or uncultivated field, a cow, goats and sheep, or gold, corn, food (Vas. XII. 2-3, Gaut. IX 63-64, Manu IV. 33-34, Yaj. 1. 130); but he should not beg of a king who is not of ksatriya descent or who
sets at
naught the dictates of the sastras ( Manu IV. 84, 87) nor should he stay in the kingdom of a sudra king (Manu IV. 61) he should not talk with the mlecchas, impure persons and irreligious
;
persons
puffed
Gaut. IX. 17
);
he should not dwell in contact with

fools or
;
sinners, candalas
and other untouchables, with
persons
up with
the pride of wealth &c,
(Manu IV. 79) he should
(Jh.
VII
Snatdka-dharma
413
feet,
not be restless in his sexual desires or with his hands and 42 ) ; speech and eyes ( Gaut, IX. 50, Manu IV. 177, Vas. VI. he should go round ( perform pradaksina ), when he meets on
his
a cow, images of gods, a brahmana, ghee, honey, a trees ( Manu IV. 39, Gaut. IX. 66 ); he well-known square, should not engage in wordy quarrels with his parents, guests, brothers, sisters, persons connected by marriage, maternal uncles, dependents, relations, sacrificial and family priests,
way
children, wife, slaves
(Manu
IV. 179-180 =Santiparva 244,
carry a bamboo stick, a two water jsr, kuSa grass, wear yajnopavltas, two garments and two and lower) golden ear-rings ( Manu IV. 36, (upper if he has money enough he Yaj. 1. 133, Vas. XII. 14, 37-38 ) should not wear old and dirty clothes, his garments should be white, he should not wear garments that are dyed and black cloth even when that is its natural colour ( Ap. Dh. S. 1. 11.
14-16, Ysj.
I 157-158); he should
4-5 ) nor 30, 10-13, Manu IV. 34-35, Yaj. I. 131, Gaut. IX. should he wear the clothes, shoes, and garland of another and he should if he wears these of another owing to poverty, he should IV. Manu IX. 66) Gaut. them clean 6-7, ( thoroughly not allow his beard to grow unless there is some good ground to do so and should pare his nails ( Gaut. IX. 8, Manu V. 35, not sit on Ysj. 1. 131); while his shoes are in his hand he should a seat nor should he salute a person or bow to a deity ( Gaut.
;
he should not blow with his mouth to kindle fire Gaut. IX. 32 ); he should not hold ( Manu IV. 53, Vas. XII. 27, fire and water nor should ho come hands in his simultaneously between the fire and a brahmana nor between two brahmanas without their permission (Ap. Dh. S. II. 5. 12. 6-8, Vas. XII. 28-30); he should not eat food in the same plate with his wife, nor
IX. 45
)
;
should he see his wife while she is eating or applying eye-salve XII. 31, or when she is yawning or sneezing (Manu IV. 43-44, Vas, toothor or padukas Gaut. IX. 32 ) ; he should not use a seat Dh. IX. Ap. Gaut. 44, XII. Vas. 34, brush made of palasia (
S. I. 11. 32.
he should wear a wreath ( of flowers ) and 32. 5, ointment so as not to be easily noticed ( Ap. Dh. S. 1. 11. not see should he 32 IX. ); Manu IV. 72, Vas. 12. 39, Gaut. S. Dh. IV. Manu Ap. 39, 12. Vas. 10, or setting ( the sun rising 9 ** and should not he should not be kulamkula 31. 20
9
)
;
1.
11.
);
family
on *fK explains it as 985. $&$j& is variously explained. ?TfxT another's explanation as 'one who leaves his stay at home' and gives to another i. e, studies another's sStra' &c. and
7
goes
414
History of Dharmatteira
Ch. VII
calf is tied ( Vas. XII. 8-9, Gaut. IX. 52-53, Manu IV. 38); he is not to point out the rainbow to another when he sees it in the sky ( Maim IV. 59 ) nor is he to employ the word Indradhanuh for it, but the word
'
'
go over a rope by which a
'
manidhanuli
11. 31, 18
)
;
'
Vas. XII. 32-33. Gaut. IX.

is to
*
23,
&p. Dh.
'
S.
employ certain euphemisms e. g. he should not speak of a cow that yields no milk as adhenu but as dhenu he is later on become would who ), dhenu-bhavya ( not fco employ the word bhadra for a thing that is auspicious, but he should employ the words punya or prasasta '; what is not bhadra he should speak of as bhadra and should not use the word kapala ', but the word bhagala for it ( Gaut, IX. 20-22, Ap. Dh. S. 1. 11. 31. 11-14 ) he should not inform a person when a cow does some damage or allows her calf to have milk without the owner knowing it (Ap. Dh. S, I.
1.
he
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
31. 9-10, Gaut. IX. 24-25); he should enter or leave his village from the east or north (Ap. Dh. S. I. 11. 30. 7; and should not enter a village or a guarded house by a by-path (Manu IV. 73, Yaj. I. 140, Ap. Dh. S. I. 11. 32. 23);
11.
at
the two twilights he should be seated outside the village and should be silent ( Ap. Dh, S. I. 11, 30. 8 ) he should not wander about by day with the head covered, but he may do
;
when answering calls of nature (Gaut;. IX. 35-37 11. 30. 14 ) he should avoid finding fault with a Dh. S. 1. Ap. cow, a fee given or a maiden ( Ap. Dh. S. I. 11. 31. 8 ) he should not resort 988 to inferior men or to countries in which such persons abound nor should he frequent gambling houses or meetings of clubs (Ap. Dh. S. I. 11. 32. 18-20, Vas. XII. 40 );
so at night or
;
;
he should try
fco
dwell in a place that abounds in fuel, water
and is mostly peopled by Aryas, that has industrious and religious people ( Gaut. IX. 65 ); he should take his food, answer calls of nature, and
grass, kusas, flowers, that has a court-yard,
986.
^-ifc gifrgRcTi*r
351^ * $%H
I.
H*TT: ^mrsrter
sin.
11. 32.
18-19.
Compare
3TTTT. IT.
^
i
1.
3.
12
defined in the qnirqff

J
1. 4.
27 as
' *
Edict No.
at
Girnar
In the Rock ^tewarm5Tnr: ôr^Btf ?J: C. 1. 1. vol.1) DovffnSm Priya orders that no
it
'
samSja be held as he saw grave faults in

ft
^r ÊnTT^ft
wifft
*rff5F
ft
2
&c.*
IntheNusik cave Inscription No.

(
Got amlputa
is
described as frrn^fSRTT^
'.
E.
I.
vol. VIII.
p.
60).
may mean
festival
Vide Yj.
I. 84.
Ob.
VII ]
Snataka-dharma
417
engage in dalliance with his wife, engage 987 in yoga in a place screened from public view and he should guard his speech, intellect and strength and should keep his wealth and age very secret but he should make public the repayment of a
;
sale, the gift of his daughter in marriage, the letting loose of a bull (in sr&ddha) and a sin done in secret.
debt,
gift,
mortgage or
the rules of conduct laid
says that the prayascitta for not observing down for snatakas is fasting for a day. Haradatta on Gautama IX. 2 says that the rules for snatakas are meant for brahmana and ksatriya snatakas only, that the
)
Manu (XL
203
and
prayascitta for non-observance is also to be undergone by them that the vaisya snatakas are not obliged to observe these
rules.
In modern times samavartana often takes place a short time after upanayana and sometimes on the 4th day thereafter or even the next day. As many br&hmanas do nob learn any
form
part of the Veda, samavartana hes become a mere matter of in their case. Even the Samskarakausiubba (p, 607}
prescribes a very brief procedure for samavartana when the brahmacarl is ill. It consists in the brahmacarl giving up his girdle &c,, in shaving the boy silently, in silently bathing at a
putting on another garment, then sipping water from the house of a 6rotriya and placing it on some place according to the rules, then contemplating on Prajapati and putting the samidh (fuel-stick) on fire.
holy
place,
twice, bringing fire
As a brahmacarl is not affected by the mourning due to the death of relatives (except his parents), on samavartana he has to observe impurity for three days (if there have been deaths of
relatives in the interval, but not for births
).
(3
Vide
Manu
V.
88=VisnuDh.
S. 22, 87).
987.
ammPtahftinvftaTs s^f*w M ^%TJ VI. 9

Tf^Tcf: H
-
15 - 16
AU a r
quoted in the
pp. 484-85.
414
CHAPTER
VIII
ASRAMAS
In the preceding pages several questions connected with brahmacarya have been dealt with. Brahmacarya is, according to the theory of the dharmasutras and smrtis, the first of the four asramas. Therefore, before proceeding to the next samskara, viz. vivaha ( marriage ) which is the starting point of the second asrama, it is necessary to discuss the origin and deve-
lopment of the idea of asramas.

the times of the most ancient dharmasutras the of asramas has been four, though there are slight 988 differences in the nomenclature and in their sequence. S.p. Dh. S. II. 9.21. 1 says 'there are four asramas, viz. the stage of
//
From
number
householder, ( staying in ) the teacher's house, stage of being a muni, the stage of being a forest dweller.' That here wawna stands for the asrama of satimyasa is clear from Apastamba's
own words
the
in
II. 9. 21.
'
atha parivrajah.
'
where he employs
Ap. places the householder first among the asramas, probably on account of the importance of that stage to all other asramas. Why he should mention the stage of forest hermit last is not clear. Gaut. also
word
'
parivrftj
to indicate
mauna.'
enumerates the four asramas as brahmacarl, grhastha, bhiksu and vaikhanasa. Here also Gaut. speaks of bhiksu before vaikhanasa and Haradatta 980 explains this departure from the usual sequence of asramas as due to the words in Gaut. 28. 47 where we read'prag-uttamadtraya asraminaf (persons belonging to the three as ram as except the last may constitute a parisad ), i.e. to exclude vaikhanasa from the parisad he is mentioned last. Why.the vanaprastha is called vaikhftnasa will be discussed later on under the former word. ' Vas. Dh. S. (VII. 1-2) names the four asramas as brahmacarl, grhastha, vanaprastha and parivrajaka.
( III.
)
.-
'
988.
I
Vide above
^. II.
p. 3
where BSramadharma
is
said to be one of the
six-fold divisions of dharma.

t
t
8TTT.
%r.
9. 21. 1.
"g^TT 3JT3THT This is quoted by $far in his
III. 4. 47.
2.
Uli.
VIII
Asramas
417
Vas. Dh.
S. (in 34) employs the word ijati to denote a person in the fourth asrama. Baud. Dh. S. (IT. 6. 1?) names the four asra-
XL
mas
same way as Vasistha and vouchsafes fche interesting it was the asura Kapiia, son of Prahlada, who in his rivalry with the gods, made these distinctions to which a wise man should pay no heed. What Baud. 990 means
in the
information that
appears to be that there is really one asrama viz. that of the householder, that Kapiia devised the scheme of four asramas, so that those who became vSnaprasthas and parivrajakas would
perform no yajnas and thereby the gods would lose the offerings they received from men and become less powerful. Manu VI. 87 speaks of the four asiramas, the last being called yati by
It would thus be seen ( in VI. 96 ). that a person who belongs to the last asrama is variously called parivrat or parivrajaka ( one who does not stay in one
him and
also
'
somnyasa
'
place but wanders from place to place ), bhiksu ( one who begs for his livelihood ), muni ( one who ponders over the mysteries of life and death ), yati ( one who controls his senses ) These words suggest the various characteristics of the man who undertakes the fourth asrama.
The theory of Manu about these asramas is as follows. The span of human life is one hundred years ( 6atyur vai
purusah ). All do not live to that age, but that is the maximum age one can expect to reach. This should be divided into four As one cannot know beforehand what age one is going parts.
it is not to be supposed that these four parts are each years. They may be more or less. As stated in Manu IV. 1 the first part of man's life is brahmacarya in which he learns afc his teacher's house and after he has finished his study,
to reach,
of 25
in the second part of hid life
he marries and becomes an house-
to his ancestors by begetting sons and to the gods by performing yajfias ( Manu V. 169 ). When he sees that his head has grey hair and that there are
holder, discharges his debts
wrinkles on his body he resorts to the forest i. e. becomes a vftnapraetha ( Manu VI. 1-2 ). After spending the third part of his life in the forest for some time he spends the rest of his 9* 1 life as a samnyasin (Manu VI. 33). Similar rules are found
990.
.
>
II.
6.
. 29-31.
991.
quoted by quoe y ST^fofisra ft*ra*nm: nftwOTT<rft*ra*nm:

H. D. 53
ST^sra as
wai
g^p?
p, 947.
on *rg VI. 33 say reads *<rRora*q*r:

.
'.
418
in
History of Dharmaiattra
S.
II.
Ch. Vlll
states as
m Baud. ( Dh. many other smrtis. his own opinion that the sages
the 70th year.
10. 5
prescribe
samnySsa
after
The word asrama does not occur

manas.
life
in the Sarhhitfis or Brah-
But
this cannot be stretched to
mean
that the stages of
denoted by this word in the sufcras were the Vedic period. It has been shown above
brahraacarl occurs in the
unknown throughout
Rgveda and
(p. 268) that the word the Atharvaveda and that
brahtnacarya is mentioned in the Tai. SM the Sat. Br. and other ancient Vedic works. So the stage of brahmacarya was wellknown in the remotest past. The fact that Agui is said to bo ' "* and the fact that the grhapati in our house ( Rg. II. 1. 2 ) in the famous verse ( Rg. X. 85. 36 ) which is employed even to1
when taking hold
day in the marriage ceremony the husband says to the bride of her hand that the gods gave her to him for
gftrhapatya (for attaining the position of a house-owner or householder) establish that the second stage of the householder was well-known to the Rgveda, There is nothing in the Vedic
Literature expressly corresponding to the vanaprastha. however be stated that the Tandya MahabrShmana 14.
It
4.
may
7 says
that vaikhSnasa sages

that one
were the favourites of Indra and Devamalimluc killed them in a place called Rahasya Munimarana. Vaikhanasa means vSnapraetha in the sutras and it is possible that this is the germ of the idea of vanaYati used in the sutias and smrtis to indicate the prastha. fourth asrama of samnyasa does occur in the oldest Vedic But there the meaning appears to be different. In the texts. But the sense is Rg. the word yati occurs several times. " 5 when wealth was besdoubtful. Rg. VIII. 3. 9 runs whereby towed on Bhrgu and on yatis ( or on Bhrgu from yatis ') you protected Praskanva Rg. VIII. 6. 18 reads Indra, the yatis and those who were Bhrgus praised thee Rg. X. 72. 7 says *O gods,
*
'
'
'
'
'
'
'.
992. B. g. tide
smri?
p.
910 quoting two verses of

!
i
Yama
that
are
very similar to
993.
994.
995.
Manu V. 169 and VI. 2. FH^T 3;f ri'*rro5 rit5ri% <&

*nn$
*. q, II. 10. 5.
tfi
......
fi& ^sr sj^^nnlw w?. VJII. -3. 9. I Keith takes *n%s as connected with the Bhrgus. It would be better to takeTiftwrt as in the ablative. u$9% ^tm?*T W^T VIII.6.18;
3&i ^m>?ft
^r% ^
*frr ^rfir
Wmr*3
&
*r.
H.
1. 2,
frnrn explains
*ra*T:
as ^TT^T: 3Tl|PW:
.
5
;
T%^f
T?nft TÎF
^^3pj?J?. ^
X. 72. 7
hf re wi^^T rendera
Oh. VIII
Airamas-meantuff of Yati
419
when you
filled the worlds as the yatis ( did ) you brought the sun hidden in the sea '. In the Tai. S. VI. 2. 7. 5 we read 'Indra threw yatis to the ealavrkas ( hyaenas or wolves), they devoured them to the south of the Uttaravedi.' The same words and story occur in the Kathaka sarhhita VIII. 5, the Ait. Br. 35. 2 (pradat)
and the Kausltaki Up.

*
III.l; in the last Indra said to
do
know me
only
I regard this as the
Pratardana most beneficial thing
to man that he should know me. I killed the three-headed Tvastra, I gave to the salavrkas the Arunmukha yatis.* In the Kathaka sarhhita ( IV. 10 ) and the Tai. S. II. 4, 9. 2 it is
stated that the heads of the yatis when they were being devoured fell aside and they (the heads) became the kharjuras (date ' palms ). Atharvaveda II 5. 3. says Indra, who is quick in his
is Mitra and who killed Vrtra as he did the yatis.' Tandya Mahabrahmana VIII. 1. 4 Brhadgiri is said to be one of the three yatis who escaped from slaughter and who were then taken under his protection by Indra. All these
attack, In the
who
passages taken together suggest that the yatis were people who had incurred the hostility of Indra, the patron of the Aryas, that they were slaughtered by the Aryas with the help of Indra and their bodies were thrown to the wolves and that they seem to have something to do with a country where the date-palm grew and that a few of them who escaped slaughter subsequently were won over and became the worshippers of Indra ( and therefore in Rg. VIII. 6. 18 they are described as praising So originally they were probably beyond the pale of Indra the Vedic Aryans. If there is any connection between yati and y&tu ( sorcery ) which seems possible, the yatis were probably non-vedic sorcerers.
).
a reference 9 * 7 to munis, who are wind-girt and who put on brownish dirt (dirty garments). In $g. VIIL 17. 14 Indra is said to be the friend of munis ( Indro muninarh sakha)and in Bg.X.136. 4 muni is said to be the friend of
In the
ftg.
X, 136.
2,
thore
is
all gods.
996.
So
it
appears that even in the times of the Rgveda persons
f*^V
*refi^ *TTc*1!
%T; m*re?%
-
$.
VI.
2.
7.
5.
rr
W- I ILL ar^^^R is explained

3 ^rafa; ... STPT
by sfaTTCT^ as
The words 5-?^

on ITS XI1 48 und
-
lic
8 ivcs the s los3
8omo
^
'
are quoted
by
15^351
II. 4. 9. 2.
997.
g?prt ^T^TTT:
WÎ Wflir HHT
^f.
X. 136.
2.
420
History of DharmatVttra
Ch.
VI 1 1
led a life of poverty, contemplation and mortification were known, and were honoured and called munis, while persons corresponding to them among non-vedic people were probably called yatis. But in both these words there is no idea of a certain stage in a well-knit scheme of life. Perhaps the earliest reference to the four Ssramas, though somewhat obscure* occurs in the Ait. Br. 33. 11 'what (use is there) of dirt, what use of antelope skin, what use of ( growing ) the beard, what is the use of tapas ? O brahmanas desire a son, he ifl a world that is to be highly praised.' 998 Here it is clear that ajina refers to brahmacarya, 6masruni to yanaprasthas ( since according to Manu VI. 6 and Gaut III. 33(the vSnaprastha hadjp gxow his hair, beard and nails ).") Therefore 'mal^mând 'tapas' must be taken respectively as indicating the householder and the
!
who
earhnyasin. A much clearer reference to three fisramas occurs in the Chandogya " Up. II. 23. 1 there are three branches of
'
dharma,
charity
the
( i.
first
e.
constituted by ) sacrifice, study and ( is by the stage of householder ), the second is
(constituted by the performance of) tapas (i. e. the vanaprastha), the third is the brahmacarl staying in the house of his teacher
till death in the teacher's house; worlds of the meritorious ; but one who understood brahma ) and abides in it attains ( has correctly is a characteristic of both vanaprastha '. Tapas immortality and parivrajaka. Therefore in this papsage it is possible to
and wearing himself out

all these attain to the
prastha
hold that the three asramas ( of student, householder and vanaThe last clause about 'brahmasamstha* ) are mentioned.
differentiates the three
asramas from him who has knowledge
998.
$. WT.
33. 11.
*ft probably refers to sexual intercourse.
may
indicate the
m*mw ( ifta* III.
25 *haTSTH>
(Manu
999.
VI. 75 requires a fF^TraRto
ÔTtTT?fT ?TT:?fh7: undergo severe tapaa ).
cfT:
or
23. 1.
It is
worthy of note that
$forc
explains
4.
mi
aa
wrfTOUj
' ;
while on Vedanta-smra
'
III.
20 he dis-
' approves of the view that by the word tapas the parivrajaka also is meant. This passage of the ChSn. Up. is the basis of VedantasHtra
4. 18-20. The Mit. on Y5j. III. 55 quotes this passage of the ChSndogya and remarks that it is the parivrSjaka who is brabmasamstha that is referred to in the last part of the passage <rTT^*mtfhrnWFto
III.
Ch. VIII
of
Airamas
421
brahma and holds fast by it. That portion says that the consequence of the knowledge of brahma is immortality or but it does not say impliedly that the expressly stage of parivrajaka is a means of attaining the knowledge of brahma. So one may doubt whether samnyasa as an asrama is spoken of here, but there can be no doubt
that the other three are clearly indicated here. Probably in the time of the Chandogya there was no clear line of demarcation between the asramas of vanapraslha and samnyasa and they rather coalesced into each other.) Chan. Up. V. 10. 1 and Br1000 In the Br. Up. III. 5. 1 ill). VI. 2. 15 support this conclusion
.
brahmanas who on apprehending correctly the Supreme Spirit turn away from the dosires of progeny, wealth and of securing holy worlds and practise begging. Begging is a characteristic of samnyasa in the sutras. YajnavalFya in the Br. Up. IV. 5. 2. tells his wife Maitreyl that he was going into a life of pravrajya from being a householder.
there
is
a reference
to
MundakaTTpTOI
ledge of
brahma and Mundaka

1001
11 refers to begging for him who has know' III. 2. 6 mentions samnyasa '.
(4) it is said that Janaka asked Yajnavalkya to expound samnyasa and then the four asramas are distinctly set out after finishing the stage of student-hood, one
In the Jftbalopanisad
*
should become a householder after becoming a householder one should become a forest-dweller, after being a forest-dweller, or he may do otherwise viz. one should renounce the world
;
renounce the world after the stage of student-hood itself or after being an householder or from the forest. ( The very day on which he becomes desireless, he should renounce the world
he
may
become a samnyasin
1000.
) '.
1002 Probably this passage
was not
TO
r:
i
ur-
^r. V.
10. 1.
sfa* explains
f%^hr*n*JTf sftOTrpn**
.
J?*ITWT
msn^ ^fcr
*r s.
ill. 5.
1.
1001.
Vide
ift.
n. ^. II. 10. 2
and 18
Those sutraa probably have in view
the gnsrrafa. * or some other similar Upaniâd passage. ' 1002. 5faiT remarks on VedSntasutr* III. 4. 20
VI. 21.
Tbo meaning of 3*?*rwSn*r:
doubtful. î^CT^rpf explains
the ^}ft$r reads
423
Hts(o?y of Dharma&aatra
did
Ch. VJII
the
before the author of the Vedtntasutra or he Jabalopanisad as very authoritative ;

for the
not regard otherwise there
would hardly have been any need in the Vedantasufcra III. 4. 18-20 )
II. 23. 1.
to hold
Vedantasutrakara a discussion on
Chandogya
It is clear thet
least three (if not four)
in the times of the earliest Upanisads at a&ramas were known and that all
four were known by their specific names to the Jabalopanisad. Jn the Svetasvataropanisacl (VI. 21) wo have the word * atyasraraibhyah *. It is said there that the sage Svetasvatara,
who
to those
acquired knowledge of Brahma, proclaimed the knowledge who had risen above the mere observances of asramas.
scholar Eastern or Western places Panini later than He knew Bhiksu-sutras composed by Parasarya and
'
*
No
300 B. C.
us that the word maskarin 1004 means parivrajaka. As sutra works about 'bhiksus' were composed before Panini, this asrama of bhiksus must have been an established institution centuries before Panini.
Karmanda 1003 and he
tells
Buddhism took over

works say
j
this
mode
of life (pabbctjja as the Pali
from the brahmanical system.

p.
It
has been already stated at
8 that the goals of existence
werejeemed to be four, viz, dharrna, artha, kamaand rnoksa. The highest goal was mokqa. All ancient ~Ihdian philosophy (whether Vedanta, Sarhkhya or Nyaya) held that liberation from the never-ending cycle of births and deaths, and escape from the three kinds of duhkha were the highest good. The summum
bonitm
consisted in non-return ( anavrfctih ) to the world of The Chan. Up. 1005 VilL 15. 1 winds pleasures and sorrows. with the words 'and he does not return*. The Br. Up. up
VI.
Prasna Up. I. 10 and others say the same. This had fascinated all noble minds in whatever sphere of life they might have been working. The greatest poet and dramatist of classical Sanskrit ends his most famous drama ( the $akuntala ) with the prayer may self-existent God
2.
15,
supreme
goal
'
Siva destroy for
me
rebirth
006
This state of liberation or
release is variously called

1003.
moksa
or mukti, amrtatva, nihsreyasa,
IV.
3.
110-111.
1004.
HTOCTOKftoft
1005.
1006.
<*
sw*&
^mwnrepiTj nprfa m. 3". VIII. 15. I.

i
VI.
1.
154.
jrerrft <*
sm
tffcwftflm
nfa n?*iTOT%fTmi
sn*ra
VII.
Ch. VIII
JUramaa
i23
kaivalya ( by the SSrhkhyas ) or apavarga ( NySyasutra I. 1. 2 ). For attaining this state man must know and realize that thero Is only one Ke^Tify unJerljing all existence (and no plurality ) and become disgusted with the passions and temptations of the world i. e. he must have nirveda and ratragya ( as stated in the
Br. Up. III.
5. 1
or
Mundaka
I.
2.
12
).
Merely reading from
necessary for release and immediately giving up the world would not serve the purpose. (1'he man would be hankering, as the Bhagavadglta says, after
the
desirelessness is
books
that
pleasures' h~e has renounced. Therefore the ancient Indian writers devised according jtcT^their lights a scheme which is
embodied in the theory and practice of the asramas. In brahmacarya the individual goes through the discipline of the will and the emotions, makes himself acquainted with the literary treasure's of the past and learns obedience, respect, plain living " and high thinking. Then he marries, becomes a householder, tastes the pleasures of the world, enjoys life, has sons, dis-
and a becomes and industrious useful, neighbours worthy It is supposed that by the citizen, the founder of a family. time he is fifty years or so he has become convinced of the futility of human appetites and the pleasures of the world and is, therefore, called upon to resort to a forest life for pondering over the great problem of the life hereafter and to accustom himself to self-abnegation, austerities and a harmless life. This would lead on to the last stage, viz. sarimyasa. He may
charges
liis
duties to his children, to his friends, relatives
and
succeed
in
this
very
life
in realizing the
supreme goal of
is
moksa
or he
may have
to continue to rise in spiritual height
until after several births
and deaths the goal
in view.
of the
theory of varna dealt with

society and laid
responsibilities
man
as a
member
The Aryan
down what
his rights, functions, privileges,
and duties were as a member of that society. It was addressed to man in the mass/ The theory of asramas addressed itself to the individual. It tettB~Him what his spiritual goal is, how he is to order his life and what preparations are required to attain that goal. The theory of asramas was truly a sublime conception and if owing to the exigencies of the times, the conflicts of interests and distractions of life, the
scheme could not even in ancient times be carried out fully by every individual and seems to have failed in modern times, the fault does not lie with the originators of this conception. DeiiBsen was constrained to say ( in E. R. E. under asrarna )
*
how
far
the practice corresponded to this theory
given, in
424
other
Ch. VIII
law books, we do not know but we are free our opinion the whole history of mankind has not much that equals the grandeur of this thought and again iu 'The Philosophy of the Upanisads' (tr. by Geden, 1906 )
Manu and
to confess that in
'
the entire history of mankind does not produce that approaches in grandeur to this thought '.
p.
3G7
much
The three asramas of householder, forest hermit and samnyasa will be dealt with in detail hereafter. Only one question about asramas in general remains fco be discussed. With reference to the four asramas, there" are "three different points of
view(paksas) viz. samuccaya^( orderly co-ordination), vikalpa (option) and badJia( annulment" or contradiction). Those who hold the first view (samuccaya) say that a person can resort to the four asramas one after another in order and that he cannot
drop any one or more and pass on to the next nor can he resort
to the householder's life
after
becoming a samnyasin (vide

e.
Duksa
J.
8-9, Vedantasutra III. 4. 40)
g.
man
cannot take
after brahmacarya. Manu (IV. 1, VI. 1. 33-37,87-88) is the prime supporter of this view. The first
samnyasa immediately
part of the Jabalopanisad quoted above refers to this view. This view does not regard marriage and sexual life as impure or inferior to asceticism and on the contrary places it on a
higher plane than asceticism.
On
is
the whole the tendency of

to glorify the status of
most
of the
dharmasastra works
an
house-holder and push into the background the two asramas of vanapraatha and samnyasa, so much so that certain works say
that these are forbidden
in the Kali age,
that there is
finishes his study or immediately after the householder's way of life- This view is put forward by the Jabalopanisad as an alternative to the first view of samuccaya. This is the view also of Vasistha VII. 3, Laghu Visnu III. 1, and Yaj. III. 56. Ap. Dh. S._(II. 9. 21. 7-8 and II. 9. 22. 7-8) seems to favour this view. The third view 1007 of badha is held by the ancient dharmasutras oTQTautama one asrama is that and Baudhayana. They; hold there really
viz. that of
brahmacarya come a parlirujaka immediately after he
an option
after
i,
The second view is a aTman may be-
the householder
brahmacarya being only prepara-
tory to it ) and that the other asramas are inferior to that of the householder. Vide Gautama ( III. 1 and 35 ) where he first
1007.
ift.
ffpnwPtareqftiir
IHW
fo w**f
III. 1
and
35.
Ob. VIII
Mramas
425
that there
view about vikalpa (option) and emphatically says only one a&rama. Manu VI. 89-90, III. 77-80, Vas. Dh. S. VIII. 14-17, Daksa II. 57-60, Visnu Dh. S. 59. 29 and many others praise the asrama of householder as the highest. Baud. Dh. S. (II. 6. 29 ff) says the same as Gautama and it 1008 relies upon the fact that the asramas other than that of householder do not beget offspring and quotes Vedic passages
refers to the
is
attain immortality through progeny* I. 4. 46. 1) and 'a brahmana when born 10=Tai. S. 4. V. (Sg. is born involved in three debts, viz. he owes brahmacarya to the sages, sacrifice to the gods, and progeny to pitrs' (Tai. S. VI.
viz.
3.
'may we, O Agni,
According to Brahmasutra III. 4. 18 Jaimini held while Badarayana seems to have been of the opinion that all adramas are enjoined ( ibid. III. 4. 19-20 ). Those who hold this view ( badha ) rely on such Vedic passages m9 as one * should offer agnihotra us long as life lasts' or indeed Agnihotra is a satra ( sacrificial session ) that lasts till one dies by old age* (Sat. Br. XII. 4. 1. 1 ), 'one should desire to live a
10. 5).
this view,
'
hunar^d years performing religious acts ( Vaj. S. 40. 2 ), after bringing to the teacher wealth desired by him, do not cut off the thread of progeny (Tai. Up. I. 11.1). The Mib. on Yaj. III. 56 sets out these three views and says that each is supported by Vedic texts and one may follow any one of the three* Ap. Dh. 8, ( II. 9. 21. 2 ) held the view that whatever asrama out of * 9 four one followed, one attained happiness if ono performed its duties according to the sastra and after a lengthy discussion Ap. arrives at the conclusion that there is no dis]010 There tinction due to superiority among the four asratnas were some who thought that the householder's life was the rule and the other asramas were for the blind and other incapable persons. The Mifc. on Yaj. III. 56 refutes this view.
'
.
'
'
The word asrama is derived labour and etymologically means

oneself
'.
1011
'
from 'sram' to
exert, to
a stage in which one exerts
1008.
IT. 6. 29,
42-43.
i
1009.
<JH|
3remv *n* ^fsrtnn*

2.
$KTT*J XII. 4. 1. 1
1010.
&
*r% wndtei*Tnft *rrfjTPT; $m

'
rorft
arnr- u.
^. II.
9. 21.
and
...... sr
g frgÔT*TmqiPn^
sifl*T3C
'.
'
3JTT.
V. Hi.
9. 24. 14.
1011.
3Twr**rfScr
%ft 9TWT:
From
this sense
aroao the
meaning of
hermitage
H. D. 54
426
Ch. VIII
Commentators like Sarvajna-Nar&yana on Manu VI. 35 endeavour to bring about reconciliation between the three views set out above as follows the view that a man may pass on to samnyasa immediately after the period of student-hood ( without being a householder ) applies only to those men who
:
owing to the impressions and effects of restrained conduct in past lives, entirely free from desires and whose tongue, sexual appetites, belly and words are thoroughly under control the prescriptions of Manu enjoining on men not to resort to sarhnyftsa without paying off the three debts are concerned with men
are,
;
whose appetites have not yet thoroughly been brought under control and the words of Gautama that there is only one airama
(that of the house-holder) relate only to those whose appetites for worldly pleasures and pursuits are quite keen.
CHAPTER
MARRIAGE
This
is
IX
Throughout which lifcerary""tradrtT6ii Is a~vailable~in India marlage"Tias"been highly thought of. The several words that are employed to denote the idea of marriage indicate one or more of the elements of the samskara of marriage. Such words are udvalwi ( taking the girl out of her parental home ), vivaha
the ages for
the most important of all samskaras.
away in a special way or for a special purpose making her one's wife ), parinaya or parinayana ( going round i. e. making a pradaksina to fire ), upayaraa ( to bring near and make one's own ), and pinigrahana ( taking the
(
taking the girl

e.
i.
for
hand of the girl ). Though these words express only one component element of the rite of marriage they are all used in
the Sastras
1018
to indicate the totality of the several acts that
go to make up the ceremony of marriage. The word occurs in the Tai. S. VII. 2. 87 and Ait. Br. ( 27. 5
vivaha In the ).
'
'
1013 MahSbrahmana VII. 10. 1 it is said that "heaven Tandya and earth were once together but they became separate then
;
they said
us bring about a marriage, ration between us'."

let
'
let there
be a co-ope-
question,
Before dwelling upon the various aspects of marriage, the whether our authorities point to a state of society
when there was no institution of marriage, but there was only promiscuity, requires to be considered. The Vedic works contain no indications about a society in which the relations of
the sexes were promiscuous and unregulated. In the Maha10U however, Pandu is made to state to his queen Kuntl bharata, that women in former ages were under no control, indulged
themselves as they liked and that they

1012.
i
left off
one
man and
surra? p. 91.
1013.
T.
y^ $ fttau ^Tffcft *n
10. 1.
f^wrnjjrt nwnf fViQM*

(
TO i
).
VII,
1014.
Vide
arrf|in?
chap. 122
'
chap. 113 of or. ed,
Poona
1
Some
;
of the verses
31.
may be quoted
aimfcTT: ftft* S*T ftnr
3mn**tPT
7
.
ftfirfar: ^wkiii33rnjQiQfl
4 ...vnft$
^
i
***iW tg^qvnft m!m
37-38
'^f^ffcnwc ^titampR
flra ^Rfirlt m%\<( tffarmiffrm^ H
428
History of
harmaastra
Oh.
IX
went
(
after another, that this state of things continued to his

)
day in the country of Uttara Kuru, that it was of Uddalaka, who for the first time stopped all son Svetaketu, this license and laid down the rule that if a woman proved false to her husband or if a husband was false to a chaste wife, very grave sin would be incurred. In the Sabhaparva ( 31. 37-38 )
Pandu's
it is
said that through the favour of
Agni women
in
MahismatI
did what they liked and could not be restrained. These passages cannot be relied upon for proving promiscuity of intercourse.
In the
first
place, the country of Uttara
Kuru
is
more
or less
This passage rather gives expression to what the poet imagined about remotest ages and not what he knew was the real state of society thousands of years before him. The
mythical.
theory of an original state of promiscuity once advanced by several sociologists has now ceased to be respectable ( vide Mrs.
M. Cole
was
in
'
Marriage, past and present
'
p. 10.
of marriage, even according to the Rgveda, man, by becoming a householder, to perform The verse in Rg. sacrifices to the gods and to procreate sons. X. 85. 36 shows that the husband took a woman as a wife for
The purpose
to enable a
'
Rg. V. 3. 2,, V. 28. 3 speak of the co-operation husband and wife in the worship of gods. Rg. III. 53. 4 contains the emphatic assertion the wife herself is the home In later literature also the same statement ( jayed-astam ). occurs. A wife was called jaya ', because the husband was born in the wife as a son ( Ait. Br. 33. 1 ). The Sat. Br. V. 2. 1.
garhapatya
'.
of
'
'
10 says
the wife
1015
is
indeed half of one's self
therefore as
long as a man does not secure a wife so long he does not beget a son and so he is till then not complete ( or whole ) but when he secures a wife he gets progeny and then he becomes complete '. Tho Ait. Ar. ( I. 2. 4 ) says therefore a man, after securing a
;
'
wife, regards himself as more complete *. When Ap. Dh. S. II. 5. 11. 12 forbids taking a second wife if the first is endowed
with progeny and the performance of religious

1015.
rites, it
indicates
V.
2. 1. 10.
)!
Vide
I.
$r?r<m VIII. 7. 2. 3. also.
*rfi f^ wii wrft The words srcff *r TV
occur in
$. au.
ft. tf.
VI.
5.
1. 8. 5.
*r
cH?TT3(
2.
ijf
îWigjiugqn
3*5^
snf^curi 144. 66
&*rc*
40
by
3im^
p.
740.
Ch.
IX
Marriage-Purposes of
429
1016
that the
main purposes
of marriage are two,
viz.
the wife
enables a
man
to perform religious rites
and
is
the
son or sons who were supposed to save a man ( IX. 28 ) states that on the wife depend the procreation of sons, the performance of religious rites, service, highest
mother of a from hell.
Manu
pleasure, heaven for oneself and for one's ancestors. So these three viz, dharrnasampatti, praja ( and consequent freedom from
falling into hell
) and raft (sexual and other pleasures) are the principal purposes of marriage according to the snort is and nibandhas. Yaj. I. 78 is to the same effect. Jaimini (VI. 1. 17 ff)
establishes that
husband and wife have
to
perform
sacrifices
II. 6. 13. 16-17 together and not separately and Ap. Dh. S. emphatically says that there can be no separation between husband and wife, for since marriage they have to perform
1017
religious acts jointly.
Marriage is a composite rite comprising several subordinate elements which haveTo be done in a certain order and the last
which is seeing the constellation of the seven sages ; it 1018 brings about the status of a woman as a person's wife.
of
:
rite
The first consideration is how to choose a bridegroom and what qualifications make a person a very desirable bridegroom. Asv. gr. (I. 5. 2 ) says one should give a maiden 1019 ( in The Ap. gr. marriage ) to a man endowed with intelligence " the accomplishments of a bridegroom are (3. 20 ) remarks that he must be endowed with good family, a good character, auspicious characteristics, learning and good health ". Baud. Dh. S. IV. 1. 12 states a maiden should be given in marriage to one who is endowed with good qualities and who is a celibate Even the Sakuntala ( IV ) echoes the words of ( till then )
*
'.
'.
1016.
T.
I.
wsremfai f n irnrt l?$fa 78 quotes this and remarks
^re.
tr. II.
5. 11.
12
the
1017.
II. 6. 13.
16-17.
97:
1018.
5^tfr fnsfr srm V*d: <nfaur?<jra$nir:

'
fop
on irg
III.
20
*:
1019.
t.
sftruft SFTri si^d^ an?. 1- I. 5- 2 ; 9. IV. 1, 20 ; sFg?fTcJcy^r*w: ^?r?R^*r

I I
I. 3.
20
150^ ^s^^T jrf^TT^^nnr cfl^WH: te&fi

in
?& am<{ H^cy IV
<
said
by
^^.
l.
p.
78.
430
'
Oh.
IX
Baudhayana the best idea is to give one's daughter to a man endowed with good qualities'. Yama quoted in the Sin. 0. (I. p. 78)
says one should seek for seven qualities in a bridegroom viz. good family, good character, bodily appearance, fame, learning! wealth and support ( of relatives and friends ); the other matters
'
need not be considered Brhat-paraSara enumerates eight qualities in a bridegroom

'.
p.
118 Jiv. ed.
viz. caste, learning,
tions
youth, strength, health, support of many ( friends &c. ), ambi( arthitva ), and possession of wealth. Asv.gr. (I. 5. 1) and others place kula ( a good family ) in the forefront in the case
of both the bride
examine the family

as
it
One should first intended bride or bridegroom ) has been said above (in the Asv. Srauta sutra IX. 3 ).'
(
and the bridegroom.

of the
108
The Asv. Srauta reads those who on
their mother's as well as
their father's side through ten generations are endowed with learning, austerity and meritorious works or whose pure
brahmana lineage can be traced on both sides ( for ten generations) or according to some on the father's side.' Manu regarded
of view.
a good family as the most important from the eugenic point ' In IV. 244 he says one who desires to raise his family to excellence and eminence should always enter into
low
marriage alliances with the best and avoid alliance with the '; and adds (III. 6-7) that ten kinds of families even though richly endowed with catfcle, wealth &c. should be avoided in
marriage viz. in which the samskaras are not performed, in which there is no male progeny, which are devoid of Veda (study), which have hairy members, that suffer from piles or consumption or indigestion or epilepsy, white or black leprosy. Manu ( III. 63-65 ) explains under what circumstances good families are reduced to a bad state. Harlta states that the offspring is in accordance with the (qualities of the) family of the parents. The Harsacarita ( IV ) gives expression to the view that generally the wise look to good family first even though there may be
other qualities in the bridegroom.
man
to
marry a
is
girl
Manu II. 238, however, allows even from an inferior or bad family
provided she
1020.
a jewel
among women.
3. is
*T wmr<"? i*nfrg:
laid
f*|cr*%
down
for those
who were
Rsjasaya,
^yrg^TT:
to partake of the srem SWffcr t STfar quoted in
Theae qualifications were oamasa offering in
tf^TTH^TO
p.
689;
Oh.
IX
Marriage and good family
431
Yftj. ( I. 54-55 ) emphasizes the importance of a good family famed for ten generations and freedom from diseases that are hereditarily transmitted and adds that the bridegroom must be young, intelligent, a favourite among the
people
Y&j.
his virility must be carefully tested. The Mit. on 55 quotes Narada ( strlpumsa ) who mentions some characteristics of the virile man and enumerates fourteen
1.
and
varieties of impotent persons
verses 11-13
),
Katyayana
loai
the
mentions what defective bridegrooms are to be avoided viz. lunatic, one guilty of grave sins, leprous, impotent, one of the same gofra, one bereft of eyesight or hearing, an epileptic and adds that these defects are to be avoided even
among
brides.
The Mahabharata
observes 'friendship and
marriage should take place between those alone whose wealth is similar and whose learning (i, e. the learning in whose families)
is of equal status, not between opulent (well-off) and the poverty-stricken*. 1028
Though Manu and Yaj. indicate that impotent persons are not eligible for marriage, yet such persons rarely married. Their marriages were held valid by Manu, Yaj. "and others and their sons ( by niyoga ) took property as if they were aurasa sons. Vide Manu IX. 203 and Yaj. II. 141-142.
The Samskaraprakasa ( pp. 752-754 ) contains a long discussion on the question how from bodily characteristics one can find whether a man will live long or what his prospects would
be.
These are passed over for want of space.
Rules for the selection of the bride are far more elaborate
than those for selecting a bridegroom, though in some respects they are the same ( such as about the necessity of good family,
about the absence of diseases &c.

S. 24. 11,
).
Vide Vas
I.
38,
(
Visnu Dh.
I. 2. 5.
Kamasutra
III. 1. 2.
108S
Even
the Sat. Br.
16
1021.
f far:
rc*irr:
*w W ^^ntm*"*
f^f compare
gftiScn:
^Nr
i
I. p.
59
the text of
by Jolly,
1022.
*rifar
;
fts*nftT v. 37 ) is gr?im:
q*ftfa
*m
ff^c
areiSbft
f%m?f T a
sBfoss*ft:
131. 10
1023.
flreinw^nfl
troTftvr
Hi.
l. 2.
432
Oh.
IX
gives expression to the fchen view thafc broad hips and slender ' waists make women attractive. Asv. gr. I. 5. 3 says l084 one
should marry a girl who is endowed with intelligence, beauty, a good character and auspicious characteristics and who is healthy'. San. gr. I. 5. 6 and Manu III. 4 and Yaj. I. 52 also require that the girl should be possessed of auspicious characteristics
(
bahya
visible
or indications). These (laksanas) are of two kinds, or bodily characteristics ) and abhyantara
(invisible).
Ap.gr.
his
loas
(
III. 21
states
a cormnonsense
rule:
'a girl on
whom
(
mind and eyes are
happiness
things; this
or prosperity ), is the view of some*.

*
riveted will bring him he should pay no heed to other
The Kamasutra quotes the
view of Ghotakamukha
he should proceed to marry a girl on taking whom as his wife he would regard himself as blessed and would not be blamed by his friends ( or persons in a similar
station in life
Manu III. 8 and 10, Visnu Dh. S. 24. 12-16 say that one should not marry a girl having tawny hair or having an excessive limb ( such as a sixth finger ) or a deficient limb, who is hairless or very hairy, who is talkative and has yellowish eyes but should marry a girl who has limbs void of any defect, whose gait is like thafc of a swan or an elephant, the hair on whose head or body is of slight growth and whose
'
m6
teeth are small,

(
whose body
is
delicate.
The Visnu~pur5na
adds that the girl must not have a marked growth of hair on her chin or lip, her voice must not be hoarse or like that of a crow her legs and ankles must not be very hairy, there should be no dimples on her cheeks when she
III. 10.
18-22
III. 9
laughs, she should not be very dwarfish or very tall &c. Manu and Ap. gr. ( III. 13 ) say that the girl to be married must
not bear
names
of the
&c.
),
trees or rivers, she
lunar mansions ( such as RevatI, Ardra must not bear a mleccha name or that
an 8?. ^. 1-5. 3
SIR.
1024.
......
sRi^M^ddflureTOmJrewr^^
i
3*nFra am. ^. HI. 20. 1025. *reqf >r^>^^<^sp^âFrr^f^^T^rFJr^^

is
IT.
III. 21.
This
quoted by tbe
i^?Tf
on
TTT?T I. 52.
The Ka*masutra
I.
I
III. 1 .14 has
the same rule in the same words.

to the
tit
The
VTTCjfT^niSJ
*T**rt
11 quotes a verse
sffrrenfr
i
same
effect j^rer
ftr$rorr
^rftt%
Hsfagrofr *>S**
RwmjqwtWfai f% SJfffo ^n^rf^H This makes attractiveness more important in a woman even than knowledge. In the MslatlmSdhava (Act. II)
KSmandakT
1026.
i
ascribes the words
*r**rt
*TW
to Angiras
sjdXd<T5j<ll> ft
qnvrqr HI.
1. 3.
Oh.
IX
Marriage-choosing a bride
433
of a mountain, of a bird, of a snake or of a slave or a

is terrific.
name
that
Ap. gr. ( III. 14 ) and Kamasutra III. 1. 13 mention that a girl should nofc be chosen, the penultimate letter of whose name is r or 1 ( such as Gaurl, Sail, Kamalu). Narada law ( strl-
pumsayoga 36) says
that defects of girls are as follows: when they suffer from long-standing or disgusting diseases, when they are devoid of a limb or have already had connection with another man, when they are wicked or have their minds fixed on another ; and Ap, gr. ( III. 11-12 ) states other defects of girls
viz.
left the
one should not choose a girl who is asleep or weeps or has house when persons come to see whether she can be
chosen.
Vide MSrkandeya-purana
'
34.
76-77 for gunas and

1028
defects of girls as
brides
'.
Bhar. gr. 1. 11 says that there are four inducing reasons for marrying a particular girl viz. wealth, beauty, intelligence and family. If all four cannot be secured, wealth may be neglected
(as the least important of all
)
;
then beauty
may
be neglected
if
intelligence and good family, but there is a difference of view as to the latter two, some preferring intelligence to family and others family to intelligence. Manava gr. ( I. 7. 6-7 ) adds a
there
is
fifth inducement for marriage, viz. vidya beauty and before prajna. Vide also Varaha
(learning) after
gr. 10.
Some
of selecting a bride.
of the grhyasutras propose a peculiar mystical method The A&v. gr. ( I. 5. 3 ) after stating that
select
one should
(
a girl endowed with good characteristics

'
'
proceeds laksanas are very difficult to discern and therefore prescribes ( I. 5. 5-6 ) that eight lumps of different kinds of earth should be taken respectively from a field that
)
laksanas
from a vedl ( sacrifiperformed ), from a pool of water that does not dry up, from a gambling place, from a place where four roads meet, from a barren spot, and from a burial ground then he should recite over the lumps the formula r ta truth is founded ( right ) has been born first in the beginning in rta ( or fixed ) may this girl attain here that for which she is born may what is true be visible then he says to the girl
cial altar, after sacrifice is
' ;
;
yields two crops a year, from a cow-stable,
'
1027.
fiiro
1028.
I.
H. D. 55
434
'
History of DJiarmatastra
Ch.
IX
fcake one of these '. According as she chooses the lump, it may respectively be deemed that she will have offspring rich in food ( if she chooses the lump of the earth taken from the field of
two crops a year &c.

lustre
),
or rich in cattle, or rich in spiritual
everything, or addicted to gambling, or wandering in different directions or poor, or that she will bring death to her husband ( if she takes the lump of the earth from the burial ground ). The Gobhila gr. II. 1. 4-9 speaks of these
or
rich
in
lumps and adds that a ninth lump may be formed by mixing up the earths of all eight varieties and that if she takes up any one of the four lumps of earth from an altar, furrow, a pool or a cow-stable or ( according to some ) the ninth lump, she may be selected. ThQ Laugaksi gr. 14. 4-7 contains the same rules as in Gobhila. Ap. gr. 1029 (HI. 15-18) prescribes a somewhat different
method. If both sides agree, the bridegroom (or his friends) should place in one lump of earth several kinds of seeds (such as rice,barley &c.); he should take (a lump having in it) che dust from an altar, a
third having a clod from a ploughed field, a lump having cowdung inside and (a fifth having) a clod of earth from a cemetery and keepIf she touches
ing them before the girl ask her to touch one of them ( the five ). any one of the firnt four, that is an indication of
future prosperity ( of the nature of the object touched ), but the last ( viz. clod of eaith from cemetery ) is objectionable. The Varaha gr. 10 and Bhar. gr. 1. 11 speak of only four lumps of earth viz. from a field, from an altar, from a cow-stable,
and from a cemetery and say that one should not marry a girl takes up the lump of cemetery earth. Manava gr. ( I. 7. 9-10 ) speaks of eight lumps but substitutes a lump of earth where durva grows and a lump from under a tree filled with fruit for earth from a pool of water and one from a gambling place and adds that the eight lumps should bo placed in a temple and if the girl takes up the lump from a cemetery or from a barren spot or from where four roads meet she should
who
not be married. Many digests like the Gr. R, ( pp. 13-22) contain long quotations which dilate upon the indications about the" auspiciousness or otherwise of girls from their several physical features;
Gaut. IV.
1,
Vas.
8. 1,
Manava
gr. I. 7. 8,
Yaj.
(
I.
52 and
)
several others say that the girl

1029.
must be younger
yavlyasl
3.
15-18.
Ch.
IX
435
than the bridegroom and the KSmasutra ( III. 1. 2 ) recommends that she must bo younger than the bridegroom by at least three as meaning years. The Mit. on Yaj. I. 52 explains yavlyasl
' '
'
younger
What
in age and smaller in stature ( than the bridegroom ). the age of marriage was will be discussed a little below.
10SO
'
Vas. 8. 1, Yaj. I. 52, Manu ( III. 4 and 12 ) and others say that one should marry only a girl who is a virgin and of the same caste. How far widow-marriages and intercaste marriages were allowed would be discussed later on. The Manava.gr. 1. 7. 8, Manu III 11 and Yaj. 1, 53 require that the girl to be chosen must not be brotherless. This requirement which has been not in force for centuries has a long history behind it. In Rg. I. 124. 7 it is said 10?1 as a brotherless maiden comes back towards her male relations (her father's family). ..so the dawn reveals objects ( or her beauty ).' In the Atharvaveda I. 17. 1 we read like brotherless women let them sit still with their splendour gone Both these passages are quoted and
Gaut. IV.
1,
'
'.
explained in the Nirukta III. 4-5. In ancient times when a man had no son, he could make his daughter do for a son ( i. e. she herself became putrika ) and stipulate with the person
marrying her that the son born girl's father's ) son and would
of
her would be his
( i.
e.
the
maternal grandfather. such a girl would not offer pindas to his father and would not continue the line of his father. Rg. III. 31. 1 (a very obscure and difficult verse ) has been explained by the Nirukta ( III. 4 ) as referring to the practice of declaring a daughter to bo one's son l028 Therefore, brotherless maidens were not chosan as
.
pindas as a son to his The result would be that the son of

offer
brides and the Rg. speaks
of
).
spinsters
growing old in
S. 17.
their
parental
1030.
home
3J3W
......
Rg.
*T
i\\
II. 17. 7
Vas. Dh.
16 refers
ft.
1033
to
WU
s
I
f^^cTT^^T^T
Wtow*
i
IV.
1.
mcRta^f
1031.
arc^r^ra^^rwT
lHft WW*.
Hfsff vrrn i^%*r
?\ws VIII.
p.
arorcta 5*r <jii
3?. I. 124. 7.
The tf^fR^reT
also.
(
747 quotes
this Vcclic verse, YSska's
Nirukta thereon and Vas.
3wl
17. 1.
The
f^W
III. 4
reads
and explains
1032.
1033.
H$Tn%
<ftaj
?TSf
*faf*THFfrf<Jt
ft:
5^HT^
sutia
f%Trf? III. 4.
UTOT
17.
15-17.
The
T%n&
is
an echo of the
'explanation of the Nirukta III. 5 and the verse quoted also occurs in the
436
1.
Ch.
IX
Rg.
124. 7
and quotes a verse about a brotherless
girl.
Such
a daughter at whose marriage the father made the stipulation stated above was called putrika and according to Gaut. 28. 17
teachers went BO far as to say that a daughter became a putrika by the mental resolve of the father alone ( without there being an express agreement with the bridegroom ). It is therefore that Manu ( 3. 11 ) ordains that one should not marry a girl that has no brother, as there is the danger of her being a
some
10S *
The Nirukfca ( III. 5 ) quotes another 1035 Vedic passage 'one should not marry a brotherless woman, for she becomes the son of him (her father)' and remarks that in this passage
putrika.
there is a direct prohibition against marrying a brotherless maiden (while in the passage of the Atharvaveda it is indirect,
being involved in a simile) and it is also expressly said that sbe becomes the son of her father. In medieval times this prohibition against marrying a brotherless girl gradually was ignored and in modern times the pendulum has swung the other way,
a brotherless girl being a coveted prize if her father be rich. In course of time popular feeling changed and no girl could remain unmarried if she ^wanted heavenly worlds. There is an
Kunigarga who, when
interesting story in the Salyaparva chap. 52 of the daughter of told by Narada that an unmarried
woman
could not secure heaven, married for one day Sriigavat

to heaven.
and then went
There are further restrictions about choosing a girl for The rule was that a man should marry a girl of the same caste. 80 far there is what is called endogamy ( i. e, rule
marriage.
requiring marriage within a certain large community ). But within this large community there were certain groups which
were prohibited for marriage to a person belonging to another group of the same caste or community ( i. e. the principle of exogamy* operated within the large community itself). The Hir. gr. 1. 19. 2, Oobhila gr. III. 4. 4, Ap. Dh. S. II. 5. 11. 15 require that the bride to be chosen must not belong to the same gotra as that of the bridegroom. They are all silent about the sameness of pravara. Gaut IV. 2., Vas. Db. S. VIII. 1, MSnava
1034.
3ifwfam^T<3^^%îift.
cifcft
I
28. 17.
1035. qrraniis'nreiim
$m sr^mS %
III- 5. Prof. Rajrade in his translation of the fip^r gsmi*; f^T?K ISirukta in Marathi regards this passage (Nir. III. 5) aa interpolated, but his reasons are quite unconvincing, foa^r on ?n. I. 63 quotes
T
as a text of the Bhailavina.
Ch.
IX
9,
43t
gr. I. 7. 8,
girl
Var&ha gr. whose pravara (
Sankha 10" Dh.

)
S. forbid
marriage with
of the
or arseya
is
the
same as that
bridegroom ; bufc they say nothing about the prohibition against the sameness of gotra, It is somewhat remarkable that some of the grhyasutras like Asv. and Par. say not a word about sameness of gotra and pravara. Visnu Dh. S. 24. 9, Vaik. Ill, 2,
L 53, Nfirada ( strlpumsa, verse 7 Vedavyasa II. 2 and many others prohibit sameness of gotra as well as of pravarn. Gobhila gr. III. 4. 5, Manu III. 5, Vaik, III. 2 and Ap. Db. S.
Yaj.
),
II. 5. 11. 16 require that the bride must not bo a sapinda or blood relation of the mother of the bridegroom while Grant;
Visnu Dh. S. 24. 10, Varaha gr. 9, Sankha Dh. ( quoted above ), Yaj, I. 53 and others restrict the prohibition against marrying a sapinda girl to seven degrees on the father's side and five degrees on the mother's side. There were others like the Vedavyasa-smrti which not only prohibited marriage with a girl who had the same gofcra as the bridegroom's, but prohibited marriage with a girl whose mother's
IV.
2,
Vas. VIII.
2,
gotra
was
the
same as the bridegroom's.
or sapirida
All these prohibitions against marrying a sagotra, sapravara girl are extremely important, as the following considerations will show. It is a canon of the Purvaralmamsa that if there is a seen ( drsâ ) or easily perceptible reason for
a rule stated in the sacred texts, it is only recommendatory and a breach of such a rule does not nullify the principal act. But if there is an unseen ( adrsta ) reason for a rule and there is a breach of such rule, the principal act itself is rendered
invalid and nugatory thereby. The rule about not marrying woman who is diseased or who has superfluous or deficient
limbs has a seen reason
viz.
marriage with such a

)
unhappiness
if
she
is
diseased
if
or
comment
is
if
girl causes she has defi-
cient limbs).
Therefore,
for
a person marries such a girl the
marriage
is perfectly valid.
perceptible sagotra or sapravara girl. the matter and are obligatory and, if there is a breach of them, the marriage is no marriage, it is null and void. So even if
reason
the
no seen or easily prohibition against marrying a Therefore, such rules go to the root of
But there
a person goes through a ceremony of marriage with a girl

1036.
fcx^cT
who
on a*W.
T.
^.
II- 5.
11-16 quotes
;
.
The words5reya, Ursa and

silent about the
pravara
mean
the
same thing.
Manu
is
prohibition
against marrying a sapravara
girl.
438
Ch.
IX
is a sagofcra or sapravara or sapinda ( within prohibited degrees ) she does not in law become his wife at all. These principles
by Medhafcithi on Manu III. 11, Madanaparijata and other works. Therefore, these questions of sagofcra, sapravara and sapinda will be dealt with at some length later on.
are very lucidly set
1027
forth
by the Mit. on Yaj.
I.
53, the
marriage for men and women will a very interesting and instructive study. The age of marriage for both sexes has varied considerably from age to age, from province to province and also from
The question
of the age of
now
be considered.
This
is
same time. 1028 As regards men there no special rule as to the nge before which a man was obliged to marry. A man could remain celibate all his life, while at least in medieval and modern times marriage has been absolutely necessary for every girl. A man was to marry after he bad finished his Vedic studies; but the period of Vedic study
caste to caste even at the
is
was fluctuating ( i. e. it could be 12, 24, 36, 48 years or as much time as was necessary to master one Veda or a portion of it ). Usually twelve years were devoted to brahmacarya in ancient times and as upanayana ordinarily took place in the 8th year
(for
brahm anas) a man would ordinarily be 20 years old or more at the time of marriage. It is therefore that Manu ( IX. 94) remarks that a man of thirty may marry a girl of twelve years or a man of 24 who is in a hurry to become a householder may marry a girl of eight. Basing on this the VisnuIOS9 (III, 10. 16) says that the ages of the bride and purana
bridegroom should be in the ratio of 1 to 3. Angiras says that the bride should be two, three, five or more years younger. In
1037.
sn^sm^r
*r=r
III.
3 vrncw
.
TKT^ gsf^tsr
qr^r
f^TT
on
vido also ST^TlK^TTcT pp. 140-141, wf^terTni* p. 28^Compare what St. Paul says *the things that arc seen aro temporary, but the 2nd Epistle to the Corinthians things that are not scon aro eternal
I.
53
'
chap. IV. 18.

1038. In Z. D. M. G. vol. 46 pp. 413-426 (Dr. Jolly ) and vol. 47 pp. 143-154 ( Dr. R. G. Bhandarkar's reply ) there is an interesting discussion about the marriageable ago of girls in ancient India.
1039.
sSftôrt *TTTT3fffN f^ST: *^H*
fa^STIT
III. 10. 16
quoted in
^ft^n^
(q*rfa*niT& p. 125).
Ch.
the
IX ]
Age of Marriage for
girls
439
Mahabharata 104 Gautama is prepared to give his daughter Uttanka if he could be a youth of 16 years. In another place the Mahabharata ( Sabha 64. 14 and Vanaparva 5. 15) uses the simile of a maiden not liking a husband of 60 yeais. That shows that girls were sometimes married to even old mon of 60 in those days as rarely in modern times also. In the Mahabharata ( Anusasana 44. 14) the respective ages of the bridegroom and bride are recommended as 30 and 10 or 21 and 7; while the Udvahatattva (p. 123) and S. Pr. p. 766 quote a verso from tho Mahabharata that a man of 30 should marry a girl of 16 (but from the metre and context; it appears that
in marriage to
4
sodasa-varsarn
'
as printed should be
'
daâ-varsarn
)'.
In the Rgveda there are no clear statements about the exact But there are indications that girls were married. many girls were married at a sufficiently mature age (at least they
age when
wero not married at the tender age of eight ). We have already seen (p. 435 ) that brotherless girls often remained unmarried till 1041 of the ASvins is that old age. One of the benevolent deeds
they bestowed a husband on Ghosa who was growing old in her Vide also Rg. I. i24. 7, II. 17. 7, and Atharvafather's house. veda 1. 17. 1. In Rg. X. 27. 12 it is said when a bride is fine
'
looking and well adorned, she by herself seeks her friend from
among men
(
'.
That shows that
girls
were grown-up enough to
select their husbands.
such QS Rg. X.
of the verses in the marriage hymn ma that married 85. 26-27, 46 ) indicate girls
Some
could not have been child-wives, but must have been grown-up. On the other hand in Rg. 1. 116. 1 it is said that the Nasatyes ( A&vins ) bestowed a wife on Vimada who was an arbhaga ( of
tender age
But all that is meant seems to be that Vimada was a mere boy as compared with his rival kings who had come as suitors. The two verses Rg. I. 126. 6-7 ( which are
).
1048
rather too naive
had attained puberty.

'
*
indicate that girls were married before they In 5g. I. 51. 13 Indra is said to have
given to old Kukslvat a wife named VrcayS who is styled arbha ( young ). But that word is only used in contradistincraahate tion to the word ( grown old ) applied to Kakslvat
'
1040.
3^T vte9!TOf ft T^RT

rerew 56. 22-23.
1041.
*ftai^ f%iTqr^srt
J*fa
<rn?
^WIT 3Tf5rTT^^
n sj?. 1.
117. 7.
1042,
1043.
*ntofrrr ftmjre sn^rt
&TT^T
^^^
3?. 1. 116. i.
440
Oh.
IX
On the whole one conclude that in the period of the Rgveda girls were probably married at any age ( either before puberty or after puberty ) and sometimes remained spinsters all their life. The other Sarhhitas and the Brahmanas do not shed much light on
and conveys no idea of her exact age. 1044
may
the question of the age of marriage for girls. In the Chan. Up. Usasti Cakrayana is described as dwelling in the Kuru country ' with his wife, who is said to have been aîkl which Samkara
'
'
explains as
a mere undeveloped girl

to the ancient
045
Coming
grhya and dharma sutras,
it
will be
considerations that girls were married just before the time of puberfcy or immediately after it. Among
seen from several
sutras lay
1. 19. 2,
the several requirements of the bride to be chosen several grhya down that she must be a 'nagnika'. Vide Hir. gr.
Gobhila
gr. III. 4. 6,
is
Manava
gr. I. 7. 8,
Vaik. VI. 12. 1046

'
The word nagnika
variously explained by
'
the commentators.
Matrdatta on Hir. gr. explains that nagnika means one whose menstrual period is near who is fit for intercourse. i, e. one Asâvakra, the commentator of the Manava gr., explains nagnika as one who has not yet experienced the impulses and emotions of youth* or 'one who looks pretty even without clothes ( taking the word along with srestham that follows ). The Grhyasarhgraha 1047 ( which is much later than the Gobhila gr, ) explains nagnika as one who has not yet reached puberty. These varying explanations of the word nagnika are due to the fact that when some srnrfcis and commentators wrote child marriages were not in vogue, while they were in vogue when and where others flourished. Vas. Dh. S. 17. 70 says 'the father
'
f
'
'
'
'
1044. 1045.
ST^T 3?tf? *nir *r<^T% srsfRrr f ^rfo^r

JTH^V^g i^sr<KnT2*nn
I.
w 3inpnr
'
3^
3?. 1. 51. 13.
fn<p?tor
>.
10.
i.
sfare
explains
1046.
fli^rmssTTciV
1.
*r*fere^;
wsnart
1.
I. 7. 8.
19- 2
'
Dr. Bhandarkar shows that in many Mss. of the Hir. gr. and aa handed down by oral tradition among the vaidihas of the Hir. dakha" the reading is H5TT<TRI?>5>t ( i. e. the girl should bo of the same caste and not
a nagnik3).
1047.
Vide
ZDMG
vol. 47. pp. 143-46.
?rftnEt
a
by com. on iftfH^ST
III. 4. 6.
<USJ
((*{$ quoted
Ch.
IX
Age
of Marriage for girls
441
should give away his daughter while she is still nagnika through fear of her attaining puberty ( while unmarried ).' This shows that according to Vas. nagnika must have been a girl of tender years or one that had not attained puberty.
There is another very important indication. Most of the grhyasutras prescribe that the married couple should be celibate for at least three nights after marriage ( if not for a longer period ). For example, the Par. gr. ( I. 8 ) says 1018 the married pair should (after marriage) not partake of ksara and lavana for
'
the
three nights, should sleep on the ground ( and not on a cot, for same period ) and should not have intercourse for a year, twelve nights, six Vide three nights in the last resort \ jiights, for a similar rule Asv. gr. I. 8. 10, Ap. gr. 8. 8-9, San. gr.
I.
gr. I. 14. 14, Kathaka gr. 30. 1, Khadira gr. Such an injunction against intercourse for three nights after marriage would have been uncalled for and extremely inappropriate if girls had been usually married when they were only eight to ten years old. Such injunctions by so many authors presuppose that gir]s must have generally
17.
5,
Manava
others.
I. 4.
and
been very near puberty or past puberty at the time of marriage. Haradatta who belongs to about the 12th century A. D. expressly
says
1049
that
in his days
in certain countries intercourse
was
commenced immediately
after
being opposed to Asv. gr. I. continence should be observed at least for three days after marriage ). This shows that so late as 1200 A. D. in several
countries the marriageable age of girls must have been at
least about 14.
marriage and that such a usage 8. 10 should not be followed ( but
In most of the grhyasulras there is a rite called caturthlkarma ( rite on 4th day after marriage ). Vide Gobhila II. 5, San. gr. I, 18-19, Khadira gr. I. 4. 12-16, Par. gr. I. 11, Ap. gr 8. 10-11, Kir. gr. I. 23-24 &c. This rite has been described above (pp. 203-204) and corresponds to the garbhadhana of later writers As cohabitation is expressly mentioned in ( e. g. Yaj. I. 11 ). connection with this rite performed on the fourth day after
'
'
1048.
Br*nrJT$nTTârTf?rsft
f^TrwH^cTcr:
i
**mrrw:
1. 8.
sr^ftemi
qnrc^nw
^J. I.
1049.
%5r%iti5
I
*T?T:
snrresrf
J
on which nm*jur a lso saya
*
ST?xT on 3TT*.
7. 2,
ft
cr;
i
'.
H. D. 56
442
History of Dliarmataslra
it
Oh.
IX
marriage
follows that girls must have generally been quite
grown-up
at the time of marriage.
In some of the grhyasufcras and smrfcis a slight prayascitta purificatory ceremony ) is prescribed if the bride has menstruation during the progress of the marriage ceremonies. Vide
Baud.
(
gr.
IV.
1. 10,
Kausika sutra
11
).
79.
16,
Vaik. VI. 13, Atri
ed.
by
Jiv. part
1050
I. p.
before she
'a girl should be given in marriage age of puberty. He who neglects it Some declare that she should be given commits sin. in marriage before she begins to wear clothes. A marria-
Gaut.
(18.
20-23) says
attains the
geable girl ( who is not given in marriage by her father &c. ) should allow three monthly periods to pass and afterwards unite herself to a blameless man of her own will and
ornaments received from her father ( or her This passage establishes that even before Gautama 500 or 600 B. C. ) there were people who advocated ( i. e. marriages of infant girls that did not care to put on clothes of shame if they went about without ( i. e. who had no sense
give
up
)
the
family
'.
clothes
),
that
Gautama disapproved
of this view, that he only
prescribed that the marriage of girls should take place before puberty and he was not horrified if girls got themselves married sometime after puberty. But it is clear that no blame
attached to the girl married after puberty or to the husband the idea, however, had arisen even then that the father or guardian incurred blame or sin by not getting a girl married
before
*
Manu ( IX. 89-90 ) goes so far as to say rather stay in her father's house even till her death, though she may have attained puberty ; but the father should never give her to one who is devoid of good qualities.
puberty.
A maiden may
wait for three years ( to see if she is given away by her father or brother &c. ) but after this period she should seek a husband who is similar to her.' Anusasanaparva 44. 16 is to the same effect. Baud. Dh. S.
maiden
after attaining puberty
may
IV.
1.
Manu
14 and Vas. V. Dh. S. 17. 67-68 give the same rule as in IX. 90. But both add ( Vas. 17. 70-71 and Baud. Dh. S.
IV.1.12)that the father or guardian incurs the sin of destroying an embryo at each appearance of menses as long as the girl is
1050.
i
ift.
18. 20-23,
Oh.
IX
Early Marriage for

Yaj.
I.
girls
443
unmarried.
state the
64 and Narada
sfcrlpurhsa, verses
25-27
same
rule.
account of this change in popular beliefs and senticame to be recommended that a girl must be married losl who is devoid of early and may be given even to one of in Mann IX 89 Vide Baud. Dh. S. spifce qualities ( ),
On
ments
it
IV.
1.
12 and 15.
So we see that from about 600 B. 0. to about the beginning Era it did not matter at all if a girl was married a few months or few years after puberty. But by about 200 A. D. ( when the Yaj. smrti was composed ) popular feeling had become insistent on pre-puberty marriages. The reasons for this change are not quite clear. But it is possible to hold that ifc was due to the following circumstances. Buddhism had spread far and wide during these centuries with its encouragement of the institution of monks and nuns. There was laxity of morals among nuns. A further reason may be adduced viz. that girls had generally ceased to study any thing, though some of them certainly did study in the times of Panini and Patanjali, and so society did not like girls to remain doing nothing. From the
of the Christian
times of the Bgveda (X. 85. 40-41

that Soma,
there was a mystical belief ) Gandharva and Agni were the divine guardians of a girl and the Grhyasamgraha ( quoted in the com. on Gobhila gr. III. 4. 6 ) says that Soma enjoys a girl first, then Gandharva enjoys her when her breasts develop and fire when she mentruates. Therefore, a feeling arose that a girl must be married even before she develops any distinct signs of femininity. Ssmvarta los2 ( verses 64 and 67 ) gives expression to this idea. Further, since marriage came to be looked upon as the upanay ana
women, naturally the age Tor upanayana (8th year) upon as the proper age for marriage. Vide Samskarakaustubha quoted below. It came to ba believed that there was no hope of heaven for a woman who died unmarried.
in the case of
came
to be looked
1051.
3*ng oTcft
for3RT&
CR*TT^[
effort *rraref
^sr^rR^N
ft^ t
aifr *r
aifwsrm^ af>r sjorfnmft

1052.
':
i
r.
s, IV.
i
1.
12 and 15.
3 *HTT&
tffeft
g^foi
q**TO>rec
i
T^ft
ffr 3 i*^?: S>Wr fjr

79 and Gr. B. p. 46.
*fa
BfannfesiTrt î*^3rftfr *?*fa[ versea 64 and 67, quoted by Sin. C.

1
I. p.
699
R^nrl
^mwf
in
'rifarnri?
rfaTOf:
^cfR:
TR quoted
^ftg. (^Jrf^mr^)
p. 136.
*4
Ch.
IX
108 * In the Salyaparva chap. 52 we have the story of a girl, of Kuni Garga, who practised severe penance till she daughter reached old age and yet was told by Narada that if she died unmarried she would not go to heaven. The woman induced Srngavat of the Galava family for a day previous to her death to marry her by the promise of giving him half of her merit (punya). The Vaik. 1054 ( V. 9 ), while describing the ceremony of funeral
in cases of distress, mentions the curious practice of finding out a male of the same caste for a girl, who dies unmarried though of the age of puberty, with whom a sort of marriage is gone through and the girl is then cremated. Whatever the reasons may be, this tendency to bring clown the age of marriage for girls was accentuated in the first five or eir centuries of the Christian era. The Laugaksi 1055 gr. ( 19. 2 ) says brahmacarya for girls lasts till the 10th or 12th year '. The Vaik. ( VI. 12 )
rifces
*
says that a brahmana should marry a brahmana girl who is a nagnika or gaurl and defines nagnika as a girl over eight years but less than ten and gauri as one who is between ten and twelve and has not had menstruation. Apararka ( p. 85 ) quotes the Bhavisyapurana to the effect that nagnika is one who is ten
years old.
*
Vide Sm. C. quoting Sarhgraha. Paraâra, Yaj. and Samvarta go even beyond this. Parasara 1056 (VII. 6-9)
says
a girl of eight is called gaurl, but one who is nine years old is a rohinl ; one who is ten years old is a kanya; beyond this If a person does not ( i. e. after 10 years ) she is a rajasvala.
give
pitrs
have
away a maiden when she has reached her 12th year, his to drink every month her menstrual discharge. The
unmarried
parents and also the eldest brother go to hell on seeing ( an Parasara ) girl reaching the state of a rajasvala '. adds that the brahmana who marries such a girl should not be
spoken to or admitted to dinner in the same row

1053. 1054.
STH^FcfT^T*' ^FF^rniT' s^ftt cil^hllld^H^r
as other
'
^FF^Tq 52. 12.
1055.
fi
t&nf&'m 19^rerf&ff aiareff sprrCYTr ffT3$ramff Tifwii ifJfarf" "Tm ^T ^f*TT ...... ff^ 3J8WU4I ^RTWl'TJl f nrctemrrfcr ibrr^ VI. 12 fiij^îîg
i
2.
I.p.80.
1056.
u
jTffir
4^ ftm
-
3$r$t HTWT
^^r
^
:
^snrcfr
TT^ ^rf^T f|t

)
^HRrt
^fgg t^Fr f?rt wi grufissuîrtfl'ff The *%ft^. ( I. pp. 73 and 81 TT^TT VII. 8-9.
i
quotes
VII. 6-9 as from tin.
Ch.
IX
Early Marriage for
girts
445
brahmanas ) and that he becomes the husband of a vrsall. On the other hand the Vayupurana ( 83. 44 ) extols the marriage of a gaurl by remarking that her son purifies 21 ancestors on his father's side and 6 male ancestors on his mother's side. Sarhvarta ( verse 65-66 ) has the same two verses as Parasara (VII. 6 and 8) and winds up (verse 67) by saying that the marriage of a girl of eight is highly commended. The same four verses (Para&ara VIL 6-9 ) occur in Brhad-Yama ( Anan. ed. ) chap. 3. 19-22, but the order is different. Angiras ( vv. 126-128, Anan. ed. ) has the same verses. Kasyapa as quoted in thu Gr. R. (p. 46 ) says that a girl is called gauri when she is seven, a kanyaka when she is ten and kumarl when she is twelve. It will be noticed that the smrtis of Vaikhanasa and Kasyapa differed from
Parasara as to the definition of gaurl. Further the three smrtis make marriage of a girl after puberty an extremely sinful act and condemn not only the parents but also the husband, while Baud, prescribed only a slight prayascitta for the father alona even if there was menstruation during the marriage rites. Marloi 1057 ( quoted in Par. M. I. 2. p. 177 ) said that choosing a
who was five years old was best. Even Manu ( 9. 88 ) recommended an early marriage if a very desirable bridegroom was available. Rama and Slta are said to have been respective, ly 13 and 6 at the time of marriage ( Arapyakanda 47. 10-11 ). But this passage appears to bo an interpolation. In the Balakanda 1058 it is expressly stated that Slta and her sisters
bride
enjoyed in private dalliance with their respective husbands immediately after marriage. If this is true then Slta could nofc have been only 6 at the time of marriage.
biahmana girls were to be married between became general from about the 6th or 7th century and continued down to modern times. During the last two or three decades the marriageable age of girls owing to several causes, particularly the ravages of plague and the economic condition of the middle classes, has risen very high and marriages of girls even of poor brahmanas hardly ever take place before 16 and have to be postponed to the age of 20 and beyond. Besides the Child Marriage Restraint Act (XIX of 1929, as amended
The
rule that
8 to 10 years
1057.
II
irOftr
quoted in
srftre
<rer.
*T. I. part
2 p.
177.
ft<Rrsn<T quoted
by #.
ST.
p. 768.
1058.
:
*nOTr3
77.
16-17
in 3 vol. with tftft^ttâ com. )
Hislorij of D/iarmatastfa
Ch.
IX
by
Acfc 19 of
1938) has fixed the
minimum
age limit for girls at
14 and persons getting their daughters married before the completion of 14 years are liable to be punished in a criminal
There is no reason to laugh at ancient Indian of marriage they advocated. Child marriages were common in all countries of Europe. Even in England the age limits for boys and girls were recognised by
court under the Act.
writers for the
low age
law only at 14 and 12 respectively until 1929, when the lowest marriageable age for both was fixed at 16 ( 19 and 20 Qeo. V. Chap. 36 ). Besides it must be remembered that when
the
marriages of girls of tender years took place they were purely a sacrament. There was no question of consummation which took
place only after puberty. Sages condemned intercourse even with one's wife before she attained puberty. IOS9 Winternitz in
'
135 refers to a work of F. J. Furnivall on Child &c Divorces between in 1560-66 A. D. England Marriages, from which it is clear that marriages of children of 9 or 10 (and
Die Frau.
p.
'
rarely of even 2 or 3 years
took place in
England only about
300 years ago.
These rules about the proper age for the marriage of girls affected only brahmanas. Sanskrit poets and dramatists always depict that the heroines in their works are grown-up at the time
of
heroine of
marriage and even Bhavabhuti imagines that MalatI, the his romantic drama of Malatlmadhava, was so
that
(
grown-up
Vaik.
gauri,
VI. 12
but
was practically a case of love at first sight. requires a brahmana bride to be a nagnika or does not prescribe the same qualification for a
it
)
ksatriya or vaisya bride. In the Harsacarita princess RajyasrI is described as quite grown-up at the time of her marriage which
the very day of marriage ( vide the last Ucchvasa ). The Samskara-prakasa 1060 expressly says that there is no prohibition against marrying a girl who has passed the age of puberty for ksatriyas and others. Even in Pauranic times grown-up unmarried girls must not have been unheard of. The Gr. R. p. 83 quotes a passage from the
para, of the 4th
was consummated on
Brahmapurana where the injunction

1059.
to observe complete celi-
in
1060.
^W
p. 234.
SfT
srfsres^m
Tftg at
^C$?5J?t *T3Toft
p. 771.
Ch.
IX
Inter-caste Marriages
is
447
construed as
16 or 20 at
bacy for one year, 12 days, 6 days or 3 days respectively referring to girls whose ages were
the time of marriage. 1081
8, 12,
Another important question is inter-caste marriages. It has already been shown ( pp. 50-58 ) how anuloma marriages were allowed, while pratiloma unions were condemned and how it;
was supposed
marriages.
It
is
that
numerous sub-castes arose from such mixed
the
'
contention
Senart in his
Caste in India
of several eminent scholars (e. g. * translated by Ross p. 124 ) that
caste as implied in modern usage and in its strict sense did not exist in the times of the Rgveda and the other Vedio Sarhhitas.
We
have seen, however, that the four varnas had been recognised in the times of the Samhitas and that ideas of superiority and inferiority due to being of a particular varna had become
quite prevalent.
But the practices as to marrying outside one's varna and taking food had not become as rigid and cast-iron as they became in medieval times, few clear
examples of inter-caste marriages

Literature.
may
be cited from the Vedio

)
The
Sat. Br.
IV.
1. 5, S.
B. E. vol. 26, pp. 272-275
narrates the story of the old and decrepit sage Cyavana who was a Bhargava ( descendant of Bhrgu ) or Angirasa to Sukanya,
the daughter of king Saryafca, a descendant of Manu. The 1062 Sat. Br. ( XIII. 2. 9. 8, S. B. E. vol. 44, p. 326 ) quotes a half ' verse from the Vaj. S. ( 26. 30 ) and then remarks therefore he
This ( as king ) the son of the vaisya woman.' suggests that a king might marry a vaisya girl, but her son would not have the Vedic coronation ceremony performed on
him. Verses 17-19 of the ftgveda V. 61 are interpreted by the Brhad-devata (V. 50 ) as referring to the marriage of the brahmana sage Syavasva to the daughter of king Rathavlti Darbhya. The story of Kavasa Ailusa who was styled dasyafc putra ( either meaning the son of a dasl or used as a term of abuse ) by the sages has been mentioned above ( at p. 36 ).
'
'
does not anoint
1061
g
quoted in ^jf
1062.
s
.
T. p.
83.
XIII.
2. 9. 8.
This verse has been quoted above in note 83.
448
Histoni of Dharmasastra
Ch.
IX
Turning
thus.
to the
dharma and grhya
sutras, the
matter stands
the grhya sutras ( like Asv., Ap,) do not expressly about the varna of the bride. The Ap. Dh. S. 1063 anything say (II. 6. 13. 1 and 3) requires that one should marry a girl of the
Some of
and marriage and says that by contravening these rules sin is incurred. So he condemns mixed marriages. The Manava gr. 1.7. 8 and Gaut. IV. 1 require that one should marry a girl of the same varna and are silent about marriages with a bride of another varna. But Gautama knew of such marriages and enumerates the names of several sub-castes due to mixed marriages (IV. 14-17) and he includes among those who are unfit to be invited at a sraddha dinner a brahmana who is the husband of a woman of the sudra caste (15.18). Maim (III. 12), Sankha and Narada !06 * (strlpumsa, v. 4 ) say
before to another
same varna, who was not given
with
whom
is
in accordance with sastra
that the best course

is
is
to
marry a
girl of one's
own
caste.
This
said to be purva kalpa ( the foremost or the best procedure ). Many also speak of a less advisable course ( anukalpa^ as it is
take as wife a woman of any ) viz, that a brahmana may a ksatriya may marry a woman of his own caste or a vaisya or a sudra woman, a vaisya may marry a vaisya or sudra woman and a sudra only a sudra woman. This is stated by Baud. Dh. S. I. 8. 2, Sankha, Manu III. 13, Visnu Dh. S. 24. 1-4.
called
caste,
Par.
gr.
and Vas. Dh.
S.
1065
I.
25
inform us that some
teachers allowed a dvija to marry a sudra
woman
it
but without
severely by
Vedic mantras.
But Vasistha himself condemns
saying 'one should not do so (i. e. marry a sudra girl), for by doing so the degradation of the family is certain and loss of heaven after death'. Though the Visnu Dh. S. and Manusmrti state that a dvijati may marry a sudra girl, that is not their own
view, but they simply voice practices and sentiments prevalent in their time, since both denounce the marriage of a brahmana
Visnu with a sudra girl in the most un-measured terms. Dh. S. 26. 5-6 ( S, B. E. vol. 7 p. 112 ) says that the union of a dvijati with a sudra woman can never produce religious
1063.
JTW K jl a fi Q
\
ell
I
fore
^ i$pr ^W:
aw.
V. II. 6. 13. 1
<rfh
'
and
3.
1064.
sriBFi^Rfrot
(%RT:
1065.
wryrwrsî*^ iirrf$**rm?rer w 3
îTi ^
TTC^
T$Q verses 4-5
).
I.
24-27.
Oh.
IX
;
Inter-caste marriages
449
merit
it is
blinded by lust
women
from carnal desire alone that he marries her being and that dvijati men who thus marry sudra quickly degrade their families and progeny to the status
;
editor of the Manusmrti did net marriages ( though he gave expression to the common trend of view in III. 12-13 ) and condemns a dvijati's in the strongest language marriage with a 6udra woman ( III. 15-19, Manu III. 15 being the same as Visnu Dh. S. 26. 5 ) ' a brahmana by having intercourse with a sudra woman goes to hell and by procreating a son on her he loses his status as a brahmana Yaj, I. 57 allowed a brahmana or ksatriya to
of Madras'.
The ancient
tolerate such
marry a girl of his own varna or of the varnas next in order, but laid it down as his emphatic opinion thai a dvijati should not marry a 6iidra girl '. It appears however that prevailing public opinion and practice was too much for both Manu and Yaj. for, both declare ( Yaj. II. 125 and Manu IX. 152-153 ) that when a brahmana has sons from wives of the four varnas, the son of a brahmana wife takes four shares ( out of 10 in which his wealth is to be divided ), the son of a ksatriya wife takes three, of a vai&ya wife two and of a Sudra wife one. Yaj. a sudra ( I. 91-92 ) recognises the marriage of a brahmana with Manu and says that the son of such a union is a parasava III. 44 also recognises the marriage of a sudra girl with one of a
*
'.
higher class by saying that she holds the a bridegroom of a higher class.
hem
of the
garment of
This shows that the ancient smrfcis ungrudgingly recognised marriages between a brahmana and a ksatriya or a vaisya girl. But opinion was not unanimous about the marriage of a dvijati with a Sadra woman. Such marriages took place, but were
looked upon with disfavour and often condemned with severity. Anuloma marriages were frequent enough till the 9th or 10th century A. D., but became rare later and for the last several hundred years they hardly ever took place or they were not at The all recognized as valid by the communities concerned.
epigraphies
records
inter-caste marriages.
furnish well authenticated instances of The Vakatakas were brahmanas (their gotra
being Visnuvrddha). The Poona plates of Prabhavatlgupta (E. I. vol. 15 p. 39 ) establish that she was a daughter of Candragupta II. ( first quarter of 5th century A. D. ) of the Imperial Gupta
dynasty and became the chief queen

the
of the king Rudrasena II of The Talagunda pillar inscription of the Kadamba king Kakusthavarman ( E. I. vol. 8 p. 24) recites that
VSkaâka
line.
450
Oh.
IX
the founder of the Kadamba family was Mayuraârman, a brahmana, who being exasperated with the Pallavas of KaiicI took up the sword. His descendants have names ending in varman (as
ksatriyas should have, according to Manu II. 32 ). The inscription mentions that Kakusfchavarman ( who was 4th in descent
other kings.
told
to Gupta and ) got bis daughters married In the Ghatofckaoa Inscription of Yasodharman and Visnavardhanii (A. S. W. I. vol. 4, p. 140 ) we are
from Mayurasurman
that Soma, ti brahmana and ancestor of Hastibhoja, minister of the Vakaâka king Devasena, gave his heart to The Tipwives born in brahmana and ksatriya families, perah copper-plate grant of a chieftain called Lokanatha
(
E.
I.
vol. 15, p. 301 ff )

i. e.
Harsa era
dated in the 44th year ( probably of the about 650 A. D.) says that Lokanatha's ancestors
belonged to the Bharadvaja gotra (p. 306) and that the maternal grand-father of Lokauatha was Ke6ava who is said to have been a parasava ( p. 307), while Kesava's father Vlra was a brahmana ( dvijasattama ). VirupadevI, a daughter of the
famous Vijayanagara king Bukka I ( 1268-1298 A. D. ), was married to a brabmana named Brahma or Bomanna Wcdeya, who was the Governor of the Araga province ( E. I. vol. 15, p. 12 ). Vide also E. I. vol. 18, p. 87 ( dated 894 of the Vikrama era ) for Pratlhara kings being descended from a brahmana Haricandra and the latter's ksatriya wife the Atpur Inscription of Saktikumara dated in samvat 1034 (977 A. D. ) which states that the founder of the Guhila dynasty was a brahmana Guhadatta whose descendant Bhartrpajta married a Kastrakuâ princess.
;
known
Sanskrit Literature also yields certain wellinstances of inter-caste marriages. The MalavikSgnimitra of Kalidasa shows that Agnimitra, a son of Senapati PusyaClassical
mitra of the Sunga dynasty and a brahmana, married MalavikS who was a ksatriya princess. In the Harsacarita of Bana
(Ucchvasa
towards end)
we
are told
by Bana himself that
and companions of his wanderings there were his two pzirasava brothers Candrasena and Matrsena (i.e. step-brothers from a 6udra wife of his father). Rajafokhara,
among
the friends
teacher of king Mahendrapala of Kanoj, says in his Karpuramaniarl( 1. 11 ) that his accomplished wife Avantisundarl was
descended from the Cahuana from a ksatriya family ).

It
modern Chavan
family
( i. e.
is extremely difficult to say when exactly inter-caste marriages even between dvijatis came to be prohibited by the
Ch.
IX
Inter-caste marriages
451
smrtis and writers of digests. Visivarupa 10M on Yaj. III. 283 ( not later than first half of 9th century ) clearly suggests that
ia his day a
tithi
brahmana could marry a ksatriya

III.
girl.
Medha-
on
Manu
14 suggests that about 900 A. D. at the
marriages of brahmanas with ksatriya and vaisya girls took place rarely in his day, but not with sudra women ; and the Mit. on Yaj. does not at all say that though marriages among dvijatis ( anuloma ones ) were allowed by Manu and
latest
Yaj. they had entirely ceased fco be regarded as valid by its time. Many of the medieval digests and writers like the Sm. C. and Hemadri quote verses stated to be from the Aditya-purana or
Brahma-purana on matters forbidden in the Kali age ( and so called Kalivarjya) among which inter-caste marriages are
included.
1087
The Apastamba smrti (in verse ed. by Jivananda I, p. 549, chap. IX ) says that by marrying a girl of another caste a man incurred the sin of mahapafcaka and had to undergo the penance of 24 krcohras. The Markandeya-purana ( 113. 34-36 ) narrates
the story of king Nabhaga raksasa form of marriage and
who married a vaisya girl by the who consequently incurred sin.
The state of the law as to inter-casfce marriages in British Indian courts may be briefly indicated here. By the Special of 1923 ) Marriage Act ( III of 1872 as amended by Act both anuloma and pratiloma marriages are validated if they are
XXX
registered and solemnized according to the procedure prescribed by the Act. But if a marriage is not so solemnized under
pratiloma marriages
1066.
that Acfc, but under the general rules of Hindu Law, then all are invalid throughout British India.
mfSTTCT
ftsmfto
^ ansiwjrR srfinn *reHfa ft^^r ^ns^ ire^f criipnf siiifani;

i
on
^r-
III.
283
on
*n.
II.
129;
g
on
Hg
III. 14.
1067.
quotes the verse Q*n*i*rcrynfa

vol. 1.
The T^Tf <f5^r of T^T^T (ed. by Jivananda vol. II, p. 112) q^TT^niHWn from the f ^trfnr and
from the 3||Q^^<|U|. The latter is part 1 p. 134) and in the Caturvargaquoted in the qn- "T. ( Tho firat quotation (fit^fTHT &c ) 2 III. p. 667). part cintamani (vol.
occurs in the
5m^ta*TTSn% ^HfT,
chap. 84. 13.
452
Oh.
IX
But anuloma m8 marriages have been recognised as valid by some High Courts in India; the Allahabad High Court, howeven regards all anuloma marriages even as invalid,
The next restriction that the girl to be married must not be a sapinda of the bride-groom has now to be considered. Sapinda
relationship is of special importance in three matters, viz. 108d on birth and ( impurity marriage, inheritance and a6auca death). The prohibition against marriage with a sapipda girl 107 There are two applies to all varrms including the 6udra
.
about the meaning of sapinda, one represented by the Mitaksara and the other by Jlmutavahana (author of the DayabhSga). Both are agreed that a sapinda girl cannot be married, but they differ as to the meaning of the word. We shall first understand one interpretation of sapinda. The locus classicus is the commentary of Vijnane&vara on Yaj. L 52-53
schools
a substantial portion of which is translated here asapindam ( in Yaj. I. 52 ) means a woman who is not a sapinda and sapinda means one who has fche same pinda i. e. body (or particles
: '
"
'
arises from
of the body). Sapinda relationship (between two persons) connected by having particles of the ( their ) being
same body. Thus, the son has sapinda relationship with his father by reason of the ( fact that ) particles of the father's body continue in him ( the son ). Similarly ( there is sapinda relationship ) with the paternal grandfather and the like ( of the
1068. Vide Bai Laksmi v. Kaliansing 2 Bom. L. R. 128 (marriage between Rajput male and a brshinana woman held to be invalid); Bai Kashi v. Jainnadas 14 Bom. L. R. 547 (marriage between a brshmana woman and Ôelra male was held to be void); Munnilal v. Shi am a I. L.R. 48. All. 670 (marriage between a dudra male and a vaidya female held to
Vide Bai Gulab v. Jivanlal I. L. R. 46 Bom. 871, Natba v. I. L. B. 55 Bom. 1 ( marriage of a brshmana male with a ^ndra female was hold valid); Nalinakaha v. Rajanikanto 35CJ. W. N. 726. Vide Padma Kumari v. Suraj Kumari I. L. R. 28 All. 458.
be invalid
).
Mehta Chotalal
1069.
fo fHit ansrte
t**iTf 3r
^ ftm mffi^ fir?n

SRHI^
i
ftohrf&nj III.
p. 284.
1070.
*TTC5
p.
isBTflTcHyjuî *n$?r
ftgcr:
^ffâerr fta'Jfd
( sftjtf
^fa^fwrt
section 7
quoted in
H
.
srsrrf3^T p. 108.
The printed ^TT^
108
reads
cTOT
53
srnrtîyidhn
means
n 9njhr%9^, III gjrfij connection or continuity.
p. 284.
f
The word 3*wnr in the Mit.
Qh,
IX
Marriage-meaning of sapiitfa
)
453
(
grandson and the like
because through his
the grandson's
father particles of the body of the grandfather continue in ( or are connected with) him (the grandson ). Similarly (the son has
sapinda relationship ) with his mother because particles of the mother's body continue in him. Thus (a person has sapinda relationship) with his mother's father through his mother; so (one has eapindata ) with one's mother's sister or mother's brother also by reason of the connection with (or continuity of) particles
'
same body (viz. the body of the maternal grandfather). So also (a person has sapindata) with the paternal uncle, the paternal aunt and the like. Similarly the wife has sapinda relationship with the husband because she produces ( with the husband) one body (viz. their son). lo71 In the same way brother's wives (are sapindas) of each other, because they produce one body ( viz. their respective sons ) with their respective husbands who are produced from one body ( viz. their husbands' father ). In this manner wherever the word sapinda occurs, there one has to understand connection with ( or continuity of)
of the
The words fTOT q^T *TW "R^TT qqK3l?Ki*vrera*n are translated Hindu Law (7th ed. of differently by Golap Chandra Sarkar in his
1071
' .
'
>
the sapinda relationship of the husband with the lawfully wedded wife by reason of ( their together ) forming one body ( i. o. one person, hence the wife is called half the
1936
pp. 81-82 as
similarly
arises
'
body of the husband ). The learned author thinks that his translation is the correct one and others went wrong in translating as in the
passage above. His translation cannot be accepted for several reasons. In the first place, it is opposed to the explanation of the Bujambha^t*
(i.
e.
particles of the
bodies of the husband and wife continue in or are concerned with one
body, the son, that is produced by them both ). That husband and wife are one is a pleasant fiction but here VijnSnedvara is stressing the
physical continuity of particles.
The husband and wife though
said to
be one are
still
two bodies.
No one says
that their bodies become
that if they do not begot a son, physically one. Besides the objection the husband and wife will not be sapindas is not sound. Rules and of cases and regard is to be had principles are laid down for generality
to their capacity to produce
a son.
*
The foorV%?$
i
HI-
$*frl P.
280
shows that Q. 0. Sarkar
is
wrong
iwiftr
ijcR^r
f% fugnrg^f $r(it*qrnrwft gsr-
f^^ntg^tTT:
^ww'TJ'^n: PR*n*rt
i
.
srrf-
ajrwct^srwi^qiHîs^sr
woman's husband's brother's wife is the receptacle ( SdhSra ) for a son who is procreated by the husband's brother and his wife, the former of whom has particles ôf his father whose particles continue in the husband of the woman*
454
particles of the
*
History of Dharmaictitra
Oh.
IX
same body either directly or mediately. 1071 On the word asapindam it was explained that sapinda relationship arises immediately or mediately by reason of the connection with particles of the same body this may prove to be too
'
wide a statement, since in this beg inningless samsara, such a rela1073 tionship might exist in some way or other between all men
;
therefore
the sage Yajiiavalkya ) states after the fifth on the mother's side and after the 7th on the father's side ', After the
(
fifth
on the mother's side
i.
e.
i.
in the mother's line

e.
and
line
after the
7th on the father's side
in
(
the
viz.
father's
sapinda
)
relationship ceases.
These words
(
sapinda
).
ceases
are
to be taken as understood
in the text of Yaj.
Therefore the
though it applies everywhere ( i. e. to a very e. literal ) power ) by the expressive ( i, of its component parts, is restricted to a certain definite sphere, I074 like the words and pankaja *. And so the nirmanthya six ( ascendants ) beginning with the father and the six descendants beginning with the son and the man himself as the seventh ( in each case ) are sapindas wherever there is a
sapinda
circle of persons
'
word wide
'
'
'
divergence of the line, the counting shall be seventh in descent is reached including him ( i,
made
e.
until the
)
the ancestor
from
whom
be made
the line diverges ; in this way the computation is to everywhere. And so the fifth ( if a girl ), who stands
in the fifth generation when a computation is with the mother and going up to her ( mother's
made beginning
)
*
paternal grandfather &c,,
is
styled
in
an
father, mother's indirect way fifth
1072. There is direct continuity of particles of the bodies of the parents in the son and there is mediate connection of particles between grandparents and grandchildren and so on. As the world proceeded from the Creator every one has in his 1073.
body parts of the Creator.

Kf
**rf
In the Tai. Up.
II.
we have
*tff$9n*nRf
srerFfa...^ OTH^ra ? and also in sn^t**T VI. 2. 3. This is relied upon for limiting sffpindya in Par. M. I. 2. p. 59. The words iTTcpT: and fq-?jH: of Ysj. are repeated in the Mit. and explained as irra: #e!T^ and
i^g: fl'gn3 respectively and the Mit. adds that in Ya~j. I. 53 (latter half ) we have to understand the words mf^SR f^^f^ (sapinda relationship
ceases
).
means 'springing from mud and may apply to every water plant, but it is restricted by usage (rUdhi ) to a lotua plant i. e. the wide literal or etymological (yaugika) meaning of the two parts panka (mud) and ja ' ( springing from ) is restricted
1074.
The word 'paakaja*
literally
by popular usage to a single plant springing from mud. 'Nirmanthya is the word used for producing fire by friction. Literally the word means what is to bo churned \
7
*
Oh,
IX
Marriage- Sapinfa relationship

'
455
'
from the mother's side ( by Yaj. ). In the same way the seventh from the father's side (in Yaj.). is she who is the seventh in degree (from an ancestor) when computation is made beginning from the father and proceeding up to the father's father and so on ".
1
According
(
to
this
explanation of
the
the
following rules about prohibition based

1
)
Mitaksara 1075 the on sapindya follow

ancestor
is
In
;
computing
degrees
common
to be
included ( 2 ) regard is to be had to the father and mother of the bride and bridegroom both if computation is made ( 3 ) from the mother's side of either the proposed bride or bride;
groom, they must be beyond the fifth degree ( i. e. they must be 6th or further on ) from the common ancestor and if it is made through the father of either, they must be beyond the seventh from the common ancestor ( i. e. they must
This last postulates four different classes of common ancestor may be traced through the fathers of both bride and bridegroom or through the mother of both, or through the mother of the bridegroom be eighth &c,
cases, viz.
).
descent from a
and the father of the bride or through the father of the bridegroom and the mother of the bride. The method of computing degrees is entirely different from the English method as is made clear by the remarks of the Mit. translated above. The rules require that both must be beyond sapinda relationship as defined and limited above. For example, tracing descent through the fathers of both bride and bridegroom, if the bride is 8th from the common ancestor ( called kutastha in dharmaSastra works ) and the bridegroom is 6th, there can be no marriage,
as though the bride is beyond the limits of sapinda relationship the common ancestor, the bridegroom being 6th from the kutastha has sapinda relationship with the kutastha. These rules
to
women
apply according to the Mit. only where the ancestors married of their own varna. But if an ancestor married a brahmana girl and also a ksatriya girl and a question arose
about the eligibility of marriage
among descendants
of these
two wives, then prohibition based on sapinda relationship extends up to only three degrees ( and not seven or five ). 1078
1075.
Vide extract (text) from the ffofrsm in appendix.
I075a.
fam on TTT. I. 53; the statement of raithlnasi.
^r?^^
the
p.
109 explains differently the
HI
explanations.
f*fcf p.
285
u^mfoim
pp. 138-140 gives these
456
It
Oh.
IX
should not be supposed that these rules of the Hit. are The teKts themselves are in conflict. observed. Further, the customs and usages as to prohibited degrees for marriage are so divergent in the various parts of India and among the hundreds of castes and sub-castes that it is impossible
universally
to state
any rule as universally or even generally applicable. few examples of conflict among the smrtis are cited by the Mit. itself. Vas. Dh. & ( 8. 2 ) says (he may marry ) the fifth on the mother's side and 7th on the father's side', while Yaj. as interpreted by the Mit. makes it necessary that the girl to be eligible must be 6th from the common ancestor traced through
'
the mother and 8th

'
says
side
when tracad through the father. Paithlnasi the girl must be beyond three degrees on the mother's I078 and five degrees on the father's side '. These two are
explained away by the Mit. by saying that these texts do not authorise a marriage with a girl who is distant from the common
ancestor by a lesser number of degrees than those propounded by YaJ. but they only prohibit marriage with girls who are
reconciliation of the conflict
satisfactory.
nearer in degrees than those stated in those texts. But this among the smrtis is not at all
The following diagrams illustrate the application of the rules of sapinda relationship according to the Mitaksara. In all of them A represents the common ancestor and the letters
8 and
the
represent respectively sons
to the Mit. computation has to be
common
ancestor in all
to
and daughters. According ( and inclusive of ) cases and both the bride and bride-
made from
groom have
1076.
be beyond the prohibited degrees.
l077
ftgsr
:
i
8.
f&TT on *TT. I. 53; the words 2 (the preceding being 3jfwfr
......
*?r?T
R%f).
The
( III.
holds that they ferring to descendants one of whose ancestors had been adopted or where the descendants of one ancestor trace descent through a brahmana wife
collects together more such passages, are not to be construed as allowing an option, but as re-
^"VJ pp. 284-285
and a k?atriya wife.

those in the
tf. *ft.
ffrqfqfffigg,
(pp. 612-613) also quotes passages similar to but seems to hold that there is an option due to
family or local usages.

1077.
explicit
Vide
tf. ST.
pp. 707-718.
(
jfanft
The f$reK*T$3g?r quoted in the agigdsq ftqft <i^f^jn|înr ^r mn^nr

i
p.
116
is
quite
Ch.
IX
Marriaye-Sapinda relationship
457
No. 1
A
D(2) 8(3) S (4) S (5) S (6) S (7)
D(2)
8(3)
8(4)
8
S
(6)
(7)
(8)
(8)
Here a valid marriage might take place between 8(8) and D(8) because
saplnda relationship for both is traced through their fathers and both are removed from the common ancestor A by more than seven
degrees or generations.
place
Hero a valid marriage may take between S (6) and D(6)
because snpincja relationship of both is in this case traced through

their mothers
and they are both removed from the common ancestor by more than five degrees.
No. 3
A
1
S 8 S
(2)
S
S S
(2)
(3)
(4)
(3)
(4)
(6)
(7)
D(5) D(6) S (7)
Here a marriage may take place between 8 (6) and D (6) because
their sapinda relationship is to be traced through their mothers and
Here a marriage cannot take place between D (6) and S (6) as the sapintfa
relationship in the latter' s case is to be traced through his father and
both are removed from the common ancestors by more than five degrees. But a marriage cannot take place
he is not more than seven degrees removed from the common ancestor, though D (6) whose sapinda relationship
is to be traced through her mother is more than five degrees from the common ancestor. According to Balaihbhatta and some
between 8
(7)
and
(7)
as
the
sapinda relationship of D (7) is to be traced through her father and she is not more than 7 degrees from the common ancestor.
others marriage will take place as D(6) is beyond five degrees (tracing through her mother), though 8(6) is
within 7 degrees (tracing descent through his father) and so is not outside sapinda limits.
All these four examples are taken from the Dharmasindhu III Purvardha p. 226-227 ). No. 3 illustrates what is called
H.D. 58
458
*
Ch,
IX
078 Just as a frog leaps sapinda relationship by frog's leap V to another one from leaving intervening objects untouched, spot so in this example No. 3, there is sSpindya between D(5) and D(5), but S(6) and D(6) are left unaffected by sapindya ( as relationship is traced through the mothers of both), while
sapindya
'
reverts
'
frog's leap
is
to affect D(7) and S(7). The maxim of a very ancient one, being exemplified by the
1079
Mahabhasya
The
of Patanjali.
rules about prohibition of marriage on the ground of
sapinda relationship, particularly where cognates (persons connected through females) were concerned, have not been observed in numerous instances over wide areas from very ancient times. One striking illustration is the question whether a man can marry his maternal uncle's or his paternal
aunt's daughter, particularly the former. On this point opinion has been sharply divided from ancient times. Ap. Dh. S. I. 7. 21. 8 includes among pataniya actions (mortal sins) sexual intercourse with the uterine relations ( mothers and sisters ) of one's parents and their children. This would prohibit marriage with one's maternal uncle's or paternal aunt's daughter. Baud. Dh. S. I. 1080 1. 19-26 notes that there were five practices peculiar to the south viz. eating in the company of one whose upanayana has not been performed, to eat in the company of one's wife, to eat stale food, to marry the daughter of the maternal uncle or of a paternal aunt and there were five practices peculiar to the
north. Then he proceeds to state the argument that those who follow the practices mentioned by him in countries other than those where they prevail incur sin, that Gautama (XL 20) holds this last argument to be wrong and then Baud, states his own
1078.
f
?n?T: tf mft
III. vpnvt P. 227;
ite ?nr
this.
'
mnrt
fwrfSFg
III $srf%J p. 283.
The 3.
?frK p.
612 refers to
1079.
Hu^3}ild<ri$W9irer:
TIT 3*^35
vol. I. p. 44
and
vol. III. p. 25.
1080.
Ch.
IX
Marriage with maternal unde's daugfUer
459
view that one should pay no head to either set of practices, as both are opposed to srarbis and the views of Sistas. From this it is clear that a marriage with one's maternal uncle's daughter
or paternal aunt's daughter
was
in
vogue in the south
below
the
probably) long before the Baud. Dh. S. (i. e. several centuries before the Christian era ) and that North India did not go in for such marriages and that orthodox sufcra writers
Narmada
reprobated such practices. Manu 172-173) forbids such marriages "on approaching ( for carnal intercourse ) the daughter of one's father's sister or of one's mother's sister or of mother's full brother, a man must undergo the penance called candrayana *. A wise man should not take as his wife ( any one of ) these; they are not fit to be wedded because they are (sapinda ) relatives, for by wedd. ing them one sinks low ( i. e. falls into hell or loses caste)". Haradatta on Ap. Dh. S. II. 5. 11. 16 quotes a verse from
like
Gautama and Baudhayana
(XL
'
108! Satatapa prescribing the penance of candrayana for marrying one's maternal uncle's daughter or a girl having the same gotra
as one's mother's gotra
( i. e.
maternal grandfather's gotra
or a
sapravara
girl
and a
text of
Sumantu forbidding marriage with
the daughter of the brother of one's mother or step-mother. It would be seen that all these relatives are third from the common
ancestor and so are very much within the prohibition against marrying a sapinda, whatever be the number of prohibited degrees for marriage that are accepted. Kumarila in his TantravSrtika while discussing the scope and validity of sadacara (on Jaimini 1. 3.7 ) enumerates many lapses from good conducb attributed to great men and heroes of the past and tries to explain away
those violations of good conduct.
Vasudeva
(Krsna)
and
The charge brought against Arjuna, the central heroes of the
Mahabharata, is that they respectively married RukminI and Subhadra who were their maternal uncle's daughters ( this being forbidden ). Kumarila makes very scathing remarks against this 1082 prevalent among southerners and then refutes fchis practice
charge by saying that although in the MahabhSrafca ( Adiparva SubhadrS is described as the daughter of 219. 17-18)
10B1.
"^
* U*T*
i
? ^?r on
3?^. n. ^.
II. 5. 11. 16.
1082.
p.
204,
460
Ch.
IX
not
Vasudeva
so,
and
she
sisfcer
108J
of
Krsna,
she
was
really
but
thafc
was Vasudeva's mother's
sister's
daughter
was the daughter's daughter of the sister of the or 1084 father of Vasudeva's mother ( or step-mother RohinI ). Kumarila argues that such female cousins one degree or
my
several degrees removed are often spoken of as sisters. Vide notes to the Vyavahararnayukha pp. 200-202 where
is
this matter
illustrates
This reply of Kuinarila well dealing with inconvenient texts adopted by mlmamsakas like Kumarila when the texts run counter to their cherished views. Visvarupa on Yaj. III. 254 quotes
fully explained.
the
method
of
Manu
of
XI. 172 and verses of Samvarta prescribing the penance for carnal intercourse with one's maternal uncle's 1085 Medhatithi on Manu II. 18 refers to this practice as daughter.
Paraka
prevalent in some countries, and says it is opposed to the rule of Gautama ( IV. 3 ) about prohibition on the ground of sapindya
and explains how such practices might have arisen. Persons making love to the handsome daughters of their maternal uncles married them for fear that they might otherwise be punished
by
the king
it
words of
Manu
may be that others literally following the IV. 178 held by the practice which their fore-
1086 fathers resorted to for fear of punishment. Among medieval writers, some condemn this practice, others justify it. AparSrka
(
pp. 82-84 ) after a lengthy discussion condemns marriage with maternal uncle's daughter. The Nirnayasindhu also does the
(
same
p.
286
).
Among
those
who
support marriage with a maternal uncle's
daughter the most prominent are the Sm. C. ( I. pp. 70-74 ) and the Par. M. ( I. 2. pp. 63-68 ). They both admit that there are
had a son q^j^ and a daughter trsrr (who being given in was called tfpcft). Vide sirf^pH? 111. 1-3. The son was 3jv;r. gvr^rr is described in the arrf^q^f as the o jtrr (fpcft) daughter of T=T$^ and sister of nigy* (l^)- If these words are literally understood ^vr^r would be Arjuna's maternal uncle's daughter.
1083.
*JT
^fffcnfrsr
adoption to
1084.
H**HIISW
P- 210.
1085.
n
TTT3?5T^T
*W *?$&
5?rf
TTT.
F^
pff
quoted by ft*reff on
III. 254.
I
1086.
^ SfnTtTITfnif^TTic^MK^
^vMqcft"
4
JTr^t?^*^ îiH<<*iTTI
srtnt
^TI
on 115
II. 18.
Oh.
IX
Marriage with maternal uncle's daughter

Suraanfcu
461
passages of Manu, Satatapa,
and others condemning
marriage
it
(all quoted above) with a maternal uncle's
daughter, yet they say that there are passages of the
Veda
and some smrtis in support of

able persons
)
and
sisâs (learned
and
respect-
are
sadacara
observe this practice and so and not forbidden. They

;
such
rely
marriages
upon two
Vedio passages one is from the Sat. Br. I. 8. 3. 6 ( S. B. E. " thus the separation ( of the eater and the vol. XII. p. 238 ) eaten ) is effected in one and the same act hence from one and the same man spring both the enjoyer ( the husband ) and the enjoyed ( the wife ); for now kinsfolk live sporting and rejoicing
;
together saying in the fourth or third man (generation) we shall unite ', And this is so in accordance with that (separation of the spoons
1087
'
)."
The mention of the union in the third
generation
understood by the Sm. C. as referring to the marriage of a person with his maternal uncle's or paternal aunt's daughter. Visvarupa also refers to this passage ( on Yaj. 1.53), but he does not draw the inference that such marriages are
is
authorized by the Veda.

the Sm. C. and Par.
'
a verse from a Khila sukta Come, O Indra, by commended paths to this our sacrifice and partake of your portion. They ( the priests ) have offered the fat seasoned with ghee that is thy portion, as the maternal uncle's daughter or the paternal aunt's daughter (is 1081 This verse is referred to by one's lot in marriage)'.
is
Another Vedic varse and other works. It
is relied
upon by
Visvarupa on Yaj.(
I.
53
viz. that it really indicates
but his explanation of it is different one out of four different alternatives
1087.
I. 8. 3. 6;
I. p. 72.
1088.
Vido Aufrccht's RgvecU
vol. II. p. 672.
The verse
is
3inn-
T tt.
Auf recht reads

(
%w gy
for <jnf ^rf:.
This occurs also

it
in the
ft^tHrKTOV
XIV
^JT:
'
31 od
b )r Rotb
though BOine MSB omit
),
where the reading

:
I
is
'.
for ^Tf:
text as printed in aw^rfe seems to be corrupt.
The
takes
3fg- :
aa
meaning
?*n?pRT:
p.
and adds
).
^rir
fg'*ft4f
rft4f
&c. (
83
462
History of Dtiarma&astra
1089
Oh.
IX
as regards prohibifced degrees for marriage. AparSrka (p. 83) on Yaj. I. 53 reads the latter half somewhat differently and
BO interprets
it
as to spell out of
it
a prohibition against
marrying a maternal uncle's daughter. This text is quoted in The Smrfcioandrika relies upon a I. L. R. 7 Mad. 548 at p. 550. passage of the Catur vims '\timata that allows a marriage of persons who are third or fourth in descent from a common ancestor on both sides ( on the mother's or father's side ). There is also a text of Brhaspati which prescribes that the practices of the countries, castes and families should be guarded have been in vogue from ( or enforced ) by the king as they the become inflamed and among otherwise subjects past times,
such practices he instances maternal uncle's daughter
'
Brahmanas
in the south
is
marry the
such marriages.
tise
smrti authority for Besides southern sistas deeply read in the

to the
V 090
So there
Vedas and acting according
meaning
of the
Veda
prac-
marriage with a maternal uncle's daughter. Here both Sm. The SmrtimuktSphala 0. and Par M. are on very firm ground.
of Vaidyanatha Bays
'among
the
Andhras
sistas
deeply read
in the Vedas follow the practice of matulasuta-parinayana
and
among the Dravidas respectable person with a girl who is fourth

ancestor
people allow marriage of a in descent from the common
V 011
Among
several castes in the Deccan

is
and the
marriage with a maternal uncle's daughter allowed, but it is highly commended. Even certain br&hmaria castes like the Desastha brahmanas of the KarnStaka and Karhada brabmanas observe this practice in modern times. The Samskarakaustubha ( pp. 616-620 ) and the
Madras Presidency, not only
Dharmasindhu support matulasuta-parinayana. Both the Sm. C. and Par. M. say that though the Vedic passage from the Satapatha is a mere arthavada ( a laudatory
statement
)
words
'
he holds
^
<njfr
in praise of a Vedic act, yet on the analogy of the ( the samidh ) above (the sruc) for gods ', which
1089.
Hra^^gHm^rnr:
nhffa:
i
^^rr:
3;*
i
^T f i%
&*rw.
53.
v&w f fir fafa:
^3
on
1090.
%?T3Trf3$c5T*rt
TIT. I.
<*
^
7.
m:
quoted in
i. p. 10,
nr^rc^v p.
1091.
131).
Ch.
IX
Cross-cousin Marriages
463
rule
) as a vidhi ( as a positive not being known from any other source ), these words of the Satapatha are also to be construed as a vidhi ( of the marriage with maternal uncles
are construed
)
by Jaimini
III. 4. 15
(
on account
of fcheir apurvatva
The Sm. C. also presses into service the Vedio daughter). veree ( Rg. X. 16. 5 ) addressed by YamI to Yama. But that mantra does not clearly refer to cross-cousin marriages.
The smrti passages that condemn cross-cousin marriages are explained in a peculiar manner by the Sm. C. and the Par. M. When a woman is married in one of the four forms, brahma &c., she passes into the gotra of her husband, becomes a sapinda
is severed from her father's family (as to gotra and saphida relationship); but when a woman is married in tho asura, gandharva and other forms* she does not pass over into the gotra of her husband, but remains in the gotra of the father and her sapinda relationship with her father and brother continues. Therefore the Fon of such a woman, if he marries the daughter of his mother's brother, would be
1093
in the husband's family and s o she
who is a sagotra and sapinda of bis mother. und the Par. M. and other works say that the smrti texts forbidding marriage with maternal uncle's daughter refer to a person, whose mother was married in the gandharva, asura and the other two forms, but not to a person whose mother was married in the br&hma and the three other approved forms. This is the reasoning of tho Sm. C. and the Par. M. 1093
marrying a
girl
The Sm.
C.
is ftftr-rf tmTO^sr^lfi.4.15. This is not combut the TantiavHrtika, which notices this fact, assigns several reasons for this omission and explains it as follows: in
1092.
Jaimini's satra
;
mented upon by Sabaia
the JT^rf^RsT thcro is a passage STO^cTtcHT^tf ^rrT^rg^f^TT f% ^*IT t*ITIu the homo, i.or pitrs the samidh is held below tho sruc in which tho havis has been placed in this passage it is said that when the
Tnfr.
;
oblation
is
to bo offered to the
gods the samidh
is
to
be held over the
sruc (in which the oblation is placed before being thrown into tho tiro), Hero though tho particle 'hi* (showing reason) is employed and ' * though tho present dhSrayati is used ( and not the potential as is
usual in lidhis), it is not a mere arthavada but a vidhi. So also Sat. Br. there is a vidhi about 'mStula-sutBparinayana.'
in tho
^ s^mRern^rlT
1093.
sreretfihr p. 899.
irr^rfTlRT
(ci^4MTTr^
.
1. 2. p.
63-64.
464
History of DharmaiSsfra
Ch.
IX
These rules about prohibition on the ground of sapinda relationship cause great difficulties in modern times, when owing to the rapid spread of co-education and the rise in the
marriageable age of girls, love marriages have become somewhat frequent. Lovers do not stop fco consider such ( to them ) trivial matters as sapinda relationship, but the law is often
inexorable.
is
The narrowing of the limits of sapinda relationship permitted by the authors of commentaries and digests only
of
on the ground
example, the same authors, maternal uncle's daughter
immemorial family, caste or local usage. For who hold that marriage with the is sanctioned by Vedic texts and custom, condemn and forbid marriage with one's paternal aunt's
daughter or with one's maternal aunt's daughter ( vide below ). There are a few verses cited from the smrtis which favour the
narrowing down of sapinda relationship. For example, the * Caturvimsatimata 1093 states According to Sakatayana there is no blame in marrying a girl who is 7th or 6th or 5th ( from
*
common ancestor ) similarly Manu, Parasarya, Yama and Angiras say that one may marry a girl who is third or fourth (from the common ancestor) on both sides (i. e. from her father's side or mother's side ). Whoever enters into such marriage
the
;
alliances
by relying on the usage of his country or of his family is always entitled to associate with people and this is seen from the Veda '. Parasara ( as quoted in the Nirnayasindhu
'
and other works ) says a man who is himself fourth or fifth ( from the common ancestor ) may according to ParSsara's view marry a girl who is 4th or 6th ( from the common ancestor ), but
(
who is himself fifth cannot marry a girl who is also fifth from the common ancestor ).' The SamskSrakaustubha, the Sapindyadlpika and a few digests hold these verses authoritative and allow such marriages provided they are in accordance with local or family usage. As against this the following facts have to be remembered. One of the maxims of interpretation is that where there is conflict between smrti texts, the preferable
one
Gaut.,
1 rule is to follow the opinion of the majority. 09Sb
Manu,
1093
:
i
a.
ni I?W
1093
b.
p. 285.
mteft ^ra *n**n*ft jrmr^f
cnr
^Tfrwc
u^rwww^ 3
quoted in
TTWHT^^
p. 767.
Oh.
IX
Afarriage-sapfyda relationship
465
Yaj.,
dicta.
Marlci and numerous other srartikaras are opposed to these The second rule is that Manu has the highest authority
is
among
Manu
to the
smrtis and that smrti which is opposed to the dicta of not commended. 10920 The above passages are opposed
words of Manu on sapinda relationship and about marrying a maternal uncle's daughter ( Manu V. 60, III. 5, XL 171A third point about the above texts is that several 172). eminent works like the Nirnayasindhu and the Dharmasindhu 10924 hold that some of these verses are baseless and not genuine
and
that they really refer to persons adopted or persons descended from wives of different castes of the same common ancestor and lastly even those works that support such narrowing of sapinda relationship for marriage do not advocate it for all and sundry, but only where there is a local or family
;
usage to that effect. Therefore, marriages among persons who are 3rd or 4th or 5th from the common ancestor cannot be regarded as valid in general, but only on the ground of usage. The following diagram will furnish some examples of the,
narrowing down of sapinda relationship.
A common
(
male ancestor
D(2)
S(3)
D(2)
D(3)
8(4)
S(5)
D(4)
Here ordinarily there can be no valid marriage between D (4) and S (4) or S (5) because they are both not beyond even the but if the verses of the fifth degree from the common ancestor Caturvimgatimata and Para&ara be followed the marriages are valid. It should be noted that even under the Special Marriage Act ( III of 1872 ) marriage between D (4) and S (4) or S (5)
;
1093
c.
fWfo
1093d.
quoted by
3mT%
<>
*H- II. 21
and
^p*i
on
*3
I. 1.
HI. ^frS
H. D. 59
P-
228 summarizing the view of the jfehK*h
466
Oh.
IX
will not be valid according to the 2nd proviso to sec. 2. The Nirnayasindhu 1092e was not prepared to concede that such marriages, though not the best, were at least allowable as 1093 inferior (anukalpa). The Dharmasindhu stated that only in calamities when one is unable to secure a girl one may enter into a marriage where sapinda relationship is narrowed down, but that those who can secure another girl should not go in for it, as the sin of incest would be incurred. Such marriages did not take place except during the last few years and so the courts have not yet pronounced on their validity. The preceding remarks are made by way of caution only and it is quite possible that courts may find out some way to uphold the marriages when they come before them many years after their celebration. But it is well to remember that the validity of such marriages in castes that have no usage to that effect is, to
'
say the
least, doubtful.
There is a great l09 * deal of discussion in the smrfcis and nibandhas on the gotra of a woman. A6v. gr. S. I. 8. 12 is interpreted by some as laying down that husband and wife
become of one gotra one year after mamage. Laghu Harlta appears to refer to this and also proposes an option that she takes up the husband's gotra immediately after marriage. Yama 86 and Likhita 25 say that after marriage on the 4th night a bride becomes one with her husband as to gotra, pinda
and a&auca while Yama 78 and Likhita 26 state that she loses her father's gotra on taking the seventh step. The Mit. on Yaj. I. 254 has a long note on this subject, states that there are two views and finally reaches the conclusion that a woman retains
;
her father's gotra even after marriage for pindadana, if she was a putrika or was married in the asura and the following forms but if she was married in the brahma and other approved
;
1093
e.
.
* ?*3SR*<T %ft
&ffiHrac
ftofaftpg
HI ^frS
p. 285.
1093 f
Hi
1094.
^W
i
p- 229.
tfwt ibf
Hnj^r
fir:
i
SEffiRnur
an**. %.
I. 8.
12
ftnraor notes
i
nT*uw ft^r^r!
;j
<risWhf *T3nr ^rc^sn

'
'H^cf
T?nrf *rr^?Nr^ rrf7*W!W9TT

62-63;
N
fWTf5t |fiwr ^repwrT

^ll^^S,
i I
c5^fKld
T*T%
V.
nfallz
g: fqro%
^ ^ft
:
I
^h^( w^ft irfif f^^rf w wfo ^
%^T {^Tf% ^fpiifT'T
I^B^T
flTT
lift
*fffa<ir
^RTT
quoted by fegr^T on r. on -*n. I. 254.
f^f^H 25-26 and *m 86, 78. The words fr^^...^r are ^TT I. 254 and the verso fjifhnq; is quoted by the
Oh.
IX
Wife's gotra on Marriage
467
was an option viz. pinda may be offered to one's mother by one's father's gotra or by her father's gotra according to family usage. Vide also Apararka pp. 432, 542, Sm. C.
forms, there
I. p.
69.
Both of them allow a person's marriage with his paternal aunt's daughter. Certain inscriptions at Nagarjunikonda ( of about the 3rd century A. D.) establish that the king Siri Virapurisadata, son of Siri Chantamula who had performed the Vajapeya, A6vamedha and other sacrifices, married a daughter of his paternal aunt ( E. I. vol. 20 at p. 4 ). There are other authors, however, who, while allowing marriage with a maternal
uncle's daughter, disallow it; with a paternal aunt's daughter. For example, the Nirnayasindhu says that, though it follows
from the same Vedic

daughter
may
it
contracted as
passages that one's paternal aunt's be married, yet such a marriage should not be is hateful to the people, as there are no other
1095
passages laying down the advisability of such marriages. Similarly the Sm. 0. ( I. p. 71 ) and Par. M. ( I. 2. p. 65 ) say that though marriage with one's mother's sister or mother's sister's daughter also should be allowed on the same grounds as those urged in favour of the marriage with the maternal uncle's
13
daughter, yet it is forbidden since it is condemned by Vistas and 1095 hateful to the people and both again rely on Yaj. I. 156,
Another and a very striking instance of the limits of sapinda relationship not being observed is the practice among certain sections of even brahmanas ( such as some Desasthas in
Karnataka and Mysore

( i. e.
their
own
niece
).
marrying their own sister's daughter Vide Mandlik's Hindu Law p. 425. In
the
Ramangavda
;
v, Shivaji,
Bombay High
Court
held
that
marriage with one's sister's daughter was invalid among brahmanas but in that case no custom as to the validity of
1095.
?r?f
f^^TS-^^TO^r ffprf^TTra-wrnj *r
......
sfrnf:
fropmn?g HI, %ffy
p.
286.
The half verso sj^?$

1095.
^^r
is ^rr. I. fj
156.
*S^
the aatno words.
I.
p. 71
vide
j
*$r%.
Ww
p.
131
for almost
468
History of Dhanm&astra
Ch.
IX
1097 In Vellanki Ramakrishna v. . such marriages was alleged Kotagiri Subbamrna 43 Mad. 830 at p. 834 it is stated that in the Velama caste a man may marry his sister's daughter.
account of these divergences about the limits of prohiit appears that the remarks of the Samskarakaustubha ( p. 620 ) and of the Dharmasindhu ( p. 228 ) are most sensible and practical. They say that even in the
bited degrees for marriage
On
Kali age 1098 those, in whose families or countries the limits of sapinda relationship are narrowed down and marriage with the maternal uncle's daughter has been in vogue for ages, may do so, that they incur no blame by such marriages, that others blame ( among whom there is no such custom ) may without invite such persons for sraddhas and may take girls from their families in marriage and that the passages quoted by Hemadri forbidding their being invited at sraddhas only apply to those who marry a maternal uncle's daughter even though they have no such family or local usage. 1099
Another question is how far sapinda relationship holds good in the case of girls belonging to the family from which The Udvahatattva (p. 118), the one's step-mother comes. Nirnayasindhu ( p. 289 ), the Sam. Pr. ( pp. 695-699 ), SamskaraKaustubha (pp. 621-630) and the Dharmasindhu ( p. 230 ) deal with this matter. They all rely on a text of Sumantu 110 all the wives of one's father are mothers, the brothers of these are one's maternal uncles, their sisters are one's mother's sisters, the
*
daughters of these are one's sisters and the children of these

1097.
Vide Printed Judgments (of the Bombay High Court)
for
1876
p. 73.
1098.
The *%$&.
I. p.
12 and tbo fW*TO*>| (p. 367) include
m^'
l-rFrogTi^Tf
1099.
among
SlcT;
p. 620.
1100.
*iF*re!3q?*m5 HiPft^n^
vaiiousj readings in this
I. 2. p.
ap^trr
WK^^rf^t
all
^3:
^Fg.
I.
There
is
arc
HT-
passage in
it.
works,
^f^^ 9
p*
70 and qu.
64 also quote
Vide note 1091 where QTT*3
somewhat
differently quoted
by
Oh. I3t
latter
Marriage-sapinda relationship
469
are one's sister's children; otherwise there would be samkara ( confusion ) Two interpretations are placed on this, one view ( and that is held by most ) is that this lays down 1101 sapindya only with the persons specifically mentioned, while another view ( this is held by the Sam. Pr. ) is that there Is sapindya for four generations from the father of one's stepmother. According to the first view a man cannot marry the
'.
sister,
daughter or grand-daughter of his step-mother's brother or but his own daughter can marry the son of his stepmother's brother; while according to the second view the latter marriage also would contravene the rule about this extension
atideia
)
of sapindya.
Marriages with certain girls were forbidden by certain

writers on the ground of what is called viruddhasambandha ', although there is no question of sapinda relationship in such The Grhya-parisisâ 1102 (quoted in the Nirnayasindhu cases.
p.
*
viruddhasambandha
289) prescribes 'one should marry a girl with whom there is no e. g. the daughter of one's wife's sister or the
,
sister of one's paternal uncle's wife (these
Viruddhasambandha
incompatible relation
should not be married), the ) occurs where
standing of the proposed bridegroom and the bride would resemble that of father or mother to the other ( or of brother and In modern times such marriages take place as a matter sister). of course and no court would declare them to be invalid. Vide
L. R. 20 Mad. 283 and I. L, R. 43 Mad. 830 where marriage with one's wife's sister's daughter was held to be valid, among brahmaâs as well as sudras in the Telugu and Tamil districts, relying on Mandlik's Hindu Law pp. 484-485 and other authoIn Ramchandra v. Oopal 32 Bom. 619 at pp. 630-631 rities. the court approves of the decision in 20 Mad. 283 and holds that
I.
the dicta as to viruddha-sambandha are only recommendatory.
1101.
am Tresrî û^Hwrf^ ^n^N

I
ft Hg'cRQTJnjcT^ *$*:
tf.
A
(
qifrfdnfa^sr ^nProtf
*r
p. 621.
( 011
.
For tho
V.
4.
3.
maxim
vide Sahara's
HT^
and
p.
P-
1324
12
)
'
1339
on ^. V.
11 )
TOCT w* ...... ft*

'
1102.
*
22
W.
P- 725.
470
Ch.
IX
About the sapinda relationship of the adopted son as regards marriage, asauoa and sraddha a good deal is said in many works such as Sam. K. ( pp. 182-186 ), Nirnayasindhu ( pp. 290-291 ), the
(pp. 453-456),
Vyavahararnayukha, the Sam. Pr, ( pp. 688-694 ), Sam, R. M. Sapindya for asauca and sraddha will be dealt with later on. As to sapindya for marriage in the case of adoption there is great divergence of views, The Sam. Pr. ( p. 690 ) says
that the son given in adoption has sapindya for seven generations with his genitive father and for three generations with
s the adoptive father ( pp. 693-694 ). The Sam, K. appears to that if the upanayana of the several after views, hold, quoting
adopted boy was performed in the family of birth, then he has sapindya with the genitive family for seven generations. But
if
the ceremonies
from jatakarma
to
upanayana
are performed
in the adoptive family then he has sapindya
adoptive family for seven generations, but only for five generations if only upanayana is performed in the family of adoption. The Nirnayasindhu gives its own view that there is sapindya in both families for seven generations. The Vyavaharamayukha
holds
(
in the
following
(
Gautama
IV. 3
that
in the case of kevala
dattaka
'
ordinary adopted son ) sapinda relationship extends to seven degrees in the adoptive father's family and 1104 The Dharma* five degrees in the adoptive mother's family.
the
sindhu
follows
the
Sam.
K.
generally
but
it
makes one
It says that several writers hold that significant remark. in the case of dattaka, sapindya is to be observed for a lesser
number of degrees (than seven or five) in both families. 1105 The Sam. R. M. ( p. 454 ) says that the limits of sapindya spoken of as applying to an adopted person extend to his children
also.
As the limits of sapindya for marriage are very much narrowed down when marriage with one's maternal uncle's daughter or one's niece is allowed, on the other hand certain communities extend such limits too much. The Desastha brShmanas of the Madhyandina s^kha in the Deccan do not
1
1106
1103.
*. PP-
693-694.
1104.
TOTOT^pr
1105.
p. 161.
( p.
119,
my
edition).
1106.
P- 454.
Ch.
IX
Marriage in mother's original gotra
47t
marry a girl whose father's gotra is the same as the gotra of the bridegroom's maternal grandfather. Manu III. 5 lays down ' that girl who is not a sapi^da of the mother (of the bridegroom) and who is not a sagotra of the father ( of the bridegroom ) is
commended
in the case of twice-born classes
',
Many com-
mentators and digests like Kulluka, the Madana-pSrijata (p. 132), the Dlpakalika, the Udvahatattva ( p. 107 ) understand the word asagotra ( in Manu III. 5 ) after matuh also, and thus forbid marriage with a girl whose gotra is the same as that of one's
*
'
mother
( i.
e.
Manu
III. 5
of one's maternal grandfather ). Medhatithi n07 on a of text which quotes "Vasis^ha prescribss the
for
penance of candrayana
marrying a
( i. e.
girl
who has
the
)
same
and Haradatta on Ap. Dh. S. II. 5. 11. 16 quotes a similar verse from SStatapa. Kulluka, the Srn. C. ( I. p. 69 ), Haradatta on Ap. Dh. S. II. 5. 11. 16, the Gr. R. verse of ( p. 10 ), Udvahatattva p. 107 and other digests quote a Vyasa some do not desire for marriage a girl who has the
gotra as the bridegroom's mother
his mother's father
abandonment
of her.
'
same gotra as
(
one's mother ; but one may marry without question a girl when her birth and name ( as connected woman with one's mother's original gotra ) are unknown '. on marriage loses her original gotra and passes over into so the words the gotra of her husband sagotra of the
or fear
mother simply mean having the same gotra as one's The Sm. C. ( I. p. mother once had in her maiden state 69 ) takes this verse to refer only to a woman who was made an appointed daughter ( putrika ) by her father. Hala"yudha also held the same view. But other writers do nofc I108 approve of this ( vide the Gr. R, p. 10 ). The Nirnayasinclhu
'.
III.
purvardha
p.
302
forbids marriage with a girl
who
is
sagotra of one's mother, but the Sam. K. ( p. 693 ) and the Dharmasindhu both say, after quoting a text of Safcyasadha, that this restriction applies only to those who study the Madhyan-
dina Sakha.
1107.
qf^fa
H*fr5rt
W<J
'
at(|Wr
Bart
3TirnTT3fi
n*hr
^
4
Î?r&
quoted in
*
m.
Manu
&*J^Y
',
111. 5 presents various

'
readings, viz. Vide 3tu<> thereon.
^reffrfpT &'g^T',
^K-fi'ffll'
1108.
III, igf\3 p.
302
472
History of Dharmaidstra
Oh.
IX
Raghunandana
of
The Bengal school represented by the Dayabhaga and differ from the Mitaksara in the interpretation the word 'sapinda'. In this system the word 'pinda' is taken
ball of rice* that
*
is offered in sraddhas to deceased (while under the Mit. interpretation pinda' ' means body or particles of body ). Sapinda means one who is connected with another through oblations of food '. The author of the Dayabhaga propounds his theory with reference to inheritance and he himself says that with reference to adauca 1109 sapinda relationship is to be differently understood. Further
to
mean 'the
ancestors &c.
Jlmutavahana does not
set forth his theory of sapinda relationto with reference marriage. His theory is that in matters ship of inheritance the guiding principle is the spiritual benefit ( upakarakatva ) conferred on the deceased through oblations of food, and he relies on Manu ( IX. 106 ) for this proposition. For his 1110 sapinda theory he principally relies on two passages, Baud. Dh. S.' I. 5. 113-115 and Manu IX. 186-187. Baudhayana's
words are 'the paternal great-grand-father, the paternal grandfather, the father, the
man
himself, his full brothers, his son,
grandson and son's son from a woman of the same varna: all these participating in undivided daya ( heritage ) are called sapindas. Those who participate in divided daya are called sakulyas. Thus issue of the body existing, wealth goes to them on failure of sapindas, the sakulyas '. The text of Manu ( IX. 186-187) is 'To three, libations of water must be given; towards three pinda proceeds the fourth is the giver of these properly (concerned in ( of water and pindas ), there is no fifth
;
;
this).
the wealth of
as follows
Whoever is the nearest among sapindas, his becomes him (who dies). After him the sakulya be'.
comes (the heir) &c

'
:
Jlmutavahana's explanation of
living offers
this text
is
A man when
;
male ancestors
but
when
*aRtfp
pindas to his three he himself dies, his son performs
1109.
TOiM<*msW
qgy^re ^FTHPT
chap. 11. sec. 32;
f^
IfB
3151^3^ jrw A ^FTWT chap. The passage occurs in nr%*%*njWT

I
i
11 flections 39-41
28. 3-4
(JivSnanda's ed.).
and
also in
*#mrn
112. 17-18.
1110.
sTffcrmf
ffamf: mr **tf
ffiugRregn*
I
f
I
HT^THT^
*4$<rT:
^.T. ^
I. 5.
113-115 quoted in
XI. 37.
The
text printed in the
Imn.
e<J. is
slightly difEerent.
Ch.
IX
Meaning of sdpinda
in
Dayabhaga
473
the
the sapindlkaraâ
pitrs
un sraddha
for him, he is
made one with
and he then begins
to participate along
with his father
and grandfather in the

latter's three ancestors.
and those who

in undivided
offer
three pindas offered by his son to the Thus those to whom he offers pindas pindas to him are called, since they share
Several oblations, avibJiaktadayada sapindas.' objections can be raised against the theory of Jlmutavahana. In the first place he assigns the meaning of pinda to the word
daya in Baudhayana's passage for which there is no warrant. Baudhayana really means that those enumerated by him are
called sapindas
who
take undivided wealth
i.
e.
who
constitute
an undivided family. In the nexfc place on his interpretation the word sapinda has to be interpreted in entirely different ways for asauca and marriage. Besides he himself is not sure
of his ground, since he says that although learned men approve of his theory that spiritual benefit is the
may
not
guiding principle in taking property by inheritance they must admit that the order of heirs as stated by him relying on Manu IX. 186-187
is
the proper one.
llla
stated
The following table illustrates the sapindas expressly so by the Dayabhaga where P stands for the propositus S for son and F for father
%
:
GGF12
!
S13
S14
S10
S6
S15
GF8
F
89
S5
Sll
S7
SI
S3
S3
1111. In the Sapindlkarana rito four pindas are mado, one for the deceased person whose sapindlkarana is to be effected and thieo for thai poison's three paternal ancestors and the pindas are mixed up, thereby
oi indicating that from being a more prota (one belonging to the region the umcdeemcd dead) ho becomes one of the pitrs and dwells ir
pityioka. arcroh
chap. XI.
1.
para 38.
I. 6,
para 38.
H. D. 60
474
Srlkrsna, a
Ch,
IX
of
commentator
of the
DayabhSga and author
Dayakramasarhgraha, and Raghunandana, author of Smrtitattva, and others elaborate these rules. The Full Bench of the Calcutta High Court in Guru Qovind Shaha Mandal 1UI v, Anand Lai Ghose Mazumdar gives an elaborate statement of the several sapindas. But as those rules have reference only to
succession, they are passed over here.
*
Raghunandana
in his
work on marriage called Udvahatattva 1114 quotes the famous verse of the Matsyapurana, the fourth and ( two beyond him )
among ascendants are partakers of lepa ( the leavings of the boiled rice that become attached to the hand of him who offers pindas ), the father and the rest ( i. e. two more beyond him ) are
partakers of the pinda he who offers the pinda to them is the seventh ; sapindy a extends to seven generations' and refers the readers to his Suddhitattva for elucidation. Raghunandana
;
does not give any definition of sapindas for marriage, but * discusses the conflict about the several texts such as 7th on the on the 5th mother's side He '. father's side and expressly says that the words who is not a sapinda ( p. 110 of Udvahatattva )
*
are still applicable even if several females of one's mother intervene between the common ancestor and the girl proposed He then adds a special rule that descendants of to be married.
'
what are called pitrbandhus and matrbandhus also are forif they are within 7 degrees and 5 degrees respectively from these bandhus. The pitrbandhus n5 of a person are his
bidden
}
paternal grand-father's sister's sons, his paternal grandmother's sons and his father's maternal uncle's sons; while sister's matrbandhus are a person's mother's father's sister's sons,
mother's mother's sister's sons, mother's maternal uncle's sons, These two latter may be illustrated by two diagrams.
5 Bengal
1113.
Law
Reports
p. 15.
1114.
about Wl5^?rfirff%
Vide pp. 117-118 of the g^rgCTO for a summary of the rules about iqf^ and JTigspg be says
*
110.
fij|j:
1115,
i".
^nF^nrurr according to
*rar/? <nt^rur
p.
674 and
^TTTT
according
to q^T.
*TT.
Ch.
IX
Marriage-sapinda relationship
No.
475
L
Father's maternal line 7
Paternal line
7
6
5
4
3
6 5 4
3
father's
maternalgrand-father
Father's paternal
aunt
(2)
Grandfather = Grandmother
father's
grand
maternal mother's uncle sister
S(i)
(1) father
S
)
(3)
(2)
A
N. B.
bridegroom
Here SI, S2 and S3 are the throe pitrbandhus of A, the bridegroom, and they are the starting points for calcuIn the lating prohibited degrees among paternal cognates. ascending line only the descendants of the common ancestors
For example, SI is a pitrbandhu and his descendants up to 7 degrees are excluded; but Si's father is not a bandhu of the bridegroom; therefore Si's father's sister may be married by the bridegroom. Under this rule the 6th descendant (a girl) of Si will be ineligible for marriage with A: but she
are excluded.
will be 9th from A's grandfather's father who is the common ancestor. So it will be seen that this goes far beyond the limits of sapindya generally prescribed and there is no valid reason
assigned for this.
No.
II.
Mother's paternal line

5
Mother's maternal lino

5 4
3 mother's mater|
4 3
2 maternal great
grand-father
nal grandfather
SI
mother
S3
A (bridegroom).
476
History of bharmaiastra
Oh.
IX
N. B.
groom.
Here SI, S3 and S3 are matrbandhus of the brideThe maternal great-grandfather is the starting point in
calculating prohibited degrees in the mother's paternal line. In the mother's maternal line the starting points are S2 and S3* In the ascending lines of the matrbandhus the descendants of
only the common ancestor are excluded. For example, the girl descended from S3's maternal ancestors may be married by the bridegroom and so also a girl descended from the paternal ancestor of S2 or SI
.
Another rule propounded by Raghunandana is that even within prohibited degrees a valid marriage may be contracted In the case of girls descended from if three gotras intervene.
pitrbandhus and matrbandhus the computation of gotra must be made from them. For want of space it is not thought advisable to illustrate this by citing several examples. But
one example
is
given to illustrate this rule.
A ( common
ancestor
D(4)
Here according to the Bengal school S (4) can marry D (4) because three gotras intervene between her and the common ancestor, although S4 is only 5th in descent from the common
ancestor; for according to the Bengal school it is not necessary that both the bridegroom and the bride be beyond the limits of sapindaship, but only the bride need be so ; while according to
many
writers of the Mitaksara school both
must be beyond the
limits of sapindaship from the

1116.
common
ancestor 1116
The f^nrfflFg summarizes the views of Gauda writers
3
n5H'IT:
I
pp. 283-284,
(
where
a passage of
)
^^^g
is
quoted
Ch.
IX
Sapinda relationship under Dayabhaga
477
The Dayabhaga does not rely upon any Vedic passages for The Mit. (on Yaj. I. 52) relies upon three Vedic passages only in propounding the theory
its
theory of sapinda relationship.

*
of sapinda relationship viz. indeed the man himself is born from himself ( as son, Ait. Br. 33. 1 ) ' ; thou art born again ( or
*
and this body is made of six kosas ( sheaths ) three are derived from the father, three from the mother bones, muscles and marrow from the mother* ( Garbhopanisad ). These passages at the most say that
reproduced
)
in the offspring
'
Tai. Br.
I.
5.
particles of the bodies of the parents continue in their offspring ; but they do not say anything about the meaning of sapinda or
the
limits
heritance.
Even
of the sapinda relationship for marriage or inin the Rg. the words jnati and bandhu which
( e.
occur in the dharmasufcras

17.
g.
Ap. Dh.
S.
I. 3.
10. 3,
I.
5.
11
IV. 3 and 5, VI. 3 ) frequently occur ( vide ftg. VII. 55. 5 and X. 85. 28 for jiiati and $g. 1. 113. 2, V. 73. 4, VII. 72. 2, VII. 67. 9 for bandhu). All thab we can say is
II. 44,
and Gaut.
that both
meanings
earliest
of sapinda
from
the
times
were implicit in the word pinda and that the sutra writers were
conscious of both meanings.
As to the grounds on which marriages between near sapindas were prohibited various theories have been advanced by anthropologists. Vide Westermarck in his History of Human marriage ( ed. of 1921, vol. II. pp. 71-81 ) and Rivers * on Marriage of cousins in India' in J. R. A. S. for 1907 pp. Some think that the prohibition was due to the 611-640.
'
'
abhorrence which
men
in the primitive times felt for incest
To
me
appears more probable thafc in India at least the prohibition was due to two causes; firstly, the observed fact that, if near
it
to their
relatives marry, their defects are transmitted with offspring and secondly the fear that,
aggravation
if
marriages between near relatives by blood were allowed, there may bo clandestine love affairs and consequent loss of morals and it would be difficult to secure husbands for girls who would
(
from
'
swsngr n^ma*.
:
fî^%^T ^r
*n fwsrr f^srralTt rwTrwr*crfon

(
^
)
'.'
Tn e f%fafiF!J
to this
notes that southern writers
da'ksinstya
view about three gotras intervening being an exception to sSpindya in marriage. The ^STKSTSfirsT p. 710 also notes the view of SulapSni about fipfrWRcrRrTT which means
do not subscribe
478
Ch.
IX
be living under the cousins.
same roof with
several
near or distant
The Par. M. I. part 2, p. 59 expressly says that only such a who is not a sapinda of the bridegroom within the prohibited degrees on any of the two theories of sSpindya ( viz. by
girl
connection with particles of the body or with the balls of rice

is eligible
for marriage.
The question what support Vedic Literature lends to the two interpretations of the word sapinda may now be briefly
discussed here.
The word pinda occurs 111T in the ftgveda (I. 162. 19) and the Tai. S. IV. 6, 9. 3 where it seems to mean a part of the body of the sacrificial animal thrown into fire as an offering Here it is clear that the word pinda is not used in the sense of ball of rice But in the Tai. S. II. 3. 8. 2 and in the Sat. Br. II. 4. 2. 24 the word pipda means 'ball of rice* offered to the Manes. The Nirukta III. 4 and 5 twice employs the words pindadanaya (for offering balls of rice). But the word sapinda hardly ever occurs in the Vedio literature and we have no means of judging in what sense it was used in the Vedic literature. In the dharmasutras the word sapinfa occurs frequently and the dharmasutras show a close connection between offering pinda and the taking of inheritance ( vide Qaut. 14. 13, 28. 21, Ap. Dh. S. II. 6. 14. 2, Vasistha IV. 16-18, Visnu Dh. S. 15. 40).
'
'.
'.
'
It was shown above ( pp. 436-37 ) that some sages prohibit marriage with a sagotra girl while others prohibit it with a sapravara girl. A number of sages and works like Visnu Dh. S. 24. 9, Yaj. I. 53, Narada (strlpumsa, verse 7) require that the girl to be married must not ba a sagotra nor a sapravara. Therefore it is necassary to understand the meaning of gotra and A detailed treatment of the topics of gotra and pravara pravara. would extend to a large treatise. Only a few salient points can be gone into here, The subject of gotra and pravara in the Vedic Literature has been treated at length by me in the J. B. B. R, A. S. ( New series vol. II. for 1935 ). Only the
conclusions there drawn will be set out here.
33RH3<?CTr ft$rearr gr Drawer ^rorsw 3*3: ^rr ft*OTt n gjtarjft H 5R. I. 162. 19=4. 3. IV. 6. 9. 3. The word aagotva is equal to samSna-gotra as stated by PSnini VI. 3.85 and and sapravara are similarly formed.
i
1117.
Ch.
IX
Mart iage-meaning of gotra

in the Rg.
479
'
The word gotra

cows
'
means
'
cow-stable
or
'
herd of
in a few passages (I. 51. 3, II. 17. 1, III. 39. 4, III. 43. 7, ' ' IX. 86. 23, X. 48. 2, X. 120. 8 ). By a natural metaphor gotra
was applied
which waters are pent up as cows in a also to a mountain range or peak which conceals water-yielding clouds. Vide Rg. II. 23. 3
to a cloud (in
cow-stable) or to a cloud
demon and
103. 7 (=Tai. (where Brbaspati's car is styled 'gotrabhid'), Rg. S. IV. 6. 4. 2, Atharva-veda V. 2. 8. and Vaj. S. 17. 39 ), Rg. VI. 17. 2, X. 103. 6. In some of these verses ifc is possible to ' take gotra in the sense of fort '. In some cases gotra
' '
'
'
probably means only assemblage ( samuha ) e. g. Rg. II. 23. From this last sense of assemblage the transi18, VI. 65. 5. tion to the meaning of a group of persons is both easy and There is no positive instance of the word gotra quick. being unchallengeably used in the sense descendants of a
'
"
'
'
'
'
'
common
patriarchal ancestor in the Rgveda but the conception underlying the idea of gotra was, it is plain, quite familiar even in the age of the Rgveda. In the Atharvaveda V. 21. 3 1118
;
'
the word
'
'
vifcvagotryah
'
(
*
belonging to
clearly
all
'
families
occurs.
means a group of men connected together* (by blood). The KauSika sutra IV. 2 quotes a mantra in which gotra undoubtedly means 'a group
Here the word
gotra
1
of persons
Several passages of the Tai. S. show that descendants of great sages were called after those sages. In Tai. S. I. 8. 18. 1 ' of Bhrgu ). the Hotr is a Bbargava it is said ( descendant
'
The commentator explains
It is quite possible that in those
that this is so only in the R&jasuya. days descent was traced through
teacher and pupil as well as through father and son. But there being a very few occupations only it is most probable that the son generally learnt from his father the lore of the latter. In Tai. * S. VII. 1. 9. 1 we read therefore one does not find ( or know ) two Jamadagniyas (in succession) who are poor (or grey-
haired
S.
From this it is clear that in the times Jamadagni was regarded as a very ancient sage,
) '.
of the Tai.
that several
generations of Jamadagni's descendants had passed away by that time, that they were all known as Jamadagnyas (or-gniyas) and that no two descendants were found to be poor ( or greyhaired
)
in succession.
1118.
awfa?
V. 21.
3.
480
Ch,
IX
In numerous mantras of the Rgveda the descendants of well-known sages are denoted by the plural form of the names of those sages. In Rg. X. 66. 14 we read the Vasisthas have raised In Rg. VI. 35. 5 the Bharadtheir voices like their father '.
*
vajas are referred to as Angirases. According to Asv. Srautasutra Bharadvaja is a gotra falling under the Arigirogana. In the Brahmana Literature there are ample indications that
priestly families
had come
(
to
be formed
)
named
after their
real or supposed
into several groups founders and that such
families differed in details of worship according to the group they belonged to. The Tai. Br. ( 1. 1. 4 ) prescribes that the
consecration (adhana
for
of the sacred Vedic^fires

'
is
to be
performed
Bbrgus or Angirases with the mantra bhrgunam ( or angirasam ) tvadevanam vratapate vratena-dadhami,' .that for other biahmanas with the words adityanam tva devanam vratapate * &c. The Tai. Br. II. 2. 3 speaks of the AngirasI praja' ( people ll19 of the Angiras group). The Tandy a Brahmana prescribes that the camasa ( cup ) made of udumbara was to be given as 1]2 daksina to a sagotra brahmana.' The Kauslfcaki Br. ( 25. 15 )
*
'
says that
one who has performed the Visvajit

sacrificer
sacrifice
in
which everything that the

Ait. Br.
owned was gifted away ) should stay for a year with a brahmana of tha same gotro. The
(30. 7
)
contains the story of Aitasa and his son

stated that the Aitasayanas Abhyagnis are In tha Kausltaki Br. where the
it
Abhyagni and
same
lowest
it is
the most; sinful of the Aurvas.

story occurs
is
said that the
Aifcasayanas
became
among Bhrgus,
as
they were cursed by their father.
According to Baudhayanasrauta-sufcra the Aifcasayanas are a sub-section of Bhrgugaiia. Sunahsepa, when he was accepted as a son by Visvamitra, came to be called Devarata and the
Ait. Br.
(
33. 5
affiliated to
) says that the Kapileyas and Babhravas were Devarata. According to Baud, srauta-sutra Devarata
and Babhru are sub-sections of Visvamitra gotra. Sunahsepa n21 So is said to have been an Aiigirasa by birth ( Ait. Br. 33. 5 ). that in the clear was birth this makes it gotra relationship by In the times of the Ait. Br. ( and not from teacher to pupil Upanisads the sages when expounding the knowledge of brahma
).
1119. 1120.
^pfcrnr
srrsrof
ar^R ^r: rffrmsflprnfifTT
m^-
18. 2. 12.
Wfa!%
1121.
*T- 25. 15.
Ch.
IX
Marriage-meaning of gotra
e. g.
481
addressed their pupils by the gotra names
by the Bhara-
dvaja, Gargya, Asvalayana, Bhargava and Katyayana gotras in PraSna 1. 1, Vaiyaghrapadya and Gautama in Chandogya
V.
14. 1 and V. 16. 1; Gautama and Bharadvaja, Visvamitra and Jamadagni, Vasistha and Ka&yapa in Br. Up. II. 2. 4. All this shows that the system of gotras with several sub-sections was
well established in the times of the Brahmanas and the ancient Upanisads. But the gotras are in these works referred to in connection with sacrifices or education. There is hardly any
distinct reference in these to gotra or sagotra in relation to 11M VIII. 2. 8 and 10 marriage. In the Latyayana-srauta-sufcra
it is prescribed that one who has given away everything in the ViSvajit sacrifice should stay three nights with nisadas and
may partake of their jungle diet and then again three nights with 'jana and then the sutra gives several views about the meaning of 'jana* one of which, that of Dhanaiijapya, is that jana' means a person with whom ( i. e. with whose daughter) marriage is possible while one who is sagotra is called samawajana\ This clearly proves that long before the Latyayanasrautasutra marriage with a sagotra had been forbidden. Besides several of the grhya and dharma sutras prohibit marriage with a sagotra girl. It is impossible to hold that this was a new conception that arose only about the time of these sutras. Therefore, it must be supposed that prohibition as to sameness of gotra in marriage had its origin long before the period of the sutras in the times of the Brahmana works ( if
' 4 '
not earlier).
Gotra was of supreme importance in several fundamental matters and it largely entered into several practices of the ancient Aryans. A few examples may be given here. (1) In marriage sagotra girls were forbidden, vide above pp. 436-37. In the Lajahoma at marriage two offerings were to be made by all
except Jamadagnyas,
who had
to
make
three
Asv.
gr. I. 7.
8-9
).
In matters of inheritance the wealth of one dying (2) without issue went to his near sagotras ( Gaut. 28. 19 ).
In sraddha the brahmanas to be invited ^hould not (3) belong as far as possible to the same gotra as the person inviting ( Ap. Dh. S. II. 7. 17. 4, Gaut. 15. 20 ).
1122.
misn
H. D. 61
3R:
^re: wnr^npT
fid
VIII.
2. 11.
482
(4)
Cb.
IX
to cut off oblations
In parvana sthallpaka and other pakayajnas, all were from the middle and fore-half of the havis
but for Jamadagnyas ( who are pancavattins ) they were to be cut off from the middle, the fore-part and the hind part ( vide Asv. gr. 1. 10. 18-19 ). 1188
(5)
his gotra
(6)
and name were
In offering water to a preta ( a person recently dead to be repeated ( Asv. gr. IV. 4. 10 ).
in
(
In the caula ceremony tufts of hair were to be left with the gotra and practice of the family Khadira gr. II. 3. 30 ).
accordance
(7) At the time of performing one's daily samdhya prayer, one has to repeat even in modern times one's gotra and pravara, the Vedasakha and sutra which one studies.
As regards srauta sacrifices a few interesting examples may be given. Jaimini establishes that sattras ( sacrificial sessions extending over 12 days and more ) could be performed only by
brahmanas and that among brahmanas the Bhrgus, Sunakas and Vasisthas are not entitled to perform them ( VI. 6. 24-26 ). Those of the Atri, Vadhryasva, Vasistha, Vaisya ( Vainya ? ), Saunaka, Kanva, Kasyapa and Sarhkrti gotras took Nfirasamsa as the second prayaja while others took Tanunapat as the second ( vide Sahara on Jaimini VI. 6. 1 ).
%
The conception of pravara is closely interwoven with thafc from very ancient times. The two have to be studied ' Pravara literally means choosing or invoking ' together. in * As Agni was invoked to carry the offerings of (prarthana). a sacrificer to the gods by taking the names of the illustrious
of gotra
'
' *
'
rs''s (
his remote ancestors ) who in former times had invoked Agni, the word pravara came to denote one or more illustrious A synonym of pravara is arseya rsis, ancestors of a sacrificer. or arsa ( as in Yaj. I. 52 ). Pravara entered into several domestic
ceremonies and practices according to the grhya and dharma

sutras.
For example
a bride was to be chosen whose father's pravara (1) was not the same as that of the bridegroom's father. Vide
above
p. 437.
1123.
.
I. 10.
18-19.
1124.
qnHH
3. *
P-
Oh.
IX ]
Atarriage-gotra arid pravara
483
In upanayana the girdle ( mekJiala ) was to have one, (2) three or five knots according to the number of rsis constituting the boy's pravara ( vide Sail. gr. II. 2 ).
In Caula the tufts of hair to be left on the head (3) depended on the number of sages constituting the pravara of the boy's family ( Ap. gr. 16. 6 ).
The mass of material on gofcra and pravara in the sufcras, the puranas and digests is so vast and so full of contradictions that it is almost an impossible task to reduce it to order and
coherence.
is
The learned author
of the
Pravara-manjarl
which
the leading work on the subject) wrote in despair 'Here, in the parts of sutras that have been quoted there is a great diver-
gence in the order
of the
names
of pravaras
of the texts of
the several sutrakaras, this being specially so in the text of
Asvalayana ( srauta )-sutra.

established, yet following the
Thus, though divergence is clearly order of the texts of the majority
of writers such as
shall declare (the rules
BaudhSyana, Apastamba and Katyayana we n25 ) about marriage or no marriage*.

to
We have
first
understand what gotra in the sutras and

it
digests means and how
is
inter-related to pravara.
Among
and pravara the Srauta sutras of Asvalayana ( Uttarasatka VI, khandas 10-15), Apastamba ( 24th prasna ) and Baudhayana ( B. I. ed. vol. Ill pravaradhyaya at end ) are the most important. The Pravaramaiijarl ( p. 5 ) has
the sutras that treat of gotra
a verse to the effect that Baudhayana's pravaradhyaya best on the subject.
is
the
The Srautasutra of Satyasadha Hiranyakesi (21sfc prasna) has a section on this subject, which is the same as Apastambasrauta with a few omissions and variations. The BaudhaVisvamitra, Jamadagni, Bharadvaja, Gautama, Atri, Vasistha and Ka^yapa are the seven sages and Agastya is the eighth; the progeny of these eight sages is
yanasrauta-sufcra says
1126
'
declared to be gotra
'.
from what
1125.
is
stated
These seven sages are probably derived in the Br. Up. II. 2. 3-4 ( =Sat. Br.
sm*rofr
p.
72
i
ed.
by Chensalrao
54
).
1126.
ft*m*nfr ^<{fiiq>gnfoqf ^HJT:
*r
and
H.
4&4
History of DharmaiHstra
5.
Ch.
IX
where these very seven sages are enumerated as ' 1187 &c. quoted arvag-bilascatnasa work same srauta The there. ) states that there are ,( Baud, thousands, tens of thousands and arbudas ( millions of millions )
XIV.
2.
those intended in the Aloka
'
of gotras, but the pravaras are only 49.
Besides the sutra works,
some purSnas like the Matsya (chap. 195-202 ), the VSyu (chap. 88 and 99, Anan. ed. ), Skanda III. 2 ( Dharmaranya kanda ) contain elaborate enumerations of gotras and pravaras. The Mahabharata sets out at length the subdivisions (such as Madhuo 4.
chandas, Devarata ) of Visvamitragofcra in Anusasanaparva 49-59. Digests like the SmrtyartbasSra ( pp. 14-17 ), the Sam. Pr. (pp. 59L-680), the Sam. K. (pp. 637-692), the Nirnayasindhu, the Dharmasindhu, the BalambhattI contain a vast material on this topic. There are also special works like the
The general conception about who trace descent in an unbroken male line from a common male ancestor. When a person says I am Jamadagni-gotra he means that he traces his descent from the ancient sage Jamadagni by unbroken male descent. As stated by Baud, cited above, from very ancient times these male founders were supposed to be eight.
Pravaramanjarl on this
gofcra
is
topic.
that
*
it
denotes
all
persons
'
This enumeration of eight primary gotras seems to have been known to Panini. Patanjali says there were eighty thousand sages who observed celibacy. The accepted opinion is that the spread of progeny was due to eight sages includ'
The offspring ( apatya ) of these eight are ing Agastya. ms Pacini gotras and others than these are called gotravayava*.
Vide Nirukta XII. 38 for another interpretation of the verse In the Nirukta the seven sages are explained either or as the seven indriyas '. The Br. Up. as seven rays of the Sun explains the 'seven sages* as the prffnas (the two ears, eyes, the two holes of the nose and the tongue ) and identifies them with the seven The Atharva-veda X. 8. 9 reads the verse sages, VidvBmitra and others.
1127.
3raft5*Tt5**flW &c.
*
*
'
'
'
1128.
:
I
rTSrvf^t <<c5Mc<f HTT'T ^frsTTT^T Stfhs^r
fTrSTiîr:
*n?nTTff*T
vol. II.
p.
The an<T. *. ^. 233 on the sutra arnrnwirj( (m. IV. 1. 78). (II. 9. 23. 3-5) quotes passages from a pursna about two sorts of 80000 sages ( one group desiring offspring and the other not so desiring). *?vrr3TT5T. III. 186-187, ^nrrcpf 11. 54 contain somewhat similar versea.
q$
11.
<r*T5T|*>rmft probably to the pravara sages, just aa Baud, speaks of 49 pravara groups,
<rr<J3*iP.
54
is
'
The reference
arersfiwrcwjrrfa qrfian^fftarF* to fifty sages having
'
inrmt
progeny
is
Oh.
li ]
Marriage-meaning of gotra
485
defines gotra for grammatical purposes as 'apatyam pautraprabhrti gotram* (IV. 1. 162), which means 'the word gotra denotes ( in my work on grammar ) the progeny ( of a sage )
beginning with the son's son '. For example, the son of Garga would be called Gargi, but the grandson would be called Gargyah and the plural Gargah would denote all descendants of Garga (downwards from Garga's grand-son). But this definition is a technical one in grammar and is meant to indicate how derived ( taddhita ) words are to be formed by means of terminaEven Panini makes use of this technical sense only in tions.
the apatyadhikara % but elsewhere in his work he uses the word gotra in the popular sense as comprehending all descendants
Vide the Kasika on Panini II. The Sam Pr. (pp. 591-592) ll89 this. That a man belongs to a particular lucidly explains gotra is known by him only from tradition, from his father and other elders or from people about him, just as he knows that he is a brahmaua from the same source 11S . Medhatithi on Manu III. 5. 194 has a very lucid and interesting discussion on this topic. His argument is just as, though all persons are men, some are called brahmanas, so among brahmanas certain persons are known by immemorial usage (or convention) as belonging to certain gotras like Vasistha and the sutra-karas lay down that a certain gotra has certain pravaras so the word gotra is applied to Vasistha and other sages by rudhi (by convention or
of a
common male
ancestor.
3.
4.
63, IV. 2.
39 and IV.
80.
It cannot be supposed that a person long-standing usage ). called Parasara was born at a certain time and then his
descendants
the
came to be called Par&saras. Veda would not be anadi ( beginningless
In
),
that
it
case
sup-
as
is
posed to be, since it mentions Parasara, Vasistha &c. So gotra The word is is anadi like the brahmafla caste and the Veda.
also secondarily used to denote a person,
who
is
very illustrious
on account of his
learning, wealth, valour or generosity,
1129.
if%3
1130.
ROT*
tf .
if.
PP- 591-92.
vfa
tfwfr srofr *rigr<wrf%m?ta:,
srori?
i
fhr
a wf^
5.
^r
vw* f$ri%fTwrT*ifar
*g in.
486
thereby gives a
Ch,
IX
who
name
to his descendants
and then becomes
This is laukika gotra. But this the founder of the family. The is not the meaning of gofcras which brUhmanas have.
The Mifc. on Yaj. I. 53 says gotra is that which is known from tradition handed down in the nn Each gofcra is associated with one, two, three or five family.' sages ( but never four or more than five ) that constitute the 1133 The gotras are arranged in groups, e. g. pravara of that gotra.
there are according to the A^valayana-srauta-sutra four subdivisions of the Vasistha gana, viz. Upamanyu, Parasara, Kundina
the case of ksatriyas'. mi
secondary meaning
may
apply to the word
gofcra
when used
'
it.
and Vasistha
other than the
first
three
).
Each
of these four
again has numerous sub-sections, each being called gotra. So the arrangement is first into ganas, then into paksas, then into individual gotras. The first has survived in the Bhrgu and Angirasa gana. According to Baud, the principal eight gotras The pravara of Upamanyu is were divided into paksas.
the pravara of the Vasis^ha, Bharadvasu, Indrapramada Parasara gotra is Vasistha, Saktya, Parasarya the pravara of
;
the
Kundina
gofcra is
the pravara of Vasistha. It is therefore that
Vasistha, Maitravaruna, Kaundinya and Vasisthas other than these three is simply
some
'
define
pravara as
of sages that distinguishes the founder
( lit.
the starter
the group ) of one
gotra from another
n2 *
'.
the word
the word pravara does not occur in the Rgveda, arseya occurs therein and the system of pravara * goes back almost to the Rgveda. Bg. IX. 97. 51 has thereby may we acquire wealth and arseya resembling Jamadagni's.'
Though
*
'
Sometimes the idea

1131.
of
invoking Agni
is
conveyed without using
^^nHtrn ?rm fon on ng. III.

\
1132.
ifW ^TTOTTSTO^^
qtf fof^r ^r foft^
ft.
f^srr^rr on m.
^r
i
I.
53
ifw
fr.
^r-
p- 592.
1133.
I
?fN
ftfft
SUT.
% 24.
6. 7.
1134'.
p. 70.
HWT: nhnr^T^T ^nrfvÂ This is quoted in the
5^W
^rJ:
TTr. wf.
I.
part
Ch.
the
*
IX
Meaning of arseya or pravara

it
487
is
word pravara or arseya. In Rg. VIII. 102. 4 ll28 invoke Agni just as Aurva, Bbrgu and Apnavana
said
It is
did.'
remarkable that these are three of the five pravara sages of the Vatsa-Bhrgus according to Baud. (3). Rg. 1. 45. 3 has 'O Jatavedas ( Agni ), give heed to the summons of Praskanva, as in the case
of
Priyamedha,
said
*
Atri,
Virupa and Angiras.'

to
viz.
nji
In Rg. VII. 18.21
it is
they who from house
house
gladdened
thee,
being desirous of thee,
Parasara, Satayatu and Vasis^ba, will not forget the friendship of a liberal patron (like thee)V 18T It deserves to be noted that this mantra mentions Parasara (who in later mythology is the grandson of Vasistha and son of Sakti ),
( who is Sakti according to Sayana ), and Vasistha. Parasara, Sakti and Vasistha constitute the pravara of Parasara In the Atharvaveda gotra ( according to Asv. and Baud ).
Satayatu
XL 1. 16, XL 1.25,26, 32,33,35, XII. 4. 2 and 12, XVI. 8.12-13 ) * arseya means descendants of sagc-s or those who are related to sages '. In the Tai. S. both arseya and pravara occur in the sense of the sutras. In the Tai. S. II. 5. 8. 7 ( which refers to the recita(
tion of the SamidhenI verses) we read "he says 'choose (or invoke) ' he chooses him ( the fire ) of the ye the fire called havyavahma
;
he chooses the arseya in so doing he does not depart from the relationship ( by blood ) and doing so serves for continuity. He chooses the later ones beginning from the remoter ' ones ". In this passage arseyam appears to be used in the ' sense of one or more illustrious ancestors of the sacrificer and
gods
'
'
reference is
one of the two modes of mentioning the sages constituting the pravara. 'Arseya* may also be taken here as an adjective (qualifying Agni), the meaning being 'he invokes
to
made
Agni by the names of the illustrious ancestor sages of the yajamana '. In one mode the remotest ancestor is named first
in a taddhita
(
derivative
formation, then his descendant and
so on, the sage nearest the sacrificer being mentioned last. For example, the pravara of Bhrgu Vatsa is 'Bhargava-cyavana-
This method is employed by the apnavanaurva-jamadagnyeti Hotr priest when he invokes fire as the divine Hotr with the pravara-mantra Agne mahan-asi brShmaiia bharata deveddha
'.
'
1135.
According to the aj^thnunr

1136.
.
frg^rwi ^ fî 3rf 3*Hw^gi%w^n^r named this 8 a sHMa of a

*
VIII. 102.
4.
*TT*fo
fi^qRN^smrt
I.
45. 3.
IT
1137.
^ *rfl<4^flf3^tU^l
mean one who
(
may
'
literally
is
THSnCJ vn*fr$4fii?r: 5ff. VII. 18. 21. master of a hundred magic tricks,* or
I
on
whom
hundred magic
tricks
were practised
'.
488
Oh,
IX
raanvjddha rsistuta &c.'(vide Tai. S. II. 5. 9. and Sat, Br. I. 4, 2, Asv. Sr. I. 2. 27-1. 3. 6 ). In the other mode the affix vat* is used after the name of each pravara sage and the remotest one is mentioned last ( e. g. Jamadagnivat, Urvavat, Apnavanavat, Cyavanavat, Bhrguvat). This mode is employed by the adhvaryu
'
Hotr priest. n88 The Tai. S. II. 5. 11. 9 appears to refer to one ( i. e. 2nd ) mode. The Kausltaki brShmana explains the purpose of taking the names of ancestors
when he chooses
the
as
the
gods
list
do
of
(
not
partake
)
of
the
offering
of
him
who has no
ancestors, therefore he pronounces the ftrseya of the sacrifices' The Ait. Br. ( 34. 7 ) has
illustrious
an interesting passage on pravara. When a brahmana is initiated for a sacrifice, that fact is announced in these words a brahmana has been initiated for a sacrifice.' How is the initiation of the ksatriya to be announced ? The reply of the Ait. Br. is even in the case of the ksatriya the announcement is to be in the same form ( viz. a brahmana has been initiated)
'
* ;
but with the pravara of the family priest. Therefore they should proclaim the ksatriya's initiation as a sacrificer with the Srseya of his family priest and should invoke Agni with 1139 The Asv. Sr. (Uttara the pravara of his family priest/ satka VI. 15. 4-5 ) and Baud. Sr. ( pravaraprasna 54 ) say that
in the case of ksatriyas and vaisyas the pravara of their ' purohita was to be employed or the pravara Manava-Aila-
Paururavasa or simply Manuvar/ The origin of that rule is There is to be found in the above passage of the Ait. Br. another similar passage in the Ait. Br. ( 35. 5 ). The Sat. Br.
1138.
'
This rule
2,)
is
stated in Jp. Srauta (24.
5.
8) and Baud. Srauta

*nbft%5T:
'.
(pravaiSdhySya
1139.
'am
^^wti^S3*Tfal^T fiac^T WH^T:

r
f *T arowfapr %^T fft^TFcT afHi^p**ngf<muf sfiWVm% wr. HI. 2. After the words &v wft 3*m m^nr war are recited, the invoking of the ffrgeya of the sacrificer by the Hotr
i
aw ^ra*rroiri3farai7
and then the remaining words of the formula ^jf uttered. This is shown by the Tai. S. itself 2-5. Agni is styled by rsi names (II. 5. 7. 8) and by the 6at. Br. I. 4. 2.. such as BhUrgava, Cyavana &c. because fire was kindled by these ancient
priest takes place
*Ti*^
3?ft*3*r &c. are
into it by them. Tire Adhvaryu recites sages and oblations were thrown the mantra 3rffl$ft fbff %*TO ^îtgrf^n%^lT3'Rn3?^T^ and then recites ' the pravara of the yajamana with vat added to each name and then
*
proceeds wfjn*r^f
1.
^ ^^
arrgraiT
s*?g Tr^f^r nrftm*:
vide
Sat.
Br.
I. 5,
of this that the 5-13, Ap. 6r. II. 16. 5-11). It is on account SaihskKrartttuama'la' ( p. 416 ) explains pravara as The names of the ancient illustrious sages become
the attributes of Fire that
is
invoked by the
hotr.
Ch.
IX
Marriage-gotra and pramra
481
mo shows that the illustrious I. 4. 2. 3-4 ancestors to be invoked were supposed to be related as fatber and son and not by
apostolic succession.
Tbe Mahabharata says tbafc tbe original gofcras were onlj 1U1 four viz. Angiras, Ka&yapa, Vasistha, Tbe verses Bhrgu. are rather abruptly introduced in tbe epic and there is nothing
to
is
show on what this statement was based and it appears that i due to the imagination of the writer. Baud, as shown abov<
But it is remarkable Bhrgu and Angiras (whose divisions and sub-divisions are many) are nofc included by him in these eight. Therefore, it appears that even Baudhayana is not correctly stating the number of original gotras. Gautama and Bharadvaja are stated to be two out of the original eight, but both of them instead of being separately dealt with are grouped under the comprehensive Angirasagana. So even Baud, is not to be implicitly followed. The
that
states that tbe original gotras are eight.
BalambbatÎ mentions eighteen principal gotras (eight as in Baud, plus ten more some of which are names of mythical kings 1148 ). Baud, bimself says that there are millions of gotras and in the Baud. Pravaradhyaya there are over 500 names of gotra and pravara sages; while the Pravaramaiijarl quotes a verse that 'there are three crores of them 1U3 and so the gotra system is difficult to
comprehend', and ifc mentions about 5000 gotras. Therefore, as the Smrtyarthasara says the nibandhas endeavour to place tbe innumerable gotras under groups and distribute them among 49 pravaras (mentioned by Baud.) 1144 Some idea of these
.
1140.
snrivfc
<l*r
sf cffirar
^^RT
3-4
......
I
3"
f^nj^T
;
sf^ (% iM*d<HifS*r
III.
2.
$ra<T*l I. 4. 2.
compare grn^nrasrta
7-11
1141.
jgRpr
^jHcf^nf^r
i
5irwif
297. 17-18.
1142.
aw ^
on
^T. I. 53 ( p. 176, ed.
by Gharpuro
).
1143.
ifbrnrt'
^fi3H^^Ti%crTf^fHcTr
%&% c^ri^ CT^HT^
1144.
5f*niofi^^rei
p.
H. D. 62
490
Ch.
IX
gotras and their distribution among the pravaras is given below. The appendix under note No. 1144 collects together the 49 pravara groups.
The Bhrgugana and the Angirogana are very extensive. The Bhrgus are of two sorts, Jamadagnya and non-Jamadagnya. The Jamadagnya Bhrgus are again towfold, Vatsas and Bidas ( or Vidas ) the non-Jamadagnya Bhrgus are fivefold viz. Arstisenas, Yaskas, Mitrayus, Vainyas and Sunakas ( these latter five are called kevala Bhrgus). Under each of these sub-divisions there are many gotras, on the names and number of which the sutrakaras are not agreed. The pravara of Jamadagnya Vatsas is constituted by five sages according to Baud, and by three according to Katyayana. The pravara of the Bidas and the Arstisenas also has five sages. ms These three ( viz. Vatsas, Bidas and Arstisenas ) are styled pancavattin (Baud. 5) and they cannot inter-marry ( the reason will be explained below ). The five non-Jamadagnya These Bhrgus have each of them numerous sub-divisions. divisions of Bhrgus are given here according to Baud. Ap. has only six of them ( and not seven as he excludes Bidas from this group ). According to Katyayana, Bhrgus have twelve subdivisions ( vide Sam, Pr. p. 625 ).
;
The Angirogana has

dvajas and kevalangirases
;
three
divisions,
Gautamas, Bhara-
out of
-whom Gautamas have seven
( Rauksayanas, Gargas, Kapis and Kevala-Bharadvajas ), and Kevala-Angirases have six sub-divisions and each of these again is sub-divided into numerous gotras. This is according to Baud. Other sutrakaras differ as to the subdivisions. Atri ( one of the eight primary
sub-divisions, Bharadvajas have four
gotras ) is subdivided into four ( Atris proper, Vadbhutakas, Gavisthiras, Mudgalas ). Visvamitra is sub-divided into ten, which are further subdivided into 72 gotras. Kasyapas are sub-
has
divided into Kasyapas.Nidhruvas, Rebhas, and Sandilas. Vasistha four sub-divisions ( Vasisthas with one pravara only,
Kundinas, Uparnanyus and Parasaras ) which are further subdivided into 105 gotras. Agastya has three sub-divisions Somavahas and Yajnavahas ), the first of which is ( Agastyas, further sub-divided into twenty gotras.
1145.
h (3);
.
( also
?(.
5. )
Ch.
IX
Marriages- sagotra and sapramra

it is
491
When
girl is forbidden,
said that marriage with a sagotra or a sapravara each of these is separately an obstacle to
marriage. Therefore, a girl, though not sapravara* may be yet sagotra and so ineligible for marriage or though not sagotra may yet be sapravara and not eligible. For example, the gotras of
Yaska, Vadhula, Mauna, Mauka are different, yet a marriage between persons belonging to these gotras is not possible, because the pravara of all these is the same, viz. *Bhargava-Vaitahavya-Save1146 tasa-iti'. So also though the gotras Samkrti, Putimsa, Tandi, Sambu and Sarhgava are different, there can be no marriage bet-
ween them as
'
Sarhkrtya ( pravaras cannot marry, sameness may be due to only one sage being tho same in the pravaras of two gotras or there may be
aco. to Asv.
the pravara is the same, viz. 'Angirasa, Gaurivlta, Srauta ). When it is said that samana-
two
is
or three or
if
more sages that are common.
The general
rule
even one sage is the same 1147 in the pravaras of two different gotras, then they are sapravara, except in the case of the Bhrgu group and the group of Angirases. In these two
that
latter unless there are at least three sages
common
when
the
pravara
is
constituted
by
five sages
or at least
two sages are
common ( when pravara
no sapravaratva and no bar
consists of only three sages ), there is to marriage, It will be noticed that
among the five pravara sages of the Vatsas, Bidas and Arstisenas quoted above there are three sages that are common and so they cannot inter-marry.
Though the vast majority of gotras have three pravara sages, a few have only one pravara sage or two sages or five.
Those who have only one sage are Mitrayus ( pravara Vadhrya6va according to Asv.), the Vasisthas ( other than Kundina, Parasara and Upamanyu) have only one pravara Vasistha, the Sunakas have one pravara Grtsamada (according to Asv.) or Saunaka or Gartsamada (according to Baud. 9); the Agastis
have one pravara Agastya (according to Ap. Sr. 24. 10.9); Asv. optionally allows three pravaras to Mitrayus ( BhargavaDaivodasa-Vadhryasiva ) and to Sunakae ( viz. Bhargava1H6.
*
^p^raFRsfrci
p. 138.
says
'
vide also ^ri?^ e
I. p.
68,
1147.
*ren*Tt
f^s HWiîfft^rfiiis snfh
492
Oh.
IX
Saunahotra-Gartsamada ) and Ap. also allows to Agastis three pravaras ( Viz. Agastya-Dardhacyuta-Aidmavaha-iti ). According to Ap, and the puranas, DhSpayantas have two pravaras ( Vaisvatnitra-Paurana-iti ), Astakas Lohitas have two ( Vaisvamitra-Astaka iti ), and Sandilas also have two ( Daivala-Asita But he says that according to some the latter have three iti ). pravaras also ( KSsypa-Daivala-Asita-iti ), while Baudhayana gives four optional groups of three fiages each for Sandilas For Vari-Dhapayantas A$v. prescribes three only ( Baud. 43 ). for the Asâkas, ( VaiSvamitra-Devarata-Paurana ) and also According to Baud, the Vatsas, Bidas and Arstisenas ( among so also among Angirases, the Bhrgus ) have five pravara sages the Kaumandas, Dlrghatamasas, Rauksayanas and Gargas have five pravara sages, though the last have optionally three also.
;
5 6) says 'the sages to be invoked ( 24. It is were to he three and they were to be seers of mantras therefore that the number of pravara sages is limited there was no such requirement for a gotra and so gotras multiplied to an unlimited extent.
The Ap.
sr.
1148
'.
There are certain families that are dvigotras
(i. e.
have two
1149
Asv. uses the word 'dvipravacanSli' for them . gotras). They are principally three viz. Saunga-saisiris, Samkrkis and
Laugaksls. From a Sunga, a sub-division of Bharadvaja gotra, was born a son to the wife of a Saisiri, a sub-division of Visvamitra (by niyoya); the son, therefore, came to be called SaurigaSaisiri.
Saunga-Saisiris cannot marry in both and Visvamitra Their pravaras are given Bharadvaja gotras. below 115 They have to select one pravara sage from one gotra and two from the other gotra or two from the first and three from the other. A pravara of four sages is not allowed nor of one beyond five. For the other dvigotras, the Sam. K, (pp. 682686 ), Nirnayasindhu p. 300 ff. may be consulted. In the case of the adopted eon also, on the analogy of the 6aunga-saisiris,
Therefore
.
1148.
.
24. 5-6.
1149.
:
l
3TT^.
ft.
Uttarasatka VI
).
1150.
According to srr**.
i.
tbo s^t of According to others
ifc
is
I
or
and ^.
they are only ft*?*, 3?T%^T5Rr^TTcT

682.
vide $. n. p. 642
e^r, p.
Ch.
IX
Marriage-gotra and pravara
493
both gotras and the pravaras of both gotras have to be considered ' the dictum of Manu ( IX. 142 ) that the son given does not share the gotra and inheritance of the genitive father and the
and
svadha (6raddhas etc.) of the giver ceases', is restricted only to matters of inheritance, sraddha and the like and does not apply
to marriage.
1151
A few
(p.
kings and other ksatriyas.
words must be said about the gotra and pravara of It appears from the Ait.Br. quoted above
was employed
488) that in the case of ksatriyas the pravara of their purohfta in religious acts where pravara had to be recited.
This leads to the inference that most ksatriyas had forgotten their gotras and pravaras by that time. The Srauta sutras
allow
1152
an option
to ksatriyas (to kings according to Aiv.
).
*They may employ the pravara of their purohitas or all ksatriyas may employ the same pravara viz. Manava-Aila-PaururavasaMedhatithi on Manu III. 5 states that the distinctions of iti'. gotras and pravaras concern primarily brahmanas alone and not ksatriyas and vaisyas and quotes ASv. Sr. (I. 3) in support. The Mifc. and other nibandhakaras rely on the first alternative mentioned in the sutras and say that in marriages of ksatriyas and vaisyas the gotras and pravaras of their purohitas should be considered, as they have no specific gotras of their own m3 This is carrying the doctrine of atidesa ( extension ) too far or with a vengeance. The Sam. K. (pp. 689-690) assigns reasons for this attitude of tho Mit. but they are not satisfactory. Ancient literature and epigraphic records show that kings had gotras of In tho Mahabharata it is said that when Yudhisthira, their own.
.
151.
^ggi^rr:
srmir^WT: f^^rm^^^^^ sj^wsaiirti^ compare $. si. pp. 656-657, *,'îm^TUt?T pp. 451-456 ( where the p. 182 rules about marriage, aâuca and offering of pinda as to adopted sons
i .
\2ftwt ?ftf Itfirc^r
sT^nstan^w
tf. SET.
P.
688
sm^
c:
are considered
1152.
).
r.
24.
10.
11-12;
^:
i
^r. (
SRTTWI^ 52-54).
1153.
WciT
on
is
^TT. I.
52.
sir. I. 3.
The
fpTHT
passage
quoted in the
Tho quotation is from 73153^ P- HI.
494
Oh.
IX
went to the court of Virata in the guise of a brahmana and was asked by the king to state his gotra he said that he was of the Vaiyaghrapadya gotra ( Virata-parva 7. 8-12 ). That this was
the
the gotra of the Pandavas also follows *f rora the fact that in 1154 that is performed on the eighth day of the Bhlsmatarpana
Magha, Bhlsma's gotra is given as Vaiyaghrapada or-padya and pravara as Sarhkrti. Jaimini ( VI. 6. 12-15 ) establishes that the Kulayayajna was to be performed jointly by a king and his purohita ( and so they could use different pravaras it appears). The Pallavas of KancI had Bharadvaja as their gotra ( vide B. I. vol. I The Calukyas are often described as manavya-gotra
'
bright half of
p.
'
).
vide
In a copper-plate grant of JayacanI. vol. VI. p. 337 ). dradeva (dated sarhvat 1233 i. e. 1176 A. D. ) the donee was a ksatriya described as Rauta-srl-Rajyadharavarman of
E.
and of five pravaras viz. Bhargava-Cyavana1155 In the Garra (Bundelkhand) Apnavana-Aurva-Jamadagnya. Candella of the king Trailokyavarma of Kalanjara a plate village is granted to Rauta Samanta of the Bharadvaja gotra in recognition of his father's death in battle with the Turuskas
the Vatsa gotra
f
E.
I.
vol. 16, p. 274
).
In many inscriptions and copper-plate grants hundreds of donees with their gotras and pravaras occur and ij would be an interesting study to compare the latter with the material derived from the sutras and nibandhas. For example, vide E. I. vol. 19, pp. 115-117 and 248-250 for about 205 donees and their
gotras in the plates of Bhaskaravarman, E. I. vol. 14, p. 202ff ( 500 donees with gotras in the time of Candradeva Gahadavala,
samvat 1150 ), E. I vol. 13 p. 237, E. I. vol. 8 pp. 316-317 sake 1346 ), E. I. vol. 9 p. 103 (32 donees with gotras, pravaras, sakhas &c. ), E. I. vol 12 pp. 163-167 ( 120 donees with gotras, sake 1508 ), Gupfca Ins. No. 55 Chatmnak plate of Pravarasena &c. Even the Buddhists kept the system of gotras ( vide E. I. vol, 10, Liider's list, No. 158 ).
*
1158 a single pravara According to Ap. Sr. the vaisyas had Vafesapra ', while according to Baud, they had three, viz.
1154.
The
JR^T in
the
I. p.
198
vide also
Vide
I.
^^0*^ pp. 509-10.

i i
1155.
1156.
A. vol 18 pp. 136-138. *nwrfif $to\ qHnraf%?*n&: trqpjiq^n fc$t
SH*. 24. 10.
16;
53
).
Ch.
IX
Marriage-gotra and pravara
495
Bhalandana-Vatsapra-Manktila '. They could also employ the pravara of their purohitas. The Sam. Pr. (p. 659) says that
Bhalandana
If
is
the gotra of vai^yas.
know his own gofcra and pravara he should take those of his acarya ( teacher of Veda ), according to 1157 Though he takes his teacher's gofcra, it is only the teacher's Ap. daughter that is forbidden to him in marriage and not other girls
a person does nob
same gotra as the acarya's. Both Sam. K. and Sam. Pr. 650 ) quote a verse that when one does not know one's gotra (p. one should call oneself of Kasyapa gotra. This is so when he does not know even his teacher's gotra. The Sm. G. ( sraddha section p. 481) says that this is so even when one does not know the gotra of one's maternal grand-father (i.e. he should offer pinda with Kasyapa gotra to his maternal grand-father ).
of the
The word gotra also came to mean any family name (surname). In the inscriptions we find this usage very often. For example, in the Bannahalli plate of the Kadamba king Krsnavarma II ( E. I, vol. VI, p. 18 ) a sresthin ( a merchant ) is said to have been of the Tutfiiyalla gotra and pravara. The Reddi king ( a sudra ) Allaya Vema of Rajahmundry was said to have been of the Polvola gotra ( E. L vol, XIII, p. 237, of
iake 1356
).
A few
It is
interesting matters about pravaras are noted below.
noteworthy that even as to the same gotra, there is great divergence among the sutrakaras about the sages constituting the pravara e. g. as to Sandilyagofcra. Asv. gives two groups of the sages 'Sandila-Asita-Daivala-iti* or Kasyapa- Asita- Dai vala*
two sages some say pravara they are three, Kasyapa-Daivala-Asita-iti while Baud, states four groups, Kasyapa-Avatsara-Daivala-iti, Kasyapa- AyatsaraAsita-iti; Sandila-Asita-Daivala-iti; Kasyapa- Avatsara-SandilaNo adequate reasons can be given why even at so early an iti.' age as the sutras, not only the order of the names in the pravara, but the very names in the pravara and their number should have varied so much. Baud. 1158 (pravarSdhyaya sec, 44) notes that
iti
',
but Ap. states his

viz.
own view
in the
'
Daivala-Asita
that there are only ' and that iti

;
1157.
24. 10. 17.
sT
1158.
rr
i
A
i
<
J^cirnr 44
II
).
p. 15, arc sficTsnn *rrc*wj5**fcTJTte>T

:
itat strofa:
I
^tife-â^-wn^fa i...
24. 6. 1-2
Twf: ikr
5*rafa:
mifr&HfMrSifr
arrr.
ft.
and
7-8.
496
Oh,
IX
the Laugaksis (or Laukaksis) are Vasisthasby day and Kasyapas by night and their pravaras also show this double relationship. The Smrtyarthasara says thafc this picturesque description of them has reference to the prayajas and the like i, e. by day
they follow the procedure of prayajas peculiar to Vasisthas and
by night
that peculiar to the Kasyapas.
Among
and kings
the gotras there are
names
of mythical ksafcriyas
Vltahavya and Vainya and among the names of pravara sages many legendary kings like Mandhatr, Ambarisa, Yuvanasva, Divodasa appear. Vltahavya figures even in the Rgveda as closely connected with the Bhrgus (Rg, VI. 15, 2-3 ). In the Mahabharata it is narrated that Vltahavya, being a king, attacked Divodasa, whose son Pratardana pursued Vltahavya, whereupon Vltahavya took shelter with Bhrgu and that when Pratardana asked Bhrgu whether there was any ksatriya in the hermitage, Bhrgu replied that there were all brahmanas and that by this Vltahavya became -a brahmana ( Anusasana
like
chap, 30
).
Similarly the pravara of the Harltas is either AngirasaAmbarlsa-Yauvanasva-iti or Mandhatr- Ambarlsa-YaiivanasvaThese are mythical royal Bages. Among 115J) the Bhrgus is iti. a sub-division called Vainya which is further subdivided into Parthas and Baskalas. The story of Prthu who milked the earth is well-known ( Drona-parva 69 ); he is called adiraja
'
'
The V&yupurana in several places narrates that some ksatriyas became the pravaras of brahmanas. Vide chap. 88. 72-79, (about Visnuvrddha, 1180 who was descended from Purukutsa, whose son was Trasadasyu ), chap. 88. 6-7, 92. 6, 99. 158-161, 99. 169-170 ( Anan, od. ) for other 1161 How and why ksatriya names were adopted as examples brahmanical pravaras is obscure and difficult to understand.
in Anusasana 166. 55.
.
hazard a guess, it is probably due to the fact that the retain very ancient traditions of times when there were puranas no water-tight varnas and that ancient kings were learned in the
If
one
may
1159.
^rnwrf
The
*r*fK5reret sinfr:
Wl
rei%
nhr^wwrtF<9
tfferr
1160.
sm
of f^f^prrsr
is
3rn%urer^?*n*KT3p*rtnr
vide
Baud. sec. 20).

1161.
^T^
88. 6-7.
Oh.
IX
Marriagc-gotra and pravara
497
Vedic lore and maintained srauta fires al&o, became famous as Bages in whose name fire was to bo invoked to carry offerings to Gods oven by brahmanas who came ages after them.
of gotra and pravara may bo stated thus: the latest ancestor or one of the latest ancestors of a person by whose name his family has been known for generations while pravara is constituted by the sage or sages who
The connection
is
Gotra
lived in the remotest past, who wore moat illustrious and who are generally the ancestors of the gotra sages or in some cases the remotest ancestor alono.
It has been seen (pp.437-38) that marriage bob wcon parties that are sagotra or sapravara is no marriage and the woman does not become the man's wife. What were the consequences of such a
Baud. 1163 (pravcradhyaya 54) says that if a man has intercourse with a sagotra girl he should undergo the penance of candrayana, after that he should not abandon the woman, but should only maintain her as if she were a mother or a sister if a child is born it does not incur sin and it should take the gotra of Kasyapa. Apararka quotes (p. 80) Sumantu and another smrfci to the effect that if a person inadvertently marries a
void union ?
;
sagotra or samana-pravara woman he should give up intercourse with her, should maintain her and undergo candrayana. 1163 But if he knowingly marries a sagotra or sapravara girl the penance was heavier ( viz. that for incest ) and if he has intercourse
with her or begets a child from her he loses his caste and the 1164 Tho rule of Baud, that there would child will be a candala be no blemish and the child will ba of Kasyapa gotra is restricted 1165 The Sam. Pr. quotes a to inadvertently marrying such a girl.
.
verse of
Katyayana
to the effect that
if
a marriage
is
gone
1162.
lN
1163.
mofr*r
^^STW
;
srccj
qftc^W
ft wfqrfir
p. 80. p.
The verso
680 and other writers

1164.
5R7Tpmr=rsnru
fpr^
tf.
qrcafrr is ascribed to $TTcn<ra is quoted in ygitfcHf p. 111.
by ^.
xj.
n 3Tiq^cf*4f
quoted in
q^^T^M*!*^ s|. p. 680 and a^TScTrW
p. 312.
1165.
n
p- 16.
H. D. 63
498
History of Dharmaiftstra
Ch.
IX
through with a sagotra, the girl

to another.
may
be again given in marriage
But the Sam. Pj. gets
rid of that inconvenient text
by saying
girl for
that it does not apply to the present age. So the poor no fault of hers had to pass her whole life in enforced 1186 celibacy, being neither an unmarried woman nor a widow.
Questions about the validity of sagotra or sapravara marriages have not yet come before the courts but it is likely that in the near future courts will have to deal with such cases. If a marriage takes place under the Special Marriage Act of 1872 (as amended in 1923) no difficulty will arise; but recently several marriages have been celebrated under the old Gastric
;
procedure between persons who are eagotra or sapravara. Upon the strict letter of the dharmasastra texts such marriages are absolutely void. But it seems that the legislature should
intervene and declare sagotra and sapravara marriages valid. Whatever may have been the case thousands of years ago when
means of communication and when there were small communities, the prohibition of sagotra relationship had some plausibility and real feeling of close kinship about it ; but now the prohibition has become meaningless. A man from
there were no
Kashmir may marry a girl from Madras and the parents of may have the same gotra. Granting for argument that the gotra sage was a common ancestor, one does not know how many generations have intervened between that remote ancestor and the intending spouses and particles of the ancestor's body, if they have survived at all in the intending spouses of the same gotra, must be in the present generation in the most attenuated The prohibitions based upon gotra and pravara are said state. by orthodox people to be prescribed upon unseen (adrsta) grounds and so they argue that they must be held to be absolute and not admitting of any evasion by any one calling himself a Vedic Hindu. One may be permitted to reply to these people that when almost every-body has given up the ancient cult of the srauta and grhya fires and when hundreds of other innovations
both
in ancient practices have been accepted without demur, there is hardly any justification for sticking to this one remnant of
ancient practices. As a matter of fact many brahmanas now do not remember their pravara themselves but have to be told by the priests what their pravara is. Certain prohibitions against
1166.
i
^T^rrr^fH ^nrNftem;
s^fhi^wtf ffiwcKftoRq
tf.
*?
p. 681.
Oh.
IX
Marriage-Sagolra relationship
490
marriage between near sapinda relations may be respected on account of their universal acceptance. Even the Special Marriage Act of 1872 prescribes that tbere can be no marriage between
parties
when they trace descent to a common ancestor who is the great-grandfather or great-grandmother ( or who is nearer
even than these
)
of
any one
of them.
Sagotra relationship is in one direction wider than sapinda relationship and narrower than it in another so far as marriage is concerned. A man cannot marry the daughter of any sagotra,
however distant the sagotra may be. Similarly even an adopted man cannot marry the daughter of a sagotra of his genitive father for two reasons, firstly because, though on adoption he becomes severed from his natural family for inheritance and offering of pinda ( vide Manu IX. 142 ), his other relaand secondly tionships with the natural family remain intact because Manu ( III. 5 ) says that the girl must not be a sagotra of the bridegroom's father ( and so even if by adoption a man
;
goes into another gotra, it is the father's gotra that is to be considered ). Sapinda relationship prohibiting marriage extends only to seven or five generations, but prohibitions on the ground
of sagotra relationship extend to
any number
of generations.
On
the other
hand sapindas may
be either of the
sagotra) or of a different gotra ( i.e. certain limit sapindas include both sagotras and bhinnagotras. The latter are called bandhus by the Mit. they are all cognate
;
same gotra( i. e. bhinnagobra). Thus up to a
relations
and have an important place
in inheritance*
We
have
436-37) that sagotra marriages were totally forbidden in the siifcras ( in the srauta sutras like Latyayana srauta and A passage of the Sat. Br. ( quoted in grhya and dharma sutras).
seen
(p.
above at p. 461) is relied upon by Professors Macdonell and Keith Vedic Index vol. I. p. 236 ) for holding that marriages within the third and fourth degrees on both maternal and paternal sides were allowed in the days of the Satapatha and that therefore a man could marry in those days his paternal uncle's daughter. This latter is a startling proposition. The passage in the Sat. Br. is no doubt expressed in general words ( 'one may be united
But that passage is gene with a maternal uncle's a if even only marriage rally applicable daughter or paternal aunt's daughter is meant. The passage does not expressly allow paternal cousins' marriages. The dharma-sutras prohibit sagotra marriages. Both the learned Professors, as most western scholars do, probably hold that
in the third or fourth generation').
500
the
Ch.
IX
Satapatha is not separated from the sutras by more If a paternal uncle's daughter had than a few centuries. been eligible for marriage in the times of the Satapatha, but became forbidden in the times of the sutras we shall
have to suppose that an usage died out from one end of the country to another and an opposite usage became prevalent throughout within a few centuries. The smrfcis are not afraid of stating ancient practices which they themselves do not accept
The smrtis do not say that marriages with (i.e. niyoga). paternal uncle's daughters were ever allowed anywhere. So it appears that the Satapatha is not referring to marriage with
paternal uncle's daughter, but to marriage with maternal uncle's or paternal aunt's daughter. It must however be pointed out that Apararka (pp. 15. 63), the Sm. 0. ( I. p. 12 ),
Par.
the
M. I. part 1 p. 133 and other digests quote a passage from l167 that sagotra and sapinda marriages are Brahmapurana forbidden in the Kali age. It may be argued with some force that this implies that sagotra marriages once took place. But there are various ways of explaining this. It is possible that in the purana the word gotra is not used in the technical sense,
there
but only in the sense of family or surname. in the strict sense, but is no gotia
Among
sudras they also do
not marry a girl who is believed to be of the same family, though the exact relationships or generations are not known. Besides it has been shown above that if a woman was a putrika or married in the Gandharva or Asura form she retained the gotra of her father and the son of the putrika would have the gotra of his maternal grand-father and yet being of a different
family his marriage with the daugther of a sagotra of the maternal grand-father might have taken place in ancient times and was forbidden in the Kali age by the purana. Similarly the implied reference to marriages of sapindas as taking place in former ages has probably marriage wifch maternal uncle's
daughter in view.
dharmas
'
in the kalivarjya texts it is said these are declared to be prohibited by the eages in the Kali
When
242 ), it is not proper to ( vide Vyavahara-mayukha p. age argue that everyone of the practices forbidden in the kali age was valid in former ages. All that is meant seems to be that most of them were allowed in former ages and these along with others enumerated are not to be practised in the Kali age, just
1167.
WffS*PT quoted in
aratrfc pp. 15
and 63 &c.
Ch.
as
'
IX ]
in a
Prohibitions about Marriage
5dl
a speaker
crowd many have umbrellas and a few have not, says with reference to the whole crowd chatrino gacchanti ( here go persons with umbrellas ).
skill
'
when
There are certain other prohibitions about marriage. The m8 quotes a verse of Harlta that one should not give one's daughter in exchange to another's son and receive that other's daughter in marriage for one's son, one should not give two daughters to the same man (at the same time), nor should one give one's two daughters to two persons
Smrtimuktaphala
who are brothers. But these dicta will now certainly be held as merely recommendatory. Besides there is no objection in India in modern times to marrying the deceased wife's sister, though
until 190?
even in England the deceased wife's sister could not be married Deceased Wife's Sister's Marriage Act, ( when the 1907, Edw. 7 chap. 47 legalised such marriages).
The next question is as to who have power to arrange for the marriage of a girl and to give her away. The Visnu Dh. S. (24.38-39) specifies the order of persons who are entitled to
exercise this right of guardianship in marriage
'
the father, the
paternal grand-father, a brother, a kinsman, a maternal grandfather and the mother are the persons, by whom the girl may
be given away in marriage. In the absence of the preceding one (the right) devolves upon the next in order, in case he is able*. Yaj. (1.63-64) gives a slightly different order viz. he omits the maternal grand-father and adds that the right can be
exercised only when the guardian is not affected by lunacy and similar defects and that in the absence of these the girl should
perform svayamvara
( i.
e.
choose a husband herself).
1168.
148
TIR^rtcf for similar verses
;
vide also
tf.
q^. p. 694 quotes almost the
*TT^3.
off
know from tho MshSbhSraU the three daughters of the king of K34I for his prottgb Vicitravirya and got two of them married to him. Similarly the Sinda chief Csvunda appears to have married Lak$ma"dovT and SiriySdevi, the two
of
We
725-26 quoting same verse as diparva that BhT^ma carried

tf.
s?.
daughters
Kalacurya
Bijjala,
).
at
the same time
K.
I.
vol.
20
pp. 109, 111, dated take 1109

1169.
f^cT
Ti^
20-22
).
562
titotohl
of Dharmaiastra
Ch.
IX
(strlpurhsa verses 20-22) gives the order as father, brother (with father's consent), paternal grand-father, maternal uncle, agnates, cognates, mother (if sound in mind and hody), then
distant relation?, then the maiden may perform svayamvara with the king's permission. To give away a girl in marriage was not only a right but was rather a heavy responsibility, as ( Yaj. I. 64 ) and others declare that if a girl is not got married by the
guardian at the proper time the
latter incurs the
sin of the
murder of an embryo. The practice of svayamvara is well known was confined from the Ramayana and the Mahabharafca, but
ifc
(IX. 90-91) required a became wait for to three she after marriageable before years girl she could choose her husband herself. But Visnu Dh. S. 24. 40
mostly to the princely families.
Manu
after she attains puberty
says that a girl should wait only for three monthly periods and that after that period she has full
to dispose of herself in
power
marriage as she thinks
best.
There are no rules in the smrtis as to who is to arrange the marriage of a male, since in ancient times they did not contemplate the marriages of minor males.
The mother has been put low in the order of guardians probably because of the dependent status assigned to women and because of the fact that in the ceremony of kanyadana she cannot personally engage but has to get it done through some male relative. The courts in modern India, however, have held that the mother is entitled to select a husband for her daughter even when the girl's paternal grand-father is living, though the actual gift may be made by a male. Vide Bai Ramkore v.
Jamnadas,
I.
L. R. 37
Bom.
18,
where Yaj.
I.
63
is
as only laying down not intended to take
who are to make a gift of the girl and away altogether the mother's right
interpreted as
of
selecting a bridegroom in favour of even distant relations. Vide also Indi v. Ohania ( I. L. R. 1 Lahore 146 ), Jawani v. Mula Ram after the father, ( I. L. R. 3 Lahore 29, where it was held that, the mother of a girl has the preferential right to select a bridegroom for her and that she is under no obligation to consult the girl's paternal kindred such as a paternal uncle ), Ranganaiki
authorities
35 Mad. 728, ( where all the The Dharmasindhu states the important proposition that when the girl performs svayamvara or when the mother is to give away the girl in marriage, the girl or mother should perform the Nandlsraddha and the principal sarhkalpa is to be pronounced by her and the rest of the
v.
Ramanuja
are
I.
L.
R.
examined).
Ch.
IX
Guardians for Marriage

be performed through a brahmana.
1170
503
rite is to
Narada
states
the general rule that if anything is done by one who is afflicted with lunacy or similar defects, what he does is as if not done.
So a marriage settled even by the father if he is a lunatic need 1171 If an unauthorized person (like a maternal not be performed. uncle ) were to give away a girl in marriage though her father The digests state 1171 * that if is alive and fit, what is the result ? the marriage has been completed by the performance of saptapadi, it cannot be set aside merely on the ground of the want of
authority in the giver, since marriage rites are the principal matter and the authority to give is a very subsidiary matter, the absence of which cannot affect the principal matter. But
before the marriage takes place a person who wants to give away a girl, though persons better qualified exist, can be
prevented from doing so. Courts in modern India have followed these rules, relying on the doctrine of factum valet quod fieri non deluit ( what ought not to be done when done is
'
'
valid) and holding that when once a marriage is duly solemnized and is otherwise valid, it is not rendered invalid because it was brought about without the consent of the proper guardian for marriage or in contravention of an express order of the
court.
Vide Khushalchand v. Bai Mani (I. L. R. 11 Bombay 247) and Bai Liwaii v. Moti ( I. L. R. 22 Bom. 509 ).
A few words must be said about the sale of girls in * she read in the Maitrayanlya S. I. 10. 11 marriage. who sin or indeed commits falsehood ( ) being purchased by her m8 There is another husband roams about with other males.' passage of the Veda relied upon along with the above by
We
the
(
VI.
in Jaimini plausible view-point ) ( the purvapaksa that women have a right to 1. 10-11 ) which denies
1170.
p. 251.
These words are taken from the rotaqmsTKr;

p. 306.
vicle
1171.
TTÎW
*rr
Wra^Rl |g?T: 3TW&

1171
a.
P-
P-
92 on *n.
f^fTrefcTT
i
I. 63.
*rr? g n^r
127
*ri%
XWT* g WH^r%*nrftoTf!
III
sratf
sntf
;
307 s?ror P.
vide
also
tf. T.
HT. P.
497 to the same
effect.
1172.
I
3<?T
rf. I.
10. 11.
504
Oh,
IX
take part in Vedic sacrifices, viz. 'one should give to the daughter's father a hundred ( cows ) plus a chariot.' Jaimini replies ( VI. 1. 15 ) that the giving of a hundred with a chariot
is not for purchasing a bride, but it is only a duty and a hundred must be offered as a present ( whether the girl is
beautiful or not
im This shows that, even if some ). girls wore purchased for marriage in the times of the Maitrayanlya S. there was a popular revulsion of sentiment about this practice and the sale of girls was severely condemned by the time of the sutrakaras. The Ap. Dh. S. ( II. 6. 13. 10-11 ) also makes * "there is no gift and the interesting remarks on this point incidents of purchase about one's children in marriage the gift ordained by Veda to be made to the daughter's father in the worda therefore one should give a hundred ( cows ) besides a chariot to tha girl's father and that ( gift ) should be made to
f
'
belong
married ) couple is due to the desire ( of the father to give a status to the daughter and her sons ) and is meant as a fulfilment of duty ( and not as a sale transaction ). The word purchase ' applied to such a transaction is merely
to
the
'
figurative, since the relationship

(
arises ( as hu&band and wife ) not from the so called purchase but ) from dharma" Vas. Dh. S. ( I. 36-37 ) quotes the two passages of the Veda ( from
Mait. S. and the other about the gift of one hundred cows ) in support of the Manusa (i.e. Asura) form of marriage. The Nirukta VI. 9 n " while explaining Rg. I. 109. 2 ( O Indra and Agni, I have heard you to be greater donors than a partially
'
fit
*
son-in-law or a brother-in-law
'
'
remarks that
"
the word
of
is
vijamata
means among
is
the southerners the

;
husband
that he
woman who
1173.
purchased
VI.
1.
t
what
is
meant
is
a a
$rar on ^c.
10 puts the ^cr$f view as

:
'^prs
-r
......
*
ir
and on ^. VI.
>.
1.
11 he saya
i
*TT
snrw WHTST^^
\
&
v 1.
1.
15
1.
1174.
3TT<r.
q.
q&.
II.
p.
6.
13.
10-11.
The words
translated in S.B.B. II.

roturni ng
1175.
it
132 as 'that gift he should
make
bootless
(by
to the giver
)*.
awf ft ^ST^TCT wf f^^fmrg^f

i
^r
w wvr^
i
w.
1.
109. 2)...
a*wH ff Tfîfgr^
^t f^î^f^: 3*g*rmm^nrT3:
i^rwim
9.
a^HHm fH ^ftsf?fer: f^w VI.
Gh IX
Sale of girls in Marriage
505
bridegroom who is deficient and not endowed with all good qualities." So Yaska implies that in the south girls were sold
sums of money to persons who ( either because they were old or wanting in some qualities desirable in a good bridegroom ) were therefore really deficient as bridegrooms. In the Nirukta ( III. 4 ) while discussing the several views about fche obscure verse of the Rgveda III 31. 1 ( sasad-vahnir
for substantial
&c.
of
not inherit
one of the reasons assigned for the view that women do is that gift, sale and abandonment in the case
exist,
women
but not in the case of men, to which somo
reply that these ( gift, sale &o. ) can be made of males also as is seen in the story of Sunahsepa ( in the Ait. Br, 33, Tai S. V. 2. 1. 3, Tai. Br. I. 7. 10. ).
girls
These passages lead to the inference that in ancient times were sometimes purchased for marriage, as was the caso in
many other countries. But gradually public feeling entirely changed and not only was the sale of daughters by the father or brother severely condemned, but even taking of presents by them was looked down upon. Ap. Dh. S. has already been quoted above (note 1174). The Baud. Dh. S. (1. 11. 20-21 ) 117 quotes two verses that woman who is purchased with wealth is not declared to be a legally wedded wife (a patni); she is not (to be associated with the husband ) in rites for the gods or manes and Kasyapa declares that she is a dasl ( slave girl ). Those, who, blinded by greed, give their daughters in marriage for a fee ( hdka ), are sinners, sellers of their own selves and perpetrators In another placo Baud. of great sin and they fall into hell &c. says he who gives his daughter (in marriage) by sale (ns a Manu (III. 51, 54-55) chattel) sells his merit (punya)\
' '
1177 a tender note about daughters when he says *a father should not take eveu the smallest gratuity for his daughter; if he takes a gratuity through greed he becomes the seller of his child; when relations do not take for themselves wealth given
strikes
there is
by the bridegroom as gratuity (but hand it over to the girl) no sale ( of the girl ) the wealth so taken is for
;
1176.
3nnc^TS*rer
'
sftcTT
ii
^*fi *n TRT
m T q^fr
**ts<ir
iâfarSr
^rotwdtj
I.
^j^T^r
^ M^-^Rtf
c5t*nfTf|nr:
11.
20-22;
II. 1. 79.
1177.
sigîrerT 46. 2-3 are the sarao as
ng
III. 54-55. j
506
History of DJiarmafastra
is
Ch.
IX
honouring the maidens and
only taken from the bridegroom
out of loving concern for them. Fathers, brothers, husbands and brothers-in-law desiring their own welfare should honour women
Manu (IX. 98) further recomeven a sudra should not take a gratuity when giving bis daughter ( in marriage ), since in taking a gratuity he clanYaj. III. 236, Manu XL 61 destinely sells his daughter'.
and should give them ornaments
'.
mends
'
that
include the sale of children among upapatakas. The MahabhSrata ( Anusasana 93, 133 and 94. 3 ) condemns the taking of a gratuity for giving a girl and Anusasana ( 45. 18-19 ) speaks of gathas of Yama contained in dhnrma-sastras whoever sells his son for a price, or gives a daughter for the sake of his own liveli-hood in return for a gratuity, would fall into
'
a most horrible hell called Kalasutra'. Verse 23 of the same chapter says even a stranger cannot be sold, what of one's own children'. Verse 20 ( = Manu III. 53 ) condemns even the arsa form of marriage as a sale because a pair of cattle is therein taken by the girl's father. In Kerala or Malabar it is believed
'
that the great teacher Samkara laid down 64acaras, among which are prohibition of the sale of girls, prohibition of sail &c. Vide
A. vol. IV, pp. 255-256 and also Atri v. 389 and Ap. ( in verse) IX. 25 ( ed. by Jivananda ). This practice, however, persisted till modern times. For example, in an inscription dated
I.
A. D. from Padaivldu (North Arcot District) an agreement signed by the representatives of Karnata, Tamil, Telugu and L&ta ( South Gujarat ) brahmanas that they would give up taking gold for their daughters and get them married by the simple kanyadana ( the Brahma form ) and that the father who accepted gold and the bridegroom who paid gold were to be punished by the king and were to be excommunicaThe Feshwa 1179 issued orders ted from the brahmana caste. ( about 1800 A. D. ) addressed to the brahmanas of Wai ( in the Satara District ) forbidding them to take money for giving their daughters in marriage and prescribing fines for the father
about 1425
find
mi
we
1178.
Vide
South Indian
1
Inscriptions
ed.
by Htiltzsch, 1890
121-122 (of
first
No. 56.
1179.
tion)
Vide
srn^mtflTS **
,
W& No. 145, pp.

1930).
edi-
and No. 470 p 425

is set
(of the
STFST
2nd edition of
The most important
portion
out hsre
'
Oh.
IX
Sale of girls in Carriage
507
who took money, for the giver and the intermediary who brought about the marriage. Among certain castes and among the Madras even now money or money's worth is often taken
when a daughter is married, but generally the money is meant as a provision for the girl and for dafraying the expenses of the
girl's father.
The question of the sale of girls in marriage.has been from the remotest ages bound up with the question of the father's* power over his children Rg. I. 116. 16 1180 and I. 117. 17 refer
who was deprived of his eye-sight by his father because the former gave a hundred rams to a she-wolf. The verses refer to some natural phenomena under a metaphoto the story of Rjrasva
rical garb and cannot be used for drawing the inference that a father could in law deprive his son of eye-sight at his will. The story of Sunahsepa ( Ait. Br. 33 ) shows that in rare cases
the father did sell his son.
the power to
sell, to gift
(
already cited
4
p.
505
).
The passage of the Nirukta about away or to abandon daughters has been The Vas. Dh. S. 181 ( XVII. 30-31 ) says
1
Sunahsepa is an example of the son bought* ( one of the twelve kinds of sons). The same sutra (XVII. 36-37) defines the apaviddha kind of son as one, who being cast off by his parents, is accepted (as a son) by another. Manu IX. 171 also defines the 'apaviddha' in the same way. Vas. Dh. S. ( XV. 1-3 ) propounds the absolute
power of the parents over their children in the words man produced from seed and uterine blood springs from the father and the mother; (therefore) the parents have power to give, to sell or to abandon him but one should not give nor accept an only
;
'
son*.
Here Vas.
I.
states the
centuries before Justinian,
who makes
right of patria potestas several the vain boast ( Institutes*
Lib.
their children such as
IX. 2) that 'no other people have a power over we have over ours*. Manu (VIII. 416) and the Mahabharata 1182 (Udyoga 33. 64) both state that the wife, the son and the slave are without wealth and that whatTit.
ever they acquire belongs to liim whose they are. Manu ( in V. 152) says that 'gift (by the father of the bride) is the source of (the husband's) ownership (over her)'. But gradually the
1180. 1181.
f
$rf frrr?!*^
w^R^scf'tf *
<T^*r:Jrfcf
fanFtf ^srrc
i
s?. 1. 116. 16.
sTra^fa:
nrc"n*n*
arorfasr;
TW. v
rrar
^fUrmi
f
Wfiw XVII. 30-31 and 36-37.

ST..
1182.
Sahara on
*rf
37 & which
41.
is
VI. 1. 12 quotes the verge HFH *fRT** almost the same as Manu VIII. 416. Compare
$W
NSrada VIII.
508
History of bharmdiastrd
Ch. l
rigour of the father's power was lessened by other competing considerations such as the ideas that the son was the father himself horn again, and that the son conferred great spiritual
benefit
of rice offered in sraddha.
on the souls of the father and his ancestors by the balls So gradually the father's power over
the son became restricted. Kautilya ( III. 13 ) gives the interesting information that inlccclias incur no blame by selling or pledging their children, but an anja cannofc be reduced to the state of slavery. Yaj, II. 175 and Narada ( dattapradanika 4 )
1183 both forbid the gift of one's son or wife. Katyayana says has father of control over the wife and that though the powers the son, he has not the power to sell or make a gift of his son. Yaj. (II. 118-119 ) modified the rule about the son's acquisitions Manu VIII. 389 prescribes a fine of 600 panas for abanalso. doning one's mother, father, wife or son when they are not sinners. Vide Yaj. II. 237, Visrm Dh. 8. V. 113-114, Kautilya III. 20 ( p. 199 ) for a similar provision. Manu ( VIII. 299-300 )
a man's power to award corporal punishment for misconduct to his wife, son or slave to striking with a rope or a thin piece of bamboo.
restricted
One question discussed by dharmasutra writers is whether one has ownership over one's wife and children. In Jaimini n84 (VI. 7. 1-2) it is decided that in the Visvajib sacrifice where one is to give away all that one has, one cannot give away one's parents and other relatives as one can make a gift only of what one is master of. The Mifc. on Yaj. II. 175 says though one cannot make a gift of one's wife or child to another, one is
'
owner of them.' The Vlrarnifcrodaya 1185 (vyawhara p. 567) On the other hand the Tantraratna is of the same opinion. the word gift with reference ( of Parthasarathimisra ) says that to the son and the like is used only in a secondary sense viz.
still
that of passing
to
another the power of control over the son
1183.
1^3:
i
^T^TPT^ quoted in ^fiteo
(UT. p. 132)
and
<ncr.
m.
III. p. 219.
i
1184.
*^R ^HrirRftanj
ff^rw
(tf4^<q*tra
TTCT ^T *g:
Fn%<Twn$nF*T^Ta;
^. VI.
7.
1-2. STITC says
1185.
on
*
r
*rr.
II.
175
^m^^cF-^fr^nc^î^^T^m^T: wmsTt^r T^rfTf^r *nrfat ^^^1^^ tn^n^îTc^ ?T^?T^T^

i
p.
i
*r. ^.
567 (Jiv. p- ^2
my
edition
).
Ch,
or
IX
the
Marriage-Infanticide
daughter.
SoS
is
The VyavahSramayukha
also
of
the
same opinion.
said about infanticide. Westermarck ' Origin and Development of Moral Ideas vol. I. ( 1906 ) 393-413 an furnishes pp. exhaustive account of this practice in ancient and modern times among barbarous and civilised
Afew words may be

'
in his
communities from various countries, e. g. in Sparta ( for the purpose of securing strong and healthy fighters ), among the Rajputs ( from family pride and fear of the crushing burden of
1188 He is wrong in saying that in the expenses at marriage ). Vedic times infanticide or exposure of children was practised. ' ll87 is of no use on this point; it says cast off from Rg. II. 29. 1
me
it
sin as a
off).'
woman who
is
This
secretly gives birth to a child ( casts not a reference to infanticide of children
born in wedlock, but refers to the exposure of a child by an unmarried woman which is clandestinely practised everywhere and as regards which even in England a very lenient attitude is shown as manifested by the passing of the Infanticide Act and 13 Geo. V. Chap. 18 ). The most important passage ( 12
on which some European scholars like Zimmer and Delbriick They go to rely upon for this proposition is Tai. S. VI. 5. 10. 3
*
the ambhrlha*
**
the sthalis
pots
)
(the final sacrificial bath); they keep aside take up the vessels for vSyu : therefore ) and
they
the people
e.
keep aside the girl
when
she
is
born and
lift
greet with pride and joy ) the son '. This simply refers to the fact that a daughter was not greeted as much as the son.
up
It
( i.
has nothing to do with exposure or infanticide. That passage 1189 (33. 1 ) only expresses the sentiment contained in the Ait. Br.
Vide Tod's 'Annals and antiquities of RsjaathSn' (Calcutta 659-665 (for infanticide among Rajputs ), 'Indian Infanticide' by J. C. Browne ( 1857), Dr. John Wilson's History of the suppression of infanticide in Western India ( 1855 ) in which he refers
1186.
)
edition
vol. I. pp.
'
at length to a prize-essay of Dr.
'Die Frau
'
pp. 24-25.
Bhau Daji, written in 1844. Winternitz Vide the Female Infanticide Prevention Act
I
VIII. of 1873 (in India)

1187.
3iK WcSnl *^3JR* TO
*? II- 29.
1.
<m**H%
snpjswnrfcr TO *fifiwfor gngrnmnf^ ftf^r trfrnq; ftnf srrat f <ri*cf &. tf VI. 5. 10. 3. The f^^r III. 4 quotes this last sentence. Vide Vedic Index, vol. I. p. 487 for references to the views of Zimmer and others.
1188.
T?S*Tttf
I
1189.
*T^T
s srm ^<rf
fl
ffen
3*rrft
5^:
<nft
fra^
11.
<t
WT.
33. 1.
159.
Compare
IV. 184-185
&10
'the wife is
Oh.
IX
indeed a friend, the daughter

is
is
distress (or humilia-
tion
(
),
the son
159.
Adi.
light in the highest heaven '. 11 ) in a similar vein says

is
The Mahabbarata
'
the son is one's
self, the wife
difficulty
call
when he
to greet his daughter also with a mantra returned from a journey, the difference being that in the case of the son there is kissing of the son's head and
But *. upon the father
one's friend, but the daughter is indeed a all the same the Grhyasufcras like Ap. ( 15. 13 )
muttering of certain mantras in his right ear. Manu (IX. 232) advises the king to award death sentence to him who kills a woman, a child or a brahmana. Manu IX. 130 ( =Anusasana
45. 11
so
is
expressly says that just as the son is one's own self, the daughter like the son how can another person take the
)
;
'
wealth
of the deceased
self is there to
take
'
it
when his daughter who is his own Narada mo ( day abhaga v. 50 ) reasons
line of
that both the son
and the daughter continue the

of the son the
*
the
daughter succeeds as heir. Brhaspati exclaims the daughter is born from the limbs of the parents as much as the son when she is alive how can another take her father's estate ? Bana, who as a
father
; '
and therefore in the absence
great poet
feelings of the average man, makes even the vardhana say about his daughter what every
'
had unparalleled sympathy with the emotions and king Prabhakara-
felt for
Indian father has thousands of years this rule of law laid down by some one viz. that one's own children ( daughters ) sprung from one's body, fondled on one's knees and whom one would
never forsake, are taken away all of a sudden by persons husbands ) who till then were quite unfamiliar. It is on
account of this sorrow that although both (son and daughter) own children the good feel sorrow when a daughter is born and who offer water in the form of tears to their daughters
are one's
at the very
at birth, not
1190.
A daughter was not greeted time of their birth because tha father had no love for her, but because
'.
quoted by
3Ttrtr4r
p. 743
$rcrrR
4th UcchvSsa.
sjwrri^rrf
& *'*
jftgft
9.
f jtf
10-11.
).
îftipnf 97. 16 has
Oh.
IX
Marriage-Infanticide
511
he
a daughter meant a source of anxiety all her It was the great concern felt for a daughter's well-being in life and her character that made the parents anxious that no daughter be born to them. Society expected a
felt that
life
to
him.
very high moral rectitude from women and treated lapses of men with leniency. This is finely expressed in the Ramayana Ancient literature did not everywhere ( Uttara-kSnda9. 10-11).
treat women with scorn and contempt. It has already been shown how highly the wife was regarded even in the most ancient
haven
days as a man's half. IJg. III. 53. 4 speaks of the wife as a of rest ( jayed-astam ). The Chan. Up. 1191 looks upon the sight of a woman in a dream as very auspicious and as
prognosticating success in religious rites already undertaken. Manu ( III. 56 = Anusasana 46. 5 ), though he has said, as will
some very hard things about women, was due to them and saya in a chivalrous spirit where women are honoured there the gods love to reside where they are not honoured, there all religious Maidens were regarded as pure ( vide acts come to nought. When the king passed through p. 296 above ) and auspicious. his capital it was customary to greet h im with fried grain showered ll2 by maidens (Raghuvarhsa II. 10). The Saunaka-karikS (ms. in Bombay University Library folio 22 b) includes a maiden among the eight objects which were auspicious. The Dronaparva(82, 20-22 ) mentions numerous objects which Arjuna looked at and touched as auspicious when starting for battle, among which well-decked maidens are mentioned. Gobhtla-srarti II. 163 says that one that sees on rising from bed in the morning among others a woman whose husband is living is free from all diffiThe V&oiana-purana (14. 35-36) mentions several culties. objects which are auspicious when one is about to leave home, among which figure brahmana maidens. Vide Sm. C. I. p. 168.
be
later
shown
on,
'
not unmindful
of
the honour
Some remarks must

marriage.
1191.
be
In the marriage
made about the times auspicious for 1193 X. 85. 13) the hymn (Rgveda
V.
2.
7-8.
This passage
1192.
ia
the basis of ^tnT^ST III. 2.

âScRsrert
4.
i
qrtfoT;
sj^r
sRfrrfUsrarrs
1193.
amis 5*^
75.
>rnft
fT^tfj <T&
3?.
X. 85. 13 and
1. 13. fr1f?|ehqff
5 quotes those words.
ff?rft<lNt
W%
3W$ XIV.
"jpfir
3TTT. 3. 3. 1-2.
512
History of Dharmasaslra
Ch.
IX
words occur 'the cows are killed on the AghSs and (the bride) carried away (from her father's house) on the Phalgunls'. The cow was killed in Madhu parka which was offered to the bridegroom on the day of marriage. Or this may be a reference
is
to the giving of cows by the bridegroom to the bride's father (as in the form later called arsa). So it appears probable that this is a reference to marriage being performed on the day
when
the
moon was
in conjunction with the constellation of
after the
The two Phalgunls follow immediately There is an echo of this in the Ap. gr. III. 1-2 which says 'cows are accepted on the MaghSs and (the bride) is carried (to the bridegroom's house ) on the Phalgunls'. This means that the marriage* (probably in the arsa form) is celebrated on the Maghas and the bride goes from her father's house on the next day after marriage or after one day more. The A&v. gr. ( I. 4. I ) says lm that *m the northward passage of the sun, in the bright half of a month and on an auspicious lunar mansion, caula, upanayana, godana and marriage are to be performed and that according to some
AghSs
(i, e.
Magba).
Magha
naksatra.
teachers marriage
may bo
celebrated at all times' (not necessarily
in northward passage &c). The Ap. gr. (2.12-13) prescribes that all seasons except the two months of Si&ira ( i. e. Magha and
Phalguna)and the
are
fit
last of the
two months
of summer (viz.
'
Asadha)
marriage and all naksatras which are declared to be 119S adds ( 3. 3 ) a father auspicious ( or holy ). Ap. gr. further who desires that his daughter should be dear (to her husband ) should give her in marriage on the Nistya (i, o. Svati constellation ) thus she becomes dear ( to her husband ), she does not return ( to her parent's house ) this is a procedure based
for
; ;
upon the Br&hmana passage.' The Brahmana passage is Tai. 11M Br. I. 5, 2. The Baud. gr. ( I. 1. 18-19 ) is the same as Ap. gr. about months and adds that the naksatras for marriage are
RohinI, Mrgaslrsa, Uttara PhalgunI, Svati
1194.
5 ' 5 is to tlie
effect.
;
while Punarvasu,
1195.
JKi
m
^f
OTTÎ
I. 5. 2.
ffta*
ffcn
i
wf^
SHT.
fft
swraft ff?r wrsT^sfr ftro

H^fRÎ.
3. 3.
ftc^nii ^STT The words
occur in ^. ST.
1196.
12. quotes tbo
5RRH fWTTf
1.
gf^cT^^T^f
i
5irPr
5^^
f^nft
fêr:
%TTTT
18-21.
Ch.
IX
Auspicious times for Marriage
513
Tisya
Pusya
),
Hasfca,
Sravana and RevatI are suitable for
other ceremonies of an auspicious character. The Manava gr. ( I. 7. 5 ) says that tho naksatras RohinI, Mrgasiras, Sravana* and the Uttaras ( L e. Uttarasadha, Sravistfia ( Dhanistha )
Uttara PhalgunI and Uttara Bhadrapada) are fit for marriage for taking the bride from her parent's house and whatever other ( naksatra ) is declared to be auspicious. Kathaka gr. 14. 9-10 and VSraha gr. 10 are similar. The Ramfiyana lm and 71.24) speaks of marriage being per( Balakanda 72. 13 formed on Uttara PhalgunI, of which Bhaga is the deity. Tho Mahabharata also speaks of marriage on a naksatra presided
and
over by
Bhaga ( AdiparvaS. 16 ). The Kausika sutra ( 75. 2-4) makes an approach to modern practice when it prescribes that
marriage should be celebrated after the full moon of Kartika and up to the full moon of Vaisakha or one may do as one likes }m but should avoid the month or half month of Caitra.
Medieval digests introduce many detailed rules derived from astrology which it is not possible to set out here. A few The Udvahatattva ( p. 124 ) quotes only will be indicated. im and Rajamartanda Bhuja-balabhlma to the effect that all months are auspicious for marriage except Caitra and Pausa and that when a girl is very much grown-up one should not wait for auspicious seasons, but she should be given away on any day when the moon and the zodiacal sign rising at the moment of marriage are favourable, and that one should go into questions of auspicious ayana, month, day &c. up to only the tenth year of girls. The Samskararatnamala ( p. 460 ) says that as there is conflict among the dicta of sutra and smrti
1197.
3Fnrr
s
i
%wrfiH
.
g 71. 24 and
72. 13.
According
to the
WT- I. 1. 2.
vm
is
the
1198.
3?*f gjn&FTT 3?t

75. 2-4.
?n**n:
Trerernft
STT
f^nrrw 3
1199.
TT^TTH^ST^
TT^TIT^ cTOT
^r^TcTHr^
arraf^T^&fi?
^^T^rr^
i
i
W%
TTH^nrgf^RnsTT^
s&fa f^f
^ra* Trsmnf^tTfTRc
i
^?I^CIT^ p. 124.
H. D. 65
514
writers about
Ch.
IX
months one should follow the usage of one's celebrate the marriage of the eldest son with the eldest daugter of a man in the month of Jyestha (or on Jyestha naksatra ) nor should one celebrate a marriage in
country.
One should not
the
(
month
of birth or on the day of birth or naksatra of birth
). Wednesday, Monday, Friday and Thursday are the best days of the week, but the Madanaparijata says that any day is good if the marriage is celebrated at night. 120 In marriage the moon must be in a strong position
of the eldest son or daughter
for girls.
Jupiter being the 4fch, 8th or 12th zodiacal sign in which the moon was at the time of birth). The Nirnayasindhu quotes a verse that when the girl has reached puberty, then one should not wait till Jupiter is
One should avoid

(
from
one's rasi
favourable, but marriage should be performed even when Jupiter is 8th from the zodiacal sign of birth, propitiatory rites however
being performed for Jupiter. cannot be performed when Jupiter
1201
Upanayana and marriage

is
in the zodiacal sign called
Leo
(Sirhha), but this applies only to the tract between the river Godavari and the Ganges. 12 * From the naksatra and zodiacal
(
sign at the time of birth
in the case of both the girl
and the
bridegroom)
eight
ways
certain astrological calculations were made in 1203 called kutas. They were Varna, Vasya,
Naksatra, Yoni, Graha ( planets governing the twelve rasis ), Gana, Rasi, and NadI, each later one of which was more powerful than each preceding one and marks (guna)
from 1
to 8
conditions laid
were respectively assigned down were satisfied.
to
each of these
of these viz.
if
the
Two
gana
and nadl are attached great importance even now among brahmanas and other classes also and so they may be illustrated The 27 naksatras are arranged in here, though very briefly.
three groups of nine each, each group being assigned to Devagana, Manusyagana and Raksasagana as follows
:
1200.
H.
*. IT. p.
464
?f
1201.
^sreresnn:
1
gv^JFTT
S^1S\% T
Wff^l
SWrftft TOcf^ft
l%lf-
qrihTS
1202.
ii
Rofiffibg
HI PGrvSrdha
p. 304.
^
i
sr
IT.
p. 806.
1203.
See #.
ST.
p.
773
ff.
and ^.
^.
HT. 519
ff.
for
%&.
Oh.
IX]
Astrological rules about Marriage
Devagana
AsvinI
Manusyagana
BharanI RohinI Ardra
Raksasagana
Krttika
Mrgasiras
Aslesa
Punarvasu
Magba
Citra
Pusya Hasta
Svati
Purva
Uttara
Visakha
Jyestba
Purvasadha
Ufclarasadha
Anuradha
Sravana
RevatI
Mula
Dhanistha
Satataraka
Purvabhadrapada
Uttarabhadrapada
If the bride and bridegroom are born on naksatras tbat belong to the same class out of these three groups it is the best thing but if their naksatras of birth belong to different groups,
then the rules are it is middling if their naksatras belong to the deva group or the human group respectively, or if the bridegroom's naksatra being of the devagana or raksasagana, the bride's is of the manusyagana, while if the naksafcra of the bride is of the raksasa group and the bridegroom's of the manusya
:
type, then death would result. Similarly if the naksatras of the pair respectively belong to the deva and raksasa groups, there would be quarrels and enmity between the two.
three groups of nine each, adyanadl, as follows

:
For the purpose of nadl the naksatras are divided into madhyanadl and antyanadl,
Adyanadl
AsvinI
Madhyanadl
BharanI
Mrg?isiras
AnfcyanadI
Krfctika
ArdrS
RohinI
Aslesa
Punarvasu
Uttara
Pusya
Purva
Citra
Magha
Svati
Hasta
Jyestha
Anuradha
Purvasadha
Visakha
Ufctarasadha
Mula
Satataraka
Dhanistha
Utfcarabhadrapada
Sravana
RevatI
Pur vabhadr apada

If the
naksatras of the intended pair belong to the same and SD there is to be no marriage in such a case. The respective naksatras of birfch in the case of the two should belong to different nadls.
nadl, then that portends death
516
Oh. 13
If afte
The anxieties of the
girls' father
did not end here.
the marriage was settled but before it actually took place anj relative in any of the two families died, then the marriage
agreement was to be broken
Saunaka
12 *
off according to some writers, bu mercifully states a more sensible and reasonabL
rule viz, if the father or mother or paternal grand-father 01 paternal grand-mother or paternal uncle, brother or unmarriec
intended bride or bridegroom dies, or the bride wife or his son from another wife dies, then only be it is pratikula and the marriage should not performed but the death of any one else presents no obstacle.
sister of the
groom's
first
If before the rites of marriage begin ( i. e. before the per formance of nandlsraddha ), the mother of the bride or of th< bride-groom has her monthly illness then the marriage hai to be postponed till she becomes pure (till the fifth day afte
the illness
).
From the times of the grhya sutrae Forms of marriage dharmasutras and smrtis the forms of marriage are said to b( eight, viz. Brahma, Prajapatya, Arsa, Daiva, Gandharva, Asura Raksasa and Paisaca ( vide Asv. gr. I. 6, Gaut. IV. 6-13, Baud Dh. S. I. 11, Manu III. 21 = Adi-parva 73. 8-9 ), Visnu Dh. S 24.18-19, Yaj. 1 58, Narada ( strlpumsa, verses 38-39 ), Kautily* III. 1, 59th prakarana, Adi-parva 102. 12-15 (they are describee
:
but not
e. g.
named
gr.
A6v.
); some of these arrange the first four differently arranges them as Brahma, Daiva, Prajapatya an(
Arsa, while Visnu arranges them as Brahma, Daiva, Arsa am Prajapatya; A6v. gr. I. 6 places Paisaca before Raksasa. Th< Manava gr. speaks of only two Brahma and Saulka (i. e. Asura) probably because these two were the forms most current. Ap
Dh. S. ( II. 5. 11. 17-2011. 5. 12. 1-2 ) speaks of only six omitting Prajapatya and PaiSaca while Vas. Dh. S. I. 28-2S expressly says that there are only six forms of marriage viz,
;
last
Brahma, Daiva, Arsa, Gandharva, Ksatra and Manusa ( the two being the same as Raksasa and Asura). It if impossible for want of space to set out the various definition*
of the several forms given by the several authors. There ij general agreement otvthe special characteristics of each and il is sufficient to point out these as given in Manu III. 27-34,
1204.
sn^:
mr fgtTTJTf
in
tr
*UCTT
^r
fqcT^fT
i^r:
ftf8 ^J
*ft
s*ft
wra
<?nf^riif5n
<rfHTORq^*r
*ifr%3
p. 311.
Oh.
IX
Forms of Marriage
of
)
517
(
The
gift
a daughter, after decking her
with valuable
and honouring her ( with jewels &c. ), to a man learned in the Vedas and of good conduct, whom the father of the girl himself invites, is called Brahma. When the father gives away his daughter after decking her (with ornaments &c.) to a priest, who duly officiates at a sacrifice, during the course of its performance, it is the Daiva form. 1205 When there is
garments
a gift of one's daughter, after taking one pair of cattle ( a cow and a bull ) or two pairs only as a matter of fulfilling the law is named the arsa form. ( and not as a sale of the girl ), that The gift of a daughter, after the father has addressed ( the
may both of you perform your religious and after he has honoured the bride-groom ( with Madhuparka &c. ), is declared to constitute the PrSjapatya form. Yaj. I. 60 calls this kaya because in the Brahmana When the girl is given away at works 'ka* means Prajapati
couple with the words
duties together
'
'
'
',
'.
the father's will after the bride-groom gives as much wealth as he can afford to pay to the relatives of the girl and to the girl The union of a girl and herself, that is called the Asura form.
the bride-groom
by their mutual consent is known as Gandharvo, which springs from the passion of love and has intercourse as its purpose. The forcible abduction of a maiden from her house, while she weeps and cries aloud, after her kinsmen have been slain ( or beaten ), wounded and (their houses or fortresses) are broken open, is called the RSksasa form. When a man has
intercourse with a girl stealthily while she is asleep or intoxicated or disordered in mind (or unconscious), that is the Paisaca
form, which
is
the basest
and the most sinful

is
of all forms.
In the
first
four forms there
the gift of the girl (kanyadana)
or other guardian to the bride-groom. The word *dana' here is used in a secondary sense (as stated above on p. 504)
by the father
viz, in the
and control of the maiden
sense of transfer of the father's right of guardianship to the husband. All gifts are to be
in the case of
made with water
br&hmanas as
stated
by
Manu
1205.
Baud. Dh.
to
I.
11.
According
officiating.
him the
girl
becomes part of the daksinft (fee) for

is
But in the Vedus and Srauta sutras a bride

MedhStithi on
nowhere
spoken of as dakginS.
of the
Manu
is
III. 28
is
against the idea
bade being
p.
part of the
sacrificial
fee.
ViSvarGpa also aays ao;
but AparSrka
89 holds that the girl
given as fee.
518
(
History of Dttarmaiastra
35
)
Oh.
IX
Similarly in all the four forms where there is kanyadana the girl is to be well dressed and decked with ornaments. The essence of the brahma form is that the girl is given without; receiving anything from the bride-groom, who is invited and honoured by the girl's father. It is called brahma either because brahma means the holy Veda and this mode being sanctioned by the most ancient texts
III.
it is the holiest and best form, or brahma means dharma and being the best of all forms it is called brahma ( vide Smrfcimukt&phala part I p. 140 ). In the arsa form a pair of cattle is received from the bride-groom and ifc is somewhat inferior to the
and Gaut. V. 16-17.
1208
brahma form.
is
But the pair is given not as a price ( i. e. there no purchase ), but because that is one way of effecting a marriage laid down by the sastras ( vide the passage quoted above at p. 504 therefore one should give a hundred cows &c and Ap. Dh. S. II. 6. 13. 11, which is opposed to Vas. Dh. S. I. 36 )
*
'
and the
III.
gift is
).
made
to
show
one's regard for the girl (vide

is
Manu
only appropriate to brahmanas I3 7 as only officiate at a sacrifice. It is so called because the bridegroom is engaged at the time in rites for the gods and it is inferior to the brahma inasmuch as in it
there
is
53-54
The daiva form a brShmana could
some
*
trace of benefit to the father

rite for the
that the priest
may
'.
do his best in the
gods
).
Govindasvamin on Baud.
Dh. S. says the bride is in this form part of the sacrificial fee In all forms of marriage the husband and wife have to perform all religious acts together, as forcibly put by Ap. Dh. S. 120S ( there is no separation between husband and wife, since from the time of taking the hand of the wife there is joint performance of all religious actions). But in the Prajapatya the words used indicate according to the commentators ( vide Sam.
Strabo
(XV.
1.
54
refers to purchase of a
wife in exchange for two
oxen.
1207.
&
:
i
f^ror on
^r
I.
59-60.
208.
5mn<Tc*fnr
ftvrrnfr
fro$
6.
TrPwîTT% OTH
16-18.
II.
( p.
13.
About
xTrsnic^ the
ft.
732
quotes the
the
tf.
x?.
p.
852
quotes the
first
two views as those of
Ch.
IX
Forms of Marriage
519
and Haradatta on Gaut. IV. 5 ) one or more of several husband will remain a house-holder all his life and will not become a recluse while the wife is living or that he will not marry another wife i. e. it will be a strictly monogamous marriage which is defined in Hyde v. Hyde (1866), P. and M. p. 130 as the voluntary union for life of one man and one woman to the exclusion of all others ( p. 133 ), or that
Pr. p. 852
things, viz. that the
*
'
he will associate the wife with himself not only in sacrifices but also in works of charity ( like building tanks, wells &c. ). This form is inferior to brahma in that the father, as it were, makes a special stipulation with the bride-groom, while in the brahma there is no such special stipulation, but the bride-groom
promises that he will not break faith with his wife in the matter of the three purusarthas, dharma, artha, kama. 1209
In the asura form there
is
practically a sale of the girl for

ifc
is not approved. The Srsa is money's worth and so distinguished from asura in this that in the latter there is no limit to what is taken from the bride-groom, while in the former
money
or
a pair of cattle is offered as a matter of form, In the gandharva on the contrary the father's there is no gift by the father authority is set at naught by the girl for the time being. Marriage was a sacrament according to ancient sages, and its principal purposes as stated above (pp, 428-29) were the acquisition of merit by the performance of religious duty and of progeny. In the gandharva form the principal object was gratification of carnal desires and so it is held inferior to the first four forms and is disapproved. This kind of marriage is so called because it is
;
prompted by mutual love and the Gandharvas were known to be libidinous, as the Tai. S. VI. 1. 6. 5 (strlkama vai Gandharvafc) and Ait. Br. V. 1 state. In this form at least the girl's feelings are consulted. In the raksasa and the paisaca, there is no gift by the father and both are or may be against the wish of the girl.
The
(
forcible carrying of the girl is the essence of the raksasa

if
fight because the girl's father takes no in fear of the abductor's strength). It is retaliatory steps called raksasa because raksasas ( demons ) are known from
even
there is
no
legends to have been addicted to cruel and forceful methods. The paisaca is so called because in it there is action like that of pisacas ( goblins ) that are supposed to act stealthily by night
1209.
VI.
1. 17.
q* The
'
ft *R*ier
tf.
ST.
triF
^$F ^r snft
)
^ rrf^ft^S
( pp.
848 and 852
says that these words ogcur in
the snssnisnft (5ter on
520
Cb.
IX
It is not feo be supposed that when ancient sages held that raksasa and paisaca were forms of marriage, they legalized marriage by capture or stealth. What they meant was that these were the means of securing 121 wives and that there are
not really eight kinds of vivahas, but rather there are eight ways in which wives may be secured. It is for this reason that Vatsa says that if a fine girl cannot be secured by any means she may be approached even in private by stealth and
The sages condemned in no measured terms the the fact that Apastamba and Vasis^ha both ignore the PaiSaca and Prajapatya it may be inferred that these two had ceased to bo recognised by their time and that the other sages enumerated them only because they appeared in ancient works and for the sake of completeness of treatment. Vasistha
married.
paisaca.
From
expressly repudiates the idea that legal wifehood can * 1211 forcible if a damsel has been seizure of a girl by abducted by force and not wedded with sacred texts she may
17.
73
arise
lawfully be given to another man ( in marriage ) ; she is just as good as a maiden '. The smrfcis out of regard for the future
welfare of the girl preferred to blink at the wrong done, but insisted upon the abductor or stealthy seducer performing the
/
rites
of
homa and saplapadi

the status
in order to confer
on the
girl
wronged
wrong-doer was girl may be given to another in marriage and pronounced very heavy punishments for the abductor or seducer of a girl ( vide Manu VIII. 366 and Yaj. II. 287-288). Sir Gooroodas
Banerjee rightly expresses surprise at Macnaughten'ssaying that fraud was legalised by the Hindu Law in the case of the paisaca form. Manu VIII. 366 says that if a man has interI218
But if the of a legally married wife. unwilling to do this they recommended that the
have
course with a girl of his own caste with her consent, he will to give a fee to the father if the latter so desires and
1210.
[
I
fon on
p.
(
861; not to
nfarif: ^^tar^^ftTr^r^T^sT f^tariT T *g VIII. 366 trffq&TOTPrr ^n^Rf^T SW*T WT T f^TTSn W: R*Wr n ^cH quoted in ^f^g ( WT? ) p. 142 tf. ^. p, 735; *rpre allows the *TFHr only to kâtriyaB and
r
xtîtiwrrn^
H.
JT.
others
1211.
tlfinr 17. 73.
This
is
also
^. IV. 1. 17
and
it
is
quoted and
explained by f?r*TOT on*n.

1212.
I.
69.
'
Vide
Maonaughten
in his
Marriage and strldhana (5th ed. of 1923 p. 94). Principles and Precedents of Hindu Law' p. 60
*
said so in a note.
Ch.
IX
Forms of Marriage
521
Medhatithi 121S adds that if the father does nod desire money the lover will have to pay a fine to the king, that the girl may be given to him or if she has lost her love for him, she may be
given to another and if the lover himself wants to discard her he should be forced to accept her ( as a wife ), NSrada ( strlpurhsa, verse 72 ) similarly says that if a man has sexual intercourse with a maiden who is a consenting party, then there is no offence, but he must marry her after decking her ( with ornaments) and treating her with honour.
Sra. C. and other digests state that in the gandharva, raksasa and paisaca horn a and saptapadl are necessary and they quote Devala and the Grhyaparisista in support. The Mahabharata (Adi. 195. 7) 1214 expressly says that oven after svayarhvara religious rites had to be performed. Kalidasa in
The
ftsura,
Raghuvarhsa VII describes how after the svayamvara of Indumatl the principal religious rites of madhuparka, homa, going round the fire, panigrahana took place. Since Asvalayana first speaks of eight forms and then prescribes the performance of homa and saptapadl, he implies that these are necessary in
all forms.
The smrtis contain several views about the suitability of these eight to various varnas. All are agreed that the first four, brahma, daiva, arsa and prajapatya, are the approved forms
(prasasta
II. 5. 12. 3,
or
dharmya
24,
).
Manu III.
Vide Gaufr. IV. 12, Ap. Dh. S Narada (strlpurhsa, verse 44) &c. Most
say that each preceding one out of the first four is superior to each succeeding one and that thus brahma is the best (vide Ap. Db. S. II. 5. 12. 4, Baud. Dh. S. I. 11. 11 ). Almost all are agreed that paisaca is the worst. Manu III. 23-26 refers to several views. One view is that the first four ( brahma &c. ) arc the proper forms for brahmanas ( Baud, Dh. S. I. 11.10, Manu Another view was that the first six ( out of the eight III. 24 ). allowed to brahmanas i. e. all except raksasa and paisaca ) are and the last four to ksatriyas, and the gandharva, Ssura and paisaca to vaisyas and sudras ( Manu III. 23 ). A third view was that prajapatya, gandharva and asura may be resorted to
1213.
aWTT
^?3^T*T3TTc?TTT*
TOW:
STT^rff:
^?RT ^ST ^T
3W
verse 72).
Tnpr?JT<?r
%c5Ffrw*r5 on *rg VIII. 367;
^T
1214.
^ f^r^rrtmn*irc*Trm SKcrra:
3^rf%qn5 195. 7.
H. D. 66
522
Ch.
IX
by all varnas and paisaca and aûra should not be resorted to by any one of any varna ( Manu III. 25 = Anusasana 44. 9-10 ),
but in another verse
.
III.
24
Manu
allows asura to vaisyas
Manu mentions the view that the gandharva and sudras 12Ua and raksasa are proper ( dharmya ) for a ksatriya or a mixture of these two viz, where the girl loves the bride-groom, but her parents or guardians disapprove or cause obstacles and the
lover takes
III. 26
away
the girl after a fight with her relations
(Manu
and Baud. Dh. S. 1. 11. 13). Baud. Dh.S. 1215 (1. 11. 14-16) recommends asura and paisaca to vaisyas and sudras and assigns the interesting reason for the vaisyas and sudras do
'
work
not keep their wives under restraints, they having to do the of ploughing and waiting upon (the other varnas)'. Narada ( strlpumsa, verse 40 ) says that gandharva is common to
all varnas.
The Kamasutra
(
III.
5.
28
first
speaks of
the
brahma
writers
)
as the best
following the view of the dharmasastra
and
then, true to its
own
own
III. 5.
opinion
that
gandharva
particular subject, gives its the is best ( Kamasutra
29-30
).
The gandharva form was very much in vogue among royal

families.
this practice.
who was
Kalidasa gives expression to 1217 Krsna says to Arjuna In the Mahabharata in love with Subhadra that carrying away by force
In the Sakuntala,
1B16
one's lady-love is
commended
in the case of valiant ksatriyas.
In the Sanjan plates of Amoghavarsa ( dated Sake 793 ) it is stated that Indraraja married the daughter of the Calukya king at Kaira by the raksasa form of marriage ( E. I. vol. 18, p. 235 at p. 243 ). Another and a very famous historic example of the raksasa form is the forcible abduction after a most dashing and valiant fight by Prthvlraja Cohan of the daughter of
1214
a.
i
<f*rr
^ i?^;
5
I.
P-
87
the same words occur iu ^ra^tfTTTO P- 145
vido ^grfcnsr
1215.
p.
129 also.
iramOTr
i
^^Tfmn
3?^^cT^c7wr ft
^5^37 ^ri% ^
i
5j. 1.
11. 14-16.
1216.
:
II
STTêfcJ
HI.
1217.
Oh.
IX
Forma
of Marriage
1218
523
It is said that the daughter Jayacandra, the king of Kanoj. of Jayacandra was a consenting party; in that case this would be a mixture of the two forms of gandharva and raksasa
(
compare
Manu
III.
26
).
The svayamvara very often spoken of in the dharmasastras practically the gandharva as stated by the commentary 121d It had several varieties. Vlramitrodaya. The simplest form of svayamvara occurs when, as described by Vas, Dh. S. 17.
was
67-68, Manu IX. 90, Baud. Dh. S. IV. 1. 13, a girl, who attains puberty and whose father does not find a proper husband for three years, herself seeks her husband ( or after three months from puberty according to Gaut. 18. 20, Visnu
Dh.
S.
25.
40-41
).
Yaj.
I.
64 also recommends svayamvara to
every girl when there is no parent or other guardian who can find out a worthy husband for her. When a girl chose her own husband as above she had to return all ornaments given to her by her parents or brother and the husband who married her had to pay no Sulka ( dowry ) to the father as the latter lost his power over her by not giving her away in time ( vide Gaut. 18. 20 and Manu IX. 92 ). This simple svayamvara was applicable to
girls of all castes.
Savitrl indulged in this kind of svayamshe went about in a chariot to find out a suitable husband for herself. But the svayarhvaras described in the
vara,
when
two great epics are often most elaborate and spectacular affairs and were confined to royal families. Ttie Adiparva says that ksatriyas commend svayamvara and resort to it, but they
prefer a girl who is carried off after subduing her relatives. Bhlsma carried off the three daughters of the king of KasI and
got two of them

Vicitravlrya.
122
married to his ward or Draupadl did not depend upon the will of the bride, but the bride was to be given in marriage to whomsoever showed a certain skill as a
(
)
Ambika and Ambalika

The svayamvara
of
Slfca
In the case of DamayantI it was a real choice of her warrior. husband by her ( Vanaparva 54 ff, ) though she chose Nala in a vast and splendid assembly of royal suitors. Kalidasa also
1218.
Vide
);
(in 1908
1219.
Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. II. pp. Tod's Annals and Antiquities of RiSjasthan Vol. II.
314-315
p. 834.
?<r
<n^ct
?
It
yr on
1220.
*rr. I.
61.
*T^T 3
102. 16.
524
Oh.
IX
the
(
gives us a fine description of the svayarhvara of Indumafcl in Bilhana in his Vikramanka-devacarita Raghuvarhsa.
canto IX ) gives a description of the historic svayarhvara of Candralekha ( or CandaladevI ) daughter of the Silahara prince of Karahata ( modern Karad ), when she chose Ahavainalla or
Vikramanka, the Calukya king of Kalyana ( latter half of llth century ). Such a svayamvara, it appears, was thought to be 1221 In the unsuitable to brahmanas according to the Adiparva. Kadambarl ( Purvabhaga, penultimate para ) Pattralekha says 1222 that svayamvara is ordained in the Dharmasastras.
The Ap. Dh.
S. II. 5. 12. 4
makes a general statement that
the progeny of a couple partakes of the character of the form 1223 is in tho in which they were married ( i. e. if the marriage
best or in
is in
an approved form the son is good ; if the marriage a condemned form, the son bears a low character ). Maim the same idea by stating that sons born of ( III. 39-42 ) expands marriages in the brahma and other threa forms are full of
spiritual
eminence and are endowed with beauty, virtues, wealth, fame and very long life, while sons of marriages of the other four forms are cruel, are liars, haters of the Veda and of dharma. Some sutras and smrtis state how many generations are rendered holy by a son born in one of the first four forms.
For example, Asv. gr. ( I. 6 ) says that a son born of parents married in the brahma, daiva, prajapatya or arsa forms respectively brings purification to twelve descendants and twelve ancestors on both sides ( i. e. his father's and mother's ), to ten descendants and ten ancestors on both sides, to eight descendants and ascendants on both sides and to seven descendants and ascendants. Manu ( III. 37-38 ) and Yaj. ft 58-80 ) put the matter somewhat differently. According to them the son of
a brahraa marriage brings purification to ten paternal ancestors, to ten male descendants and to himself ( in all 21 ), of the daiva
marriage to seven paternal ancestors and seven male descendants, of the prajapatya marriage to six male ancestors, to six male descendants and to himself (in all 13), of the arsa marriage
to
three
male
ancestors and three male descendants. Gaut.
1221.
i
3tt%3
189. 7.
1222.
T%Pnr
gwnSr ^
i
e: ^resRcfirfa:
*n: IH^C^: q<fR ^T^rfV, ^Vnr, para 225

i
^f%
(
r-
of
^gnrw^ my edition
5. 12. 4.
^
).
an?
1223.
wT^wt i^nswngwr i^rr H?rft
STPT-
% H.
Ch,
(
IX
Farms of Marriage
525
Commentators like 24-27 ) has similar provisions. IV. Vi&varupa and Medhatithi explain that these verses are not to be taken literally. They merely praise the extreme desirability
Vis varupa, however, alternatively proposes accept the texts of the holy sages as literally true, following the dictum of Sahara that there is nothing too heavy im One ( or impossible ) for a holy text. may laugh at these
of the
brahma form.
that one
may
texts about the virtues
of the several forms of marriage, but they are really intended to emphasize the high importance to the future of the race and to society of noble ideals of marriage, of morals and of a decent and peaceful mode of life.
The forms of marriage have their roots deep down in the Vedic Literature. Rg. X. 85 gives expression to a marriage in the brahma form ( there is kamjaddna and so forth ). The asura form ( by payment of money ) is referred to in Rg. I. 109. 2 and Nirukta VI. 9 (quoted above in note 1175). The gandharva form or svayamvara is indicated by Rg. X. 27. 12 (quoted above p.439) and Rg. I. 119. 5. The story of Syavasva narrated in the Brhaddevata ( V. 50 ) in connection with Rg. V. 61 makes an approach
to the daiva form.
It is
related in the Brhad-devata that
Atreya
Arcananas who
daughter.
a priest at a sacrifice for king Rathaviti asked for his son Syavasva the hand of the king's
officiated as
In modern times two forms are in vogue, the brahma and In the brahma form it is a gift of the girl pure and simple in the asura form it is like the sale of the bride for
asura.
;
pecuniary consideration paid to tlie father or other guardian for If this element of pecuniary consideration paid to his benefit. the guardian -exists, its effects cannot be undone by the form of 1225 The gandharva form is said to a gift being gone through. before the courts it has been cases in some obsolete be now, yet 1228 There can be no gandharva if held that it is still in vogue.
the girl
1224.
is
a minor. Further
if
widow
remarries, that marriage
on
v.
TJT. I.
58.
The words ^ft

Chunilal
37
v.
wrf^T
1225.
Vide
from Anne's m<"T on ^. III. 2. 3. Surajram 33 Bom. 433 at p. 438 Hira

arc
;
Hansji
1226.
Pema
Bom. 295
72
at p. 299
Kailasanatha
v.
ParasaJcthi
58 Mad. 488, 491.
Viden Mad.
it is
17 Patna
134,
141; but in A.I, R.

is
1930
Ondli
p.
426
hold that the gSiidharva form
obsolete.
526
Oh.
IX
will be ordinarily regarded as gandharva, because there will be no gift of a kanya ( as she is a widow ) and because she herself will generally arrange such a marriage.
Before proceeding to set oufc in detail the ceremonies of it would be best to analyse the contents of Rgveda X. 85, which is a marriage hymn redolent of the highest
marriage,
ideal of marriage
and conjugal
felicity
and several verses
even now in the marriage rites. The hymn refers to a mythical marriage of Surya, daughter of Savitr, with Soma and the important features of the marriage, though not arranged in a regular sequence in the hymn, are the two ASvins went to ask for Surya as a bride for Soma 1227 ( verses 8-9 ) Savitr agreed to give her ( v. 9 ), the bride-groom was treated with honour, presents were made to him and cows were killed for ( or presented to ) him ; Soma took hold of her hand with the verse (36) 1 122t take thy hand
of
recited
:
;
which are
'
old age with ( or love ) so that you may grow to thy husband ; the gods, Bhaga, Aryaman, Savitr, the wise Pusan have given thee to me for performing the duties of a house-holder '; the bride is a gift by her father in the presence of
for prosperity
me
gods and the fire ( v. 40-41 ) the girl passes from the dominion and control of her father and becomes united with her husband
;
may you stay here not be separated, may you compass all life ( long life ), happy in your own house and playing with your sons and grandsons O Indra make her endowed with worthy sons and prosperity bestow on her ten sons and make her husband the eleventh (male); may you be queen over your
is
(v. 24); the bride

together,
blest
as follows:
may you
father-in-law, mother-in-law, over the

sister
husband's brother and

subordinate items
it
(vv. 42, 45-46
lm
)'.
Among
is
noteworthy that Raibhya was sent along with Surya as her friend ( anudeyl ) to make her time not hang heavy on her hands
1227.
.
5fffrn
*>j^vR^P;nTrerT5*TT
9.
X. 85.
also ( e. g. 5p. gr. of the bride-groom. 1228. ^wrrfo ^
The word here and in some of the grhyasOtras II. 16 ) means those who ask for the girl on behalf
TO
*mmwr f ^ *rn <n*n src^fewnr:

n SR.
*rrt
IT.
mm
mar.
frf^nr
3
gwrfsfr cmigifa^qre %*TJ

the reading
1229.
ia
X. 85. 36.
In the
)
3ii<r.
1. 3.
fpremc^nr (for worthy progeny

*ff
:
instead of
fts^nrn
T&
X.
ftf etfiT^
85. 42, 45-46.
Ch.
(
IX ]
The
religious ceremonies of
Marriage
527
v. 6 ) when she first went to her husband's family ( just as in modern times in Western India some woman accompanies the bride for a few days as patharakhirt 'one who guards'), that even a female servant accompanied Surya. 123
In connection with the rites of marriage it is necessary to observe that the greatest divergence prevailed from very * ancient times. Asv. gr. ( 1. 7. 1-2 ) says various indeed are the
observances of ( different) countries and villages; one follow those in marriages what, however, is common or most) that we shall declare*. Similarly Ap. gr. declares people should understand from women ( and what procedure is ( to be observed according to custom )
;
*
should
(
to all
(2.15)
others
)
'
and the
commentator Sudarsan^carya notes that certain rites like the worship of planets, ankuraropana and the tying of pratisara (the marriage string or ribbon round the wrist ) are usual and
are performed with Vedic mantras, while others like Nagabali, Yaksabali and the worship of Indranl are performed without Vedic mantras. The Kathakagrhya 25. 7 allows usages of countries and families to be observed in marriage and the commentators mention several such usages. As the grhya-sufcra of Asvalayana contains perhaps the shortest account of marriage rites and as that sutra is probably the most ancient among the grhya sutras I shall set out below the entire ceremony of marriage from that Then a few important details from other grhya sutras sutra will be added and it will be pointed out how in modern times
a marriage
is
celebrated, particularly
among
higher classes.
It
must be remembered that there is not only great divergence as to the number of separate ceremonies that constitute the samskara of marriage, but the sequence of even the most important ceremonies is different in the several sutras and the mantras also are different ( though some like Rg. X. 185. 36
are
common
to all
).
It is
remarkable that out
of the 47
verses
of Rg. X. 85, the Ap. Mantrapatha employs as many as 29 The ( most of which are quoted in connection with marriage ).
main outlines of the marriage samskara show a remarkable continuity for several thousand years from the times of the
Bgveda down The Asv.
as follows t
1230.
:
to
gr.
modern
( I.
times.
)
7.
3-1. 8.
Having placed
to the
deals with all the marriage rites west of the fire ( that is
X.
185.
6.
^rrefiqgfrft srmtfm p4reft

^r^ff.
ST.
srg%*ft
means
and s^r^ft means

t
Vide Appendix for text under note 1230.
528
History of Dltarmaiastra
Oh.
JX
the north-east
(
kindled on the altar as described already ) a mill-stone and to ( of the fire ) a water jar, he should offer sacrifice
with the sruva
),
while the bride takes hold of him
touches his
right hand ). Standing with his face turned to the west, while the bride is sitting and has her face turned to the east, he should
only her thumb with the mantra I take hold of thy hand for happiness* (Rg. X. 85. 36 quoted in note 1228), if he desires that only male children be born to him he may seize her other fingers he may seize her hand on if he is desirous of female children the hair side together with the thumb if he be desirous of both Leading her thrice round the fire ( male and female children ). and the water jir so that their right sides are turned towards
seize
;
;
'
(
(
the
fire
),
&c,
he murmurs
sa, I
mi
;
'
she
thou art
am ama
am
am
the saman, thou art the rk. beget offspring. Dear to each other, bright, having well disposed * Each time he leads minds, may we live for a hundred years
1
art sa ( this ), thou heaven, thou art the earth I Let us both marry here. Let us
I
;
am ama
her round
words ) enemies
'
he makes her tread on the stone with ( the tread on this stone be firm like a stone overcome the
(
the fire
trample
is
down
the foes
8S *
Having
first
poured
clarified butter over her joined
hands, the bride's brother or
some
in the place of brother pours fried grain twice over the bride's joined hands, three times in the case of those whose
one who
gotra is Jamadagni ( i. Then he pours clarified

Jiains (sacrificial
e.
if
the bridegroom is of that gotra
).
butter over
material or
what has been left of the offering) and over what has been cut
(separated from the aggregate ). This is the rule about the portions to be cut off ( in every case where there is amrfana)^*
off
With
the
following
verses
recited
by
the bride-groom
1231.
in the Garbbffdbana ceremony
Vide the same passage with slight differences quoted on p. 202 from the Br. Up. VI. 4. 20; the Tai Br II T. 7. 1
.
.
has the words 'aujgrri^r

1232.
......
srt csn^
sffT^ <rf*rer
r^ wrrf *c^ m^
i
In the
sJTWTgr
ajrq .
JT.
trra I. 5. 1.
this
II
mantra
ig
3TTnTgHTrg*TPTH \* 3
VR
gct-<4<r:
ti^ti ^tiTd^tr:
>.
The two portions of laja ( fried grain ) poured into the hands together with the first pouring of ffjya ( called TTOTT ) and the subsequent pouring of Sjya ( called sTc^fvi^rrT ! ) constitute the four avattas or portions cut off from the material for Jiavis. The descendants of Jamadagni are <WT5rf%?r: (vide above p. 490); therefore
1233.
hridc's
11
three portions of laja are to be poured out (in order to ymtfiur an d TTcTrfvniT^T, five avattas). For these terms ( <W3xr ) vide srairo I, 7. 2. 7-8.
make with
Cb.
viz.
IX
'
The ceremonies of Marriage

god Aryamati the
girls
offered
sacrifice
;
529
to
may
lie
the god Aryaman loosen her from this ( i. e. her father's ) and not from that place ( the bride-groom's ), svahci to god Varuna the girls have offered sacrifice may he, god Varuna &c. To
I
god Pusan the girls have offered sacrifice, to Agni may he, with these ( the bride ) should sacrifice ( the god Pusan &c. fried grain ) without opening her joined hands, as if they were Without going round the fire the the spoon called sruc. bride sacrifices fried grain a fourth time silently with the neb of the sUrpa ( winnowing basket ) towards herself. Some 1234 lead the bride round each time after fried grain has been
;
poured out, so that the two last oblations do not follow immediately after each other. Then he loosens her two locks of hair if they are made up ( that is if her hair has been bound round on two sides with two tufts of wool ), ( the right one ) with the mantra 'I release thee from the fetter of Varuna' (Rg. X. 85. 24) and the left one with the following mantra ( Rg. X. 85. 25 ). Then he causes her to step forward in a north-eastern direction seven steps with the words may you take one step for sap, second step for juice ( or vigour ), third step for fche thriving
'
of wealth, fourth step for comfort, fifth step for offspring, sixth step for seasons, may you be my friend with your seventh step May you be devoted to me let us have many sons, may I23S Bringing the heads of the two they reach old age *.
!
bride
and bride-groom
together, he
the acarya
sprinkles
The first view requires that loading the bride round the fire, 1234. making her tread on the stone and the offering of fried grain are each
hero for the 4th repeated thrice so that when the offering prescribed time is made, it follows immediately on tho third offering of lajas. Other teachers made the bride fii at offer lajas, then she wag led round
;
When this was done the 4th oblation of Ifijas would not como fire. immediately after the third oblation of Jo/as, but after she went round the fire the third time. The Qobhila gr. II. 1. 14 prescribes that the fiied a*ami plant and grain to be offered into fire is mixed with tendrils of the KslidSsa ( in Raghtivams'a VII. 25-26 ) refers to âmT and lajas.
the
This (the ^HT^H ald n g seven steps together) is the most 1235. We have to understand 'vr-r' important rite in tho marriage samsksra. These words occur in after each sentence' fq- (tcf^r *re 3J3? i^Tsfr *f. all grhyasutras, e. g. vide Ap. M. P. I. 3. 7-14 and Ap. gr. 4. 15-16, 6ai. Gobhila gr. II. 2. 11, Hir. gr. I. 21. 1 &c. But gr. L 14. 6, Par. gr. I. 8, there are slight variations as well. For example, <m^R*, ^TT^nff, f%T^T substitute <Trnr: for sT^r^T:, while tho first three of these and
7
5Tl<-<^r^
JTrre
and
and Jfanr*TW add

H. D. 67
ft 8 HA*NT
nT3 (or ftroj^P^g in HTST^T) after
each of the seven clauses.
on^T reads ^^ WHM^T for
530
Histwy of Dharmasastra
Ch.
IX
their heads with water from the water jar. And the bride should dwell that night in the house of an old brahmana woman whose husband and children are alive. 12* 6 When she (the bride ) has seen the Pole star, the star Arundhati and the seven sages ( the constellation of Ursa Major ), let her break
her silence and say

offspring
may my husband
V 237
(
If
the
live and may I secure newly married couple ) have to make a
journey
bride to
to their
mount a
home in another village ), let him cause the ' chariot with the verse may Pusan lead thee
' ;
( Rg. X. 85. 26 ) her ascend into a boat with the hemistitch (
from here holding thy hand

or the river called
he should
*
make
'
carrying stones
Asmanvatl) flows; get ready (Rg. X. 53. 8) and let him make her descend from the boat with the following they hemistitch; if she weeps let him pronounce the verse weep for the living ( Rg. X. 40. 10 ). They constantly carry the nuptial fire in front, At pleasing places, trees and cross roads, let him mutter may no way-layers meet us* ( Rg. X. 85. 32 ). At every dwelling place ( on the way ) let him look at this newly married bride the onlookers with the mantra X. luck 33 He should make her enter 85. ( Rg. ). brings good his house with the verse here may happiness increase unto you through offspring ( ftg. X. 85. 27 ). Having kindled with fuel sticks the nuptial fire and having spread to the west of it a bull's hide with the neck turned towards the east and the hair outside he makes oblations, while she ( the bride ) is sitting ( on that hide ) and takes hold of him, with the four verses may Prajapati create offspring ( one oblation with each verse ) to us ( Rg. X, 85. 43-46 ) and then he partakes of curds with the verse may all the gods unite our hearts ( Rg. X. 85. 47 ) and gives ( the remaining curds ) to her or he besmears the heart ( of both ) with the rest of the ajya ( with part of which he had already sacrificed ). From that time they should nob eat &sara 1238 and lavana, should observe celibacy, wear ornaments and sleep on the ground (not on cots) for three nights or twelve thus ( those nights or for a year according to some ( teachers )
* '
*
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
This rule has no application if the bride and the bride-groom 1236. belong to tho same village. But if they belong to different villages and the newly married couple have to stay somewhere for tho night on their journey then this rule applies.
1237.
This indicates that after the homa

till
is finished,
the bride
is to
observe silence
1238.
she sees the Pole star.
For the meaning of ksUra and lavana see note 723 above,
Ch.
IX
53i
When he ) a rsi will be born as a son ( to them ). has fulfilled these observances he should give the bride's shift to a brahmana who knows the Surya hymn (Rg. X, 85) and food to brahmanas. Then he should cause the brahmanas to pronounce
teachers say
auspicious words.
In this description of the samskara of marriage there are There are certain rites that are preliminary, there are then a few rites that are of the essence of the samskara viz. panigrahana, homa, going round the fire and the saptapadl, and there are certain rites like the seeing of the Pole star &c, that are subsequent to the central rites, The essential rites are mentioned by all sutrakaras, but as to the preceding and subthree parts.
sequent rites there is a great divergence in the details. Even as regards the essential rites the sequence in which they take For example, the Asv. gr. (I. 7. 7) describes place differs. the fire before saptapadl, while the Ap. gr. describes round going
saptapadl (IV. 16) before the act of going round the
fire
(V.I).
The Gobhila grhya

gr.
(
(II, 2. 16),
the Khadira gr. (1.3.31), and Baud,
I. 4.
10
other sutrakaras describe

are
describe panigrahana after saptapadl while many it before saptapadl. Then again there
many
Asv.
gr., e. g.
acts reference to which is altogether omitted in the there is no reference to madhuparka (which is
mentioned in Ap. gr. III. 8, Baud. gr. I. 2. 1, Manava gr. I. 9) nor to kanyadana ( which is referred to in Par. gr. I. 4 and
described in detail in Manava gr. I. 8. 6-9). Asv. probably omitted express mention of kanyadana, because in defining the first four forms he uses the word 'dadyat* while in the last four there is no kanyadana and Asv. wanted to describe ceremonies
that were
common
to all forms.
Taking as many grhya sutras as I could read, the following a fairly exhaustive list of the different matters described in A few notes are added against the samskara of marriage.
is
those that are deemed important. 1239
Vadhuvara-gunapariksa: (examining the suitability of a This has been dealt with already ( vide ). pp. 429-436 above).
girl or a bride-groom
Varapresana
of the girl
).
The ancient custom seems
(sending persons to negotiate for the hand to have been to send
1239. Among the principal ceremonies in marriage described by KslidSaa in the Raghuvamda VII are madhuparka, homa, going round the fire, pSnigruhana, Isja-homa and ZCrdrSkfata-ropana.
532
Ch. 13
some person or persons ( Rg. X. 85. 8-9 ) to the father of the gir The same was the practice in th< Vide San, gr. I. 6. 1-4 (where Rg. X. 85. 23 is th< sutras.
for asking her in marriage.
gr. II.
manfcra recited when sending them), Baud. gr. I. 1. 14-15, Ap 16 and IV. 1-2 and 7. Even in medieval times, parti
among ksatriyas, the bride-groom was the first to seefc hand of a girl. In the Harsacarita, prince Grahavarms of the Maukhari race sent messengers for the hand of princess 124 In modern times among th< BajyasrI, sister of Harsa brahmanas and many other castes, the girl's father has to seek 2 bride-groom, though among the sudras and several other castes
cularly
for the
.
the old practice
is
retained.
Vagdana
is
or
Vafi-niscaya;
gr.
I.
described
by San.
6.
(settling the marriage). Thif 5-6. Medieval works like th(
S.
R. M. pp. 529-533 describe this ceremony at great length.

i
Mandapa-karana Erecting a pandal where the ceremonies are to be performed. Par. gr. I. 4 says that marriage, caula upanayana, kesanta and slmanta are to be performed outsid<
the house in a pandal.
Vide
Sam
Pr. pp. 817-818.

:
Nandi-sraddha and Punyahavacana These are referred tc most of the grhyasutras are silent aboui gr, I. 1. 24 Vide for these pp. 216, 218 above. these.
by Baud,
Vadhagrhapamana:
house).
(bride-groom's going to the bride's
Vide San.
gr. I. 12. 1.
Madhuparka:
house
).
(reception of the bride-groom at the bride'g
Baud. gr. I. 2. 1, Manava gr. I. 9 am foi 1-3 prescribe this. Vide below chap. madhuparka. San. gr. 1. 12. 10 appears to refer to two madhu paikas, one before marriage and one after marriage (when the The commentatoi bride-groom returned to his own house). on Kathaka 1 to the opinion oi 24. refers Adityadarsana gr. some that madhuparka should be offered at the close of th< marriage, but states his own view that in all countries it is
Ap.
gr. Ill, 8,
Kathaka
gr. 24.
offered before marriage.
Snapana, Paridhapana and Samnahana
making
the bride
bathe, put on new clothes and girding her with a string or ropt of darbha. ) Vide Ap. gr, IV. 8 and Kathaka gr. 25. 4. Par. gr
1240.
4tb
Ch.
I.
IX
533
4 refers only to the putting on of two garments, Gobhila gr.
and putting on a garment, paridhapana and samnahana. Strangely enough Gobhila gr. II. 1. 10 speaks of the sprinkling of the girl's head with the best of sura which the ( wine ),
)
( IT. 1.
17-18
gr.
refers to bathing
Manava
( 1.
11.
4-6
refers to
commentator explains as water.

( anointing the bride and Vide bride-groom ). Gobhila gr. II. 2. 15, Par. gr. I. 4, in all of which Bg. X. 85. 47 is cited as the mantra with which anointing
:
Samanjana
San.
gr. I. 12. 5,
or sprinkling is done.
PratisarabandJia
:
hand
).
Vide San.
gr.
I. 1 2,
tying an amulet string on the bride's 6-8 Kausika sutra 76. 8.

;
:
VadhUvara-niskramana
of the bride
into the pandal ( the coming out and bride-groom from the inner part of the house ).
Par. gr.
I. 4.
I.
4,
Parasparasamiksana Ap. gr. IV. 4, Baud,

:
looking at each other

I. 1.
).
gr,
24-25.
Par. gr.
I.
Vide Par. gr. 4 says that
the bride-groom recites Rg. X. 85. 44, 40, 41 and 37 at this time. Ap. gr. IV. 4 and Baud. gr. say he recites Rg. X. 85. 44. The
Asv. gr. parisista I. 23 says that first of all a piece of cloth is held between the bride-groom and bride and that at the proper
moment it is removed and then the two see each Laghu-Asvalayana-smrfci (15. 20) also says the same. This practice is observed even now. When the interposed cloth is held between the bride and brHe-groom verses called mangaastrological
other.
lastakas are repeated by brahmanas, the last of which verses 'tad-eva lagnarh sudinam tad-eva &c.
'
is
Kani/adana
the gift of the bride
).
Vide Par.
gr.
is
gr. I. 4,
Manava
gr. I. 8. 6-9,
Varaha
gr.
sets out the procedure
about the
The Asv. kanyadana which

13.
parisista the same
even now. The Sam. K. p. 779 notes about half a dozen different methods of uttering the formula in Jcanyadana. It is in this
rite that the father of the girl
says that the bride-groom should not prove false to the bride in dharma, arfcha and kama and he * responds with the words I shall not do so' ( naticarami ). mi
This
is
done even now.

$imc on
1241.
$ftft VI.
1. 14 says Vide also note 1209 above.
'
v5**T*
15. 27
baa
According to fr-nfMSr on
IX. 101 the words tftf^nf *9 ^r*T
^ *rrfiNfttTrF
occur in 8?r^R?!^.
534
Oh.
IX
Agnisthapana and homa:

of ajya oblations into fire about the number of ahutis
).
establishing the fire and offering Here there is great divergence and the mantras to be recited. Vide
(
(
Asv.
gr. I. 7.
3 and
I.
4.
3-7, Ap. gr. V. 1
16 ahutis with
gr.
I.
16 mantras), Gobhila dvaj* I. 13 &c.
gr. II. 1.
24-26,
Manava
8,
Bhara-
Panlgrahana
'
Taking hold
of the bride's
hand
).
(Offering of Lajahoma Vide Asv. gr, I. 7. 7-13, Par. I. 13. 15-17, Gobhila gr. II. 2.
I. 4.
fried grain into fire

gr. I. 6,
5,
by
the bride
).
Ap.
Manava
V. 3-5, San. gr. 11. 11, Baud. gr. I. gr.

gr.
25.
&c. Asv.
is
gr.
says that the bride makes three offerings of
when mantras are repeated by the bridegroom and made of the remaining lajas by the bride silently. Some others speak of only three offerings by the bride.
fried grain
a fourth
Agniparinayana
bride round the
gr. I. 20. 2
fire
'
and water
the bride-groom going in front takes the It is while doing this that jar ).
'
he utters the words
amohasmi &c.
vide San. gr.
I.
13. 4, Hir.
&c
).
Aimarohana
These
three are
making
the bride tread on a mill-stone

viz.
).
done thrice
lajahoma, then agnipari-
nayana and asmarohana, one
after another.
Saptapadi : ( taking seven steps together ). This is done to the north of the fire; there are seven small heaps of rice and the bride-groom makes the bride step on each of these seven with her right foot beginning from the west.
Murdhabhiseka
the bride
Par. gr.
and
of the bride-groom according to

).
sprinkling holy water on the head of some and on the
head of the bride only according to others I. 8, Gobhila gr. II. 2. 15-16 &c.
Suryodiksana
:
Asv.
gr.
I.
7. 20,
making
the bride look towards the
sun
).
Par. gr. I. 8 speaks of this and employs the = Vaj. S. 36. 24 ). ( Rg. VII. 65. 16
mantra
'tac-caksur'
Hrdayaspar&a
Par. gr.
I. 8,
Bhar.
gr. 1. 17,
:
touching the bride' heart with a mantra Baud. gr. I. 4. 1.
).
reference to the
(
with Preksakanumantrana the spectators ( addressing newly married bride). Manava gr. I. 12. 1 which employs Rg. X. 85. 33 ). Par. I. 8 employs that verse
over the bride.
:
for reciting
gr. 1. 14.
Par. gr. I. 8, San. Daksirindava ( gifts to the acarya ). 13-17 ( both prescribe a cow as the fee in the case of
Gh.
IX
535
brahmanas, a village in marriages of kings and nobles, a horse in marriages of vaiSyas &c. ). Gobhila gr. II. 3. 23, Baud. gr. I. 4. 38 speak of only a cow.
Grluiprave&a
:
entering the bride-groom's house X

:
( sacrifice on Grhapraveianlya homo. entering the bridegroom's house ). San. gr. 1. 16. 1-12, Gobhila gr. II. 3. 8-12, Ap. gr. VI. 6-10.
Dhruvarundhatl-dar&ana
pointing out the Pole star and
ArundhatI to the bride

gr. I. 7.
of marriage ). A6v. 22 speaks of the seven sages in addition, Manava gr. I. 14. 9 speaks of the same three and adds Jlvantl, Bhar. gr. 1. 19
at night
on the day
speaks of Dhruva, ArundhatI and other naksatras, Ap. gr. VI. 12 ( only Dhruva and ArundhatI), Par. I. 8 (only Dhruva). According to San. gr. 1. 17. 2, Hir. gr. I. 22. 10 both the bride
and the bride-groom remain

A6v.
gr.
silent till night. According to only the bride does so. Gobhila gr. II. 3. 8-12 describes Dhruvarundhatl-darsana before grhapravesa,
Vide Ap.
gr,
I.
Acjneya Sthallpaka ( mess of cooked food offered to Agni). gr. VII. 1-5, Gobhila II. 3. 19-21, Bhar. gr. I. 18, Hir.
:
23. 1-6.
:
for three nights after marriage Triratravrata ( keeping certain observances). Vide A6v. above p. 530 for the observances which are enumerated by almost all sufcrakaras. Ap. gr. VIII. 8-10, Baud. gr. I. 5. 16-17 contain the interesting injunction
newly married pair should sleep on the ground on the same bed for three nights, but should interpose between them a staff of udumbara wood anointed with perfumes and wrapped round with a garment or a thread and that on the fourth night it should be removed with the verses Rg. X. 85. 21-22 and
that the
thrown into water.

Caturthlkarma ( rite on the fourth night after marriage This has been described above (pp. 202-204).
:
).
In the medieval digests certain other ceremonies are mentioned and they are observed in modern times also. A few Here again the order is not the of them will be noted below.
same
in all works.
The Dharmasindhu
p.
265 refers to this
divergence.
on
honouring the bride-groom and his party This is done before ). vSgniscaya in modern times. Vide Sam. K. p. 768; Dharmasindhu III, p. 261.
Simantapujana
their arrival at the bride's village
536
Gfatiri-Hara-puja
).
:
Ch.
IX
(worship of Siva and his consort R. M. p. 534 and 544, Dharmasindhu ( notes that there are several views as to when kanyadana takes place ) describe this. Images of Qaurl and Kara are to be made of gold or silver or pictures of them on a wall &c. or on a
Gaurl p. 261
Sam. K.
p. 766, S.
piece of cloth or stone are to be drawn and worshipped by the intending bride after punyahavacana and before kanyadana.
Vide Laghu-Asvalayana
15. 35.
Indrani-puja: (worship of IndranI, the consort of god Indra ). Vide Sam. K. p. 756, S. R. M. p. 545. This seems to have been comparatively an ancient practice as Kalidasa in Raghuvamsa VII. 3 seems to refer to it ( there was absence of
'
disturbers of svayaihvara on account of the presence of Sad Probably SacI was worshipped before the svayamwra began.
')
(Applying turmeric powder to the bride-groom's body from what is left after the bride's body has been so treated). Vide Sam.K. p. 757, Dharmasindhu III. p. 257.
Taila-liaridraropaw
:
( mutual showering of wet unbroken by the bride and bride-groom ). In a vessel of some metal like silver a little milk is poured and clarified butter is sprinkled over it and unbroken wet rice grains are poured therein. The bridegroom applies milk and ghee to the joined hands of the bride twice and thrice places rice grains in the joined hands of the bride so that her anjali becomes filled up and twice sprinkles ghee over her joined hands. Some other and person does the same to the joined hands of the bride-groom the bride's father places a golden piece on the joined hands Then the bride-groom places his joined hands on those of both. her of the bride whose father then repeats a mantra and raises
Ardraksataropana
rice grains
up
who
she then pours the rice over the head of the bridegroom follows her in the same way. This is done thrice by each and then lastly by the bride ( i. e. seven times in all ). Then
;
the priest sprinkles on their heads water with an udumbara ' hi twig together with durva grass after reciting verses Apo mark s^ha &c. ( Rg. X, 9. 1-3 ) '. Then the couple make a tilaka on each other's forehead, garland each other and tie a thread
with a turmeric piece on each other's hand ( which is variously * called kankana-bandhana' or kautuka-bandhana' ). Vide Sam. Kalidasa in Raghuvamsa VII Pr. pp. 828-829, S. R. M. p. 556. describes ardraksata-ropana as the last of the rites of marriage and in VIII. 1 speaks of the kautuka,
'
Ch,
IX

:
537
( tying a string having golden and round the neck of the bride ). This is now regarded as the most important ornament which no woman will part with as long as her husband is alive. Bufc the sutras are entirely silent about it. Among the earliest; references is one from Saunaka smrti l * 45i (ms. in Bombay University Library, folio 39 b ). The Laghu-Asvalayana smrti 15. 33 also prescribes it and the mantra to be employed when doing so. Gadadhara on
Mangalasutra-bandhana
it
other beads on
1. 8 says that mahgala-sutra should be worn and garlands be placed round their necks by the bride and bride-groom, though the sutra of Paraskara is silent on the point. The Baud. gr. sssa
Par. gr.
V. 5 in describing arkavivaha speaks of mangalya It is not clear whether it means sutra to bo tied to the plant. the same as the mangalasutra now tied by married women, round their necks. About the nose-ring or nose ornament to which all women whoso husbands are living attach the greatest importance in modern times, the sutras, smrtis and even the early digests are entirely silent, Dr. Altekar in his recent work Position of Hindu women in Hindu Civilization ' pp. 362-64 holds from the evidence of the sculptures throughout
siifcra
'
'
nose-ring was unknown throughout the whole India during the entire Hindu period till about ( i. e. 1000 A. D. ). Mr. P. K. Gode in Annals of B. O. R, I. vol. XIX pp. 313-34 adduces evidence to show that a nose( for 1939 )
India-that the
of
'
ornament was known

%
to
literary
works from at
least about
1000 A.
D.:
Tying turmeric pieces and end of the upper garments of both and making a knot of their two garments together ). Vide Sam. K, p. 799,
Uttariyapranta-bandhana
(
befcelnut
on
to the
S,
Pr.
p.
829.
1
Airinldana
Presenting the mother of the bride-groom
with several
1242.
:
ii
gifts
in a large wicker-work basket with
lamps
era* *Tfpc?$sr
*rr?f rvftef ^r ^^fcrn*

>
STT^TJ *njrhrrc3??*ren5)V^
15. 33.
^
* .
HforfrirfN'cni
JT
I
The
I.
TF3T is
*TT*ra?^T%;T vfJ5fHfgHT
1243.
:
I
qrcfl^Rofl^t
to
i
^^ %cJ ^f^:
is
tt
quoted in
as follows
$. T. HT.
'
P-
580.
The request
show
affection
made
aresm fi^qr 3Rr*rr ^^n^cfT ^prr %%\$i frw ^r^ ^rrn %fe^ m<rMdi^ n . Appropriate changes are to be made, according to the age of the bride ind the relationship of the bridegroom to the principal lady. H. D. 68
538
History of Dhannatastra
Oh.
IX
to
lighted and requesting her and the relatives of the bride-groom Vide Sam. K. p. 811, treat the bride affectionately). Dharmasindhu p. 267. basket of bamboo ( vam&a ) is used
probably to symbolize the continuity of the family (varhsa) of the bride-groom. This is done when the bride is about to leave the
father's place to go to the bride-groom's place after marriage.
( taking leave of the Devctkotthapana and Maridapodvasana had been invoked before the ceremonies began and
deities that
taking down the pandal).

pp. 555-556.
Sam, K.
pp.
532-533,
S.
R,
M,
Two interesting questions arise viz. when can a marriage be said to be final and irrevocable and what would happen if a marriage is brought about by force or fraud.
what is given by force, what enjoyed by force, also what has been caused to be written by force and all other transactions done by force, Manu ' has declared void and in VIII. 165 he places fraudulent transactions on the same footing as those brought about by
says
(
Manu
VIII. 168
is
force.
There
S.
is
marriages. Baud. Dh.

she
(
We
saw above
great difficulty in applying these dicta to that Vas. Dh. S, ( 17. 73 ) and
if
declare that
girl
has been carried

repetition
of
off
by force
and has not been wedded with the
sacred texts
be given to another man in marriage. Visvarupa can be done ( p. 79 ) add a gloss that this only after she has undergone a prayascitta. From this it appears that if the marriage rites ( like saptapadl ) have been performed^ the ancient law-givers would not have declared
may
)
p.
74
and Apararka
the marriage null and void even if the girl had been carried away by force or married by fraud. In modern works on Hindu Law the proposition is stated 1244 that a marriage,
*
though performed with the necessary ceremonies, may be set aside by the court, if it was brought about by force or fraud.' This opinion is based on what was said in gome decided cases e. g. Aunjona Dasi v. Prahlada Chandra ( 6 Bengal L. R. 243 at p. 254), Venkatachargulu v. Eangacharyulu I. L. R. 14 Mad. 316 at p. 320, Mulchand v. Bhudhia I. L. R. 22 Bom. 812. But in none of these cases was a marriage duly
solemnized
going round the

1244.
by the performance of the rites of panigrahana, There are mere fire and saptapadl, set aside.
Vide Mulla'a Hindu
Law
9th ed. of 1940) p. 504.
Ch.
IX]
When
is
Marriage irrevocable?
a marriage
539
obiter dicta in these cases to the effect that
may
'
be
set aside
by the court for force or fraud.
S. (17. 72) goes so far as to observe when a has been promised in marriage ( and the promise has been confirmed) with water, if the intended bride-groom dies, but the Vedic mantras have not been recited, that girl still belongs to 1845 her father ( and may be given to another) has Katyayana a similar verse if after choosing a girl as his bride, a man dies (or is unheard of) the girl after the lapse of three monthly
The Vas. Dh.
girl
'.
periods may marry another'. And another verse of the same author says that if a person after giving a gratuity for a girl and strldhana to her goes abroad, the girl may be kept unmarried
for a year and then may be given to another. Manu (VIII. 227) says the Vedic mantras recited in the marriage rite are a sure indication of wife-hood; but their completion should be understood by the wise as occurring on taking the seventh step*. AparSrka p. 94 ( on Yaj. I. 65 ) quotes a similar verse from
*
Yama
is
Narada (strlpumsa v. 3). The Udvahatattva p. 129 quotes So it follows that the marriage beto the same effect. comes complete and irrevocable the moment the saptapadl rite
performed, but before that rite
is
gone through there
is
locus pcenitentice or a power to resile from what has been undertaken. Before the saptapadl is performed, if the bride-groom
dies, the bride is still a maiden and not a widow and can be 1248 The most essential ceremonies of marriage are married again the horna and saptapadl. The Dronaparva 1247 says that promise of a daughter and giving a daughter with water are not certain means of knowing wife-hood but saptapadl is known to be the If any of the other ceremonies are completion of marriage. wanting that would not vitiate the marriage. In I. L. R. 12
.
Gal. 140,
essential
it
ceremony and
has been held that the vrddhi-sraddha is not an its absence would not vitiate marriage.
1245.
srcrecsrr
g
3rTrqrnr?T
^Ttc^T^T quoted by
quoted in
tf. cfft.
p. 737.
1246.
sfr^^r r quoted in ^.
T.
P- 55,
TST^cTr^ p. 129 and in

is
) p.
138,
which
fa
I.
adds *<^ This last remark

latter
made by the *fiô

r
I.
p.
82 also.
1247.
*S?TT
$w<*3
55. 15-16.
540
History of Dharmaicteira
the
Ch.
IX
quotes the unanimous opinion of the Scaryas that marriages celebrated before fire as a witness cannot In the case of sudras'there are no Vedic mantras and ?e revoked.
Even
Kamasutra
1248
in their case the completion of marriage will be determined say (p. 57) that iccording to custom. The digests like Gr. In the case of sudras the marriage will be complete when the
jo
mdra
girl holds the fringe of the
garment
of the bride-groom.
Manu ( IX. 47 ) declares 'once is the partition of inheritance made, once is a maiden given in marriage*. This rule really means that once the ceremony of marriage is completed
by saptapadi, the marriage is irrevocable and the girl cannot But if a girl is only thereafter be given to any one else. promised in marriage and if a more worthy suitor subsequently presents himself, then the father may commit breach of promise
and give her in marriage to another. Vide also Manu ( IX. 71 and VIII. 98). Yaj. I. 65 states the rule and the exception
*
girl
is
given only once
a person
who
her,
after
is
having pro-
give, deprives that punishment of a thief; but if a

to
mised
man
of
liable to the
the father
may
promised'.
more worthy suitor approaches, deprive the former (suitor) of her (hand) though The Mahabharata ( Anusasana 44. 35 ) says that up
to panigrahana
(
any one may ask for the hand of a maiden even though promised before to another ). Narada ( strlpumsa 1249 vv. 30 and 32 ) contains similar provisions. Conversely, if a man agrees to marry a girl and subsequently discovers defects
in her or
if
she
is
practising fraud he
diseased or already deflowered or given by may refuse to marry her. Vide Manu
a guardian gives away a girl without declaring the subsequently discovered ) the ( and they are guardian should be fined in the highest ammercement (according to Yaj. I. 66 and the lowest, according to Narada, strlpumsa 125 others add that the defects v. 33 ). ( p. 95 ) and Apararka referred to must be latent and not apparent or patent to view. If a suitor repudiates a girl who is free from defects he should be fined in the highest ammercement and if he falsely accuses
IX. 72.
If
defects of a girl
her of defects he should be fined one hundred panas

1248.
1249.
Yaj
I.
66
srf^THrnNnr r? rensT
Tptefer ^c^r^rrow:
cMmafl III.
5. 13.
30 and 32.
1250.
c.
i
awîrf p. 95.
Oh,
IX
Marriage
541
and Nfirada, strlpurhsa v. 34). Narada adds that he who abandons a faultless girl should be punished and should be made to marry the same girl. ml
Some of the smrtis and digests are very much exercised over the question of the bride having menstruation while the marriage ceremonies are in progress and homa is about -to be
performed.
A.tri ( Jlvananda part 1, p. 11, chap. ) prescribes that having made the girl bathe wifch the HavismatI in which the word havis occurs, probably Rg. ( with a verse
1258
X.
88. 1 or
'
VIIL
72. 1
and
)
to put on other
garments and having

'
offered
an ahuti
(
manah
Pg. V. 81. 1
with. The same as Atri's ) and proposes an alternative method viz. that the bride and the bride-groom should stay separate from each other for three days and on the fourth day after ceremonially bathing themselves should perform the homa in tho same fire.
Yufijate the ceremonies should be proceeded Smrfcyarthasara ( p. 17 ) first quotes two verses ( the
of
clarified
butter with the verse
1251.
^ %rj[ n
irf^jgr
T:
*r *i w JH TU?^^ w
*.
1252.
tTcf:
p.
is
quoted as v^vvsi in tf. *. m. p. 500 and tf. 714, while the T3T?3** quotes (pp. 146-147) two verses (one of which the same as fitar^ and the other very similar) from fsg^TS^Wfr^ as quotec
I
3TT% V.
This
is
in the jjM*my?gfnET.
CHAPTER X
MADHUPAIIKA AND OTHER USAGES
honey by way of honour to a word The literally means' a ceremony in distinguished guest which honey is shed or poured ( on the hand of a person ). The I25S 18. 4. word occurs in the Jaiminlya Upanisad-Brahmana The Nirukta ( I. 16 ) also refers to the usage of offering madhuparka with the word madhuparka repeated thrice. It appears
Madhuparka
offering of
).
'
that the Ait. Br. III. 4
if the ruler of men says that comes as a guest or any one else deserving of honour comes, of people kill a bull or a cow ( that has contracted a habit 1BS1 though that word is not abortion) refers to Madhuparka, actually used. In all grhya sutras it is described at length. Most of the details are the same, the principal difference being
when
'
it
'
the verse
that often different mantras are prescribed, though some ( like 1255 ' * mata rudranarn ) are the same. The'madhuparka
is offered to rhtJcs (priests officiating at sacrifices ) when they are chosen for a sacrifice, to a snataka who has come to one's to house, to the king (who rules one's country, when he comes
house ), to maternal uncles.

one's
one's acarya, father-in-law, paternal and The Manava gr. ( I. 9. 1 ), Khadira gr.
IV.
(
4.
21,
Yaj.
I.
110 say that six persons deserve arghya

the
185<$
madhuparka ) viz. rtvik, acarya, the bride-groom, the king, snataka and a person who is dear to one. Some like Baud.
gr.
I. 2.
65 add
atithi
'
guesfc
8.
).
Vide Gaufc. V. 25, Ap.

3.
gr.
13. 19-20,
1253.
18. 4
Ap. Dh.
S. II. 3.
5-6, Baud. Dh. S. II.
63-64,
1254.
HI.
1255.
4.
This
is
quoted by
fr*r
on Trg
III. 119
and by
I
17. 30.
Tl% ^?f?^?t fc^T JT^T^TTfT^ ^^TcnTT^rT^^TI^ ^T*^. H. 1.24. 1-4. The bride-groom, when he comes to the bride's house, is to be honoured with irgtrir because he also is and generally a ^TC^?- The 3*r^r*f is owe who performs one's ^tr^^r
I
teaches the "Veda.

1256.
?T*HT <w**rf SR-R
\ ^.
I. 2. 65.
Oh.
Madhuparka
SAbMparva
if
543
36. 23-24, Gobhila gr. IV. 10. 23-24. the persons enumerated come to one's house within a year after madhuparka has been once offered, then it need not be offered again ( in the same year ), but when
III. 119,
Manu
It is laid
down
that
a marriage is being celebrated in one's house or a yajna is being performed, then madhuparka must be offered to those* persons ( even if one year has not elapsed since the madhu-
parka
Ap. Dh. Gobhila
yajna,
was
S.
previously
II.
3.
8.
gr.
IV.
10.
Vide Gaut. offered). V. 26-27, Yaj. I. 110, Khadira gr. IV. 4. 26, 26. Btviks are to be honoured in each
6,
several yajnas are performed in the Yaj. I. 110 ). Manu ( III. 120 ) says that a king and a snataka are to be honoured with madhuparka only when they visit one's house in a yajna. Visvarupa ( on Yaj. I, 109 ) says that madhuparka is to be offered to the king only and not to
even
(
though
same year
any ksatriya. Medhatithi on Manu III. 119 says that when a king, whether a ksatriya or not, comes to one's place madhuparka was to be offered, but not to a sudra king. According to grhya-parisista the madhuparka is to be performed according to
the rites prescribed in the sakha of the receiver
giver.
1257
and not
of
the
madhuparka is sot oufc from the Asv. gr. 1?58 He pours honey into curds or clarified butter if no ( I. 24. 5-26 ) 1259 water for washing the feet, aryhya honey can be had. A seat,
of
The procedure
"
water ( i. e. water perfumed with flowers &c. ), water for acamana, honey mixture, a cow; every one of these they announce three times ( to the person who has arrived ). The person ( to be honoured ) should sit down ou the seat made of northward pointed darbha grass with the verse 1260 'I am the highest one among my kindred, as the sun among lights Here I tread on whomsoever bears enmity to me.' ( lightnings ). Or he should repeat this verse after he has trodden ou it. He
'
should make
1257.
the host
wash
his feet
the right foot he
should
^raft
quoted in
tf. u.
p. 823.
1258.
Vide Appendix for text
T3E*:' <rRf|rff
a seat with 25 ^fd. Tasrnsrm quoted by tf. *T P- 821. alibis water for washing the hands* in which flowers and perfume (like sandal-wood paste) have been mixed Up. ^r^JTT^Tfqf^W^^H^^fHc^^ Wt^T on 3TT**. ^. I. 24 11.
1259.
A RE^ is
1260.
^ ^wf&c.
This occurs in trm^fT
and
*TR3W
9-
with slight variations.
544
hold out
sudra.
first
to a
Oh.
X
a
brahmana
for
washing
and the
left to
When
his feet have been washed, he receives the
arghya
water in his joined hands and then he performs acamana with * the water for sipping with the formula thou art the seat ( or
first
1261 layer) of ambrosia'.
He
should look at the madhu*
parka, when it is being brought to him, with the mantra I look at thee with the eye of Mitra *. He accepts ifc (the madhuparka) ' in the joined hands with the formula by the command (urging)
god Savitr, by the arms of Asvins and the hands of Pusan, I accept thee ( Vaj S. I. 24 ). He looks at it with the three rk verses 1862 the winds blow honey to the righteous man
of
'
*
thrice
it into his left hand ), stirs it about with the thumb and the finger next to the smallest and wipes ( his fingers ) towards the east with the formula may the Vasus eat thee with the Gayatrl metre '; with the formula may the Rudras eat thee with the Tristubh metre ( he wipes fingers ) towards the south with the formula
Rg.
I.
90. 6-8
).
He
takes
from
'
left to right
'
may
;
west
towards the the Adityas eat thee with the JagatI metre ' with the formula may Vigve Devas eat thee with the
'
;
'
Anustubh metre towards the north

bhutas
'
with the formula
to the
beings ) thee madhuparka materials

(
throws
it
up
I
).
He
'
he three times takes ( some of the out of the middle of it ( and ) from should partake of it for the first time with
'
the formula
with
me
the milk of Viraj art thou ', for the second time in obtain the milk of Viraj ', the third time with may may the milk of Padya Viraj dwell '. He should not eat
*
1282
the whole
give the remainder

he should throw
it
madhuparka and should not eat to satiety. He should of the madhuparka materials ) to a ( out brahmana towards the north but if no brahmana is available
;
into water
or he
may
eat
the whole.
it
He
then takes
acamana with
the water intended for
with the
1261.
in 3JTT.
ST^Tra H.
The words 3^rt7MfrU u rm{T occur in the description of 10. 3 and 3?T<T. ^. 13. 13., TTTH3W. ! 9. 15.
The thieo verses Bg.
I. 90.
'
1262.
'*r$ *TrTT s??n*rer

(8)
US
sm^cf
w-^:
(6),
6-8
all
begin with tho word *rg

1
snfrg^tfir
(7V*gmr wrra:'
in ST*T. ft. 13I. 3, also in
and
so
aie
veiy appropriate to
*TgtT3i,
They occur
27-29, are called ^g^cff verses
and employed in m*. ^.
Wf^W
(
I.
9. 14.
occur in Par. gr. I. 3 f^rsfr 3trcfrft &c. but at the time of receiving the arghya water), San. gr. III. 7. 5, MSnava gi. I. 9. 7 &c. Some held that he should partake of the madhuparka at one time after repeating the three mantras at once.
1263.
The three
JI^TS
Ch.
Mad/wparJta and ether usages

'
545
formula them art the cover of ambrosia,' 1884 He sips water a second time with the formula truth fame fortune may Fortune resort to me. When he has sipped water, they announce to him the cow. Having muttered the words destroyed is my sin, my sin is destroyed \ he says om, do it if he desires to have the cow killed if he 13 desirous of letting her go, he mutters the verse the mother of Rudras and daughter of Vasus IE64a ( Rg. VIII. 101, 15 ) and says let her go '. Let the
'
! !
!
'
'
'
'
madhuparka not be without
flesh."
A few small matters may be noted. Several grhya-sutras (such as the Manava) describe madhuparka as a part of the marriage rite, while others like Asv. describe it independently. Others like Hir, gr. ( I. 12-13 ) describe it as part of Samavartana
There
is
divergence about the substances mixed in
Asv. gr, and Ap. gr. ( 13. 10 ) prescribe a offering madhuparka. mixture of honey and curds or clarified butter and curds.
Others like Par.
gr.
).
I.
prescribe
a mixture
of three
curds,
Ap. gr. ( 13. 11-12 ) states the view of some that those three may be mixed or five (those three with fried yava grain and barley ). Hir. gr. I. 12. 10-12 gives the option of mixing three or five ( curds, honey, ghee, water and ground grain). The Kausrika sutra (92) speaks of nine kinds of mixtures viz. Brahma ( honey and curds ), Aindra ( of payasa ), Saumya (curds and ghee), Pausna (ghee and mantha), Sarasvata (milk and ghee), Mausala ( wine and ghee, this being used only in SautramanI and Rajasuya sacrifices), Varuna (water and ghee ), Sravana ( sesame oil and ghee ), Parivrajaka (sesame The Manava gr. I, 9. 22 says that the Veda oil and oil cake ). declares that the madhuparka must not be without flesh and so
honey and butter
it
recommends
that
if
)
the
cow
is let loose,
;
goat's
meat or payasa
be offered the Hir. gr. I. 13. 14 ( says that other meat should be offered; Baud. gr. says (I. 2. 51-54) that when the cow is let off, the flesh of a goat or ram may be offered or some forest flesh ( of a deer &c. ) may be offered,
rice
cooked in milk
may
as there can be no
to offer flesh
sacred,
it
flesh or if one is unable cook ground grains. As the cow became became unthinkable to kill her and so other flesh was
madhuparka without
one
may
1264.
9ITT.
3T?TTnfaP!"JTfiMhis 1^73 occurs also in OTT.
*T.
Ht- II.
10.
4 and
13. 13.
1264a.
several
The verse
69
i?TcfT
*%W\ ( referring
to the
cow
3
is
mentioned in
^.
I. 2.
ws?*s
H. D.
such as the
rw
( I. 9.
23
),
Par.
( I.
),
^.
60,
546
Ch.
When even flesh-eating came to be abhorred, then only offered. payasa and such other things were recommended. The Adiparva (60.13-14) refers to Janamejaya's reception of Vyasa with madhupurka and Vyasa's letting the cow loose. This abhorrence of flesh-eating will be dealt with later on, In modern times there is generally no madhuparka except in marriage and then too it is a simple matter and the elaborate procedure prescribed
in
some
of the
grhya sutras
is
hardly ever followed.
Certain peculiar ceremonies relating to marriage may now be described very briefly. In order to avert early widowhood was judged from her horoscope ) for the girl to be ( which
married, a ceremony called kumbha-vivaha was performed. It is described in Sam. Pr. ( p. 868 ), Nirnayasindhu p. 310, Sam. K. ( p, 746 ), S. R. M. ( p. 528 ) and other works. On the day previous to the marriage a jar of water in which a golden image of Visnu is dipped is decked with flowers &c, and
the girl is surrounded in a network of threads, Varuna and Visnu are worshipped and prayed to give long life to the intended bride-groom. Then the jar is taken out and broken in a pool of water and then water is sprinkled over the girl with five twigs and to the accompaniment of Rg. VII. 49 and then brShmanas are fed.
The Sam.Pr. (pp. 868-869) speaks of Afivatfcha-vivaha which kumbha-vivaha and performed for good luck to the bride and averting widowhood. Here the Asvattha tree is substituted for the jar and a golden image of Visnu is worshipped. The
is like
image
is
then given to a brahmanji.
Arkavivaha : When a man has the misfortune to lose by death two wives one after another, before marrying a third wife he goes through a ceremony of marriage with the arka plant. This is described in Sam. Pr. pp. 876-889, Sam. K. p. 819,
Nirnayasindhu, V. 5 also.
p. 328.
It is described
in Baud. gr. sesasutra
Another question which takes up much space in ancient works but which is now of hardly any import ance isparivedana. When a male got married before his elder brother or where a person married a younger girl before her elder sister was married, this act was called parivedana and was severely con. demned as a serious encroachment on the rights of seniority and as a sin. Gaut. 15. 18 and Ap. Dh, S, ( II. 5. 12. 22 ) declare that a younger brother married before an elder brother, and an elder
Ch.
Parivedana
547
brother married after a younger brother are sinners, and should not bo invited at a SrSddha. Ap. adds that one who marries a
younger sister before her elder sister is married, one who marries an elder sister after the younger sister has been married, one whose younger brother has kindled the sacred fires or offered a soma sacrifice before him ( and a younger brother who kindles
the sacred fires or offers
soma sacrifice before his elder brother ) are also equally sinful. Vas. Dh. S. 1. 18, Visnu Dh, S. 37. 15-17 also have similar provisions and Vas. Dh. S. ( 20. 7-10 ) prescribes krcchra penance of twenty days for the husband of the younger sister married before her elder sister and for the
husband of the elder sister married after the younger one, requires each of them to offer his wife to the other for the sake of form ( to remove the slur ) and then to wed her again with his assent. 1285 Vide Baud. Dh. S. II. 1. 40 also. The younger
brother
who marries
(
before the elder brother

III. 171,
),
is
called parivettai
QI parivividana
Manu
parivindaka ( Yaj. I. 223 younger brother marries

parivitti
(
Ap. Dh. S. II." 5. 12. 22) or the elder brother before whom the
called parivitta
or
is
parivinna or
Manu
III.
171
),
the
younger
sister
who
marries before
the elder sister is called agredidhisu ( Gaut. 15. 15, Vas. 1. 18 ) or parivedini, the elder sister before whom her younger sister The husbands of these two last marries is called didhisu.
respectively bear the appellations agre-didhisupati and didhisupati. The father or other guardian who gives away the girl
in
any
of these
cases of parivedana
'
is
called
the
paridata.
The younger brother who kindles

'
paridayl or sacred fire
before the elder
and the elder brother styled panjadhatr who is so treated is called paryahita ( Gaut. 15. 18 ). Manu III. 172 ( which is almost the same as Baud. Dh. S. II. 1. 30 and
is
' '
Visnu Dh.
girl
16 ) says that the parivetfca, the parivitta, the the younger brother marries before the elder, the man who gives away the girl in marriage and the officiating 1866 must perform the ( and priest these five all fall into hell
S. 54.
whom
penance of Candrayana according to Visnu

1265.
).
The Mit. on
fr
Vide Mit. on YSj. III. 265 explaining Vas. Dh. S. at ^tet ^^r îxc^T ?r$r
^wr
îtet sShyni'
1266. The story of Jacob and the two sisters Leah (elder) and Rachel (younger) in Genesis XXIX shows that among the ancient Jews custom prohibiting the marriage of a younger sister also there was
i
before the elder
sister.
548
Oh.
Yfij. III. 265 quotes Harlta-dharmasutra on this topic to the same effect. Medhatithi on Manu III. 171 refers to the view of some that if a son kindles the sacred fire before" his father, the same rule applies as between brothers and then refutes that view. Apararka p. 446 quotes Usanas that a person may
kindle sacred fires even before his father or grandfather with the latter's consent. The Trikandamandana ( I. 76-77 ) says that there is no sin in taking agnihotra and performing a sacrifice
before
an
elder brother
and the incurring
of sin
is
)
only
holds
restricted to marriage, while the Smrtyarthasara (p. 13
the opposite view that one should not kindle the Vedic fires before one's father even with the latter's consent. The Visnu
Dh. S. ( 37. 15-17 ) enumerates parivedana among upapatakas. Gaut. ( 18. 18-19 ) prescribes that if an elder brother has gone to a foreign country his younger brother must wait twelve years before he takes a wife or kindles sacred fires or six years 1267 There is a similar text of Vas. quoted according to some.
by Apararka
p. 445.
In certain cases marrying or kindling sacred fires before an Medhatithi on Manu III. 171 quotes a verse 'One need not wait where the elder brother is
elder brother is not condemned.
a sinner, or leprous, impotent, or suffering from and remarks that this is only illustrative (i.e. one need not wait where the elder brother has no adhikara for 1888 Vide Atri v. 105 ( Anan. ed- ) marriage or for kindling fires) of Atri (v. 106) says that Another verse for a similar verse. there is no blemish in marrying before the elder brother, if the latter is impotent or gone abroad, or patita or has become a 12<9 Vide Gobhila smrti recluse or is devoted to Yogasastra are similar for verses 72-74 (which quoted by the Or. B. ) ( I. p. 90), Trikandamandana I. 68-74, Smrtyarthaeara p. 13 and Sam. Pr. pp. 760-766." a lunatic, or
is
tuberculosis'
The ideas about the wrong committed by a younger brother marrying before an older one reach far back into Vedic antiquity. In the Tai. Br. ( III. 2. 9 ) there is a story that the gods transferred (rubbed off) their sin to the Apyas and then
or sister
1267.
snarfr
$3 3*rnri%
^nnf?m?3<r^ n^S%
i
*mr*r 18. 18-19.
1268.
gnrer; f^f^nfr ^rfr Tiita:
ffm
<r* **
Tnrwnwnfr
<J STerrrifffR
quoted by &JT on 3*3

te
106.
III. 171
and
3HW& p. 445.
p. 445.
1269.
This
ia
quoted as OTncTT'S by
3jqrr<=h~
Ch.
Parivedana
a succession of persons
549
there
is
sin and each preceding one

it
who are all guilty of blame or among whom is said to have passed
viz.
on to each succeeding one
suryabhyudita, suryabhinim-
rukta, kunakhin, syavadat, agredidhisG, parivitta, vlrahan, brah* mahan. The Vas. Dh. 1MO S. 1. 18 arranges persons called sinners Here ( in ( enasun ) almost in the pame order as in the Tai. Br.
Tai. Br.
) we have parivitta and agredidhisu. of the Tai. Br. (III. 4. 4) while speaking of
In another passage
Purusamedha,
it
is
said that the parivitta is consigned as a victim to ill-luck (m'r-r/t), the parivividana to distress (arti) and the didhisupati to non-success ( araddhi ).
1270.
1.
18.
CHAPTER
XI
POLYGAMY, POLYANDRY AND RIGHTS AND DUTIES ON MARRIAGE

1B71 seems to have been the Polygamy: Though monogamy ideal and was probably the rule, the Vedic literature is full of references to polygamy, Rg. X. 145 (same as Atharvaveda III. 18 ) is a hymn meant as a charm for weaning the husband's affections from a co-wife. It occurs in the Ap. M. P. ( L 15 ) and Ap. gr. IX. 6-8 prescribes it for winning over the husband to oneself and for causing estrangement between him and one's 127a 159 is a hymn attributed to Sad, wife of co-wife. Rg. X. who to claims have vanquished and killed her co-wives Indra, and to rule supreme over Indra and all men. This hymn also occurs in Ap. M. P. ( L 16 ) and is prescribed by the Ap. gr. ( IX. 9 ) as a charm always to be repeated by a wife for sup-
pressing her co-wives. In a verse ( Rg. I. 105. 8 ) Trita who had fallen into a well declares the rib-like sides ( of the well ) cause me pain all round as co-wives make it too hot ( for the The Tai. S. ( VI. 6. 4. 3 ) gives husband or for themselves ) im a dogmatic and somewhat picturesque explanation of polygamy that 'on one sacrificial post he passes round two girdles, so one man secures two wives; that he does not pass one girdle round two posts, so one wife does not obtain two husbands'. The Ait. Br. ( 12. 11 ) similarly declares therefore one man has many wives, but one wife has not many husbands at the
*
'
1271.
Vide Rg. X.
85. 26
and
46.
These are 3^7 <^ft
The word dampati ( which occurs it ( last quoted above in n. 1229 ). very frequently in the Kg. ) conveys in several places the idea of a
monogamous marriage.
1272.
Vide Rg. V.
3. 2,
VIII. 31.
i
5,
X. 68.
2,
Vide
a^M^T ^n^rfr ^^Fc^fSnjfr

t:
I
X. 159. 5-6.
ainr. H.
trt.
reads differently.
I
1273.
tf ITT crtreWTcr:
Mci7ffrj T5^Tt
*T.
I.
105. 8
vide Rg. X. 116.

to
10 (3TTi%3Tftflô;3 <frHHI*O where the Advine ^m^r the husband of maidens.
are
said
have made
Oh.
XI
Polygamy
'.
551
same 1874 time The Tai. Br. (Ill, 8. 4.) when speaking of the Asivamedha says 'the wives anoint (the horse); wives are indeed a
form of prosperity
vol. 44, p. 349
)
la the Sat. Br. ( XIII. 4. 1. 9., S. B. E. l276 wives are in attendance viz. the consecrated queen (mahisl), the favourite wife (vavata), the discarded wife (parivrkta or parivrkti) and the palagali
.
ms
it is
said, 'four
(who
is low-born)'. The Tai. S. I. 8. 9 refers to the mahisl and parivrkti, In the Vaj. S. (23. 24, 26, 28) there are verses which are addressed to the mahisl, vavata and parivrkti by the brahma, udgata and hota priests respectively. Hariscandra is said to have had a hundred wives ( Ait. Br. 33. 1 ). It is not to be supposed that polygamy was confined only to kings and nobles. The great philosopher Yajnavalkya had two wives, KatyayanI who was worldly-minded and Maitreyl who thirsted for the knowledge of brahma and immortality ( Br. Up. IV. 5. 1-2 and
II. 4. 1
).
In the times of the sutras, some sages wanted to hold up a high ideal. The Ap. Dh. 8. ( II. 5. 11. 12-13 ) declares that when a man has a wife who is endowed with dharma and progeny, he shall not marry another wife but if any one of the two ( dharma and progeny ) is wanting ( in the case of the wife ),
;
he may marry another before he has consecrated the sacred srauta fires. In another place Ap. ( I. 10. 28. 19 ) prescribes that one who abandons his ( faultless ) wife should put on the skin of an ass with the hair outside and should beg for alms
at seven houses for six
months.
im Narada
strlpurhsa v. 95
1274.
qî^y
<nft
f**^
1.
*f.
VI.
6. 4.
vide also S. *T
VI.
5. 1.
'
?
\
*n^:
sn-tTcnr:
q. we- 12. 11.

i
1275.
<r^Tts*wf%
^cnft 3TTTT
renrr
^ ^m^t ^T?^T:
III. 8. 4; vide ^TcT^^WT. XIII. 2. 6. 7 for the
same words.
1276.
3^Wr W^cT
Hf|4t ^m5TT
'
^Rf WT
XIII.
In Tranror snc^T^ 14. 35 the first three out of these four are mentioned in connection with 3T^wr ftot3*f**Wt$fcfT f^T H^nftIn Kg. X. 102. 11 the word ^r^T^rw^t *rar u irftG^rr q-frfSR^T wife. r occurs which probably means the discarded
4. 1. 9.
1277.
11. 12-13; I. 10. HT f i%: yHiffK ^T^. ^r chap 74. 13 where this snnsra' for ithe husband is said that it is never observed by men.
T.
^- ^. II-
5.
i
'
28. 19
is
vide
it
mentioned and
552
Ch.
XI
recommends that the king should bring round to the proper path by inflicting heavy fines a husband who abandons a wife that is obedient, not harsh of tongue, vigilant ( in household
work
),
chaste and endowed with sons.
Even Kaut.
III. 2
prescribes that a
husband should wait
for eight years
(before
) if his wife gives birth to no child after one delivery or is sonless or is barren; he should wait for ten if she bears only still-born children, twelve years if she gives birth to daughters only. Then if he is anxious for a son he
marrying another
another. If he violates these rules he must pay her some wealth as etrldhana and money ( prescribed to be given) on supersession and besides a fine (to the king ) of
may marry
gratuity,
24 panas V 2T8 So far Kauîlya appears to have only stated the ideal, because he follows up this remark by another statement
which probably represented the commonly held popular view *a man may marry several wives after giving &ulka and strldhana to those to whom nothing had been given at the time of marriage and money on supersession ( adhivedanika ) and
suitable provision for livelihood
for
procreating
for
sons.'
Though
the ideal of
fine
monogamy
for women are ( married ) Ap. and others held up and Narad a and others prescribed a
;
marrying a second wife without sufficient cause, it is extremely doubtful whether a man was ever punished by the king for so doing. Manu V. 80 and Yaj. I. 80 both say that a husband may supersede a wife ( and marry another ) if she drinks wine, suffers from a disease (of long standing), is
deceitful, is
and gives
,at
birth
extravagant in expenditure, speaks harsh words, to female children only. Mauu V. 81 and
Baud. Dh. S. II, 2. 65 allow a husband to marry -another woman once if the first is harsh of tongue. Devala ma quoted in the Gr, E. says that the sudra may have only one wife, a vaisya two, a ksatriya three and a brahmana four, but a king may have as many as he desires. This only reflected the prevailing mo practice of kings. The Adiparva gravely remarks to have
'
many wives
1278.
is
no adharma on the part
of
men, but
to
violate
periods of waiting.
to
Vide Manu IX. 81 and Baud. Dh. S. II. 2. 65 for similar Vide Ysj. II. 148 for the amount of Sdluvedanika be given by the husband.
1279.
TTJfr *KNsj!Tj
tnn sjj?^ %*3T quoted

II
yw
in
t flta srwrer <?r Sf**m*TOT P- 85.
1280.
airSprir 160. 36.
Ch.
XI
Polygamy
first
553
the duty owed to the the case of women.'

tells
husband would be a great adhdrma in The Mahabharata ( Mausala-parva V. 6 ) us that Vasudeva 1281 ( Krsna ) had sixteen thousand wives.
Several kings had in historic times as many as a hundred wives. For example, the Cadi king Gangeyadeva alias Vikramaditya is said to have obtained mukti ( salvation ) at Prayaga with his hundred wives 1882 (vide Jabalpur plate of Yasahkarnadeva dated 1122 A. D. in E. I. vol. II. p. 4 and the Khaira plates of the same In Bengal the evils of Kulinism king in E. I. vol. XII. p. 205). are well known. The reasons for this treatment of women were
many, such as the great spiritual importance of sons, early marriages and consequent illiteracy of women, the spread of the idea of the ceremonial impurity of women and their being equated with
sudras and lastly the idea of the complete dependence of women on men. One must not be carried away, however, by the not ion that
marrying many wives was either very common or was not looked down upon. Steele (in 'Law and Custom of Hindoo Castes,' first published in 1826 ) who had the most unique opportunities for observing the practices of numerous castes in the Dekhan in the
decades of the 19th century writes (p. 168, ed, of 1868) 'a man as many wives as his inclination or circumstances allow. Marriages in succession, in consequence of the death of a former wife, are very common; but polygamy is not
first
may marry
usual except on account of the barrenness of the first wife. It is practised in the Koonbee castes '. Vide also Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. I ( ed. of 1907) p. 482 'Although in theory polygamy is allowed, in practice a second wife is rarely taken while the first is alive and in India as a whole there are only 1011 wives to every 1000 husbands so that even if no husbands have more than two wives all but 11 per thousand must be
The state of the modern case law is unsatismonogamous The Bombay High Court has held that the mere fact factory. that the husband has married a second wife would not entitle
'.
the
wife to refuse to stay with the husband. Vide Motilal In Virasami v. Appasami, 1 v. Chanchal, 4 Bom. L. R. 107. Madras High Court Reports, p. 375, the court held that a Hindu may marry any number of wives, although he may have a wife
first
or wives living.
1281.
It is
submitted with great respect that that
is
V.
1282.
uitl
6.
sT^TOJJ^f^SnFqft
wi
5liN ^J^'lft^tti^ fjf^nj
E.
I.
vol. II. p. 4.
H. D. 70
554
Ch.
XI
nofc the ideal or the view of the best; writers, nor is such a view held by the majority of Indian jurists of ancient and medieval times. Modern opinion of educated people is most favourable
making marriages monogamous and efforts are being made secure absolute monogamy by legislative action. For example, the Madras Nambudri Act ( Madras Act XXI of 1933 ) forbids a Nambudri brahmana from marrying a second wife when the first is living except in three cases viz. (1) when the first wife is afflicted with an incurable disease for over five years, (2) when she has not borne a child within ten years of marriage, and (3) when she becomes an outcast.
to
to
Polyandry
The passages cited above (note 1274) from the Ait. Br. and the Tai. S. that a woman cannot have several husbands at the
same time make it clear that in those ancient times polyandry was unheard im of. Not a single Vedic passage can be cited which clearly refers to the practice of polyandry. The
%
most glaring example of polyandry in Sanskrit literature is that of DraupadI as the wife of the five Pandavas. Probably the tradition was too firmly rooted to allow the author to ignore
it.
The Mahabharata shows
that
all
were shocked by the
make DraupadI the wife of the five brothers. Dhrstadyumna ( Adiparva im 195. 27-29 ) tries vehemently to dissuade Yudhisthira, who tries to justify his
resolve of Yudhisthira to
action on the ground of ancient practice and the agreement of the brothers to share everything that any one of them may But Yudhisthira could 1285 ferret out ( Adi. chap. 196 ) secure.
only two instances

viz. of Jatila
rather mythical
(
GautamI
who had seven
in support of the practice sages as husbands ) and

It is
of Varksl
who had
ten Pracetasa brothers as husbands.
this fact that has led
many
scholars to regard the
non-Aryan tribe somehow grafted on the represented as relatives of the Kauravas by the editor of the
1283.
I. p.
Pandus as a Aryan stock and
Vide Cambridge History of India, vol
I.
p. 88,
Vodic Index
479.
1284. anft- 195. 27-29; vide *n?m 68.35 where Karna speaks of Draupadi ' ( a harlot ), because she had many men as her husbands.
*
bandhakl
1285.
gftftc replies
u
q$ift
iwf wfrcrsT ?n^r
fariT *r4
TUT*
Oh.
XI
Polyandry
555
MahabhSrata. This too also sounds somewhat far-fetched, Kumarilabhatta in his TantravSrtika cuts this Gordian knot by putting forward three explanations, one of which boldly asserts that there were many Draupadls very similar to each other and 1286 so the epic figuratively speaks of one There Draupadl only. were really five Draupadls (and not one) married separately to
the five Pandavas. In the Dharmasastra works there are traces of the knowledge of the practice of polyandry. Ap. Dh. S/(II. 10. 27. 2-4) refers to it One shall not make over (his wife ) to
*
strangers
for a son
by niyoga\ but only

;
to one
who
is
a sagotra
for they declare that a bride is given to the family (of brothers'
and not
to one brother alone ) that ( niyoga ) is forbidden on account of the weakness of men's senses.' Similarly Brhaspati, while illustrating the proposition that the king should not disturb
cites popular usages even though they may be improper, * several such practices among which he mentions In some other countries there is the most reprehensible practice of a brother taking ( as wife ) the widow of his deceased brother, and the
practice of delivering a maiden to a family similarly among the Paraslkas ( Persians ) matches with a mother are seen . 1287
; f
to thinking Brhaspati polyandry as practised in the south. Brhaspati first referred to the practice of marrying a maternal uncle's daughter as
Dr.
Jolly
is
wrong
in
that
refers
prevalent amongst the southerners ( daksinatyas ) in his day and then adds that a practice of giving a girl to the family is in vogue in other countries. So he clearly means countries other than those of the daksinafcyas- Prof. Keith appears to follow
Dr. Jolly without any independent examination of the original E. vol. 8 on marriage, p. 453). Just as Brhaspati passage (in E. refers to the Paraslkas, he speaks of polyandry as current
among other countries ( but not Aryan India). There are two 1288 one matriarchal ( where a woman forms types of polyandry, simultaneous alliances with two or more men who are not
necessarily relations of each other and therefore succession
is
1286.
ii
3ro<rT sr^q-
at:
^^rîfS^
P.
209
1287.
jft^rrt
r:
sifTOFn^
i
awfsfsrrfwrorcof îmf ft^

<mtfV^ &pft
p.
I
ff*T^T quoted in the *gftê

Sitte,
I.
10,
130).
Vido Jolly's Becht und
English translation,
I. p.
p. 102.
1288.
Vide Imperial C4azetteer of India, vol.
483 (1907).
556
Oh.
Xl
traced through the female ) and the other fraternal, where a woman becomes the wife of several brothers. The former
but
to
practice once prevailed among the Nairs on the Malabar coast, it has now died out. The latter form of polyandry is still
in the
some extent found in Kumaon, Qarhwal and among peoples 1289 Pandit Bhagwanlal Himalayan area up to Assam. A. vol. in that Kuraaun between the Tons Indraji (I. 8, p. 88) says and Jumna river about Kalsi, Rajputs, brahmanas and sudras all practise polyandry and the children are attributed to the brother who is alive. Nllakantha, 1290 the commentator êldest the Mahabharata, raises ( on Adiparva 104. 35 ) the question pf pbout Draupadl's marrying five husbands and refers to the [practice among very low castes in his day of one woman having two or three husbands.
Mutual rights and duties
of
husband and wife
Manu ( IX. 101-102 ) lays down in a concise form the obligations of husband and wife viz. 'they should not prove false to each other till death ( as regards dharma, artha and kama ) and
that their constant endeavour should be not to be separate from each other and not to break faith with each other ( as to those
three goals of human life)*. The detailed rights and duties of the husband and wife will be unfolded as we proceed.
The was
first;
duty of the husband and the privilege of the wife
to require
72. 5
and
religious acts.
to give respectively her co-operation in all This has been so from the most ancient times.
In Rg.
I.
it is
said
*
1891
'
that
they, accompanied
by
'.
their
wives, worshipped the another place it is said

of
In who is worthy of worship when you make the husband and wife
fire
friend
one mind, they anoint thee with ghee like a well-placed In the Tai. Br. III. 7. 5 occurs a passage 'may the wife '. unite with her husband by means of the good deeds ( done by
1289.
Vide the authorities quoted in Jolly's Rocht und
Sitto
Eng.
tr.
p. 103 foot-notes).
1290.
on sru^nr 104. 35.

1291.
tfsrnfRT
3TOT?TH!
tTWTTOt
T^4
?.
5f***R V. 3.2;
i
9?.
T.
72.
5;
STTTT^T fosr*anw<ft:
i
rr.
III. 7. 5.
Ch.
XI
),
Rights and Duties on Mairiage
J>5f
both
they two became yoked like oxen to the sacrifice

;
may
the two be of one
mind and destroy their foes may they attain non-aging light in heaven*. The same verse with slight variations occurs in the Kathaka Sam. V. 4 and is relied upon by Sahara on Jaimini VI. 1.21. This indicates that
they were supposed to enjoy the fruits of their actions We saw above (p. 551) how in the A&vamedha the wife
anoints the horse,
of
fried
together.
how
in
marriage the bride
offers
handfuis
grain into fire. It has already been seen ( note 1208 ) that the Ap. Dh. S. ( II. 6. 13. 17-19 ) requires that from the
time of marriage the husband and wife work together in religious acts, that they share the reward of such acts together
and that they both have dominion over the wealth of the family and that the wife can make gifts in the absence of the husband if occasion necessitates. The Asiv. gr. ( 1. 8. 5 ) prescribes 189 * that
the
fire
kindled at marriage
(
is
carried
(
by the married
1-U
)
their
home
in a vessel
and that
I. 9.
pair to since the day of
marriage, the husband should" Worship the domestic fire himself or his daughter or pupil (may offer worship irilra absence ), that if fire goes out, some teachers say that the wife should observe a fast, the domestic fire should be worshipped in the evening with an ahuti and the formula
or his wife or his son
'agnaye svaha* and in the morning with an ahuti and the formula 'suryaya svaha' and there is to be a second oblation
each time silently (to Prajapati). According to the commensome said that the wife and daughter could not perform the homa as they had no privilege to learn mantras, that they could only kindle the fire, while others said they could do so. In the grhya fire kindled at marriage one was to offer the daily
tator
mahayajfias (Gaut.
(I. 4.
5. 6-8) and as regards baliharana, Gobhila gr. 16-19) says that both husband and wife should offer balls
or
a brahmana may offer for them, or the wife 1293 evening and the husband in the morning
.
may
offer in the
(
Maim
III.
121
says that from food cooked
in the evening the wife should
1292.
T^^tef nTi *rird?3T^
nri^r
3TT*r T.
8.
5.
Tfioftrforn^ ÎBI
I. 9. 1, 3, 8.
1293.
in
SJPT, ^J.
fire
grhya
3-4.
was against allowing women to perform horna even except in the case of kaniya rites and bali,
8.
558
offer balls, bufc
Ch.
XI
without mantras. This shows that though gradu-
to lose the right to repeat Vedic mantras ( as shown by Manu), still she had a hand in the religious rites. She had to perform many acts in sacrifices, such as unhusking
ally
women began
grain in sthallpaka
(vide Hir.
gr.
I.
23.
3),
washing the
slaughtered animal ( compare Sat. Br. III. 8. 2 and Qobhila gr III. 10. 29 ), looking at the ajya in srauta sacrifices. The Purvamlmamsa lm (VI. 1. 17-21 ) establishes that both husband
and wife own property and should join together in performing sacrifices, but that the male sacrificer alone is ordinarily to do every act in all religious ceremonies except such matters as
are expressly declared to be performed
by
the wife also or alone
observing celibacy, uttering benediction &c. ). It is on account of the necessity of associating the wife in all religious acts that the hero Rama was compelled to celebrate sacrifices with
(as
e. g.
the
of Slta by his side. Panini ( IV. 1.33 ) derives word patrii and says that it can be only applied to a wife who shares in the sacrifice ( and its reward ). It follows that wives who are not or cannot join with their husbands in yajfias are only jay as or bharyas ( but not paints ). The Mahabhasya 1296 that the wife of a sudra is called patnl only by says
a golden image
1295
analogy ( as a sudra himself has no adhikara for yajfia, his wife can much less have it). It is on account of this close association of the wife in all sacrifices ( either srauta or smarta ) that the wife if she dies before her husband is burnt with the sacred fire or fires and with the sacrificial vessels and implements
(
'
Manu V. 167-168, Yaj. I. 89 ). The Tai. Br. III. 7. 1 says half of the sacrifice is destroyed in the case of that sacrificer whose wife is (in her monthly course and therefore) unavailable
on the
sacrificial day.'
1297
But the wife is not authorized tcrdo religious acts indepen= dently of her husband or without his consent. Manu ( V. 155 for Visnu Dh. S. 25. 15 ) ordains there is no separate yajna
'
1294.
cK*TT
^T^rffHRn^sr^Hg^Tc^T^
;
3f.
VI.
1. 24.
1295.
ftt
iftftOTlft HI. 10
sfjrerf?
TO tj^f
1.
*t
(
1296.
i
q^T *J5tfT*nt
J
IT.
IV.
i
33;
TmnM VIT tT*;qft 3*^3^

in
en-
91 25 -
**ftft
i%v^m s-tmr^mfl^c Tc^^n^ni^

p. 214).
>
JTfwnr on
IV.
1. 33. (
vol. II.
1297.
HI. 7.1.
Ch,
XI
Eights and Duties on Marriage
559
independently of the husband ) nor vrata ( vows ) nor 1891 Similarly Katyayana propounds a sweeping rule whatever a woman does to secure spiritual benefit after death without the consent of her father ( when she
women
fasts (without his consent).'

'
the purpose intended.'
husband or her son, becomes fruitless for Vide also Veda-Vyasa smrti II. 19. The Nityacarapaddhati (p. 329) quotes Mauu V. 155 and remarks that Manu's words are not to be taken literally but are only meant to extol the eminence of the husband.
is
unmarried
),
or her
down as to precedence detailed rules were laid wives, if a man married several women. Visnu Dh. S. 1899 If all the wives concisely gives all the rules. ( 26. 1-1 ) are of the same caste, then the wife whose marriage took
Very
among
place
first
was
;
to
if
religious
(
acts
when
inter-caste
be associated with the husband in all man had wives of different varnas marriages were allowed ) the wife of
the
the
same varna with
husband had
precedence,
though
If there is her marriage might have been later in date. no wife of the same varna as himself, the husband may associate with himself in religious rites even a wife of the varna imme-
sudra
but a dvijati should never associate a himself in religious ceremonies. Vide Madanaparijata p. 134 for similar rules. Vas. Dh. S, 18. 18 expressly says a woman belonging to the dark varna ( i. e. sudra ) is meant only for pleasure and not for performance of
diately next to his
;
own
wife
with
'
"
religious rites
V 300
similar to those in Visnu Dh.

II.
12 are to
Gobhila smrti (1. 103-104 ) contains rules S.,Yaj. I. 88 and Veda-Vyasa the same effect. Vivarupa on Yaj. remarks
that though the eldest wife alone is entitled to take part in

religious rites, all wives (except a sudra wife) may be cremated with the smuta fire. Vide Sm. 0. I. p. 165. In the Purvaml-
marhsa
the
(
Jaimini discusses the question whether Darsa-purnamasa patnlm samnahya having girt up the wife ) which employs the singular number
(
IX.
3.
20-21
in
direction
the
'
1298.
suft tafr^ggrnrr frsn >?^rf quoted in the *7refn*^3^ p. 113.

'
This
ia
1.
ascribed to
p.
II. I- P- 37.
and by tmfir (sn^TO part
362
to
1299.
$SRT$
^rf VTTTTS
fiOTTTt^tefT
W wSRT?
Trite 18. 18.
Sj^H^
ii
ftiQprf*?r 26. 1-4.
1300.
wmm ni wr wn^r * wfa
560
Ch.
XI
should be modified into the dual or plural when the sacrificer in a model sacrifice or its modifications ) has two or more
wives and establishes that no change is required. The Trikandamandana l201 ( I. 43-44 ) says that there were three views when
a
man had
several wives
viz.
some said that
all
should be
associated with
eldest wife of
him in religious rites, others held that only the the same varna should be associated and the third
view was that the husband should never associate with himself a
wife
fires.
whom he married for pleasure after he kindled the sacred Manu ( IX. 86-87 ) lays down that the wife of the same
husband should always have precedence not only
caste with the
in the obligatory religious rites, but also in ministering to the physical comfort of the husband and if a brahmana husband gets these done
same
caste is near, he
by a wife of another caste when the wife becomes like a candala.
of the
From very
that a
ancient times one of the articles of faith was
man was
born with debts, that he owed three debts to
and that by brahmacarya (student-hood), by performing yajfias and by procreating sons he freed himself from those three debts respectively. Vide }m Tai. S. VI. 3. 10. 5, Sat. Br. I. 7.2.11, Ait. Br. 33.1. The last very succinctly states the purposes served by a son viz. payment of the debt to ancestors, the securing of immortality and heaven. Rg, V. 4. 10 (prajabhiragne amrtatvam-asyam) prays 'may I obtain immortality through
sages, gods and pitrs
progeny.'
Tai.
S.,
Vas. Dh.
Ait.
S.
17.
1-4 quotes these passages of the
and Rg. The Rg. X. 85. 45 invokes the of ten on the newly married bride and the Rg. is sons blessing full of the yearning for a son at every step, Vide Rg. I. 91. 20,
Br.
I.
92. 13,
III. 1. 23
&c.
Jairaini
VI.
2.
31
1S03
)
discusses the
passage of the Tai S.

duties laid
and
arrives at the conclusion that the
down in it are obligatory and not left to choice and Sabara adds another explanation that these duties are obligatory on all dvijStis and the word brahmana is used in the
4
'
1301.
1302.
^w^jq%3nwctfifl*rfo: ftzKivgw&i * 43-44. srnOTRt t snsn'rfanH^T srr^ WIT^T 9?R*ft

i .
VI.
i
3.
10. 5
$m<r*i 1. 7.
2.
11;
%:
quotes the
1303.
first
wr. 33. 1.
^TH^^C
XI. 47
passage.
WIJ^T
HhTfinpnnww^T
*Htan*
^fafa VI.
2. 31.
Ch.
XI
Rights and Duties on Marriage
561
as illustrative only. Manu ( VI. 35 ) enjoins upon that he should not think of moksa (release from samsaTa) before he has paid off the three debts and ( IX. 106 ) further
Tai. S.
man
says that by the very birth of the eldest son a man becomes from the debt owed to ancestors. Manu ( IX. 137 ), Vas. 17. 5, Visnu Dh. S. 15. 46 contain the same verse proclaiming that a man attains all (heavenly) worlds by means of a son
free
and Manu IX. 138, Adi.

a putra
is
129. 14,
Visnu Dh.
l204
S. 15.
44 declare that
so called because he saves his father
called put.
similarly.
offered
The Nirukta
to
II.
11
also derives the

(
from the hell word putra

)
Further the water and pindas
balls of cooked rice
by the son
his father and other deceased ancestors
were supposed to be of great efficacy for the peace of the The Visnu Dh. S. 85. 70, 1205 Vanaparva 84. 97, Matsyapurana 207. 39 contain a verse one should desire to have many sons in the hope that one of them may repair to GayS.' On account of these several benefits conferred by a son, the highest importance was attached to the birth of a son. The wife helped a man to discharge two of his debts, to the gods by associating with him in sacrifices and to the pitrs by procreating a son or sons. Therefore the goal of the life of women was declared to bo to get married and procreate sons. This was so much the case from very ancient times that even
souls of the departed.
'
the Sat. Br. (V.
wife
is
Manu ( men have
3. 2. 2, S. B. E. vol. 41, p. 65 ) says that the sonless possessed with Nir-rti ( ill luck or Destruction ). ' IX. 96 ) says women are created for procreation and
)
:
to propagate ( the race declared that the wife shares in
therefore in the
(
Veda
it
is
)
common
with the husband
the performance of religious duties '. Narada ( strlpuihsa v. 19 ) also declares that women are created for ( procreating ) children.
It was on account of these ideas about the goal of woman's life and the supreme importance of a son that the smrfcis and dharma-sutra works recommended or allowed the husband to marry a second time even when the first wife was living.
All the smrtis, puranas and the digests devote a great deal It would be impossible to set few striking passages alone will be cited. them out in detail. All are agreed that the foremost duty of a wife is to obey her
of space to the duties of a wife.
1304.
1305.
II
s*f:
3^
^T^
f%vrî?T 3*rc* ?ra^R?f

i
f ft
STT
'
ft*w IL
I?STT w*r* swr T^cffrfr ret znfcj tr&r *T*qwta *fa* ftu^nls^ 85. 70. The JTc^Sttor 207. 39 reads iftn
H. D. 71
562
Oh.
XI
husband and to honour him as her god. In the Sat Br. uo* princess Sukanyft when married to the old and decrepit sage Cyavana to * mollify the sage who had been wronged by her brothers says I shall not forsake my husband, while he is alive, to whom my ' Father gave me ( 17. 1. 5. 9 ). Sankha-Likhita im say a wife should not hate her husband even if he be impotent ( or have
'
swollen testicles), patita (guilty of mahapafcaka and so an outcast), ievoid of a limb or diseased, since the husband is the god of
women/ Manu declares ( V. 154

tier
husband as
or lustful (
a virtuous wife should serve he were a god, whether he be of evil character. loving another woman ) or devoid of good qualities
)
'
if
'
5TSi
of
L 77 enjoins upon women this is the highest duty ( dharma ) women that they should obey their husband's words if he is
5
'
guilty of some mortal sin, they should wait till he is purified (and thereafter be dependent on his words)'. The Ramayana
Ayodhy a-kanda 24. 26-27 ) remarks 'the husband is the god and the master of the wife, while she is alive and she obtains the highest heaven by serving her husband.' The Mahabha(
upon the duties of wives. 1808 The Anusaeana parva 146. 55 says 'the husband is the god of a woman, her ( sole ) relative, her goal the A6vamedhika* 'The parva 90. 51 declares fche husband is the highest deity. father gives only what is limited, the brother and the son do the same; what woman would not worship the husband who gives what is unlimited or immeasurable ( Santiparva 148. 6-7 ). The Matsyapurana 210718 contains this last verse and adds 'the husband is the god for women and is their
rata very frequently harps
' ; ' '
I
'
highest goal.
This idea of the wife's entire submission to the

Vide
1306.
^*fi%T^T^ tfîtf*T*^ltfWaIV.
1.
5.
9.
V. 151 for a paraphrase of this passage. ftror on *rr 1. 69 makes an objector rely on this atapatha passage to show that it allows niyoga after the husband's death.
1307.
r
Manu
p. 38.
quoted in ^fir*o <t^. p

I
251),
ITT.
II.
part 1
1308.^ ft farr ftrtf
<ni$ ^rfrrrtfart *<&?*$ rffcfft: SRmr* 146. 55; wn Utir $cr: aiîcr^r ft qrmt *wft if r
i
148. 0; <rfitf$ f*tf jfturt 210. IT-IS.
IV. 1. 1. Compare St. Paul's letter to the Ephesians V. 22-24 wives, submit yourselves unto your own husbands, as unto the Lord,There,|ore as the church is subject unto Christ, BO let the wives be to their own husbands in everything. '
Oh.
XI ]
Bights
and
Ditties
on
Homage
569
husband is voiced even by poets 1 ike KslidSss, 1 *09 wbomafrea ' one of the pupils of Kanva gay about Sakuntala this is your or her of abandon all-round since domination wife, accept her, the husband over the wife is proper.' Manu V. 150-156, Yaj. I. 83-87, Visnu Dh. S. 25. 2 ff, Van âiraJ&Jl-58 ( Praugadt asjlie speaker), AnusSsana 123 (Sand ill declares the conduct of virtuous wives ), Veda-Vyasa-smrti II. 20-32 ( wife's duties from morning till night ), Vrddha-Harlta XL 84 ff ( wife's duties from morning ), Sm. 0. ( vyavahSra section ) p. 249 ff, MadanapSrijSta pp. 192-195 and other nibandhas dwell at length upon the duties of the wife. A few of such duties may be
indicated here.
According to Manu V, 150 a wife should always present a smiling face, should be alert and clever in her domestic duties, should keep domestic vessels well burnished and Manu clean and should not be extravagant in spending. IX 11 asks the husband to set to his wife the task of conserving the wealth acquired and looking to its expenditure, of
1
'
keeping things clean, of the performance of religious acts, of cooking food and of taking care of household paraphernalia. Manu (IX 13 ) adds that drinking wine, company of bad people, staying away from the husband, wandering about ( to ttrthas or elsewhere ), sleep ( by day ), staying in the house
these six spoil married women. Adiparva 74. 12 expression to the popular notion that people do not like married women staying with their paternal relatives for a long time away from their husbands, since such
of strangers
1810
gives
The a stay leads to loss of good name and character. same sentiment is echoed by K&lid&sa in the Sakuntala ( V. 17 ). The Markandeya-purSna 77. 1? is to the same effect. Yfij. household utensils and ( I. 83 and 87 j requires the ^rife to keep
,
furniture in their proper pla8&, to be clever, to have a smiling to doing what is face, to be unextravagant, to be devoted to show respect to her to the husband, agreeable and beneficial their feet; to clasping mother-in-law and by father-in-law
1309.
ti
n^r
snftort
m*
snwir
*ro
^t
i
^5*1*1
TT
^rwn
ft
51T5PTO V,
1310.
ftwirft it
nAs
<
*tefr
^<mfawhFW*Tw^
w%474.
'
12; compare
wi^vtup y. 17
564
Ch.
XI
conduct herself decently, to restrain her senses.' Sankha l311 lays down what is decent conduct for a wife she should not go out of the house unless ehe is asked ( by her husband or elders ) nor without putting on an upper garment she should not walk
'
;
fast; she should not speak
is unrelated to her, except a trader, a sarhnyasin, an old man or a physician ; she should not allow her navel to be seen ; she should wear her
with a male
who
garment ( or sari ) in such a way that it may reach down to her ankles; she should not expose her breasts, she should not laugh loudly without covering her mouth ( with her hand or her garment ) she should not hate her husband or his relatives she should not be in the company of dancing girls, gambling
;
women, women who make assignments

ascetics,
to
meet lovers, female
female
fortune-tellers,
rites
magical and secret
live by tricks, and who are of bad character since

;
women who
women
good family is The Visnu Dh. S. 25. 1-6 spoilt by the company (they keep). ordains now then the duties of wives (are declared); they should perform the same vratas ( observances and vows ) which the husband undertakes they should honour the mother-in-law, the father-in-law, other elders, gods, guests and keep the house*
(the wise declare that) the character of

'
of
hold utensils well arranged they should not be extravagant in giving to others should keep the goods well guarded ; they should have no liking for magical practices (to win love)
;
;
and
also
*
should
be
devoted
S.
to
auspicious
last
conduct.
Vide
Visnu
p.
AparSrka whatever
I
Dh. 107
chap.
99
my
). DraupadI ( husband does not
two verses ( quoted by Vanaparva chap. 233 ) states

eat,
drink or partake
of, I
avoid.
know
the total wealth, the
income and expenditure
of
The Kamasutra directs the wife to make expenditure that will be commensurate with the yearly income of the
the Pandavas'.
1311.
^ng^r wftnfeiti;
:
i
'
?r
^rin?
35^
STT
s^firgw: <rfti*n
i
Rim fpn^
107
$3?raigtii
HcTK cisptjf^r
*T
Qfomq;
tffcra frog;
i
p.
on *n.
3
I.
83
),
quoted by the fSfcngra on ?TT. H^nnK^mT p. 195 vido also

ST^f
;
I.
87,
by
vide
pp.
249-250 and
trgfji
ft.
^.
p.
*?m 266.
fj^
tfiffi
%^
430.
As
to
speaking with CR^T,
^jft |
for
^5FT ^TRTc?^4 m^TT ^w^ll
Vido also . in the passage of $rg means one who employs herbs &o. Vide frmri 233. 7-14 (the last verso is
ÔT^T^ fW
Ch.
XI
565
husband. ]S18
for a
Manu
(VIII. 361) prescribes the fine of a suvarqa
man
speaking with a
woman
with
whom
he
is
forbidden
to speak and Yaj. II. 285 prescribes a fine of one hundred paqas in the case of a woman who is forbidden to speak with a
man
by her husband
or father &o.)
and a
fine of
two hundred paws
man who speaks with a woman with whom he forbidden to speak. Brhaspati 1313 says that a wife should get up from bed before her husband and elders, should partake of food and condiments after they have eaten, should occupy a seat lower than that of the husband or elders. 'A wife can
in the case of the
is
engage in vratas, fasts, observances and worship ( of god &c.) with the permission of her husband say Sankha-Likhita. 131 * The Puranas frequently descant on strldharma. A few specimens
'
The Bhagavata VII. 11. 29 says that the looks upon her husband as the god Hari dwells in the world of Hari and revels with her husband. The Skanda
may
be noted here.
wife
who
Purapa (Brahma-khanda, Dharmaranya section, chap. 7) has a long description of a patiirata 'she should not repeat the name of her husband, as such conduct leads to the increase of the husband's life and should never take the name of another male she is loudly blamed ( by the husband ) ( v. 18 ), even when
she does not cry loudly, even when beaten she is smiling (v. 19). A pativrata should always use turmeric, kuhkuma, sindura, lamp black ( for the eye ), a bodice, tambula, auspicious orna-
ments, and should braid her hair
'
vv. 28-29).
The Padma-purana
(Srsti-khapda.chap. 47, v. 55) gays that that wife is pativrata who in doing work is like a slave, like a hetaira in affording sexual
pleasure, like a mother in offering food * in adversity.
and
like a counsellor
Special rules of conduct were laid down for a wife whose husband was away from home on a journey. Sankha-Likhita ( quoted by Apararka p. 108, Sm. C., vyavahara p. 253) contain a long statement about what such a wife should not do women whose husbands are away from home should avoid amusements of swing and dance, seeing pictures, applying unguents to the body, walking in parks, sleeping in open places (or uncovered).
'
1312.
1313.
^ fa?HHOTF* tf^re
cr^g^t nr* ^fsc

i
wuq& IV.
l. 32.
g^?Hnf s^B^rar^ HT3R^9si*fi?FrT
5reF*rT*R5Tri3fct SJJ
HMQ
1314.
quoted in
^nN, *<&.
p. 257.
i
*i^<g!ti4jr
ad^M'HT'i <<+i**uqiiiiTr**r; ^Hii:
sr^T&nacT quoted
in
566
Hi&tanj of Dharmaiastra
Ch.
XI
partaking of sumptuous food and drink, playing with a ball, fragrant resins and perfumes, flowers, ornaments, ceremonial ' Yaj. (I. 84 ) brushing of the teeth, collyrium ( in the eyes ). ' husband whose is a to another woman theee briefly gone puts
country should give up play,

'
the adornment
of
the body,
visiting samajas (note 986 above) and festivals, laughing, going The Anusasana-parva 1315 ( 123. 17 ) to the house of a stranger. indicates that a wife whose husband is gone abroad does not
apply eyesalve or rocana ( yellow pigment ) to her body, does not take a ceremonial bath and does not use flowers, unguents or ornaments. Manu ( IX. 74-75 ) requires the husband when
going abroad to make provision for the wife's maintenance, since a woman without some means of livelihood, though originally when the husband goes virtuous, may go astray and adds abroad after providing for maintenance, the wife should live thereby and abide by the restrictions ( laid down for such wives); if he goes away without making provision for her maintenance she should maintain herself by crafts ( such as The Visnu Dh. S. (25. 9-10) spinning ) which are unblamable.
'
'
contains similar rules. The Veda-Vyasa-smrti ( II. 52 ) enjoins ' 1316 face should upon a wife whose husband is gone abroad her
look pale and distressed, she should not embellish her body, she should be devoted to her husband, should be without ( full ) 1317 meal, and should emaciate her body.' The Trikapdamandana
(
the wife
80-81 and 85 ) says that when the husband is gone abroad may with the help of a priest perform the daily duties of agnihotra, the obligatory istis and pitryajiia, but should not
I.
perform soma
sacrifices.
The rewards of the wife's single-minded devotion to her husband and her rigid observance of the rules of conduct
prescribed for her are stated at
Manu
who
great length in smrti works. ' IX. 29-30 = Manu V. 165 and 164 ) says that woman does not prove faithless to her husband in thought, word
(
'
and deed ( lit. body ) secures the ( heavenly ) worlds together with her husband and is spoken of as a sadhvl ( a virtuous woman, a patiwata ) but by proving faithless to her husband a
;
1315.
n
a^rcnr
II. 52.
123. 17.
1316.
wsT
I.
83.
Ch.
XI

is
567
woman
( I.
incurs censure in this world,

is
(in the next life) and

75 and 87
afflicted
born as a female jackal with very bad diseases.

'
Yaj. declares that the woman, who does not ) approach another while the husband is living or after his death and who is intent on doing what is agreeable and beneficial to her husband, who is of good conduct and has restrained her senses, attains glory in this world and plays with Uraa (the wife of Siva) in heaven. Brhaspati 1318 defines a pativrata as one who is distressed when her husband is who is
distressed,
delighted
when
her husband
is
in delight,
who
is
emaciated
and wears dirty clothes when her husband has gone on a journey and who dies on the death of her husband.
In the Mahabharata and the puranas hyperbolical despower of the pativrata occur at every step. Vide Vana-parva 63 where we are told ( vv. 38-39) that when DamayantI cursed by her faithfulness to her husband the young hunter who had evil designs on her, he fell down a dead man. In the Anusasanaparva 123 Sandill who 1219 had attained heavenly
criptions of the
worlds
tells
Sumana Kaikeyl how she reached

(
that state with-
dyed garments worn by samnyasins ) or bark garments and without having matted hair or without tonsuring her head ( as ascetics do ), but by strictly following the rules laid down for virtuous wives, such as not addressing harsh words to their husband, abandoning all food that the husband did not like. Anusasana ( 146. 4-6 ) names several paiivratas of ancient times and the following verses dilate upon the rules of conduct for virtuous wives. The story of Savitrl in the Vanaparva ( 293-299 ) illustrates the power of a pativrata, who wrung back even from Yama, the dread god of 1220 Savitrl and Slta have been Death, the life of her husband. of India for thousands of years as the held by the women
out wearing kasayas
1318.
quoted by 3*7*1$
(
p. 109,
by the
ffor.
on
-q\.
I.
86
as srfo's
).
It is
regrifa XI. 199.
1319.
i
qru?
^ntrnra^F
3*itmf*t
^ ^r^rif^ mffit <rcrrn^ ^

*rc^s*r<JT
123. 8-9, 14 &c.
1320.
Vide also
53
208-214 for the tale of
says in
w*m 297.
568
Ch.
XI
highest ideals of womanly virtue, to which they have always endeavoured to approach and one may eay that Indian women generally have most successfully lived up to that high and ennobling ideal that was set before them. Vanaparva (205-206) tells the story of a learned brahmana, who by his mere angry look made a female crane die when the latter voided its faeces on to the head of the brahmana and who was rebuked by a
pativrata that the latter
tried
to frighten
was not a crane, when the brahmana
the virtuous
woman
for her
tardiness in
welcoming him as a guest and for looking only after her husband. The Salyaparva ( 63 ) narrates how awful the power of a pativrata like Gandharl is in that she can, if she choose, burn the 1881 the world, she can stop even the motions of the sun and moon. The Skanda-purana III ( Brahma-khanda, Brahmaranya section chap. 7 ) first names ( verses 14-15 ) several pativratas like ArundhatI, Anasiiya, Savitrl, Sandilya, Satya, Mena and then waxes eloquent over the tremendous spiritual power of a 1288 forcibly draws out from pativrata just as a snake-charmer
'
a hole a snake, so a pativrata snatches away her husband's
life
from the messengers of Death and reaches heaven with her husband and the messengers of Death, on seeing the pativrata,
beat a hasty retreat.
'
As
the foremost duty of the wife
was
to honour
and serve
the husband, she must always stay with him and she had a right of residence in the house. wife was further entitled
maintained in the house by the husband. A verse quoted by Medhatithi on Manu III. 62 and IV. 251 and by the Mit. on Yaj. L 224 and II. 175 and which occurs in some M8S. as a spurious verse after Manu XL 10 says Manu declares that one must maintain one's aged parents, a virtuous wife and a minor son by doing even a hundred bad acts'. 1223 Daksa
to be
'
1321.
^TOT says to
'
ii
^7^ <rreft 3<3T3[ 1322. unOTT^T WT

gdu
chap. 7.
54-55.
It will
sr^nrf 63. 21.
**nc?
TOT^3
t
<rat*F^ crnnsyNFT TraarTr^
wcigiiui
be noticed later on that the half r
occurs in numerous works.

1323.
Ch.
II.
XI
36
Righls and Duties on Marriage

(
569
defines posyavarga I. 74 ) Laghu-Asvalayana persons every one, however poor? is bound to maintain ) as follows the parents, the guru, the wife, children and a helpless man who has taken shelter with one, a guest and fire
im
whom
'
:
constitute posyavarga.'
Manu VIII. 389 prescribes that the does not maintain his parents, wife, and son, when they are not outcasted, should be fined 600 panas by the king. Yaj. I. 74 requires the husband to maintain a wife whom he has superseded in the same way as before, otherwise
man who abandons and
he would be guilty of great
sin.
Yaj.
I.
76 says that
if
man
abandoned a wife who was obedient, diligent, the mother of a son, and agreeable in speech, he was to be made to give one-third of his property to the wife, but if he had no property he had to maintain her. Narada ( strlpumsa 95 ) has a similar provision. The Visnu Dh. S. V. 163 made the husband punishable like a thief, if he abandoned his wife. The husband was required
by Yaj.
I.
81 to be devoted to his wife, since
women
are to be
guarded (against falling into error). Vide Yaj. I. 78 also. Manu IV. 133 forbids adultery with another's wife and Manu IV. 134 ( = AnuSasana 104. 21 and Markandeya-purana 34. 62-63)
observes that there
is
nothing that harms one's
life
as
much
as
l285 on Yaj. 1. 80 points out that the guarding adultery. Visivarupa of a wife from evil can be secured only by being devoted to
her and not by beating her, it might endanger her life.

to guard
as, if
the
husband were
to beat her,
women, and
(IX. 5-9) also calls upon men in IX. 10-12 ) says that they cannot be
Manu
guarded by imprisonment or force, but by engaging them in looking to the income and expenditure, the furniture, beauty and purity of the house and* the cooking and by inculcating on them the value of a virtuous life. In spite of this the husband
possessed certain powers of physical correction over the wife which were the same as those possessed by a teacher over a pupil or a father over a son, viz, he could administer beating with a rope or a thin piece of bamboo on the back but never on
the head.
Vide Manu VIII. 299-300 ( cited above on p. 363 ) which are the same as Matsyapurana 227. 152-154. It will be seen that about two thousand years ago Manu did not confer
1324.
: II
*rrer
^T
II. 36.
in the case of the well-to-do.
Versa 37 includes other persons among posyavarga AparaTka p. 939 quotes Dakâ II. 36-37.
1325.
I
*$rr
<5T
sffart
f^Ki^<d*<^
inra*ft<
5
I
cTOT
aftravffT:
*l4<1U<ft TO^cf
f^WT On
*TT. I.
80.
H.D. 72
570
History of Dharnwiastra
Ch.
XI
greater powers of correction and restraint of the wife on the husband than the Common Law of England allowed to husbands even in the 18th century. 1326
As it was the husband's duty to provide residence and maintenance for the wife and as the wife was bound to stay with the husband, it follows that either party could after marriage
enforce his or her rights in a court of law if the other party refused to perform her or his duties. In modern times a suit for restitution of conjugal rights can be brought and the decree
can be executed against the wife by the attachment and sale of her property ( if she has any ), but not by detention in civil jail and against the husband by the court ordering the husband to make periodical payments of money for the maintenance of the wife and securing such payments by creating a charge on his property (vide Civil Procedure Code of 1908 Order 21 rules 32 and 33 ). To such a suit by the husband Indian Courts have recognised certain valid defences, such as desertion, cruelty or such conduct as endangers the health of the wife, change of religion, or keeping a concubine in the house or the husband's being afflicted with a loathsome disease ( like leprosy ). Vide Eai Premkunvar v. Bhika 5 Bom. H. C. R. ( A. C. J. ) p, 209 ( leprosy ), Yamunabai v. Narayan 1 Bom. 164 ( cruelty ), Paigi v. Sheo Narain 8 All, 78, Didar Koer v. Dwarkanath 34 Cal. 971, Bai Jiw v. Narsingh 51 Bora. 329. Where the courts make the husband pay maintenance, they are in principle following Yaj. Vide Binda v. Kaunsilia 13 All. I. 76 and Narada ( p. 569 ). 126 where many original Sanskrit texts are cited.
Not only was the husband bound to maintain the wife, but he was called upon to cohabit with the wife and was supposed to incur the sin of embryo-murder if he refused without good cause to do so. On the other hand the husband had a right of
1326.
Vide Blackstone's commentaries on the laws of England
'The husband also (ed. of 1765, Oxford) Book I. chap. 15 pp. 432-433 the law ( by the old law ) might give his wife moderate correction
thought it reasonable to entrust him with this power of restraining her by domestic chastisement in the same moderation that a man is allowed Yet the lower rank of people to correct his servants or children and the courts of law will still claim and exert their ancient privilege
;
still
permit a husband to restrain a wife of her liberty in case of any ' gross behaviour*. Vide also Lush on the law of Husband and Wife (4th ed. 1933) pp. 24-29 about the husband's power to beat his wife and restrain her in the past and now.
*
Ch.
XI
571
and
i. e. the wife was not to refuse herself to the husband she did so her delinquency was to be proclaimed in the |W. village and she was to be driven from the house
consortium
if
The humane character of the legislation of the Indian sages is seen by the fact that even for adultery they do not allow the husband to drive the wife out of the house and to abandon her. Gaut. 22. 35 prescribes that a wife who violates
her duty of chastity must undergo a penance, but she should be kept under guard and be given food. Yaj. ( I. 70, 72 ) declares ' an adulterous woman should be deprived of her authority ( over servants &c. ), should be made to wear dirty clothes, should be
given food just sufficient to enable her to live, should be treated with scorn and made to lie on the ground (not on a cot); a woman becomes pure from adultery when she has her monthly
period after that, but if she conceives in adulterous intercourse she may be abandoned and also when she is guilty of the murder of her foetus or of her husband or of some sin that makes her an outcast'. The Mit. on Yaj. I. 72 draws attention
to the text of Vasistha
XXL
ksatriyas and vaisyas
who
12 'the wives -of brahmanas, 12 commit adultery with a sudra may
*8
be purified by a penance in case no child is born (of the intercourse), but not otherwise* and remarks that the words of Yajnavalkya are to be understood in the same sense i. e. a wife is to be abandoned only if she be in adultery with a 6udra; and further that the abandonment consists in not allowing her to participate in religious rites and conjugal matters, but she is not
to be cast
on the streets she is to be kept apart guarded in a room and to be given food and raiment ( as stated in Yaj. III. Vasistha XXL 10 says that only four (types of) wives 297). are to be abandoned viz. one who has intercourse with the husband's pupil and with the husband's guru, and especially one who attempts to kill her husband and who commits
;
1327.
Baudhsyana's verses 20 and 22.

4i
inst
*ft
*nft
tffa^ft
ftq-TOjft
<rt
<
on
is
'
*Mr
98
14-15)
is
similar to Baud. l)h. S.
the same as *TT. *. IV. 1. 20 and 22.
79
% IV.
1.
20.
1328.
*TT H
w(%
I.
Yaj.
The ftraT ascribes the second verse to 21. 12 and 10. 72 and to *RTff on *n- III. 298.
572
adultery with a
Oh.
XI
man of degraded caste ( like a leather-worker ), strlpumsa v. 91 ) says when a woman commits adultery her hair shall be shaven, she shall have to lie on a low bed, shall receive bad food and clothing and her occupation will be
NSrada
'
the removal of sweepings of the husband's house
'.
Gaut. 23. 14,
anti-parva 165. 64 and Manu VIII. 371 are more harsh on a woman who has intercourse with a low-caste man, i, e, she
punished by the king with being devoured by dogs. 1320 who is guilty Veda-Vyasa ( II. 49-50 ) says that a wife of adultery should be kept in the house but void of her
is
to be
'
rights of associating in religious and conjugal matters and of her rights over property, and should be treated with scorn but when she has had monthly course after the act of adultery ( and does not repeat it ), the husband phould allow her the usual ' Manu XL 177 asks the husband rights of a wife as before.
;
to confine an exceedingly corrupt wife to one room and compel 1831 her to perform the penance prescribed for males in cases of ParSsiara IV. 20 and XL 87 and V. Atri Vide 1-5, adultery.
if the wife commits adultery the husband's obligation to maintain her ceases altogether un13SB less he had connived at it or condoned it.
Brhad-Yama IV. 36. Under the English law,
The following propositions can be deduced from the texts There is no absolute right of abandonment (1) of wife in the husband on the ground of adultery (2) Adultery is ordinarily an upapataka ( a minor sin ) and can. be atoned for by appropriate penance undergone by the wife (3) the wife
cited above.
;
;
adultery but has undergone penance is to be restored to all the ordinary rights of wives ( vide Vas. XXI. 12, Yaj. I. 72, Mit. thereon and Apararka p. 98 ) (4) as
;
who has committed
long as the adulteress has not undergone penance, she is to be given in the house itself starving maintenance and to be deprived of all her rights as wife (Yaj. I. 70, Santiparva 165. 63);
13.29.
II
HTT^
sfi&T v - 91
>
1330.
fc
"g&\ cli H g+iftfl i*u '4444*1 nut ^(^^
unSp^TW
Penance
"T^nr^Kj
q^^nf IL
49-50.
1331.
the adulterer.
will be lighter or heavier according to the caste of According to ng XI. 60 adultery is an gwracR and the
).
ordinary penance for it is jftcTcT or '^F^ÔT ( *T3 XI. 118 1332. Vide Halsbury's Laws of England vol. 16
pp. 609-610.
Hailsham
ed.
Ch.
(5)
XI
573
a wife, who commits adultery with a 6udra or has had a child thereby, who is guilty of killing her foetus or of attempt to kill the husband or guilty of one of the deadly sins ( mahabe deprived of her right to participation in ), is to religious rites or conjugal matters and is to be kept confined in a room or in a hut near the house and to be given starving
patakas
maintenance and poor

penance
Vas. Mit. thereon )
(
apparel,
even
after
she
XXL
;
undergoes
10,
Manu XL
who
(6)
that wives
177, Yaj. III. 297-98 and are not guilty of acts men-
tioned in Yaj.
I.
72, III, 297-298, Vas. 21. 10 or 28. 7 are to be
given starving maintenance and residence near the house even if they do not perform penance ( vide Mit. on Yaj. III. 298 ) (7) wives who are guilty of the acts mentioned in Yaj. I. 72,
;
III. 297-298, if they refuse to perform penance, are to be refused even starving maintenanca and residence near the
husband's house (Mit. on Yaj. III. 298). The propositions about maintenance set out here are accepted as the modern
Hindu Law by
It
the courts in India. 1233
has been shown above (p. 518) that Ap. postulated the identity of husband and wife in religious matters and Manu IX. 45 declares that the husband is one with his wife. But this
identity of husband and wife was not accepted by the ancient sages for secular or legal purposes. The rights of husband and wife as to each other's property and the liability of each for the debts of the other will be dealt with later on in detail. It may
suffice here to point out that the wife was not ordinarily liable for the debts contracted by the husband nor was the husband
by the wife alone, unless the was for family purposes (Yaj. II. 46). Similarly the husband could exercise no dominion over the wife's own
debt
liable for the debts contracted
property ( her strldhana or peculium ) except in a famine or for a necessary religious purpose, or in disease or when he was imprisoned ( Yaj. II. 147 ). These rules prescribed centuries
ago compare in their fairness or reasonableness most favourably with the rules of the English law 1324 ( as they prevailed before the Married Women's Property Act of 1882, 45 and 46 Viet, chap. 75 ), whereby the husband by the mere fact of marriage
acquired free-hold interest, during the joint lives of himself and
1333.
Vide Parami
J. ).
v.
Afahadevi
I.
L. R. 34.
Bom. 278ât
(
p.
283 (per
vol.16
Chandavarkar
1334.
Vide Halebttry's
Laws of England
Hailsham ed.
pp. 613-614.
574
Oh.
XI
she
his wife, in all estates of inheritance and life estates of which was seised at the marriage or became seised during
coverture,
chattels.
and an absolute
1SS5
interest in all
the wife's personal
NSrada ( strlpurhsa, v. 89 ) does not allow the husband or wife to lodge a complaint against one another with their
4
The Mit. on Yaj, II. 294 remarks though a judicial proceeding between husband and wife as plaintiff and defendant before the king is forbidden, still, if the king comes to know personally or indirectly of wrong done by the one to the other, the king must bring round the husband or
relations or with the king.
the wife to the path of duty
wise
of
im
which
by appropriate punishment, otherf There were certain matters of the king incurs sin the king could take cognisance without the complaint
.
anybody they were called aparadhas ( they are ten ) among which were included the murder of a woman, varnasamkara, adultery, pregnancy of a widow from some person other than 1337 &c. We have seen (p. 569) that Yaj. 1. 76, the husband, abortion NSrada ( strlpumsa, v. 95 ) make the husband liable to pay
:
one-third of his estate or a fine for deserting a virtuous wife
and there are many such provisions about the matters affecting the husband and wife in which the king interfered. In 1838 at Common Law a wife could not sue her husband England
in tort
( till the Married Women's Property Act husbajnd sue the wife in tort.
)
nor could a
V^ We must now turn to the position of women in general and wives in particular and the estimate of their character and worth made by ancient India. It has already been seen (p. 428) how the wife was looked upon as half of the husband, how in Vedic times women composed hymns and learnt the Vedas and
how
On
they co-operated with their husbands in all religious acts. the whole their social position was much better ( except as to
rights of property) than

1335.
what
it
became
in later times.
But
inri
&T
1336.
v.
89
).
1337.
Vide ^^m^T%gn,
q-q-s,
^T^
P-
28 quoting ?n^,
&*
and
for ten 3Ttm*j8, 22

1338.
&c.
Vide Salmond's
Law
of Torts, 9th ed. pp. 71-72.
Oh.
XI
Position of
women
was
an
under-current
575
of
even in the Vedio
times
there
opinion which was hostile to women, sneered at them and treated
them with
scorn. Some oTthe-passages from Tedtc and classical Sanskrit literature eulogising women and the wife have been set out above (pp. 428ff ). The passages noted below may be read
in this connection. 1889 Vide Baud. Dh. S. II. 2. 63-64, Manu III. 55-62, Yaj. I. 71, 74, 78, 82, Vas. Dh. S. 28. 1-9, Atri vv. 140141 and 193-198, Adiparva 74. 140-152, Santiparva 144. 6 and
12-17,
AnuSasana 46, MSrkandeyapurana 21. 69-76. The Kamasutra III. 2 says that wome nHêîfee'ôWeYs' ( kusumasadharmSno hi yositah ). It has been seen (ppTTK-T47) how way was to be made by all for the Wide" and the pregnant woman and it will be sliown thalthTgeneral opinion "wwtftat no woman was to be killed on any account ( with one or two exceptions 1340 in ancient writers). Some of the srarfcikaras like Atri and Devala were so liberal as tosayWat women who had intercourse with one not of the same caste" or who had conceived by ~siich intercourse did not become outcasts, but only impure till delivery or next period when they became pure again and could be associated with, the child born of the adulterous connection being handed over to some one else for being brought up. 1241 If a woman was raped she was not to be abandoned, but she became impure only till her next period TAtri 197-198 ) and Devala ( 48-49 ) prescribes purifications for a woman raped by mleccJias and conceiving thereby.
the
(
In the Santiparva 267. 38

at fault, but"
ft
it is
said that
it is
not
1
woman who fs when the woman

1339.
?T
Is the
man who
is at
fault
* 42
goes astray
).
In the Varunapraghasa
6;
144.
16;
69-71.
Vide Qaut. 23. 14 and Manu VIII. 371 ( both prescribe that a woman should bo devoured by dogs if she had intercourse with a male of a lower varna), Vaa. Dh. S. 21. 1-5. Eron this was modified later and only qr^rm was allowed vide Vas. 21. 10, Ysj. I. 72.
1340.
;
1341.
n
aiWfoa
v\ *w: sfrî
3?f% verses 195-196, which are almost the
same
as
^qnr ffir?!T
^rff
%^y 50-51. ainr adds ^ SRTHTSPTT fttfrr^
97-198.
1342.
wr.
I. 6. 5.
576
(
)
Oh.
XI
one of the caturmasyas
the sacrificer's wife had to confess if
she had a lover and even

co-operate with her
I.
when
sTierconTess^T5be-was allowed to
sacrifice.
Sr.
husband in the
Vide Tai. Br.

6-10.
6. 5,
Sat Br.
II. 5. 2. 20,
Katyayana
V.
5.
As
against the high eulogy and considerate treatment of

'
women a few passages unfavourable to women may be cited. We have already seen (p. 503) how woman was saidlê"' falsehood
incarnate (Maitrayanlya
'
mind
of
woman
XL
5. 1.
S. 1 10. 11 ). Rg. VIII. 33. 17 says the uncontrollable'; Rg. X. 95. 15 and Satapatha 9 declare 'there is no friendship with women and is
'
*
they have the hearts of hyaenas (addressed to Pururavas about TTrvasl); Rg. V. 30. 9 women are the weapons and army of the
dasa'.
The
Tai. S. VI.
5. 8.
2 im says 'therefore
women
are
without strength, take no daya (portion) and speak more weakly than even a wretched man '. This passage ( which really refers to women not being entitled to a portion of Soma drink) is relied upon by Baud. Dh. S. (II. 2. 53 ) and im by Manu IX. 18
for prescribing the entire dependence of women on men, for depriving them of a share on partition or inheritance and of the privilege of Vedic mantras. The fiat. Br. (S. B. E. vol. 44.
p.
446
truth, sin
(
says that woman, sudra, a dog and a crow embody unand darkness (XIV. 1. 1. 31). The same Brahmana
2.
IV.
4.
13, S.
B. E. vol. 26,
( with ghee-the neither rule over themselves nor over daya ( share of proMS4S Another passage of the Safcapatha ( S. B. E. vol. 44, . perty )
being smitten
remarks the wives thunderbolt ) and unmanned

p.
366
'
'
p.
300) says
He
thereby makes
women
to be dependent,
whence
women
looked
are sure to be attendant upon man* (XIII. 2. 2. 4). ( These passages establish that even in Vedic times women were often
down upon, had no share in property and were dependent. The passages aBout the character of women* contain no more than what male cynicsâiid critics of all times and in all countries have attributed 6 women siioE as'* frailty, thy name is woman '. In the DharmasastraTjiterature the position of women became
1
1343.
V. 39. 9
TOmwhr ftftftrw
sif rriCrcft
wr?^
gft*.
i
g-<N%crc
VI.
5. 8. 2.
1344.
fiftfi^r ai^nHar ftnft
*TCH
*(8
ift.
r.
^.
II. 2.
53
*3 IX.
18.
1345.
IV.
4. 2. 13.
Ch.
XI ]
Dependence of
Women
577
worse and worse as time wenfc on, except as to rights j)f 1, Vas. BLrBTV. 1 and 3, Manu ^146-148 and IX. 2-3, Baud. Dh. S. II. 2. 50-52, Narada ( dayabhaga 31)all declare 1S46 that women are not independent, but dependent in all matters on men and that in childhood, after marriage and in old age they are to be guarded by the father, the husband and the son respectively. Manu ( IX, 2-3 ) refers to raksa ( i. e. protection against harm or calamity ), while Manu V. 146-148 declare a woman's dependence even in all domestic matters at all stages of her life on some male. Narada ( dayabhaga vv. 28-30 ) adds 1S47 when a widow is sonless, her husband's relatives are the controlling authority as regards her maintenance, the application ( of the husband's property ) and guarding her against harm; if there be no relative or sapiritfas of the husband, then a woman's father's family has control of her ;
property. Gaut. 18.
'
the creator assigned dependence to women as good family fall into ruin by independence '.
women even
It
of
has been seen
above (pp. 561-562) that a woman's only concern was to serve her husband, and that she could perform other observances or undertake fasts and pilgrimages only with her husband's permission. Vide Hemadri ( Vrata-khanda, part i. p, 362 where several texts
are quoted including
(
Markandeyapurana
16. 61
1248
).
andlffrB puranas
In the Mahabharata, in the Manu-smrfci, in other smrtis women are charged withjserious moral lapses. few typical and striking passages from the great epic are
1346.
3^3cT*=rT
rc;
v*
sfr
*Ttanr 18. 1
^ *F3F^: lfon<*Tr attend ^RT H ifcn T^ffa sfifaft vraf wfo 3&$ Tsrfcr *w^ ^r t ^ft ^nR3*ra^fit
mvi: &&: ^f^rfrV*
i
m%
3*^^ & swwn

3,
grfro V. 1
11
j?g IX. 2-3.
The
latter is the
v. 31,
same
aa
cn%s V.
Baud. Dh.
II.
2.
52,
Narada, dsyabhsga
1347.
ii
ajg^rraHtrf 20. 21.

*
>
TOMssrrrr: JTmrsT:
^rft^R rm
-Rrfs^
^TTcfT
)
f'rn^
3?f^
f^^t
vv. 28-30.
ftenfimiand
a^ÎfT^^WdWl^Tt snTnf^^fT^T^^ II on ^g V. 147 quote
^p
the half verse
srcmî^
...... fSnTTJ
>,
^T^ g TC^TT vrcTT i^T^T HcT:

of
all
and add another half verse <TST5îTwhich makes the king the ultimate protector
guardians in the husband's or father's
women who have no male

^rr^r
fl
ii
family.
1348.
sfrorf s*mT5fr HT4r"i^ 16. 61.
r
H. D. 73
578
cited below.
'
Oh.
XI
The SutrakSra concludes that women are ' untruth ( Anu&Ssana 19. 6 ) ; there is nothing more wicked than women, who are the edge of a razor, poison, snake ' and fire in one ( Anu&asana 38. 12 and 29 ) ; there may he
'
'
most one pativrata in hundreds of thousands of women 93 ); women are really uncontrollable but ( Anu^Ssana 19. remain within bounds as regards their husbands simply because other men do not woo them and because they are afraid of servants' (Anu&ftsana 38. 16 ); vide also Anusasana chap. 38. 24-25, chap. 39. 6-7 (women have the tricks of the demons Sambara, Namuci and others ). The RamSyana is not behind the Great Epic in condemning women This is the character of women seen in the three worlds viz. they are renegades from * Dharma, fickle, cruel and create estrangement ( Aranya1350 kanda 45. 29-30). In an uncharitable mood Manu (IX. 14-15)
at
' *
gives to women the following character 'they are lascivious, fickle-minded, devoid of love and come to dislike their husbands
and
resort to another
is
man, whether handsome

'
or ugly,
simply
because he
a man.
the
It is the
nature of
women
to tempt
men;
therefore
'
women, who
are able to lead a

( 1351
learned or not
Brhat-ParaSara
do not act heedlessly with young man astray whether he be Manu II. 213-214 = Anu6asana 48. 37-38 ). ( JivSnanda's Collection, part 2, p. 121 ) says
wise
that the passion
of
women
is
eightfold of that of men.
In
modern times old men, though they might not know much of the sastras, are often in the habit of repeating a verse which
contains a
list of
the faults of
*
women
'
action, trickery, folly, great greed, impurity, cruelty the natural faults of women. 1358
falsehood, thoughtless these are
There are some writers who even in ancient times could not bear the undeserved censure of women and most vigorously
1349.
atgsTOR
20. 14 is
i
nmria*w*
sfcrer
first
s^cn: f&*r fc^f 3$<nft ill v&fy ( arg^n. 19. 6-7 (the half probably refers to Manu IX. 18 or Baud. Dh. S. II. 2. 52-53)
'
38. 12
and
29.
1350.
3*3$TTOir 38. 5-6 ia almost the
same as
173 IX. 14.
45.
29-30.
1352.
II
sifa
^^ m^r
p. 121.
Ch.
XI
Defence of
Women
579
protested against the injustice of these accusations,^JVarahi.t raihira ( 6th century A. D. ) in his Brhat-Samhita chap. 74 ( ed.
by Kern ) makes a spirited defence of women and eulogises them highly. He first; says that on women depend dharma and artha and from them man derives the pleasures of sense and
the blessing of sons, that they are the LaksmI ( goddess of Prosperity ) of the house and should be always given honour and wealth. He then condemns those who following the path of asceticism and other-worldliness proclaim the
women and are silent about their virtues and 1358 'tell me truly, what faults attributed to pertinently asks women have not been also practised by men ? Men in their audacity treat women with contempt, but they really possess
demerits of
more virtues ( than men

support (verses
).'
He then
cites the dicta of
Manu
in
7-10). "One's mother or one's wife is a woman ; men owe their birth to women ; O ungrateful wretches, how can happiness be your lot when you condemn them ? The
sastras declare that both
if
husband and wife are equally sinful
they prove faithless to the marriage little for that sastra ( while women do care
are superior to
like robbers
*
vow men
;
care very
therefore
women
men.
men who heap abuse who while

stop,
Oh how great on women that

I
is
the audacity of wicked are pure and blameless,
thief
' !.
Man
"
fire.
in privacy
themselves stealing raise a hue and cry utters words of cajolry to

;
woman, but there are no such words after the woman dies while women, in gratitude, clasp the corpses of their husbands
and enter the
like Kalidasa,
1353.
It
may
be said that, barring great poets

in the classical period
i
1254
Bana and Bhavabhuti,
îq^MHT JHRfper qnnAiHîfor *nf^ * *m% *tan*

gfvr:
sj^ra fitere
SOT^T
ftuen
fra
f^^ffihrr 74.
same as Baud.
are almost the
1354.
gr. II. 2.
63-64 and verse 10
5, 6, 11, 15, 16. is
Verses 7 and 9 are the
Manu
III. 58;
verses
7-8
same
as *rmH- 28. 4
thu&qm and
terms
the
romantic
both depict in very delicate and between a loving husband and wife ftr: ftrf?r*rr crfSfr wwifirA fa^ VIII. 66; ihft fro
relation
'
w^
and
9.
ii*<^ r '*i*'f *TctiMJ?iin*<tci "
*h
VI.
Vide also the well-known verse a?^f
q&jM*iim*!P\ &c. in the
$80
Ch.
XI
Varahamihira's was rather a solitary voice raised in defence, of
women and
nation of
in the appreciation of their worth.

this dark picture and undeserved condemthere is one very bright spot, viz. the high the reverence for the mother in all smrti works.
In the midst of
woman
eulogy of and Gaut. (II. 56) first says that the acarya (one's teacher of the Veda) is the highest among gurus, while some teachers hold that the
The Ap. Dh. S. I. 10. 28. 9 prescribes must always serve his mother even if she has been an outoast ( for some great sin ), since the mother undertakes for her son numerous ( troublesome ) actions. Baud. Dh. S. ( II. 2. 48 ) requires the son to maintain his mother, even though an
mother
is
the highest.
that a son
outcast,
without speaking to
is
her.
Vas. Db.
'
S. 13.
47 says
'
an outcast may be abandoned, but a mother 1255 The acarya ( though patita ) is never an outcast to the son. exceeds by his greatness ten upadhyayas, the father exceeds a hundred acaryas, a mother exceeds a thousand fathers' says Manu Sankha-Likhita 1256 give a very II. 145 ( = Vas. Dh. S. 13.48 ).
father
'
who
the son should not take sides ( in a father and mother indeed he may ( if he his between quarrel ) chooses) speak on the side of the mother alone, since the mother bore him ( in her womb ) and nourished him the son, while living, would never be free from the debt he owes to his * mother except by the performance of the Sautramani sacrifice. Yaj. I. 35 holds that the mother is superior to the guru, acarya and upadhyaya. The Anusasana parva 1357 ( 105. 14-16 ) says that the mother excels in her greatness ten fathers or even the whole earth there is no guru like the mother. S&ntiparva
salutary piece of advice
'
'
'
chap. 267 contains a very high eulogy of the mother. Atri 151 says that there is no guru higher than the mother. The great
56
.
1355.
sn^Pls *TOf U^Plt
*iiclt*J5
TC.
II-
I- 10.
28. 9; <rufamft
*ft- **
i
^H
'
2.
48
<rfefa:
ffar
^f^n^^t
TOTT
a 3
*ftre 13. 47.

ff JTTcTTftsfKnix
1356.
iê^fJ
9TT*T
STTtJ^Tsj^
cti i ft" ^
quoted in
tf. si.
p.
479
vide also
ft. K. p. 357,
^f^
^J
( I. p.
35
).
1357.
105. 14-16
;
Vide SSntiparva 108. 16-18 for vexses very

H
like
^m^?T 267. 31
i
*in?n' 3S^cRT
Ttf^?r
^Tfu^rt
fisrarf^f
^W^l 313. 60; 3rf% ?yt% ^r^ ^r

J
161;
343. 18.
Ch.
XI
Estimate about
Women
581
Pandava heroes pay the highest honour to their mother KuntL The Adiparva chap. 37 says that one may avert the consequences
averted
of
1258
.
all
curses,
but
mother's curse can never be
Reading
all that
has been said in favour of and against
it may he said that the higher minds of Hindu Society were quite aware of the worth of women, that they insisted on chastity as the highest virtue for them, that there was no doubt an undercurrent among
women
in ancient Sanskrit Literature
common people of poor opinion about women, that those who valued an ascetic life and wanted to wean people away from worldly ties and attachments looked down upon women ( vairagyamargena as Varahamihira happily puts
'
'
it)
and
exaggerated
their faults.
It
has to be borne
in
condemning women are put in the mouth of persons who were for some reason or other angry with women or wronged by them or dissatisfied with
that
mind
many
of the passages
their conduct.
character of
women
21
)
Further in assessing passages disparaging the one maxim of the Purvamlmamsa system
must not be
Jairaini
lost sight of.
The maxim
1359
'
is
stated
by Sabara
on
the purpose of a text censuring anything is not censure pure and simple, but the purpose is to enjoin the performance of the opposite of what is censured and
II. 4.
as follows
to praise such performance
'.
The
object therefore of the authors
that censured
women was to inculcate tho great value of chastity and obedience for women and not merely to paint a dark
^he rights of woman as jregards partition and inheritance will be^discussed in Setail later on. But a brief statement about
picture of them.
them
may be made here. Ap,, Manu, and Narada do not allow the widow of a sonless male to succeed as heir, while Gaut. 28. 19 appears to contemplate that she is an heir along with sapiv4a3 or sagotras. That the widow's right to succeed
as heir to her deceased husband
1358.
was not recognised

ftuifr
i
in ancient
H^?nr sTiqprt srnimft ft

37. 4.
* 3
i
1359.
iiCTfteft
<mfr f^$rREHmffrresrri5
1
1
^.
II.
'
4.
r
21
'
;
rer
mf
T
ffrT^njaiîffldH.
(p. 640);
*re
51*TC
I. 2. 7.
the a^^TtSnfi on
(p. 115) has
'
*nn
?r^rf^
ft
p.
srtefofo
Vide
au^gqmft on tf^rc^snriinrsnflra*
808
for
the
same maxim.
582
times
is
clear
Ch.
XI
from the Sakuntala
Act VI
where the minister
writes to the king that the estate of a merchant dying at sea will escheat to the crown and will not go to his widow. Yaj.
135. mentions the widow as the first heir of a sonless man dying separate Visnu, Katyayana and others say the same. So in medieval times the rights of widows to property were better recognized than in the times of the early sutra writers. In this respect the position of women improved in medieval times, though in the religious and other spheres their position became worse, as they were equated with sudras. Yaska while
II.
;
the
explaining Rg. I. 124. 7 states that in the southern countries widow of a sonless man goes to an assembly hall, stands
upon a
stool
and when the members

1360
strike her with dice
she
gets the property of her deceased
husband. This implies that in Nothern India widows did not succeed to their husband's property in Yaska's time.
124.
i
amtfiir sf inr SIÔT
3?nH% HT fiwtf
*&
f^w III. 5.
CHAPTER
XII
THE DUTIES OF A WIDOW, SOME PRIVILEGES OF WOMEN AND THE PURDA SYSTEM
Vidhavadharmah
So far the social position and the duties and rights of a wife during her husband's life-time have been considered. We shall now consider the rules laid down for a wife if she has the heavy misfortune to become a widow. 1381
;
IV. 18. 12, X. 18.
The word vidhava occurs several times in the Rgveda ( e. g. 7, X. 40. 2 and 8 ); but these passages contain
*
very little that is indicative of their condition in society except im says in the Rg. X. 40. 2 (vide under nitjoga). Rg. I. 87. 3 rapid movements of the Maruts the earth trembles like a woman deprived of her husband/ That shows that widows trembled either from sorrow or from fear of molestation and ill-treatment.
The Baud. Dh.

and
salt
S.
im
II. 2.
66-68 prescribes that the widow
of the departed should give
up for one year honey, meat, wine and should sleep on the ground according to Maud;
galya (she should so act) for six months; after that period, if she is sonless, she may procreate a son from her brotherin-law if the elders consent/ Vas. Dh. S. ( 17. 55-56 ) contains similar provisions. Manu ( V. 157-160 ) contains rules that have been repeated in almost all smrtis a woman when her husband is dead, may, af she chooses, emaciate her body by subsisting on flowers, roots and fruits, but she should not even take the name of a stranger male. Till her death she should be forbearing, observe vows, should be celibate and should hanker after that super-eminent code of conduct that is prescribed
*
women devoted to their husbands. On her husband's death, a virtuous woman abides by the rule of celibacy, she goes to heaven though she be sonless, as the ancient perpetual
for
if
Vido Colebrooko's Digest of Hindu Law, vol. II. chap. Ill widows who choose to survive their husbands vide Die Frau pp. 86-88 where Winternitz draws a dismal and somewhat exaggerated picture of the condition of the Hindu widow.
1361.
4
pp. 158-161 for duties of

'
1362.
^rm^ ft*f fcrS ^finifa
vsf
gA
*
*r
3?. I. 87. 3.
1363.
;
i
wr 3jt$ gsTk3*mr $**H^?srn5niT
*r. n-
II. 2.
66-68.
584
students
*
(
Ch.
XII
like
Sanaka
did
'.
Kstyayana
1S64
similarly provides
a sonless widow preserving the bed of her husband ( unsullied ) and residing with her elders and being self-controlled ( or forbearing ) should enjoy her husband's property till her death after her the heirs of her husband would get it. A widow
;
engrossed in religious observances and fasts, abiding by the vow of celibacy, always bent on restraining her senses and
IV. 31
'
would go to heaven even though sonless,* Parasara almost the same as Manu V. 160. B^haspati 1S65 says the wife is declared to be half of a man's body, she participates a virtuous wifei equally in the husband's merit and sin whether she burns herself on her husband's funeral fire or lives after him, tends to the (spiritual) benefit of her husband*. Vrddha-Harlta ( XL 205-210 ) prescribes what a widow should She should give up adorning her hair, chewing do all her life. betel-nut, wearing perfumes, flowers, ornaments and dyed clothes, taking food from a vessel of bronze, taking two meals a day, applying collyrium to her eyes she should wear a white garment, should curb her senses and anger, she should not resort to deceits and tricks, should be free from laziness and sleep, should be pure and of good conduct, should always worship Hari, should sleep on the ground at night on a mat of kusa grass, she should be intent on concentration of mind and on the company of the good.' Bana in his Harsacarita ( VI, last
making
gifts
is
'
para) indicates that widows did not apply eye-salve to their eyes nor rocana ( yellow pigment ) to their face and simply 1366 Pracetas im forbids to an ascetic and a tied their hair. widow the chewing of betel leaves, ceremonial bath ( with oil &c. ) and taking meal in a vessel of bell-metal. The Adiparva just as birds flock to a piece of flesh left on ( 160. 12 ) says
'
the ground, so all

1364.
men woo
or try to seduce
woman whose
quoted ID ^ft
in
;
PP- 626-627
the
first
verso
is
also
quoted
^rqWT, 5ffa^ and other works. 1365. srefar*? ^<H srrer s

U
^TlcTnrm
1366.
HÛ* quoted
by
1367.
^t^rqr^ HT3f*re( cfT^cSpKfOT quoted in ^f?Nr. I. P. 222 and ^f^cr^

i
last para.
p.
235
compare
11
3 fjÔTH
quoted in ^jra^.
(
^ft^TRo
p. 161,
Ch.
XII
The Duties of a widow

is
585
'
while the Santiparva (148. 2) remarki l26 if they have many sons, The Skandapurana (Kaslkhanda, chap. 4, vv. 71-106 and III Brahmaranya section chap. 7, vv. 67-81) has long passages on the duties of widows, many verses from which are quoted in
husband
all
dead';
widows
are in sorrow even
'
the Madanaparijaka (pp. 202-203), the Nirnayasindhu, Dharmafew striking verses may he Bindbu and other nlbandhas. translated here. The Skandapurana ( III, Brahmaranya section
says The widow is more inauspicious than all other inauspicious things; at the sight of a widow no success can be had in any undertaking excepting one's mother all widows are void of auspicicusness ; ( widowed ) a wise man should avoid even their blessings like the poison
chap.
7,
verses 50-51
of a snake
delivers itself thus
the
She should always take one meal a day and never a second or she may perform the observance of fast for a month or undergo the penance of candrayana. A widow who sleeps on a cofc would make her husband A widow should never wash her body with fall ( in hell ). fragrant unguents nor should enjoy the fragrance of sweet smelling things; she should everyday perform tarpana with sesame, water and kusa grass for her husband, his father and grandfather after repeating their names and gotra; she should not sit in a bullock cart even when about to die, she f-hould not put on a bodice, should not wear dyed garments 127 and should observe special vows in Vaisakha, Kartika and Magha.' The verse vidhava-kabarl-bandho &c'(Skanda,
;
widow widow should always shave her head.
of the same purana, chap. 4, the tying up into a braid of the hair by leads to the bondage of the husband therefore a
.
1269
The Kaslkhanda
*
'
.1368.
inn flnn*
1369.
snnrri
160.
12;
*rrift
ftenrr
*TT sfsîft
sfcent
148.2.
HI) STSTTT^T
1370.
7.
50-51.
fw^rastffc?^ H
r
ftrfhrt
^t-r^r^r
m^mw
^rr
^TJ^
4.
vv. 75.
(
ffi.
all
these are quoted by the

),
TH^T%^
626,
PP- 202-203 3. D. 74
^f^wnr?y
P- 160.
586
is
Ch.
XII
Kalkhanda 4.74)
the only verse on
which the medieval
writers rely for prescribing continual tonsure of widows. That chapter begins by extolling the pativrata ( Brhaspati does it with
regard to LopSmudra, the wife of Agastya). It passes one's understanding why when a pativrata whose husband is living is before Brhaspati he should wax eloquent over the duties of widows Therefore this portion appears to be an ( verses 71-106 ).
interpolation in the
Skandapurana
itself.
In Lakshmibai
v.
Eamchandra
*
I.
L: R. 22
Bom.
'
vidhava-kabarl-bandho
is
590, it was held that the text of doubtful validity ( p. 594 ).
Besides 69 verses of this chapter 4 are common to chap. 7 of the Dharmaranya section of the Skandapurana ( III ) which
There is no reason why they should have been The Nirnayasindhu quotes a passage from the Brahmapurana as cited in the Prthvlcandrodaya to the effect that sraddha food should nofc be got prepared by a widow
precedes
it.
repeated.
1371 belonging to another gotra.

-'
lot' was
The position of the Hindu widow was miserable and her most unenviable. Sh^ was looked upon as inauspicious
so could take part
in no festivities, such as those on not had She only to lead a life of perfect celibacy, marriage. even if she was a child widow, but she had to act like an ascetic, being poorly fed ( only once a day ) and poorly clad. Her rights to property were negligible. Even if the husband died sonless she did not originally succeed as shown above (p. 582). Later on her position as an heir was improved; but even then she could ordinarily enjoy only the income of the property and could transfer it only for the legal necessities of the
and
family ( including herself ) or for the spiritual benefit of her husband. In a joint Hindu family a widow had only the right
maintenance ( except in Bengal where she had more rights ), which would be forfeited if bhe became unchaste and persisted in that course. 1378 If she returned to a moral life then she may be entitled to bare starving maintenance ( vide above p. 573 ). If her husband had separate property and left a son or sons, the
of
widow was only
entitled to maintenance.
in British India till
very recently.
i
This was the law Recently the position of the
trot
1371. tgreft^rî) 3rr# T**W\ Rt-ret
^p^nY^m
p. 417.
'
T!F$ HI, xnmti

1372.
v.
Vide
I.
Honama
v.
Timannabhat
I.
L.
B.I Bom. 559
Bhikulai
Hariba
L. B. 49
Bom. 459.
Oh. XII]
The Duties of a widow
587
of a person
member in a joint Hindu family and of the widow who leaves separate property has been improved by Act XVIII of 1937 as amended by Act XI of 1938.
widow
of a
One subject that arouses bitter controversies is the practice of tonsuring widows among brahmanas and certain other castes. few words must be said on this. It is clear from the verse
(vidhava-kabarl-bandho &c.) of the Skandapurana quoted in the Madanaparijata and other nibandhas that for some time at least
before the 14th century A. D, (when the Madanaparijata was composed ) tonsure of widows was in vogue. How and exactly when this practice arose cannot be established with certainty-
That
it is comparatively a later innovation can, however, be demonstrated. Two distinct propositions have to be made out, first, that widows were tonsured on the death of their husbands,
just as sons were tonsured and secondly, that widows were required by the texts to tonsure themselves continually from time to time till their death, though sons who had to tonsure
themselves on their father's death are not required to do so afterwards. The advocates of this practice rely upon three Vedic passages, viz. Rg. X. 40. 2, Ap. M. Patha I. 4. 9, and Atharvaveda 14.2. 60, Rg X. 40. 2 ( cited below p. 606 ) refers to vidhava only and probably to niyoga,but there is nothing about tonsure in that
Some modern orthodox Pandits ingeniously argue from the explanation of the word 'vidhava' in the Nirukta (III. 15 vidhavanad-va iti Carmasirah). Carmasiras is the name of a former teacher according to all commentators of the Nirukta, but these pandits interpret it by a tour deforce as a synonym of vidhava
verse.
('having only the bare skin on her head'). About this interpretation the less said the better. A p. M. P. 1. 5. 9 contains the word 'vikesl' which is translated as the appellation of a female goblin in S.
mayst thou not be beaten at thy breast by im one '. Even taking vikesl ' she goblin, the rough haired as referring to the maiden who is being married the meaning is 'mayst thou, with dishevelled hair, not beat thy breast The word 'vikesl' does not mean 'a (through grief)'.
B. E. vol. 30
p.
187
'
'
widow whose
1373.
'
hair is tonsured
<*ta
it
ordinarily
means a woman
i
'
m ^ ^ frftr
1
Twr^m ^j^r:
It is also
tfforo
*n.
I.
B.
9.
Vide an*. $. V.
where
this *F3T
along with others
is
prescribed for
offering Shutia in the marriage rite.
employed for the
amQ
jwrposo in fi|T*T. $. ! 19. 7,
588
'.
Oh.
XII
third passage is Atharvaveda im marriage hymn which means if this daughter of thine has bewailed with loosened hair in thy house, doing evil by her wailing, from that sin let Agni and
with dishevelled hair

2.
The
14.
60, that is a verse in a
'
Here it is impossible to hold that vikesl means tonsured, as this mantra is part of the marriage hymn and Agni is asked to remove the blemish due to the girl's weeping at the approaching prospect of separation from her parents, There is no comment of Sayana on this passage but elsewhere in the Atharvaveda when that word occurs as in Atharva XL 9. 14 ho paraphrases it by viklrnakesl' which does
Savitr release thee*.
'
'
'
not
mean 'with tonsured hair* but only 'having dishevelled hair'. Therefore there is no reference whatever to the tonsure of widows in the Veda, much less an injunction as to it. In the
Baud. Pitrmedhasutra? 1S75 elaborate rules are laid down about one who had kindled the sacred Vedic fires. In I. 4. 3 it is said his wives led by the youngest should follow the cortege with dishevelled hair and throwing dust on their shoulders and this they have to repeat several times ( vide I. 4. 12-13, 1. 5, 5-7, 1. 5. 12-14 ) on the way to the cemetery. It is also said that they go round ( the corpse ) thrice with
the cremation of
'
'
Then in I. 12- 7 shaving their hair gathered together ( I. 4. 13). of the hair and moustache is prescribed for the close relatives
of the deceased
(
amatyas
who
mentioned in
this
connection and
are present, his wives are not II. 3. 17 expressly forbids
tonsure of wives.
Manu and Yaj. dilate on the duties of widows, but they are entirely silent about tonsure. Nor does any other ancient smrti refer to it. On the contrary Vrddha-Harlta ( 206 quoted
XL
above
p.
584
asks the
widow
not to deck her hair,
among
'
other
things which she is not to do. This makes it clear that ' the widows kept their hair. The word kesaranjanam is to * keanam ranjanam and not as kesasca be dissolved as
' *
103 makes it clear by ranjanaru ca (as Vrddha-Harlta * employing kesanftm ranjanftrtham va). It can be shown that
1374.
*nf <TJ jnfcTT
2. 60.
'
XL
*mffi
^ sg^rarRC 3^4 14.

a^tr
^ri
1375.
4.
;
I.
1
4.
13
1. 12.
sfarf
II. 3, 17.
Ch.
afc
Xtl
The tonsure of widows
589
In the least ksatriya widows never tonsured their head. Mahabharata whenever the widows of the fallen warriors are * described they are always referred to as having dishevelled 1376 of hair* and there is not a single reference to tonsure 1377 in his soliloquy on In the Harsacarita, Harsa widows. the death of his father Prabhakaravardhana says may the Glory of super- eminent man-hood tie up her hair in the way in which widows tie up their hair '. In the Pehoa prasasti of king Mahendrapala of Kanoj (E. I. vol. 1. p. 246 verse 16) the widows of his enemies are spoken of as shedding tears on their cheeks and having long ( not braided ) and profuse IS78 tresses.
*
II.
53
The orthodox pandits rely on a verse in Vedavyasa-smrti I379 a br&hmana woman should enter fire, clasping the dead
* ;
body of her husband

*
if she lives ( does not become sail ) she being tyaktakesa should emaciate her body by tapas\ The reading br&hmanl for jlvantl* is not good, as the word 'brahmanl* is redundant having occurred in the first half and as the second
' '
half refers to the fact of her surviving after her husband. In this verse the injunction relates only to the emaciation of the
body
( Sosayet ), the word 'tyaktakesa' being only an attribute of the subject is no part of the predicate, which alone is enjoined. The general rule laid down by the Mlmamsa is (III. 1.13-15, the
grahaikat vany aya)

1376.
e.
*
38
that the attributes of a subject are
no part
g.
stfRffosTT: a?T5F?fr:
$tf ft? *mre

17. 25;
tffof 16.
18
describes
her daughters-in-law);
"
wri
vide
^fitrl
I
21. 6,
24.
7,
25. 16
**T?FT^ 5FWT flnr: 1377. grgTg
li
'
'si^n>I*J&3N: 1t*?t llrg^TWisr^: grtfi% <m3rfHsfe*fr TJIJTOTJ' 7. 17. (on the death of Vasudeva).
Vr q<HSBKfT ff^fta V. (5th para from end); Vide nv^RrT VI. last para quoted above in note 1366.
^T"T%
1378.
cjvRTOTii'itTrWs^T:
T:
sirfgî
-
ri%fi<rtecTcsi^r^
m
v.
vol. 1 p. 246 verse 16
).
1,
1379.
q$ Hm^TTf I^T
srigroft
^fs^TTi^lr^
II. 53.
^Tr^Rfr
wrgronf )
5TTHT
srms
w^t
ii
^^m
1380.
The grahaikatvanySya
is
as follows
The
text
that a single sacrificial vessel is to be cleansed, but rather that all are to be cleansed. The singular number ( in graham ) is
does not
mean
an attribute of the subject about which cleansing is predicated and so it Vide my notea to the VyavahSra-mayEkha is no part of the injunction. pp. 83-84,121-122, where examples of the application of this maxim are given. The Pandits try to apply the rules in Jaimini III. 3. 34-46, but
those rules are inapplicable, since in the passage of Veda-VySsa there is ft verb in the potential mood, while in the vodic sentence interpreted in Jaimini III. 3. 34-46 there is no verb in the potential mood,
590
of the injuncfcion.
History of DharmatcMra
Ch.
XII
There is no injunction about Icesa ( hair ) in Vedavyasa passage. Besides the word tyaktakesa ( who has given up hair) may possibly be made to yield three meanings, viz. (1) one who has given up or is unmindful of dressing or decking her hair, (2) one whose hair is given up in accordance with the prescription of some smrtis that only two finger-breadths of
the
tresses are to be cut off
when doing penance
for
in the case of
women
3
)
vide Parasara IX. 54-55,

'
Yama
54
);
meaning vide
'
analakam is as who Mallinatha have explained by given up ornamenting the hair ), For this meaning of tyakta vide Bhagavadglta I. 33 tyaktajlvitah Tyakta by itself never means tonsured. The third meaning will be only implied if at all, while the first two are the usual meanings. Further, the interpretation of the Veda-Vyasa smrti II. 53 given by the pandits is liable to the fault called vakyabheda ( i. e. it lays down two injunctions in one and the same sentence ), as they say that Veda-Vyasa calls upon widows to tonsure themselves and to emaciate their body. Besides, if Veda-Vyasa really meant to enjoin tonsure, the verse could easily have been made to read jlvantl ced vapet kesan tapasS &o. Lastly assuming that Veda-Vyasa refers to tonsure, there is conflict among smrtis,
Raghuvarhsa
'
* *
one whose head is tonsured. IX. 14 ( where
govadha &c. Angiras 163, For the first

'
'
'
'
'.
'
since Vrddha-Harlta
quoted above
and since an option

conflict
(
results
1381
).
when two
allows her to keep her hair, texts of equal authority
Gaut.
I.
The Mit. on Y5j. III. 325 quotes a text of Manu ( not found ' in the printed Manu ) shaving of the hair is not desired in the of learned the case men, king and women, except in the case of
one guilty of mahapataka or the killer of a cow and a brahma1382 carl guilty of sexual intercourse. The Mit. nowhere refers to tonsure as one of the obligatory matters for widows.
'
its
The orthodox pandits further rely upon Ap. Dh. S. I. 3. 10. 6, explanation in the Mit. on Yaj. III. 17 and the explanation of the Mit. in the commentary, Balambhattl. Apastamba's sutra
(
delivered when the context is about cessation of Veda study anadhyaya ). Ap. says ( the student ) shall cease studying Veda for 12 days if his mother, father or teacher dies. In the
is
'
1381.
a<r<<<*icQicm^ f^*c^l:
*rrJT !
5.
*
1382.
:
rcstflpTOTOTOTt
^Hf
on
sftSTWt^
fft
^wii^
fofTT*
*n. III. 325.
Cb.
XII
591
case of the death of these he must also bathe for the
same
Persons who are younger than ( the relation deceased ) must shave their hair, 1383 Some declare that students who have returned home on completion of brahmacarya shall never shave except when engaged in a 6rauta sacrifice. In In this there is no sattras even the top-lock must be shaved '.
of days.
number
reference to
women, much
less to
widows and
lesser still to
the tonsure of widows. The reference to srauta sacrifices, sattra, and-6ikha indicates that only males are in view. The Mit. on Yaj.
It gives two III. 17 explains at length Ap. Dh. S. I. 3. 10. 6. ' * senses of anubhavin viz. those who experience sorrow on the
his sapindas ( from the root bhu with 'ami,' to experience) and those who are born after the deceased i. e. ' ' ' ' who are younger than the deceased ( from bhu with anu to
death of a person
'
'
i. e.
be born after
'
).
The Mit. then combines
1384
these
and remarks
those sapindas of the deceased who are younger than the latter have to shave themselves on the death of a relative'. This is its
own
view.
It
'
then refers to the view of some that

*
anubhavin
'
in Ap. means son and those latter rely on a restrictive text 'shaving is declared on seven occasions only, viz. on the
Ganges, in the Bhaskara-ksetra, on the death of one's parents or teacher, at the time of consecrating Srauta fires, and at the time It is clear that the Mit. does not expressly of a soma sacrifice '. mention the wife or widow here. Supposing that she is impliedly
and as younger than her husband, this come to the requirement thafc on the death of the husband the wife had to undergo shaving, just as her son would have to do. But this passage cannot be used to support continual shaving of widows throughout life. Really 'anubhavinam' in Apcannot include the wife since if women were to be included by the rule of ekasea ( vide Panini I. 2, 67 ) the absurd conclusion would follow that the daughters of the deceased and his younger brother's wives (who are all sapindas and younger) would have
referred to as a sapinda
will at the most
1383. 1384.
3*3vrrf^t
^ MfoHMMTH
3HT.
^.
I. 3.
3*3
on ^r III.>7.
592
History of
Dharma&stra
1S85
Oh,
XII
The Nirnayasindhu to be shaved. ( composed in 1612 A. D. ) and the BalambhaftI ( composed towards the end of the 18fch century ) were both familiar with the tonsure of widows and so they interpret A p. and the Mit. as requiring shaving for the wife on the 10th day after the death of the husband and rely on a text of Vyasa, quoted in Apararka. The BalatnbhattI says " the words on the death of the mother and father* are only illustrative and so the same rule applies to the husband's death." Even
*
all this far-fetched interpretation, there is no authority for the continual tonsure of widows throughout their lives in these passages. It may be noted that the Madana-
conceding
parijafca
138< which contains the versa ( vidhava-kabarl-bandho &c. quoted above ) does not include the widow among anubhSvinam ', but only male sapindas and sons.
'
The foregoing discussion leads to the following conclusions. There is no express Vedic authority for the tonsure of widows. The grhya or dharma sutras do not refer to it nor do important smrtis like those of Manu and Yaj. If one or two smrti verses of doubtful import seem to refer to it, other smrtis like Vrddha-Harlta are to an opposite effect. Some of the smrfci texts only refer, if at all, to one shaving on the husband's death, but there is no smrti passage prescribing continual shaving for widows. There is only the Skandapurana
;
passage expressly
The Mit. requiring tonsure of widows. and Apararka are silent about it. It appears that the practice was gradually evolved after the 10th or llth century. As widows were equated with yatis for several injunctions ( vide note 1367 above ) and as the latter shaved themselves, widows were gradually required to do so. By rendering them ugly it might have been intended to keep them chaste. Probably the example of Buddhist and Jaina nuns may have also suggested the cruel We find from the Cullavagga l387 that Buddhist nuns practice.
1385.
\
591
vide sm^vrgr on
pp. 50-51.
^^^
<
~ PP- 49 51 of Gharpuro's
faonrfo^
III,
ed.
1386.
?nn ^r^r 5:^13^1%^: *
^l^lf^JI^Hic^
i
chcf^H
*^RTf^^fTcr p. 415. 1387. VideS. B. E. vol. 20 (Vinaya texts) p. 321. For Jaina nuns cutting off their tresses or plucking their hair, vide UttarSdhyayana XXII. 30. (S. B. vol. 45, p. 116 ).
Ch. XII
593
cut off their hair and put on orange-coloured robes.
In MahS-
rSstra brahraana widows a few years ago wore a garment that was reddish ( and even now a few old widows do wear ifc ). At
very old and hardly any digest century ) quotes the SkandaThe practice is dying out and deserves to be purana text. suppressed at once, though strange insistence on it sometimes
before the Madanaparijata
(
all events the practice is not
14fch
obtains
public
notoriety.
Recently
the worshippers in the
famous shrine of Vithoba at Pandharpur in Maharastra prevented an untonsured brahmana widow from having darsana of the idol in the customary way i. e. by placing the head on the feet of the idol, while they were prepared to allow untonsured widows of all castes ( excapt tho so called untouchables ), and even Hindu prostitutes in the keoping of Christians or Mahomedans to have darsana in that way. The matter came before a civil court, where it was decided in favour of the widow that no such discrimination could be allowed to prevail, but owing to certain unforeseen circumstances the casa did not come before the Bombay High Court.
It
would be
of interest to
)
many
to learn that
(
sect
widows has been forbidden for centuries, nuja ) 1388 Tho though that sect is most orthodox in other matters. Sudrakanialakara remarks that widows in Gauda keep
their hair.
1389
the Tengalai tonsure of
of the Srl-vaisnavas
followers of
among one Rama-
ancient times, it appears the idea was that should not be killed on any account. The Sat Br. 139 ( XL 4. 3. 2, S. B. E. vol. 44, p. 62 ) says people do not kill a woman, but rafcher take ( anything ) from her ( leaving her )
From very
women
'
alive '. It was only the king who was authorised, according to Vis varupa, to punish a woman to death for adultery with a man of a very low caste ( vide Gaut. and Manu VIII. 371 quoted above on p. 572 ), but tho king had to undergo a slight penance for doing this ( vide Yaj, III. 268 ). Manu XL 190 ordains that one who killed a woman was not to be associated with, even Manu IX, 232 calls after he performed the requisite penance.
1388. Vide Indian Antiquary vol. Ill pp. 136-137 for passages quoted from many works forbidding the tonsure of widows.
1389.
1390.
SET i^r JTrseftart f%sreTHi Ri^nr
sft ^CTT *r^ffr*?
<p^
'
^ffrorerc
p. 50.
finf
XL
4. 3, 2.
E. D. 75
594
History of Dharmatfistra
the king to punish with death
Ch. XII
upon
children and brahmanas.

to this chivalrous rule.
those who murder women, The Mahabharata frequently refers

IM1
Adiparva
know dharma
Sabhaparva
directed
The weapons should not be against women, cows, brahmanas, against one who
declare that
41. 13 prescribes
'
women
158. 31 says those are not to be killed '.

*s
who
one
gave livelihood
217. 4,
or shelter
'.
In the Santiparva
thieves are instructed not to kill
women,
even ( 135. 14 ) Vide also Adi. 155. 2,
Vanaparva
206. 4G.
breathes this sentiment, ogress Tataka.
The Ramayana (Balakanda) also when Rama was called upon to kill the
for the most serious offence of adultery with a man low caste Y&j. II. 286 prescribes for the woman the punishment of cutting the ear &c. Similarly Vrddha-Harlta VII. 192 prescribes the cutting of the nose, ear and lip for attempt to murder the husband or her foetus. Vide Yaj. II. 278-279 for
Even
of a
the sentence of death in the case of

It
women
for certain offences,

lost the privilege of
has been seen
how women gradually
upanayana, of studying the Veda, of having all the sarhskaras performed with Vedic mantras and how they came to be regarded as entirely dependent on men. Their position became 1392 in many matters. A few assimilated to that of the 6udras cited All dvljatis were to sip water here. examples will be thrice ( acamana ) for purifying their body, but women and Madras were to sip water only once for that purpose ( Manu V. 139, Yaj. I. 21 ). The dvijatis were 1S9S to take their bath to the accompaniment of VerHo mantras, while women and sudras were to bathe silently. Sudras and women were to perform what is called amasraddha (i. e. sraddha without cooked food). 1394 The sarae penance was prescribed for killing a sudra or a woman ( Baud. Dh. S. II, 1. 11-13, Parasara VI. 16 ). Ordinarily women, children and very old men could not be witnesses ( Yaj.
1391.
sretnqrr
^
1392.
I%*T fcq-Tf
i
wrfjr% ^
%r wret$ 3m%<nr 158. 31 T^T ^r^rrf^ spfrar v^ ^ ^rcsrmsnr: *THTT$ 41.13.

i ;
11
'rfhgjp*?
5pn*JTr<JT:'
fft ^rmrci:'
re.
IT-
p.
112;
quoted in
1393.
n
^ÛeJi^l
p. 2?1.
f%5^ quoted in jgflî.
I.
p. 181.
?q^4^ srTcf^mf^r iTr^-i TI<^! g n SRt?re^ quoted in ^ffô ( wg"

1394.
pp. 491-92.
Ch.
XII
Women and
sudras equated
595
II. Narada, rnadana, vv. 178, 190, 191), but Manu 70, VIII. 68, 70, Yaj. II. 72, and Narada, rnadana 155 allowed women to be witnesses in disputes between women or when no
other witness could be had or in the cases of theft, adultery and Documents other offences in which forco was an element.
taken from or transactions of lands or houses ) made
particularly
gift, sale
and mortgage
ordinarily to be treated as voidable like those brought about by force or fraud (vide Narada, rnadana 26, 137, Yaj. II. 31). But this instead
wifch
women were
of being regarded as a disability
was rather a boon owing
to the
general illiteracy of women. The Tristhalisetu ( of Narayana) quotes a passage of the Brhan-Naradlya purana to the effect that women, those whose upanayana has not been performed and
sudras have no right to establish the

Siva,
images
of
Visnu
or
im
were
If there
many and heavy
disabilities
on
women
in
more priviwere not women that seen been has It men. than already leges to be killed" nor were they to be abandoned eve.n when guilty of
certain matters, they enjoyed in certain
directions
adultery.
(vide
p.
Vas. 13. 51-53, Ap. Dh. S. II. 6. 13. 4, Yaj. III. 261). Women bad to undergo only half of the prayascitfra that men had to undergo for the same lapse (Visnu Dh. S. 54. 33, Devala 30, &c). Women received 1S98 honour according to the ages of their husbands, whatever their own ages may be (Ap. Dh. S. Just as brafamanas learned in the Vedas were to I. 4. 14, 18 ), be free from taxes, the women of all varnas ( except those of 18M according to Ap, Dh, pratilorna castes ) had to pay no taxes,
1897
as palita,
also enjoyed the right of precedence on the road 13 " of a patita was not regarded 146 above). The daughter was a of the son regarded as patita ( vide patita though
They
f ft fSWH^fo
quoted in ^5Rflc5T3K
]?
32
).
1396.
wgcmci;
The
Tfcrr
HT 1% TTTmtfY <riefcNfa<rer: <rfmft in. 261. *ft* 13. 51-53 c^^f *nssrft<tf rftarornrffc^**!* ^r. Vaa. and a passage fiom snTcWTO^ to on ^T. III. 261
^r^Tf^^
I&TT:
quotes
the same effect.

1397.
OTf^n*^^?T TSPfi W*T <& * f^^ 54.

I
33,
in
fflcTTe
on
*n.
HI-
VM Î^r^mforem^l *m* quoted

I
30,
quoted
by
w^VK
J. 1199.
1398.
1399.
<rf?faW; TOT:
3*fiT:
3TTT. ^T.
4. 14. 18.
I
fftRrc
'
W'5^rf?rt
^ m^:
3^.
V.
^.
II. 10.
26.
10-11
596
S. II. 10. 26.
History of Dharmatasfra
Oh.
XII
10-11
are
).
Vas. Dh.
S. 19.
23 limits this exemption
month of pregnancy, forest hermits, earhnyasins and brahmanas and brahmacarins had to pay no tax at a ferry ( Manu VIII. 407 and Visnu V. 132 ). According to Gaut. V, 23 and Yaj. I. 105 children, the daughters and sisters
the third
women who women from

to
young
or just delivered of a child.
Pregnant
who
are married and yet stay with thoir parents or brothers,
pregnant women, unmarried daughters, guests and servants are to be fed before the master and mistress of the house; while Manu III. 114 and Visnu Dh. S. 67. 39 go a step further and say that freshly married girls of the family, unmarried girls,
pregnant
women
are to be fed even before guests.
judicial
proceeding in which a woman wag a party, or which was heard at night or outside the village or inside a house ( i. e. not in public ) or before enemies was liable to be reviewed
I. 43 ). Ordinarily trial by ordeal did not apply to a woman, whether she was plaintiff or defendant, but if at all a woman had to prove her case by ordeal, only the ordeal of tula ( balance ) was prescribed for her ( Yaj. II. 98 and Mit. thereon ).
(
Narada
uo
sons.
(
In succession to stridhana property, daughters were preferred to Women did not lose their stridhana by adverse possession
Yaj. II. 25, Narada, rnadana 82-83 ). Women were always _to be consulted about acara, Ap. Dh. S. II. 11. 29. 15 cites ttie view that rules not stated in the sutra are, according to
some
teachers, to bo understood from
women and from men
of
marriage the usages to be followed are to be learnt from women. Vide also Asv. gr. 1401 I. 1*. 8, Manu II. 223, Vaik. III. 21.
interesting question is whether the practice of purda in vogue among Moslems and also among Hindus in certain provinces of India prevailed in ancient times. Rg. X. 85. 33
all castes.
Ap.
gr. II. 15 prescribes that in
One
now
(used in the marriage rite) expressly calls upon people to look at the bride. 'This bride is endowed with great auspiciousness; assemble together and see herj having given her blessings of good luck you may go to your house*. The Asv. gr. I. 8. 7 prescribes that at each halting place when the
bride-groom
HOG.
nj
n
is
returning to his village with his bride he should
srrs?
I.
43.
1401.
n^m
III. 21.
Oh.
XII
The usage of observing purda
597
85.
33.
1402
look at the spectators with the verse Rg.
X.
This
shows that no
blessing
(
veil
was worn by
the bride
and she appeared in
public without one.
Though
46
)
Rg. X.
85.
that the bride
in the marriage hymn there is a was to dominate over her
father-in-law, mother-in-law, sister-in-law and brother-in-law, it appears that that was only a blessing and the heart's uo3 wish, but the reality was somewhat different. The Ait. Br.
(
12.
11
says that the daughter-in-law

of
the
is
abashed in
the
presence
herself
for
father-in-law
and
goes
away concealing
from him. This indicates that there was some restraint younger women when they were in the presence of elders. But in the grhya and dharma sutras there is no
reference to
III. 2.
any
)
veil for
women when moving

*
in public. Panini
'
36 teaches the formation of asuryampasya
who do
not
see the sun
applied to queens. That only shows that royal ladies did not leave the precincts of the palace and come under 1404 public gaze. In the Ayodhya-kanda ( 33, 8 ) it is said people
'
walking on the public road see to-day Sita who could not formerly be seen even by aerial beings Similarly ib is stated in the same kanda ( 116. 28 ) the appearance of a woman in
'.
'
public is not blamable in misfortunes, difficulties, in wars, in svayamvara, in a sacrifice, and in a marriage In the
'.
Draupadl exclaims we have heard that ancient people did not take married women to the public assembly-hall; that ancient and long-standing practice has been contravened by the Kauravas '. She says this after
Sabhaparva
1405
69. 9
referring to the fact that, since she was seen at her svayamvara by the kings, she was never seen again by them till the day she
1402.
6.
This occurs in atnr. ;r. err. ! 9. 5. and is prescribed in 3n<T. *! 11 for japa after a boy is seated on the bride's lap. In Ksthaka gr. is to be repeated when the bride 25. 46 the verse suinangallr-iyara X. 85. 33.
' '
Beos the polester and Arundhat! and is addressed to these latter. In Hir. Gr. I. 19. 4 this verse is repeated by the bridegroom when the bride
is
brought to him before the

1403.
avrtrar^; wr. 12. 11.
.
fire,
which
is
about to be kindled.
^TT
fronrRT^h
1404.
*TT
33. 8;
116. 28.
1405.
n fTHiqp$ 69. 9.
698
Oh.
XII
'was brought to the assembly-hall when Yudhisthira gambled and lost everything. This shows that women, particularly high-
born ladies, did not appear in public except on certain occasions, it does not follow that they always wore the veil. When the Kauravas were routed the Salyaparva ( 29. 74 ) laments that their ladies whom even the sun did not see in their palaces were seen by the common people who had come to the capital. Vide
but
also Sabhaparva 97. 4-7, Salyaparva 19. 63, Strlparva 9. 9-10, &6rama-vasi-parva 15. 13. In the Harsacarita ( IV ) princess Rajya^rl, whom the intended bride-groom Grahavarma came to
see just before marriage,
is
described as having her face covered
with a veil of
1
In another place, while describing the country of Sthanvl^vara ( modern Thanesar ) BSna says where bees drawn by the fragrance of the breaths of the ladies
fine red cloth.
their faces
and hovering round their faces ) served as a charming veil for and the veil actually worn by them became a mere
'.
redundancy worn because it was the practice of high-born In the Kadambarl also ( para 99 ) Bana ladies to wear one
describes Patralekha as covering her face with a veil of red In the Sakuntala 1408 when Sakuntala is taken to the cloth.
Dusyanta she is described as wearing a veil. So it must conceded that ladies of high rank did not appear in public without a veil, but ordinarily women did not wear any veil. It
court of
be
Is
probably after the advent of the Moslems that the wearing of
which was not quite unknown, became general among Hindu women in Northern and Eastern India. Vide Indian
a veil,
Antiquary for 1933 p. )5, where a passage is quoted from the Sankhyatattva-kaumud! of Vacaspati ( 9th century A. D. ) referring to ladies of good family not appearing in public without a veil and Pathak Commemoration vol. p. 72 for
references
from Buddhist works about the practice of purda.
1406.
^...3JWi^re3jfa^^..3^Rq^3(
<?^rccT 1 V,
4th para from
end;
'TT^
HI
I-
p.
44 of
my
edition
vide a similar conceit in
p. 15
of
my
edition
99
sm*nf
V. 13.
CHAPTER
NIYOGA
Niyoga
(
XIII
appointment of a wife or widow to procreate a son from intercourse with an appointed malo ).
Great divergence of views prevails about the origin and purpose of this practice. It will be best first to begin by examining the most ancient smrtis that permitted this practice.
Gaut. 1407 18. 4-14 have great bearing on this point. Gaut. a woman whose husband is dead and who desires 18. 4-8 are offspring may secure a son from her brother-in-law. She
' :
should
obtain
the
permission
of
the elders
1408
and
have
intercourse only during the menstrual period ( excluding the first four days ). She may obtain a son from a sapinda, a
sagotra, a sapravara or one who belongs to the same caste Some ( hold that this there is no brother-in law ). ( when
practice is allowed ) with nobody except a brother-in-law. She shall not bear more than two sons (by this practice)*. Gaut. 18. 11 says that a child begotten at the request of a living
his wife belongs to the husband. Gaufc. says that such a son is called ksetraja. The wife ksetra u09 ( field ), the husband of the wife or widow
ksetrin or ksetrika (to
husband on
28. 32
is
is
called
called
whom
the wife or
widow belongs) and the
sows the seed

1407.
person appointed to produce offspring is called bljin ( one who ) or niyogin ( Vas. 17. 64, one who is appointed ).
aroKTTOTffisqgifTOci;
'
*i^tJfTT
18. 4-8.
$^r
diffeiently
mmuMcunrffar ilWH
).
sR^rrlr
(i.
explains c. not
more than one son

1408.
is to
be so procreated
means only tho relatives of the husband and not the father of the widow on ?rg IX. 59. ffT^rT differs and explains $31* 18. 5 as Manu ( IX. 60-61 ) shows that some fqf<T$hrf frgWT tftfV ^^?T said that only ono son could be had by f^Rrfar, while others held that two
*j^
'
The word
r:
could be had.
1409.
18. 11
Vide *s IX. and Ap. Dh.

3 has the
32,
33 and 53 for the words #*,

13.
$fifcr,
S. II. 6.
6
'.
employ the word
fn^;
for wife
and Gant. IV.
word
bljin
600
fistory
of DIuirmatastra
Ch,
14I
XIII
'
The Vas. Dh.

assemble the gurus
S.
17.
56-65
)
(
similarly prescribes
or
the
shall
father or brother of the
widow
widow's husband
who taught
or sacrificed for the deceased
husband and his relatives and shall appoint her ( to raise issue for the deceased husband ). Let him not appoint a widow who is mad, not master of herself (through grief &c.) or is diseased
or is very old,
(
Up
to
period for appointing a be made if the person who
widow) nor
sixteen years ( after puberty is the shall an appointment
is to approach her is sickly. Let him w " to approach the widow in the muhurfa sacred Prajapati like a husband, without dallying with her and without abusing or No appointment shall be made through a ill-treating her. l412 desire to obtain the estate/ Baud. Dh. S. II. 2, 17 ( S. B. E. vol. 14, p. 226 ) defines a ksetraja son as one who is begotten by another man after permission on the wife of a deceased person or of a eunuch or of one who is suffering from ( an incurable Manu (IX. 59-61) says that a widow who is disease).
may obtain offspring, in case there is total failure of issue, from her brother-in-law or a sapinda of her husband, that the person appointed should approach her in the
properly appointed
dark and should be anointed with ghee and should procreate only one son and never two, while some say that he n*ay procreate two. Baud. Dh. S. II. 2. 68-70, Ysj. I. 68-69 and Narada ( strlpumsa, 80-83 ) lay down similar rules. Kautilya ( 1. 17, p. 35 ) says that a king who is old or suffering from ( incurable ) disease should procreate a son on his queen through a matrbandhu or a feudatory chief endowed with qualities similar to his. In another place he says that if a brahmana dies without leaving a near heir, then a sagotra or matrbandhu
1410.
^
o.
......
ftÎ^^^fSNfa^Ftfr3<n?*r
f^cTT
SfcH
17. 56-61, 65.
1411.
sjrsTRcTT fjfr?? is the
same
as
srrfjr
5fcf viz. the last watch of

sunrise).
the night (i.
J ths
of an hour before
Vide
srf^S 12.47,
*3
4. 92.
1412.
The idea
is
that the
widow must
not be
moved
to the act
by
a mercenary motive. According to t-rft*3T whose views are cited in the MlfW'jf^V of f^rffrsr ( p. 633 ) the widow of a separated sonless man could get the property of her husband only if she submitted to niyoga^
otherwise she was to get only maintenance. DbSre6rara apparently based his view on some ancient texts. Vas. in the last sentence negatives a such
Oh, XIII
Niyoga
601
may
be appointed to procreate a ksetraja son, who should get the The conditions necessary to allow niyoga were : (1) the husband, whether living or dead, must have no son; (2) the gurus in a family council should decide to appoint the
inheritance. 1413
widow
to raise issue for the
husband
(3)
the person appointed
must be either the husband's brother, or a sapinda or sagotra of the husband or ( according to Gautama, a sapravara or a person of the same caste ); (4) the person appointed and the widow must be actuated by no lust but only by a sense of duty; (5) the
141 * person appointed must; be anointed with ghee or oil (Narada, 82 in ), must not speak with or kiss her or engage strlpumsa, sportive dalliance with the woman (6) this relationship was to last till one son was born ( or two according to some); (7) the widow must be comparatively young, she should not be old or
;
sterile or
past child-bearing or sickly or unwilling or pregnant (Baud. Dh. S. II, 2. 70, Narada, strlpumsa 83-84); (8) after the birth of a son they were to regard themselves as father-in-law and
daughter-in-law
the
texts
(ManuIX.
62).
It
is
further
made
clear
by
has intercourse with his sister-in-law without appointment by elders or if he does so even when appointed by elders but the other circumstances do not exist (e.g. if the husband has a son), he would be guilty of the sin of incest ( vide Manu IX, 58, 63, 143, 144 and Narada, strlpumsa 85-86 ) and a son, born of such intercourse,
that if a brother-in-law
would be a bastard and not entitled to any wealth ( Narada, would 141S belong to the bcgotter ) and that he Narada says that if a widow or a male ( Vas. Dh. S. 17. 63
sfcrlpumsa 84-85
).
acts contrary to the stringent provisions about niyoga, he or she should be severely punished by the king or ortherwiso there
Yaj. II. 234 makes such a person liable be sentenced to a fine of one hundred panas. It will be seen from the above that even in the times of the Dharmasutras, the practice of niyoga was hedged round with so many restric-
would be confusion.
to
1413.
(I- 17. p-
35);
II
cTcHf^^^
1414.
efilReT
HI.
( p.
163
).
?[Hn"OT inrrfo Sebm^war

verse 82. rigr^T on
i
^TT. I-
68 says
1415.
srf^gwr g IT
rrft
rrcc
(sft&O 84-85.
H. D. 76
602
tions that
it
Oh. XIII
must not have been very much prevalent and
Instances must have been rather rare.
While
ancient
Dharmasutras
like
Gautama
allowed
niyoga, there were other dharmasiitras and writers almost as old as Gautama that condemned the practice and forbade it.
II. 10. 27. 5-7 after referring to the view of some that a girl is given to a family in marriage and declaring that that practice ( of polyandry ) is forbidden adds a condemnation
Ap. Dh.
S.
1416
'
of niyoga
the
hand
(
)
stranger
(
that if
husband and wife
( of a sagotra is considered to be ) that of a the marriage vow ) is transgressed, both certainly go to hell and that the reward
obtained from observing the restrictions of the law is preferable to offspring obtained in this manner (by niyoga).' Baud. Dh. S f 1417 to the view of Aupajanghani that it is only the II. 2. 38 refers aurasa son that is to be recognized as a son and then quotes three
verses (probably of the
as quotations
husbands
begetter.
to
same ancient sage ), which are also cited by Ap. Dh. S. ( II. 6. 13. 6 ) and which call upon guard their wives and not allow others to procreate
sons so procreated will benefit only the
at first he describes niyoga, ultimately
sons on the
latter, as the
Manu, though
it
condemns
says that
to
in the strongest terms possible

dvijatis
among
issue
64-68 ). He ( IX. a widow should never be appointed
raise
would be
there
is
is
violated, that in the
from another, for by doing so ancient dharraa mantras relating to marriage

to
no reference
niyoga nor
is
the remarriage of a
widow spoken
of in the procedure about marriage, that
niyoga
a beastly way and was first brought into vogue by king Vena who thereby caused varna-samkara, and that since that time good men condemn him who through ignorance appoints a widow to produce offspring. Manu ( IX. 69-70 ) explains the
meaning
a girl
is
texts about
niyoga by saying that the rules and the ancient niyoga apply or refer to that case only where, after promised as a bride, the intended bridegroom dies, the
of
1416.
fir
atfroTH ft ircd <mf:
mnqR*g5*r ^TT^^JTT^TC^T^
1417.
srrr.
*r.
n.
10. 27. 5-7.
An
3?TT3F*rf^ or-^f^ is a teacher

II. 6
r:
mentioned
^frorf
in the
at the
I
end of Br. Up.
and IV.
H
6.
f^tJT^Tr^ffo
3Rcff
^3^ Wt
II. 6. 13. 6
with slight variations
).
II. 2. 39-41 ft. ST. s;. SR^T^lui 49. 13 has tho half verse
nr^
<pr; q-^f
^m^Hid.
The
last verse occurs in Vas, 17. 9 also.
Oh. XIII
Niyoga
603
is called upon to marry the girl and to have intercourse with her only once during each period till she gives birth to a son who would be the son of the deceased. Though Manu condemned the ancient practice of niyoga, he had to make provision for the kselraja son as regards partition
brother of the latter
(IX. 120-121,145).
pretation of
It should be noticed that if the inter' IX. 69-70 be accepted, the word vidhava would have to be taken in two different senses in Manu and other texts e. g. in IX. 60 where Manu speaks of niyoga, the word means a girl promised to a bridegroom who died before
Manu
the marriage ceremony was gone through, while in Manu a widow whoso husband died after IX. 64 vidhava means
*
'
'
the canon of
To say tho least, this contravenes interpretation that the same word in the same passage or context should have only one meaning. 1418 ami smrti first desrefers to the fact that the Brhaspati
marriage was completed,
'
Mlmamsa
and adds that in former ages men possessed tapas and knowledge and could strictly carry out the rules while in dvapara and kali ages there is great deterioration of power and so men of these times cannot now practise niyoga. The several kinds of sons will be dealt with under vyavahara.
cribed the ancient niyoga and then forbade
it
The Visnu Dh. found in the sutras

is
S. (15.3)
contains an innovation which

*
is
not
of
Gautama and Vasistha

'
viz,
the
ksetraja
procreated on an appointed wife or widow by a The Mahabharata sapinda of the husband or by a brahmana. of cases with is niyoga. Adiparva ( 95 and 103 ) replete
one 1419 who
is
narrates how Satyavatl pressed Bhlsma to procreate sons for bis younger brother Vicitravlrya ( who was dead ) from his and how ( Adi, 105 ) when Bhlsma refused Vyasa ulti-
queens
and promately was appointed by Vyasa's mother Satyavatl mo replies to created Dbrtarastra and Pandu. Kum5rilabhatta
1418.
*TTS
'
i
ffiri
* srwfcrrr
I.
^ x& T sri^^wwwn n
quoted by sw^j* p. 97 (on Ynj.

1419.
frgtffnrf
*
68-69
^ and
7rt
*n%rfhi^p*r3h by $%* on *<3 IX.
68.
^frtfi^rw'pr ^TTI^T:
P-
1420
The objector says
f^^^H^ 15. 3. ftftnrti^' ^ ^c^r|-qT?I^^ ^ClcRt&Sfi* ^

ft^sft fir?fi^:
203
*L3
>
ttnd
be reply
ifi
P-
208 (on the
60i
''the
History qf DharmiUstra
Oh,
followed Gaut.
objector finding faulfc with Vy3sa by saying that VySsa (18. 4-5) and the urgent request of his mother and
besides his tapas saved him from the effects of violation of dharma. Pandu himself is said to have asked KuntI to procreate sons for
him by niyoga from a brahmana endowed

(
wifch great tapas
Adi. 120
and
tells her certain stories of niyoga

is
1421
(Adi. 120-123
and winds up by saying that three sons

if
(
the limit
and that
a fourth or a
fifth
)
a wanton
woman
)
64 and 104
tho
states
woman would be svairinl and bandhakl ( harlot ). Adiparva ( chap. that when ParaSurama tried to exterminate
were procreated tho
thousands of ksatriya widows approached brahmanas for the procreation of sons. 1422 Vide Adiparva, chap. 104 and 177, Anusasana, chap. 44. 52-53, Santi 72. 12 for other references and examples of niyoga. u22
ksatriyas
Owing
niyoga
to the bewildering
in the smrtis,
who
wrote at
and often conflicting rules about commentators like Visvarupa, Medhatithi, a timo when niyoga was almost unheard of, made
heroic though unsatisfactory efforts to bring order out of chaos, Visvarupa on Yaj. I. 69 states several views on the point. The
bad in the present age as opposed to IX. 64 and 68 ) and to the usage of the sistas ( respectable people ). Tho second view was the same as Manu IX, 69 set out above. A third view was that there was an option ( as niyoga was both forbidden and allowed ). A fourth view (which seems to be the view of Visvarupa himself) was that 1424 IX. 64 the smrti texts about niyoga refer to 6udras ( Manu
first is
that niyoga
(
is
smrti texts
like
Manu
uses the word

families,
'
dvijati
and
it
was
also allowed to
royal
when there was no male to succeed ( and only a brahmana was to be appointed ) and Visvarupa relies upon two
1421.
123. 77.
1422.
sri^JTi^
srBnn
THR ^mfWVsPnrani:
sRmisr *r<n*r
64.
*
;
5-7
104.
>
56
*n : n 3?rr51423.
J. K.
5 2
-
^^n?r^ "*&*
^Tr
%î
^ *rm^
?TTf^r 72. 12.

)
Vide Dr. Wintomitz's paper (Notes on MahabbSrata

1897 pp. 716-732
tj4
*
in
A.
S.
for
Niyoga
in the groat epic

I
'.
1424.
com. on
I. 69,
dH^4nTt f^^krftr^rnc ^W: R^sr^r at the end of A little above fi*qw remarks that there is a usage of f
his
among 4udras
Oh. XlII
verses of
Niyoga
$<&
of
Vrddhamanu
UB5
and a gatha
further says that the procreation of sons
V&yu. ViSvarflpa by Vyfisa from the
queens of Vicitravlrya should be paid no heed ( i. e. is not to be relied on ) like the marriage of DraupadI ( to the five Pandavas), The Mahabharata probably reflects what happened owing to the incessant Internecine wars among the priaccs of India. Whole princely houses must have been slaughtered. If niyoga was prevalent among them, tbo males appointed, when they had to be of the same caste, would have boon ordinary soldiers ( ksatri-
The proud princely families very likely thought it yas ). below their dignity to associate widowed queens with ordinary It is possible to hold that they chose brahmanas for ksatriyas. appointment, as the latter were deemed to ba higher than even kings in the spiritual domain. It is impossible to believe that brahmanas, who had no temporal power, coald coerce tho proud and warlike caste into choosing brahmanas for niyoga, unless the teaching of the smrtis fell in with the notions of the ruling
houses themselves to some extent
at le.^st.
niyoga belonged.
divergence.
begetter; this
There was difference of opinion as to whom the child of Vas. Dh. S. 17. 6 expressly refers to this
The first view was that the child belonged to the view would cut at the very root of the purpose 1426 Nirukfca III. 1-3 for which niyoga was recommended. on Rg. VII. 4. 7-8. Gaut. 18. 9 supports this view and relies and Manu IX. 181 state the same rule. Ap. Dh.S. IL6.13.5 says that according to a Biahmana text tho son belongs to the The second view was that if there was an agreement begetter. between the elders of a widow and the person appointed or between the husband himself and the begetter that the child
should belong to the husband, then the son belonged to the uw Vide Gaufc. 18. 10-11, Vas. 17. 8, Adiparva 104. 6. both the and to son begetter belonged third view was that the the owner of the wife. This is the view of Narada (strlpumaa, 58 ), Yftj. II. 127, Manu IX, 53, Gaut. 18. 13.
latter.
1425.
and tho
i
g^ft *t
^ <&w
IST^T mJnTcf: n
1426.
1427.
ro*JT gnrfts: *nrr
wfiR sff^rs?rsrc*n*T:
i
ft^^r III.
tm^q;t $3 ffir tt irtyr^

*
10-4. 6.
arn- V.
^.
II. 6. 13. 5;
600
History of fiharwaiastra
Ch.
XIII
the Kali age
As shown above ( in note 1418 ) niyoga was forbidden in by Brhaspati and it was included among practices
forbidden in the Kali age by several works. Vide the Mit. on 1487 * Yaj. II. 117 and Apararka p. 97 quoting Brahmapurana.
The practice of raising issue from the widow of one's brother or marrying her was a widespread one. Vide Wester207-220.
invites
marck's 'History of Human Marriage' (1921) vol. III. pp. In the Rgveda u88 X. 40, 2 we read what sacrificer
'
you ( Asvins ) in his house as a widow invites a brother-in-law to her bed or as a young damsel her lover ', But it is not clear whether this refers to marrying the widow of a deceased brother or to the practice of niyoga. Vi^varupa
(
(
The Nirukta ) thinks that this refers to niyoga. explains Rg. X. 40. 2, where in some mss. the word ' devara is explained as a second husband ( dvitlyo varah ). Medhatithi on Manu IX. 66 explains Rg. X. 40. 2 as applying to niyoga. According to the sufcras and smrtis niyoga was entirely
I.
on Yaj.
III. 15
69
'
'
different from marriage. In many ancient societies, women were inherited like property. On the death of the eldest brother, his younger brother took the family property as well as his widow. But the Rgveda had reached a stage much beyond that. Mac-
Lennan thought
was
Westermarck combats
that the practice of niyoga was due to polyandry. this view and rightlyso. When niyoga allowed in the sutras, polyandry had been either unheard
of or forbidden. Jolly in Recht und Sitte ( English translation, pp. 156-157 ) thinks that apart from the religious importance of a son economic motives were at the bottom of the long list of
secondary sons, including the ksetraja. This appears to be quite wrong. The practice of niyoga was a relic from the past and
probably owed its origin to several causes, which are now obscure, but one of which was the great hankering for a son evinced by all in Vedio times. Vas. Dh. S. (17. 1-6) lends support
this view, since after quoting Vedic passages about the importance of a son for paying off the debt to ancestors and for securing heavenly worlds, he at once proceeds to the description of the ksetraja. But the economic motive was never put forward by any of the sages, nor could it possibly have been the reason
to
H27 a.
on
*TT.
II.
ii
argnyw quoted by
sNTTfe
p. 97.
H28.
OL
XIII
Niyoga
607
and main-spring of the practice. If many secondary sons were desired for economic reasons, then the same man could have had any number of secondary sons. But the dharmasSstra texts do not allow this. A man who has an aurasa son can have no ksetraja or adopted son. If one kind of son was adopted, then another kind of son could not bo adopted. So economic motives did not at all form the origin of this practice. Winternitz in
J.
1897 at p. 758 puts forward poverty, paucity of the joint family system as the causes of niyoga. There are no data to prove that there was paucity of women in
R. A.
S. for
women and
India during historic times.

of
There might have been a paucity
other two reasons bear close examination. It is better to say that niyoga was a survival from the remote past, that gradually it became rarer and rarer till in the first centuries of tho Christian era it came to be totally
to wars.
men owing
Nor do the
prohibited.
CHAPTER XIV
REMARRIAGE OF WIDOWS
Remarriage of widows. The word punarbhu is generally widow that has remarried. Before going into the detailed history of the remarriage of widows it ig desirable to UZ9 Narada probe into the meaning of the word punarbhu *. 45 v. that ere there of wives seven sorts ) says ( strlpumsa, in order ) who have been previously married to ( mentioned another man ( parapurva ) among them, the punarbhu is of U2 and three kinds the svairim* ( wanton woman ) is of four kinds. The three punarbhus are (1) a maiden whose hand was taken in marriage but whose marriage was not consummated in
applied to a
*
her case the marriage ceremony has to be performed once more (2) a woman who first deserts the husband of her youth, betakes
herself to another
man and then returns to the house of her a woman who is given by the husband's relatives ( when the husband dies ) to a sapinda of the deceased husband or a person of the same caste, on failure of brothers-in-law ( this The four is nigoya and no ceremony is to be performed ). svairinls are (i) a woman, whether childless or not, who goes to live with another man through love while the husband is alive (2) a woman who rejects after her husband's death his brothers and the like and unites herself with another through
husband
;
(3)
passion for him (3) a woman, coming from a foreign country or purchased with money or oppressed by hunger or thirst, gives herself to a man saying I am yours* (4) a woman who is
;
given to a stranger by the elders relying on the usages of the
1429.
Vide Vcdic Index
vol. I. pp. 476-478,
Dio Witvo in Veda
'
Oriental Journal (1915) vol. 29, pp.
(the widow in the Veda), a paper by Dr. Wintornitz in the Vienna 172-203 for discussion of some
Vcdic passages bearing on the question.

1430.
Compare Manu
IX.
176
and
Vi?mi
15,
for
the
first
ptmarbhn, punarbbn.
Manu
IX. 176, Vas. Dh. S. 17. 19 and Visnu 15. 9 for the second
Oh.
XIV
Meaning of punarbhu
609
14?1 country, but who incurs the blame of wantonness ( as the smrti rules about niyoga are not observed by them or her ). Narada says that each preceding one of the punarbhus
( I.
is inferior to the next in order. Yaj. does not give this elaborate classification all he says is that a punarbhu is of two kinds, one whose marriage had not been consummated and another who has had sexual intercourse and that both have the marriage ceremony performed again
and Bvairinls enumerated

67
)
( i. e.
punarbhu
is
one
who
'
is
punah samskrta
a svairinl
is
one
who
forsakes
the husband
maiden and
lives with another
whom she married when a man of the same caste through
love for the latter.
elaborate classification of
Visvarupa on Yaj. L 67 remarks that the Narada and Sahkha (3 punarbhus
and 4 svairinls ) is not of much use, that it only indicates the various degrees of blame ( or sin ) attaching to them and is also meant to discriminate among prayascittas to be performed by those women. It is the second husband and the son of the second marriage that bear the appellation paunarbhava ( pati
'
'
first husband. Vide Sam. ) and not the The Sm. C. ( I. p. 75 ) quotes a passage from Baudhayana and certain verses of Kasyapa. According to U3a the seven kinds of punarbhu are (1) the girl who Kasyapa had been promised in marriage, (2) one who was intended to be given (3) one on whose wrist the auspicious band was tied by the bride-groom, (4) whose gift had been made with water ( by the father ), (5) whose hand was held by the bridegroom, (6) who went round the fire, (7) who had given birth to a child
or putra respectively
Pr. pp. 740-741.
after marriage.
In the
first five
cases
it is
to be supposed that
the bride-groom either immediately died or left the further prosecution of the marriage rites. Even such girls would be styled
punarbhus, when they married another person later on, though

1431.
Dr. Jolly in his translation of Narada (S.
B, B.
vol.
33 pp.
175-176) renders this verse of NSrada differently; but his rendering appears to me to be incorrect. The 3rd kind of punarbha refers to the practice of niyoga; the 4th kind of svairini is one who is allowed to have intercourse by her elders for procreating a son for her deceased husband
but without observing the strict rules of niyoga laid down in the smrtis. That is the difference between the two. The action of the ^f^fV is described as ^TfH> as it is no more than vyabhicftra, though with the
elder's permission.
1432.
ii
Î^Tf
sirSr
^TT
*fiY|TU
<rr
TRron
^ S ^ w^r ^ *n f)
5
i
^ tih
err:
qFrs^rWisrhi
"%% fa
ll
5T5*nr
quoted by
*sfw
I.
76.
H. D. 77
610
Oh.
XIV
the first; marriage was not complete because the saptapadl had not been performed. The sixth case is one of completed marriage (though it refers to only going round fire). Baudhayana's seven
varieties are slightly different, the first two being the same as Kasyapa's : the others are (3) one who went round the fire (with
the bridegroom) ; (4) one who took the seventh step; (5) one who has had sexual intercourse (either after marriage or even without it) J
(6)
one who has conceived (7) one who has borne u28 a child. These meanings of the word punarbhu must be borne in mind when one meets with the word punarbhu in Vedic texts. That even the
;
promise to give in marriage without the performance of any ceremonies was looked upon as tantamount in its consequences to marriage follows from the words of Sukanya quoted above (in note 1306) from the Sat. Br., where she had been only offered to the sage Cyavana by her father, but where no ceremonies had been performed as none are described or referred to therein. Manu (IX. 69-70)
who was only promised while Vas. Dh. S. XVII. 72 speaks of the vagdatta and one given with water as still a maiden, if no Vedic mantras have been repeated. 1434 Vas. Dh. S. XVIL 74 refers fco
confines the rules of niyoga to a girl
(
vagdatta
the 4th variety of Baudhayana. Yaj. I. 67 when he speaks of aJfsata refers to all the six varieties of Kasyapa or the first four
varieties of
refers to
Baudhayana and when he speaks of ksata he the seventh variety of Kasyapa and the last three
Vas. Dh.
S.
1425
'
'
of
Baudhayana.
17 19-20 describes paunarbhava
leaves the husband of her youth and after having lived with another person, re-enters the house of the husband or as the son of a woman who takes
as the son of a
woman, who
another husband after leaving an impotent, outcast or lunatic husband or after the death of the first husband. Baud. Dh. S.
describes paunarbhava as the son of a woman who abandoning an impotent or outcast husband goes to another husband. Narada ( etrlpurhsa, v. 97 ), Parasara IV. 30 and Agnipurana 154. 5-6 have the same verse another husband
II. 2. 31
after
'
1433.
crn^n T^T^f^
I
sr^rapcTT
<rRT*T WHJT <i^

f
ST^cTt
*.
I. p.
75,
tf.
i3'icU p. 735.
Sf*lt
^wr sû W ^ f^^f ^T^TTf quoted

*fttrr
^CT*R*TT
4rwi
in
1434.
17.
72 and 74.
1435.
i
17. 18-20.
Cb.
is
XIV ]
lost
Remarriage of women
611
when the husband become a samnyasin, is impotent or is patita* u38 Great controversies have raged round this verse. Some like the Par. M. ( II. part I, p. 53 ) give the easy explanation (always given about inconvein five calamities viz.
is
ordained for
(
women
of
is
unheard
),
dead, has
nient texts
that this verse refers to the state of society in
another yuga (age) and has no application to the Kali age. Others like Medbatithi (on Manu V. 157) explain that the word pati means only palaka ( guardian ). Medh&tithi 14 * 7 ( on Manu III. 10 and V. 163 ) is not dead against niyoga, but he is opposed to the remarriage of widows. Even the Smrtyar' '
thasara ( which belongs to about 1150 to 1200 A. D. ) mentions several views viz. some hold that a girl may be married to another if the bride-groom dies before saptapadl, others hold that she may be remarried if the first husband dies before con-
summating
if
after marriage the
the marriage, while still others are of opinion that husband dies before she begins to mens-
truate she
is
may be remarried and some hold that remarriage allowed before conception. 14S8
*
Ap. Dh. S. II. 6. 13. 3-4 condemns remarriage if one has intercourse with a woman who had already another husband, or with a woman on whom no marriage samskara has taken place or who is of a different varna, then sin is incurred; in that case
the son also is sinful'. Haradatta quotes Manu III. 174 and says that the son procreated on another's wife is called kunda if
is living, and golaka if the husband is dead. Manu opposed to the remarriage of widows 'nowhere is a second husband declared for virtuous women'; so also Manu IX. u39 65
the
husband
is
V. 162
1436.
u qrro? (srr^srareor 9?
).
1437.
t
ftvnrm% on **3 V. 157 ; f5raJiK^rf 3 tfc^^^g^m^m TT. on ng V. 163.
cTtcT^qcTfrcq^ q g
^ M Q Rrywrft *
1438.
1439.
*
:
fitfhrar
ii
mifrrt
;
^f%^ffT%^ ng V.
i i
162
rg IX. 65 ^c^5"TT i^fr^ ?rg IX. 47; T: rg VIII. 226. Vide arw. i I. 7. 13, aritr. *. n- I. T <feo for the jp^s where the word sizfaot g %^ *K*qi 3TRT*r^^cr &c. is used. maiden alone (a )
i
5. 7
12
History of Dharmaitetra
Oh.
XIV
('in the procedure of marriage there is no declaration about ' a maiden can be the remarriage of widows ) $ Manu IX. 47
given only once and Manu VIII. 226 ( the Vedic mantras used in panigrahana are applicable to maidens only ) are opposed to the remarriage of widows. The Brahmapurana and other puranas forbid remarriage of widows in the Kali age (vide note 1427 a above). The Sam. Pr. quotes a text of Katyayana to the effect that a girl, who has gone through the ceremony of marriage with a sagotra, may be married again and remarks that the text refers to the state of society in another yuga. This is the view of all the commentators and nibandha writers. Manu himself ( in IX. 176 ) expressly allows the samskara of remarriage in the case of a girl, whose first marriage has not been consummated or who left the husband of her youth, went to live with another and returned to the first
husband.
'
In this the author of the Manusmrti probably only usage which was too much for him in spite of his own view ( in V. 162 ) denouncing remarriages. So it may be taken that Manu does not forbid the use of mantras in remarriage, but holds that even after the mantras are recited the remarriage of a widow is not dharmya ( approved ). It is said
reiterates popular
intheMahabharata ( Adiparva 104. 34-37) that Dlrghatamas Manu himself speaks forbade remarriage and also niyoga. 144 of the samskara of a pregnant girl ( IX. 172-173 ). Baud. Dh. S. IV. 1. 18, Vas. Dh. S. 17. 74, Yaj. I. 167 speak of the samskara of remarriage ( paunarbhava samskara ). Manu III. 155 and Yaj, I. 222 include the paunarbhava ( the son of a punarbhu )
among brahmanas that are not to be invited at a sraddha. Apararka (p. 97 ) quotes a passage from the Brahmapurana itself which speaks of a fresh samskara of marriage for a child widow or for one who was forcibly abandoned or carried away
by somebody.
1441
Several smrtis contain certain rules about what the wife
was
to
after marriage.
do when the husband had gone abroad for many years Narada ( strlpumsa, verses 98-101 ) gives the
1440.
\T3ft
q^
ifiiNfcli
1TTsft4 PKNÎK
^faf fo
TT cf
35-36.
1441.
II
W3T$n<Jl quoted
by
ami^
P 97.
Ch.
XIV
Remarriage when husband unheard of

1448
'
613
If the husband has gone to a foreign following directions. country a brahmana wife should wait for eight years, but four years if she has nob given birth to a child after that period (of 8 or 4 years ) she may resort to another man ( then Narada lays
;
down
the
of
lesser
number
is
of years for ksatriya

to be living
husband
known
and vaisya wives). If then the periods are double
those stated above; this is the view of Prajapati when no news can be had of persons and hence there is no sin if a woman resorts to another man ( in such cases ).' Manu ( IX 76 ) says If a man has gone to a foreign land for doing some
'
religious duty the wife should wait for him for eight years, six years if he has gone for acquiring knowledge or
fame, or three years if he has gone on a love affair ( or for * Manu does not state what the wife is to do another wife ). after these years of waiting. Vas. ( 17. 75-76 ) requires that the wife of one who has gone to a foreign land should wait
'
for five years
and
is
husband.
if
'
This
may
the
husband
years she should go near her be all right as far as it will go. But unheard of, how is she to reach him ?
after five
Vasistha says nothing on that point. Visvarupa on Yaj. I. 69 says that the periods of waiting prescribed for the wife of an emigrant are meant not for permitting niyoga thereafter, but for calling upon her to repair to her husband. Kauîlya (III. 4)
some interesting rules *the wife of one, who has long gone abroad, or who has become a recluse or who ia dead, should wait for seven menstrual periods and for a year if she has a child already. Thereafter she may marry the full
prescribes
:
brother of her husband.
If there be
(
many
brothers she should
marry one who

unmarried.
of the
is
near in age
to the first
husband
is
),
who
is
virtuous, capable of
may marry a sapinds same caste.' The'story of Daraayanfcl suggests that when the husband was not heard of for man 3 years, a wife could marry again. DamayantI is said to have sent a message to Rtuparna that, as Nala was not heard oi for many years, DamayantI was going to celebrate a svayamvara and Rtuparna hurries for it and does not think it a strange thing ( Vanaparva 70. 24 ).
husband
or one of the
1442.
maintaining her or If no such brother exists she
who
the youngest or
an
3
TV. 98-101.
614
Ch.
XIV
raised by Dr. Banerjee is what is to be regarded as tho gotra of a widow when she is to be remarried There ( is it to be her father's gotra or of the first husband's ? ). are hardly any indications in the ancient smrtis or commenta:
One question 1448
ries
the word
1444 Visvarupa commenting on Yaj. I, 63 (on observes that according to some the kauy^prada ) father gives away the bride even if she is not a virgin. So it
on
this point.
'
'
appears that the father's gotra should be looked to in the remarriage of a widow. Vidyasagar, whom Dr. Banerjee follows, held the same opinion.
Certain passages of the Atharvaveda
may
be considered
in connection with the question of the remarriage of widows. * Atharva-Veda V. 17. 8-9 are 1445 when a woman has at first even
ten husbands,
of
who
e.
are not brahmanas, if a
brahmana takes hold
marries her ), he alone is her ( real ) husband. brahmana alone is ( a real ) husband, not a ksatriya or a vaisya the sun goes proclaiming this to the five (tribes of) men*.
( i.
her hand
verse is not to be taken literally in the sense that a married ten persons in succession and that the llth was a brahmana the first verse contains rather what is called
The
first
woman
praudhivada
a ksatriya or vaisya as husband, and she marries on his death a brahmana, then the brahmana is the real husband. The word pati* may also have been used loosely and all that is meant may be that if a girl is promised to ten persons one after another and then lastly to a brahmana, the
first
*
cated by the that if a woman has
(pompous word uta

'
assertion or boast)
and
this is indi-
'.
The verse may
at the
most mean
latter is to be accepted as the best.
Another passage
*
1448
of the
one of 1443. Vide Marriage and Stridhana ( 5th ed. ) p. 309 these rules of selection requires that the parties to marriage should be of different goirat but what is to be regarded as the gotra of a widowthe gotra of her father in which she was born or that of her deceased husband to which she has been transferred by marriage ? '.
* *
;
1444.
h*<iHq'
I
f^rerc on TT.
I.
63.
1445.
V. 17. 8-9. vii

8*ft,
is
explained by the f^TB>
( e.
g.
I.
19
generally as
whenever
1446.
*TT
it is at
the tegtnning of a verse or pSda.
y$
<rf
IX. 5.27-28.
Oh.
XIV
Remarriage of widows
'
615
Atharvaveda ( IX. 5. 27-28 ) is whatever woman, having firat married one husband, marries another, if they (two) offer a goat with five rice dishes they would not be separated (from each other ). The second husband secures the same world with
his remarried wife,
rice dishes
when he
offers
a goat accompanied with five
and with the
light of fees'.
occurs.
of a
It is possible to
hold that this
may
Here the word punarbhu refer to the promise
girl in marriage, subsequent death of the intended bridegroom before the marriage ceremonies take place and then the bestowal of her on another. Whatever the meaning of punarbhu here may be, it is clear that some sort of sin
or inferiority attached to her and that such sin or opprobrium had to be removed by sacrifices. Other passages are discussed later on. But it must be admitted that remarriage of
women was
In the Tai.
not prohibited in the times of the Atharvaveda.

*
daidhisavya ( widow's BOQ ) occurs. The grhyasufcras are silent about remarriage so probably by that time it had come to be prohibited generally, though sporadic
;
S. Ill, 2. 4. 4
'
instances might have occurred.

castes similar to
Among
the brahmanas and
them and holding
high place in the hierarchy been forbidden for centuries.

instances
is
or endeavouring to hold a of castes widow remarriage has
who was
One of the earliest historical the remarriage of DhruvadevI, queen of Kamagupta, after Ratnagupta's death, married by her brother-in-law
for
'
Candragupta (vide Journal Asiatique Sanjan Places in E, I. vol. 18, p. 255,
1923, pp.
201-208,
'
Indian Culture
vol. 4,
p. 216, Harsacarita VI, penultimate para ). Among sudras and other lower castes widow remarriage has been allowed by custom, though ifc is held to be somewhat inferior to the marriage
of
a maiden. 1447
Among
these castes remarriage
is
allowed after
husband or during his life-time with the consent of the husband who gives a writing called farkhat or sod'chitti ( a deed of release ). Such marriages are called pat in
the death of the
Maharastra, natra in Gujarat, udJd in the Canarese districts. In some cases the caste in a meeting assembled takes upon itself to bring to an end a marriage and allows tho wife to re-marry.
But the Bombay High Court does not recognize the authority of a caste to declare a marriage void or to permit a woman to remarry another person without the consent of the husband and have convicted of bigamy women re-marrying without the
1447.
Vide Steele's 'Law and Custom of Hindu Castes' pp.
26i
168-169.
616
consent of the
1448
Ch.
XIV
first husband but with the permission of the In modern times, the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act (XV of 1856) has been passed mainly through the efforts of Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. That Act legalises the marriages of widows notwithstanding any custom or interpretation of the Hindu Law to the contrary and declares that the children of such marriages are legitimate. Owing to the sentiment of centu-
caste.
ries widow remarriage is still looked down upon and during more than eighty years since the Act was passed not many widows have taken advantage of it. The Census 1449 of India for 1931 discloses certain appalling figures. Among infants of less than one year old there were in the whole of India as many as 796 males who were widowers and 1515 females who were widows, among children up to 5 years there were 12799 widowers and 30880
widows (out
of these
lasb
the
Hindus contributed 10266 as
widowers and 23667 as widows). It is true that amongst the castes to which most of these must have belonged widow remarriage is allowed by custom, but there must be a certain number of females who are widows before five, who cannot remarry by the custom of the caste and who would not dare to take advantage of the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act Between the ages of 5-10, 11-15, 16-20 the numbers of Hindu widows for the whole of India are respectively 83920, 145449, 404167. The age of marriage for girls is rapidly rising owing to economic causes, the spread of literacy among the masses, and the operation of the Child Marriage Restraint Act ( XIX of 1929 ) and it
be hoped that these high figures of child widows will be substantially reduced in the near future. Persons finding fault
may
with Hindu society for large numbers of child widows should not forget one thing. According to Hindu notions every girl
must be married at any cost. Hence people rush into child marriages. But there has been no problem of old spinsters in Hindu society, as there is in Western countries, though it
appears that in the near future that problem will arise even in India. Apart from the considerations as to religious texts prohibiting widow remarriage and the great concern among women for preserving a high ideal of chastity and single-minded devotion to the husband, many Hindus feel that, each girl
1448. Vide Reg. v. Karsan Goja, 2 Bombay High Court Reports 117 Reg. v. Sambhu, 1 Bom. 347, Keshav v. Bai Oandhi 39 Born. 538.
t
1449.
Vide Census of India 1931
vol.
I.
part
2,
Imperial Tables,
pp. 120-122.
Ch.
XIV
617
having been given one chance of marriage, if she becomes a widow, that is her ill-luck, but she should not be allowed to compete with unmarried girls in the marriage market, which is already overcrowded with girls waiting to be married.
Certain verses of the Bgveda and the Atharvaveda have given rise to various explanations and opinion is divided as to
whether they refer to niyoga, to the remarriage of widows or to the practice of the immolation of widows. First fche two verses I45 which are part of a fuiural hymn will be set Eg. X. 18. 7-8
Let these women, who are not widows and who have good husbands, sit down with clarified butter used as collyrium may the wives who are tearless, free from disease and wearing fine
out
:
'
jewels ( or clothes ) occupy the seat in front ( first ). O woman raise yourself towards the world of the living; y.u lie down near this departed ( husband ) come, this your wifehood of the
!
formerly ) held your hand and who loved you has ( now ) been fulfilled It is somewhat strange that Sayana understands the latter half as an invitation by the husband's brother to the wife of the departed to remarry him. But that
(
'.
husband who
is far-fetched and does not bring out the proper force and 'babhutha'. The Asv. hastagrabhasyn', patyuh 1451 6. 11-12 ) ( IV. gr. prescribes that ( in the expiatory rite performed on the death of an elder ) the young women relatives should salve their eyes with butter with their thumb and fourth finger and with tender darbha blades and then throw the blades away, when the performer of the rite should look at them while they are salving their eyes with the verse ima narlr &c. '. The " same sutra ( IV. 2. 16-18 ) says that ( when a dead body is to
meaning
of
'
'
'
1450.
^TFTT
^mftt-rfT:
ir?tfhFgf3?r
it
*rfW
tf
re^Fg
X.
'
3-fn4 *rwfa
sfhrarai
^K.
XII.
2.
31
and XVIII.
3 57 ) has
tf ***& \\ the yerse
18.
7-8.
^m
TRTt, but reads
^ngÎ
VI. 10 baa the verse ^TTT TT?r:, but reads H and $*csm ft. 3IT- VI. 1 and areHft^ 18. 3. 2. and spj^ have 3-^Ttif etc. but ^. art. reads êrt^ for raTf5, c^cTcj; for for sr^q-. The most difficult words are the last quarter of Bg X. 18. 8. requires a subject in tbo 2nd person which docs not occur in
Sl^cTT^ for *rf%$F3- ^. 3jf
'cn**
and
^fi^rt: for
1
wR^^g
H^
the latter balf of the verse.

1451.
^HT *TT*hf^*TT: iqc^tKc^^JTT JT&T

lr
3Tf*q. ^.
IV.
6.
12
3H 9*. ^- IV.
to
2.
16.-18 These sUtras are referred to by
p. 112.
Tbo com. on
H. D. 78
Tai. Zr. holds that the latter half calls
upon the
wife of the deceased
remarry.
618
be cremated
)
Ch.
XIV
and a bow
for a ksatriya
they should place the wife to the north of the body ( if he be the dead person ) and then
who can be the represenhusband or a pupil or an old servant should make her rise up with the mantra udlrsva ". The San. Sr. S. IV. 16. 16 also directs that the verse Rg. X. 18. 7 is repeated when the eyes of women are touched with blades of kusa grass and XVI 13. 13 says that Rg. X. 18. 8 and Rg. X, 85. 21-22 are called 'utthapiny ah'
her brother-in-law or some one else
*
tative of her
'
(verses addressed for
making one
18. 3. 1
)
rise).
There
is
another mantra
*
and Tai. Ar. VI. 1 1458 Oh ( dead ) man this woman choosing the world of the husband lies down by thee, the deceased, observing the old universal custom bestow on her in this world offspring and wealth*. The first verse ( i. e. Rg. X. 18. 7 ) contains nothing about niyoga or has been made use of for giving Vedic It remarriage. authority to the practice of sail ( which will be dealt with later on ). That verse refers to the practice that young women of the household of the departed used to go to the cemetery and applied clarified butter to their eyes ( by way of purification and the &anti ) this practice continued to the days of the Asv. gr Brhad-devata ( VII 12 ) and the Baud, pitrmedhasutra ( 1.21.11). The two verses iyam nSrl and Rg. X. 18. 8 are employed by
in the Atharvaveda
I
'
'
the
first
Baudhayana-Pitrmedhasutra
U5J
in the funeral rites, the
and
wife
to be repeated when the wife is made to sit near the corpse the next for making her rise. It is to be noted that Baud.
directs that the corpse

is
made
to rise
is placed on the funeral pile after the from the vicinity of the corpse while the
;
Brhad-devata appears to suggest that the wife ascends the funeral pile after the corpse is placed thereon and then the younger brother forbids her with the verse udlrsva &c.\ But the Brhad-devata us * does not mean that the wife burns herself on
*
the funeral pyre and the brother-in-law contents himself with US5 only repeating a verse to dissuade her. The Rgvidhana
(III. 8. 4)
1452.
fr
says that the brother-in-law should call back the wife

f^f *nfr
srstf
\
^
u
Tm^t^
ft?r:
fîTTr
Pmîd
3"<r
m
i
TTC^T
^fo/r Hif
lift
Srfif
&. an. VI. 1;
eft
*r
I. 8.
1-2.
1453.
1454.
ai*bfd<nn*FsrT
f^?rnn*u^ *nm
<& fagHt^r
I. 8.
7.
g^^
id^rr
*nter?nTT VII. 13.
%3 Tc^gft
1455.
WTcpfrrfiTS^r tf^RT*? 3% <Tcft III. 8. 4 (ed. by Meyer).
Ch.
XIV
619
of his sonless brother
when she
is
about to ascend the funeral pyre
for procreating a son on her with Rg. X. 18. 8. It appears that the verse Rg X. 18. 8 symbolically describes what even in the days of the Rgveda was probably only a tradition viz, that in
hoary antiquity a wife burnt herself with her *husband. In the times of the Rgveda this practice had altogether ceased, but a symbolical imitation of it had come into vogue, viz. that the
to get
wife Jay near the corpse in the cemetery and then she was asked up and was told that by following her husband to the very doors of death she had fulfilled all that was expected of
*
the verse
her and that she should return. The same idea is referred to by iyam narl ', but the latter half appaarg to refer to the
practice of niyoga when it calls upon the departed to bestow on the wife offspring and wealth. It is possible to argue that Rg. X. 18. 8 also impliedly has niyoga in view. But both these
verses do not expressly refer to the parctice of S'ltl at all. They at the most might lead to the inference that the woman had either to marry the deceased husband's brother or go in for
to
niyoga because the husband died sonless. The latter appears me to be the more probable of the two hypothesas, if those are
the only explanations. The symbolic use made in the grhyasutras and in the Brhad-devata of Rg. X. 18.8 shows that they practically It is probable that these are against the burning of widows. authors knew of the custom of niyoga, that it was not then
of and so they are silent about it, while the Rgvidhana which appears to be comparatively a late work takes the verse udlrsva as referring to niyoga ( which is most
k
much approved
'
probably referred to in Rg.

devaram).
X.
40. 2
ko
vSm
sayutra vidhaveva
The consideration of the practice of widow burning naturally arises here from the above discussion and will be
dealt with in a separate chapter.
Divorce
In the Vedio
literature
there
'
are
at least
some
texts
capable of being interpreted as relating to the remarriage But as regards of widows and we have the word punarbhu divorce there is absolutely nothing in the Vedic texts nor
'.
is
there
much
in post-vedic literature.
is
The theory
of
dharma-
fcastra
writers
that marriage
when completed by homa and
Manu IX, 101 says 'Let mutual fideis indissoluble. (between husband and wife) continue till death; this in brief maybe understood to be the highestdAarmaof man and wife.' In another place Manu (IX. 46) declares neither by sale nor by
saptapadl
lity
'
620
desertion
times.
'
is
Ch.
XIV
the
stand that this

is
is
wife released from the husband; we underthe law ordained by the Creator in former
of the writers on dharmaâstra is that a samskara, that the status of wife-hood arises from marriage that samskara, that even if the husband or wife became patita, the samskara already performed is not annulled by that fact, that even if a wife committed adultery she still remains a wife and that when she performs a penance for her lapse, it is
of marriage performed 552-553) that a man was allowed to supersede a wife and marry another or others or to abandon But that does not his wife altogether in certain circumstances,
The position
not necessary
her.
1458
to
have a fresh samskara

(pp.
on
We have seen
amount to divorce ( i. e. dissolution of the marriage tie ) the marriage is still there intact. It was also shown (at pp. 610-611) that according to Narada, Parasara and a few others a woman was allowed to remarry in case the husband died, or was unheard of &c. but according to the digests and commentaries these rules apply to a former yuga ( age ). Therefore divorce in the
;
ordinary sense of the word
( i. e.
divorce a vinculo matrimonii
has been unknown to the dharmasastras and to Hindu society for about two thousand years ( except on the ground of custom among the lower castes ). Even when the husband was allowed to abandon the wife for her lapse, still she was in most cases Therefore tyaya entitled to at least starving maintenance. (abandonment) was not only no divorce a vinculo at all but was not even a divorce a mensa ct Micro ( divorce from board and bed ). Later smrtis and medieval digests could hardly conceive of any ground for which the wife could desert her husband altogether, though Narada and a few others allowed her to desert one husband and marry another if he was impotent, or became a samnyasin or an outcast. The Mit. on Yaj. I. 77 says that a wife is not under the control of her husband as long as he remains patila ( outcast or excommunicated ) and that she should wait till he is purified by penance and restored to caste and that thereafter she again becomes dependent on him. The gravest sins can be expiated by penance ( vide Manu XL 89,
1456.
\7 ide fqr3^<T
on
*TT.
III.
253-254
%T%
q-R
$rswnri*jrTr:
Ch.
XIV
Divorce
therefore
ifc
621
92, 101,
105-106
follows that a wife could not
for ever
desert even a patita husband. In modern times the Indian courts usf have held that mere change of faifch or apostasy by a Hindu wife or husband does not ipso facto dissolve the marriage and that if the wife changes her religion
and then marries another while the first husband is still living, she would be guilty of bigamy. Mere desertion or separation for many years or even adultery does nofc dissolve a Hindu marriage 42 Madras Law Journal 276 ). ( vide Only in cases where the husband or wife becomes a convert to Christianity, a special
procedure
of 1866),
is
prescribed for the dissolution of the original
Hindu
marriage by the Native Converts' Marriage Dissolution Act (XXI

is not set out here as it is beyond the scope of fchis Further, those Hindus who marry under the Special of 1923 ) Marriage Act ( III of 1872 as amended by Act can secure divorce under the Indian Divorce Act ( IV of 1869 ),
which
so.
work
to
do
XXX
The Malabar Marriage Act ( Madras Act IV of 1896 ) forbids polygamy if the first marriage is registered and allows divorce ( sec. 19 ) among those who are governed by the Marumakkata-
yam
or Aliyasantana
Law
of
prevalent in Malabar.
interesting
The Arthasastra
Kauîlya contains some
1* observations bearing on divorce. 88 *A wife hating her husband cannot be released from the husband if he is unwilling ( to let her go ), nor can the husband release himself from the wif o
unwilling ) but if there is mutual hatred then relent e If a man fearing danger ( or injury ) from his wife desires release from her, he shall return to her whatever was given to her ( at the time of marriage ). If a woman out of fear of danger (or injury) from the husband desires release, the latter need not return to her what was given to her ( at the time of marriage); marriages in the approved form cannot be dissolved. Kautilya himself says ( in III. 2 ) that the first four forms viz. brahma, prajapatya, arsa and daiva are dharmya are brought about under the authority ( approved ), since they
if
she
is
is possible.
of the father. 1459

1457.
Therefore according to Kautilya there can

v.
Vide The Government of Bombay

I.
of Ram Kumari Madras Law Journal p. 260.

in the matter
L. B. 18 Cal. 264
Ganga I. L. R. 4. Bom. 330; Budansa v. Fatma Bi 26

;
1458.
3rate*n
H^^jm*^
TlpqfrfT
HTTT
vrnrnrra ^rf
i
TOT*
3.
ifrmfTsr:
g^rf^TOmg
i
ri$ft 1459.
anfawr HI.
fmr<TW*rc:
g?q**rf:
aflferTfT III. 2.
622
History of Dhdrmaiastra
if
Oh.
XIV
marriage was the marriage was in the gandharva, asura or raksasa form, then the tie may be dissolved by mutual consent, if both have come to hate each other. But he seems to hold that there can be no release at the instance of only one party to the marriage who has begun to feel aversion to the other party in whatever form the marriage may have been performed. Even in this latter case he apparently makes an exception, where physical danger is apprehended by one party from the other.
celebrated in one of the
be no dissolution of the marriage tie first four forms.
the
But
if
It is beyond the scope of this work to compare the law of divorce in other countries or under other religious systems. It
may
of the
be stated, however, that according to the strict theory Roman Catholic Church the marriage tie is indissoluble, 1410
though decrees of nullity of marriage were sometimes granted by that Church to those who could pay for them. In England
Restoration divorce could be secured through the Parliament by a private Bill where a divorce a vinculo matrimonii was desired. But this method could be resorted to only
after the
by
least 500
the rich, as the passage of a private Bill for divorce cost at The Ecclesiastical courts in England granted
.
divorces a mensa
unnatural
ground of adultery, cruelty or though such a divorce did not dissolve the marriage. But this procedure also was costly, as even an undefended suit for divorce a mensa et thoro would ordinarily cost from 300 to 500 Then came the Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857 (20 and 21 Vic. chap. 85) by sec. 27 of which a wife
et
thoro on the
offences,
could
petition for
of
divorce only
the
if
she proved that since the

of inces-
celebration
marriage
husband was guilty
tuous adultery, or of bigamy with adultery, or of adultery coup, led with such cruelty as, without adultery, would have entitled her to a divorce a mensa et thoro or of adultery coupled with desertion. The Matrimonial Causes Act of 1923
(
) placed women on an equality with them to apply for divorce merely on the allowing without having to prove husband the of adultery by ground anything more. Then the Act of 1937 known as A. P. Herbert's Act (lEdw. 8 and 1 Geo. 6 chap. 57 ) allows the husband or
13 and 14 Geo. 5 chap. 19
men by
wife to petition for divorce on four grounds.
It will
be noticed
Vide the Gospels of Mark X. 2-12 and of Luke XVI. 1460. vhich altogether forbid diyorce.
18,
Oh.
XIV
Divorce
623
this that the absence of divorce and rigorous restrictions thereon are not a peculiarity of the Brahraanical religion or of the caste system, but existed even in so-called progressive,
from
casteless
and Christian countries up to very recent times. In modern times even in Roman Catholic countries divorce is allowed on various grounds and in India too efforts are being made to enact legislation permitting divorce among Hindus for various reasons. And it may be admitted that some legal
;
provision is necessary for securing divorce in hard cases even as to marriages celebrated under the ancient gastric system
on grounds similar
to those in the
English Act
of 1937,
CHAPTER XV
SATl
The word
(
Self-immolation of widows
'
is often written as in English works suttee This is interest in India, now of academic papers. subject since for over a hundred years ( i. e. from 1829 ) eelf-immolation
'
and
of widows has been prohibited by law in British India and has been declared to be a crime. A portion of sec. 1 of the Regulation XVII of 1829 passed by the Governor-General Lord William Bentinck is set out below. We are now in a position to take a dispassionate view of the practice, to trace
its origin and follow its working down to the date of its being declared illegal. Jt is not possible in the space available here to go into all details. Those interested may read the latest
book on the subject by Mr. Edward Thomson. 1461

1461.
*
The burning
from the most
Suttee of
'
1928
),
which gives an account of
it
suppiess it by Raja Raina Mohan Roy and the Biitish Government. In an appendix the author gives extracts from the accounts reported by those "who witnessed widow binning from 317 B C. to 1845 A. D. Vide also Max Muller's H. A. S. L.
tirnea,
ancient
the
efforts
made
to
48 for refeiences to tho custom of widow-burning among Gieeks and Die Fran Scythians pp. 74-79 for accounts of travellers and eye witnesses; Colebrooke's Miscellaneous "Essays vol. I (ed. of 1837) pp. 114-116 (for description of the rite), vol. II. chap. III. pp. 153-158;
p.
*
'
Annals of the Bharidarkar 0. R. Institute vol. 14. p. 219. In the Travels of Peter Mundy ( 1608-1669 ) published by the Hakluyt Society in 1914 vol. II. pp. 34-36, the author gives an account of tho burning of a widow
* '
showing the widow having on her lap the head of her deceased husband. That writer also notes that the practice had iu his time become rare, as under the Mogul rulers a special license from the Ruler or Governor was required. Similarly Barbosa
at Surat in 1630 with a sketch
(a Portuguese
describes
the
burning
L,
of a sail in the Vijayanagur

vol. I. pp.
kingdom (vide translation by M.

Section
1
Dames,
213-216).
of 1829 which declared tho practice of sail illegal and a crime punishable in the courts (and passed by the Governor-General in Council on 4th December 1829 ) is j The practice of
of Regulation
XVII
Suttee or of burning or burying alive the ing to the feelings of human nature ; it
widows of Hindoos
is
;
is
revolt-
nowhere enjoined by the

on the contrary a
life
religion of the Hindoos as an imperative duty

(
of
Continued on next page )
Oh.
of
XV
Sail
not;
625
peculiar to Btahmanism, as many are prone its origin to the oldest religious views and superstitious practices of mankind in general. The practice of widow burning obtained among ancient Greeks,
to believe, but the
widows was
custom owes
Germans, Slavs and other races ( vide Die Frau pp. 56, 82-83 and Schrader's 'Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan People,' English Translation of 1890, p. 391 and Westermarck's Origin and Development of Moral Ideas 1906, vol. I, pp. 472-476 ), but was generally confined to the great ones, the princes and nobles.
*
'
'
There
is
no Vedic passage which can be
cited
as incon-
trovertibly referring to widow-burning as then current, nor is there any mantra which could be eaid to have been repeated in
1468 at such burning nor do the ancient grhyavery ancient times sutras contain any direction prescribing the procedure of widow
burning. It therefore appears probable that the practice arose in Brahmanical India a few centuries before Christ. Whether
it was indigenous or was copied from some non-Aryan or nonIndian tribes cannot be demonstrated. None of the dharmasutras
purity and retirement on the part of the widow is more especially and preferably inculcated and by a vast majority of that people throughout India the practice is not kept up or observed ; in some
extensive districts
frequent,
it ia
it
does not exist
in those in
which
it
has been most
instances, acts of atrocity have been perpetrated, which have been shocking to the Hindoos themselves, and in their eyes unlawful and wicked ......... Actuated by these
notorious that, in
many
considerations the Governor-General in Council, without intending to depart fiom one of the first and most important principles of the system of British Government in India that all classes of the people be
secure in the observance of their religious usages, so long as that system can be adhered to without violation of the paramount dictates of justice and humanity, has deemed it right to establish the following
rules &c.
1462.
Raja Radhakant Deva relied upon two verses which he found

dskha" of the Tai. S. quoted in the
in the
Aukhya
84th
NSrSyanlya Upanisad as the most vide Prof. H. H. Wilson's Works Vedic texts are stir arar?ri
: i
explicit authority for

vol. II. pp. 293-305.
Anuvska of the widow burning The two so-called

;
%$ c^rr 3*sr
WOT f^rn sj^for ^r^f^r

(
*riw ^^filr
i
sisr
pp. 295-296).
These, to say the
least, are of
doubtful authenticity.
H. D. 79
626
History of Dharmaiaatra
Oh.
XV
except Visnu contains any reference to sail. The Manusmrti is entirely silent about it. It is stated in Strabo ( XV. 1. 30 and 62 ) that the Greeks under Alexander found sail practised
among the Cathaei in the Punjab and that that practice arose from the apprehension that wives would desert or poison their husbands ( Hamilton and Falconer's Translation vol. Ill ). The Vismi-dharmasutra 1468 says * On her husband's death the
widow should observe celibacy or should ascend the funeral The Mahabharata, though it is profuse in pyre after him. the descriptions of sanguinary fights, is very sparing in its references to widow burning. Madrl, the favourite wife of In the Pandu, burnt herself with her husband's body. 1484 Virata-parva Sairandhrl is ordered to be burnt with Klcaka, l465 just as in ancient times it is said there was a custom to bury a slave or slaves along with the deceased ruler. The Mausala parva ( 7. 18 ) says that four wives of Vasudeva, viz. DevakI, BhadrS,RohinI and Madira burnt themselves with him and (chap.
'
73-74) that RukminI, Gandhftrl, Saibya, HaimavatI, JambavatI among the consorts of Krsna burnt themselves along with his
7.
tapas.
body and other queens like Satyabhama went to a forest for The Visnupurana also says that eight queens of Krsna, EukminI and others, entered fire on the death of Krsna. 1466 The
Santiparva
entered
fire
(
chap. 148
describes
how a
kapotl
female pigeon
on the death of her husband the bird. 1467 In the Strlparva ( chap. 26 ) the Great Epic describes the death ceremonies performed for the fallen Kauravas, but no mention is made of any widow immolating herself on the funeral pyre though the chariots, clothes and weapons of the warriors are said to have been consigned to fire. From the above it appears
1463.
^rt
H^ft W3POT fl^Rnirf

*rr. I.
*T
n*^ms5T
25.
14
quoted by
the facfTSRT on
1464.
86.
n%4 95.
65
'
i&* ftmRkfl
srnfr
furored*
san
125
1465.
1466.
II
m^nrr: SJTSWT wf ?rf

arer
ftsrf q-fts
*f|Tj
OTJcTT *f^ftsT5*?rres
2.
*TT:
f^^!|fll V. 38.
1467.
*Rf: iT^fr
HT*PTT ^Tf
ffJWT:
?TTI% 148. 10-12.
This passngo
ia
quoted in the Mit. on Y5j.
86 in support of the ,plea that safi
is
enjoined and leads
to great bliss in
the other world.
Ch,XV]
Sail
621
that the practice was originally confined to royal families and great warriors even in India and that cases of widow burning
were rare. Several texts are cited by Apararka from Paithlnasi, Angiras, Vyaghrapad which apparently forbid self-immolation to brahmana widows. 1468 The authors of digests explain away
these passages
tion
by saying that they only prohibit self-immolaby a brahmana widow on a funeral pyre different from that of the husband i. e. a brahmana widow can burn herself only on the funeral pyre of her husband and if his body is cremated elsewhere in a foreign land, his widow cannot, on hearing of his death, burn herself later. They rely on the text of U6anas that a brahmana widow should not follow her husband on a separate funeral pyre. The Veda-Vyasa-smrti ( II. 53 ) says that a brahmana wife should enter fire, clasping the dead body of her husband if she lives ( after her husband ) she should give up adorning her hair and emaciate her body by austerities. 1469
;
( Uttarakanda 17. 15 ) there is a reference self-immolation of a brahmana woman ( the wife of a brahmarsi and mother of VedavatI, who when molested by Havana burnt herself in fire ). The Mahabharata ( Sfcrlparva 23. 34 ff. ) on the other hand describes how KrpI, the wife
In the
Ram ay arm, 1470
to the
of Drona, the brahmana commander-in-chief of the Kauravas, appeared with dishevelled hair on the battle-field on the death of her husband, but does not say that she burnt herself. 1471 It
appears therefore that the burning of brahmana widows began much later than that of ksatriya widows.
The burning
called sahamarawa
of a
widow on
the death of her

(
husband
is
or
saliagamana or anvarohana
when
she
1468.
chfort%:
^fcngnJTn TTT^T
i
u 3?r|^:
*TT ^fr
anôTsmiteT
i
II
wr^p^n ar^Rrm^rcj;! ^fHt 3 Tnfrrg*^ H firmer wi wgrr wr^ft sftavFtffcaT These arc quoted by 3WT& P- 11^.
quoted by the fforro oa *rr 1.86 but without name, B^^rwr %?r ^Ttfari whwiW <TT: ^PT: n p. 112 and by fjTHT on in. I. 86.
i
^r^
quoted by
1469.
^ct
arrgr^f ^f|ffnf^^ *fti*ft ( v. 1. wrgrafr ) ^TJJ: H t^^rr^T II. 53 quoted above in note 1379.
i
HwrW?pr
p.
1470.
sjqrnfe
112 refers to the
OTTW
'
3??T
1471.
n
23.
628
Ch.
ascends the funeral pyre of her husband and is burnt along with his corpse ), but anumaraya occurs when, after her husband is cremated elsewhere and she learns of his death, the widow resolves upon death and is burnt with the husband's ashes or his padukas ( sandals ) or even without any memento of his 1478 if none be available Madana( vide Apararka p. Ill and parijata p. 198). In the Kumarasambhava ( IV. 34 ) of Kalidasa,
Rati, the wife of Kama who was burnt by Siva, speaks of throwing herself into fire, but is held back by a heavenly voice. In the GathasaptasatI ( VII. 33 ) there is a reference to a woman being decked for anumarana (Nirn. ed.). The Kamasutra VI. 3.53 speaks of anumarana. It has been shown (at p. 579) how Var&hamihira admires women for their courage in being burnt with their husbands. The Harsacarita ( UcchvSsa 5 ) describes how YasomatI, the chief queen of king Prabhakaravardhana and mother of Harsa, consigned herself to fire when the king was dying. But this is not a proper case of sail, as she burnt herself even before her husband died. In another passage of the
(V, in the description of night) the glory of is said to be laughing like a woman intent on anumarana, who is decked with ear ornaments and wears 1473 Bana in his Kadambarl in a most garlands on her head. 1474 and well-reasoned passage condemns anumarana. eloquent The Bhagavatapurapa 1475 I. 13. 57 speaks of Gandharl's burning herself on the death of her husband, Dhrfcarastra. The
moon-lotuses
Harsacarita
1472.
M Brgr^m quoted by amrlr p. 111., where arouSr tella u8 tliat Vedic verses which render self-immolation free from the sin of suicide
are verses liko
1473.
'
imH
nffrir
'
Rg. X.
18.
7) quoted in note 1450.
Vide the passage beginning with
6th para from the end
).
1474.
^r^H?ygHTOF ^TTH cT^mf5TB^?R:
in paragraph 177 of
my
edition
of the pHrvabhSga, which Candrffpida addressei to MahS^vetS, where he

gives instances of famous
women
like Rati, Prtha", UttarS,
Duhâla that
did not resort to sahagamana and winds up
1475.
^SF^ in his $%3TO
(p. 242) quotes the passage of the
Ch.
XV
Sati
629
( e.
Rajataranginl cites in several

103, 478
)
places
g.
VI. 107, 195
VII.
examples of
sati.
In numerous epigraphic records reference is made to the sail. Among the earliest is the one in 191 of the Gupta era ( 510 A. D. ) in the Gupta Inscriptions ( ed. by Fleet ) p. 91. Vide also the Eran posthumous stone pillar Inscription of Goparaja which says that his wife accompanied him on the funeral pyre when he was killed in battle A. vol. IX. I. p. 164 ('Nepal Inscription of 705 A. D., where RajyavatI, widow of Dharmadeva, bids her son Mahadeva to take up the reins
practice of
;
of
government that she may follow her husband); the Belafcuru
( E. I. VI, p. 213 ) where a sudra woman Dekabbe, on hearing of her husband's death, burnt herself in spite of the strong opposition of her parents who then erected a stone monument
Inscription of saka 979 of the time of Rajendradeva Cola

vol.
E. I. vol. 14 p. 265, 267 where a grant is made in 6aka 1103 to a temple by Sinda Mahamandalesvara Racamalla on a request by two satis, widows of his general Beciraja E. I. vol. 20, p. 168 ( of Gedi samvat 919 ) which refers to three queens that became salts E. I. vol X, p. 39 where the Temara
to her
;
;
gate stone inscription of saka 1246 speaks of MSnikyadevI as sati on the death of her husband Amana who was an officer of king Hariscandra ; E. I. vol. 20 p. 58 ( Mistra Deoli Inscription
Jodhpur when two queens of a Gohila Ran became satis ) I. vol. 16, p. 10, n. 4 and p. 11, n. 2 for sati records of 6aka 1365 and 1362. In an article on Sati memorial stones in J. B. O. R. S. vol. 23, p, 435 ff. it is shown how the memorial stones usually bear the figure of the upraised arm and of the sun and the moon on either side and a group of stars. Among the well-known latest historical examples of sati is that of Ramabal, wife of the Peshwa Madhavrao I, in 1772 A. D. The Jauhar practised by the Rajput ladies of Chitor and other places for saving themselves from unspeakable atrocities at the hands of the victorious Moslems are too well-known to need any
in
;
E.
'
lengthy notice.
'
In the Indian Antiquary vol. 35 p. 129 there is a paper on immolation which is not sati ', where several examples of men who killed themselves oufc of devotion to their masters or for other causes are cited and it is pointed out how stone
Sail
monuments
a great
sa/l,
called mastikkal
'
i. e.
stone
monument
for mahasatl
and virakkal for brave and devoted men) are erected
'
630
Oh.
XV
in memory of satis and men. The Harsacarita (V. 3rd para from end) describes how many of the king's friends, ministers, servants and favourites killed themselves on the death of Prabhakaravardhana. The Rajatarahginl VII. 481 narrates how when the queen
of king
carrier
death.
Ananta became a sail on her husband's death, her litterand some other men and three of her dasls followed her in There is the example of a mother burning herself on the
(
funeral pyre of her son

shall
vide RajataranginI VII. 1380
).
We
see later on that suicide at
holy places
like
Pray&ga
was practised for attaining heavenly worlds and bliss. Life seems to have been deemed of small account in those ages and
though the death of women or men on the funeral pyre of the husband or for their masters appears to us sophisticated people of
modern days as very horrible, it did not so appear to the ancients. Sail was not in historic times a practice imposed by priests or men on unwilling women. It somehow grew and it is improper to say that men imposed it on women. It may be that examples of sail occurred because of the force of popular sentiment. It was first confined to kings and nobles, because the lot of the wives of conquered kings and warriors was most miserable in all countries as well as in India. Vengeance for the truculence of their husbands was wreaked on the poor wives by carrying them as captives and making them work as slaves. Manu ( VII. 96 )
allows a soldier to retain women ( probably slaves ) conquered by him along with other booty. When queen Yasomatl narrates to her son Harsa the great honour and glory that was hers during the reign of her husband king Prabhakaravardhana, she refers to the fact that the wives of the enemies defeated by her husband
'
waved chowries over
her.
1478
From kings
the practice spread
among brahmanas, though
as
disapproved of the practice took root learned commentators and digest writers were found to support it with arguments and promises of future rewards. Even in modern times we can secure learned writers to support
shown above, several smrtikaras among brahmana wives. Once it
any pet theory
of a coterie
or clique.
When
Manchester and
Liverpool were prosperous, English economists preached the doctrine of free trade and laissezfaire to all nations, but in more difficult times we have now the apotheosis of Empire Preference
and discriminating preference
for home-made goods. IV. 178 asks people to do whatever their forefathers did.
1476.
Manu
V.
Oh.
XV
Sati
631
1 he rewards promised to a sail were as follows: Sankha and Angiras 1477 say she who follows her husband in death dwells in heaven for as many years as there are hair on the
*
human
body,
viz. 3
crores of years.
Just as a snake-catcher
draws out a snake from a hole by force, so such a woman draws her husband from ( wherever he may be ) and enjoys bliss together with him. In heaven she being solely devoted to her husband and praised by bevies of heavenly damsels sports with her husband for as long as fourteen Indras rule. Even if the husband be guilty of the murder of a br&hmana or of a friend or
be guilty of ingratitude, the wife
who
dies
in fire
clasping
equal to as
his body, purifies him ( of the sin ). That woman, funeral pyre ) when the husband dies, ( the
who ascends
is
ArundhatI in her character and is praised in heaven. a woman does not burn herself in fire on the death band she is never free from being born as a woman
'
As long
(
of her hus-
in succes-
sive births)'. Harlta says that woman who follows her husband in death purifies three families, viz. of her mother, of her father
and
of her husband '. The Mit. after quoting the above passages adds that this duty of anvarohana is common to the women of all castes from the brahmana to the candala,
provided they are not pregnant or they have no young children 478 ( at the husband's death ) V
There were old commentators who were opposed to the practice of sail. Medhatithi on Manu V. 157 ( Kamam tu &c. ) compares this practice to Syenayaga which a man performed by
1477.
TO
m H3TOTT ^^^HFrnnro
^T ft*ift WT
H%^rf%:
i
te
<THR r *n
rrfr
TR^sjgr n
êrr
frcfgffr
^TC^N^T
am^nr
a ^r n
ft sfr
TTCHHT
I.
^T?
85,
cn^r
P.
5^r ^fr r? ^Nr^TTc^r'g'T u quoted

234.
by the
f^RTTJ^r
on *n.
fTO: ^Traifr
&c
are also
HO, nQdHc< p. qTRTT IV- 32 and 33 and
^qrni
The two verses
chap. 10. 76 and 74.

1478,
3T4 ^J
I
^TT3n8^cftc^^wr^r^T^ ftcTP on^rr. I. 86; vide tho same words imnf. TT. P- 196 and ^fms ( ^^TT p. 162), in which latter they are expressly quoted from
^:
>Tcrft
632
of black
Ch.
XV
way
magic
'
to kill his
enemy.
*
He
is
says
'
M7f
that though
is
Angiras
'
allowed
anumarana
it
suicide
and
really
forbidden to women.
Just as the
on Jaimini 1. 1. 2 ), so, though Angiras speaks of it, it is really adharma and that a woman who is in a hurry and extremely anxious to secure heaven quickly for herself and her husband might act according to Ahgiras, still her action is a$astrlya ( not in accordance with the sastras ) besides anvarohana is opposed to the Vedic text one should not leave this world before one has finished one's allotted span of life '." The Mit. on Yaj. L 86 combats these arguments. It says that syenaySga is no doubt undesirable and therefore adharma, but that is so because the object of syenayaga is injury to another. Anugamana on the other hand is not BO there the result promised is heaven which is a desirable result and which is enjoined by truti in such sentences as one should sacrifice a white goat to VSyu if one desires pros;
;
yajet and yet syenaySga is rather as adharma ( vide Sahara
Veda says syenen&bhicaran not looked upon as dharma, but
Similarly the smrfci about anugamana is not opposed perity '. to the iruti quoted, the meaning of which is different ; that sruti
as compared with the As the woman in supreme bliss of Brahma knowledge '. anumarana desires only heaven, she is not doing anything cont-
means one should not waste one's life bliss which is fleeting and insignificant
'
for securing
heavenly
rary to the sruti texts. This is the reasoning of the Mitaksara which looks like special pleading. Apararka p. Ill, the Madanaparijata p. 199, Par. M. II. part I pp. 55-56 follow the reasoning
of the Mit.
of life is
and add that the Vedic text about the allotted span a general rule, while the smrti about anumarana is a
special or exceptional sastra and so there is no contradiction as the rule applies to all cases outside the excepted one. The
Madanaparijata ( p. 200 ) further explains that the texts about purifying a husband guilty of brahmana murder are not to be taken literally but only as hyperbolically extolling anvarohana.
1479.
sfottfiuirnfl
sritf^ 8TRm*nift
:lft<*
on ITW V.
156.
The words of
i
sm
are
*
;
on $.1.1.
2. p. 19.
Ch.
XV
Sati
633
The Sm.
commended by
C. also exprepsly says that anv&rohana, 1480 though rethe Visnu Dh. S. ( 25. 14 ) and Angiras, is
inferior to brahmacarya (leading a celibate life), since the rewards of anvarohana are inferior to those of brahmacarya. As against this may be cited the extreme view of Angiras for all women there is no other duty except falling into the funeral U81 The Suddhitattva remarks pyre, when the husband dies. that this extreme or sweeping statement is made by way of belauding sahamarana.
' '
We saw above that brahmana widows were only allowed anvarohana, but not anumarana. There were other restrictions enjoined by the smrtis on all widows wives who have a child
'
of tender years, who are pregnant, who have not attained puberty and who are in their monthly course do not mount the U88 from the Brhan-Naradlya funeral pyre of their husbands' purana. There is a similar verse of Brhaspati. The wife who was in her course was allowed to burn berself after she bathed
on the fourth day.
Apastamba
for a
verse
woman who having
prescribes the Prajapafcya penance first resolved to burn herself on the
funeral pyre turns back from it at the last moment. 148S The RajatarnnginI (VI. 196) refers to a queen who having pretended to have resolved on becoming satl ultimately regretted the step
and turned back.
The Suddhitattva sets out the procedure of widow burning. 1484 The widow bathes and puts on two white garments, takes ku6a blades in her hands, faces the east or north, performs acamana (sipping water) when the brahmanas say 'om, tat sat* she remembers the God Narayana and refers to the time ( month, fortnight,
;
1480.
^5 f^Fn
t**rfc eiT3$ tk
!
^ Hare w^ra^
109,
cT^^^Ktstf ^T
......
CT?<T-
frefamssre^nsc
1481.
M
(
Pi$<*K4cid;
*snH& on
qn.
"wr. p. 254.
3T%T^quoted by
a^TTrlf P.
WT. II. 1. p. 58,

^rrfloTt
p.
234 reads mvfnnfcw

1482.
II
nftlt
).
HlCrnftl'
i
is
also
XI. 202.
ITT^T^^T^ if*Wt snr^îcKidQT

JTT.
Hl<ji<iyiqr quoted by qrrr. I. p. 162 ( ascribes to
II. part 1, p. 58,
fj%?r^
P. 236,
1483.
;
II
1484.
^ rf*?ofY fffm quoted by TTTT. *TT. and f%fâar 3 tn TrO ^rr^rfg'î^n' ?rcf: ajFTtfW quoted by amrer P- 1103 and ^Qt^ p-243. Vide appendix under 1484.
II
1
^5
H. D, 80
634
tithi)
Ch
XV
and then makes the samkalpa (..declaration of resolve) She then calls upon the eight lokapalas (guardians of the quarters ), the sun, the moon, the fire &c. to become witnesses to her act of following her husband on the funeral pyre, she then goes round the fire thrice, then the brahmana recites the Vedic verse ima narlr &c.' ( Rg. X. 18. 7 ) and a Purana verse may these very good and holy women who are devoted to their husbands enter fire together with the body of the husband/ the woman utters namo namah and ascends the kindled pyre. The long-winded preamble of the samkalpa *arundhatl...patiputatvakftma' is based upon the verses of Angiras quoted above (in n. 1477). The Suddhitattva as printed is corrupt but it appears that it read the last quarter of Rg. X. 18. 7 as 'ftrohantu jalayonira-agne ( let them ascend the watery seat or origin, O fire ) meaning probably may fire be to them as cool as water*. Some writers have charged the brahmana priest-hood Raghunandana ) with having purposely changed the ( or reading of the verse Rg. X. 18. 7 in order to make it suit the * or rite of immolating oneself in fire ( i. e. agne agneh was substituted for agre ). But this charge is not sustainable. That the verse Rg. X. 18. 7 as it actually is was held to refer to widow burning centuries before Raghunandana follows from the U85 and fact that even the Brahmapurana Apararka ( quoted above on p. 628 ) take it in that sense. It was therefore not necessary to alter the reading. Further even if some priests or Raghunandana had changed it that fact would have been detected in no time, as in those days there were thousands of
set out below.
'
*
'
'
'
'
'
'
people who knew every syllable of the Rgveda by heart. Therefore it must be admitted that either the M SS. are corrupt or Raghu-
nandana committed an innocent slip. That mantra was not addressed to widows at all, but to ladies of the deceased man's household whose husbands were living and the grhyasutra of Asv. made use of it with that meaning. Raghunandana, a profound student of dharmasastras and smrtis (and often
styled Smarta-bhattacarya), could not have been ignorant of what Asv. said. The procedure as prescribed in the Nirnaya-
sindhu
1486
of
Kamalakarabhatâ, whose mother became a

(
sail
1485.
&r&d^
p.
235
) itself
quotes the mfl^nuf text
Vide ftofaftpg III, ar^n} P- 623 and \mfag pp. 483-484, The 1486. i^hrftfij expressly refers to the Gauda procedure as different from his 11 wi 5*?: <rmsrm: *nft*ftninCT: *fWrca fffr
'
sm
".
'
'
Oh.
XV
Sail
635
and who pays a very tender and touching reverence to her memory in his works, is somewhat different and it is- followed
by the Dharmasindhu.
It appears from all accounts of travellers and others that widow-burning prevailed more in Bengal during the centuries immediately preceding its abolition than anywhere else in 1487 If that was so, there were certain good reasons for India, that state of things. In the whole of India, except Bengal, the
widows of members in a joint Hindu family are only entitled to maintenance and have no other rights over the property of the In Bengal, wherever the Dayabhaga prevails, the family. widow of a sonless member even in a joint Hindu family is
practically the same rights over joint family property which her deceased husband would have had. This
entitled to
rid of the
must have frequently induced the surviving 1488 members to get widow by appealing at a most distressing hour to her devotion to and love for her husband. This rule of the widow's right was not for the first time propounded by Jlmutarahana he makes it clear that he followed a predecessor called Jitendriya. The figures given above lend support to the view expressed here, since Benares, where the rights of widows were insignificant, was responsible for a small number of satis only. It is impossible, however, to believe that the number of widows in ordinary stations of life burning themselves was very large at any time or that most of the widows that did so were coerced into doing it. There is a good deal of epigraphic and
;
tives
other evidence particularly in other parts of India that relatried to dissuade the widow from taking the step. Even in Bengal the number of satis must never have been very
in his book on 'Suttee' (pp. 69,72) gives the figures fiom the Bengal Presidency (which then included Bihar and extended up io Benares) during 1815-1828. The lowest Out of the total of figure was 378 in 1815 and the highest 839 in 1818. 1487.
Thomson
for satis reported
2366 cases during the four years 1815-1818, the Calcutta division alone contributed 1485, the Benares division, the seat of orthodoxy, contributed only 343. Vide H. H. Wilson's 'History of India ' (ed. of 1858),
vol. Ill (for
number
pp 185-192. At p. 189 a table of the is given, from which it appears that in 1828 there were 463 cases of satis out of whom 420 came from Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, out of which 287 were from the Calcutta division alone.
1805-1835 A.
1). ),
of satis for 1815-1828
1488.
Vide
*3r
^nmr*T(ed.
qpffa
<rt
r
by
JivSnanda,
1893)
'
arfosfa^*
\ '
p.
46
*
;
qMt
irf *I*T
3 a**r sn^rosMft^nn**^^
P. 56.
636
Ch,
XV
Colebrooke, who had spent the best part of his life in large. Bengal and who was a profound Sanskrit scholar, observes in a Happily the martyrs of this paper written about 1795 A. D. It is certain that the numerous. been have never superstition 489 The very instances of the widow's sacrifices are now rare V fact that there was no disturbance of peace or ebullition of popular feeling or even any great verbal protest from the vast Hindu population ( except a petition to the Privy Council ) against Bentinck's sweeping measure indicates two things, viz. that the burning of widows was a rare occurrence and that people were not very keen on observing the practice nor had they any very deep-seated convictions about its
'
absolute religious necessity.
1490
Modern India does not justify the practice of sati, but it is a warped mentality that rebukes modern Indians for expressing admiration and reverence for the cool and unfaltering courage of Indian women in becoming satis or performing the jauhar
for cherishing their ideals of womanly conduct. If Englishmen can feel pride in their ancestors who grabbed one fourth of the
their
if Frenchmen can feel pride in the deeds of Emperor Napoleon who tried to enslave the whole of Europe and yet are not held up to ridicule or rebuke, there is no reason
world's surface or
why
poor Indians cannot express admiration for the sacrifices
which their women made in the past, though they may condemn the institution itself which demanded such terrible sacrifice and suffering.
1489.
p. 122.
Vide Colebrooke's Miscellaneous Essays (ed. of 1837)
vol. I.
Vide Fitz-Edward Hall's paper in J. R. A. S. vol. Ill New 1868) pp. 190-191, footnote, where he quotea extracts from the writings of Prof. Wilson, Marshman and others that show how fears of violent resistance to Bentinck's measure were singularly falsified.
1490.
(
Series
CHAPTER XVI
VESYA
Ve&ya ( Courtezan ). This work dealing among other matters with the position of women and marriage in India would be incomplete if nothing were said about prostitutes and
concubines. Prostitution has existed from the
all countries
dawn
of history in
and in the absence of statistics it is difficult to say whether it flourished more in one country than in another or whether it existed to a greater or lesser extent in ancient days as compared with modern times. The article in the Encyclopaedia Britannica on prostitution will be an eye-opener to many who
will be inclined to turn their nose at Indian conditions.
From the Rgveda we common to several men i.
find that there were

e.
women who were
who were
In Bg. I. 167. 4 the bright Maruts ( become associated with the young ( lightning ), just as men become associated with a young courtezan. 1591 It has already been seen how in Jig. II. 29. 1 reference is made to a woman who gives birth in secret to a child and leaves it aside. In Rg. I. 66. 4 I. 117. 18, 1. 134. 3 and other places jam ( paramour or
$
courtezans or prostitutes. storm gods ) are said to have
secret lover
is
spoken
of.
is
In Gaut. XXII. 27
it
is
said that
a brahmanl by birth only and who subsists by harlotry no prayascitta is necessary but eight handfuls of corn may be gifted. Manu IV. 209 forbids a brahmana
for killing a
woman who
from taking food offered by harlots ( vide also IV. 219 ) and Manu IX. 259 requires the king to punish clever ( or deceitful ) harlots. In the Mahabharata courtezans are an established The Adiparva (115. 39) narrates how a vesya institution. waited upon Dhrtarasfra when his wife Gandharl was
;
pregnant.
In the Udyogaparva (30. 38) Yudhisthira sends greetings to the vesyas of the Kauravas. Courtezans are described as going out to welcome Krsna when he came on a mission
of peace to the
119*
Kaurava court
Udyoga
86. 15
).
When
the
it
Pandava armies
1491.
1492.
H
are described as about to start for battle
TO gvrr ajqwfr *r*rr m^R^sr *TOCTT mmgjt

nir*ff
115. 39.
3?- 1. 167. 4.
iftVJMiî&^
am?f
638
is
History of Dharma&stra
Ch.
XVI
and courtezans also accompanied them Vide also Vauaparva 239. 37, Karnaparva 149S II. 290 divides concubines into two sorts, 94. 26. Yaj. avaruddha ( one who is kept in the house itself and forbidden to have intercourse with any other male ) and bhujisya ( concubine who is not kept in the house, but elsewhere and is in the special keeping of a person ) and prescribes a fine of fifty panas l494 against another person having intercourse with them. Narada 78-79 intercourse is with wanton ) says strlpumsa, ( permitted women ( svairinl ) who are not brahmana by caste, with a prostitute, a female slave, or a female not restrained by her
said thai; carts, markets
).
TJdyoga 151. 58
'
master, if these belong to a caste lower than oneself but it is forbidden with women of superior caste. But when these very women are the kept mistresses ( of a person ) intercourse with
;
them by a stranger is as much a crime as intercourse with another's wife. Such women must not be approached, though intercourse with them is nofc forbidden ( on the ground of caste
&c ), since they belong to another.' On Yaj. II. 290 the Mit., after quoting the Skandapurana to the effect that prostitutes constitute
a separate caste being sprung from certain Apsarases ( heavenly nymphs ) called pancacutfas, states that such courtezans as are not kept specially by a person do not incur any sin, nor punishment at the hands of the king, if they have intercourse with men of the same or a superior caste, nor do men approaching them incur any
penalty if they are not avaruddha. But the men who visit them incur sin ( which is an unseen result ), since the smrtis ordain
that
men
should be devoted to their wives
vide Yaj.
I.
81
and
the prajapatya penance is prescribed for him who has intercourse with a veya (vide Atri v. 271). Narada 149S (vetanasyanapSkarma
18 ) lays down that if a public woman after getting her fee refuses to receive the customer, she shall pay twice the amount of the fee and the same fine shall be imposed on a man who does
not pay the
(
stipulated
II.
a ve&ya.
1493.
.
Vide Yaj.
intercourse with ) fee, af fcer having had 292 and Matsyapurana 227. 144-145 for
II. 290.
The
ffccTT 8
explains
cfT
m
^
i
1.
1494.
*n ^wrarrfrofr ^rcfir f^^n^^ 3TR$* a sfer^Tg * *nm^Kf<j
Sw
rrr:
^w
T^n
srftr
ft
m?,
sft&r 78-79.
1495.
*f?5? ôrftof i
T'^T SNy*<ft
18
).
Ch.
XVI]
Vesyn
639
The MatsyapurSna chap. 70 dilates upon ve&yadharma. The Kamasutra I. 3. 20 defines a gariika as a veiya who is most accomplished and proficient in the 64 kolas, Apararka ( p. 800, on Yaj. II. 198 ) quotes NSrada ( cited above j and several verses of the Matsyapurana about vesiyas.
similar provisions.
,
Concubines being recognized by society, the smrtis provided During the life-time of a person keeping a concubine, the latter has no legal right to proceed against the former. Narada ( dayabhaga 149ft 52 ) and Katyayana lay down that even when the property of a deceased person escheats to
for their maintenance.
the king for want of heirs ( except in the case of the deceased being a brahraana ) the king has first; to provide for the maintenance of the concubines of the deceased, of his slaves and for
his sraddhas.
to
The Mit. says that the concubines here referred are those called avaruddha ( and not bhujisya ) and that even the kept mistresses of a deceased brahmana are entitled to
maintenance from his property. The Privy Council in Bai Nagubai v. Bai Manghibai have gone beyond the Mit. and have held that all concubines ( whether kept in the house practically as members of the family i. e. avaruddha or not so kept i. e.
bhujisya ) within the exclusive keeping of a Hindu till his death are entitled to maintenance from his property after his
death, provided they are continuously chaste thereafter.
im
The rights of the illegitimate children of concubines tc inheritance or maintenance will be dealt with later on undei inheritance.
Out of the samskSras enumerated above ( pp. 195-197 ), the Mahayajfias, Utsarjana and Upakarma will be described under the next chapter, viz. ahnika and antyesti under aSauca.
1496.
^rrernrT quoted in the
f5fcfT
on
*TT.
II.
135.
1497.
L. B. 53.
I.
A. 153 - 50 Bom. 604.
CHAPTER
XVII
AHNIKA AND ACARA

(
Daily and periodical duties and ceremonies
This forms a very important topic of dharmasastra. The daily duties of the brahmacarin have been already described above and those of the vanaprastha and yati will be spoken of
later on.
Under
(
this section
(
we
the duties of the snataka
the would-be householder
are concerned principally with and the )
grhastha
the householder
).
Before the ahnika duties are described a few remarks about the importance of the stage of householder would not be out of place. It has already been shown (pp. 424-425) how one school of
dharmasastra writers represented by Gautama and Baudhayana looked upon the stage of householder as the only asrama. The eulogies of the householder are sung in numerous passages of the Dharmasastra works. Gaufc. U98 ( III. 3 ) declares that the householder is the source ( support ) of all the other asramas, because Manu ( III. 77-78 ) the other three do not produce offspring. states that as all creatures live by receiving support from the air, so other asramas subsist by relying for support on the
householder and that as
orders
men belonging
to all
the three other
from day to day by the house( ) holder alone with ( gifts of ) food and sacred knowledge, the Manu householder's is therefore the most excellent asrama. the same sentiments under a different ( VI. 89-90 ) reiterates
asramas
are supported
*
figure
just as all big
and small
rivers find a resting place
in
the ocean, so
men
of all asramas find support in the householder
and the householder is declared to be the most excellent of all the asramas by the precepts of the Veda and smrbis, since he Visnu Dh. S. ( 59. 27-29 ) contains supports the other three almost the same remarks as Manu. Vide Vas. VIII. 14-16 ( 15 Vas. VII. 17 ( and X. 31 ), ). being identical with Manu VI. Baud. Dh. S. II. 2. 1, Udyogaparva 40. 25 say that a house'.
(
,
holder observing the rules laid

1498.
down
I
for
him does not
fall
fot
f jjf ;pf
îMsHH^lRfrfrTT*
TT.
III. 3.
Oh.
XVII
Ahnika-Eulogy of householder
641
the world of Brahma, 1499 In the Mahabh&rata of the order of householder is frequent. Santi Santiparva 296. 39 is the same as Manu VI. 90. 270. 6-7 states 'as all beings live on the support given by
also
the
away from
eulogy
their mothers, so other
agramas subsist on the support of the 1500 In the'same chapter ( verses 10-11 ) order of householders'. Kapila condemns those who hold that moltsa ( final release from
who remains a householder. ) is not possible for him Santi 12. 12 holds that, if weighed in the balance, the order of householders is equal to all the other three put together. Vide also Santi 11. 15, 23. 2-5, Vanaparva. cha#^#. The
samsara
Ayodhyakanda
is
106. 22 also says that the stage
of
householder
the most excellent of all asramas.
again divided into several Baud. Dh. S. III. 1. 1, Devala ( quoted in the Mit. on Yaj. I. 128 ) and other works divide a householder into two varieties viz. sallna and yayais
varieties
The brahmana householder from different points
of view.
vara,
1501
the latter being superior to the former. 1502
The sallna
1499.
f^ft^r ffcinrjMWt ft**rewrpfr

llfJJ'WnRT m$lc6lhT3 Vide note 691 above.
*
H
^flTSr
VIII.
qfiforroff 17 (X. 31
i
is
tho same
in prose). 1500.
WTT:
?1TI%H4J 270. 6-7 (

TJ ).
Vas. VIII.
16,
where the
last
pSda
is
1501.
3?
^, III.
1. 1., 3-5.
^TT (to
^. derives
(best), miorr^ V. 2. 20 (which is explained go) and in the Maha"bha"$ya) teaches that 5TTcfa in the sense of bashful ( ajijs ) ia derived from $nc3r. Probably in Pffnini's day householdcis had not come to be divided into ^ncTfa" and ^jT^rnT- ^. appears to hold that
from
^rr^hr
from
srnTT
(a house) and
there
is
a third variety called ^57^?, but this does not occur elsewhere.
1502.
on
built
*n.
I.
128.
^^|(?^ch\
^T
Tc"
^fr^n^'Tî
^T
with bricks and
^-^TO explains the kusGla as a granary indicates that he may store in i t as much as
?nj IV. 7.
such a granary will hold; while kumbhl means a receptacle storing as much as will last for six months, fifhr quoted in Gr. R. derives
y^^lcJ*MT?ft
H. D. 81
pp. 415
and 419
).
643
is
Ch,
XVII
one
who dwells
in a house,
is
possessed of servants and
cattle, lias
a fixed place and a fired village and has grain and wealth and follows the life of worldly people ; the yaySvara is one who subsists by the best of livelihood, viz. picking up grains that fall down when the corn that is reaped is taken to the house or threshing floor by the owner and who does not
accumulate wealth or who does not earn his livelihood by officiating as priest, or by teaching or by accepting gifts, Manu (IV. 7) appears to divide brahm ana householders into four varieties, viz. one who possesses enough to fill a granary or a store filling a corn jar, one who collects as much as will satisfy his needs for*three days, or one who makes no provision for the morrow. Vide Santiparva 244. 1-4 and Laghu-Visnu II, 17 for similar statements. The Mit on Yaj. I, 128 says that sallna is of four varieties viz. (1) one who maintains himself by as a priest, teaching Veda, officiating accepting gifts, agriculture, trade and breeding cattle, (2) one who subsists by the first three out of the above six, (3) one who subsists by officiating as a priest and by teaching, (4) one who subsists by
*
teaching alone.
Manu
IV. 9
as interpreted
Sr.
(
by the Mit.
refers
to these four varieties.
V. 3. 22 ) distinguishes between Sallna and yayavara, 150 * The Baud. gr. III. 5. 4 refers to yayavara. The word yayavara occurs in the Tai, S. V. 2.
' '
The Ap.
1.
1504
'
going
therefore the active man lords it over one who is easybut here the word has not probably any technical sense.
150S
In the Vaik. VIII. 5
are divided into four classes.
(=Vaik. Dh, S. The first class
I.
(
householders
)
called vart&vrtti
1503.
g-^wnr
smtfto
wgpftms^wre
'
*rrerefrr:
arrr.
*ft.
V.
3.
22.
The com. ^r^xf explains *rnrm as 3504. crwranTm: Sn*r^r $1505.
V.
2. 1. 7.
ff%:
OF ^ftfit
^TTfÔT VIII.
5.
Vide also IV. 2 for
and TrT^RT.
Tho
in water for tapas
3^T%^^TTmcT according to the com. consists in standing The in niafcfii{ and in the midst of five fires in 3ÊT,
amrqmad
is differently defined in other works. verse 64 (Telang'a ed, )

(
Vide
ftf^?ra*T
*nff
Oh.
XVII
Kinds of householders
;
<U3
maintains itself by agriculture, cattle-rearing and trade the second ( sallna ) observes various niyamas ( vide Yaj. III. 313 ),
offers
pakayajfias
fires, offers
srauta
(sacrifices of cooked food), kindles the the daisa and purnamasa sacrifices each half
month,
is
sacrifice
caturmasyas, in each half year offers an animal and each year the soma sacrifice the third ( yayavara ) engaged in the six actions viz. offering sacrifices of havis and
;
offers
soma, officiating as priest at such sacrifices, studying the Veda and teaching it, making giffcs and receiving them, constantly attends his fires ( srauta and smarta ), and gives food to guests
that
called ghoracarika, one whose rules are awfully difficult to observe ) is observant of niyamas, offers sacrifices but does not officiate at others' sacrifices, studies
;
come
to
him
the fourth
the
Veda but does not teach ifc, makes gifts but does not receive them, maintains himself on corn fallen in the fields &c,, is absorbed in Narayana, performs agnihofcra in the morning and evening, in Margaslrsa and Jyestha performs observances that are like the edge of a sword and attends upon his fires with herbs from a forest. These four names occur also in Brhat-Parasara p. 290 ( Jivananda's ed. ).
In numerous smrfcis, puranas and digests the duties of householders have been described in detail. For example, vide Gaut. V and IX, Ap. Dh, S. II. 1. l-II. 4. 9, Vas. Dh. S. VIII. 1-17 and XL 1-48, Manu IV, Yaj. I. 96-127, Visnu
Dh. S. 60-71, Daksa II, Vedavyasa III, Markandeya-purana 29-30 and 34, Nrsimha-purana 58. 45-106, Kurmapurana La^hu-Harlta IV. p. 183 ff ( Jiva), Dronaparva 82, Vanaparva 2. 53-63, Asvamedhika 45. 16-25, Anusasana-parva 97. Among the digests may be mentioned the Sm. 0. (I. pp. 88-232), the Smrtyarthaeara (pp. 18-48),
(
uttarardha chap. 15-16

),
nanda
the Madanaparijata ( pp. 204-345 ), the Grhasfcharafcnakara, the Ahnikatatfcva of Raghunandana, the Vlramitrodaya ( Ahnika-
the Smrtimuktaphala ( Ahnikakanda ). It would be to present in the space at our disposal all the details of the duties of the householder contained in the Some of the usual, outvast sources indicated above.
prakasa
),
impossible
standing
here.
or
important
matters
alone
can
be dealt with
Some
of the works contain moral
exhortations to the
householder.
1506.
For example, the Anusasanaparva 1508 ( 141. 25-26 )
r^ft*#OTf ?*RrefnmwJT^
sr^TTT^
1.
25-26.
644
Oh.
XVII
says 'ahimsS, truthfulness, compassion towards all beings, quiescence, charity according to one's ability this is the best dharma for a grhastha ( householder ). Non-contact with the
guarding one's wife and deposit ( made by what is not given (by the owner), avoiding honey and meat this five-fold dharma has many branches and gives rise to happiness. Daksa ( II. 66-67 ) also has similar provisions. But such moral exhortations (called sadharana dharmas) have already been discussed above
wives of
others,
another), abstaining from taking
'
pp. 3-11
).
were several ways there is ahah Sometimes the word for stands it and from sometimes night distinguished the period from sunrise to sunrise ( and includes day 1507 the dark and night ). For example, in Rg. VI. 9. 1 we have day ( i. e. night ) and the bright day ( i. e. the period when
'
*
From very ancient times

the
of
dividing
day.
there
is
This part ( viz. the period of sunlight ) is light ). divided some times into two parts viz. purvahna ( period before
)
Vide Rg. X. 34. 11, ) divided into three parts, morning, midday and evening, which correspond to the three
noon
and aparahna
III.
the time after noon

is
Manu
278.
Day time
also
libations of
Soma
juice in
pratahsavana, raadhyandina-savana
III. 53. 8 where these three parts of the day are mentioned when Indra comes to drink Soma for a muhurta each time and III. 28. 1, 4 and 5 ( where all three
and
trfclya-savana. Vide
Rg.
savanas are named ) and III. 32. 1, III. 52. 5-6. The day ( of 1508 viz. pratah or 12 hours ) was often divided into five parts, udaya (sunrise ), samgava, madhyandina or madhyahna (mid-day), aparahna ( afternoon ) and sayahna or astagamana or sayam Each of these five parts of day time will be ( evening ). equal to three muhurtas. In some smrtis and purSnas these five parts are mentioned and defined e. g. in the Prajapatisrnrti,
;
1507.
arc3* ffwnrf
^4 ^
H 3?-
f^rfir ^frfr SSTWT:

9. 1.
*Nrr?nft
srrwft *
VI.
This verse
{
is
'
explained in the
II.
21
'
3i-*r irrof *rfaj
gw ^ 3*T^rcc
named,
&c
1508.
STT5T:
)
;m *rm tfft menrgfr mraftT* S%T ^w

and
*re*rf^ra are expressly
3?.
tf*re
tfire is
V. 76. 3. Here the time of milking
the cows after they return from grazing pastures to which they were taken at dawn. Vide an**- fr. III. 12. 1-2
on which the com. says
'
*rrcH*37T$ Tnft
*?:
*TfFHcK
5R"
&*[?'
fiTc?:
Ch,
XVII
Ahnika-divisions of the day
645
vv. 156-157,
170-174.
82-84, 124. 88-90, Vayu 50. 465 ( on Yaj. I. 226 ) where a iruti passage and verses from Vyasa are quoted about these five 1509 The whole day of twenty-four hours was divided into parts. thirty muhurtas vide Sat. Br. XII. 3. 2. 5, S, B. E. vol. 44, p. 169 where the year is said to have 10800 muhurtas (360x30).
22.
Matsyapurana
Vide Apararka
p.
The
Tai. Br. III. 10. 1 gives the
of day-time, such as Citra,
names Ketu &o.
of the fifteen
muhurtas
The Madanaparijata
parts of the day.
p.
496 quotes Vyasa for the fifteen
parts.
The smrtis however generally divide day-time into eight Daksa II. 4-5 divides the day into eight parts and then
treats at length about the duties to be performed during those eight parts. Katyayana divides day-time into eight parts and
asks the king to assign three parts after the
first to
the
investi-
1510 That this was a very gation of judicial proceedings. ancient division follows from several considerations. Kau-
divides the day and night each into eight parts and prescribes what the king is to do in the eight parts of the day and also in the eight parts of the night. Vas. XI. 36, Laghu-
tilya
I511
99, Laghu-Satatapa v. 108 say 'the sun becomes mild-rayed in the 8th part of the day and that time is called 518 The Kadambarl of Bana ( para 24 ) speaks of the kutapa V
Harlta
light of the sun becoming clear and bright in the first eighth part of the day. 1513 In the MahabhSrata frequent reference is made
to the sixth part of the
one's
meal
179. 16, 180.
day as a somewhat late hour for taking and as making one hungry ). Vide Vanaparva 15U 16, 293. 9, Asvamedhika parva 90. 26-27.
22.
:
II
82
fS5S*M
quoted by
on *T3
:
II
3.
280.
i
^Tc^rnT^T
quoted by
I
31TTTT& p. 601 (
on Ysj.
II. 1. )
1511.
FTnr?Pr
q^^
arf^ntr * 19
*
According
to the sfigTSTFT,
.*
fc
wo
are equal to a
The 35! ^rTfi^rTmr 5TTf ^farTf^r^T^HT: ( nîrim^R v. 12 ) has snrfiTO*n 3 ^fTT^r^Hftn^ ^^fifScr^ "
*
'
1512
f%^^nns^
vrft
^r^c
ii
î%s
XL
fr?ft^^ VTH^T;
*r
sn&i ^cror ?TT:
R j Jit
36.
1513.
* i%Tif^r f^HT^fTmTvrrBr
vfc 3jra> inrnnTi
^qr^mrar
VIT^^
;
para 24.
1514.
mnVs^^îv
'
^^
180. 16
3. 9.
64(>
History of Dharmatasfra
Ch.
XVII
:
The principal matters to be discussed under ahnilca are up from bed, sauca ( bodily purity ), dantadhftvana tarpana, the five ( brushing the teeth ), snana ( bath ), samdhya mahayajfias ( including brahmayajiia and honouring guests ), attending on fire, bhojana ( mid-day meal ), obtaining wealth, studying and teaching, evening samdhya, gift?, going to bed, performing sacrifices at certain stated times. The Parasara smrti I. 39 summarises the most important daily duties as
getting
t
bathing, performing the

of gods
snmdhya prayers, japa, homa, worship and honouring of guests, and vaisvadeva are the six
1515
(principal)
Manu (IV. 152=Anusasana daily actions. parva 104. 23 ) also enumerates in one place the principal daily actions that must be got through in tho morning viz. answering
calls of nature, toilet, bathing, brushing the teeth, applying 1516 collyrium to the eyes and worship of the gods
.
the day was Although as stated in the Suryasiddhanta from sunrise, daytime for practical purposes was extended for a short time before sunrise and after sunrise. According to tha Brahmavaivarta-purana the four nadts ( or ghatikas) before sunrise and the four nadls after sunset are
1517
calculated
included in daytime ( dina ) i. e. when a man takes his bath before sunrise on a particular day that bath is one for the day 1518 Several smrfcis like that is to begin after he takes his bath
.
should get up from over dharma and bed artka that he would seek to attain that day and over the bodily efforts that he would have to undergo for securing his objecb and think out the real meaning of Vedic injunctions. Kulluka and others say that the word muhurta in Manu IV. 92 means
IV. 92, Yaj.
I.
Manu
115 enjoin that a
man
at the
brahma muhurta, 1519 should
reflect
1515.
H.fa
*K-*n
ftfi
i
wr
snh
wforfr
frrdifftfa^sHq
<TTn?T* I. 39.
1516.
fHf
*Tflrra*f
^*TTT
^crariwwaR
anus and somaitra means
srg IV. 152. fosr is the presiding deity over the
mfltrapurisotaarga. 1517.
1518.
g-^n^ vrr^T^f^n^T^mt:
^fffir^fiî (
swrtf^fn*
tf. JT.
v. 36. )
argflhr^StTOT
quoted in tho 3?rr%gT^7

i
p.
327 and
p. 81.
1519.
5f
ii
?rg IV. 92; wfigft
5S^f TfiT: qfRt ^rm: arr^ft ^rr^fr JTcJ^fhits^T^ The first half also occurs in ajfiSTW^^
i
104.
113. 17,
m*&T3*rr
34. 17.
The
^3^
*rg.
as
*
*rr. I. 1.
p.
220-221 has almost the same verae as
Compare
.
6.
Oh.
XVII
Ahrtika-getUng
up from bed
of
647
only time generally and nod a period

ifc
two ghatfkas and that
is
called
brahma because
to
that is a time
when
one's intelli-
gence and one's power

best.
compose a literary work are at their

p.
says that there are two muhurtas in the half watch before sunrise, the first of the two is called brahma and the second raudra. Pitamaha quoted in the Sm. 0, ( I. p. 88 ) says thab the last watch of the night is called
( 1. 1.
The
Par.
M.
220
182
sunrise
brahma muhurta From very was prescribed specially

'.
early times getting up before for a student and generally for
Gaut. 23. 2i says that if the suu rose while a brahmacarin was asleep he should stand up the whole day without food and mufcter the Gayatrl throughout the day ( as a penance ) and if the sun set while he was asleep he should sit up the whole night engaged in muttering the Gayatrl. Ap. Dh. S. II 5. 12. 13-14 and Manu II, 220-221 contain similar rules and they employ the word abhinirmukta 152! ( or abhinimrukta ) to denote one who is asleep when the sun sets. The Gobhilasmrti ( in verse ) 1. 139 says that on getting up one should wash one's eyes. In the RgvidhSna it is ordained that on getting up one should wipe one's eyes with water after reciting Rg, X. 73. 11 the latter half of which says remove away from us darkness, fulfil our eyes and release us who are as if bound with
everyone.
'
'
snares
'.
p. 88 ) quotes the Kurmapurana to the effect up from sleep some time before sunrise one should contemplate on God. The Ahnika-prakasa (p. 16 ) quotes five verses from the Vamanapurana (14. 23-27) which are to be recited on getting up as a morning hymn, one of which is 1522 These verses are repeated even now by some quoted below.
The Sm.
C.
( I.
that on getting
1520.
I.
part 1 p.
220.
*nreta%
I
w&
q.
in
P.
326
1521.
fr.
23. 21
r.
^- ^. II. 5. 12. 13;
3mgr^5T^r?r
p.
19
^T: 5T^T
is
9g. X. 73.
11.
This verso
is
explained in f^T^Fi IV.
3.
1522. W5TT ^rff^f%r3n5^mfr *rig: ^tf ^mg^f OT** ^F: ^f^14. 23. These five are TTf%?T^: ^l?g *? im ^vrnn^ . This is quoted in anfir^sr^n^T p. 16, WSTTCH^T P. 6, ^fmg- (3TTf8r^) p. 210 (where
i
ww^W
&w
they are ascribed to
39 )
648
Oh.
XVII
old people. Some works say that he who repeats the four verses called Bharatasavitrl in the morning obtains the reward of hearing the whole Mahabharata and attains the highest Brahma. 1523 The Ahnikatattva (p. 327) quotes a verse to be repeated on getting up from bed in which the serpent Karkotaka, Damayanti, kings Nala and Rtuparna are remembered for removing the effects of Kali, 1524 and the Srartimuktaphala quotes a verse about Nala, Yudhisthira, Sita and Krsna as punyasloka ( singing of whose glory is 1585 The Acararatna (p. 10 a) states that one should holy) repeat the names of certain famous and long-lived ( cirajlvins )
.
personages viz. A3vatthaman, Bali, Vyasa, Hanuman, Bibhlsana, Krpa, Paraûrama and Markandeya and also the names of five holy women, Ahalya, DraupadI, Sita, Tara and MandoEven now old men brought up in the orthodox ways darl.
repeat these
names on getting
up.
In some works it is said that if on getting up a man sees a brahmana learned in the Veda, a lady whose husband is living, a cow, an altar where fire is kindled, he becomes free from adversities and that if a man sees on getting up in the morning a very sinful man, a widow, an untouchable, one naked, one whose nose is cut off, that is an indication of kali ( misfortune
or
the
Para&ara XII. 47 says that one who has built for Vedic sacrifices ), a dark-brown cow, one who is engaged in a satlra (or performed it), the king, an ascetic, the ocean these purify a man the moment they are seen, so one should see them always.
strife
fire
).
1526
altar
Then the next act

detailed rules
is to
answer the
calls of nature.
Very
simply
are laid
down about
these even
in the most
ancient
sufcras
and
smrfcis.
Many
of the rules are
hygienic, but as religion, rules of law, of morality, of health and

1523.
Vide
i^Txnrtr^fir pp. 15-16,

5.
verses viz. JffnTRcT, fenrrcteffaj <rif verse 64 ). Their first pSdas arc
iSii^'sf
3Tn%^s^TT5T. P- 21. These 60-63, are called vrTTcnmTsft ( in
1524.
79.
p- 211.
10,
quoted in
sm^SKra
i
p.
327 and
1525.
1526.
T^T ^^J^TRTV gftfe**. ^^rarr quoted in ^[f%5. ( 3TT^T^ P- 21 )> 3IT^TV^?S P- 6 These verses are from ntftc5W^ H- 163 and 165
s<nrjnm
)
^V
-
s**r-
( called
also
p. 211. I
quoted in 3Trfir*fr*W
p. 327, anfir^T. p. 22,
^f^g.
).
read trrfte
f 4*ir*ra*T ( and
not vtf or HT$ as these do
Ch.
XVII
Ahnika-mutrapurisotsarga
649
hygiene are mixed up in the ancient works, they are given in works on dharma. Even in the Atharvaveda (XIII. 1. 56) ' 1517 I cut off thy root who kick a cow with the foot is said it or who urinate opposite the sun (facing the sun); thou shall not further cast a shadow. Urinating while standing seems to have been condemned in the time of the Atharvaveda vide VII. 102 ( 107 ). 1 'I shall urinate standing erect let not the Gaut. IX. 13, 15, 37-43, Ap. Dh. S. I. 11. 30. lords harm me. 15-30 and I. 11, 31. 1-3, Vas. Dh. S. VI. 10-19 and XII. 11-13,
'
'
Manu
60.
IV. 45-52, 56, 151, Yaj.

1528
16-17, 134, 154, Visnu Dh. S.
78. 59-64 and 79. 25-31, 30-32 may be summarised as follows one should not void urine or ordure on the road, on ashes, on cowdung, in ploughed or sown fields, under the shade of trees, in rivers or water, on grassy or beautiful spots, on bricks made ready for erecting altars, on mountain-tops, near dilapidated
1-26, Sankha,
Vayupurana
Vamanapurana
14.
shrines or cowpens, on ant-hills, in cemeteries or in holes, on threshing floors, on sandy shores. Nor should one answer calls of nature looking at or facing fire, the sun, the moon, a brahmana, water, the image of some god, cow, wind. Nor should one do these acts on the bare ground, but on ground covered
with dry twigs or leaves or grass or loose earfch. One should cover one's head and should face the north by day or when there is twilight and face the south at night, but when there is a danger one may face any direction, One should not urinate while standing or walking ( Manu. IV. 47 ) nor should one speak while doing so. 1529 One should answer calls of nature away from a human habitation towards the south or southManu V. 126 and Yaj. L 17 prescribe that, after west. answering calls of nature, one should perform cleansing the parts with water held in a pot and lumps of earbh to such an extent that no smell or filth will stick. According to Manu V. 136 and 137 and Visnu Dh. S. 60. 25-26 one lump of earth Is
to be applied to the penis, three to the arms, ten to the left
hand
1527.
<*reJr$<rc*
arare
(
XIII.
l.
56;
^r(rfftro*iTT *r
VII. 102
107). 1.
1528.
fctcT
^HTFSrlH$T157raf%ra-3$TT** -*5flfa-W
I
âTOTTcsncJ
1529.
T
5T
quoted in
ffccfT
on
iff. 1.
134.
arfe 323
is
5^% ^*j$
quoted in anfa-^s^RT p. 26. This is t535m?f verse 40 ; td srerr$ ^crer^ ^wtenrerc^ *wmV< u
i
^ fa
H. D.
650
Oh.
XVII
and seven to both hands, three to both feet together, This is the extent of iauca required for householders, and for brabmacarin, forest hermit and samnyasin, twice, thrice and four times
is required. The Mit. on Yaj. I. 17 remarks that for asramas the cleansing required is only as much as will remove foul smell and filth and the several numbers of lumps
as
much
all
of earth prescribed in different smrtis are only precribed for unseen ( or spiritual ) results. Gaut. I. 45-46, Vae. III. 48 and
Manu
first wifch
V. 134 say that cleansing of the body is to be so effected water and then with earth that foul smell and filth will be totally removed. Devala ( quoted in the Gr. E. p. 147 )
says that respectable people do not emphasize the number of times mentioned in the smrtis, but they say that cleansing should be carried on till one feels that it is all right. 15SO
( p. 19 ) following Daksa V. 12 says that at night only half of the sauca prescribed for the day is required, only one-fourth of it is prescribed for the ailing and only one-eighth when a man is on a journey
The Smrtyarthasara
1M1
and that no special number of lumps of earth are prescribed for women, sudras, boys whose upanayana has not been performed. In cleansing one is not to employ stones, clods of earth, and green twigs cut off for the purpose from herbs and trees ( Ap, Dh. S. I. 11. 30. 30, Gaut. IX. 15 ) nor is one to use earth from inside a river or water reservoir or from a temple, from an ant-hill or from the hiding places of rats or from dung-hills or
what is loft after being used for a prior cleansing ( Vas. Dh. S. VI. 17 ) nor what is taken from a road or cemetery, nor should one use earth that has worms, coals, or bones or gravel in it.
Daksa V.
will
fill
7 prescribes that for the first time as much earth as half of the outstretched hand and for the second time
is
half of that
to
be taken and so on. 1522
The lump
of earth
should not be bigger than a myrobalan fruit ( Kurmapurana in Sm. C. I. p. 182 ). One is not to answer calls of nature with the shoes on ( Ap. Dh. S. I. 11. 30. 18 ) and one's yajnopavlta should be suspended from the right ear or he should throw it on his
1530.
II
%*?? in
^jf. *. p.
147 and
I.
^reNo
u
5
I. p. 93.
1531.
Vide f^rera on ^T. rr * <TSTO

.
17 Sr
r
$3
is
fow*
also
wr&dirgcOT
34. 65-66,
19.
1532.
aj&rsfifann
V. 7,
3 WHT
first
The
half
quoted even by f%*3^T on in
17.
Ch.
XVIl
Ahnika-tauca
nivlta form. 1583
651
According to Yaj. 1. 16 the yajHopavita should be suspended from the right ear only. Vanaparva 59. 2 describes that kali (the principle of evil and strife) entered
fche
back in
Nala when the
latter did not
wash
his feet after urinating.
of general iauca.
This cleansing of the body in the morning is only a part Sauca is according to Gaut. VIII. 24 one of the
Even the Rg. ( in VII. 56. 12 and other verses ) 1554 appears to emphasize cleanliness ( sucitva). According to Harlta sauca is the first path to dharma, it is the resting place
atmagunas.
'
of brahraa ( Veda ), the abode of srl ( prosperity ), the means of clearing ( or soothing ) the mind, the favourite of gods, the means of realizing the Atman and the awakener of intelli-
According to Baud. Dh. S. III. 1. 26, Harlta, Daksa in Sm. C. I. p. 93) sauca is of two 1538 bahya (outward) and antara or abhyantara (inward), the kinds, first being effected by water and loose earth and the latter is the Harlta divides the first into three, purity of one's sentiments. that of kula ( being free from impurity due to birth or death in the family ), of artha ( i. e. of the vessels and things to be used in all matters ) and of barlra ( cf one's body ); Harlta divides abhyantara into five, manasa ( mental ), caksusa ( of the eye i. e.
gence. V. 3 and
'
15 * 5
Vyaghrapada (quoted
not looking at things that should not be looked at ), ghranya the nose ), vacya ( of speech ), svadya ( of the tongue ). ( of According to a verse quoted by Haradatta on Gaut. VIII. 24
sauca
four kinds, viz. of dravya ( the vessels and things employed by one), of the mind, of speech and of the body. Vrddha-Gautama ( JivSnanda p. 632 ) speaks of five kinds of
is of
sauca
viz. of the
and
or
of speech.
Atri v.
mind, of actions, of kula ( family ), of the body According to Manu V. 135, Visnu Dh. S. 22. 81, 31 arid others there are twelve malas ( filthy exudations
)
impurities
of
the
human
body,
viz.
fat,
semen, blood,
marrow, urine,
1533.
faeces,
mucus
of the nose, ear-wax, phlegm, tears,
arff
n a*R ^TT
( S. B.
^sfrrfcr
3 f TO wsfffaen*
i
Rinpf 3
i
?Rof SI^TT
^53^W?^r
*WT: SF^ffat
II
^r^ fm ^w^.
).
I.
p.
89.
Vide
IV. 12. 22
1534.
E. vol 29 p. 126
5J^t ^t
f**TT
f% ffrftnnwf
VII. 56. 12.
3rnT5gr%3TWT:
1535.
$pr*T: <nra7T:
i
3?.
ro
sifter:
$i3 *nr tmfT%*

i
STU* Snr^fa sf^nftaT*

1536.
*. P-
522.
w3 *
litf
V. 3 and
662
of eyes, sweafe
;
Ch.
XVII
rheum
and the
first
six of these are

(
removed by
32
).
water and earth and the latter six by water
Atri
v.
After preforming 6auca one has to rinse the mouth with twelve mouthfuls ( gandusa ) of water ( vide Smrtimuktaphala, ahnika p. 220). When one finishes the purification of the body by washing the hands and feet and by rinsing the mouth one has to 1 engage in acamana}** A good deal has been said about acamana
above (pp. 315-316) under upanayana. Acamana (sipping water) is to be done after tying the top-knot and tucking up the garment from behind the water is to be poured in the hollowed palm of the hand in such a quantity that a grain of masa ( bean ) will be plunged in it and the three fingers except the thumb and the small one are to be joined together and the water is to be drunk
;
from that part of the hand which is called brahma ttrtha described above (n. 750 ). The word ttrtha means that part of the right hand by which water is taken in or poured in religious rites and the parts are given the names of deities for lauding them, as Vi&va1538 In most smrtis their number is four, viz. prajapatya rupa says. orkaya, pitrya, brahma, and daiva (for example in Manu II. 59, Visnu Dh. S. 62. 1-4, Yaj. 1, 19, Markandeya-purana 34. 103-109, Daksa II. 18). Some works like the Satyayanakalpa and VrddhaVasistha quoted by ViSvarupa on Yaj. 1. 19 name five tlrthas viz. daiva ( when a brahmana faces the east, the front part of his hand ), pitrya ( the right portion of the right hand ), brahma ( the portion of the hand opposite the fingers ), prajapatya ( the portion of the hand near the small finger ) and paramesthya The Par. gr. parisista names ( the centre of the right palm ). the above five, except that it substitutes the name agneya for paramesthya. The Sankha-smrti (in verse, X, 1-2) distinguishes kaya and prajapatya and omits the name of brahma altogether which is called prajapatya by it. Vaik. I. 5 has six, the usual four, the fifth being agneya ( centre of the palm ) and the sixth being arsa (the roots and tips of all fingers together). According to some, daiva tirtha means the tips of the fingers and the centre
of the
palm
is either
saumya or agneya. According
to Harlta the
1537.
20
1538.
$
srftr
r. 1.
19.
Oh.
XVII ]
1529
Ahwka-acamana
653
daiva
of ball
tlrtha is to be used in mSrjana,

;
kaya in all ) and daily homa, the pitrya rites for dead ancestors, Touching the kamandalu ( water jar ), eating curds and fresh products of the fields ( navanna ) are to
and in bhojana
the
tlrtha is to be
worship of gods, offering employed in lija-
homa ( homa
of fried grain
be done with the
saumya tlrtha ( Smrfcyarthasara p. 20 ). When there is difficulty of getting water and an occasion for purification by acamana arises, one should touch one's right 154 ear. Very elaborate rules are laid down in the digests on the subject
of acamana ( e. g. Sm. C. I. pp. 95-104), Smrtimuktephala, Ahnika-prakasa pp. 221-240, Ahnika-tattva pp. 333-344. Gr. K. pp. 150-172 &c., which have to be all passed over for want of space. One matter to be noticed is that according to the Apastamba-smrti ( in verse ) the procedure of acamana is of four kinds, viz. paurEnika ( in which each sipping of water is accompanied by the names, Kesava, NarSyana, Madhava &c. ) smSrta ( as laid down in the smrfcis like Manu II. 60 ft ), a" gam a ( i. e. taught in the sacred books of Saiva and Vaisnava sectarians ) and srauta ( laid down in the Srautasufcras for Vedic
;
sacrifices
1S41
).
The
first
of these four is the
method usually
followed
now by most brahmanas.

(
Danta-dhavana
brushing the teeth
).
Danta-dhavana comes after sauca and acamana and before Vide Yaj. 1. 98 and Daksa II. 6. The practice of snana ( bath ). daily danta-dhavana has existed in India from the most ancient 1548 5. 1. 7 ) when enumerating the times. The Tai. S. ( II. actions which a rajasvala ( a woman in her monthly period ) was to avoid mentions dantadhavana among them and remarks
that
if she indulges in it during that period, she gives birth to a son whose teeth are naturally black. Dantadhavana is an
independent act by
(
itself
performed for rendering the body

it is
here the mouth
clean and
not an
anga
a subordinate
1539.
T^?qir^
1540.
^fRra.
P- 226.
3?FT?$
p. 21.
1541.
3U<4*d*
H
II
^^
3^3?fm:
(
viiî^^îvNs
) p.
tf.
TIHI^:
ar^prat
3Trr^
i
221.
II. 5. l. 7.
1542.
TTT
Â wfr wA vrnr^
^.
654
constituent
parfe )
History of Dharmdiastra
of bath or
1544
Oh.
XVII
Ap. Dh. S. morning prayer. one who has returned from his teacher's I. 2. 8. 5 forbids home after finishing his studies to engage in the sight of his teacher in such acts of pleasure as cleansing the teeth, shampooing the body and combing the hair and also forbids the study of the Veda while such actions are going on ( ibid. I. 3. 11. 10-12 ). 15 * 5 The brahmacarin was noc to engage in the leisurely actions of brushing the teeth ( but was to rinse his mouth ) according to Gaufc. II. 19 and Vas. Dh. S. VII. 15.
1541
In dantadhavana one has to take the twig
with
its
bark
of 'certain trees, crush the end of the twig with his teeth so as to make a brush of it and then to cleanse his teeth with the
According to Gobhilasmrfci ( which is also called Chandoga-parisista in some works ) if a man only rinses his mouth with river water or at home, he has not to repeat a mantra, but if he uses a twig he has to repeat a mantra Oh tree, bestow on me long life, strength, fame, brilliance, offspring, In cattle, wealth, brahma ( Veda ), memory and intelligence. the Par. gr. II. 6 and Ap. gr. 12. 6 brushing of the teeth with an udambara twig is prescribed in Samavartana with a mantra may you be ready for food here comes the king Soma ' may he clean my mouth with glory and good luck. 1547 to be is mantra Therefore the same employed every day after
brush-like end.
' *
1546
samavartana.
In some of the digests (like the Ahnikaprakasa
1543.
T:
i
^nir^^^T^
p.
121
the verse
5^ ^fi%
\
is
sg-
74.
1544.
I. 2. 8.
4-5
TTSTT ^Rsffrf$ vide 3*pr- y. ^. I.
3.
aw- *r^*^ra*"H*TT3*TT*^5n*ftf3' 11. 10-11 for the same words followed

J
I
by
1545.
^^^?T^T^g|^^q%nH^T^T^9fJ?1fqT^ ^y^r^T
^%^ VII.
15.
1546.
1.137-140.
I.
This
JT^ST is
quoted by the
98
and by almost
1547.
all
digests on
i
t-rrfsTTST
aft^qôT ipcTi^n^r
aiwrOTT *$$**
i
ritnt
^rsrn
smr^
Tr^rHT ** *nhr
(
The w*i
swmrr^
'.
>
^cfJT^rr^Ti^fn^ i*reî TH^TJT II. 6. occurs in aiftr. w. qr. II. 7. 19 with variations,
i
fi^
......
^T
is
the king of plants
and hence the udurabara twig
is
called
'
this
king Soma
Cb.
XVII
Ahnika-brushing the
teeth
655
pp. 121-122) it Is stated that that mantra may be employed by the students of the Sukla Yajurveda, while those who study the Gobhila grhya may use the mantra 'ayurbalam &c'.
detailed rules are laid down about the length of the about the trees the twigs of which are allowed or forbidden, about the days or occasions or times on which there is to be no dantadhavana. A. few of these details are given below. Trees having thorns on their trunk or from which a milky fluid oozes out when a twig is broken off are allowed and so are vaâ, asana, arka, khadira, karaiija, badara, sarja, nimba,
Very
twig,
arimeda, apamarga, malatl, kakubha, bilva, amra (mango), punnaga, sirlsa and further the twig must be astringent, pungent or bitter in taste and not sweet or sour. 1548 Vide BrhatSamhita of Varahamihira chap. 85, Laghu-Harlta (Jivananda
parti,
p.
183),
Laghu-Vyasa I
17-18, Nrsimhapurana 58. 47.
Before the advent of the modern dentrifrices people in India followed these directions and even now many even in the cities efcill follow them and brush their teeth with twigs of various trees. Among the trees which are not to be used for danta-
dhavana are palaSa, 1549 slesmataka, arista, vibbltaka, dhava, bandhuka, nirgudl, Sigru, tilva, tinduka, inguda, guggulu, saml, The twig pllu, pippala, kovidara &c. (Visnu Dh. S. 61. 1-5). may be undried or dried, but one dried on the tree itself is not to be taken ( Visnu Dh. S. 61. 8, Nrsimhapurana 58. 46 ). One must brush the teeth facing north or east, but not west or south ( Visnu Dh. S. 61. 12-13 ). Visnu Dh. S. ( 61. 16-17) presthat the twig should be as big as the end of one's small finger and twelve ahgulas in length and it should be washed before its use and after using it it should not be cast off in an impure place. There are various opinions
cribes
about the length of the twig employed. The Nrsimhapurana 58. 49. 50 ) says that it may be of eight angulas in length or a
1548.
^gm^rl>*g%^^5W^f^rR^qrem^
61,
14-15
of a?*rf^
cd.
by Bhagavad-datta, Lahore
:
i
IV. 1-2
All these are quoted in the s^ftfNro
and other
154:9.
digests.
tf?*vs(3fa;
......
^1%^:
is
I. pp. 105-106 ^{?Tf ^PT 58. 49.

i
^.
1.
11. 32. 9
tTRTnFnrwf q-if % ^pmTT^TT^mr TS?^ < reads ^wnari ), sfa* XII. 34., ^.
^H
y.
IX. 44, a^r. ^.

II.
3. 30.
^.
656
History of Dkarmasaslra
Ch.
XVII
epan in length ( prSdesa ) ; Garga ( quoted in Sm. 0. L p. 105 ) gays that the twig should be 10, 9, 8, 7 or 4 angulas in length respectively for the four varnas and women. One was not to
cleanse one's teeth with pieces of brick or with clods of earth or with stones or with the bare fingers ( except the thumb and the 155 finger next to the small finger).
According to Laghu-Harlta (Jivananda I. p. 183) and Nrsirhhapurana 58. 50-52 there is to be no brushing of the teeth with a twig on the 1st tithi, the parva tithis ( i, e. new moon, full moon, 8th day, 14th day and the day on which the Sun enters a new zodiacal sign, according to Visnu-purana III. 11, 118), on the 6th tithi and 9th tithi and on those days when twigs are not available one may rinse one's mouth with twelve mouthfuls of water 1551 Paithlnasi (quoted in the Sm. 0. I. p. 106) says 'one may brush one's teeth with grass, leaves and water and with the fingers except the 4th finger.' One may also cleanse with mouthfuls of water when one has no teeth (Ahnikaprakasa, p. 127). One may also rub one's tongue with these or with a twig on the days on which it is allowed. There is to be no dantadhavana on srSddha day (for the performer), on the
.
day of a sacrifice, when one is observing niyama when the husband has gone to another country, when there is indigestion, on marriage day, on a fast or a vrata ( Smrtyarthasara p. 25 ). Visnu 155a Dh. S. 61. 16 prescribes dantadhavana not only in
t
the morning but also after taking one's meal. This, as stated by Devala, is intended for removing particles of food sticking
to the teeth or the
gums.
Snana. After dantadhavana comes snana. As Scamana, snana ( bath ), japa (muttering of holy Vedic texts), horn a and
1550.
^T^T IvspnSH'WJt frsRTf^ *r 3pn%wn^f* "

JTnfactHfarsfrs
*n*' w iT
it
^H^Tcyt^^Wl^ltcTTT^fS^H^T^T ^ra ^. I. p- 106 vide 83?rraTro

5 ;
v. 73.
1551.
^5^
^HTTJTT:
i
tpcfRf ^n^^r^
*i
sw ?r?5i u arwr ^tfîHTTt swîfj ^ 1. U-15, vide 50-52 58. 3*3rT**c*r^ infe S*T*T 127. 4 condemns the use of a twig on the new moon
;
^wTT
day.
p.
25
1552.
sncT^Fc^T *X
ÎPW^tTW^
II
Ro^^pc 61. 16;

3rer%W
! 3 aô recomVide Joiunal of the Ame-
The
mends
this
sntTsffcST
^ TOnrosnhpcitirW'C
rican Oriental Society, vol. 52 ( for 1932 ) p. 163 ff for references to the twigs used for brushing teeth from ancient Buddhist works and Fa
Hien'a 'Record of Buddhist kingdoms' (Legge of Buddha.
p. 54) for
the dantak5sj;ha
Oh.
XVII
Ahwka
Jcuta grass
657
right
other rites are to be performed after holding ku6a grass In the hand some remarks must be offered on ku6as, The
Kurmapurana says 'whatever
action
is
or without yajnopavlta, it becomes useless and brings no here or in the next world' (quoted in Krtyaratnakara
done without darbha reward

p.
47).
says *in japa, homa, dana, svadhyaya (study of the Veda) or in pitrtarpana one should have in his hand gold, silver and kuâs'. One should have at the time of acamana &c. a pavitra ( a ring-like loop) of darbhas in his right hand or in both his hands on the finger next to the small one or have ku6a in his right hand. There were several views about wearing a
Satatapa
pavitra or darbhas, as stated in note 1553. The darbha grass is to be collected on the dar&a day (new moon) in the month of Sravana and the darbhas so collected are never stale and may be used again
1553
ThQ pavitra of the four varnas should be made with 4 darbhas or with 3, 2, or 1 respectively or it should be made with two darbhas for all ( Smrfcyarthasara pp. 36-37). Those darbha blades from which no further blades shoot forth are
and again
.
1554
called simply darbhas, blades from which fresh ones sprout

forth are called ku&as, blades with their roots are called kutapas and those the tips of which are cut off are called trna 1555 (grass).
The darbha
seven blades
is
grass growing in a field of sesame and having very auspicious.
The darbhas to be used in yajfias should be green in colour, yellowish for use in pakayajiiaSt they should be with roots when used in rites for the pitrs and variegated when used in vaisvadeva Those darbhas that were held in the hand at the time
at the
of offering pindas to the dead or in sraddhas or in pitrtarpana or time of urination or voiding* faeces should be thrown
is
away ( Smrtyarthasara p. 37). If ku6a grass then kasa or durva may be employed instead.
not available,
I.
P-
108
i
vide
*cW*m
Tf^-swrtf
for a similar verso,

^FT%<ft
I.
OT*3(
.
%^3%
<ri3
wm
-$'?I
24 b.
Vide *r7mc5*sm
28 quoted
by
pp. 43
and
480.
1554.
" ?r(hr
v. 41,
TT?fiT%
quoted in ^jnN. I. P- 107. Vide quoted in ^^m^l^ft p. 67.

as
1555.
TffT%?Tt
o I p. 108.)
^JT^ni: ^cfT ^vrt: Jl^TT^ ^TT* ^^T<n: I^*T?I?T VII. 44; this is quoted
in
and as of q>Kn*re
^^5-
sm^
p. 231. )
H.D. 83
658
History o/ Dfairmai&itra
Oh,
XVII
The subject of snana can be treated from various points of SnSna 155<J is either mukhya ( principal ) or gauna (secondary), the first being a bath with water and the second being
view.
without water,
kinds.
Each
of these is again subdivided into various
II. 48 snana is nitya (obligatory every day), naiinittika (to bo performed on certain occasions), and kamya (to be performed only if one desires certain rewards).
According to Daksa
All the varnas
1557
have
to bathe in or
the whole body together with the head also

4,
Manu
II.
Vedic mantras.
because a
176 and IV. 82 ) This is nitya.
with water every day ( Baud. Dh. S. II. 4. and dvijatis have to do it with This 1558 is required to be done,
has not bathed is not entitled to perform and other rites (Sankha VIII. 2, Daksa II. 9 ). The homa, japa body is dirty and from it ooze various exudations day and night and a bath in the morning cleanses and purifies the body. In this way snana has seen and unseen (i. e. spiritual) results 1559 .
( Yaj. I. 95, 100, Laghu-Asvalayana I. 16, 75, and 43 &c. ), prescribe two baths a day for brahmana house-holder^, one before day-break and another at noon. There
man who
Some works
II.
Daksa
is
only one bath a day for brahmacarins, two for
(Manu VI. 6). According to Manu
forest hermits VI. 22 and Yaj. III. 48 the forest
hermit has to bathe thrice ( in the morning, at noon and in the 156 evening ) and a yati has also to bathe thrice Though even
.
orthodox brahmana householders do perform two baths a day, the usual rule for all Hindus (including even the socalled untouchables ) is to bathe once a day, which also has
1556.
now some
^T*T
igfN
ifi
quoted by amrS?
ITT. I. 1.
P- 127,
^.
<n. 236,
^^=go
is
pp. 200-201, mr.
p. 268.
The 2nd verso

i
I. p. HO, sr^ffr VIII. 1.
1557.
sjitfspTT^sT
.
^TT
4.
f^fttf
^.^.11.
4;
^rmT^R^ ^ntf^ STWrfai

p- 26.
1558.
f^3C
"
^' VIII.
5ircT:^rR
II
ST^^m^g 3*raTfT 3T<*ni?n?^RTi^ 2 quoted in 3mr& P. 127.
1559.
3Tc^=cm{SrT: ^rnft ^fersrsrTT^tT:

s?î^Pci
s^r^H^t
quoted in
ft
^T
II. 7
and
3mT& p.
i
125 and
1560.
T:
snaraVingnft: ^Tif
^T^q^^^r^:
^m^r. ^^nsn<^ sft^

;
I.
p. 111.
^T quoted in ^[Tô I. p. 181 nnd ^c^fHT. P- 26 ^5 WT$|: fa^cwi^ ^ 5B WTS Wf**f ^ iwfwftt
i
3?3R quoted in
13%. *. p.
191.
Oh,
XVII
Ahnika-snana
659
been the general rule for centuries ( vide Smrtyarthasara p. 26 sarve vapi sakrt kuryur ). Snana is usually done now before noon, that in the early morning being done only by a yati, one
1
observing a vrata, a brahmacarin, sacrificial priests, students of the Veda and those engaged in austerities (Smrfcyarthasara
The morning bath is to be taken immediately after p. 27 ). brushing the teeth before day-break when one sees the eastern
direction
lit
up
by the
morning
rays of
the
rising
sun
l581 Dh. S. 64. 8). Gobhila-smrfci (II. 24) says that l5 " 8 one (Visnu should not lengthen out the process of taking the morning bath (by repeating fcoo many mantras) as it would come in the way of performing the morning homa at the proper time, which is between the first appearance of light and the sun's reaching about one cubit above the eastern horizon ( Gobhila I. 122-123 ). Vide Manu II. 15 also. The madhyahna ( midday ) bath is to be par formed in the fourth part of the day-time divided into eight parts ( Daksa II. 43, Laghu-Vyasa II. 9 ) and one has
to bring together loose
grains, kusas, sesame and sandal wood paste bath is not to ba performed by one who is ill.
(
cow-dung, flowers, whole rice 1582 This midday The third bath in the case of forest hermits and yatis ) is to be performed
earth,
.
before sunset, but not after sun-set or at night. No bathing is allowed for any one at night except when there is an eclipse or the sun passes into the zodiacal signs of Cancer and Capri-
a birth or death or when a vrata ( at night ), a marriage, 1564 undertaken with some object Night means specially the two middle watches ( Manu IV. 129, Kulluka thereon and Parasiara XII. 27 ). corn
is
.
1561.
qfcT;^f*f ygTi%*qnTgfrt sTr^forecTte?
wrnj
f*B<3-j.
^.
64.
8;
both quoted by the
^raô
I.
p.
HI.
i
1562.
U *fH9T5
a^sfT^nEnTTc?^ H. 24, quoted in *fnN.
qrf ^rrcWTSfrjfqr:
I.
s?r?f?f
P-
HI.
1563.
^sr II. 43 u c55^rff II. 9 ( Jivananda, part 2). The first is quoted I. p. 181 and in ^(%^ by 3TT*T7 p. 128 and the 2nd in qrr. *TT.
;
I. 1. p.
269.
3TCcfffi?T^
;
1564.
II. 3.
W^ (^f^c)n
3ITT.
i
^T.
^.
11.
32. 8,sft.u. ^.
29
TTf^^^nWi^Tf Tc^q-f%5
^ll %^?5 quoted by 3i<m% pp. 135, 229, XII. 26 to the same effect.
^ô
^rr^Rn^ ^f^f
I-
pp. 120, 229; vide
WO
Oh.
XVII
The obligatory (nitya) bath is to be taken with cold water and ordinarily hot water is not allowed. Sankha ( VIIL 9-10 ) gays that if one bathes with heated water or in water belonging to another individual, he may effect the cleansing of the body but he would not secure the unseen spiritual result of a bath. Daksa II. 64 is to the same effect 158S Naimittika and kamya baths must be performed with cold water, there is an option only as to nitya (daily obligatory) bath (Garga quoted in the Sm. C. I. p. 123).
.
Manu
Daksa
IV. 203, Visnu Dh. S. 64. 1-2 and 15-16,
Yftj. I.
159,
Veda-Vyasa-smrti III. 7-8, Sankha VIIL 11 and others say that one must daily bathe in natural water, i. e. in connected with temples, in lakes, in deep rivers, in tanks
II. 43,
reservoirs
and in mountain springs. One should not bathe in water belonging to an individual (i. e. a well or reservoir dug or dammed by him &c. ) but if no water is otherwise available one may bathe with such water after re-
moving
idea
is
three or five
1568
)
the reservoir
thafc
lumps of clay (from the bottom of or three or five jars from the well. The
the
(
either
the merit of the bath
private owner would participate in as Baud, Dh. S. If. 3. 7 remarks ) or that
the bather incurs a fourth part of the sin of the owner of the water ( Manu IV. 201-202 ). If no such water is available or
one is unable to go to a river &c. for a bath one may bathe in the court-yard of one's house with water drawn in a vessel (from ' a well &c. ) till his clothes are wetted. The words nadl
*
and garfca (used in Manu IV. 203 ) are defined as follows: a nadl ( river ) is one that has a stream of water at least 8000 bows in length, while all other streams are called garta As in the months of Sravana and Bhadrapada all ( a pool ).
rivers are full of mud ( rajasvala is used in a double sense ) one should not bathe in them in those months, except in rivers that
'
'
1565.
srtf
^rfircra*
*2* irwrfon
The
trfhtf^fHnrT
is
* 5
sjffi<^.
I.
VIII. 9-10;
^r
p. 128.
IV. 64.
first
quoted in
1566.
sir.
IT.
^.
II.
3.
7 and
9.
Vide 3?*rc*TO)*
P-
I 95
explanation.
Oh,
XVII
Mnifarsriaw
8tt
1587 But ev en in these months one may directly reach the sea, bathe in muddy rivers at the time of upakarma or utsarga, or
on the death of a person or on the eclipse of the sun or the moon. Vide Visnu Dh. S. 64. 17 which says that out of water drawn in a pot, water standing in a reservoir, a spring, a river, water in which noble men of the past bathed, Ganges water,
each succeeding one
is
holier than each
preceding one for
a bath. 1888
The actual bath
is
described differently in different sutras,
smrtis and digests. Gobhila-smrti (1. 137) says 1569 that the morning bath contains the same procedure as the mid-day bath. The morning bath has to be brief, as already stated, in the case of
one who has consecrated the srauta fires. The procedure of bathing will be indicated by a few brief extracts. The Visnu
1570 the dirt from his says 'having removed body with water and loose earth, he should plunge in water, * he should invoke the water with the three verses Spo hi s^ha * * X. 9. 1-3 ), with the four verses hiranyavarn&h ( Rg.
Dh.
S.
64. 18-22
'
and with the verse idam&pah pravahata ( Rg. I. 23. 22 or X, 9. 8 ). Then while still plunged in water he should thrice mutter the Aghamarsana hymn ( Rg. X. 190. 1-3, rtam ca satyam &c. ) or he may mutter 'tad visnoli paramam padam ( Rg. I. 22. 20 ) or the Drupada Savitrl verse (Vaj. S. 20. 20) or the anuvaka beginning with 'yufijate mana* (Rg. V. 81. 1-5 ) or the Purusasukta (Rg. X. 90. 1-16), Having bathed he should, with his garment still wet, perform tarpwia of gods and Manes while still in the water, But if he has changed his clothes, then he may do it (tarpana) after
Tai.
S.
V.
6.
1.
1-2
'
'
'
1567.
urenpf sn-ûiq
^R^TT
TSTI
i^wwis
HHJ
srr
?TcfUi*449T
W.
I. pp. 130-131, I. 141-143, quoted by smr% p. 135, *g-f?N 197-198 &c. 3?tr^r% p. 905 quotes a smrti that a dhanua is equal to 96 aiigulas and that 2000 bows are equal to one Jcrosa.
T.
1568.
3r^tdi
-viifl
i
y Q<$ *>
^^
.
^Tf'iTRJnwf
tit*iirit|i
^rfW ^rla
1569.
n TTf^
1.
f^s^f^r
;
64. 17.
ntRrr?
1570.
137
vide Jjf
r.
p.
179 for explanation.
64. 18-24,
662
Oh.
XVII
comfng out of the water'.
Even now many brahmanas mutter
the Purusasukta while bathing. Sankha-smrti ( IX ) has a brief description of snana which consists in invoking water, then mSrjana with the three verses (a"po hi stha), then repeating
.certain
,na
hiranya-varnah', 'san-r.o devlr', 'sam apah' (Atharvaveda I. 6. 1 and 4) and fchrice repeating Aghamarsana. Vide Madanaparijata pp. 270-271, Gr, R. pp. 206-208 and Par. M. I. 1. pp. 274-275 where the whole of Sankha (IX) is quoted. The Snanasutra 157! of Katyayana says "Now then will be treated the daily obligatory bath in a river and the like.
Vedic verses like
fetched loose earth, cowdung, sesame, kusas and flowers, the water side, having placed (the above) approached having materials on a pure spot, having washed one's hands and feet, holding kusa blades (orpavitra) in his hand, tying up his top knot and wearing the yajnopavlta, he should perform acamana and invoke the water with the verse 'urum hi* (Rg, I. 24. 8= Vaj. B. 8. 23), stir it (with his thumb) with the verses 'ye te satam* He should fill his joined hands with water (vide Par. gr. I. 2). with the verse 'sumitriya nah' (Vaj. S. VI. 22) and should cast it on the ground with the verse 'durmitriya' (Vaj. S. VI. 22) in the direction of his enemy. He should apply loose earth thrice to each
Having
'of
the limbs, viz, the waist, the abdomen, thighs, feet and hands, then perform acamana, should do oboisanco to the water and should smear his body wifch loose earth. Facing the sun with the verse 'idam visrmr' ( ftg. I. 22. 17 = Vaj. S. 5. 15 ), he- should dive into the water and bathe with the verse 'apo asman* (Bg. X. 17. 10 = Vaj. S. IV. 2), then raise up his body with
the mantra ud-id-abhy ah ( Vaj. S. IV. 2 ), again dip into water and again raise his head out of the water, perform acamana
'
'
and smear his body with cowdung

(
wifch the
mantra *m5 nastoke.'
Rg,
I.
114. 1
= Vaj.
S. 16.
16
).
Then he should bathe with the
1571.
airnfr
T.
(pp. 208-211) quotes this and explains some portion and
differs
from a BhEsya thereon.
Oh.
XVII
Jihnika-procedure of bathing
*
663T
), and with muficantu ( ), ', = Vaj. S. 12. 90 ), avabbrtba ' ( Vaj. S. III. 48 ). ( ftg. X. 97. 16 At the end of these mantras he should dive into the water and then rise up out of it, perform aoamana and sprinkle with darbha blades his body with the nine verses, viz. the three beginning with 'apo hi stha' (Rg. X. 9. 1-3 = Vaj. S. 11. 50-52), ' idam-apah ( Vaj. S. VI. 17 ), with the two verses havismatlr
four mantras
'
imam me Varuna
'
'
Vaj. S. 21, 1-4
the verses
ma
apo
',
uduttamam
'
Vaj. S. 12.
12
'
'
'
'
Vaj.
(Vaj. devlr
'
and
'
devlrapah ( ), apo devah drupadad-iva an-no (Vaj. S. 20. 20), ( Vaj. S. 35. 12),* apam rasam (Vaj. S. 9. 3 ), *apo devlh', punantu ma '. Then he should repeat thrice, while diving
)
S.
VI. 23
and
'
'
'
Vaj, S. 1.
'
12
'
'
S.
X.
'
'
1),
in water, the Aghamarsana hymn ( Rg. X. 190. 1-3 ) preceded ' ' by the mantra cit patir-ma ( Vaj. S. 4. 4 ), by the syllable oca,
vyabrtis, by the Gayatrl and followed by the same ; or ' ' repeat the verse drupadad-iva ( Vaj. S. 20. 20 ) or the ' three verses ayam gauh ( Rg. X. 189. 1-3 Vaj. S. 3. 6 ) or he
by the
he
may
should perform pranayama with the Siras ( viz, apo jyotl raso Srartam brahma &c. cited above on p. 304 from Tai. A. X. 15 ) or he should repeat simply *om' thrice or he should only contemplate on Visnu. Having come out of the water, he
should put on two washed garments, should wash his hands and thighs with loose earth, should perform acamana and then
pranayama
thrice
",
1578
Yogi-Yajiiavalkya quoted by Apararka and other works says that when a man is unable to perform the elaborate snana described by himself and others, he should engage only in this he should invoke the water, then perform acamana,
;
then mSrjana (sprinkling water on body with kusa blades) and then snana and muttering of Aghamarsana ORg, X, 190.1-3) 1573 The Gr. R. ( pp. 215-217 ) quotes the method of snana thrice. according to the Padmapurana and the Nrsirhhapurana and
remarks that the procedure in the Padmapurana may be observed by all varnas and by men following all the different Vedic schools ( except the Vedic mantras in the case of sudras ). The
Smrtyarthasara (p. 28
1572.
2.
)
also gives a brief procedure of snana.
1573
l&rq quoted by amrlr
p. 134,
^f
^. p.
212
<
where
it is
explained
),
6<U
Oh.
XVlI
There are certain rules to be observed when bathing. One to bathe naked ( Gaut, IX. 61 and Manu IV. 45 ), nor with all clothes on ( but only with the lower garment ) nor after taking one's meal ( Manu 4. 29 ); one was not to rub the body in water but outside on the bank, one should not
was not
strike the water with one's foot or
hand
or dash a portion of the
water against the
rest.
1574
The earth to be employed ( like soap ) for cleansing the 1575 body was to be obtained from a pure place and not from an ant-hill or from places infested by mice, nor from under water, nor from the public road, nor from the bottom of a tree, nor from near temples, nor out of what was left by some person after using a portion for his own 6auca and is to be invoked with two verses aSvakrante 1576 &o. Laghu-Harlfca ( v. 70-71 ) says earth secured after digging eight angulas from the surface should be used, all earth is pure which is taken from a place not frequented by people and that ten kinds of earth should not
'
'
be used at the time of bathing
'
verses 72-73
),
The brahmaoarin was not to bathe in a leisurely manner but to dive in water motionless like a stick.
or sporting
The Mahabharata, Daksa and others say that ten good consequences follow from snana viz, strength, beauty, clearness of complexion and voice, ( pleasant ) touch and odour ( of the 1577 body ), purity, prosperity, delicacy and fine women.
Bathing with water
naimittika,
is
divided into eix varieties by Sankha

or abhijanga-snana
smyti (VIII. 1-11), Agnipurana 155, 3-4 and others, viz. nitya,
kamya, kriyanga, malapakarsana
),
1574.
*192
VI. 36-37
1575.
vide
* <H%T TTFTTT ^T LOTTOS^KJ T j{xicnit ^ST f 2Tfl!JT *j

I
<
=<<r*fi'5r>i'r
H^T 1%:
II.
44-45.
Vide
'm. m. I. part be avoided.

1576.
1 p. 271.
Vide
sm
quoted by ^f *. p. 188 aod 321-322 for the seven kinds of earth to

snRfTcTT
.
X.
1,
The verses 3?H?bH*H are ^r II. 46-47 and occur in the 3Rc*^rsn<T 102. 10-12. Vide 5^n^r. I. p. 183.
gorr
1577.
^r
^TFrrffe H^r'S *?&

H
^^cjufyyQ:
$*<l4 snrn^ rrf:
^ffnri
37. 33.
^$r II. 13
is
simiUr
which occurs also ID
fqtWtm
p.
Ch.
XVII
Ahrtika-procedure of bathing
665
kriyasnana. Nitya snana (daily bath) has been described above. A few observations are made below on each of the others. On certain occasions or on coming in contact with certain persons or things one has to bathe, although one may have already bathed that day. This is called naimittika ( due to some occasion or cause ) sndna. For example, on the birth of a son, in a sacrifice ( at the end ), on the passing away of a relative, in eclipses, one has to bathe and even at night 1578 ( Par&Sara XII. 26 and Devala quoted above ). Similarly a man has to bathe with all his clothes on if he touches an outcast ( who is guilty of one of the mortal sins ), a c&ndala, a woman who has recently delivered, a woman in her monthly course, a corpse, or one who has touched a corpse or one who has touched another that has come in contact with a corpse
corpse ( Qaut. 14. 28-29, Vas. 4. 38, V. 85 and 103, Yaj. III. 30, Laghu-A&valSyana 20. 24 ). According to Manu V. 144, Sankha-smrti VIII. 3, Mark. purSna 34. 82-83, Brahmapurana 113. 79, Paraiara XII. 28, if a man
or
when a man follows a
I5T9
Manu
vomits or has many purges ( ten or more ), if he has a shave or has a bad dream, has had sexual intercourse, if he repairs to a cemetery, or is covered with smoke from a funeral pyre or touches a sacrificial post or a human bone, he has to undergo a bath to 158 Ap. Dh. S. I 5. 15. 16 prescribes a bath if a purify himself man is bitten by a dog and Gaut. 1 4. 30 prescribes it even for touching it. If a man touches Bauddhas, Pasupatas, Jainas,
.
Lokayatikas, atheists, dvijatis living by condemned actions and sudras he should bathe with his clothes 15SI on. Tho Mit. on Yaj. III. 30, the Sm. 0. I. pp. 117-119 and other digests
speak of snana being necessary on coming in contact with
1578.
^ySrCWM
T^
^T
flTOT
"^RTTVTIT
TR^T^ST
^5T^
f ft
qrr$K XII.
1579.
26.
Mi^cf^^^f^'îffîej^îî^tîcnc^tt^^t'T^T'T
!
W *ic
i
*ft-
14 28-29
-
tf
uifi^:T
*Tfnf*jj
ii
^^"^cynrT
*n.
20. 24.
1580.
II
TOSHC quoted in fftmo on

1.
;
HI. 30, which
is
slightly different
from the printed M<I$K XII.
^T ^
52 for & verse similar to
1581.
ll
ofofvnft gprajfr3r TFST SSTÎ I 5Ti*fiH *ren^TTStT<T 34. 82-83; vide Baud. Dh. S. I. 5.
I.
p.
118
i
quotes
ftwr ......
rSTTOS^TT quoted in f^mo on CI^Î^H reading

'
*H-
HI.
30.
f^rjr
^r^nrT ^rfHiftJici;
>
H. D, 84
W8
several birds
Ch.
XVII
village
hog
),
(Hke the crow) and animals (like the cook and which are passed over for want of space.
which
Kamya-8riana (bath for some desired object) is that is taken when one goes to a tlrtha ( a sacred place ) or
im
when there is some astrological conjunction like the moon being in the constellation of pusya (vide Sankhasmrti VIII. 4) or when one bathes in the morning in the two months of M&gha and
Phalguna
pp.
for securing abundant pleasures. 122-123 for numerous examples.
Vide Sm. C.
I.
When
rite
man
such as the
rite of
has to take a bath as a part of the religious dedicating a well, a temple, a park to the
1
public, that is called kriyanga-snnna.
* 93
When a man applies oil to his body, uses myrobalans and engages in a bath solely for cleaning the body ( and with no idea of performing an obligatory duty or securing religious merit ) that is called malapakar$aka or abhyanga-snana. The Sm.C. I. p. 125, Apararka pp. 195-196 and other works lay down elaborate rules about this snana. One rule is that on certain tithis like parva ( vide Manu IV 128 and Ysj I. 79 above on It is said that one p. 204 ) there is to be no bath with oil &c. desiring prosperity should use dried myrobalan ( Smalaka ) at the time of bath except on the 7th and 9th tithis and on parva
days. p. 125
158 *
Vide
Vamanapurana
14.
49
ff.
quoted
in
Sm.
C.
I,
for astrological rules.
When
man
regards bathing at a sacred place the reward

in
and engages by Sankhasmrti IX that is called

of his pilgrimage
the procedure prescribed

1
Icriya-snana.
***
A person who -is ill may bathe with hot water or he may, if he cannot bear that, only wash his body except the head or his body may be rubbed with a wet piece of cloth. This last method
1582.
VIII.
1583.
4.
sfHi$aTr*n*J
*Jfj
nfr^nfp tHiHgîid
fgT&EiT(
P-
27
VIII.
1584.
*3T$g[
II
6.
m^^ quoted in *f
iffae I. P- 123.
I
1585.
5RRfo 1c* gfMTl^lHN *T|^ *S?W*m

Sin. C. I. p.127, Gr. B. pp. 206-8, Par.
p. 27.
6ankha IX
is
quoted by
M.
I.
part 1 p. 274.
Cb.
XVII
Ahnika-various kinds of snanas
667
is called kapila-snana?***
is ill
There
is
another method where a

it is
man
and something happens on which

;
for
him to bathe in this case one who him and then bathe himself and then again touch him and bathe when this is repeated ten times the person who is ill
;
absolutely necessary is not ill should touch
deemed to have become pure as if he had bafched. 1587 In the case of a woman in her monthly course, if on the fourth day
is
ehe has high fever, she is not to be bathed, but another woman is to touch her and bathe with all her clothes on and perform ficamana and touch her and bathe again this is to be carried out ten or twelve times and in the end the clothes worn by the ailing woman are to be taken off and new ones to be given
;
to her
and she becomes
clean.
1888
The bath with water is called Varupa (as Varuna is the lord ' of waters, according to Rg. VII. 49. 3 ySsftm r5ja Varuno ' &c. ) and.Vfiruna is the principal kind of bath. There are six kinds of
gauna snanas which
may
be employed when one
is either ill artd
so unable ns to undergo a regular bath or when there ia no time or room to take a regular bath. These six ( with Varuna as the seventh ) are enumerated and defined in Yogayajnavalkya and
other works and they are: mantrasnana, bhauma, agneya, v&yavya, divya, manasa. Daksa II. 15-16 and Parasara XII. 9-11 mention these except bhauma and manasa and employ the word brShma in place of mantrasnSna. The Vaik. gr. ( I. 2 and 5 ) employs both words mantra and 'gurvanujfia* as synonymous. Qarga and Brhaspati omit bhauma and manasa and speak of sarasvata-snana instead, which consists in the blessing pronounced by a learned man in the case of a dvijsti, or a pupil or his son may you have a bath with golden jars of Ganges water and of other sacred waters ( vide Ahnika-prakasa
' ' ' *
1586.
quoted by arorol
3
p.
135
both quoted by tgfifero

vc vjc^^ îfe**
part
1 p.
I.
p. 134, anrSfaraTOr p. 197.

t
1587,
aii aiiil^wr
î*
if
IDRT3T:
VIKU
I.
*t
^H (JivSnanda,
anda, part II
1588.
art
565),
fg<miK
i
chap. VI. p. 208
( Ji
quoted as tm's in ^ffiNio

T^ffirr
p. 121,
.*
ani^t^T^RT
p. 197.
vmf^sjii 'n nft
^Kjar
âg^feft
^r& IÎ^WJT 5
^5 5^5
I.
'
*^
3 Wrti w\*m$i
fJsfT
H^jr
*v*^quoted by
p. 121.
668
pp,
1589
Ch.
XVll
consists in sprinkling 196-197). The mantrasnana ' water with the verses 5po hi stha ( Rg. X. 9. 1-3 ), the bhauma agneya in ( or parthiva ) in smearing the body with loose earth,
'
smearing the body with holy ashes, wya*?ya in taking on the body the dust raised by the hoofs of cows, divya in wetting one's body with a shower of rain accompanied with sunshine and manasa in reflecting on God Visnu.
Tarpana ( offering water to gods, sages and Manes ) is an subsidiary constituent part ) of snana, just as it is an ( a anga in brahma-yajfta. When a person plunges his whole body in water including the head, he has to perform tarpana while Vide Manu II. 176, Visnu Dh. S, 64. still standing in the water. 23-24 (quoted above in n,1570), Parasara XII. 12-13 for this. He joins his two hands together, takes water in the joined hands and oasts the water into the stream in which he is standing. If he changes his clothes, then he may perform the tarpana on the bank of the river. There was a difference of opinion 1590 that a man had to perform tarpana about tarpana. Some said
as an anga of snana immediately after it and before samdhya prayer and then again the same day as an anga of brahmayajna ;
anga
while others held that tarpana was to be performed only once in the day after sarhdhya prayer. One has to perform tarpana according to the procedure prescribed in one's Sakha ( Vedio school ) but Sankha prescribes a brief tarpana which consists in the words may the universe from Bramtia down to a bunch of grass be satisfied' (or satiated) and offering three When he performs tarpana aftjalis ( joined hands ) of water.
*
1589.
anihf
f. *. p. 203.
(%Aar^r
on ^T
I.
by snrnlr pp. 134-135, 22 quotes II. 15.
^f3^
1.
p. 133,
1590.
f^
P-
1^1
vide the next page

I
also
and
p.
144
mtawraHWratift ^3ll5lf^^
|fliin4
'âM ^ iT
<tTH;
Ttil
I
n^
^Rr
Oh.
XVII
Ahnika-tarpana
669
standing in water, he should not wring the water from the ends of his garment until he has finished it. He should then 1591 the ends of his garment and the water so falling down wring
is deemed to be meant for the sonless deceased persons born in the family of the bather and he has to repeat a verse to that effect. Further details of farparia are set out under
brahmayajna below.
After one takes a bath one was not to shake one's head ), nor should one rub off the water
for getting rid of the water
on one's body with one's hand or with the garment already worn by one one has to cover one's head with a turban ( to dry the hair ) and wear two fresh garments already washed and dried ( Visnu Dh. S. 64. 9-13 ).
;
What clothes the brahmaoarin was to wear has already been stated ( pp. 278-279 ). A few words must be said about the clothes to be worn by a householder.
Weaving and woven cloth are frequently referred to in the Veda, generally in a metaphorical sense or in similes. Vide Rg. 1. 115. 4, II. 3. 6, V. 29. 15, X, 106. 1. In $g. VI. 9. 2-3, both warp (fantu) and woof (otu) are mentioned. The words used for garment are 'vasas' or Vastra'. In the Tai. S. (VI. 1. 1. 3) it is said that kauma (linen) cloth is worn when a person takes the dlksa (initiatory rite) for a Vedio sacrifice. In the Kanaka Sam. XV. 1 ksauma cloth is said to be the fee in a certain rite. In the Atharvaveda VIII. 2. 16 we have the two words vasah ' * 98 used with reference (outer garment) and 'nlvi* (under garment) to the same man. In the Rg. the word adhivasa is also used with reference to a garment which must "Gave been somewhat like a mantle or toga ( Rg. I. 162. 16 ). In the Tai. S. II. 4. 9. 2. the skin of the black deer is mentioned. In the Sat. Br. V. 2. 1. 8 it is said that when the $estr 15fiS priest is about to lead up the sacrificer's wife he makes her put on a kusa upper garment (vasas) or a kusa skirt next to the cloth that
'
1
'
'
1591.
I
anfjrSnWSTST p. 145.
^jj;
^'5e^
^PEffaf
Wdl
ftwflti
1592.
*n*
<rr*: <rirorf *rf
WW <&&*
s?T3r
)
i
P-250.
aro&f
'
VIII.
2. 16.
1593.
I
;
^TcT^qwr. V. 2.
'.
1. 8.
mav mean made
of silk nr
of kuâ grass
670
one who
3. 6.
History of Dharwakastra
is initiated
Cb.
XVII
there
woollen
V. 52. 9
wool on
obscure.
woollen solemn occasions, that deer-skin was also employed as covering and that cloth was also dyed red. Whether cotton cloth was known in the earliest Vedic period is not certain. It is clear
that in the sutras
(
for the sacrifice wears. In the Br. Up. II. a reference to cloth dyed red with safflower or cloth that is whitish in colour. Rg. IV. 22. 2 and Bg. are interpreted by Western scholars as referring to the Parusnl river being the best, but the sense is rather above that cloth was either It appears from the or linen, that silken ( or ku6a ) cloth was worn on very
lm
is
Visnu Dh.
)
S. 71. 15
and
63. 24
and in
its
Manu
S.
326 and 12. 64
cotton cloth is
known and
so
use
must have reached several centuries before the times of the Arrian ( tr. by MacCrindle) says that Indian dress was Butras. made of cotton (p. 219 ).
The Ap. Dh. S. (II. 2. 4. 22-23) requires that a householder should always wear an upper garment ( besides the lower one ) but allows him to have only the sacred thread instead ( if he be poor &c. ). Vas. Dh. S. XII. 14 says that sriatakas ( those who have returned from the stage of student-hood ) should always wear a lower garment and an upper one, two yajfiopavltas &c. The Baud. Dh. S. I. 3. 2. says the same and adds that a snataka should wear a turban, a deer-skin as upper garment, shoes
and have an umbrella. Apararka ( pp 133-134 ) quotes verses from VySghra and YogaySjfiavalkya to the same effect, the latter remarking that if one cannot procure a second washed garment one may wear a blanket of wool, or hempen or linen cloth. Baud. Dh. S. (1. 6. 5-6, 10-11) says 'among garments 1595 the one that has not been worn is pure and therefore everything connected with sacrifice and worship should be done with fresh ( or unblemished) clothes. The sacrificer, his wife and the priests should wear garments that have been washed, dried in the wind and are not worn out by use but in sacrifices performed for abhicara (harm to one's enemies) the priests should wear clothes and turbans dyed red. In consecrating the Vedic fires one should wear clothes made
;
1594.
<r.
II. 3. 6.
1595.
3T*i
^m*fttr
arereror
I. 3.
1-6.
8.
Compare for red

12
<
III.
clothes
and turban
in
magic
rites
^rit tTtftmcotitn BTif^wnrf *rf**sr:
nwtfft
Oh.
XVII
Mnika-dothes
after bathing
671
of flax or if they are nod available cotton or woollen ones. Sahara on Jaimini X. 4. 13 quotes iruti passages to the effect that the sacrificer and his wife wear fresh unused clothes in the model sacrifice and in the Mahavrata the sacrificer wears in addition a tarpya ( silk garment ) and his wife wears one made of kusa 1596 Baud. Dh. S. II. 3. 66 requires that one must wear grass. an upper garment in five acts viz. study of the Veda, dedication of a well or a tank &o. to the public, making gifts, taking one's meal or acamana. Similarly the Visnupurana (III. 12. 20) requires that a man must not, with only one garment on, begin horaa, the worship of gods and similar rifces, study of the Gaut. 9. 4-5, Ap. Dh. S. I, 11. 30. Veda, acamana and japa.
1
10-13, Manu IV. 34-35, Yaj. I. 131 and others enjoin that a snataka and a householder should wear white garments and they must not be worn out or dirty if he has enough ( means )
and should not wear dyed garments or garments of high price or gaudy ones ) or those worn by another. 1898 Baud. Dh. S. II. 8. 24 remarks what a man, while wearing reddish garments, does such as japa, homa, receiving gifts, offerings made to gods and Manes, does not reach the gods. 1899 Cloth dyed in indigo is also forbidden aiffl a male has to undergo a fast and take pancagavya for wearing such cloth. The Apastamba smrti ( in verse ) chap. VI has several verses on cloth dyed in indigo. The Mit. on Yaj. III. 292 quotes verses 1-5 of Apastamba. Vide Apararka p. 1186 for quotation of the same verses and also of Angiras, verses 32-39 (which are almost the same as Apasfcamba's). Gaut, 9. 5 -7, Manu IV. 66, Visnu Dh. S. 71. 47, Mark, purfina 1600 34 42-43 prescribe that one should not wear the shoes, garment*
(
' ,
1596.
3T3<fr
TOT; <rfÎ% %ft
sm on
^. X,
4. 13.
Vide Baud. Dh.
S.
I. 6.
13
;
as
has two meanings (1) tarpya is to be purified. The word cloth fresh from the loom ( to be worn in marriages and similar maiigala
to
how
3^
ceremonies
that
is
(2)
garment that
has
is
virtually
new and
its
fringes intact.
washed, but not used for many days, Vide Sm. C. I. p. 113.
p. 35
1597.
III. 12. 20,
quoted by |TTTT^ ( ttZWZ
).
1598.
^ri& f^<
9.
4-5
inr.
V.
1. 11. 30,
10-13.
1599.
.
^. ^. II. 8. 24,
quoted by amnff
P. 461.
1600.
34. 42-43.
672
Oh.
XVII
yajnopavlta, ornament, garland, or water-jar used by another but if a man is unable to secure one for himself, he may wear
another's garment
or shoes or garland after cleansing it. According to Garga quoted in the Sm. C. ( I. p. 113 ) a brahmana should wear white garments, a ksatriya red and brilliant ones, a vateya yellow ones, a 6ftdra should wear a dark one that is The Mahabharata says that one has to wear garments at dirty. the time of worshipping gods that are different from those that one wears while walking on a road or when one is in bed 1MI . Prajapati quoted by Par. M. states that in tarpaga one should wear silk cloth having a hem or one that is orange-coloured, but never one that is gaudy. Probably it is requirements like these that led to the practice of wearing silken garments at the time of meals and worship, which practice is observed even now in many parts of India. Manu IV. 18 and Visnu Dh, S. 71. 5-6 prescribe that one must dress, speak and entertain thoughts that would be in keeping with one's age, occupation, monetary affairs, learning, family and country. The garments to be worn by the vanaprastha and samny&sin will be discussed below. The smrtis contain rules about tucking up the lower garment. A garment should be tucked in three places i. e. when it is tucked near the navel, on the left side and behind on the back.
A brahmana is said to be a atidra as long as he has not tucked his

garment behind or allows one corner of it to hang down from behind like a tail, or has tucked it in the wrong way or side, or has wound part of it round his waist or has covered the upper part of the body with a portion of the lower garment. Vide Sm. M. ( ahnika pp. 351-353 ) and Sm. C. I. pp. 113-114 for these and other rules about wearing garments.
After one bathes, one has to sip water
(Daksa
II. 20. ff)
and make marks on his forehead
(variously called tilaka, urdhvapundra, tripundra &c. ) according to one's caste or sech In the Ahnikapraka&a ( pp. 248-252 ), in the Smrtimuktaphala
subject.
1601.
104. 46, quoted
(ahnika
pp. 292-310) elaborate rules are laid down on this In the Brahmandapurana im it is stated that for making
by OTTT
P-
173 and ^f.
^.
p.
501.
t^f
33a.
<r$m OT <mr*a tfmsrr *gf*i<jqqfcre?T: Tide fS^TOm^ta PP. 42-43.
1602.
warresnr quoted
In
Ch.
XVII
Ahnika-making marks on
the forehead
673
Srdhvapundra (vertical mark of a line or lines on the forehead) one may select earth from the top of mountains or from banks of holy rivers like the Indus and the Ganges, from places sacred to Visnu, from ant-hills and from the root of the tulasl plant. The thumb, the middle finger and the finger next to the small finger are to be used in making the mark, but the nails should not come in contact with the earth employed. The mark may be of the form of a lamp and its wick, or of the form 9f bamboo leaves or a lotus bud, or of a fish or tortoise or a conch and the mark may be in length from two to ten The marks are to be made on the forehead, the fingers. chest, the throat and its pit, on the abdomen, the right and left sides, the arms, the ears, the back, the back of the neck, after taking the twelve names of Visau ( viz. Kesava, Narayana &c. ) for each of the above twelve parts of the body. The tripundra mark (three oblique lines) is to be made with holy ashes 1 ' 03 (bhasman) and the tilaka with sandal wood paste. According to the Brahmandapurana, the urdhvapundra is made after a bath with loose earth in such a way that it resembles the outline of 1CO* the tripundra with holy ashes after homa, the foot ( of Hari ), and the tilaka ( a circular mark ) with sandal wood paste on worshipping gods ( devapuja ). The Sm. M. ( ahnika p. 292 ) quotes Vasudevopanisad for making the urdhvapundra mark on the forehead and other places with Gopicandana ( magnesian or calcareous clay ) or in its absence with earth from the roots of
Sacrifice, giffcs, japa, homa, study of the Veda, tarpana of the Manes, if done without the urdhvapundra mark, become fruitless ( according to Visnu quoted in Sm. M. ahnika p. 292 ). The Vrddha-Harlta smrti (II. 58-72) has a long note on
the tulasl plant.
urdhvapundra. The Sm. M. (ahnika p. 296) notes that some texts of the Pasupata and other Saiva sectarians run down urdhvapundra
and highly
enjoin the
of
extol the
tripundra mark, while Pancaratra texts
weapons of Visnu who are followers of Madhva carya brand the weapons of
1603.
r
marking of the body with sankha, cakra and other Visnu and condemn tripundra. Devout worshippers
g?vis*sl
^T
^rffirs''^
WT^TT
^T
m^
flnr:
quoted in 3nf%4>qqrrer P- 250
and
fr^^nnrcsnrT p. 279.
The
is
defined as
1604.
5TWg:^f
H. D. 85
n<fN^T
efuft
%^^^
^ %m^rac
i
snê&ra f^r^qr
wlwr
iîfta
VIII. 67-68.
674
Oh.
XVII
Visnu such as the conch on their arms and bodies with heated metal pieces, just as early Christians stamped the cross on the forehead
with red-hot iron ( vide Wilson's Religious Seeks of the Hindus', vol. I. p. 42 ). Works like Vrddha-Harlta II. 44-45, the Prthvl'
candrodaya condemn the practice of branding the body with marks of the conch &c. with red-hot iron as fit only for Sudras. The Smrtyartha-sagara of ChalSri quotes passages of the VayupurSna and Visnupurana supporting branding. In the KalSgnirudropanisad the procedure 1805 of the tripundra mark is laid down. Holy ashes are taken from the sacred fire with the five mantras 'sadyo jatam ( TaL Ar. 10. 43-47 ) and they are then invoked with the
'
mantras 'agniriti bhasma'; part of the ashes is then taken in the palm of one's hand with the mantra 'ma nastoke', mixed with water and therewith lines ( Rg. I. 114. 8 ) and are made on the head, the forehead up to the (middle of the ) eyebrows and eyes, on the chest and shoulders,
after repeating tryayusam Jamadagner when applying the ashes to the forehead, 'kasyapasya trySyusam* when applying
*
'
to the navel
or chest
gr.
and so on
1608
The Sankhyayana
with ashes
(
"
says
five
He makes
'
the head coming last ). the tripundra mark

'
with the
formulas
forehead, chest, right and left by doing this ) he studies these Vedas, one, two, three or all."
tryayusam &c, on his shoulders and then on the back;
The Smrtimuktaphala l807 ( ahnika p. 301 ) quotes a passage from Baudhayana in which the words of the exhortation to the pupil returning home bhfttyai na pramaditavyam occurring
'
'
in the Tai. Up.

1605.
I.
11 are interpreted as referring to the

801 for
all
making
Vide Sm. M.
p.
details.
Even now
parts of a
mantra are used in applying holy ashes to the forehead, to the navel, to the right and left shoulders and the head. The mantra occurs in a^rr. *Tqn.
3T*j|
II.
7.
2
J
3*n*r$r
M.
snrîh
*f.
sm^H
^T3f.
3?5*f<i**r s^rgr^ HI. 62 has the same
I^RT
*
*yi*gr
cr?d
mantra with
slight
*T*H
variations.
About the ashes the following are repeated

T
arfJrfTfil
fl^f
3TT
^
29
WT,
'
quoted
1606.
quoted in ^ftg.
this
STTf^K p. 303
).
Vido
S.
B. E.
vol.
p.
76 where
passage
1607.
i
is
said to be a late addition.
^hmrsf quoted in ffRfe.
3*11%^
p.
301
).
Oh.
XVII
Ahnikarmarks on the forehead
6?5
of the tripundra
of
how
mark with ashes ( bhuti ). This is a fine example sectarians twist the words of ancient texts to bolster up
and dogmas. In the KSdambarl (para 34) Harlta is described as ornamented by the tripundra mark of ashes. The Aoaramayftkha quotes a verse from the Bhavisyapurana of him who does not bear the tripundra mark, truthfulness, 6auca japa, homa, pilgrimage and worship of gods all this becomes futile and a verse from the Smrtiratnavali as to the parts of the body that are to be smeared with holy ashes, viz. the
their practices
'
'
forehead, the region of the heart,'navel, throat, shoulders, the joints of the arms, the back and the head. The SmrtimuktSphala
(
ahnika p. 310 ) gives the following sage advice to the Saiva and Vaisnava sectarian writers that were guilty of running
down
the practices of each other As one God appears in the form of various deities, all should worship their ( favourite )
god, whether Siva, Visnu or any other, without indulging in the calumny of other deities and they should wear the
pundra mark that is deemed to be pleasing to any deity 608 The Nirnay asindhu without calumniating other sect marks V when dealing with the llth day of Asadha ( II pariccheda )
sets
Ramareana-candrika passages about the body with conch figure by means of heated metal pieces and also quotes the Pfthvlcandrodaya and other works that condemn such practices and remarks that one may
out from
the
marking
of the
follow the
sistas.
The acararatna
p.
37 a
states that
votaries
are of several kinds, viz. Saivas and Vaignavas who are purely followers of the Vedio cult, 6aivas and Vaisnavas who follow
both Vaidika and Tantrika practices and the same two following purely the Tantric cult.
After bath comes samdhya ( Yaj. I. 98 ). This subject has been dealt with above ( pp. 312-321 ) under Upanayana.
After samdhya comes homa (Daksa II. 28 and Yaj. I. 98-99). a brahmana took a bath in the early morning and engaged in If a lengthy samdhya prayer he may not be able to perform homa in the morning at the proper time. Homa was performed in the morning before sunrise according to one view ( anudite juhoti) and after sunrise, according to another (uditejuhoti)\ but even on the latter view, homa must be performed before the
1608.
t**ft
P.
310)
&76
Ch.
XVII
sun rises one cubife above the horizon ( Gobhila-smrti I, 123 ). 1609 The evening homa is to be performed at a time when the stars clearly appear in the sky and the ruddy colour has left the western horizon ( Gobhila-smrti 1. 124 ). Asv. Sr. II. 2 and &$v. gr. I. 9. 5 state the time for morning homa to be up to the end Df the period of sangava ( i. e. the second of the five periods of day time ). Therefore some said that in order to perform homa in time one may perform the morning samdhya prayer even after 1610 tioma. It has been shown above ( p. 425 ) that the belief was ;hat a man owed three debts one of .which, viz. that to the gods, was discharged by performance of sacrifices and that a man had to perform agnihotra ( fire worship ) to the end of his life. The fire to be tended was either sjauta or smarta. As to the irst there were certain rules. Only a person that had attained i certain age was to kindle the srauta fires, viz. one who had i sou or had reached an age when he could have a son and vhose hair was still black ( i. e. who had not become middle-aged 3r old ). There were two views on the necessity of kindling the " Srauta fires. Vas. Dh. S. XL 45-48 I6I! says a brahmapa must necessarily kindle the three srauta fires and offer ( in them ) the DarsJa-Purnamasa ( new moon and full moon sacrifices ), the Agrayana isî, the Caturmasyas, the animal and soma sacrifices. For this is enjoined as an observance and has been lauded as a, For it is declared ( in the Veda ) a brahmana is born debt.
'
1609.
tf^rerefonâ **nr *Wt fttfta^ ^cn^f Tf%*faf$fT
'
?sr II.
28;
i
the several
T ir^ft 122-123. Manu II. 15 refers to *fif*ra*'fffil I. views about fffrnffrc?- HH^r*3T^?T in Manu is explained as the
ftc^TT
time before the sun's disc appears after the stars hare become invisible. I. p. 161 and ft. ^. tf. ^Kiffig I. 72 for explanation of g-f^cT,
&c.
Tbe ^CZT^HTT
p.
35 says
1610.
?5TT
:
II
f^pf
^1^% i^T ^n^

p.
^ffg ^r^roT:
I. p.
ftf ind ^^fK5T^7T?T

1611.
HTST5T quoted in
890.
^m^
163
vide ftrqi^TTT^f^ p. 314
XI. 45-48
.
4-9 for similar provisions. Manu IV. 26 explains that the Agrayana i$ti is to be performed with the new grain that is brought in at the end of the rainy season ( in s*arad ) after the old grain is consumed, that an animal sacrifice is to be performed at the eginning Df the uttarByana and of daksjnSyana ( i. e. twice a year) and a Soma
sacrifice
once a year at
its
beginning.
Vide also YSj.
I.
125-126,
Ch.
XVII
Ahwka-dcdly homa
677
indebted in three debts, in sacrifice to the gods &o." Sabara on Jaimini V. 4. 16 expressly says that there is no particular time fixed for kindling the sacred fires and that a person may do so the very day on which the pious desire to do uia The TrikSndaraandana I. 6-7 so arises in hia mind refers to the two views that Udhana ( kindling of srauta fires ) is nitya ( obligatory ) and the other view ( discussed by Baudhayana) that it is merely kamya (to be performed only if one desires the fulfilment of certain objects The person who had
.
).
daily oblations in them. It is clear that even in'very ancient times aot many kindled the sacred Vedic fires. The Grhya and Dharma sutras often contain rules
fires offered his
kindled the sacred
who had kindled the sacred fires and to those For example, the A&v. gr. I. 1. 4 quotes ftg. VIII. 19. 5 'the person who lays a fuel stick on fire, or throws an oblation on it or offers it the study of the Veda, or who pays adoration to Agui, (in substance) offers a good sacrifice.' As v. im Rg, VIII. gr. then quotes a brahmana passage explaining 19. 5 in which reliance is also placed on two more Rk verses
referring to those
who had not
Rg. VIII. 24. 20 and VI. 16. 47 ). The purpose of all this is that even the study of the Veda, the performing of namaskara and offering of a samidh in the fire are equivalent
viz.
to
show
sacrifice. That shows that it was not obligatory on every-body to-kindle tho three sacred fires. But it must be said that agnihotra was highly thought of in ancient India. Vide Chandogya Up. V. 24. 5 for a verse extolling ifc.
to a real
The three fires (often called Treta) are the Ahavanlya, Garhapatya and Daksinagni. The Ahavanlya fire-place is a square, Garhapatya is round (as the earth is round) and Dakainagnl is in the form of half the orb of the moon ( vide Vrddha-Gautama Tn the Brahmanas and Srautasutras elap. 604, Jivananda ).
borate discussions are held about the kindling of fires (agnyadhana), about the several sacrifices and the various details
has been decided, in view of the vastness and the academic nature for modern times of the treatment of most of those rites, to pass them over
connected therewith.
It
of the subject of srauta rites
1612.
^*n*r^ efff^^raH*m"UT%
rrft ^TWT?*T tfîrt^T^t
I
5f.
V.
4. 16.
1613.
*T:
tffmTT
3lTg?ft *fr
ipf 3^F?T Ufff
%<wi
.
ari^T^cT
VIII. 19.5-6.
678
History of Dharmdiastra
Oh.
XVtl
this
in this work and to give in a separate chapter at the end of volume only some information about the gJrauta sacrifices.
fices
For about two thousand years hardly any animal or soma sacrihave been performed (except rarely by kings, nobles and rich In medieval times there were many brahmanas who people). performed the New and Full moon sacrifices, the Agrayana isti and the Caturmasyas. But in modern times even such agnihotrins have become very rare and in certain parts of India one can hardly find a single agnihotrin keeping 6rauta fires even among thousands of brahmanas.
1614 the sacred fires has to offer Every one who has kindled every morning and evening the Agnihotra ( oblations of clariNot only has one who has ,fied butter ) in the srauta fires.
'consecrated the three sacred fires to offer agnihotra everyday, but also every householder has to do so every day twice, in the
morning and in the evening. Vide Ap. Dh. S. I. 4. 13. 22 and I. 4. 14.
agnihotra,
(
Manu
1.
IV. 25, Yaj.
I.
99,
is
'For when a
man
married, there are daily observances declared for
him such
as
'
guests and such other proper actions The rules about the proper time of 1 S. 14. Dh. I. 4. ). ( Ap. kindling fire and offering oblations and about the material of
honouring
the oblations are the

(
&6v.
gr.
I. 9.
4-6
).
same for grhya rites as in Srauta agnihotra The fire in which these daily offerings are
the three 6rauta
fires is
made by one who has not kindled
called
anpasana, avasathya, aupasada, vaivahika or (-hana ), smarta or 1015 There are various views about the time grhya or salagni. The view of the vast fire is to be maintained. this from which
majority of writers is that the grhya fire is the nuptial "fire which is kindled on the day of marriage by the newly married pair. We saw above ( pp. 530, 557 ) that the A6v. gr. ( I. 8. 5 ) directs
that the bridegroom starts after marriage from the bride's house for his own house ( whether in the same village or in
when
1614.
3*rarr=f
^ gf*n<fiq*3
srftrsfh tf^r
i
*g
IV. 26.
I.
1615.
I.
*rf*TO??T Trfr
;
1.
20-21
i.
^nrrar ssr: ^ri%^fT qTf*ra^TT^f^^m5R^ri^rgsril

1-2
;
5 1
vide
3rf?*T*TTsm*i
trsfrero
i
I. 26.
snwcmwr ^rc^rd ^nrnrerfi?

;
*n*. 2. 1. 2;
^Fwrnrî ^fr n irg III. 67 vide ?n I. 97 for the word wrRr?fTf5Tr û erRfR; TT^r^rt sfrrar^f^fT 47. 1-2. Vide ant. ^. ^,. II. 2. 3. 16 ( p. 490 explains shTfl^ as 'OTrf^r. on ft. XL 17 dis*R ). ^^rilcn&<fi ?ricJi#r BTT?. n- H. 2. 5. f
<TT%
i i
^y
tinguishea
?rrc7rflr
from 3?NifH and says
it
has a wider application.
Oh.
XVII
Ahrdka-daily homa
)
679
in a Vide
another village
vessel
(
called ukha
the nuptial fire is continually carried 1616 he reaches his house. ) in front till
'
also Ap. gr. V. 14-15.
From the holding of bhe domestic fire himself or his wife, also his son or his 1617 The worship of fire should be constantly laughter or pupil. A man's nuptial fire may go out and he may kept up*. not re-instate it through neglect or other cause or his wife may be dead and he may remain a widower. In such cases he has to offer his daily offerings in the ordinary fire on which he cooks his food ( laukika or pacana fire ) so that so far five kinds of fires ( viz. the three srauta ones, aupasana or grhya and the * laukika ) are spoken of. There is another fire called sabhya
;
The &sv. gr. I. 9. 1-3 says beginning the hand ( i. e. marriage ) he should worship
'
[which is 185 the sabhya

rich
the sixth).
fire is
According
that which
1618
to MwdhStithi
on
Manu
III.
man
kept burning in the hall of a for the removal of cold and for the diffusion of
is
Vide Sat. Br. ( S. B. E. vol. 12, p. 302 n 1 ), where the translator says that the sabhya fire was kept only by ksatriyas. The Katyayana Srauta siltra IV. 9. 20 prescribes that the sabhya
warmth.
fire also is
Sr. sfttra
bhe hall
generated by friction like the Garhapatya fire. Ap. IV. 4. 7 says that the sabhya fire is to be kindled in of gambling, according to the com. ) to the east of the
lfi18 place of the ahavanlya fire. The SmrfcyarthasSra (p. 14 ) says that a householder should maintain six fires, five, four, When three, two or one, but should never remain without fire.
he keeps the
treta,
aupasana, sabhya and ordinary
fire
he will
when he maintains the treta, aupasana and sabhya he Is called pancagni, who is among the brahmanas that are panktipavanas ( i. e, that sanctify the company at dinner ). Vide
have six
;
3-aut. 15. 29,
Ap.
Dh.
S.
I,
II.
7.
17.
22,
Manu
III.
185, Yaj.
221.
four,
He who
he who
aupasana will have only

1616.
Rc^ffr %rrf:
i
Vas. Dh. S. III. 19, maintains treta and maintains only treta
5
iÎ^TTOTOnfts^ TÎ^T
3*1"*
I. 8.
am.
n- V. 14-15.
1617.
<nf3tiT3<Tr% TOT
MR^ft^qq <r^fq-
m pr: ^rfrforcfr 37 P
1
1618.
>n *T3 III. 175

is
^gnrhfH
15th chap. p. 604
Jivananda part 2
defines
1619.
P. 14.
680
will
fire
fire.
Oh.
XVII
have
three,
will have
he who maintains aupasana and the ordinary two and one may only maintain the ordinary
1620
the grhyasfctra of a person's 6&kha were to be performed in the aupasana other rites prescribed in the smrtis were to be performed in the ordinary fire. But if one has no fire other than the ordinary one, every The under-lying idea of this rite has to performed in it. emphasis on the worship of Agni seems to be that the oblations thrown into the fire reach the sun, that sends rain, from which springs corn, that is the sustenance of all beings. Vide Manu III. 76 ( = gantiparva 264. 11 ) and Sm. C. I. p. 155, Par. M. I, part I, p. 130 for the eulogy of agnihotra.
;
The
rites prescribed in
There were other views about the time from which one was
Qaut. V. 6, Yaj. I. 97, Par. to begin keeping one's grhya fire. an to course viz. setting up the 2 others refer and L optional gr.
grhya
in all
fire
at the time
when one
of the family.
(
The San. gr. I. 1. 2-5 refers including the two already referred
separates from other members to four alternatives

to); the other
two
are
home,
the
When 1821 a pupil is about to return from his teacher's he may keep as his grhya fire that fire on which he puts
;
the last samidh

fire
of his father
latter's
or a person may, if he is the eldest son, keep on the latter's death or of his eldest brother
there is no division and the family ( if Baud. gr. II. 6. 17 says 1622 that the grhya one by which his upanayana is performed,
on the
death
).
continues joint fire for a person

that from
is
to samavartana the homa is performed only by uttering the vyahrtis acd with fuel sticks, from samavartana to marriage with vyahrtis and clarified butter, and from marriage onwards with offerings of boiled rice
upanayana
or barley.
1620.
M
**[cî*NT
1
p.
n
f TifffrftSOTS
1621.
i
%^^m?^rm
i
HI. 31-32
6.
^TîicfTOr^pjrnf^T
1.
ITi
V.
r^^^nrr^fnr %?m
.
^nrrsre
1.
TT.
I.
2-5;
compare
ifrnto*?- !
12.
1622.
3TT
^TTn^^TT^
HHre^cTTf
^TTf
m
.
3?T
II. 6.
17,
.
19-21
I. 9. 8.
Oh.
XVII
Ahnika-daily homa
681
The deities to whom agnihotra is offered in the morning and evening are Agni and Prajapati ( to the latter inaudibly ) According to some in the morning the sun takes the place of
Agni
( vide Baud. gr. II. 7. 21 quoted in Bhar. gr. III. 3, Ap. gr. VII. 21 ).
n,
1622 Hir,
gr. I. 26. 9,
The oblations are to be made in the morning and evening of cooked food, but only such corn as is fit to be offered to fire as hams is to be used ( Asv. gr. I. 2. 1 ). It is either boiled rice or
Gobhila-smrti (1. 131 and III. 114) that among havisyas the foremost are yavas ( barley ), says then comes rice, but one should eschew m5sa, kodrava and gaura among corns even if nothing else is available,
barley
(
Ap.
gr.
VII. 19
m3
).
1624
that
if rice and barley are nob available one may employ curds or milk or in their absence, yavagu ( gruel ) or water. According to a verse quoted by Narayana on Asv. gr. I. 9. 6 ten materials can be offered as havis into fire viz. milk,
curds,
flesh,
sesame
yavagu, clarified butter, boiled rice, husked rice, soma, 1625 Manu III, 257 specifies some oil and water.
fit
articles as naturally
for being
employed as
flesh is
Ap. Dh.
in
S. II. 6. 15. 12-14.
Though
Vide also havis. allowed as offering
some sacrifices it cannot be employed in the morning and evening homa (vide Asv. gr. I. 9. 6 ). The general rule is that when no particular material is specified for homa into fire, clarified butter is to be used as offering, and when no particular
1626 There mentioned, then the deity is to be Prajapati is another rule that fluid materials are to be offered into fire with the sruva ladle, while solid havis is to be offered with the
deity
is
right
hand 1687
1623.
33T:f
f*^ 3TTf
eft
1624.
and IIL ni and the 2nd by ^fipqo I. p. 163,
the
first is
U(>tod
by 3i^T%
p.
142
1625. g^> w\i&* Hml^cFf^r: î^T TIW rmi ?wnri% ^\q g II quoted by *mT*TT on 3?Tgr. ^. I. 9. 6 and by f^^n^TRq^T^ p. 320; vide 3?3rJ3TC p. 35 for u similar verse.
i
1626.
^:
II
Ttmc5
I.
113.
I
1627.
54 gôr ^^f TnatlT w&* ?f^: *S?*Wm p.

fr^
i
35.
i
Siit gror ^c? Kt5

I. 3. 8.
w^n&r
^tcf 5
^ TF^RK ft $ 4i 3 H id,
!
H. D. 86
682
Ch.
XVII
gr. (1. 1. 15-19) lays down that 'one is to kindle originally or if it goes out ) by bringing it from the house of a vaisya or from a frying pan or he may bring it
The Gobhila
grhya
fire (
one's
from the house of a person who performs many sacrifices, whether he be a brahmana or rajanya or vai&ya or one may produce it by attrition this last is holy, but does not bring proOne may do as one likes 1628 There are similar sperity. provisions in San. gr. 1. 1. 8, Par, gr. 1, 2, Ap. gr. V. 16-17. If the grhya fire goes out, the husband or the wife has to observe a fast that day as a penance ( Ap. gr. V. 19 ).
;
'.
The
fire
in
which oblations are
to be offered
must be fed by
.
plenty of dry wood, must be well kindled and smokeless, the cinders must be red-hot and it must be flaming up 1689 The
Chan. Up. V. 24. 1 indicates that oblations were to be offered only on red hot coals. The Mundaka Up. I. 2. 2 says the same. Ap. Dh. S. ( I. 5. 15. 18-21), Manu IV. 53 and others lay down that one should not come very near fire when one is not pure, one should not blow on fire with the mouth (to kindle it), nor should one place it under a cot &c., one should not throw anything impure in fire, nor should one warm one's feet over it, nor should one place it towards one's feet ( when one is sleeping). Qobhilasmrti I. 135-136 says that one should not blow on fire with the hand or a winnowing basket or a darvi (ladle), but one may use a fan; some blow on fire with the mouth because fire was produced from the mouth and construe one should not blow on fire with the words ( of Manu IV. 53 ) the mouth' as applicable to ordinary fire (i. e. one may blow
'
with the mouth on 6rauta
fires
163
).
1628.
1.1.15-19
lias
4
*n
'.
STlSFTt
ST
*Mfr WT
5Et$H f^FTTWT SfTf Tf^f
STT
RF?^
1629.
c*TWR
1630.
p.
35
vide
**f^
I.
p.
I.
163 for similar quotations

'
from several smitia and vide
The g^sr^f? ( The WflWrftfilg
%
(
*ftfifrfûr
133-134.
X. 90. 13 ) says 3<^f Z. D. M. G. vol. 35 p. 541
I.
70 requires
p
' that the blowing should be with the mouth fjjtjffcnjft^Yjf g*g T3f%'?hand not with a piece of cloth nor with tho hand nor with a winv^r^3fitj?T nowing basket. Vide i^xT on 3TFT. tqr. ^. I. 5. 15. 20 for several expla'
nations about blowing with the mouth on
fire.
Oh.
XVII )
Ahnika-daily homa
683
Tho daily boma must be offered by the man himself and Daksa says that the merit secured by performing homa by oneself
cannot be secured by getting it performed through another, but he adds that homa performed on one's behalf by a priest, by
to
one's son, teacher, brother, sister's son, or son-in-law is equivalent homa made by oneself. l621 saw above ( n. 1617 ) that the
We
Asv. gr. ( 1. 9. 1 ) allows the wife, a son, an unmarried daughter or a pupil of the householder to attend to the worship of the house.
holder's
grhya
fire.
San,
gr. II. 17. 3
is to
the
same
effect.
The
Smrtyarthasara (p. 34) adds that the wife and the daughter should perform all the acts in homa except paryuksana. Ap. Dh. S. II. 6. 15. 15-16 l632 and Manu XL 36-37 lay dow'n'that the wife, an unmarried daughter, a young married daughter, one
who
has studied
little,
a stupid person, a diseased person or one
whose upanayana has not been performed should not offer agnihotra ( on behalf of the householder); if they do so, they and he both fall into hell; therefore the person to offer agnihotra for another should be one proficient in Eirauta sacrifices and master of the Vedas. These passages have been explained
by the Sm, C. (I. p. 161 ) and other writers as applicable to the performance of 6rauta sacrifices only while as regards the daily homa in the grhya fire the wife and others specified by A6v. are held to be competent if the sacrificer is ill or has gone abroad. Haradatta (on A6v. gr. I. 9. 1-2) says that either the husband or the wife must always be near the grhya fire. 1633 Laghu-Asvalayana (L 69) says that one who has kindled the grhya fire should not leave the boundary of his village without his wife, as the texts lay down that homa is to be performed in the place where the wife stays. A brahmana 1624 may go abroad on business, leaving his fire in charge of his wife and after appointing a A priest but he should not stay away long without cause.
; ;
priest should not offer
homa on
behalf of a householder,
when
both the spouses are absent, because such
homa by him
prt
in the
1631.
\
fift
UK?
TC^TW a^fa srnrar
qft^
fis *rer
1632.
l
<T^*reS
s>jf
wror a
15-16.
^n
i
i
3?f^
-
28 ~ 29 quoted by
amrif p. 125-
ggn*ynft ^
fifHci;
*iwhm p. 34.
n^
*
OTT. *. *. II.
6. 15.
1633.
.
sjnmfo^tfforoiftf
1-2.
w widif*M*f;
s*^r on
^.
I. 9.
1634.
II
ftT^rift *f?ftg qfeh*in3i quoted in the ^gftta I. p. 161.
684
Ch.
XVII
absence of both is useless. 1655 If an householder has several wives of the same caste or wives of different castes, the texts lay down who is to be associated with him in religious rites-
These rules have already been set out above (pp. 559-60). 'When a householder's wife dies he should not give up his Vedic fires, but that ( i. e. the Agnihotra ) should be performed till one's life by means of an upadhi ( i. e. by marrying another savarna ' wife or by associating with himself an asavarna wife ) says 1636 Gobhila smrti III. 9. Gobhila then refers to the story of Rama, who performed sacrifices with a golden image of his discarded wife Slta kept by his side. In spite of Gobhila's dictum, allowing a golden image or a kusa representative of an absent or dead wife, Apararka condemns the practice aa
opposed to the rule laid down by Satyasadha in his srauta '* there 1<J27 is no pratinidhi (representative or substitute) sutra in the case of the owner ( i. e. yajamana ), the wife, the son,
the
(
invoked a rite ).
proper ) place and time ( for an act ), fire, the deity ( to be ), of a rite and of a text ( directed to be employed in ' His argument is that the wife's co-operation is
required in such actions as looking at the clarified butter, in unhusking grains &c. and as an image of kusa or gold cannot perform these acts, the imago cannot be employed in place of the wife. The Sm. C. replies to this argument by saying that the words of Satyasadha have reference only to a human substitute for a wife and that other smrtis allow a substitute made 16 8 of gold or kusa. For example, Vrddha-Harlta * expressly prescribes that a man may perform agnihotra and the offering of the
five daily sacrifices throughout his life in the company of his wife's image made of kusa grass (if the wife be dead If a person loses his wife or if he goes abroad or &c, ).
1635.
Hc$*ira HI.
1636.
1,
quoted in
^f3ô
r
I. p.
161.
5?rnrraft nrqrfat ^f%^T\3
ft
iftmsRSfSr III. 9-10.
These are explained at length by

I. p.
pp. 114-15 and the

1637.
^fîr^JT
ig%fiH
TT;
167.
HI. 1.; compare

3IN.
ft.
iftftd$wr<
3.
24. 4. 1
I
$ftft VI.
18-21.
1638.
^ST ffiWffi
^ft ^Wfm*lP4dj
3f<n*|!?ljT^
3 T^5rr
Ch.
XVII
Ahnika-daily homa
685
1M9
patita his agnihotra may be continued by his son The Ait. Br. ( 32. 8 ) also says that even one ( &tri, verse 108). who has lost his wife (or who has no wife) should perform agnihotra, as the Veda orders a man to offer sacrifice. 164
becomes
Not kindling Vedic fires when one was competent to do so and giving up 6rauta and smarta fires were looked upon as upapatakas by Yaj. III. 234, 239, Visnu Dh. S. 37, 28 and 54. 13.
The Vas. Dh. S. Ill 1 says 1WI that those who do not study or teach the Veda or who do not maintain the sacred fires become equal to sudras. Gargya as quoted in the Sm. C. (I. p. 156)
avers that
for
if a dvlja remains after marriage without fires even a moment ( when he has the power and authority to
maintain them ) he becomes a vratya and patita. The Mundaka Up. I. 2. 3 declares that if a person fails to perform the Darsa-Purnamasa and other sacrifices and Vaisvadeva, his seven holy worlds are destroyed. The Tai. S. I. 5. 2. 1 and the Kathaka S. IX. 2, declare 'He who makes the (sacred) fires go
out (be extinguished) is indeed a killer of a hero in the eyes of the gods and brahmanas who are anxiously devoted to rta
(
righteousness or correct order
did not formerly eat food
at his
house
'.
The texts ( such as Yaj. I. 99 ) prescribe japa ( muttering of Gayatrl and other holy Vedic mantras ) as part of samdhya adoration. This has been already referred to above (p. 313 ). Yaj. I. 99 speaks of japa (of verses addressed to the Sun) after morning homa and then in 1. 101 again prescribes japa after the midday bath of philosophical texts ( like the Upanisads, as stated in Gaut. 19. 12 and Vas. Dh. S. 22. 9 ). Vas. Dh. S. 28. 10-15 are verses which mention several hymns principally of the Rgveda, by reciting which ( inaudibly ) several times a man becomes pure. These verses occur in Sankhasmrti chap. XI Some ( with some variations ) and in Visnu Dh. S. 56 (in prose).
1639.
108.
1640.
$
1641.
T 5?
WT. 32. 8.
amtf^nnr aRg*re*n aronft

i
*rr
OT^roWt *r*Pcf
T^sft
<T?
;
^firs
qffeft
III. 1;
I m&cânrcm&^n ftm quoted by ^tfNo I. p. 156

.
fififa
*t^
mc^*n ^
H^
i
^hfT ^T
I- 5. 2.
%^riT^ ^tfilHft^ ^HRT^nf TT IX. 2 ( reads the
^^
*T
^T
words aa
wi?c?t ......
g?OTf^
).
686
of these
ftg.
History of Jbharmaifistra
Oh.
XVII
Vedic texts are well known, such as Aghamarsana 1-3 ), PavamanI verses ( Rg. IX ), Satarudriya IV. 5. 1-11 ), Trisuparâ ( Tai. Ar. X. 48-50 ) &o. ( Tai. S. Manu II. 87, Vas. 26. if, Sankhasmrti XII. 28, Visnu Dh. S. 55. 21 say that a brahmana attains the highest perfection by japa alone, even if he does not do anything else. Gobhila smrfci II. 17 says that one should inaudibly repeat as much of the Veda from the beginning as one can and that japa may be performed before tarparia or after the morning horn a or at the end of vaisvadeva and that it constitutes brahrnayajna ( II. 28-29 ). Visnu Dh. S. (64. 36-39) avers that japa should comprise sacred hymns, particularly the Gayatrl and Purusasukta, as
(
X.
190.
1642 nothing else is superior to these. Japa is of three kinds, vUcika ( audibly uttered ), upamsu ( inaudibly uttered ) and manasa ( mentally revolved ), each succeeding one being ten times superior to each preceding one (Laghu-Harlta ms chap. IV, Vide Manu II, 85 ( = Vas. 26. 9, 186, Jivananda I ). p. Saiikha XII. 29 ). Japa is one of the removers of sin ( Gaut. 19. 11 ). Japa is to be performed sitting on a seat of kusa grass, either in the house, or on a river bank, or in a cowpen, or in a fire room or at tlrthas or before images of gods or before an image of Visnu, each succeeding place being many One is not to times superior to each preceding one. m4 speak while engaged in japa. A brahmacarl or a householder who has consecrated sacred fires should mutter the Gayatrl 108 times, while a vanaprastha and yati should repeat it more than 1000 times. Vide Manu II. 101 also about the extent of the time to be devoted to japa. When in the middle ages
Vedic learning declined and Puranas came
to the fore, the
writers of the digests stated that one who has studied the whole Veda should repeat daily from the beginning of the Veda as much as he could ; if one has studied only a portion of the Veda,
then one should recite in his japa the Purusasukta ( Rg. 90) and similar hymns and a brahmana who knows only the
1642.
64. 36-39.
1643.
quoted
78-81).
in the SmrticandrikS
The verses of Lughu-HSrita about three kinds of japa are I. j>. 149 from Nrsimbapnrltya (chap. 58.
1644.
Vide
c.
^fô
I.
p.
150
ajj. *. p.
241 quoting the verses
q&
Oh.
XVII
Ahrdka-japa
687
I845 VrddhaGayatrl should repeat the texts of the puranas. Harlta( VI. 33,45, 163, 213) prescribes that the mantra of 6 letters (om namo Visnave), eight letters ( om namo Vasudevaya ) or of twelve letters ( om namo bhagavate Vasudevaya ) should be repeated 1008 or 108 times. The counting of the mantra as repeated so many times has to be done by means of one's fingers ( except the thumb ) or by drawing lines ( on the ground or walls &c. ), or by telling the beads of a rosary, as japa
I648 without counting the number is fruitless Sankha-smrti (chap. XII. in prose) lays down that the rosary should have beads of gold or precious stones or pearls or. crystal or rudraksa, padmaksa (lotus seed) or putrajlvaka or a man may count by knots
.
ku&a grass or by bending the fingers of the left hand. im Brhat-Para&ara V. p. 85 and Laghu-Vyftsa ( Jivananda part II. p. 375 ) contain similar provisions about aksamala and counting of japa. They add indraksa' to the different kinds of beads. The rosary should have 108 beads (this is the best) or 54 (middling) or
of
'
27 (this
(in his
is
the lowest
number
of beads in a rosary). 1648
Kalidasa
Raghuvamâ XL 66) mentions

of
)
that the hero
had on his right ear a rosary

para 37
aksa seeds.
Parasurama Bana ( Kadambarl
speaks of counting by means of rings of rudraksas. Vide Sm. C. I. pp. 152-153, Par. M. I. part I, pp. 308-311,
Madanaparijata
p. 80,
Ahnikaprakasa
pp.
326-328 for further
details about the rosary.
After
homa and
japa one
may spend some
time in attending
to or looking at auspicious things, such as seeing one's elders, looking at a mirror or in clarified butter, arranging and
decorating his hair, applying collyrium to the eye, touching
1645.
1646.
p. 64
;
fTfcqTTSTT P. 85
3?H
1647.
i
P. 303,
XII. 4-6 quoted by snf&RTOTST P- 312.
artRra? p. 47,
^f^g>
i
I.
148,
TO. m.
I.
part 1,
1648.
ft
H argrr
^HT^?T^^T ^r^f rTcft mhrorat s^ka^wRras* ^^ quoted in ^ra ^ 1. P- 153, TO. ITT- I. part 1 p. 309 ( ascribed
1
wm
688
Oh.
XVII
durvS 164 ' &c. Vide Manu IV. 152 quoted above (p, 646). What objects a man should see on getting up has already been stated (p. 648). According to Narada ( praklrnaka vv. 54-55 ) there are eight mangala objects viz. a brahmana, a cow, fire, gold, clarified butter, the sun, water and the king and if one sees, bows to or circumambulates these, one's life is lengthened. 1850 The Vamana-purana ( 14. 35-37 ) mentions numerous objects that are auspicious and that one should touch or see before going 1851 out. The MatsyapurSna 243 enumerates in 26 verses
numerous auspicious and inauspicious objects ( these are quoted Visnu Dh. S. 23. 58 enumerates sir ). Vide Adiparva objects derived from the cow as auspicious. 29. 34, Dronaparva 127. 14 ( for touching eight mangalas ), Santi 40.7, Anusasana 126.18 and 131. 8. According to the Visnu Dh. S. 63. 26 one should start on a journey after seeing
in Gr. B. pp. 553-554
such objects as fire, a brahmana, hetaera, a jar full of water, a mirror, a banner, a parasol, palaces, fans, chowries &c. Visnu Dh. S. 63. 27-31 states that when, on leaving one's house, one goes certain persons or objects one should return to the house and then restart viz. a drunkard, a lunatic, a cripple, one who has vomited or has undergone a purge, one who is completely shaved, one with dirty clothes, one having matted hair, a dwarf, one wearing orange-coloured clothes, an ascetic &o.
The performance
of
the duties of
sauoa, dantadhavana,
snana, samdhya, homa, japa would occupy the first of the eight 1652 -part of the day a brahmana parts of the day. In the second householder was to go over and to revise his Vedic studies and
to collect fuel
sticks,
flowers,
kusa &c. (Daksa
II.
33, 35,
Yaj.
This subject of Veda study has already been dealt with above (pp. 351-354). In the third part of the day the
I.
99).
1649.
'rfcT:
%?fc?nf
I
era-
efolWiq^
* P- 183.
3H^TlR*f ^*nsjrawin% ^
54
^rr s^^rn^**
II.
30
an^Tî sm^fprr
ft^gtr*T quoted in
W-
1650.
:
ii
*n*<! (
*&<fa
quoted in
^rlNp
I. p-
168.
1651.
14.
.
35-36 quoted in *$UTOO
I.
p. 168,
*. p.
187.
1652.
q$ II.
33
and 35 %^TjT?fRm 5&^ watfa f^ft^rR

!
*u. 1. 99.
Oh.
XVII
Ahnika-duty
to earn
689
householder was to work and find out the means of maintaining

those dependent on him ( Daksa IL 35 ). The different ways of maintaining oneself in the case of brahmanas have already been
spoken of above ( pp. 105-134). Gaut. IX. 63, Yaj. I. 100, Manu IV. 33, Visnu 63. 1 and others say that a brahmana householder should approach a king or other rich person for the wherewithal to maintain hia family. The persons whom every one must maintain have already been pointed out on p. 569 (Daksa II. 36)' In the case of the well-to-do, there are other persons who should be maintained viz. agnates and cognates, one who is without I65S In this world only means, helpless or has taken shelter that man may be said to live on whom many depend for their
.
livelihood; other
men who only

(
fill
).
their
own
belly are really
dead, though living
Daksa
II.
40
In the fourth part 154 of the day ( i. e. before noon) one was to have the mid-day bath (with tarpana) and then the mid-day samdhya prayer and devapuja &c. (Daksa II. 43 and Yaj. I. 100). Those who bathe twice (in the morning and at noon) will strictly follow the routine sketched above in Daksa, Yaj. and others. But mosfc of the brahmanas bathe only once either in the
morning
or before noon.
The principal matters
to be described
in connection
sages and pitrs now be described in detail.

;
with the bath before noon are tarpana of gods, devapuja and the five daily yajiias. These will
by offering water). As stated in day one has to perform tarpana of gods, sages and pitrs. The water to be offered to gods is poured by that part of the right hand which is called devatlrtha and that for the pitrs by the pitr-tlrtha. A person was to perform tarpana according to the grhyasutra of the Vedic sakha which he or his ancestors studied. There is a good deal of divergence among the several grhyasufcras. Here the procedure of tarpana prescribed
Tarpana
II.
(satiating
Manu
176, every
1653.
1654.
II.
-
1.
100, on
43 (quoted by 3mra p. 128); which the Mit. remaiks
II
D. 87
690
History of Dharmattatra
Ch.
XVII
In the gr. ( III. 4. 1-5 ) will be first set out. Devatatarpana the following deities are enumerated and one ' has to add the words trpyatu ', trpyetam ', or trpyantu ' with each devata according as it is one deity, two deities or more ' and offer water to each (e, g, Prajapatis-trpyatu, Brahma
by the A$v.
'
trpyatu,
viz.
Dyavaprthivl trpyetam &c. ). The deities are 31 Prajapati, Brahma, Vedas, devas, rsis, all metres, omkfira,
'
vasa^kara, vyahrtis, the GSyatrl, sacrifices ( yajfias ), heaven and earth, the air (antariksa), days and nights, the Sankhyas, siddhas, oceans, the rivers, the mountains, the fields, herbs,
trees,
Gandharvas and Apsarases, snakes,
birds, cows, sadhyas,
vipras, yaksas, the raksases, the bhfttas (beings) that have these ( raksas ) at the end. In modern times the fields, herbs,
Gandharvas and Apsarases are put in one compound word and form only one devata, while after bhutas there is a separate Haradatta on A6v. gr. III. 3. 2 deity evam-antani trpyantu refers to the view of some that take evam-antani' as a separate mantra but his opinion was that the phrase evam-antani only described the preceding devatas and that the devatas stopped at 'raksamsi'. He further adds that the tarpana to these was
trees,
* '.
'
'
done by the prajapatya tlrtha (of the hand).
The sages to whom water is offered are divided into two groups. The first group contains twelve sages and when offering water to these the sacred thread is worn in the nivlta form.
The twelve sages are those of the hundred rks, the middle rsis i. e, of mandates 2 to 9 of the Rgveda), Grtsamada, Vi6varaitra f Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaja, Vasistha, Pragathas, the Pavamanl hymns, sages of the short hymns and those of the long hymns (the tarpana formula will be satarcinas-trpyantu,
(
'
madhyaraas-trpyantu, Grtsamadas-trpyantu &o,). It will be noticed that the sages from Grtsamada to Vasistha are the seers The Pragathas stand for the of mandalas 2 to 7 of the Bgveda. the first which of mandala hymn is ascribed in the eighth
to Pragatha of the Kanva got j a and the rest of mandala is ascribed to various scions of the Kanva gotra, The verses of the ninth mandala are called Pavamanyah but as it is a tarpana of sages, we rather expect the form pavamanah as in the Sankhyayana grhya IV, 10. 'Sataroinah* refers to the sages of the first mandala, and 'ksudrasuktah* and mahasuktah* to sages of the tenth mandala. Water is offered to Then there is a second group of these sages by the daiva tlrtha. ages to whom water is offered by a person who wears his sacred
Anukramam
the eighth
'
Ch.
XVII]
Ahnika-tarpana
691
thread in the pracinavlta form (i. e. it is suspended over the right shoulder and under the left; arm). There are two sub-groups here. In the first the verbal forms trpyantu or trpyatu are used
' '
'
'
with the nominative of the words for the sage

*
' ;
i.
e.
Sumantu-
Jaimini-Vaisampayana-Paila-sutra-bhasya-Bharata-Mahabha1655 rata-Dharmacaryas trpyantu'; Jananti-Bahavi-Gargya-Gautama-Sakalya-Babhravya-Mandavya-Mandukeyas trpyantu '; ' Gargl-VaoaknavI trpyatu, Vadava-Pratitheyl trpyatu, SulaThese together are five sentences. It bha-Maitreyl trpyatu is remarkable that in this list three women are mentioned as sages ( Gargl, Vadava" and Sulabha ). Among the other sages the first four are frequently mentioned in the Mahabharata as the pupils of Vyasa who taught them the Vedas (vide Sabhaparva 4. 11 and Santi 328. 26-27 where all four are named ). For chronological purposes it is important to note that the A6v. gr. knew teachers of sutras, bhasyas, of the Bharata and also the Mahabharata and of Dharma. In the second sub-group there are 17 single sages and the 18th is a
'.
miscellaneous offering to all other acaryas. The names of the 17 sages occur in the accusative and after each the word ' tarpayami is to be uttered ( i. e. Kaholam tarpayami, Kausl'
takam tarpayami
:
Avalayanam tarpayami).
These 17 sages
are Kahola, Kausltaka, Mahakausltaka, Paingya,

Suyajiia,
Mahapaihgya
Sankhyayana, Aitareya, Mahaitareya, Sakala, Baskalai Sujatavaktra, Audavahi, MahaudavShi, Saujami, Saunaka, A^valayana. The 18th is may all the other Scaryas be satiated* All these sages are ( ye canye acaryas-te sarve trpyantu ). connected with the Rgveda, its Brahmanas, its Aranyakas and other related works like the Prati&akhya sutra (of which Saunaka is said to be the author ). It is interesting to note
*
that
is named as the last teacher in tarpana. 1858 In modern said to be the teacher of A&valayana. times in the Deccan water is offered twice to each sage or group
Avalayana himself
is
Saunaka
of sages.
very brief as to pitrfcarpana after satiating the pitrs with water, each generation separately, he returns to his house and whatever he gives then becomes the fee (of the
gr. III. 4. 5 is
1
Asv.
1655 The SSntiparva(350. ll-12)shows that Sumantu, Jairaini, VaidampSyana and Paila wore along with Suka, tho son of VySsa, the pupiU of Vyffsa.
1656.
p.
Vide Introduction to I3val5yana grhjra in
S. B. E.
vol.
29,
153
ff,
692
is
Ch.
XVII
In
Brahmayajfia of which tarpana
a constituent part).
relatives to
modern times the deceased ancestors and water is offered are stated below. Water is
(except to
whom
offered to each thrice
ancestors other than the mother, grand-mother and the great-grandmofcher ) by the pitr-tlrtha and the relationship, the
women
gotra and the name of each are recited when For example, water is offered to the deceased father in the form, I offer svadhS and bow to and satiate my father, so and so by name, whose gotra was so and so and who has attained the form of Vasu* ( asmatpitaram amukasarmanam arnuka-gotram vasurupam svadhanamas tarpayami). The ancestors and relatives to whom water is offered, if they are dead, are in order ^father, paternal grandfather and great-grandfather; mother, paternal grand-mother and great-grandmother; stepmother; maternal grand-father (with maternal grand-mother,
doing
so.
'
sapatnlkam being used with matamaham ), maternal greatgrand-father and maternal great-great-grand-father (with their
wives); one's wife; one's son (or sons, if several are dead already and with his wife or their wives that are dead); daughter (with her husband, if both are dead); uncle (with his wife, if
'
'
dead); maternal uncle (with his wife, if dead); brother (with wife); paternal aunt (with husband); maternal aunt (with husband ); sister (with husband); father-in-law (with his wife and son, if they are dead); guru (father as teacher of the Gay atrl and Veda) pupil. In the case of grand-fathers and
;
grand-mothers they are described as 'rudrarupa* and the greatgrand-fathers and great-grand-mothers as 'adityarupa*. The three ancestors of the mother with their wives are respectively
185T The names of women . vasurupa, rudrarupa and adityarupa ancestors have the affix 'da* added and all persons both male and female other than those specified above are described as
'
vasurupa '.
will be noticed. Haradatta on some do not include the mother and maternal relations in the daily tarpana, and that according to the established practice in his day the tarpana formulae did not include the names and the gotra of the relatives. Most sutras
A few points of divergence

gr. III. 3. 6 notes that
Asv.
16f7.
Vide Manu
III.
284 for the temis Vasurupa, Kudrarupa and

3. 6
IdityarGpa. f^^T on 3ff*. ^. HI.
says
Ch.
XV LI
Ahni/ca-larpa'na
693
do not say that the names and gotras of the relatives are to be repeated in daily tarpana. The words 'svadha namas' do not occur in many sutras, but some do contain them (e. g. Baud. Dh.
S. II. 5.
1
84
ff.,
Vaik.
gr.
(
1, 4).
sutra.
The San.
IV. 9
The devatas of tarpana differ in each which belongs to the Rgveda just as
A6valayana's does, enumerates the deities differently in the beginning (it has Agni.Vayu, Surya, Visnu,Prajapati, Virupaksa, Sahasraksa &c.). Its order of sages is* somewhat different and it adds some names such as Sakapuni, Gautami &c. The Baud. Dh. S. II. 5 contains the most elaborate tarpana of all sutras. It includes not It puts om before each devata, rsi and pitr. only many more deities than elsewhere, but includes several
5
'
'
names of the same deity ( e. g. Vinayaka, Vakratunda, Hastimukha, Ekadanta Yama, Yamaraja, Dharma, Dharmaraja,
;
Kala, Nlla, Vaivasvata &c.). Among rsis it includes many sutrakaras like Kanva, BaudhSyana, Apastamba, Satyasadha, and also Yajiiavalkya, Vyasa. The Hir. gr. II. 19. 20, Baud. gr. III. 9, Bharadv5ja gr. III. 9-11 contain long and interesting
lists of deities
and particularly of sages.
'
If a man has no time for this lengthy tarpana the Dharmasindhu and other digests prescribe an extremely brief one, viz. he repeats two verses and offers water thrice. The verses are may the gods, sages, pitrs/human beings, from Brahma up to a blade of grass, be satiated and also all the pitrs, the mother and the maternal grand-father and the rest, may this water mixed with sesame be for the crores of families of bygone ages residing in the seven dvlpas from the world of Brahma
downwards
'.
The Snanasutra (3rd kandika)
of
Katyayana attached
to
the Par. gr. contains a description of tarpana. Like the Baud. Dh. S. it lays down that 'om' is to be uttered before the
name
of every deity
devata ) and
'
trpyatam
or
trpyantam
if
the word denoting the deity is in the plural ) is the verbal form employed. The deities are only 28 and slightly differ from
those of Asv. The group of sages is made up of only Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatana, Kapila, Asuri, Vodhu, and Pancasikha ( Kapila, Asuri and Pancasikha are according to the Sankhyakarika the names of the founders of the Sahkhya philosophy and stand in the relation of teacher and pupil). Then (after the rsitarpana ), the householder is to mix sesame in water and wear the sacred thread under the left arm and suspend it from the right shoulder and offer the water to Kavyavad Anala
694
(fire), Soina,
1<58
.
History of Dharmatdstra
Oh.
XVII
Yaina, Aryaman, Agnisvattas, Somapas, BarhiOfferings of water mixed with sesame are to be made thrice to each of the above with joined hands (jalaiijali) and this is to be done by all householders oven if the father be
sads
The remaining part of tarpana ( viz. pitrtarpana) is to by him whose father is dead. Gobhila-smrti II. 18-20, Matsyapurana 102. 14-21 are very similar to the Snanasutra. According to Asvalayana and others water is offered with the right hand only while according to Katyayana and others water is offered with both hands. 1689 The Sm. C. I. p. 191 says that the householder should follow his grhyasutra and if there is nothing in it on this point there is an option. Karsnajini prescribes that in sraddha and marriage only the right hand is employed in making an offering or gift, but in tarpana both hands ( made into an arijali ) are employed. One 1660 anjali of water is offered to each of the gods, two to Sanaka and other sages and three to each of the pitrs. When tarpana is performed
living.
be done only
while the householder
is still
in the water with his wet

;
clothes
on, he offers the water in the stream itself but when he wears dry clothes and performs tarpana, then he is to let fall the handfuls of water in a pure vessel of gold, silver, copper,
bronze, but not in an earthen one or he may let the water fall on the rôund covered with kusas ( Sm. C, I. p. 192 ). There
;
were several views on this point (vide Gr, pp. 263-264). In modern times daily tarpana has become very rare. Only a few even among the orthodox or priestly brahmanas and among
those
who have
studied the several sastras
such as grammar
1658.
Yoga-Ysjnavalkya quoted by Aparaika pp. 138-139 gives the

,
aamo names of devatSs and of the divine pitrs AB the Snffnasntra. Vide Manu III. 195-199 for armî^TT: mqr: and *ifj<?^: that are all pitrs oC
Sf^msi* 3rd chap. p. 74 ( Jirffnanda, part 2) says that from KavyavSd Anala to Barhiâds are divine pitrs (divyHh all pitarah). Vide Sabhffparva 11. 45 for seven groups (ganas) of pitrs,
various kinds.
whom are said to be corporeal and three disembodied. KSrspSquoted by AparSrka p. 138 saya that the seven sages from Sanaka to Pancaîkha are the sons of BrahmB.
four of
jini
1659.
qKTgqTfiarr^
97T3T
RiNWirw 9
*T(Rlf9%*T <fn7^
p.
Ffw <|*nHN
I.
>
quoted by aiqrr^
132,
^f<^'
p-
191;
plTOTT JJfTWT: M *m T. 99 is
on
3TTsr 1- ^.
HI.
4. 1
says
II.'
1660.
.
I.
95
vide also trm in
^ fô
I. p.
191
Cb.
XVII
it
Ahnika-tarpava
695
&c.) do
as part of
most brahmanas perform tarpana brahmayajna on one day in the year in the month
daily, but generally
of Sravana.
A special
tarpana was offered to
Yama
on the 14th of the
dark half of a month if it was a Tuesday or on the 14th of Vide 8m. C. I. pp. 197-198, Madanaparijata the dark half. Daksa ( II. 52-55 ) prescribes p. 296, Par. M. I. part 1, p. 361.
Yama-tarpana is specially performed in the Jumna on the days specified above and gives the several names under which Yama is invoked. Vide also Matsyapurana 213. 2-8. The Tai. Ar. VI. 5 speaks of a yajfia or bali ( offering ) in honour of Yama every month. There is also tarpana in honour of the great epic hero Bhlsraa offered on the 8th of the bright half of Magha. Vide Sm. C. I. p. 198.
that
Gobhila-smrfci
mi
(
II.
22-23
emphasizes the importance
of tarpana by remarking that, as all beings, animate or inanimate, desire water from the brahmana who brings prosperity to
tarpana should always be done by him and that if he does it he would incur great sin and that if he does it he would support this world. The idea underlying tarpana seems to be indicated even by the Tai. S. V. 4. 4. 1. 18 ' 8 Ifc has already been seen ( at pp. 668-669 ) that tarpana was prescribed as an appendage of the early morning bath and that some required it to be done twice daily while others said that it was to be done only once. As Asv. gr. places tarpana immediately after svadhyaya (or brahmayajna) it follows fchat he treated it as a constituent though subordinate part of it. The Gobhilasmrti
all,
not do
says that brahmayajna which consists in inaudibly muttering Vedic texts (japa) should be performed before tarpana
II.
29
end of Vaisvadeva and at some special reason. I863 The Ahnikaprakasa (pp. 336-377) gives summaries of tarpana according to Katyayana, Sarikha, Baudhayana, Visnuor after the
or at the
morning homa
no other time unless there
is
purana, Yogiyajnavalkya, Asvalayana, Gobhilagrhya.
II . 28-29,
quoted
CHAPTER
XVIII
PANCA MAHAYAJNAS
Panca Mahayajnas;
sacrifices
),
(the five daily great observances or
From early Vedic times five daily observances called !664 mahayajnas were prescribed. The Sat. Br. ( XI 5. 6. I. ) says * there are only five mahayajnas, they are like great sacrificial sessions, viz. the sacrifice to beings, the sacrifice to men, the
sacrifice to the Fathers, the sacrifice to the gods, the sacrifice to
brahman (Veda)'.
&r.
II.
10
we read
These are then briefly defined. In the Tai. these five mahayajnas indeed are spread out
continuously, viz. devayajna, pitryajfia, bbufeayajfia, manusyaThat is fulfilled as devayajna when one yajrla, brahmayajna.
makes an offering in fire, even if it be a mere fuel-stick; when one offers svadha" ( Sraddha repast ) to the fathers, even if it be mere water, that becomes pitryajna; when a man offers a ball ( a ball of food) to the beings ifc becomes bhutayajna, when he gives food to brahmanas that becomes manusyayajiia. When one studies svadhyaya even if it be a single rk or yajus formula 1865 or a saman ifc becomes brahmayajfia',
t
and
II.
TheAsv.gr. (Ill 1.1-4) speaks of the five mahayajnas defines them in practically the same words as the Tai. Ar. 10 and enjoins that those yajfias must be performed everyNarfiyana on Asv.
qshr wr*r?rr:
sra<TO an-
day.
gr. III. 1.
2 expressly asserts that the
1664.
'fa'i
XL
5. 6.
These words are quoted by
r.
I.
101.
The
STcrqTO
proceeds to define these
1665.
?TT
f rar
n I. 3n-
10.
Ch.
XVIII
Panca-Mahayajnas
697
basis of the five yajiias is the Tai. Ar.

( I. 4.
12.
13-15 and I
* '
4. 13. 1
106<J The Ap. Dh. 8. names and explains them simi-
larly
1
and
states that they

*
are called
in the Tai, Ar. II. 10
and great sacrificial sessions' by way of laudaThe word yajfia applied to these five daily duties is tion. figurative and the adjective great is applied only for belaud1667 them. Gaut. V. 8 and VIII. 17, Baud. Dh. S. II. 6. 1-8, ing Gobhilasmrti II. 26 and numerous smrti texts speak of the same Gaut. VIII. 17 includes them among saniskaras as five yajfias.
great yajfias
*
'
'
stated above (p. 193).

It will be noticed from the description of the five yajnas given below that they are distinguished from the solemn srauta sacrifices in two respects. In these five the chief agent is the householder himself, he does not need the help and ministration of a professional priest, while in the srauta sacrifices the priests occupy the most prominent place and the householder is more or less a passive spectator or agent in the hands of the In the second place, in the five priests who direct everything.
yajnas the central point is the discharge of duties to the Creator, to the ancient sages, to the Manes, and to the whole universe with myriads of creatures of various grades of intelligence. In the
srauta sacrifices the main-spring of action
is
the desire to secure
object such as prosperity, a son &c. Therefore the institution of the five sacrifices is morally and spiritually more progressive and more ennobling than that of the Srauta
Heaven
or
some
sacrifices.
The sentiments that prompted the performance of these five observances appear to have been as follows: Every man could not afford to celebrate the solemn srauta rites prescribed in the Brahmanas and Srauta sutras. But every one could offer a
fuel-stick
to fire that
was
deemed
to be
the
mouth
of the
1666.
-
HI5j.
T on 3Ji*.
III. 1. 3.
The
t^j.
*rr. I.
part
1 p.
11 also notes that
the live yajiiaa are prescribed in the Tai. Ar. and draws therefrom the
sweeping generalization that

1667.
all
i
smrti rules were
known
to srnti.
i
STO arr^rofiwr f^nr:
fofr
Tfr^n ^Rnfionm
^rrfi^n
I.
^ ^m:
4.
q%**rj
sir
^RrfHTfi^
13.
1.
OTT. V>
*.
4.
12.131.
Vide
Band. Dh.
S. II. 6.
1-8 for very similar words.
H. D. 88
698
of great Gods devotion to them.
Ch.
XVIII
m8
Heaven and thus show
his reverence and Similarly everyone could show his reverence
for and gratitude to the great sages that had bequeathed a glorious heritage of sacred literature by repeating at least one verse and one could propitiate his deceased ancestors by offering in
loving memory and filial devotion a mere handful or vessel-ful of water (which costs nothing). The whole world human and
non-human is one creation and there must be a spirit of live and let live or give and take. Therefore one must offer what one can afford to a guest and also have something for all beings (including even such shunned animals as dogs, crows and
insects).
These feelings
of devotion,
gratitude, reverence,
loving memory, kindliness and tolerance seem to have been the springs that prompted the Aryans of old to emphasize the importance of the five daily yajfias and to have led sutra
writers like Gautama and legislators like Manu (11.28) to look upon them as saihskaras, as ennobling the soul by freeing it from mere selfishness and elevating the body to become a fit 18M Later on it appears that other vehicle for higher things.
purposes came to be attributed to the institution of the five daily According to Manu III. 68-71, Visnu Dh. S. 59. 19-20, yajiias. Sankha V. 1-2, Harlta, Matsyapurana 52. 15-16 and others
every householder causes injury or death to sentient beings every day in five places, viz. the hearth, the grinding mill, broomstick, winnowing basket and similar household gear, mortar and pestle, and water-jar. The five daily yajfias were devised by the great sages as atonements for the sins arising
5
from these five sources of injury to life. These five are brahmayajfia which consists in the study and teaching of the Veda, pitryajfia which consists of tarparia, daivayajria which consists in offerings made into fire, bhutayajna which is offering oblations to beings and manusyayajiia which consists in honouring
:
He who performs these daily according to his means is guests. never tainted by the sin of the injuries arising from the f ve
1870 Lys places mentioned above. Manu (III. 73-74) further that former sages had a different nomenclature for the five
1668.
?wni
am^mr amtf m\ first s^wfift *fc

amn %*T ^ftr^njan 3*5*
i
II. 1.
13
f>$
aigqrwft
s?- II. 1. 14.
1669.
^TrtTnjT adf*$u*i$(35*i
tf:
'
HfP7%%7 *v$
Mrîryr:
I
H*g II. 28.

1670. an*9. ^.
I. 1.
2-3 supports
*g
sror:
f n auft
Oh,
3VllI
i.
Panca-MahayajftaS
ahuta, huta, prahuta,
699
yajnas
e.
brahmya-huta
and
which were the same respectively as japa ( or brahmayajna ), homa ( devayajSa ), bhutayajfia, manusyayajna and pitrtarpana In the Atharvaveda VI. 71. 2 four out of these ( pitryajna ). seem to be alluded to what came to me as huta or ahuta or l671 Huta and prahuta given by pitrs and assented to by men in the sense of homa to gods and ball to bhutas occur in Br. Up. L 5.2. But in some grhyasutras different meanings are attached to these very words e. g, San. gr. I. 5 and Par. gr. I. 4 say that there are four pakayajiias viz. huta, ahuta, prahuta and prSsita and San. gr. 1. 10. 7 m2 explains that they are respectively the same as agnihotra ( or daivayajna ), bali ( bhutayajna ), pitrThe Harltayajfia and brahmya-huta ( or manusyayajfia). We dharma-sutra has a very interesting passage on this point. shall now explain the sunas (places of injury) which are so called because they kill moving and immovable sentient beings. They are five. The first ( suna ) is caused by actions like sudden entrance in water, plunging into water, whirling water,
'
'.
'
in various directions, taking water without through a piece of cloth and driving vehicles the second by walking about in the dark or away from the beaten path or in quick jerks or by treading upon insects &c. the third by striking ( a tree with an axe &c. ), by plucking flowers &c. by tying with a rope &c., by crushing (in a mortar), by splitting the fourth by cutting crops, by rubbing or ( wood &c. ) and the fifth by ignition ( of fire-wood ), heating ( of grinding water ), by roasting, frying and cooking. These five injuries that lead to Hell are committed every day by people. Brahma-
splashing
it
straining
it
c&rins get rid of the first three by attending on fire and on their teacher and by the study of the Veda ; householders and forest hermits purify themselves from these five by performing the
yajnas ascetics get rid of the first two injuries by sacred knowledge and contemplation, but the injury caused by crushing i Booked seeds under the teeth cannot be removed by any of these '. im Although in the Ap. Dh. S. snd others the five yajnas
five
;
are enumerated in the order of bhuta-yajna, manusya-yajna,
1671.
1672.
g'eTrf&ffa'iffJfrr
.
3Jijpft
sfSn*Mi
.
fT:
H 5TT.
I.
10. 7.
Vido
^V.
I.
1.
1-11
for
somewhat different
terminology.
1673.
Vide Appendix under note 1673.
700
Ch.
XVIII
the point of
(
devayajna, pitryajna and svadhyaya, still the proper order from view of the times of performance is first brahmayajna
japa &c.
),
and lastly manusyayajfia. im Therefore they will be dealt with in the same order here. But some matters have first Various views were entertained about the time to be noted. and nature of brahmayajna 1C75 and pitryajfia. According to
II. 28-29 quoted above (n. 1663), japa prescribed in sarhdhya adoration may be looked upon as brahmayajna, that the latter may be performed before tarpana and after the morning homa or after vaisvadeva. Narayana on Asv. gr. III. 2. 1 says that brahmayajna may be performed before or after vaisvadeva.
then devayajna, then bhutayajna, then pitryajfia,
Gobhila-smrti
According
to
the
Snanasutra
of
Katyayana, brahmayajna
(
(
precedes tarpana and Asv. gr. as stated above to regard tarpana as part of it. Manu III. 82
p.
695
appears
S. 67.
Visnu Dh.
23-25) enjoins upon a man the performance of daily sraddha with food or water or with milk, roots and fruits and thus to propiwhile tiate and please the Manes of his deceased ancestors
;
Manu
III.
70 and 283
constitutes pitryajfia.
says that tarpana ( done after bath ) Therefore Gobhila says that sraddha,
)
tarpana and the ball offered to pitrs constitute pitryajfia and even when one of them is gone through, the performance of
and is not necessary to perform all In the bali-harana ( described below ) the remnants of bali are offered to pifcrs ( Asv. gr. I. 2. 11, Manu III. 91 ).
pitryajfia is effected
167fi
ifc
three.
Brahma-yajna.
to be
found in the
Safe.
Probably the earliest description of this is Br. XL 5. 6. 3-8. That Brahmana, after
stating that brahmayajna is one's own daily study of the Veda, compares several elements required in the ordinary sacrifice to
certain elements of brahmayajna, viz. the juhu spoon, upabhrfc, dhruva, sruva, avabhrtha ( the solemn bath at the end of a
sacrifice ) and heaven are said to be represented by the speech, the mind, the eye, mental power, truth and the conclusion ( that
1674.
ftg^ft 373*^31
1675.
q g<ri|*i * jiisg&nr ÎT^^TW ST-J^T^T fft f^xt on ainr. tr. ^. I. 4. 13. l

i i i
3Rn?nf ?f srnflTtnrFiff
3rf<T
snpr^ft
ftsfnfifr
i
MM 4 14
*rt^
p. 368.
JTV^ %cj;cT<f<TO[ inW^nmsr ^r
quoted in
1676.
STPSf 3T T<^|*f5T: fTT?J fi'sWf^r'C^rTft
IT
TTtH'ci^^m II.
28
lffTf^ ^pehf T P. 391.
f^r?rPrwi%: ft^*
Ch.
XVIII
Brahmayajna
701
1877 Then it says that 'whoever are present in brahmayajfia ). his Vedic lessons gains an imperishable studies day by day world which is thrice or more of the world that one may secure
by making a gift to priests of the whole earth replete with wealth. Then 4-7 compare rk, yajus, saman and Atharvangiras
(
Atharvaveda ) texts respectively to offerings to gods of milk, ghee, soma and fat and it is stated that the gods being delighted and satisfied with these, bestow on the man who performs brahmayajna affluence and security, life-breath, seed, his whole self and all auspicious blessings and streams of ghee and honey flow for his departed pitrs. The Sat. Br. XL 5. 6. 8 enumerates other works that may be recited in brahmayajna, the recital of which is like honey offerings to gods who being delighted and gratified bestow on the reciter the boons stated above, the works being Anu&asanas ( Vedangas), vidy&s ( such as sarpa and devajana vidya mentioned in Cha'ndogya VII. 1.
theological discourses called brahmodya, as in and 45-62 ), Itihasapurana ( traditional history and legends ), Gathas, Narasamsls ( i. e. stanzas in praise of 1<JTI The Tai. Ar. ( II. 10-13 ) has a more lengthy heroes ). 16T9 the same passage on brahmayajna Tai. Ar. II. 10 is almost as Sat. Br. except in two respects, viz. in the Tai. Ar. Atharvangirasah. are said to be honey offerings and brahmana texts, itihasas, puranas, kalpas ( works on Srauta ritual ) and Gatha Narasamsls are said to be fat offerings and the rewards, bestowed
1
),
vakovakya
Vaj. S. 23. 9-12
brilliance, lustre, prosperity, glory, spiritual

'
by the brahmayajna, are long life, eminence and food. Tai. Ar. II. 11 describes how and where brahmayajfla is to be performed one who desires to offer brahmayajna should repair
by
the gods
when
delighted
to a place so far away to the east, north or north-east of his village that the thatch covering houses is not visible and when
the sun rises he should wear his sacred thread
( in the upavlta under his right arm, should sit down ( on a pure spot ), should wash both his hands with water, should sip water should wipe his hand twice with water, should thrice,
form
1677. Julia, upabhrt, dbruvS and eruva are sacrificial will bo described later under drauta sacrifices.
*
ladles
and
I.
*rg5<n ^ *m$m- '9 vide According to the Tai. Br. II. 7. 5 11 where many lists of srmsiw hymns occur, Rg. r 16. 125 being one hymn of that kind. 3ttrf XX. 127. 1 has the word
1678.
and
spf
V.
18. 5. ia ?
1679.
702
Ch.
XVIIi
once sprinkle his lips with water, and touch his head, eyes, and heart he should spread out a large seat of darbhas, should be seated facing the east with his legs crossed over each other ( the left foot being underneath and the right
nostrils, ears
;
foot
on the
)
said that
left thigh ) and then should repeat his Veda ; ( the darbhas are indeed the flavour ( or sweetness
;
it is
)
of
he (by sitting on darbhas) makes his Veda full of sweetness. Placing his left hand on the right knee with the palm turned up and covering it with the right hand the palm of which is turned down and pl&cingpavitras (blades of darbha) between both hands, he should begin with the syllable 'om' which is a yajus, which is the representative of the three Vedas, which is
all speech,
waters and herbs
and
is
the highest syllable
this has been declared
Rg, 1. 164. 39 is quoted ). He recites the syllables bhuh, bhuvah, svah he thereby ( by repeating the vyahrtis ) employs the three Vedas. This is the truth ( quintessence ) of speech he thereby has employed the truth of speech. Then he
by a rk
recites thrice the Gayatrl verse,

its feet
which
is
separately, then by half of

is
(
jit,
addressed to Savitr, by then the whole verse
glory
without stopping. The sun then he begins itself

;
the next day
the creator of glory, he secures ) the repetition of the
Vedic texts from that point which he had noted ( the previous 1680 Tal Ar. II. 12 states that if a man is unable to go day )'. out of the village he may perform brahmyajfia by revolving in his mind in the village itself the Veda by day or even by night; or if he cannot seat himself, then he may perform the brahmayajfia even standing or lying down, since the principal matter is the recitation of the Veda (time and place being quite subordinate ). Tai. Ar. II. 13 says that he should conclude the brahmayajna by repeating thrice the verse 'Adoration to
Brahma ( Veda
speech, to the
Lord
or Prajapati ), to Agni, to the Earth, to herbs, to of speech ( Brhaspati ), I offer adoration to
1680.
The idea
is that
random.
When
man
one is not to begin to recite Vedic texts at has recited a portion of any Veda one day, he
should note where he stopped and continue his recitation next day from that point. The lp. Dh. S. I. 3. 11.19 also prescribes that one
should go every day to the water-side before taking his morning meal
and
recite in a pure place a portion of the
Veda
in succession (i. e.
one
day he should begin where he stopped the previous day and BO on ). r. allowing recitation of the Vide3ir.gr. III. 4. 6 where the Tai. Veda even while standing or lying down is quoted.
Oh.
XVIII
Brahmayajna
1<81
703
Then he should sip water and return the great Visnu '. home; thereafter whatever he gives becomes the fee of the sacrifice ( i. e. of brahmay ajiia ).
The procedure
III. 2. 2-III. 3.
of
svadhyaya
or brahmayajfia
in Asv. gr.
practically in the same words as in the Tai. Ar. quoted above. One or two points may be noted. The Asv. 168B prescribes that one should recite gazing at the horizon or gr.
is
one may close one's eyes or one may look in such a way that one feels that one can concentrate one's mind. According to om bhur bhuthe Asv. gr. the shortest brahmayajna would be vah svah ; the G&yatrl verse repeated thrice then at least one
:
;
and then the verse namo brahmane ( quoted above ) repeated thrice. The Ahnikaprakasa p. 329 says that one who knows only a portion of the Veda should recite as brahmayajna the Purusasukta ( Rg. X. 90 ) and other hymns and one who knows only the Gayatrl should repeat om as brahmayajna 1682 Asv. gr. (III. 3.1) mentions the following every day. works for svadhyaya^ Rgveda, Yajurveda, Sameveda, AtharvSnrk verse
'
'
'
Puranas,
girasah, BrShmanas, Kalpas, Gathas Narasamsls, Itihasas, and But it adds that one may recite only as much as one
feels that
one can afford to do with a concentrated mind.

several
The
Sari. gr. I. 4 prescribes
hymns and
verses of the
"Rgveda for reciting in brahmayajna. Others following different Vedas and Sakhas differ as to the content of the brahmayajna. Vide Ahnika-prakasa pp. 328-336 for brahmayajna according to
Katyayana and according

I.
to the followers of Saraaveda. Yaj. 101 prescribes that as time and ability allow one may include in brahmayajna the Vedas together with the Atharva-
veda, ItihSsa and philosophical texts.
Brahmayajna is very rarely performed every day ( except by the most orthodox vaidikas and sastris ) in modern times and a fixed formula of brahmayajna has been decided upon, which is recited once a year in Sravana by most brahmanas in the Deccan. The formula for students of the Rgveda is as follows
:
1681.
ft
iwr^ f^
q%
is
gfrdf^ n
srr.
11.13.
This occurs in an*.

argyot..
III. 3.
4 where
read for
f.
i
1682.
III. 3.
;R- Tfrenj?*fcr cfi^^frc^cnrT irfrspnm ^wfr 4 on which NsrSyaga observes

'
1683.
r
p. 329.
704
History of Dharma$$stra
Ch.
XVIII
After reciting 'om bhur bhuvah svaV and the sacred Gayatrl, he Rg. 1. 1. 1-9, then the first sentence of the Ait. Br., the first sentences of the five sections of the Ait. Ar.; the first sentences of
recites
the Black
and White Yajurveda, of the Samaveda, of the Atharvaveda; the first sentences of the Nighanû and the six Vedangas viz. &6v. Srauta, Nirukta, Chandas, Nighantu, Jyotisa, Siksa,
Panini's
grammar in order the first 'pada' of Yaj, I. 1 and of the Mahabharata (1.1.1), the first sufcra of the Nyaya, Purvamlmamsa and Uttaramlmamsa; then a benedictory formula ('taccharhyor... catuspade *) and lastly the verse namo brahmane is repeated 1884 After this brahmayajna, tarpana of devas, sa thrice. s and
;
'
pitrs follows.
( III. purvardba p. 299 ) says that be once either after morning homa performed brahmayajna or after midday samdhya or after Vai^vadeva, but those who study the Asvalayanasutra should perform it only after midday samdhya. After acamana and pranayama one should make the
The
Dharmasindhu
is to
samkalpa ( &rlparamevaraprltyartham brahmayajfiam karisye tadahgataya devarsyacarya-tarpanara karisye ) and if one's father is dead one should add in the samkalpa ( pitrtarpanam ca
It then sets out how it is to be performed by various ). as those who have studied all vedas or one veda or such people, only a portion or when one has no time. It says that the followers of the Taittirlya sakha repeat 'the words vidyud-asi
karisye
'
commencevidya me papmanam-rtat satyaoi-upaimi ment and the words vrsîrasi vrsca me pftpmanara-rtat satyamupagam at the end. If a man is unable to repeat brahmayajna sitting he may do it even when lying down.
at the
*
'
The Dharmasindhu
notes that according to the followers of
the Taittirlya sakha and of the Vajasaneya Samhita tarpana is not a part of brahmayajna and so tarpana may be performed by them either before brahmayajfift or even spme time after
brahmayajna.
1684.
After Bg.
TOT:
l
I. 1.
1-9 the following are repeated
arilrtf
^TfT-
sronft
i
rra
*w* 113
^JTTCT*

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2]<OU 166097 >m > a: ^ 73

Osmania University Library No, _ ?-f7 '5~^~ Access/on

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or before the date

PREPARED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

THE BlIANDARKAR ORIENTAL

PANDURANG VAMAN KANE,

Bhandarkar Oriental Research

Copies can be had Bhandarkar Oriental Research

(Parts not sold separately)

A,, Ph. D., Secretary,

Oriental Research Institute,

the completion of the rather ambitious

expected to be published. I of the fact that at present I

may state, however, that in view am in much better health than I

have been for several years I shall try

Brahmanioal system, I hope

and that I have

The quotations are mostly references to mss. are few

alive, that they

govern the every-day

Hindus and permeate

the fact that a considerable part of dharmaSastra has

and from which

I derived the greatest

15th June 1941

TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOL. H

TABLE OF CASES CITED

APPENDIX OF LONGER EXTRACTS IN

India Reporter Chitaley of Nagpur ).

Baud. Dh. S. = Baudhayana-dharma-sutra. Baud. gr. = Baudhayana-grhya-sutra. Baud. Sr. = BaudhSyana-6rautasutra.

= Commentator or Commentary (according to context). = Critical Edition of the Mahabharata, published

= Deccan College S. = Dharmasutra. Frau = Die Frau

Poona. N. = Calcutta Weekly Notes

Collection of Sanskrit Mas.

Epigraphia Carnatioa. Epigraphia Indioa. E. = Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics

= Footnote. ~ The Social

organization in North-east India in

Buddha's time (translated from Dr. Shishirkumara Maitra, 1920 ).

Pandit Jivananda's edition. R. A. S. = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, London.

being inserted between L. R. and

and Maitland's History of English

Par. gr. as Paraskara-grhyapsatra. Par. M. Para&ara-Madhavlya.

Rel. and Phil.

Prof. Keith's of the

Religion and Philosophy Veda and Upuni^ads.

' Ritaal Opfer und Zauber '.

Sarhskara-kaustubha of Anantadeva. = SariiBkaraprakasa of Mitrami&ra.

= Sankbyayana-grhya-sufcra. = Satapatha Brahmana. E. = Sacied Books of the East

Tai. Ar. Tai. Br.

Zeitschrift der Deutschen

works and authors referred

dates, particularly of ancient works,

and only tentative.

The Nirukta. The principal Srauta

100 A. D. 200 A. D, 200 A. D.

300 A. D. 500 A, D. 300 A. D.600 A. D.