GR9277 Solutions
GR9277 Solutions
GR9277 Solutions
GR9277 Test
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http://groups.yahoo.com/group/physicsgre_v2
November 3, 2009
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Author:
David S. Latchman
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This solution guide initially started out on the Yahoo Groups web site and was pretty
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successful at the time. Unfortunately, the group was lost and with it, much of the the
hard work that was put into it. This is my attempt to recreate the solution guide and
make it more widely avaialble to everyone. If you see any errors, think certain things
could be expressed more clearly, or would like to make suggestions, please feel free to
do so.
David Latchman
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Document Changes
05-11-2009 1. Added diagrams to GR0177 test questions 1-25
2. Revised solutions to GR0177 questions 1-25
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Preface 3
1 Classical Mechanics 13
1.1 Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2 Newton’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3 Work & Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
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1.4 Oscillatory Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6 Dynamics of Systems of Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.7 Central Forces and Celestial Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8 Three Dimensional Particle Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.9 Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.10 Non-inertial Reference Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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2 Electromagnetism 27
2.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 Currents and DC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3 Magnetic Fields in Free Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4 Lorentz Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5 Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6 Maxwell’s Equations and their Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.7 Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6 Contents
2.8 AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.9 Magnetic and Electric Fields in Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.10 Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.11 Energy in a Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.12 Energy in an Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.13 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.14 Current Destiny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.15 Current Density of Moving Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.16 Resistance and Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.17 Resistivity and Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
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2.18 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.19 Kirchoff’s Loop Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.20 Kirchoff’s Junction Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.21 RC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.22 Maxwell’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
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2.23 Speed of Propagation of a Light Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.24 Relationship between E and B Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.25 Energy Density of an EM wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.26 Poynting’s Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4 Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5 Geometrical Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.6 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.7 Doppler Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.8 Snell’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
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4.13 Work done by Ideal Gas at Constant Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.14 Heat Conduction Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.15 Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.16 Stefan-Boltzmann’s FormulaStefan-Boltzmann’s Equation . . . . . . . . 42
4.17 RMS Speed of an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
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4.18 Translational Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.19 Internal Energy of a Monatomic gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.20 Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.21 Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.22 Equipartition of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.23 Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.24 Second Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
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5 Quantum Mechanics 47
5.1 Fundamental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.2 Schrödinger Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.3 Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.4 Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.5 Wave Funtion Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.6 Elementary Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6 Atomic Physics 55
6.1 Properties of Electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7 Special Relativity 63
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7.1 Introductory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.2 Time Dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.3 Length Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.4 Simultaneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.5 Energy and Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
7.6 Four-Vectors and Lorentz Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
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7.7 Velocity Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.8 Relativistic Doppler Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.9 Lorentz Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.10 Space-Time Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
8 Laboratory Methods 69
8.1 Data and Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
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8.2 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.3 Radiation Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.4 Counting Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.5 Interaction of Charged Particles with Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.6 Lasers and Optical Interferometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.7 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
8.8 Fundamental Applications of Probability and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . 72
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9.12 Potential Across a Wedge Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
9.13 Magnetic Monopoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
9.14 Stefan-Boltzmann’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.15 Specific Heat at Constant Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.16 Carnot Engines and Efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
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9.17 Lissajous Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.18 Terminating Resistor for a Coaxial Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.19 Mass of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
9.20 Slit Width and Diffraction Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.21 Thin Film Interference of a Soap Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
9.22 The Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.23 Fermi Temperature of Cu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
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9.44 Lagrangian of a particle moving on a parabolic curve . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.45 A Bouncing Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.46 Phase Diagrams I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.47 Phase Diagrams II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.48 Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
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9.49 Detection of Muons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.50 Quantum Mechanical States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.51 Particle in an Infinite Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.52 Particle in an Infinite Well II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.53 Particle in an Infinite Well III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.54 Current Induced in a Loop II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.55 Current induced in a loop II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
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9.76 Quantum Angular Momentum and Electronic Configuration . . . . . . . 107
9.77 Intrinsic Magnetic Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.78 Skaters and a Massless Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.79 Phase and Group Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.80 Bremsstrahlung Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
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9.81 Resonant Circuit of a RLC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
9.82 Angular Speed of a Tapped Thin Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
9.83 Suspended Charged Pith Balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
9.84 Larmor Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9.85 Relativistic Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9.86 Voltage Decay and the Oscilloscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
9.87 Total Energy and Central Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
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1.1
1.1.1
Kinematics
Linear Motion
Average Velocity FT
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∆x x2 − x1
v= = (1.1.1)
∆t t2 − t1
Instantaneous Velocity
∆x dx
v = lim = = v(t) (1.1.2)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
In the case of Uniform Circular Motion, for a particle to move in a circular path, a
radial acceleration must be applied. This acceleration is known as the Centripetal
14 Classical Mechanics
Acceleration
Centripetal Acceleration
v2
a= (1.1.7)
r
Angular Velocity
v
ω= (1.1.8)
r
We can write eq. (1.1.7) in terms of ω
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a = ω2 r (1.1.9)
ω = ω0 + αt (1.1.10)
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ω + ω0
θ= t (1.1.11)
2
1
θ = ω0 t + αt2 (1.1.12)
2
ω2 = ω20 + 2αθ (1.1.13)
First Law A body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion unless acted upon
by an external unbalanced force.
Second Law The net force on a body is proportional to its rate of change of momentum.
dp
F= = ma (1.2.1)
dt
1.2.3 Impulse
w
∆p = J = Fdt = Favg dt (1.2.4)
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1
K ≡ mv2 (1.3.1)
2
wx f
W= F(x)dx (1.3.5)
xi
F = −kx (1.3.8)
where k is the spring constant.
1
U(x) = kx2 (1.3.9)
2
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x(t) = A sin (ωt + δ) (1.4.1)
where the Amplitude, A, measures the displacement from equilibrium, the phase, δ, is
the angle by which the motion is shifted from equilibrium at t = 0.
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1.4.2 Period of Simple Harmonic Motion
2π
T= (1.4.2)
ω
Given that
x = A sin (ωt + δ) (1.4.3)
and that the Total Energy of a System is
E = KE + PE (1.4.4)
1
KE = mv2
2
1 dx
= m
2 dt
1
= mA2 ω2 cos2 (ωt + δ) (1.4.5)
2
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dt
where b is the damping coefficient. The equation of motion for a damped oscillating
system becomes
dx d2 x
− kx − b = m 2 (1.4.9)
dt dt
Solving eq. (1.4.9) goves
x = Ae−αt sin (ω0 t + δ) (1.4.10)
We find that
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b
α= (1.4.11)
2m
r
k b2
ω0 = −
m 4m2
r
b2
= ω20 −
4m2
q
= ω20 − α2 (1.4.12)
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1
V(x) u V(xe ) + k(x − xe )2 (1.4.16)
2
where " #
d2 V(x)
k≡ ≥0 (1.4.17)
dx2 x=xe
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Consider the case of a simple pendulum of length, `, and the mass of the bob is m1 .
For small displacements, the equation of motion is
θ̈ + ω0 θ = 0
This allows us to to create an equivalent three spring system to our coupled pendulum
system. The equations of motion can be derived from the Lagrangian, where
L=T−V
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
= m ẏ1 + m ẏ2 − ky1 + κ y2 − y1 + ky2
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
= m y˙1 + y˙2 2 − k y21 + y22 + κ y2 − y1 (1.4.23)
2 2
We can find the equations of motion of our system
d ∂L ∂L
!
= (1.4.24)
dt ∂ ẏn ∂yn
1
Add figure with coupled pendulum-spring system
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k + κ − mω2
−κ = 0 (1.4.30)
−κ k + κ − mω2
Solving the determinant gives
2
mω2 − 2mω2 (k + κ) + k2 + 2kκ = 0 (1.4.31)
This yields
g
k
=
`
ω2 = m
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(1.4.32)
k + 2κ g 2κ
= +
m ` m
We can now determine exactly how the masses move with each mode by substituting
ω2 into the equations of motion. Where
k
ω2 = We see that
m
k + κ − mω2 = κ (1.4.33)
Substituting this into the equation of motion yields
y1 = y2 (1.4.34)
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We see that the masses move in phase with each other. You will also notice
the absense of the spring constant term, κ, for the connecting spring. As the
masses are moving in step, the spring isn’t stretching or compressing and hence
its absence in our result.
k+κ
ω2 = We see that
m
k + κ − mω2 = −κ (1.4.35)
Substituting this into the equation of motion yields
y1 = −y2 (1.4.36)
Here the masses move out of phase with each other. In this case we see the
presence of the spring constant, κ, which is expected as the spring playes a role.
It is being stretched and compressed as our masses oscillate.
The Doppler Effect is the shift in frequency and wavelength of waves that results from
a source moving with respect to the medium, a receiver moving with respect to the
medium or a moving medium.
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Moving Observer As the observer moves, he will measure the same wavelength, λ, as
if at rest but will see the wave crests pass by more quickly. The observer measures
a modified wave speed.
v0 = v + |vr | (1.4.39)
The modified frequency becomes
v0 vr
f0 = = f0 1 + (1.4.40)
λ
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v
Moving Source and Moving Observer We can combine the above two equations
v − vs
λ0 = (1.4.41)
f0
v = v − vr
0
(1.4.42)
1.5.4 Torque
τ=r×F (1.5.4)
τ = Iα (1.5.5)
dL
(1.5.6)
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τ= (1.5.7)
dt
With respect to the point of contact, the motion of the wheel is a rotation about the
point of contact. Thus
1
K = Krot = Icontact ω2 (1.5.8)
2
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1
K= Icm + MR2 ω2
2
1 1
= Icm ω2 + mv2 (1.5.10)
2 2
The kinetic energy of an object rolling without slipping is the sum of hte kinetic energy
of rotation about its center of mass and the kinetic energy of the linear motion of the
object.
m1 r1 + m2 r2 + m3 r3 + · · · + mN rN
R= (1.6.1)
M
dR
V=
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dt
m1 v1 + m2 v2 + m3 v3 + · · · + mN vN
= (1.6.2)
M
dV
A=
dt
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m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 + · · · + mN aN
= (1.6.3)
M
First Law The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the sun at a focus.
Second Law A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal
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intervals of time.
Third Law The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the
cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
T2
=C (1.7.6)
R3
where C is a constant whose value is the same for all planets.
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1.7.5 Types of Orbits
The Energy of an Orbiting Body is defined in eq. (1.7.3), we can classify orbits by their
eccentricities.
Circular Orbit A circular orbit occurs when there is an eccentricity of 0 and the orbital
energy is less than 0. Thus
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1 2 GM
v − =E<0 (1.7.7)
2 r
The Orbital Velocity is
r
GM
v= (1.7.8)
r
Elliptic Orbit An elliptic orbit occurs when the eccentricity is between 0 and 1 but the
specific energy is negative, so the object remains bound.
r
2 1
v= GM − (1.7.9)
r a
1 2 GM
v − =E=0 (1.7.10)
2 r
The Orbital Velocity is
r
2GM
v = vesc = (1.7.11)
r
Hyperbolic Orbit In the Hyperbolic Orbit, the eccentricity is greater than 1 with an
orbital velocity in excess of the escape velocity. This orbit is also not bounded.
r
GM
v∞ =
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(1.7.12)
a
1 GMm
E = mv2 − (1.7.13)
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2 r
For an elliptical or circular orbit, the specific energy is
GMm
E=− (1.7.14)
2a
Equating we get
2 1
v = GM −
2
(1.7.15)
r a
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When an object is fully or partially immersed, the buoyant force is equal to the weight
of fluid displaced.
ρ1 v1 A1 = ρ2 v2 A2 (1.9.1)
L=T−V (1.11.1)
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where T is the Kinetic Energy and V is the Potential Energy in terms of Generalized
Coordinates.
∂L d ∂L
!
= (1.11.2)
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∂q dt ∂q̇
1.11.3 Hamiltonian
H =T+V
= pq̇ − L(q, q̇) (1.11.3)
where
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∂H
= q̇ (1.11.4)
∂p
∂H ∂L
=−
∂q ∂x
= −ṗ (1.11.5)
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2.1
2.1.1
Electrostatics
Coulomb’s Law
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The force between two charged particles, q1 and q2 is defined by Coulomb’s Law.
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!
1 q1 q2
F12 = r̂12 (2.1.1)
4π0 r212
The electric field is defined by mesuring the magnitide and direction of an electric
force, F, acting on a test charge, q0 .
F
E≡ (2.1.3)
q0
The Electric Field of a point charge, q is
1 q
E= r̂ (2.1.4)
4π0 r2
n
1 X qi
E(r) = r̂i (2.1.5)
4π0 i=1 r2i
28 Electromagnetism
Electric Fields and Continuous Charge Distributions
λ
Z
1
E(r) = r̂dx (2.1.8)
4π0 r2
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line
In the case where the charge is distributed along a surface, the surface charge density
is, σ
Q dq
σ= = (2.1.9)
A dA
The electric field along the surface becomes
σ
Z
1
E(r) = r̂dA (2.1.10)
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4π0 r2
Surface
In the case where the charge is distributed throughout a volume, V, the volume charge
density is
Q dq
ρ= = (2.1.11)
V dV
The Electric Field is
ρ
Z
1
E(r) = r̂dV (2.1.12)
4π0 r2
Volume
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Consider an infinite rod of constant charge density, λ. The flux through a Gaussian
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cylinder enclosing the line of charge is
Z Z Z
Φ= E · dA + E · dA + E · dA (2.1.17)
top surface bottom surface side surface
At the top and bottom surfaces, the electric field is perpendicular to the area vector, so
for the top and bottom surfaces,
E · dA = 0 (2.1.18)
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At the side, the electric field is parallel to the area vector, thus
E · dA = EdA (2.1.19)
The area in this case is the surface area of the side of the cylinder, 2πrh.
D
Φ = 2πrhE (2.1.21)
Applying Gauss’ Law, we see that Φ = q/0 . The electric field becomes
λ
E= (2.1.22)
2π0 r
Within our non-conducting sphere or radius, R, we will assume that the total charge,
Q is evenly distributed throughout the sphere’s volume. So the charge density of our
sphere is
Q Q
ρ= = 4 (2.1.23)
V 3
πR 3
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Qr
= 4 (2.1.26)
3
π 0 R3
The electrical potential is the potential energy per unit charge that is associated with a
static electrical field. It can be expressed thus
U(r) = qV(r) (2.1.28)
And we can see that
1 q
V(r) = (2.1.29)
D
4π0 r
A more proper definition that includes the electric field, E would be
Z
V(r) = − E · d` (2.1.30)
C
where C is any path, starting at a chosen point of zero potential to our desired point.
The difference between two potentials can be expressed such
Z b Z a
V(b) − V(a) = − E · d` + E · d`
Z b
=− E · d` (2.1.31)
a
Let us consider a rod of length, `, with linear charge density, λ. The Electrical Potential
due to a continuous distribution is
FT
Z Z
1 dq
V= dV = (2.1.34)
4π0 r
again look at eq. (2.1.34), where r is the distance of the point P from the rod’s axis.
Z
1 dq
V=
4π0 r
Z `
1 λdx
=
4π0 0 x2 + y2 12
λ
12 `
= ln x + x2 + y2
4π0 0
λ 12
= ln ` + `2 + y2 − ln y
4π0
1
λ ` + `2 + y2 2
= ln (2.1.38)
4π0 d
FT
4
2.5 Induction
5
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2.6 Maxwell’s Equations and their Applications
2.8 AC Circuits
Q2
U=
2C
CV 2
=
2
QV
FT
= (2.11.1)
2
U 0 E2
u≡ = (2.12.1)
volume 2
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2.13 Current
dQ
I≡ (2.13.1)
dt
Z
I= J · dA (2.14.1)
A
L
R=ρ (2.17.1)
A
E = ρJ (2.17.2)
J = σE (2.17.3)
2.18 Power
Write Here
FT
P = VI (2.18.1)
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2.20 Kirchoff’s Junction Rule
Write Here
2.21 RC Circuits
D
Q
E − IR − =0 (2.21.1)
C
Ampère’s Law
z d w
B · ds = µ0 I + µ0 0 E · dA (2.22.3)
dt
surface
Faraday’s Law
z d w
E · ds = − B · dA (2.22.4)
dt
surface
Ampère’s Law
FT
∇·E=
∇·B=0
ρ
0
(2.22.5)
(2.22.6)
RA
∂E
∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 0 (2.22.7)
∂t
Faraday’s Law
∂B
∇·E=− (2.22.8)
∂t
c= √ (2.23.1)
µ0 0
In a material with dielectric constant, κ,
√ c
c κ = (2.23.2)
n
where n is the refractive index.
E = cB (2.24.1)
E·B=0 (2.24.2)
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3.1
1
3.2
Wave Properties
Superposition
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2
3.3 Interference
3
D
3.4 Diffraction
4
3.6 Polarization
6
38 Optics & Wave Phonomena
3.7 Doppler Effect
7
FT
The critical angle, θc , for the boundary seperating two optical media is the smallest
angle of incidence, in the medium of greater index, for which light is totally refelected.
From eq. (3.8.1), θ1 = 90 and θ2 = θc and n2 > n1 .
n1 sin 90 = n2 sinθc
sin θc =
n1
(3.8.2)
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n2
D
4.1
1
4.2
FT
Laws of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic Processes
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2
4.6 Ensembles
6
40 Thermodynamics & Statistical Mechanics
4.7 Statistical Concepts and Calculation of Thermody-
namic Properties
FT
4.9 Heat Capacity
Q = C T f − Ti (4.9.1)
where C is the Heat Capacity and T f and Ti are the final and initial temperatures
respectively.
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4.10 Specific Heat Capacity
Q = cm T f − ti (4.10.1)
dEint = dQ − dW (4.12.1)
where dEint is the internal energy of the system, dQ is the Energy added to the system
and dW is the work done by the system.
∆Eint = −W (4.12.2)
If work is done on the system, negative W, then there is an increase in its internal
energy. Conversely, if work is done by the system, positive W, there is a decrease
in the internal energy of the system.
Constant Volume (Isochoric) Process If the volume is held constant, then the system
can do no work, δW = 0, thus
∆Eint = Q (4.12.3)
FT
If heat is added to the system, the temperature increases. Conversely, if heat is
removed from the system the temperature decreases.
Closed Cycle In this situation, after certain interchanges of heat and work, the system
comes back to its initial state. So ∆Eint remains the same, thus
∆Q = ∆W (4.12.4)
The work done by the system is equal to the heat or energy put into it.
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Free Expansion In this process, no work is done on or by the system. Thus ∆Q =
∆W = 0,
∆Eint = 0 (4.12.5)
Z Vf
dV
W = nRT
Vi V
Vf
= nRT ln (4.13.1)
Vi
Q TH − TC
H= = kA (4.14.1)
t L
where k is the thermal conductivity.
FT
We can rewrite the Ideal gas Law to say
PV = NkT (4.15.2)
where k is the Boltzmann’s Constant, such that
R
k= ≈ 1.381 × 10−23 J/K
NA
RA
4.16 Stefan-Boltzmann’s FormulaStefan-Boltzmann’s Equa-
tion
P(T) = σT4 (4.16.1)
r
3RT
vrms = (4.17.1)
M
1 ∆Eint
FT
CV = (4.20.3)
n ∆T
3
CV = R = 12.5 J/mol.K (4.20.4)
2
RA
4.21 Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure
Starting with
Q = nCp ∆T (4.21.1)
and
D
∆Eint = Q − W
⇒ nCV ∆T = nCp ∆T + nR∆T
∴ CV = Cp − R (4.21.2)
!
f
CV = R = 4.16 f J/mol.K (4.22.1)
2
©2009
FT Degrees of Freedom Predicted Molar Specific Heats
CP = CV + R
RA
Molecule Translational Rotational Vibrational Total ( f ) CV
3 5
Monatomic 3 0 0 3 2
R 2
R
5 7
Diatomic 3 2 2 5 2
R 2
R
Polyatomic (Linear) 3 3 3n − 5 6 3R 4R
Polyatomic (Non-Linear) 3 3 3n − 6 6 3R 4R
Table 4.22.1: Table of Molar Specific Heats
D
David S. Latchman
44
Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas 45
4.23 Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas
PV γ = a constant (4.23.1)
where γ = CCVP .
We can also write
TV γ−1 = a constant (4.23.2)
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D
FT
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D
5.1
1
5.2
Fundamental Concepts
Schrödinger Equation
FT
RA
Let us define Ψ to be
Ψ = Ae−iω(t− v )
x
(5.2.1)
Simplifying in terms of Energy, E, and momentum, p, we get
i(Et−px)
Ψ = Ae− ~ (5.2.2)
H =T+V (5.2.3)
To determine E and p,
∂2 Ψ p2
= − Ψ (5.2.4)
∂x2 ~2
∂Ψ iE
= Ψ (5.2.5)
∂t ~
and
p2
H= +V (5.2.6)
2m
This becomes
EΨ = HΨ (5.2.7)
48 Quantum Mechanics
~ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ 2
EΨ = − p2 Ψ = −~2 2
i ∂t ∂x
The Time Dependent Schrödinger’s Equation is
∂Ψ ~ 2 ∂2 Ψ
i~ =− + V(x)Ψ (5.2.8)
∂t 2m ∂x2
The Time Independent Schrödinger’s Equation is
~ 2 ∂2 Ψ
EΨ = − + V(x)Ψ (5.2.9)
2m ∂x2
FT
Let us consider a particle trapped in an infinite potential well of size a, such that
so that a nonvanishing force acts only at ±a/2. An energy, E, is assigned to the system
such that the kinetic energy of the particle is E. Classically, any motion is forbidden
outside of the well because the infinite value of V exceeds any possible choice of E.
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Recalling the Schrödinger Time Independent Equation, eq. (5.2.9), we substitute V(x)
and in the region (−a/2, a/2), we get
~2 d2 ψ
− = Eψ (5.2.10)
2m dx2
This differential is of the form
d2 ψ
2
+ k2 ψ = 0 (5.2.11)
dx
where
D
r
2mE
k= (5.2.12)
~2
We recognize that possible solutions will be of the form
⇒ A cos 0 + B sin 0 = 0
∴A=0 (5.2.14)
B sin ka = 0
ka = 0; π; 2π; 3π; · · ·
(5.2.15)
While mathematically, n can be zero, that would mean there would be no wave function,
so we ignore this result and say
FT
nπ
kn = for n = 1, 2, 3, · · ·
a
Substituting this result into eq. (5.2.12) gives
√
nπ 2mEn
kn = = (5.2.16)
a ~
Solving for En gives
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n2 π2 ~2
En = (5.2.17)
2ma2
We cna now solve for B by normalizing the function
Z a
a
|B|2 sin2 kxdx = |A|2 = 1
0 2
2
So |A|2 = (5.2.18)
a
So we can write the wave function as
D
r
2 nπx
ψn (x) = sin (5.2.19)
a a
1
V(x) = kx2 (5.2.20)
2
So the force experienced by this particle is
dV
F=− = −kx (5.2.21)
dx
d2 x
m 2 = −kx (5.2.22)
dt
And the solution of this equation is
x(t) = A cos ω0 t + φ (5.2.23)
FT
function solutions of the time-independent Schrödinger’s equation. By taking V(x)
from eq. (5.2.20) we substitute into eq. (5.2.9) to get
d2 ψ 2m k 2
!
mk 2 2E
= x − E ψ = x − ψ
dx2 ~2 2 ~2 k
This step allows us to to keep some of constants out of the way, thus giving us
√
mk 2
ξ2 = x (5.2.25)
~r
2E m 2E
and λ = = (5.2.26)
~ k ~ω0
This leads to the more compact
D
d2 ψ 2
= ξ − λ ψ (5.2.27)
dξ2
where the eigenfunction ψ will be a function of ξ. λ assumes an eigenvalue anaglaous
to E.
From eq. (5.2.25), we see that the maximum value can be determined to be
√
mk 2
ξmax =
2
A (5.2.28)
~
Using the classical connection between A and E, allows us to say
√
mk 2E
ξmax =
2
=λ (5.2.29)
~ k
dξ
dψ 2 −xi2 /2 −ξ2 /2
e−ξ /2
2
and 2
= ξ e − e = ξ 2
− 1
dξ
This gives is a special solution for λ where
λ0 = 1 (5.2.31)
FT
Thus eq. (5.2.26) gives the energy eigenvalue to be
~ω0 ~ω0
E0 = λ0 = (5.2.32)
2 2
The eigenfunction e−ξ /2 corresponds to a normalized stationary-state wave function
2
! 18 √
mk mk x2 /2~ −iE0 t/~
Ψ0 (x, t) = 2 2 e−
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e (5.2.33)
π~
This solution of eq. (5.2.27) produces the smallest possibel result of λ and E. Hence,
Ψ0 and E0 represents the ground state of the oscillator. and the quantity ~ω0 /2 is the
zero-point energy of the system.
(
−V0 for −a ≤ x ≤ a
V(x) =
0 for |x| > a
Region II: −a < x < a In this region, our potential is V(x) = V0 . Substitutin this into
the Schrödinger’s Equation, eq. (5.2.9), gives
~2 d2 ψ
− − V0 ψ = Eψ
2m dx2
FT
d2 ψ
or 2
= −l2 ψ
p dx
2m (E + V0 )
where l ≡ (5.2.35)
~
We notice that E > −V0 , making l real and positive. Thus our general solution
becomes
ψ(x) = C sin(lx) + D cos(lx) for −a < x < a (5.2.36)
RA
Region III: x > a Again this Region is similar to Region III, where the potential, V = 0.
This leaves us with the general solution
This gives us
D
κx
Be for x < a
ψ(x) = for 0 < x < a
D cos(lx) (5.2.38)
for x > a
Fe−κx
5.3 Spin
3
FT
6
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D
FT
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D
6.1
1
6.2
Properties of Electrons
Bohr Model
FT
RA
To understand the Bohr Model of the Hydrogen atom, we will take advantage of our
knowlegde of the wavelike properties of matter. As we are building on a classical
model of the atom with a modern concept of matter, our derivation is considered to be
‘semi-classical’. In this model we have an electron of mass, me , and charge, −e, orbiting
a proton. The cetripetal force is equal to the Coulomb Force. Thus
1 e2 me v2
= (6.2.1)
4π0 r2 r
D
The Total Energy is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies, so
p2
E=K+U = − | f race2 4π0 r (6.2.2)
2me
We can further reduce this equation by subsituting the value of momentum, which we
find to be
p2 1 e2
= me v2 = (6.2.3)
2me 2 8π0 r
Substituting this into eq. (6.2.2), we get
e2 e2 e2
E= − =− (6.2.4)
8π0 r 4π0 r 8π0 r
At this point our classical description must end. An accelerated charged particle, like
one moving in circular motion, radiates energy. So our atome here will radiate energy
56 Atomic Physics
and our electron will spiral into the nucleus and disappear. To solve this conundrum,
Bohr made two assumptions.
1. The classical circular orbits are replaced by stationary states. These stationary
states take discreet values.
2. The energy of these stationary states are determined by their angular momentum
which must take on quantized values of ~.
L = n~ (6.2.5)
L = m3 vr (6.2.6)
FT
From eq. (6.2.1) we find v and by substitution, we find L.
r
m3 r
L=e (6.2.7)
4π0
n2 ~2
rn = = n2 a0 (6.2.9)
me e2 /4π0
!
me e2 13.6
En = − 2 = − 2 eV (6.2.11)
2n 4π0 ~ n
1 1 1
= RH 02 − 2 (6.5.1)
λ n n
where RH is the Rydberg constant.
For the Balmer Series, n0 = 2, which determines the optical wavelengths. For n0 = 3, we
get the infrared or Paschen series. The fundamental n0 = 1 series falls in the ultraviolet
region and is known as the Lyman series.
FT
6.6 Selection Rules
8π~ f3
u( f, T) = 3 h f /kT (6.7.1)
c e −1
Rayleigh’s Equation
8π f 2
u( f, T) = 3 kT (6.7.4)
c
ex ' 1 + x (6.7.5)
hf hf
eh f /kT − 1 ' 1 + −1= (6.7.6)
kT kT
Thus eq. (6.7.1) takes the approximate form
8πh 3 kT 8π f 2
u( f, T) ' f = 3 kT (6.7.7)
c3 hf c
quantum effects.
Quantum
FT
As we can see this equation is devoid of Plank’s constant and thus independent of
At large frequencies, where h f > kT, quantum effects become apparent. We can
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estimate that
eh f /kT − 1 ' eh f /kT (6.7.8)
Thus eq. (6.7.1) becomes
8πh 3 −h f /kT
u( f, T) ' f e (6.7.9)
c3
6.8 X-Rays
D
2d sin θ = mλ (6.8.1)
for constructive interference off parallel planes of a crystal with lattics spacing, d.
The Compton Effect deals with the scattering of monochromatic X-Rays by atomic
targets and the observation that the wavelength of the scattered X-ray is greater than
the incident radiation. The photon energy is given by
hc
E = hυ = (6.8.2)
λ
E
= pc (6.8.3)
E hυ h
⇒p = = = (6.8.4)
c c λ
The Relativistic Energy for the electron is
E2 = p2 c2 + m2e c4 (6.8.5)
where
p − p0 = P (6.8.6)
Squaring eq. (6.8.6) gives
p2 − 2p · p0 + p02 = P2 (6.8.7)
FT
Recall that E = pc and E 0 = cp0 , we have
c2 p2 − 2c2 p · p0 + c2 p02 = c2 P2
E 2 − 2E E 0 cos θ + E 02 = E2 − m2e c4 (6.8.8)
E + me c2 = E 0 + E (6.8.9)
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Solving
E − E 0 = E − me c2
E 2 − 2E E 0 + E 0 = E2 − 2Eme c2 + m2e c4 (6.8.10)
2E E 0 − 2E E 0 cos θ = 2Eme c2 − 2m2e c4 (6.8.11)
Solving leads to
h
∆λ = λ0 − λ = (1 − cos θ) (6.8.12)
me c
D
where λc = h
me c
is the Compton Wavelength.
h
λc = = 2.427 × 10−12 m (6.8.13)
me c
A test charge, q, with velocity v enters a uniform magnetic field, B. The force acting on
the charge will be perpendicular to v such that
FB = qv × B (6.9.1)
FT
6.9.2 Zeeman Effect
The Zeeman effect was the splitting of spectral lines in a static magnetic field. This is
similar to the Stark Effect which was the splitting in the presence in a magnetic field.
In the Zeeman experiment, a sodium flame was placed in a magnetic field and its
spectrum observed. In the presence of the field, a spectral line of frequency, υ0 was
split into three components, υ0 − δυ, υ0 and υ0 + δυ. A classical analysis of this effect
allows for the identification of the basic parameters of the interacting system.
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The application of a constant magnetic field, B, allows for a direction in space in which
the electron motion can be referred. The motion of an electron can be attributed to a
simple harmonic motion under a binding force −kr, where the frequency is
r
1 k
υ0 = (6.9.5)
2π me
The magnetic field subjects the electron to an additional Lorentz Force, −ev × B. This
produces two different values for the angular velocity.
v = 2πrυ
D
eB
υ = υ0 + for clockwise motion (6.9.6)
4πme
eB
υ = υ0 − for counterclockwise motion (6.9.7)
4πme
We note that the frequency shift is of the form
eB
δυ = (6.9.8)
4πme
If we view the source along the direction of B, we will observe the light to have two
polarizations, a closckwise circular polarization of υ0 + δυ and a counterclosckwise
FT
circular polarization of υ0 − δυ.
1
Put drawing of Franck-Hertz Setup
FT
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7.1
7.1.1
Introductory Concepts
We can define
1
γ= q (7.1.1)
u2
1− c2
∆t = γ∆t0 (7.2.1)
where ∆t0 is the time measured at rest relative to the observer, ∆t is the time measured
in motion relative to the observer.
L0
L= (7.3.1)
γ
where L0 is the length of an object observed at rest relative to the observer and L is the
length of the object moving at a speed u relative to the observer.
64 Special Relativity
7.4 Simultaneity
FT
Relativistic Momentum
p̄ = γmv̄ (7.5.1)
Relativistic Energy
E = γmc2 (7.5.2)
RA
7.5.2 Lorentz Transformations (Momentum & Energy)
E
p0x= γ px − β (7.5.3)
c
py = py
0
(7.5.4)
= pz
p0z (7.5.5)
D
0
E E
=γ − βpx (7.5.6)
c c
K = E − mc2 (7.5.7)
1
= mc2 q − 1 (7.5.8)
v2
1−
c2
= mc2 γ − 1
(7.5.9)
∆E
∆P0x = γ ∆Px − β (7.5.10)
c
∆P y = ∆P y
0
(7.5.11)
∆P0z
= ∆Pz (7.5.12)
∆E0
∆E
=γ − β∆Px (7.5.13)
c c
FT
We can represent an event in S with the column matrix, s,
x
y
s = (7.6.1)
z
ict
A different Lorents frame, S0 , corresponds to another set of space time axes so that
0
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x
y0
s0 = 0 (7.6.2)
z
0
ict
x γ
0
0 0 iγβ x
y0 0 1 0 0 y
0 = (7.6.3)
z 0 0 1 0 z
−iγβ 0 0 γ
0
ict ict
D
s0 = L s (7.6.4)
The matrix L contains all the information needed to relate position four–vectors for
any given event as observed in the two Lorentz frames S and S0 . If we evaluate
x
h i y
s s=
T
x y z ict z = x + y + z − c t
2 2 2 2 2
(7.6.5)
ict
bx
b
b = y (7.6.7)
bz
ibt
this can be transformed into a set of quantities of b0 in another frame S0 such that it
satisfies the transformation
b0 = L b (7.6.8)
Looking at the momentum-Energy four vector, we have
px
FT
p
p = y (7.6.9)
pz
iE/c
p0 = L p (7.6.10)
We can also get a Lorentz-invariation relation between momentum and energy such
RA
that
p0T p0 = pT p (7.6.11)
The resulting equality gives
E02 E2
x + p y + pz −
p02 = + +
02 02 2 2 2
px p y p z − (7.6.12)
c2 c2
v−u
v0 = (7.7.1)
1 − uv
c2
We have
FT
(∆S)2 = (∆x)2 + ∆y 2 + (∆z)2 − c2 (∆t)2
(7.10.1)
Space-Time Intervals may be categorized into three types depending on their separa-
tion. They are
Time-like Interval
Light-like Interval
Space-like Intervals
FT
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D
8.1
8.1.1
Data and Error Analysis
a×b
x= (8.1.3)
c
D
The error in x is
!2
δx δa δb δc
2 2 2
= + + (8.1.4)
x a b c
x = ab (8.1.5)
The Error in x is
δx δa
=b (8.1.6)
x a
70 Laboratory Methods
8.1.4 Logarithms
Base e
x = ln a (8.1.7)
We find the error in x by taking the derivative on both sides, so
d ln a
δx = · δa
da
1
= · δa
a
δa
= (8.1.8)
a
Base 10
δx =
FT
x = log10 a
d(log a)
δa
(8.1.9)
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da
ln a
ln 10
= δa
da
1 δa
=
ln 10 a
δa
= 0.434 (8.1.10)
a
8.1.5 Antilogs
D
Base e
x = ea (8.1.11)
We take the natural log on both sides.
ln x = a ln e = a (8.1.12)
d ln x
δx = δa
dx
δx
⇒ = δa (8.1.13)
x
x = 10a (8.1.14)
log x = a log 10
log x
δx = δa
dx
1 d ln a
δx = δa
ln 10 dx
δx
= ln 10δa (8.1.15)
x
8.2
2
Instrumentation
FT
RA
8.3 Radiation Detection
Let’s assume that for a particular experiment, we are making countung measurements
D
8.6
6
Lasers and Optical Interferometers
FT
RA
8.7 Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional Analysis is used to understand physical situations involving a mis of
different types of physical quantities. The dimensions of a physical quantity are
associated with combinations of mass, length, time, electric charge, and temperature,
represented by symbols M, L, T, Q, and θ, respectively, each raised to rational powers.
D
FT
~
p= ∇
i
(9.1.1)
RA
So the momentum of the particle is
~
pψ = ∇ψ
i
~ ∂
= ψ
i ∂x
~
= · ikei(kx−ωt)
i
= ~kψ (9.1.2)
D
Amswer: (C)
2d = λ (9.2.2)
Answer: (D)
74 GR9277 Exam Solutions
9.3 Characteristic X-Rays
Mosley1 showed that when the square root of an element’s characteristic X-rays are
plotted agianst its atomic number we get a straight line. X-ray spectra is associated
with atoms containg many electrons but in the X-ray regime, excitation removes tightly
bound electrons from the inner orbit near the atom’s nucleus. As these emitted X-rays
are the result of transitions of a single electron, Bohr’s Hydrogen model proves useful.
Thus Mosley’s adaption of Bohr’s model becomes
1 1 1
= Z2 RH 2 − 2 (9.3.1)
λ eff n f ni
FT
where RH is the Rydberg number and Zeff is the effective charge parameter that replaces
the nuclear charge index, Z. The effective charge comes into play because the transition
electron sees a nuclear charge that is smaller than Ze as the other electrons shield the
nucleus from view. Thus our effective “shielding” constant, z f is
Zeff = Z − z f (9.3.2)
So
EC (ZC − 1)2
=
EMg Z − 12
Mg
(6 − 1)2
=
(12 − 1)2
D
25 1
= ≈ (9.3.4)
121 5
1
4
is our closest answer.
Answer: (A)
1
Henry G. J. Moseley (1887-1915) was described by Rutherford as his most talented student. In his
early 20’s, he measured and plotted the X-ray frequencies for 40 elements of the periodic table and
showed that the K-alpha X-rays followed a straight line when the atomic number Z versus the square
root of frequency was plotted. This allowed for the sorting of the elements in the periodic table by
atomic number and not mass as was popular at the time.
Moseley volunteered for combat duty with the Corps of Royal Engineers during World War I and was
killed in action by a sniper at age 27 during the attack in the Battle of Gallipoli. It is widely speculated
that because of his death, British and other world governments bagan a policy of no longer allowing
scientists to enlist for combat.
The Force due to gravity, Newton’s Law of Gravitation, follows an inverse square law
GMm
F= (9.4.1)
r2
or rather
1 1
F(R) ∝ F(2R) ∝ (9.4.2)
R2 2R
Dividing, we get
F(R) (2R)2
=
F(2R) R2
FT
=4 (9.4.3)
Answer: (C)
9.5 Gravitation II
RA
Newton’s Law of Gravitation becomes a linear law inside a body. So
F∝r (9.5.1)
Thus
F(R) ∝ R F(2R) ∝ 2R (9.5.2)
Dividing the two equations gives us
F(R) R
= R
D
F(2R) 2
=2 (9.5.3)
Answer: (C)
2R = 2mg + Mg
Mg
⇒ R = mg + (9.6.1)
2
As the block rests on the wedges, its weight causes it to push out on the two blocks.
There are horizontal and vertical components to this force; the horizontal component
being of interest to us
FB cos θ = Mg (9.6.2)
where θ = 45◦ . Since the wedges aren’t moving, this is also equal to the frictional force.
This force on the wedge has a horizontal component where
FT
Mg
Fx = F sin θ = (9.6.3)
2
FR = µR (9.6.4)
Fx = FR
RA
" #
Mg Mg
=µ m+
2 2
2µm
∴M= (9.6.5)
1−µ
Answer: (D)
From what we know about coupled pendulums, there are two modes in which this
system can oscillate. The first is when the two pendulum masses oscillate out of phase
with each other. As they oscillate, there is a torsional effect on the tube and we expect to
see the effects of its mass, M somewhere in the equation. The second occurs when the
two masses swing in phase with each other. As they are in phase, there is no torsional
effect on the connecting tube and the mode would be that of a single pendulum. So
our modes of oscillation are
r
g (M + 2m)
r
g
ω=0 ; ω= and ω= (9.7.1)
`M `
Answer: (A)
Choice C
FT
î jˆ k̂
τ = −b 0 c
0 a 0
Choice D
RA
î jˆ k̂
τ = b 0 c
0 a 0
Answer: (C)
D
If we were to draw an Amperian loop around the outside of the cable, the enclosed
current is zero. We recall Ampere’s Law,
I
B · ds = µ0 Ienclosed (9.9.1)
As Ienclosed = 0, then the magnetic induction at P(r > c), is also zero2 .
Answer: (A)
2
Think of the two resulting fields cancelling each other out.
−2q2
F(−2q)(q) = (9.10.1)
4π0 (2.0a)2
FT
−q2
F(−q)(q) = (9.10.2)
4π0 (a)2
2q2
F(2q)(q) = (9.10.3)
4π0 (a)2
RA
Adding eq. (9.10.1), eq. (9.10.2) and eq. (9.10.3) gives
1 7q2
F= (9.10.4)
4π0 2a2
Answer: (E)
1
U = CV 2 (9.11.1)
2
The time for the potential difference across a capacitor to decrease is given by
t
V = V0 exp − (9.11.2)
RC
The energy stored in the capacitor is half of its initial energy, this becomes
1
U = U0 (9.11.3)
2
1 1
CV 2 = CV02
2 2
V0
⇒V = 2
(9.11.4)
2
Substituting eq. (9.11.2) into the above equation gives
V2
2t
V02 exp − = 0
RC 2
Solving for t gives
RC ln 2
t= (9.11.5)
2
FT
Answer: (E)
The Maxwell Equations deal with electric and magnetic fields to the motion of electric
charges and disallow for magnetic charges. If we were to allow for a ‘magnetic charge’
or magnetic monopole, we would also have to allow for a ‘magnetic current’. As we
do have electrical charges and currents and equations describing them, we can observe
how they differ of our magnetic equations to come up with an answer.
Equation I.: Ampère’s Law This relates the magnetic field to an electrical current and
a changing electric field.
Equation II: Faraday’s Law of Induction This equation is similar to Ampère’s Law
except there is no ‘magnetic current’ component. As we have stated above, the
presence of a magnetic charge will lead us to assume a magnetic current, this is
one of the equations that would be INCORRECT.
Answer: (D)
FT
E = σT4
E1 = σ(2T)4 = 8σT4 = 8E
(9.14.1)
If we were to double the temperature of this blackbody, the energy emitted would be
(9.14.2)
Let C be the heat capacitance of a mass of water, the energy to change its temperature
by a half degree is
RA
E = C∆T (9.14.3)
where δT = 0.5 K. At T1 = 2T, the energy used is 8E, so
E1 = 8E = 8C∆T (9.14.4)
So the temperature change is eight degrees.
Answer: (C)
To determine the specific heat at constant volume we identify the degrees of freedom
or the ways the molecule can move; translational and rotational. The question also
adds that we are looking at high temperatures, so we have to add another degree of
freedom; vibrational.
Translational = 3
Rotational = 2
Vibrational = 2
We recall the formula, eq. (4.22.1) we used to determine the specific heat per mole at
constant volume, CV
!
f
CV = R = 4.16 f J mol−1 K−1 (9.15.1)
2
FT
Tc
e=1− (9.16.2)
Th
where Tc and Th are the temperatures of our cold and hot reservoirs respectively. We
must remember that this represents absolute temperature, so
Answer: (A)
D
Choice A The terminating resistor doesn’t prevent leakage, the outer core of the cable
FT
was designed to confine the signal. Your coaxial cable is a waveguide.
Choice B The cable doesn’t transmit enough power to cause over heating along it’s
length.
Choice C This is correct. The resistor essentially attenuates the remaining power
across itself, making it seem that the wave gets propagated across an infinite
length i.e. no reflections.
RA
Choice D This won’t prevent attenuation across the cable. The cable has a natural
impedance which will attenuate the signal to a degree. The terminating resistor
absorbs the remaining power so no signal gets refelcted back5 .
Choice E Improbable since the outer sheath’s purpose is to cancel out these currents.
Answer: (C)
There are many ways to tackle this question which depends on what you know. You
may already know the mass of the earth for one, which may make things convenient
and a time saver. The density of the earth is approximately that of Iron, if you knew
that and the volume of the earth, you would get an answer where
M = ρV
= 7870 × 109 × 1021
= 8 × 1024 kg (9.19.1)
4
You may be familiar or have seen the use of terminating resistors if you’ve dabbled in computers
or electronics for the past couple of years. SCSI cables made use of terminating resistors as you daisy
chained your drives across the cable. In the time when 10BASE2 ethernet networks were prevalent, the
use of a 50 Ω BNC Terminator was of utmost importance or your computers would have lost connectivity.
5
Think Maximum Power Transfer
gR2E
M=
G
(9.8)(6.4 × 106 )2
= kg (9.19.3)
6.67 × 10−11
Adding the indices, gives
1 + 12 + 11 = 24 (9.19.4)
FT
So our answer is of the magnitude 1024 kg.
Answer: (A)
Choice II This is CORRECT. At the front of the soap film, there is a phase change
of 180°as the soap film as a refractive index greater than air. The part that gets
transmitted through this film gets reflected by the back part of the film with no
phase change as air has a lower refractive index. This means that the two waves
are out of phase with each other and interfere destructively.
Choice III Yes, this is true. Light comes from a less dense medium, air, and bounces
off a more dense medium, soap, there is a phase change. There is no phase change
for the transmitted wave through the soap film.
Choice IV Inside the soap film, the wave meets an interface from an optically more
FT
dense medium to a less dense one. There is no phase change.
From the above, we see that choices II, III and IV are all true.
Answer: (E)
fo
M= (9.22.1)
fe
where fo and fe are the focal lengths of the objective and eyepiece lens respectively.
From the information given to us, we know that
fo
fe = = 0.1 m (9.22.2)
D
10
The optical path length is simply
d = f0 + fe
= 1.0 + 0.1 = 1.1 m (9.22.3)
Answer: (D)
EF = kTF (9.23.1)
1
EF = me v2 (9.23.2)
2
Solving for v
r
2kTF
v=
me
r
2(1.38 × 10−23 )(8 × 104 )
= (9.23.3)
9.11 × 10−31
Adding the indices, we get
−23 + 4 + 31
=6 (9.23.4)
FT
2
We are looking for speeds to be in the order of 106 m s−1 .
Answer: (E)
A Alpha particles and neutrons have high kinetic energy but very short penetrating
depth. This is primarily due to their masses. So we can eliminate this.
B protons and electrons don’t penetrate much as they interact easily with matter.
D muons and neutrinos. A muon is esseentially a ‘heavy’ electron they don’t emit
much brenstraalung radiation and hence are highly penetrating. Neutrinos have
almost no mass and travel close to the speed of light. In the beginning it was
dispited whether they had any mass at all. These two particles fit our choices.
E positrons and electrons. Thes two are highly interacting with matter.
Answer: (D)
FT
N = N0 exp[−λt]
Where λ is the decay constant. At t = 0 on the graph, the count rate is N = 6 × 103
counts per minute. We are looking for the time when N = 3 × 103 counts per minute,
which falls at around t = 7 minutes.6
Answer: (B)
(9.26.1)
RA
9.27 The Wave Function and the Uncertainty Principle
NOT FINISHED
NOT FINISHED
6
You may wonder what the presence of the log10 = 0.03 and log10 e = 0.43 is there for. It simply
means that you will go down three divisions on the y-axis to get the half life count. We see that from
eq. (9.26.1),
dN = −λNdt (9.26.2)
Integrating gives us
N
Z Z t1
2 dN
= −λ dt
N N t0
ln 2 = t2 − t1
log10 2
∴ = t2 − t1 = ∆t (9.26.3)
log10 e
So at any point on the graph, a change in three divisions on the y-axis will give us the half life.
This tests our knowledge of the properties of a wave function as well as what the
wavefunction of a particle in a potential well looks like. We expect the wave function
and its derivative to be continuous. This eliminates choices (C) & (D). The first is not
continuous and the second the derivative isn’t continuous. We also expect the wave
to be fairly localized in the potential well. If we were to plot the function |ψ|2 , we see
that in the cases of choices (A) & (E), the particle can exist far outside of the well. We
expect the probability to decrease as we move away from the well. Choice (B) meets
this. In fact, we recognize this as the n = 2 state of our wave function.
Answer: (B)
FT
9.30 Ground state energy of the positronium atom
The positronium atom consists of a positron and an electron bound together. As their
masses are the same, we can’t look at this as a standard atom consisting of a proton
and an electron. In our standard atom, it’s center of mass is somewhere close to the
center of mass of the proton. In the case of our positronium atom, it’s center of mass is
somewhere in between the electron and positron.
RA
To calculate the energy levels of the positronium atom, we need to “reduce” this two
mass system to an effective one mass system. We can do this by calculating its effective
or reduced mass.
1 1 1
= + (9.30.1)
µ mp me
where µ is the reduced mass and mp and me are the masses of the positron and the
electron respectively. As they are the same, µ is
D
me
µ= (9.30.2)
2
We can now turn to a modified form of Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom to
calculate our energy levels
Z2 µ
En = · 13.6eV (9.30.3)
n2 me
where Z is the atomic mass and n is our energy level. We have calculated that the
reduced mass of our system is half that of Hydrogen. So Z = 1. For the n = 2 state we
have
1 13.6 E0
E2 = · 2 eV = eV (9.30.4)
2 2 8
Answer: (E)
P = I2 R (9.32.1)
where I is the current through the resisitor. In this case the current through the R1
resistor is the current from the battery, I. After the current passes through R1 , the
FT
current divides as it goes through to the other resistors, so the current passing through
R1 is the maximum current. As the other resistors are close to R1 but have smaller
currents passing through them, the power dissipated by the R1 resistor is the largest.
Answer: (A)
This net resistance is the same as the R2 resistor. This reduces our circuit to one with
two resistors in series where RT = 25Ω. The voltage across RT is found by using the
voltage divider equation
25
VT = 3.0 V = 1.0 V (9.33.3)
75
This means that the potential across the R3 , R4 and R5 combination is 1.0 V. The voltage
across the R4 resistor is the voltage across the R3 k R4 resistor
20
V4 = 1.0 V = 0.4 V (9.33.4)
50
Answer: (A)
d sin θm = mλ (9.35.1)
where d is the width of the diffraction grating. We are told that our grating has 2000
lines per cm. This works out to
FT
1 × 10−2
d= = 0.5 × 10−5 m (9.35.2)
2000
As θ is very small, we can approximate sin θ ≈ θ. The above equation can be reduced
to
dθ = λ (9.35.3)
Plugging in what we know
RA
λ
θ=
d
5200 × 10−10
=
0.5 × 10−5
= 0.1 radians (9.35.4)
180 18
x= · 0.1 = ≈ 6◦ (9.35.5)
π π
D
Answer: (B)
∆T
∆T0 = q (9.38.1)
2
1 − uc2
where T is the time measure in the fram at rest and T0 is the time measured in the
frame moving at speed u relative to the rest frame. With the information given in the
question we can see that
∆t1
∆t2 = q (9.38.2)
FT
v2
1 − c122
∆t1
∆t3 = q (9.38.3)
v2
1 − c132
You may think that Answer: (C) is a possible answer but it would be incorrect the
leptons are not in the S2 frame, they are in the S1 frame, so this possibility has no
physical consequence.
RA
Answer: (B)
In most cases, we rarely see pure sine waves in nature, it is often the case our waves
are made up of several sine functions added together. As daunting as this question
may seem, we just have to remember some things about square waves,
D
2. Square waves are made up of odd harmonics. In choice (A), we see that both even
and odd harmonics are included. In the case of choice (B), only odd harmonics
will make up the function.
As we have the time, we see that the function of out square wave is
1
0 < t < ωπ
V(t) =
π
(9.39.1)
−1
ω
< t < 2πω
1
V(t) = a0 + a1 cos ωt + a2 cos 2ωt + · · · + an cos nωt+
2
+ b1 sin ωt + b2 sin 2ωt + · · · + bn sin nωt (9.39.2)
an =
bn =
1
π
1
Z
Z
0 FT
2π/ω
2π/ω
V(t) cos nωtdt
(9.39.4)
RA
π 0
0 0
h i
1 π π
− 2π
π ω ω ω π
− for n = 0
=
2π
1
nπω sin(nωt)|0ω − sin(nωt)| ωπω for n , 0
0
for n = 0
=
nπω [sin(nπ) − (sin(2nπ) − sin(nπ))] = 0 for n , 0
1
8
We expected this as we can see that the functions is an odd function. Odd functions are made up of
sine functions.
1
= [cos(2nπ) − 2 cos(nπ) + 1]
nπω
2 − 2(−1)n
=
nπω
0
for even n
= (9.39.5)
4
nπω for odd n
FT
We can write this as
4
V(t) = sin(nωt) for all odd values of n (9.39.6)
nπω
or we can say
n = 2m + 1 for all values of m (9.39.7)
This leads to9
∞
4 X 1
V(t) = sin((2m + 1)ωt) (9.39.8)
πω m=0 2m + 1
RA
9.40 Rolling Cylinders
At the pont of contact, the cylinder is not moving. We do see the center of the
cylinder moving at speed, v and the top of the cylinder moving at speed, 2v. Thus the
acceleration acting at the point of contact is the cetripetal acceleration, which acts in
an upwards direction.
Answer: (C)
D
ω = ω0 + αt (9.42.1)
Plugging in the values we were given, we can find the angular acceleration, α,
α = −4 rad.s-2 (9.42.2)
The torque is
FT
τ = Iα (9.42.3)
Which works out to be
τ = 16 Nm (9.42.4)
Answer: (D)
L=T−V (9.43.1)
d ∂L ∂L
!
= (9.43.3)
dt ∂q̇n ∂qn
FT
2 2
We are given a realtinship between y and x, where
y = ax2 (9.44.2)
Differentiating this with respect to time gives
ẏ = 2axẋ (9.44.3)
Subsitutung this into eq. (9.44.1), gives us
RA
ẏ2
" #
1
L = m ẏ + 2
− mgy (9.44.4)
2 4ay
Answer: (A)
1
E = mgh = mv2i (9.45.1)
2
Upon hitting the floor, the ball bounces but some of the energy is lost and its speed is
80% of what it was before
v f = 0.8vi (9.45.2)
As it rises, its kinetic energy is converted into potential energy
1 2
mv = mgh2
2 f
1
= m(0.8vi )2 (9.45.3)
2
= mgh2
⇒ h2 = 0.64h (9.45.4)
Answer: (D)
FT
9.48 Error Analysis
The error for Newton’s equation, F = ma, would be
σ 2
σm σa
2 2
f
= + (9.48.1)
F m a
Answer: (C)
RA
9.49 Detection of Muons
The muons travel a distance of 3.0 meters. As muons move at relativistic speeds, near
the speed of light, the time taken for a photon to traverse this distance is the time
needed to distinguish between up travelling muons and down travelling muons.
x 3.0
t= = seconds (9.49.1)
c 3.0 × 108
D
Answer: (B)
Answer: (A)
~2 d2 ψ
− + V(x) = Eψ (9.53.1)
2m dx2
D
~2 d2 ψ
− = Eψ
2m dx2
d2 ψ 2mE
∴ 2 = −kn2 ψ = − 2 ψ (9.53.2)
dx ~
We see that
kn2 ~2 n2 π2 ~
E= = 2 (9.53.3)
2m a 2m
where n = 1, 2, 3 · · · . So
π2 ~2
E≥ (9.53.4)
2ma2
Answer: (B)
FT
field acting into the page induces a clockwise current in the loop.
FB = I` × B (9.55.1)
We need to calculate the magnetic induction on the left and right sides of the loop. For
this we turn to Ampere’s Law
I
B · ds = µ0 Ienclosed (9.55.2)
BL (2πr) = µ0 I
µ0 I
BL = (9.55.3)
2πr
BR [2π (r + a)] = µ0 I
µ0 I
BR = (9.55.4)
2π (r + a)
µ0 I
!
FL = ib (9.55.5)
2πr
µ0 I
!
FR = ib (9.55.6)
FT
2π (r + a)
We know that from the above question, these forces act in oppsoite directions, so
F = FL − FR
µ0 iIb 1 1
= −
2π " r r + #1
µ0 iIb a
=
RA
(9.55.7)
2π r (r + a)
Answer: (D)
We recall that the ground state of the quantum harmonic oscillator to be 12 hν.
D
Answer: (C)
The atomic mass, Z, of the neutral Na atom is 11. We want our superscripts to ad to
11. Thus
1s2 , 2s2 , 2p6 , 3s1 (9.58.1)
Answer: (C)
FT
1s2 (9.59.1)
mv2 v
= Bev where ω =
D
r r
Be
⇒ ωc = (9.60.1)
m
Plugging in what we know, we get
1 × 1.6 × 10−19
ωc =
0.1 × 9.11 × 10−31
Adding the indices of the equation gives an order of magnitude approximation
− 19 + 31 = 12
I1 = 2mr2 (9.61.3)
FT
In the second case, we have one mass at the distance 2r and another mass at r. We can
get the total moment of inertia by adding the moment of inertias of both these masses
5mr2
2
r
I2 = mr + m
2
= (9.61.4)
2 4
Now the tricky part. The distance d in eq. (9.61.1) is the distance from the pivot to the
center of mass. In the first case it’s the distance from the pivot to the two masses. In
RA
the second case the center of mass is between the two masses. The center of mass can
be found by P
mi ri
rcm = P (9.61.5)
mi
Thus the center of mass for the second pendulum is
mr + m 2r 3
r2 = = r (9.61.6)
2m 4
Now we can determine the angular frequencies of our pendulums. For the first pen-
dulum
D
r
2mgr
ω1 =
2mr2
r
g
= (9.61.7)
r
For the second pendulum
v
t
3r
(2m)g 4
ω2 = 5
4
mr2
r
6g
= (9.61.8)
5r
10
Show derivation of this equation.
Answer: (A)
FT
Z V1
W= PdV (9.62.1)
V0
nRT
P= (9.62.2)
V
to give
RA
Z V1
dV
W=
V0 V
V1
= nRT ln (9.62.3)
V0
V1
W = RT0 ln (9.62.4)
V0
D
This gives11
Answer: (E)
NOT FINISHED12
Answer: (D)
11
It seems the inclusion of the specific heat ratio was not needed and was there to throw you off. As
Prof. Moody would say, “CONSTANT VIGILANCE!!!”
12
Add something
FT
In this scenario, we have a charge, −q, placed between two charges, +Q. The net force
on the small charge but if we were to slightly displace this charge it would be pulled
back to its central axis. The force by which it is pulled back is
Qq Qq 2Qq
F= + = (9.65.1)
4π0 R2 4π0 R2 4π0 R2
For small oscillations
RA
d2 V
k= (9.65.2)
dx2
where k is the spring constant.
We also recall that
dV
F= (9.65.3)
dx
Thus we can find k by differentiating 9.65.1.
!
d 2Qq Qq
D
k= 2
= (9.65.4)
dR 4π0 R 2π0 R3
k
ω2 = (9.65.5)
m
where m is the mass of the small particle.
Thus the angular frequency, ω, is
" # 12
Qq
ω= (9.65.6)
2π0 mR3
Answer: (E)
As the chain is pulled up, the mass changes with the length that is hanging. We are
given the linear density so we know the relationship of the chain’s mass to its length13
M m
ρ= = (9.66.2)
L x
FT
Z
W= ρx · dx
0
L
x2
= ρg
2 0
ρgL2 2(10)(100)
= = = 1000 J (9.66.3)
2 2
RA
Answer: (C)
We suspect that the equation might have polarized and unpolarized components.
Having no real idea and all the time in the world, we can derive the equations on what
this might look like. We recall the Law of Malus
D
Ipo
Ip = Ipo cos2 θ = [cos 2θ − 1] (9.67.1)
2
Iu = Iuo (9.67.2)
13
There is another way to think of this problem. We are told that the steel chain is uniform, so its
center of mass is in the middle of its length. The work done is the work done in raising the mass of the
chain by this distance. Thus
L L 10
W = Mg = ρLg = 2 · 10 · 10 · = 1000 J
2 2 2
As you can see, we get the same result. You may find this solution quicker.
I = Iu + Ip
Ipo
= Iuo + Ipo cos2 θ = [cos 2θ − 1]
" # 2
Ipo Ipo
= Iuo − + cos 2θ (9.67.3)
2 2
where
Ipo
A = Iuo − B B=
2
Given that A > B > 0, the above hypothesis holds.
Answer: (C)
9.68
FT
Telescopes and the Rayleigh Criterion
sin θ = 1.22
λ
(9.68.1)
RA
d
where θ is the angular resolution, λ is the wavelength of light and d is the len’s
aperature diameter. As θ is small we can assume that sin θ ≈ θ. Thus
λ
d = 1.22
θ
1.22 × 5500 × 10−10
= (9.68.2)
8 × 10−6
After some fudging with indices we get something in the order of 10−2 m.
D
Answer: (C)
The refractive index is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in
the medium.
c
n= (9.69.1)
v
Given n = 1.5,
c 2
v= = c (9.69.2)
n 3
Answer: (D)
As we are looking at ultra-high energies, we can ignore the rest energy term on the
right hand side, so14
2
100mc2 = pc2
FT
∴ p ≈ 100mc (9.70.4)
Answer: (D)
E = γmc2 p = γmc
This gives us
E = pc
⇒ p = 100mc (9.70.3)
FT
we are given that
MX = 4MY dX = 4dY
We can now find the moment of inertias of our two hoops
IX = 2MX R2X IY = 2MY R2Y
s s
MX gRX MY gRY
ωX = ωY =
2MX R2X 2MY R2Y
RA
r r
g g
= =
2RX 2RY
2π
= = 2ωX
T
Answer: (B)
When the Uranium nucleus decays from rest into two fissile nuclei, we expect both
nuclei to fly off in opposite directions. We also expect momentum to be conserved thus
MTh VTh = mHe vHe
MTh
∴ vHe = VTh
mHe
we see that vHe ≈ 60VTh . We can calculate the kinetic energies of the Thorium and
Helium nuclei
1 1
KTh = MTh VTh
2
kHe = mHe v2He
2 2
1 MTh
= (60VTh )2
2 60
≈ 60KTh
Now we can go through our choices and find the correct one.
B Again, this is clearly not the case. We see that vHe ≈ 60VTh .
C No this is not the case as momentum is conserved. For this to take place the two
nuclei must fly off in opposite directions.
E This is correct. We see from the above calculations that kHe ≈ 60KTh .
Answer: (E)
FT
9.76 Quantum Angular Momentum and Electronic Con-
figuration
The total angular momentum is
J=L+S (9.76.1)
As none of the electron sub-shells are filled, we will have to add the individual angular
momentum quantum numbers.
RA
For the 1s case, the spin, s, is
1
s1 = (9.76.2)
2
As this is in the s sub-shell, then the orbital quantum number is
`1 = 0 (9.76.3)
2
For the other two electron shells we get
1
s2 =
2
`2 = 1
3
j2 = `2 + s2 = (9.76.5)
2
and similarly for the third electron shell
1
s3 =
2
3
`3 = 1j3 = `3 + s3 =
2
j = j1 + j2 + j3
1 3 3 7
= + + = (9.76.6)
2 2 2 2
Answer: (A)
NOT FINISHED
Answer: (E)
FT
As the two skaters move towards the rod, the rod will begin to turn about its center
of mass. The skaters linear momentum is converted to a combination of linear and
rotational momentum of the rod.
RA
The rotational momentum can be calculated
L = m (r × V) (9.78.1)
L = Ltop + Lbottom
! !
b b
=m (2v) + m v
2 2
3
D
= mbv (9.78.2)
2
The rod will rotate with angular velocity, ω,
L = Iω (9.78.3)
3v
ω= (9.78.5)
b
m(2v) + m(−v) v
vcenter = = (9.78.7)
2m 2
The position of the mass at b/2 is a combination of the translational and rotational
FT
motions. The translational motion is
Answer: (C)
dω
vg = (9.79.1)
dk
and the phase velocity is
ω
vp = (9.79.2)
k
From the graph, we see that in the region k1 < k < k2 , the region of the graph is a
straight line with a negative gradient. So we can assume that dω
dk
< 0 and that ωk > 0.
Thus the two velocities are in opposite directions.
B They can’t be in the same directions. The phase velocity is moving in the opposite
direction to the group velocity.
Answer: (A)
FT
decelerated, then all of its kinetic energy is converted to EM radiation. We are told the
kinetic energy of our accelerated electrons are K = 25 keV. The energy of a photon is
hc
E = hf = =K (9.80.1)
λ
Solving for λ, we have
hc
λ=
K
RA
6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108
=
25 × 103 × 1.60 × 10−19
6.63 × 3
= × 10−10
25 × 1.6
12
≈ × 10−10 = 0.5 Å (9.80.2)
25
Answer: (B)
The maximum steady state amplitude will occur at its resonant frequency. This can be
see if one were to draw a graph of E vs. ω. The resonant frequency occurs when the
capacitive impedance, XC and the inductive impedance,XL are equal. Thus
1
XL = ωL XC =
ωC
Equating XL and XC together gives
1
ωL =
ωC
1
ω= √ (9.81.1)
LC
Answer: (C)
where tau is the torque on the plate. We recall that τ = Iα where I is the moment of
inertia and α is the angular acceleration. Thus the above equation becomes
Z
H
ω= αdt = (9.82.2)
I
FT
3H
ω= (9.82.3)
md2
Answer: (D)
sin θ ≈ tan θ ≈ θ
cos θ ≈ 1
T = mg
kq2
!
d
⇒ T sin θ = mg = 2
2L 2d
2
!
2kq L
∴ d3 = (9.83.2)
mg
Answer: (A)
15
Add derivation of moment of inertia for thin plate.
We recall the Larmor Formula which describes the total power of radiated EM radiation
by a non-relativistic accelerating point charge.
q2 a2
P= (9.84.1)
6π0 c3
where q is the charge and a is the acceleration. We can use this to eliminate choices.
A This says
P ∝ a2 (9.84.2)
FT
We see that this is TRUE from the above equation.
B This says
P ∝ e2 (9.84.3)
D False
E True
Answer: (D)
D
E2 = p2 c2 + m2 c4 (9.85.1)
We are given E = 1.5 MeV. Plugging into the above equation yields
We find p2 = 2 MeV/c.
Answer: (C)
We recall that the voltage decay across a capacitor follows an exponential decay, such
that
t
V = V0 exp − (9.86.1)
RC
Solving for C, we see that
t V0
C=− ln (9.86.2)
R V
We need to find t, which we can determine by how fast the trace sweeps, s. We need
to find R, which we will be given. The ration VV0 can be read off the vertical parts of the
scope.
Answer: (B)
K mv2
F= = (9.87.2)
r3 r
The potential energy can be found
Z Z
dr 1K
V= Fdr = K 3
=− 2 (9.87.3)
r 2r
D
This question can be answered through the process of elimination and witout knowing
exactly what the displacement vector is or what it does.
Q0 = C0 V0 (9.88.1)
While still connected to the battery, a dielectric is inserted between the plates. This
serves to change the electric field between the plates and as a result the capacitance.
Qf = Cf Vf (9.88.2)
V f = V0 (9.88.3)
FT
The dieiectric has a dielectric constant, κ0 , such that
C f = κC0 (9.88.4)
It follows that
Q f = κQ0 (9.88.5)
When a dielectric is placed inside an electric field, there is an induced electric field,
that points in the opposite direction to the field from the battery.
RA
E f = E0 + Einduced (9.88.6)
This results in
E0
Ef = (9.88.7)
κ
From the above we can infer
1. V f = V0
2. Q f > Q0
D
3. C f > C0
4. E f < E0
Based on this we can eliminate all but choice (E). In the case of the last choice, the effect
of the electric field places charges on the plates of the capacitor. Gauss’ Law tells us
0 ∇ · E = ρ (9.88.8)
If we were to place the dielectric between the plates, the atoms in the dielectric would
become polarized in the presence of the electric field. This would result in the accu-
mulations of bound charges, ρb within the dielectric. The total charge becomes
ρ = ρb + ρ f (9.88.9)
D f = 0 E + P (9.88.13)
Thus
D f > D0 (9.88.14)
FT
Answer: (E)
NOT FINISHED
Answer: (D)
f = 3 f0 = 30Hz (9.92.1)
Answer: (D)
FT
choice.
ANSWER: (E)
9.93.1 Calculation
As the mass falls, its gravitaional potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. We
can express this as a function of θ.
D
1
mg` sin θ = mv2 (9.93.1)
2
where ` is the length of the rod.
The radial or centripetal force, ar is
mv2
mar = (9.93.2)
`
Solving for ar gives us
ar = 2g sin θ (9.93.3)
16
Think an amusement park ride, something along ‘the Enterprise’ ride manufactured by the HUSS
Maschinenfabrik company. The g-forces are at the greatest at the bottom about 2gs and lowest at the top.
There are no restraints while you’re inside; you’re kept in place through centripetal forces. Your faith in
the force should dispel any fears.
at = g cos θ (9.93.4)
We can find the total acceleration, a, by adding our tangential and radial accelerations.
As these accelerations are vectors and they are orthogonal
q
a= a2t + a2r (9.93.5)
NOT FINISHED
Answer: (C)
FT
RA
9.95 Nuclear Scatering
NOT FINISHED
ANSWER: (C)
D
The optical path length through a medium of refractive index, n, and distance, d, is the
length of the path it would take through a vacuum, D. Thus
D = nd (9.96.1)
The Optical Path Difference is the difference in these two lengths. As the gas is
evacuated, we observe 40 fringes move past our field of view. So our optical path
difference is
∆ = nλ (9.96.2)
NOT FINISHED
ANswer: (C)
By finding the determinant of the characteristic matrix, we can find its eigenvalues
FT
−λ 1 0
0 −λ 1 = 0 (9.98.2)
1 0 −λ
FT
4 4
=1 (9.98.10)
So this is also true.
D This is also true
E Also TRUE
Answer: (E)
RA
9.99 First Order Correction Perturbation Theory
NOT FINSHED
Answer: (A)
9.100 Levers
D
As our system is in equlibrium, we know that the sum of the moments is equal to zero.
We are also told that the rod is uniform, so the center of mass is in the middle of the
rod. Thus, taking the clockwise and anticlockwise moments about the pivot
20x + 20(x + 5) = 40y (9.100.1)
where x is the distance of the center of mass from the pivot and y is the distance of the
40kg mass from the pivot. We know
10 = 5 + x + y (9.100.2)
Solving for x results in
x = 1.25 m (9.100.3)
Answer: (C)
FT
RA
D
A.1 Constants
Constant
Speed of light in a vacuum
Gravitational Constant
FT
Symbol
G
c
Value
2.99 × 108 m/s
6.67 × 10−11 m3 /kg.s2
RA
Rest Mass of the electron me 9.11 × 10−31 kg
Avogadro’s Number NA 6.02 × 1023 mol-1
Universal Gas Constant R 8.31 J/mol.K
Boltzmann’s Constant k 1.38 × 10−23 J/K
Electron charge e 1.60 × 10−9 C
Permitivitty of Free Space 0 8.85 × 10−12 C2 /N.m2
Permeability of Free Space µ0 4π × 10−7 T.m/A
Athmospheric Pressure 1 atm 1.0 × 105 M/m2
Bohr Radius a0 0.529 × 10−10 m
D
A · (B × C) = B · (C × A) = C · (A × B) (A.2.1)
A × (B × C) = B (A · C) − C (A · B) (A.2.2)
122 Constants & Important Equations
A.2.2 Product Rules
∇ f g = f ∇g + g ∇ f
(A.2.3)
∇ (A · B) = A × (∇ × B) + B × (∇ × A) + (A · ∇) B + (B · ∇) A (A.2.4)
∇ · f A = f (∇ · A) + A · ∇ f
(A.2.5)
∇ · (A × B) = B · (∇ × A) − A · (∇ × B) (A.2.6)
∇ × f A = f (∇ × A) − A × ∇ f
(A.2.7)
∇ × (A × B) = (B · ∇) A − (A · ∇) B + A (∇ · B) − B (∇ · A) (A.2.8)
A.3 Commutators
∇ · (∇ × A) = 0
∇ × ∇f = 0
FT
∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇ (∇ · A) − ∇2 A
(A.2.9)
(A.2.10)
(A.2.11)
RA
A.3.1 Lie-algebra Relations
[A, A] = 0 (A.3.1)
[A, B] = −[B, A] (A.3.2)
[A, [B, C]] + [B, [C, A]] + [C, [A, B]] = 0 (A.3.3)
D
[x, p] = i~ (A.3.4)
A.4.1 Vectors
Vector Addition
Commutative
|αi + |βi = |βi + |αi (A.4.2)
Associative
FT
|αi + |βi + |γi = |αi + |βi + |γi
(A.4.3)
Zero Vector
|αi + |0i = |αi (A.4.4)
Inverse Vector
|αi + | − αi = |0i (A.4.5)
RA
D
FT
RA
D
[1] David J. Griffiths. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, chapter 4.4.3, pages 184–185.
FT
Prentice Hall, second edition, 2005.
RA
D
Index
FT
Hydrogen Model, 55 Potential Energy, 17
Celestial Mechanics, 22 Simple Harmonic Motion Equation, 16
Circular Orbits, 23 Small Oscillations, 17
Escape Speed, 22 Total Energy, 16
Kepler’s Laws, 23 Parallel Axis Theorem, see Rotational Mo-
Newton’s Law of Gravitation, 22 tion
Orbits, 23
RA
Potential Energy, 22 Rolling Kinetic Energy, see Rotational Mo-
Circular Orbits, see Celestial Mechanics tion
Commutators, 122 Rotational Kinetic Energy, see Rotational
Canonical Commutators, 122 Motion
Kronecker Delta Function, 122 Rotational Motion, 20
Lie-algebra Relations, 122 Angular Momentum, 21
Compton Effect, 58 Moment of Inertia, 20
Counting Statistics, 71 Parallel Axis Theorem, 21
Rolling Kinetic Energy, 21
Doppler Effect, 20 Rotational Kinetic Energy, 20
Torque, 21
D
Fourier Series
GR9277 Q39, 90 Subject, 42
Franck-Hertz Experiment, 61 System of Particles, 22
Gravitation, see Celestial Mechanics Torque, see Rotational Motion
Kepler’s Laws, see Celestial Mechanics Vector Identities, 121
Kronecker Delta Function, 122 Product Rules, 122
Linear Algebra, 123 Second Derivatives, 122
Vectors, 123 Triple Products, 121