The Expansion of Russia

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THE EXPANSION OF
RUSSIA
AND
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE
CONTENTS
PAGE
THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA

The Origin of the Russian State and Nation. The Tartar-Mongols. Principality OF Moscow. The Unity of Russia. Isolation. The Aim of Russian Diplomacy.
IN EUROPE. Peter the Great. Poland. The Eastern Question. Latin and Greek Churches. Catherine the Great. Turkish Wars. Greek Independence. Crimean War. The Nihilism, Balkan States. Results of European Wars. Nicholas II.
25
THE SOUTHWARD EXPANSION OF RUSSIA

Wars and Treaties with Persia. A Way to the Indian Ocean. In the Caucasus. Paramount in Persia.
IN ASIA An Asiatic Power.
57
FURTHER CONQUESTS
Expansion towards India. Napoleon. The Conquest OF THE Khans. In Afghanistan. The " Key of the Indies." In Touch with India. Abyssinia. British
Over-Confidence.
68
CONTENTS
PAGE

EAST
IN
THE FAR
90
The Opening of Siberia. Value of Siberia. Settlements on the Chinese Wars. Pacific. Chinese Cessions. Vladivostock. Russian Influence at Pekin
COREA
The China-Japan War.
Interference of
Conflict with Japanese InterRussia. Russia's Gain. ests.
102
CHINA
Russian Concessions. Port Arthur. Railways. Loans. Corea. Germany. Great
Britain.
108
The United States.

116
THE MEANS AND METHODS OF RUSSIAN EXPANSION

Absolutism of Fruits of Diplomacy. An Enlightened Russian Government. Race Despotism. "^ Russian Colonists. Characteristics. Religion. Population. From the Franco - Russian Alliance. Baltic to the Pacific.
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE: A

I.
Psychological
139
II.
Study Race and Teimperament.

III.
General
Psychology.
lect.
Sentiment.
VI.
IV. Intel-
V. Politics.
Present State
THE EXPANSION OF
RUSSIA
THE EXPANSION OF

RUSSIA.
The Origin of the Russian State and Nation The Tartar-Mongols Principality of Moscow The Unity of Russia Isolation The Aim of
Russian Diplomacy.
We
go
State,
fail
to discover,
however
of
far
back we
Russian
towards
the
beginnings
the
any indication that
this
was ever desIn the were
tined to
become a maritime power.

the
Slavic
tribes
ninth
to
centm-y,
that
form the
first
political organization desig-
nated
by
the
name
Russian,
the
Slavo-
Russian
tribes,
occupied
a territory securely
shut in on the west, by the Poles and the

Lithuanians;
tribes,
on the north, by the Finnish

the Tchudis,
the Livonians,
and the
Ingrians;
on the
the
east,
Finnish tribes again,

the
the
Vesi,
Merians,
tribes,
Muromians, and
two
Turkish
the
Meshtcheraks
all
and
the Khazars,
that occupied
1
the northern

coast of the Black Sea;
allowing but a single
one of the Slavo-Russian peoples to hold a

position
point,
upon
these
its
shores.
Except
tribes
at
this
Slavo-Russian
nowhere
of the
had access
to the coast.
The shores
White Sea and the Arctic Ocean were Finnish;
those of the Baltic, Finnish or Scan-
dinavian;
those of the Black Sea were held
by
the
Khazars,
the
Caucasian
the
tribes,
the
Byzantine
Empire,
and
Bulgarians,
its
Finnish tribe that had imposed

sovereignty upon a certain
tribes.
name and
of Slavic
number
In the East and North, the Slavs were not

to
be
found even
rose
in
those
regions
capitals,
where
afterwards
the
Russian
Mos-
cow and
St. Petersburg.
Beyond began those

into
immense spaces that stretch away
the
depths of Central Asia, and even to the Pacific Ocean,

spaces
tribes,
peopled
with
Finnish
of
and
the
Turkish
and other branches

Then,
2
still
Uralo-Altaic family.
further east,

were
to
be
found
certain
peoples
of
the
yellow race.
To speak now only
of the Russia of Europe,
how
did the Slavo-Russians,
who
in
in the ninth of their
century
present
session
held
scarcely
fifth
part
territory,
succeed
securing
pos-
of
it
all?
two-fold
change came
about
during
the
centuries.
On
the
the
one
hand, the Slavo-Russians, very venturesome in

disposition,
following,
at
first,
course
of
the
rivers
and
their
tributaries,
spread
out over the vast plains that stretch

the
away
to
Ural
Mountains;
founding
everywhere
cities, villages,
and markets
right in the midst
of the territory of the aboriginal tribes.
On
the
other
hand,
they absorbed
the
greater
part of those tribes, and imposed

their language, religion,
upon them
their
and even
double
man-
ners
and
customs.
colonization,
therefore, took place, a colonization of the soil
and a colonization
Uralo- Altaic
of the native.
The ancient
or
tribes,
subjugated
3
absorbed

by
the
Russians,
has disappeared from the
map
of the empire.
There persist
still
only
some scattered remnants
of them, surrounded
by men
of
Russian
race
and
speech,
and
destined soon to disappear.
These aborigines
are to be foimd in fairly compact groups only

in those places
where the severity of the climate,

soil,
the barren character of the
the
thick-
ness
of
the
forest,
and the desert steppes

an ethnographical
check Russian
civilization,
medley, moreover, occupying only a very small
and
indifferently valuable
of to-day.'
part of the Euro-
pean Russia
Thus
the
primitive
tribes
of
the
Slavo-
Russians formed an agglomeration which was
everywhere well-nigh entirely shut
off
from
any
sea.
This had a character essentially

the population was wholly agri-
continental;
in
(0 Thus the Suomi, the Karelia and the Laplanders Finland; the Zyrians and the Permians, in the northeast; the Tcheremisa, the Mordva, the Votiaki, the Meshtcheraks, and the Bashkirs on the river Volga, or between the Volga and the Ural Mountains and river.

cultural
in
character,
and,
except
as
fleets
of light boats descended the Dnieper in the
tenth century
to
to
harass Constantinople
and
commit piracy on the Byzantine shores

was nothing
to indi-
of the Black Sea, there
cate that
it
would one day come forth as a
maritime power.
The Russia
centuries
of
the
twelfth and
thirteenth
was scarcely European.

Europe only by her form
that,
She was
of relig-
bound
ion,
to
and even
borrowed from Byzantine,
was an
Oriental,
an almost Asiatic form of

there
Christianity.
When
Catholic
came about
in the
eleventh
century
the
rupture
between
of
the
Latin
and
the
Church
the
West,
of
and
Greek
a
still
and
Orthodox
barrier
Church
the East,
higher
was raised
between the two parts of Europe.
To the
Western Christians, the Greeks and the peoples
that they had evangelized,

Servians,
the Bulgar-
ians, the
the
Moldavo-Wallachians,
only
schismatics.
and
the
Russians,
were
5

Now, while
the Catholic peoples of the West,
thanks to more favorable historical circumstances,
began
in
to
take
shape
as
powerful
nations
which an already well-advanced
civilization
went on developing, the schismatic

assailed
peoples of Eastern Europe,

cessive invasions,
by
suc-
from Asia, and after having
long served as a living bulwark against bar-
barism for ungrateful Europe, were checked

in their historic evolution,
and
to
fell
one after
the
or
other
into
servitude
pagan Mongols
Mohammedan
Turks.
first
The country where the Slavo-Russians

established
themselves was only a prolonga-
tion of the great plains which, scarcely broken
by
Sea,
the Ural Mountains, extend to Behring's
Okhotsk Sea, and the
Sea
of
this
Japan.
Geographically,
itive
topographically,
prim-
Russia was already Asiatic.
Just as the
all
winds from Asia swept unhindered
this
immense
peoples
plain,
so
could
the
migration
at
of
and invading expeditions,

6
times

originating
near
the
Great
Wall
of
China,
pour unchecked over the Russian plains as

far
as
the
Carpathian
Mountains
and
the
Vistula.
One
of those revolutions, so frequent
among
the nomadic tribes of Asia, brought together
from 1154
Temuchin,
tribes
to 1227
under the blue banner of

Jenghis
called
Khan,
numerous
of
shepherds
as
and
mounted nomads.
They adopted
of
their
collective
name
that
the Tartar-Mongols.
At
their
head "the
Inflexible
Emperor," ^Hhe Son
of
Heaven,"
conquered Manchuria, the kingdom of Tangut,
North
China,
Turkestan,
and
Great
Bokhara,
and
founded
an
empire
which
extended from the Pacific to the Ural Moimtains.
Under the
successors of Jenghis
Khan, these
the
mounted
upon
hordes,
maddened by
fury
of
fell
war and conquest, crossed

Russia,
into Europe, into
then
carried
divided
the
numerous
cities
principalities,
capital
by
assault,
annihilated, one after the other, the

armies of foot and horse sent against them,
and
in 1240 converted all Russia into a
mere
province of the Mongol Empire.

princes
The Russian
and the
chieftains of the Finnish tribes
became
vassals of the Great
Khan/ who
held
his court
on the banks of the Onon, an
affluent
of the
Amur, or at Karakorum on the Orkhon,
a stream emptying into Lake Baikal.
They
were also more directly the vassals of one of

his vassals,
the
Khan
of the
Golden Horde,
who was
At
stationed at Sarai on the lower Volga.
this
period the Tartar-Mongols,
among
Sham-
whom
until
anists,
Mohamimedanism
still
was
disseminated
about 1272, were

or
fetich
Buddhists,
at
worshippers;
heart very
indifferent in matters of religion,
and strangers
of intoler-
to
any thought
They,
of
propagandism or
.
ance.
therefore,
left
the
Russians in
undisturbed possession of their religion, their

(0 Consult Howorth, History of the Mongols, London Wolff, Geschichte der Mongolen, Breslau, 1872. 1876.
Lôn Cahun, Introduction

1896.
a Vhistoire de VAsie, Paris,

laws,
and
their
own
princely dynasties.
They
merely exacted' tribute, and, in certain contingencies, military service;
and every new Russian
prince
must go
to receive his investiture either
at Sarai,
or even
by a journey that would
occupy years, at the court of the Great Khan.

There they were compelled to prostrate themselves at the foot of his throne, to defend
themor
selves against the accusations of enemies,

of their Russian rivals;
and the Khan disposed
of their heads as of their crowns.
princes were executed before
Many Russian his eyes. Some
among
these,
the Russian Church honors as
martyrs.
Among
those
the Russian princes
who went
there
to prostrate themselves before the
Horde were
who had founded round about a little market-town, the name of which is met with for the first time in 1147, a new principality,
that of Moscow, one of the most insignificant
of the Russian states of that period. It
was
established in the midst of a Finnish country,

among
a
of
the Muromians.
of
It formed,
therefore,
colony
primitive
Russia.
to
The
princes
Moscow knew how

Russia.
turn to their
own
advantage the Mongol yoke that weighed on

all
They were more
adroit than the
others in flattering the

the
common master and

him
in
agents
that represented
Russia.
One
of them,
George (1303-1325), even married

In their struggles against
a Tartar princess.
other Russian princes, they alway carried the
controversy to the court of the Khan,
who
They
almost always decided in their favor, and sent
them away with the heads

secured from the
of their rivals.
Khan
the privilege of collecting
the tribute, not only from their
own
subjects,
but from the other princes

function
raised
of Russia.
This
as
tribute
collector
all
for
the
Khan
them above
their
equals;
and the
more humble
vassals of the barbarians they

to be, the better did they
showed themselves
establish their suzerainty over the other Christian states.
They succeeded thus

10
in building

up a powerful
PrincipaUty''
state,
which was called the ''Great
of
Moscow.
When
they
felt
themselves to be strong enough, and perceived

that the Mongol Empire had grown sufficiently
weak through
to
internal dissension
and
divisions
warrant the attempt, they turned against
the barbarians the power that they
owed
to
them.
In
1380,
the
Grand Prince Dmitri,
having refused payment of tribute, defeated
Mamai, the Khan
of
the Golden Horde,
at
Kulikovo on the Don.
But the Mongols were

(hero of
not yet as weak as Dmitri Donskoi

the
Don) had thought.
Tamerlane, or TimurPersia
Leng, had
Asia Minor,
his
just conquered Tiu-kestan,
and North Hindustan.

Tokhtamysh,
having
One
of
lieutenants,
vainly
summoned
before him,
the
Grand
Prince, Dmitri, to appear
marched against Moscow, captured

its
the city
cities
and
the
Kremlin, sacked the other
of
principality,
and
everywhere
Nevertheless,
reestablished Asiatic supremacy.
the Mongol yoke was not to survive long the

11

heroic
effort
made
to
at
Kulikovo.
The great
barbarian empires founded by Asiatic conquerors

quickly
fall
pieces.
This
historical
law
as
was
in of
verified in the
Empire
of Tamerlane,
that of Jenghis Khan.
Towards the end
the fifteenth century, the Mongol
Empire
of of
Asia was divided in the Mongol Empire

China,
the Mongol
Empire
of
India,
the
Mongol Kingdom
of khanates in
of Persia,
and a
large
mmiber
all
Turkestan and Siberia; and
those states were scarcely any longer Mongol
save in name.
In Russia
itself,
the Golden
debris were
Horde was broken up.
From
its
formed the czarate of Kazan on the middle

Volga, the khanate,
or czarate,
of Sarai,
or
Astrakhan, on the lower Volga, the horde of

the Nogais, and the khanate of the Crimea.
In 1476, Akhmed, the
Khan
the
of Sarai, sent a
demand
for
tribute
to
Grand Prince
of
Moscow, Ivan the Great.

adors to death.
Ivan put the ambasslater,
Four years
the
Khan
Akhmed marched upon Moscow

12
with a large

army.
the
the
Near the
of
rivers
Oka and Ugra he met

force
army
Ivan the Great; but neither of

dared
the
adversaries
passage
of
the two rivers.
They remained
there several
days exchanging insults and darts from the

opposite shores.
Then a panic simultaneously
arose in both armies; the one fleeing in the

direction of
of Sarai. It
Moscow, the other
in the direction
was
in this bloodless, inglorious
way
that the Mongol power in Russia
came
to
an end.
The Mongol yoke had continued two hundred

and
fifty-six
years
(1224-1480).
It
left
in
Russia traces that were for a long time ineffacable.
Before the Tartar conquest, the power
of a Russian prince
was founded upon Euro-
pean
ity
origins.
It recalled the patriarchal author-
of
the old-time
tribes;
chieftains
of
the Slavo-
Russian
the martial authority of the
heads of the Scandinavian or Variagian clans,

like
Rorik and other Variagian

it is said,
chiefs,
called
into Russia,
by the
and
Slavs;
religious,
and the
of the
authority, at once civil
13

Byzantine-Roman emperors,
sors of Rorik,
whom
the succes-
Hke
all
the barbarian chieftains

to take as models.
of Eastern Em-ope,
hked
After the Tartar conquest, on the contrary,

the Russian princes, and especially the
Grand
Princes of Moscow, selected as prototypes of

their
own
authority
their
the
Khans and Great

power,
Khans with
autocratic
coarse,
irresponsible, Asiatic.
From
that time forward,
they treated their vassals as they themselves
had been treated by the Khans.
Between the
Grand Prince and
his vassals,
and between these

were those of
and the peasants, the
relations
brutal masters and trembling slaves.
The sover-
eign of
Moscow did not
differ
from a Mongol
Khan, from a Persian Shah, or from an Osmanli

Sultan, save as he professed the orthodox religion.
He was
the
a sort of a Christian Grand Turk.
When
title of
Grand Prince seemed

was none
to
him
unworthy
of his increased power, the title that
his ambition chose
of those that the
Christian rulers of the
West then
14
bore;
it
was

the one which the
or of Astrakhan
Khans
of Siberia, of
it
Kazan,
title
had arrogated;
was the
of Czar, which, of course, has not

logical connection
any etymofiction
title
with that of Csesar, a

later.
invented very
much
Such was the

of
that the heir of the
Grand Princes
solemnly
Moscow,
in
Ivan
the
Terrible,
took
1547.
Many
other facts attest the predominance of
Asiatic influences over the Russia of the six-
teenth century.
The costumes
of the Czar of
Moscow and
of the other great lords, the princes
and boyars, were
Asiatic; Asiatic
was the
servile
etiquette of the court; touching with the
brow
the foot of the throne,

in
and the humble formulas
which the highest personages declared them-
selves to be slaves; Asiatic
was the seclusion
of
the
women
in the terem,
which was a Russian

of the royal
harem ;^
(1)
Asiatic
was the equipment

proper to
call attention to the fact that the servile character of the court etiquette may
it is
However,
also
have been borrowed from Byzantium, and that

its original in
the Russian terem may have had gynsecium of the Greeks.
the
lo

cavalry with their high saddles and short
stir-
rups; their boots with the toe in the form of
an
upturned crescent; their armor reminding one

of
the
Chinese and Japanese;
their
curved
swords, their bows and quivers, and their headdress,
which resembled a turban surmounted by

All this oriental apparel
an
aigrette.
was
to
continue in vogue imtil the time
when Peter
Russia
the
Great, with the violent measures of an Asiatic

despot,
forcibly
introduced
short clothing of the
West, '^German
this
into
the
dress,''
that
is,
European.
With
change in cos-
tume, he also brought in the fashion of shaving

the face; the holding of social gatherings, which the recluses of the terem were compelled to
attend;
the etiquette of the Christian courts;
the formulary of the
German bureaucracy, and
the imiforms, equipments, and tactics of the
armies of the West
While Russia was
still
groaning under the

of
Mongol yoke, the Grand Princes

utilizing
Moscow,
their servitude
as an instrument of
16

power, caused the other princes to
the terror of the Mongol,
bow
before
and brought about

territory,''
'Hhe consoUdation of the Russian

that
is
to say, they
founded the unity of Russia.
When
the family line of the
Grand Princes and

in 1598,
Czars of
Moscow died out
and when
there began for Russia 'Hhose troublous times
(smoutndie Vr^mia)/' which the accession of the
Romanofs brought
ate of
state.
to
an end
in 1613, the czar-
Moscow was already a very powerful

by the annexation
In the North
especially,
of
the territories of the ancient republics of

,
Nov-
gorod and Pskof the Muscovite supremacy was
extended to the White Sea and the Arctic

Ocean.
On
the west, in a series of wars against
the Lithuanians
and the Poles
to ^'recover"
from them Russian territory which they had

formerly conquered, the
carried its
Moscow
czarate
had
power beyond Pskof and Lake
Pei'pus,
and had reached the Dnieper at Kiev and

Smolensk.
In
the
South,
17
it
had
reached

neither the Black Sea nor the Sea of Azov,
from which
that
still
it
was separated by the Ukraine
belonged to the Poles, by a republic
of adventurers
and
pirates called the Zaporoof the
vians,
by the khanate
Crimean Tartars,
by the camping-grounds
tars,
of the
Nogaian Tar-
and, finally, by the maritime power of the
Ottomans on the Euxine.

conquest
advances.
Eastward, Russian
and colonization had made great
The uniting
of the old territories of
Novgorod, and the annexation of those of the

republic of Viatka, brought the Muscovite
ination to the Ural Mountains.
of the czarate of in 1552,
dom-
The conquest
the Terrible,
Kazan by Ivan
all
gave him
the region of the middle

of
Volga,
and the conquest

later,
the
czarate
of
Astrakhan, two years

all
placed in his power
the lower Volga country, with a part of the

Finally,
coast of the Caspian Sea.
the con-
quest of the khanate of Sibir, between the years
1579-1584,
the
by
the
Cossack
Irmak,
carried
Russian
eagles
beyond the Urals, and

18

opened
Siberia.
before
them
the
immensities
of
But
the
more
extensive
it
the
suffered
Muscovite
Empire became, the more
from not
the year
having access to any sea which was

free
all
from
ice,
or which would afford an outlet to

of the
the ocean.
The Harbors
White Sea were
closed with ice eight
months
of the year; the
Caspian Sea is only a great lake without an outlet.
To reach the
Baltic Sea,
it
would be necessary to
battle against the Germans, the Poles,
and the
Swedes, the masters of
all its
shores.
To gain
access to the Black Sea, there were, again, the
Poles to be fought, as well as the Tartars, the
Zaporovians, and the Grand Turk.
Now, the
European neighbors
of Russia were beginning to
fear this great barbarian empire.
They were
terror to
convinced that
it
would become truly a
them the day on which, by obtaining regular

communication with the West,
it
could thereby
learn something of their civilization, their industries,
and, above
all,
their military art.
They
19

understood that the backward condition of
civiUzation
its
was the only safeguard against

They, therefore, closed against
its
it
ambitions.
their eastern frontiers,

Baltic.
and barred
it
out of the
Terrible,
At
the time
when Ivan the

into
profiting
by the decadence
which the Sword-
Bearers, the religious military order of the Livonians,
had
fallen,
took their lands away from

flag at their port of
them, and raised his

Poles,
Narva,
Germans, and Swedes imited against him;
they incited fresh invasions of the Crimean Tartars, conspiracies
and
rebellion
among
his nobil-
ity; and, after
a bitter struggle of twenty-four
years, compelled
him
to
abandon
his conquest in
1582.
So long as Narva was in the hands of the
Czar, Sigismund,
King
of Poland, did not
have a
moment's
began
ters to
peace.
When
English
merchants
to resort there, he wrote threatening let-
Queen Elizabeth, sununoning her

traffic.
to for-
bid that
''Our
sail
fleet will seize all
those
who
will
continue to
thither;
your merchants
liberty, their
be in danger of losing their

20

wives and children, and their Hves/'
confession escaped him:
traffic
And
this
this
"We
who
see
is
by
new
the
Muscovite,
not only our
enemy
free
to-day, but the hereditary
enemy
of all
nations,
furnishing
himself
thoroughly,
not only with our guns and munitions of war,

but,
above
to
all,
with skilled workmen,
who
to
continue
prepare
equipments of war for
him, such as have been hitherto

his
unknown
would
barbaric
people. * * *
It
seem
that
we have thus
far conquered
him because
he
is
ignorant of the art of war and the finesse
of diplomacy.
Now,
if
this
comimerce continues,
what
will there
it
soon be
left for
him
to learn?
'^
Thus,
was not merely unpropitious nature
that kept Russia in a condition of blockade;
but the jealousy of her neighbors mounted a
most rigorous guard around these " barbarians''

of the North.
The empire
like
of
Moscow remained
condemned,
the agglomeration of Slavic
tribes of the ninth
and tenth centuries from

to a purely continental
which
it
had sprung,
21

life.
It
was shut up
to
its
vast
northern
plains like
the Swiss to his mountains,

little
and
seemed
to
have as
chance of ever becoming
a maritime power.
Hitherto, the Muscovite Empire with
its mili-
tary
organization
wholly
Asiatic,
with
its
its
noble-born knights and free peasants, with

infantry
militia,
the
streltsy,
its
with
its
old-
fashioned artillery, with

Cossacks,
Tartars,
regular troops of
and Calmucks, had been
able to withstand victoriously Asiatic forces;
but
it
could not maintain a struggle against the
regular troops
and improved weapons
of the
western nations.
in
In order to make her mark

for
Europe,
it
was necessary
Russia
to
become European; but she could not become

European
in
if
Europe persisted
It
in holding her
a condition of blockade.
was a 'Wicious
circle'';
and
it
was reserved
for the genius of
Peter the Great to succeed in breaking that

circle.
Henceforth,
we
see Russian diplomacy, with
22

tireless
its all
patience, with a shrewdness equal to
persistency, endeavoring simultaneously in

directions
to to
pierce
the
to
blockade.
the
Baltic
She
Sea;
strives
secure
access
and we
the
shall
have the Northern

the
partition
of
War
of Peter
Great,
Poland
under
Catherine
II.,
the Finland question under the
Czarina
Ehzabeth,
and under Alexander
I.
She strives to secure access to the Black Sea;
and we
its
shall
have the Eastern Question in

first
all
forms, from the
efforts of
Peter the
Great down to the war of 1877-78 of Alexander

II.
She strives
to
make
herself mistress
of
the Caspian Sea,
and the attempt made by
Peter the Great will reach an end only imder
Alexander
III.
She strives to secure access
to the Indian Ocean,
and we
shall
have the
wars and treaties with Persia, Afghanistan,
and England.
to the
She strives to secure access

of Japan,
Okhotsk Sea, the Sea
and the
Pacific Ocean,
and we
shall witness the
work
of Siberian colonization
and
all
the phases of
23

the
Far Eastern Question.
The matter
her
of
securing
less.
new
has
at
territory
concerns
much
to
It
been the supreme end of her
efforts,
times continued for centuries,
reach a sea,
a sea free from
ice,
a sea opening
into the ocean.
24

IN EUROPE.
Peter the Great Poland The Eastern Question Latin and Greek Churches Catherine the Great Turkish Wars Greek Independence Crimean War The Balkan States Nihilism Results of European Wars Nicholas II.
We
tion
of
know with what energy and

success
alterna-
and
failure
Peter the Great
struggled against the Swedish masters of the

eastern
and southern shores
of
the
Baltic.
We
are
amazed when we
reflect that
a war,
a war
lasting
more than twenty-one

all
years:
that convulsed
Europe;
that brought the
Swedes into the heart of Russia and the Russians

into
the
centre
of
Germany;
that brought
about the creation of a Russian army and
navy imder the
fire
of the
enemy, and that
numbered a
score of battles
on land and
sea,
should have ended in results apparently so
25
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
meagre as were those gained by Russia
1721 at the Treaty of Nystad;
acquisition
of in
namely, the
Livonia,
these
four small
provinces,
Esthonia,
Ingria,
and
Karelia.
But
provinces gave
of Riga,
also the
him on the
two
Baltic the ports
Revel, and Narva;
they gave him
mouths
of
rivers, the
broad Neva
and the Duna, or Dvina (not
to be confounded
with the other Dvina that empties into the
White
Sea).
It
was on the
islets of
the
Neva
that Peter the Great had founded, in 1703,
on lands
still
disputed by
the
Swedes and
by the
St.
floods, the capital of
European Russia,
Petersburg, protected on the west

fortress
by the
''the
maritime
of
Kronstadt.
Yes,
Giant Czar" considered himself amply repaid

for his efforts of twenty-one years
by the
fact
still
that
for
his
vast
continental
empire,
wrapped
''to
in Asiatic darkness, he
had been able
open one window on Europe."

still
This ^dndow was

It
a very narrow one.
was somewhat enlarged by Elizabeth, when,

26
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
after a
war
foolishly
undertaken by Sweden,
she
made
that country, in the Treaty of Abo,
1743,
surrender
some
I.,
districts
in
Finland.
Later,
Alexander
during
his
short-lived
aUiance with Napoleon,

recent
ally,
conquered from his

III.,
all
Gustavus
of
Finland
(Treaty
of
Fredericksham,
1809).
Russia
had now no longer anything

direction.
to seek in that
Westward, between Russia, already powerful
and always
in
war-like,
and
Prussia,
now
grown great
glory
and strength, lay an
extremely weak state made up of the king-
dom
and
first
of Poland, the
grand duchy of Lithuania

Russian
districts.
some
old-time
The
the
three partitions of this state (1772, 1793,

carried
1795),
the
Russian
frontier
to
Niemen,
Catherine
the
II.
Warthe,
and
the
Dniester.
completed these conquests by
the annexation of Courland, w^hich
had been
a vassal dependency of the fallen kingdom.

It
is
to be noted,
however, that in what

27
is
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
called
"the partition
of
Poland/'
Polish,
Catherine
XL did not acquire any

Napoleon
but merely
Lithuanian territory that formerly had been

Russian.
If
I.
had not attempted

frontier a Polish
to reestablish
on the Russian
of
kingdom under the name

of
'Hhe grand duchy
Warsaw/' perhaps Russia would not have

Pohsh
been ambitious to secure possession of any

former
territory.
After
I.
the
fall
of
Napoleon, the Czar Alexander
was obliged
to appropriate a considerable part of this under
the
it
name
of
"the kingdom
of Poland/'
were
in-
for
no other reason than to prevent an
crease of territory
upon the part

Henceforth
of the
two
German
since
powers.
the
western
frontier of Russia
was
to
fixed.
It has not
changed
1815,
and,
admit the possibility of

it
a change in the future,

to
would be necessary
admit the
possibility of a total overturning
of the
European balance
Russian
of power.
Though
expansion
towards
the
north was stopped by the icy solitudes of Lap28
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
land,
westward by the frontiers
of states as
firmly established as the
German and Austrofor
Hmigarian Empires, yet
a long
time a
broad Avay remained open to Russia in the

direction of the south.
The decadence
of the
Ottoman Empire seemed
to offer her the
same
favorable opportunities as did the decline of

the
Polish-Lithuanian
acquisition of
Empire.
territory
In
this
di-
rection,
promised
to
be infinitely more precious.
The Russians
could dream of the Black Sea, the Propontis,
and the ^gean Sea becoming Russian

of Christian peoples of the
lakes;
same
of
religion
(Rouof
manians and Greeks),
and
some
the
same
religion
and race (Bulgarians, Servians,

Herzegovinians,
Croatians,
Bosnians,
and
Montenegrians),
Liberator
welcoming
finally,
the armies of a
Czar,
and joyfully accepting the
domination of Russia in exchange for that

of the
Ottoman; and,
they could dream
of Constantinople,
the capital of the Eastern
Roman
Empire, freed from the yoke of the

29
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
infidel;
and
of the cross taking
the place of
the
crescent
on the dome of Saint Sophia.

it
Nevertheless,
was, perhaps, in the direction
of the south, that Russia, in her
schemes for
expansion, after some brilliant successes, found

herself the
most completely deceived.
For a long time the sovereigns that sat
upon Russia's throne

St.
at Moscow,
and then at
with
this
Petersburg,
were
infatuated
Oriental
mirage.
The
Russian
Orthodox
through
Church urged them on
in this course
sympathy with the Orthodox Christians who

were in subjection to the
infidel.
Even the
certain
Roman
Catholic
Church at a
time
encouraged them in the hope that the sword

of the Czar
might accomplish both the
deliv-
erance of the Christians and the union of the

two churches, that
of the
is
to say, the subordination
Greek Church to the Roman.

III.,
It
was
Pope Paul
cardinal,
who, at the advice of the Greek

offered
to
Bessarion,
the
Grand
Prince of Moscow, Ivan the Great, the hand
30
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
of his ward, Sophia Palseologus, the niece of
the last Christian emperor of Constantinople.

It
was at Rome that the marriage took

it
place,
and
was the Pope who gave a dowry

It
to the
is
heiress of the Csesars of the East.^
from
the
time of this marriage that the doubleits
headed eagle of the Palseologus took
place
on the escutcheons and standards

sian
sovereigns.
of the
Rusin
Paul
III.
was deceived
both his hopes; for the union of the two churches
was never accepted at Moscow, and many

years passed before a Russian
to
advance a step
army was able southward. The second of

in the
the Romanofs, Alexis, father of Peter the Great,

set the first
landmark southward
Treaty
acquir-
of
Andrussovo with Poland,
in 1667,
by
ing a part of the Ukraine, extending as far as
the upper course of the Dnieper.

still
Vast spaces
separated the Russian and the Ottoman

Nevertheless,
in
Empires.
(i)
the
coolest
and
tsar
Le R. Prerling, La Russie et Vorient mariage d'un au Vatican, FsLYis, 1891; La Russie et le saint-siege,
31
2 vols., Paris, 1896-'97.
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
shrewdest minds brooded the idea of a holy
war against the
infidel.
Peter the Great,

in
still
young and journeying

learning
its
Western Europe,
car-
arts
and himself wielding the
penter's axe at Saardam, wrote, in 1697, to
Adrian, the Patriarch of Moscow:
'^We are
laboring in order thoroughly to conquer the

art of the sea, so that having completely learned
it,
on our return to Russia, we

the
may
be vic-
torious over
enemies of Christ, and by
His grace be the liberator of the down-trodden

Christians.
This
is
what
shall never cease
to desire until
my
latest breath."
Upon
It
his
return
to
Russia,
however,
his
struggle with
Sweden occupied
in 1711,
all his
attention.
was only
when
his
enemy, Charles
XII., a refugee in the domains of the
Grand
latter
Turk,
earnestly
sought
to
have
the
take up arms against Russia, that Peter the
Great allowed himself to be tempted by the

appeal which the hospodars of Moldavia and
Wallachia,
Montenegrian envoys, and Greek

32
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
agents addressed to
tians
him
in the
name
of Christo rise in
who were oppressed and ready
revolt.
He found immense
spaces to be travthirty-
ersed;
and crossed the Pruth with only and harassed

the
eight thousand starving
soldiers.
He
discovered that
all
promises
of
the
Levantines were unwarranted;

allies
he met neither
nor help;
and beset by two hundred
thousand Turks, or Tartars, he had to consider

himself
fortunate
to
get
back again across
the rivers, after having signed the Treaty of
Falksen, or of the Pruth, which restored to the
Ottomans
his first conquest, the city of
Azov.
The second southward step

was the conquest
of the Russians
of a bit of territory that
was
peopled with Servian colonists, and that was

called
New
Servia.
This acquisition was
won
had
by the Treaty
cost the
of
of Belgrade in 1739;
but
it
Empress Anna Ivanovna three years

useless victories,
war and
and nearly one
hundred thousand men.
The
third
was a gigantic
33
step.
After the
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
first
war against
the
Turks,
Catherine
II.
found herself checked by the intervention of

Prussia and Austria,
who
her
-compelled her
eastern
to
renounce
nearly
all
conquests,
in
and
to
accept
compensation
the treaty of
Poland.
in
Nevertheless,
1774, she
by
Kai'rnaji,
had ceded
to her
Azov on
of
the Don,
and Kinburn at the mouth
the Dnieper.
She forced the Sultan to recognize the independence of the Tartars of the Bug, of the
Crimea, and of the Kuban.
pare for
their
This was to pre-
annexation to Russia, which
was
successfully accomplished
and sanctioned
of 1784.
by the Constantinople Compact

Dniester,
as
far
All
the north shore of the Black Sea and of the

as
the
became
states
of
Russian.
The
Kuban River, now last Mohammedan

last
Russia were converted into prov-
inces of the empire,
and the
vestige of
"the Tartar yoke'' was effaced from Russian

soil.
At once
in the Tauric peninsula
and at the
34
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
mouths
tresses,
of
the
rivers
arose
formidable
and,
for-
Kherson,
Crimea,
Kinburn,
on a bay
of
the
Sevastopol was
made
in
ready-
to control the
fleet
Black Sea.
An
entire Russian
was
built up,
which could
two days
cast anchor before the walls of the Seraglio.
The conquest
sible
of the
Turkish Empire, impos-
to Peter the Great,
seemed
to
become
easy for Catherine the Great.
In the triumaccomplished
her route
bearing
phant
journey
that
she
next
through the conquered provinces,
was crowded with triumphal

this inscription:
arches,
''The
way
the
to Byzantium.'^
She
herself
provoked
second
Turkish
war (1787-1792).
where
victorious,
The Russian
advanced
armies, every-
to the
Danube.
The
janissaries
and spahis
of the Sultan could
not stop them in their course.
But again did

Catherine
hospodarates,
sat-
European diplomacy intervene.

II.
had
to give
up the Roimianian
which had been entirely subdued, and be

isfied
with Otchakov, and a strip of territory
35
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
between the Bug and the Dniester, and with
guarantees more explicit than those of 1774
in
favor
of
the
Roumanian
principahties.
This arrangement, accompUshed at the Treaty

of Yassy,
1792,
estabUshed over these prin-
cipahties a sort of distant Russian protectorate.
Thus,
although
four
Russian
interventions
of Christian
had already occurred, not an inch

territory
had been wrested from the Sultan,

tribe
and not a Christian

from
his yoke.
fifth
I.
had been delivered
The
intervention
took
place
under
Alexander
at
Tilsit
So long as his
alliance,
made
in
1807, with Napoleon
continued,
his armies
were victorious.
The Roumanians
were again conquered as far as the Danube;

Bulgaria,
conquered as far as the Balkans;
and under George the Black (Kara-Georges),

Servia
forces
won
alone.
her
independence with her

rupture
own
The
with
Napoleon
compelled the Czar to sign the peace of Bucharest with the Sultan in 1812.
Of
all his
con-
36
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
quests, he retained only a bit of
territory, Bessarabia
Roumanian
between the Dniester and
the Pruth,
as
also Ismail
and Kilia on the
lower
garians
Danube.
fell
The
Roumanians and Bul-
again under the Ottoman yoke,

to herself. in
and Servia was abandoned

theless,
Neverfavor
in
an amnesty was stipulated
of the Servians,
and guarantees were given
favor of the Roumanians.

I.,
In 1827, Nicholas
by the Akerman Agreement, which was an

Romnanians
the
explanation of the Treaty of Bucharest, caused

the guarantees accorded the
to
be
clearly
defined.
As
for
Servians,
crushed for a time by Ottoman retaliation,
they had taken up arms under Milosh Obrenovitch, and, thanks to
European intervention,
they obtained, with certain restrictions, their
autonomy.
The
sixth
intervention of Russia occurred

of the
on the occasion
July
8,
Greek revolution.
France,
On
1827,
Russia,
and England
entered into concerted action by the Treaty
37
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
of
London.
The united
fleets
of
the
three
powers annihilated the Turkish and Egyptian

fleets
at
Navarino
(October
in
20).
While
a
to
French army was operating

insure
it
the
Morea
I.
Greek independence, Nicholas
took
upon himself
His
the
to settle the rest of the Eastern
Question.
European
army
and
again
con-
quered
Roumanians
Bulgarians,
invaded Thrace, and entered Adrianople.

Asia,
his
In
forces
occupied
Turkish
Caucasia.
The Treaty
guaranteed
Wallachia,
of Adrianople, concluded in 1829,
the
autonomy
of
of
Moldavia,
of
and
Servia,
and consummated
the independence of Greece, which was formed

into
a kingdom,
the
Thus were the hopes that
Peter
Great had entertained respecting
the Christians of the East partially realized;
but Russia did not secure any territory in
Europe except the
isles of
the
Danubian
delta;
reserving for herself freedom of navigation in
the Black Sea, and an open

straits of the
way through
the
Bosphorus and the Dardanelles.

38
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
Only
nity.
in Asia did she secure a territorial
indem-
The
second
I.,
eastern
war,
undertaken
like
by
Nicholas
and which began

of the
the others
by the conquest
Roumanians, brought
about the intervention of France and England

in the Crimea,
which caused the Czar Nicholas
to die of grief, of Paris
and which ended

30,
in the
this
Treaty
treaty,
(March
1856).
II.,
By
had
his successor,
all
Alexander
to renounce
the advantages gained in Europe

to give
by the
Treaty of Adrianople;
of the
back the delta
Danube;
to consent to limiting of his
military power in the Black Sea;
and
to abdi-
cate his exclusive right of protection over the
Danubian
principalities,
which
were
hence-
forth placed under the collective protectorate

of the great powers.
When
profited
called at
France found herself engaged in a
bloody duel with the German Empire, Russia
by the occasion
to
have a conference
London
in
March, 1871, by which she

39
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
secured the suppression of article two of the
Treaty of Paris, which Umited her military-
power
in the Black Sea.

last
The
and the most
decisive Russian inter-
vention was the one provoked in 1877 by the
Bulgarian massacres, the Bosnian and Herzegovinian revolution, and the uprising in Servia
and
in Montenegro.
In addition to the help
of these different forces, Russia
made
sure of
of
the
armed
assistance
of
the
principality
in 1859,
Roumania, that had been formed
by
the union of the two old-time hospodarates of
Moldavia and Wallachia.
She again made the
conquest of Bulgaria and of a part of Thrace.
This time,
it
was
in plain sight of Constanti-
nople that the victorious armies of Alexander II.

halted.
The Sultan had with which
to oppose
them only twelve thousand men, encamped on

the heights of Tchadalcha.
fore, to
It seemed, there-
be in the power of the Czar to bring to

in
an end the Ottoman domination
Europe,
to proclaim the liberation of all the Christian
40
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
peoples,
and at
last to plant the cross
on the
dome
ening
of Saint Sophia.
But
of
before the threat-
demonstration
England
and
the
disquieting attitude of Austria
and Germany,
contented him-
he did not dare to do

self
so.
He
1878),
with imposing upon the Porte the Treaty

3,
of
San Stefano (March
which secured
for the proteges of Russia
an actual dismem-
berment
its
of
European Turkey.
doubled
in
Montenegro saw
territory
extent; Servia
and
Roumania were
The
first
declared entirely independent.
received the districts of Nisch, Lesko-
vatz,
Mitrowitz,
and Novibazar; the second

but on the
condition
acquired Dobrudscha,
that
it
return to Russia the delta of the Danube,

in the treaty of
which Wallachia had acquired

1856.
ity of
Bulgaria was to form a vassal principal-
Turkey.
to
Her
territory extended
from
Seas,
the
Danube
the Black
and Êgean
leaving
around Constantinople
of
and Salonica
territory.
only
some fragments
Asia,
Ottoman
the
In
Russia
acquired
41
fortresses
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
and
districts
of
Batum, Kars, Ardahan, and Turkey was

to
Bayazid.
Moreover,
pay a
war indemnity
rubles.
of three
hundred and ten million
Thus Russia
took, so to speak, nothing for

It
herself in Europe.
was
sufficient for her that
Roumania, Servia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria

were completely liberated and organized.
course, she
Of
hoped that these petty
states that
owed
their very existence to her
would be more
docile to her influence than to that of the Sultan

less accessible
to the hostile influences of the
German and English powers;

would be open to
her,
that their ports

their armies
and that
would constitute auxiliary corps

army.
of the Russian
An
Czar."
early disillusion
came
to the ^'Liberator
The
relative disinterestedness of
which
he had given proof at San Stefano did not foresee the jealousy of Austria, fostered as this
was
of
by Germany and England.
Under threat
a general war, they demanded a revision of
42
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
that treaty.
England would have even desired
that the treaty of 1856 should be taken as a

basis for discussion,
as
if
she could proceed
with the victorious Russia of 1878 as she had
done with the Russia of 1856, conquered

Crimea.
congress
in the
The Czar agreed

in
to the calling of
Berlin.
The
treaty
that
was
signed there July 13, 1878, curtailed Monte-
negro of half the part assigned her, and for-
bade her having a navy; took back Novibazar
and Mitrowitz from

larly
Servia,
and was particureducing
harsh towards
Bulgaria;
her
territory
by
one-third,
and carving the remainNorthern Bulgaria,

principality,"
der into two provinces:
with the
title
of
'^vassal
and
the
Southern Bulgaria,
under the name of
province of Eastern Roumelia, which continued
under Turkish domination, but which was to be

administered
by
Christian
government.
Greece
Increase of territory was granted to
by the addition
and almost
all
of
district of
Epirus (Arta)
of Thessaly.
There was even
43
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
quibbling over the territory that Russia had
retained
her,
in
Asia.
Bayazid was taken from

to be dismantled
and Batum was
and
to
become an open
tated the Czar
port.
^Vhat especially
irri-
was
the fact that the two powers
that were thus depriving

his victories
him
of the fruits of
found means
to shce off a share
for themselves.
Under the pretext
of adminis-
tering their affairs, Austria secured Bosnia
and
Herzegovina, and, by a separate treaty,
Eng-
land had given to her by the Sultan the island

of
Cyprus (30th of
May and
II.
4th of June) and
a controlling situation in Anatolia.^
Emperor Alexander
a European war
in
had run the danger

to carry
of
order
out
his
still
programme
of ''liberation.''
The danger
remained imminent, so long as he did not

accept
the
provisions
of
the
Berlin
Treaty.
There threatened to spring up again, at each

of the manifold incidents that arose over the
(0 A. d'Avril, Negociations relatives au
et
traite de Berlin
aux arrangements qui ont
suivi.
Paris, 1886.
44
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
task of settling the boundaries of the ceded
countries,
armed
protests,
now by
Greece,
and now by the
Albanians,
against certain
decisions of the powers that were not to their
fancy, and intrigues
by Austria and England

from Russia the
for the purpose of alienating
sympathies of the nations emancipated by her

victories.
In addition to
this,
the Panslavic
agitation,
which had been
sufficiently strong in
Russia to lead the government to run those

risks in the East, did not subside.
The most
grievance
impetuous
minds found
cause
of
against the Czar, that he

his
had not carried out
undertaking to the end, and had his vic-
torious regiments enter Stamboul, at the peril

of
a conflict with the English in the very streets
of that capital.
The Liberals made a pretext

Roumanians,
to
of the constitutions granted the
the Servians,
and the Bulgarians,
demand a
constitution for Russia.
The Panslavist and

some connecwhich
Liberal agitation had, perhaps,
tion with the rise of another agitation
45
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
soon made
its
appearance, an agitation called
Nihilism, of a character entirely revolutionary
and subversive, and which

that tragic day of
fitly
terminated on
March
13,
1881,
when
the
"Liberator Czar'' became the "Martyr Czar."
For
of
his successor,
Alexander
III.,
the results
the
eastern
of
war were preparing another
series
disillusions.
still
The
only
fruit
that
Russia could
expect from her sacrifices

of her
and her
victories
was the strengthening
influence over the Christian peoples emancipated
by
her,
and
their
eternal gratitude.
Now
immediately after this war the most shortsighted Russian statesmen were constrained to
confess that the success of their arms
had
just
created on that
"Way
to
Byzantium," which
Catherine
II.
had
so thickly strewn with pre-
mature triumphal arches, obstacles more insurmountable than those which the armies
of the
Sultan had ever been able to oppose to the

armies of Alexander
I.
or of Nicholas
I.,
more insurmountable than the Danube or the

46
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
Balkans, formerly bristling with the fortresses
of
the Ottomans.
These new obstacles con-
sisted in the existence itself of the
emancipated
nations,
and
their
attachment to their newly

it
found freedom.
she
Thus
was that France,
after
had emancipated Belgium under Louis-
Philippe and Italy under Napoleon III., found that she
had
raised
upon her northern and
southeastern frontiers barriers far more impreg-
nable than the armies or fortresses of Austria;

that
she
had closed forever against
herself
those Belgian and
Lombard
battlefields
over
which her ensigns
of victory
had
so often floated.
In the formation of an Italian kingdom, France

created the chief obstacle in the
way
of her
own
expansion on the shores of the Mediterranean.
The French have naturally and repeatedly

denounced the ingratitude
the Russians be
of
Italy; nor
can
blamed
for their grief over the
ingratitude of the Romnanians, the Servians,
the Bulgarians, and the Greelvs.
But such
is
human
nature!
The
feeling
of
independence
47
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
and
will
of national pride
among newly born
peoples
always outweigh the feeling of gratitude
towards their liberators.
In this respect there
was no
to
difference
between the peoples joined

like
the
Russians merely by religion,
the
Roumanians and the Greeks, and those who

were related to them both by
race, like the Bulgarians
religion
and
In
and the
Servians.
former times, when the Ottoman yoke rested
upon them with

they would
all
its frightful
burden, assuredly
have joyfully accepted the lord-
ship of the Czar in exchange for that of the
Sultan;
but now, when
it
was a question
of
choosing between the domination of the Czar
and
their
own independence,
any
of them.
there could be no
hesitation with
The Russias had done much

manians.
for the
Rou-
Even when they had been imsucfrom Turkey,
cessful in wresting their territory
they had in the treaties of Kairnaji, Yassy,

Bucharest,
Akerman, and Adrianople,
stipu-
lated precious guarantees for their prot^g^s
and
48
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
then, later, secured for
plete
them an almost com-
autonomy.
they had
of
In concert with France, in
1861,
made
the Sultan accept the
union
Moldavia and Wallachia into one

In
of
province.
cipality
1878,
they
its
assured
full
this
prin-
Roumania
they
independence,
to
its
and,
in
1881,
consented
being
organized into a kingdom.

of
his
But the new King

Hohenzollern,
Roumania, Charles
of
to
and
new
subjects
meant
remain independent
their
of every other power, to
have
own army
their
and navy,
macy, and
liberators
their
own
national policy and diplo-
to exercise the right,
whenever
showed themselves
to
in
the slightest
degree meddlesome,
seek help even from
Russia's rivals, Austria,

land, or, even
Germany, and Engthis,
more than
from
their old-
time oppressor, the Sultan of Constantinople.
More than once, the Roumanians raised complaint
against Russia,
little
because,
in
1812,
she
had annexed the
Roumanian
district of
Bessarabia, and because, in 1878, she compelled
49
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
them
to give
back to her the islands of the
Danubian
It
delta.
was the same with the principaUty
of
Servia, also
made
into a
kingdom
in 1882,
its
and
which, according to the needs of
national
or dynastic policy, did not cease to oscillate
between Russian and Austro-German

It
influences.
was the same
also
with the kingdom of
Greece,
which paid no heed to the remon-
strances of Russia,
when her
national ambition
scruples in
was involved, and which had no was
troubling the peace of the East every time that

it
possible for her to raise the question of
uniting to the Hellenic state either Epirus or
Northern Thessaly or Macedonia or Crete.
The country that was under

obligation to Russia
the greatest
If
was Bulgaria.
France
or England
tion of the
had at times
assisted in the libera-
Roumanians, the Servians, and the
Greeks,
garians
it
was
to Russia alone that the Bul-
were
indebted
for
this
deliverance.
atrocities'^
Immediately after the ''Bulgarian

50
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
of
1875,
Russia had hastened
to
her help.
From
kesses
the condition of simple raias oppressed

cruelly treated
by Turkey and
them
by
the Tcher-
and the Bashi-Bazouks, she had caused

to be instantly raised to the dignity of
a free people.
At San Stefano, she had endeav-
ored to unite them into one state, the most
powerful of the Balkan peninsula; which would
have extended from the Danube
to the
Black
and iEgean Seas; and she accepted only with

deepest reluctance the mutilation and dismem-
berment that the Treaty
of Berlin
imposed upon
restricted
"Great Bulgaria."
She gave
the
principality of Bulgaria at least a constitution
when
she herself had none.
It
was the Rus-
sian commissioner in Bulgaria, Prince
Dondu-
kof-Korsakof, who, on February 23, 1879, con-
voked
at
Tirnovo
it
the
first
"constituency
assembly";
was he who presided at the

first
meeting of the
Sohranie;
it
"legislative assembly," or
of
was he who espoused the cause

Alexander of Battenberg;
51
it
their prince,
was
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
he who organized a Bulgarian army of one
hundred thousand men supplied with valiant

Russian
officers,
well equipped, well drilled,

excellent
artillery.
and
provided
less,
with
Neverthe-
this
people and this prince,
who owed
everything to Russia, began at once to practice
a policy in which the advice of the Czar

III.
Alexander
set out to
was no longer heeded.
They
remove the Russians w^ho had portministry and positions in their
folios in their
army.
In spite of the Czar, they brought about
the revolution of PhiUppopolis in September,

1885, w^hich ended in the union of the Bul-
garian principality and the Bulgarian province

of
East Roumelia, but which provoked a bloody

Servia, jealous at seeing her neigh-
war with
bor's increase of territory.
^Tien Alexander
of
Battenberg had to renounce his throne, in 1887,

it
was a prince that posed as a

of
client of Austria
and
Germany, Ferdinand
the
of Saxe-Coburg, to
whom
With
Bulgarians
called
rule
them.
his
Prime Minister, Stambulof, he gov52
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
erned,
resolutely
set against the influence of
Russia; he discriminated against her partisans,
and surrounded himself with her adversaries.

And, thus, the liberation and the organization
of Bulgaria,
which the Czar had hoped to be
able to direct, have gone
on independently
of
him, and, in certain respects, in opposition to
him.
Sic
vos,
non
vohis!
Alexander
III.'s
resentment against Bulgaria and her prince was
very
bitter.
The somewhat imperious and med-
dlesome affection of the early days soon turned

into hostihty.
When
Alexander
III.
died, in
1894, the rupture
was complete between the

and the powerful empire.
intractable principality
Thus
all
the wars undertaken in Eastern

in
Europe by Russia, from Peter the Great,

1711,
down
to
Alexander
II.
in
1877,
have
ended, except in Asia and on the north coast

of the
is
Black Sea, so far as
territorial
expansion
concerned, in most meagre results.
Seven
great wars have brought her only a strip of
Roumanian
territory
between the Dneister and

53
RUSSIA IX EUROPE
the Pnith.
and another Roumanian
bit of land in
the delta of the Danube.
Even
this last morsel,
acquired in 1829 and restored in 1S56, was
won
back
in 1S77 only at the cost of
vehement
fault-
finding
upon the part
of the
Roumanian
people.
Russia, whose fleets have twice
at Tchesme in 1770, and at Xavarino, in 1827, annihilated the

Thus much
for material advantages.
naval power of Turkey, have never been able to

secure even an island in the .Egean Sea.
As
to
satisfaction of a
soldiers
moral character, the Russian

to enter
have never been able

;
Stamboul,
nor to pray in Saint Sophia
and
as to gratitude
upon the part
of the liberated peoples,
we have
III.
seen what Alexander 11.
and Alexander
of.
could never have dreamed
Their successor, the present Emperor, Nicholas II..
seems to have taken
it
for granted that

of the
in the direction of the
Danube,
Black
Sea,
and
of the
.Egean Sea. the destmy

come.
of
Rus-
sia is fixed for a long time to
In these
directions,
she
has no longer any moral or
54
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
material advantages to gain, and the age of
sentimental midertakings
is
also
at an end.
Unless there should come some European overturning, the
famous "Eastern Question^'

an archaeological
is
will
have
for Russia only
interest.
All that Nicholas
XL
doing seems to indicate
that this
is
his conviction.
He shows no
and
inter-
est in the party struggles

in
ministerial crises
the
Roumanian and Servian kingdoms;

jeal-
towards the Bulgarians, he shows neither
ous affection nor the irreconcilable rancor of

his father.
Whenever the Prince and people

have manifested a desire
for recon-
of Bulgaria
ciliation
with Russia, he has cordially welcomed
them; he sent a representative to the orthodox

baptism of the Crown Prince Boris, but apparently without forming any illusions as to
what
the
he might expect of his

Cretan
foolishly
'proteges.
When
the
insurrection
occurred,
and
war
undertaken by the Greeks against

careful not to
Turkey was declared, he was

assume a leading
role,
something that his three 55
RUSSIA IN EUROPE
predecessors would not have failed to do.
On
the contrary, he seemed to sink Russia in the
"European Concert/'
and
Also,
to associate her in all the
decisions of the five other great powers,
and
purely
facts.
simply
to
accept
accomplished
when
the Armenian troubles and
massacres took place, he did not attempt to

intervene, nor to arrogate to himself, either
by
land or sea, the role of liberator of this other

oppressed people.
He
has rather favored a
temporizing policy, and has discouraged the

plans formed
by the other powers by

force reforms
to send
Euro-
pean
fleets to
the very walls of the Seraglio,
and
to impose
upon the Sultan
Abdul-Hamid.
On
the other hand, in certain
other directions, in that of the Indian Ocean,

in that of British India,
and
in that of the
China and Japan Seas, Russia has followed a

very formal, a very decided policy.
very energetic and
has, at the
At once
she
skillful in this policy,
same time, acted
in entire inde-
pendence of the 'Êuropean Concert.''

56
THE SOUTHWARD EXPANSION

OF RUSSIA IN ASIA:
An
Power Wars and Treaties with A Way to the Indian Ocean In the Caucasus Paramount in Persia.
Asiatic
Persia
If the policy of the present Emperor of the

Russias seems to be inspired by other principles
than those of his predecessors;
if
this
policy has
shown
itself to
be essentially peace-
able
and disinterested
in
Em-ope;
if
it
has
shifted its sphere of activity
from the West in

Southern and
is,
order to devote
all its efforts to
especially to Eastern Asia,
this
perhaps,
due to the impressions made upon the Czar

during his extended travels in the years 1890
and 1891, while he was

vitch
Nicholas.
still
only the CzaroGreece,
He
visited
Egypt,
British India, French Indo-China, Japan,
and
China.
Then, disembarking at Vladivostock, a
powerful Russian naval station on a bay of the
57
RUSSIA IN ASIA
Sea of Japan, he returned overland to St.
Petersburg, crossing the whole extent of Siberia.
The Czarovitch,
of
course,
did not give
his
impressions a literary form;
but one of his
travelling companions. Prince Oukhtomski, has
published his in two luxm-ious volumes, magnificently

illustrated
by
the
Russian
artist,
Karazine.*
The opinions
reveal a
of Prince
in
Oukhtomski seem
Russian policy.
to
new element
For-
merly the Russians were indignant over Prince

Bismarck's reported observation that ''Russia
has nothing to do in the West.

in
Her mission
is
Asia;
there
she
is
represents
civilization."
Prince Oukhtomski
not far from holding the

this envious foe
same opinion as did

country.
of his
For a few parcels
of territory con-
quered with such
difficulty in the
West, what
bloody wars has she not endured?
Her
efforts
to obtain access to the sea have been but half
()
Le prince Oukhtomski, Voyage

le
de
son Altesse
Imperiale
Czarovitch en orient, Paris, 1898.
5S
RUSSIA IN ASIA
successful.
The White
Sea, blocked with ice;
the Baltic, as
much Scandinavian and German

by the
Belts;
as Russian, closed to her on the west
Sound and the

half Russian,
the Black Sea, only yet
and closed on the southwest by and the

holding
the Bosphorous and the Dardanelles;
Mediterranean
itself,
with
England
Gibraltar, Malta, Cyprus, Egypt,
and the Suez
Canal,
are
these seas, so
little
available, suffi-
cient for the needs of
the expansion of the

is
mighty continental empire that Russia
to-day?
In Asia, on the contrary, who knows whether
by the Euphrates and the Persian

Afghanistan and the Indus, she
is
Gulf,
by
not going to
be able to open her
way
to the Indian
Ocean?
Who knows
of the
whether, already mistress of the

will
Okhotsk Sea, she
not become mistress also
Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea, both
opening with broad outlets into the immensity

of the Pacific?
Now, the importance that
in
ancient times the Mediterranean had for

kind,
man-
and which the Atlantic possessed from

59
RUSSIA IN ASIA
the fifteenth to the nineteenth century, seems
to-day to be shifting to the Pacific Ocean.

all
Of
the nations bordering on this truly universal
ocean, the Russian
Empire
is
destined to be
to
territorial
one of the most powerful.

conquests,
little
As
how
are those that Russia
won
in
Europe, where every square mile cost her
a battle, to be compared with those which,

with
infinitely less sacrifice
and
effort,
she has
Bis-
already won, or can yet win, in Asia?
marck spoke
in Asia.
in disdain of the mission of
Russia
it
Prince Oukhtomski speaks of
with
pride: ^'The time has
come
for the Russians to
have some
definite idea regarding the heritage
that the Jenghis
Khans and
lived its
the Tamerlanes
of it at
its
have
all
left us.
Asia!
we have been part

life
times;
we have
and shared
interests;
our geographical position irrevocably
destines us to be the
head
of the
rudimentary
powers of the East.^'
From
the thirteenth to the fifteenth century,
Russia was a province of the Mongol Empire.

60
RUSSIA IN ASIA
Everything that constituted that Mongol
pire,
Em-
however,
is
perhaps destined to become
only a province of Russia.
The
capital will
simply be transferred from Karakorum or from

the shores of the
Amur to
the banks of the Neva.

Asiatic in
Asiatic in their mixture of races,

their history,
conquered in the thirteenth cen-
tury, conquering since the sixteenth, the
Rus-
sians possess to a higher degree than either the
French or the Anglo-Saxons an understanding

of things Asiatic.
is
They have
all
the right that
possible to supplant "those colonies of the
Germanic and the Latin races that are taking

unwilUng Asia under their tutelage. '^
More-
over, the true successor in Asia of the old-time
czars or khans of the Finnish race
is
''
not the
the White
Bogdy-Khan who
Czar
rules at Pekin,
but
who
reigns at St. Petersburg.''
In one
of the
pagodas of Canton are to be seen, as

four
colossal
Prince Oukhtomski assures us,

figures, called
"the kings of the four cardinal

felt
points,''
and Prince Oukhtomski

61
confident
RUSSIA IN ASIA
that
it
was
to
"the King of the North" that
the people rendered the greatest homage.
'Laying aside these dreams of the future,
let
us see what, up to the present time, has been

actually
accomplished
to
bring
of
about
their
realization.
The
efforts
the
Russians
throughout their history as an Asiatic power

are connected with one or the other of
two
great movements:
her southward expansion
towards Persia and British India,
and her
eastward expansion in the regions bordering
on China, Corea, and Japan.

In 1554, during the reign of Ivan the Terrible,
the Russians gained a foothold on the
Caspian Sea by the conquest of the czarate

of
Astrakhan and of the lower Volga. Towards

life,
the close of his
Peter the Great waged war
on
Persia, captured
Derbend on the Caspian,

provinces
of
and occupied
Shirvan,
cities of
the
Daghestan,
Ghilan,
and Mazandaran, and the
Rasht and Astrabad.
The unhealthy
character of these regions
made them "the
62
RUSSIA IN ASIA
cemetery of Russian armies/' and the successors of the great Czar
had
to
abandon them.
II.,
war undertaken by Catherine
also
in
the last years of her reign, ended in the

result,
same
and her
son,
Paul
I.,
recalled the troops.
In the region of the Caucasus, the Russians
had gained a foothold,
between
the
years
1774-1784, by the acquisition of the

as far as the Terek,
it
Kuban
moimIn
and, strangely enough,

of the
was not on the northern slope
tains,
but upon the southern that they were

conquest of this Caucasus.
to begin the
1783, the King, or Czar, of Georgia, Heraclius,
declared himself to be the vassal of Catherine

II. in
order that he might have her assistance
against the Persians

1799,
his
and the Ottomans.
In
son,
George XII. ,^ formally ceded

I.,
his state to
Paul
although his son, David,

until
continued
to
govern
1803,
when
the
et
(0 Dubrovine, Georges XII., dernier tsar de Georgie, V annexation a la RiLssie (in Russian), St. Petersburg,
1897.
63
RUSSIA IN ASIA
annexation was
sition
consummated.
This
acquis-
brought Russia into coUision with the
Persians and the Ottomans on one hand, and,
on another, with the independent

the
^^''''
tribes
of
Caucasus.
1813,
By
the
Treaty
of
Guhstan,
in
Persia ceded to
Russia Daghestan,
all
Shirvan, and Shusha, and renounced
claims
of
upon Georgia and other

Caucasus.
territories
the
1826,
Another war broke out
in
which was terminated by the Treaty of Turkmanshai, February 22, 1828, by which Persia
surrendered
her
two
Armenian
provinces,
Nakhitchevan and Erivan.

in
The same
and
year,
the
to
Treaty of Adrianople,
Russia
the
fortresses
Turkey gave
districts
all
over
of
Anapa, Poti, and Akhalzikh, and

contested
Mingrelia,
rights
(bitterly
by the
and
inhabitants)
over
Imeritia,
Abkhasia.
the
Then
task
of
began,
in
the
the
new
wild
possessions,
pacifying
(i)
mountaineers
the
of
these
Lord Curzon, Persia and London, 1892.
Persian Question,
64
RUSSIA IN ASIA
regions,
cassians,
and
also
the
Tcherkesses,
or
Cir-
of the northern slope.
The
Circas-
sians
and the AbkhasAi, roused

soldier priest,
to fanaticism
by the
out
the
Imam
for
Shamyl, held
nearly
thirty
against
the
Russians
years.
In 1844, Russia had in the Caucasus
two hundred
thousand
soldiers,
commanded
of Vedeni,
by her best
in 1858,
later,
generals.
The capture
of
and the surrender
Shamyl, a year
assured the pacification of the Caucasus.
The
increase of territory that Russia
made
at
the expense of Turkey, in 1878,

of
by the
Treaties
San Stefano and
Berlin, included the dis-
tricts of
Kars, Ardahan, and Olty, and the port

fixed the
it
of
Batum, and
boundary
line
between
Turkey and Russia as
has since remained.
Since the Treaty of 1828, Persia under the
Shahs,
Din,
Fet-Aly-Khan,
Mohammed,
Nasr-ed-
and Muzafer-ed-Din, has

under Russian influence.
fallen
almost
entirely
In 1837-38,
the
Shah Mohammed, with an army comofficers,
manded by Russian
besieged Herat,
65
RUSSIA IN ASIA
defended by Afghans under the leadership of
Enghsh
ed-Din,,
officers.
In
1856,
the
Shah Nars-
at the suggestion of Russia, besieged
and captured Herat;

pelled
but the Enghsh comhis prize,
hun
to
abandon
by making
where they
a descent on the Persian Gulf,
captured the port of Bushire and the island

of Karrack,
which they have kept.
In 1841,
Persia ceded to Russia the Caspian port of
Ashurada, near Astrabad;
in 1881,
Askabad
in 1885,
was given
Serakhs,
to the
all
same power, and,

places
three
very
important
Persia
strategic points
on the eastern
the
frontier.
has also agreed to
building of Russian
railroads that are to pass through her territory
and terminate on the Persian
Gulf.
The present
year, she has negotiated a loan of twenty-two
million five hundred thousand rubles through
the agency of the '^bank of Persia,'' established under
Russian auspices.
This loan
is
payable in seventy-five years, and the interest

is
secured
by
all
the customs revenues of the
66
RUSSIA IN ASIA
kingdom, save those of the Persian Gulf.
The
Shah has bound himself not

loans of
to seek further
any other European power, and has
thereby placed himself financially in the hands

of
Russia.
It
is
thus that Russia,
by her
diplomacy, by her banks, and by her railroads,
making Persia her
political
and commercial
scheme
vassal, has succeeded in furthering her
of
expansion towards the Persian Gulf and
the shores of the Indian Ocean.
67
FURTHER CONQUESTS. Expansion Towards India Napoleon The Conquest OF THE Khans In Afghanistan The "Key of the Indies" In Touch with India
Abyssinia
British
still
Over-Confidence.
Towards
was
to seek
British
India Russian expansion
other channels.
The con-
quests in the Caucasus, which

reviewing, opened the
we have been
But
way
along the western
and southern
for
sides of the Caspian Sea.
a long time the Russians had been endeavorits
ing to turn the sea from
northern
side.
In the reign of the Empress Anna Ivanovna,

hordes
of
Kirghiz,
whose
camping grounds
lay to the east of the Ural River, submitted

to Russia (1734). into Turkestan,
Her sway was then extended

that expanse of steppes and
oases
watered
by
the
Jaxartes
(Sir-Daria)
and the Oxus (Amu-Daria), that empty into

the Aral Sea, a region that
is
bounded on the
west by the Caspian Sea, on the south by

68
FURTHER CONQUESTS
Persia
and Afghanistan, on the east by the
Chinese Empire, and on the north
by
Siberia.
Here was located ancient Djagatai, the debris

of former
Mongol Empires.
When
the Russians saw these vast plains

first
spread out before them, they at

(i)
thought
Subsequently
it
was broken up into numerous
ones being the khanate of Khokand, with its chief cities Turkistan, Tashkend, Tchimkend, and Khodjend on the upper Jaxartes, or SirDaria; the khanate of Balkh (ancient Bactria), and the khanate of Samarkand, fallen into dependency upon the khanate of Bokhara, on the upper Oxus, or Amu-Daria; the khanate of Khiva on the lower Oxus; and on the Kashgar and Yarkand Rivers emptying into Lake Lob-Nor, and the Hi flowing into Lake Balkash, knanates (Kashgar, Yarkand, and Kuldja). that belonged to China. Outside of the districts inhabited by a settled people are the deserts of sand over which wander nomadic tribes. To the north of the Jaxartes, are the Kirghiz, divided into several hordes, and the Turkomans, or Turkmens, on the east of the Caspian Sea. Consult Krahmer, Russland in Asien, vol. i.; Transkaspianund seine Eisenbahn, vol. ii.; Mittel-Asien, Leipzig, 1898-99. Makcheef, Coup d'oeil historique sur le Turkestan et la marche progressive des Russes (in Russian), St. Petersburg, 1890. Albrecht, Russisches Central- Asien, Hamburg, 1896. H. Mozer, A travers V Asie centrale, Paris, 1885.
states, the principal
69
FURTHER CONQUESTS
that they were near British India, and that
an entrance
as easy to
to that rich peninsula
would be
them
as
it
had been
to so
many
Asiatic conquerors that
had gone forth from

was born
the
steppes
of
Turkestan or the valleys of

this conviction
Afghanistan.
the
first
From
schemes that the Russians entertained
for the conquest of Hindustan.
Even Peter
under
Peter
the Great thought of

against
it.
In 1717; he sent
Khiva
an
expedition
B6kovitch that perished on the way.

tain A.
for
II.
cer-
M. de Saint Genie proposed a plan
the conquest of Hindustan to Catherine

in 1791;
but the most celebrated of
all
these projects
was the one that Paul

Bonaparte,
I.
subfirst
mitted
to
Napoleon
then
Consul of the French Republic,

against England he
whose
ally
had become.
in the field.
The plan
General
was
to place
two armies
Knorring, with the Cossacks of the

other Russian troops, was to march
Don and
by Khiva
and Bokhara
to the
upper Indus, while thirty70
FURTHER CONQUESTS
five
thousand French and thirty-five thousand

that Paul L, inspired
Fiussians,
by
chivalric
generosity,
proposed placing under the comconqueror of the Russians
mand
of Massena, the
at the battle of Ziirich, were to unite at Astra-
bad on the southern shore

Thence they were to make
of the Caspian Sea.
their
way by Herat
and Kandahar
to
the
upper Indus to join

Then, altogether,
forces with the other
army.
French,
Russians,
Persians,
Turcomans, and
Afghans, they would pour
down
into
India,
proclaiming to the princes and the people of

the peninsula the
their independence.
fall of
'^
English tyranny and
All the treasures of India
were to be their recompense.'^

of this plan
The execution The Cossacks

of
was even begun.
the Don,
under their ataman, Orlof-Denissof,
were already across the Volga, when the news

of the
death of Paul
1
I.
recalled
them
to their
camps.
{})
General Batorski, Projets
d' expedition
dans VlnI. (in
doustan sous Napoloen, Paul
I., et
Alexandre
Rus-
71
FURTHER CONQUESTS
The visionary character
of this
scheme has
been demonstrated, during the present century,
by the
difficulties
that
the
in
Russian armies
have had to encounter
winning their
way
over a very small fraction of the immense
journey marked out in 1800.
At the
cost of
enormous
in the
effort,
the oases of Turkestan, which

I.
mind
of
Paul
were to be simply halting
places in the long march, have
had
to be con-
quered one by one;
one by one, deep valleys

tribes,
and rocky
have had
bluffs,
defended by war-like
to be captured
and
held.
To-day,
even with these avenues of approach secured,

the goal seems as far off as
mistic
it
did to the optisI.
imagination of the Czar Paul

H.
S.
In
sian), St. Petersburg, 1886.
Edwards, Russian
the Russian Expedition in Turkestan, see Hugo Stumin, Rapports, Khiva (translated from the German), Paris, 1874; A. N. Kouropatkine (at present Russian Minister of War), Turcomania and the Turcomans (translated into English from the Russian by Robert Mitchell) Skobelef Rapports sur les campagnes de 1879-1881 (English translation, London, 1881); Marvin, Russian Campaigns among the TekkeProjects against India.
; ,
On
TuTcomans (from Russian
official sources).
72
FURTHER CONQUESTS
1839, Nicholas
of
I.,
wishing to punish the
Khan
des-
Khiva,
who was
of
capturing Russian mer-
chants and pillaging Russian caravans,
patched a body
General Perovski.
steppes
troops
commanded by
The
severe winters of the
and the deep snow compelled him,
when
half
way
to his destination,
to return.
Nevertheless,
the Khan,
intimidated by this
demonstration, liberated the Russian prisoners

(1840),
and
in 1842 consented to
acknowledge
years later,
the over-lordship of Russia.
Two
the eastern Kirghiz also submitted.

to
In order
the
protect
of
these
new
it
subjects
against
to
to
Khan
Khokand
was necessary
wage
1864,
war with the
latter.
From 1860
the leaders of the Russian troops,
Perovski,
Kolpakovski, Verevkine, Tchernai'eff, captured

the fortresses of Ak-Mesjed, Turkestan, Aulie-
Ata,
Tchimkend,
and
finally,
Tashkend,
souls,
city of one
hundred thousand
and the
commercial emporium of that region.
The Emir
of
Bokhara attempted
73
to intervene,
FURTHER CONQUESTS
and had a ^^holy war'' preached by the fanatical
Mollahs; but he was conquered in the battle

(1S66),
of Irjar
and promised
to
pay a war
indemnity.
However
from the
far
the
Russians might
still
be
frontier of India,
England was never-
theless disturbed at their success.
The
official
journals of St. Petersburg
amused themselves
announcing
that
with
there
pacific
declarations,
was no intention
of conquering
Bokhara;
already
but the Czar organized the

submissive,
into
territories,
'Hhe
general
government
of Turkestan,''
and General Kaufmann was
placed
in
control.
The Emir
of
Bokhara,
having refused to deliver the war indemnity

that he had promised, was defeated at Zera-
Bulak, and was compelled to sign the treaty

of 1868,
by which he ceded
to the Russians
the
khanates of Samarkand and Zerafshan;
recognized a Russian protectorate, and paid an
indemnity of two million rubles.

of
The khanate
Khokand became,
likewise, a vassal state.
74
FURTHER CONQUESTS
The Khan
caravans,
of
Khiva continued
to
to
pillage
and
hold
in
slavery
Russian
merchants.
In 1873, three bodies of troops
were sent against him; one coming from the

shores of the Caspian Sea under General Markozof, the
second from Orenburg imder General

the
third
Verevkine,
from Tashkend under
Governor-General Kaufman.
a
difficult
The
first,
after
march through the burning sands

was compelled
to fall back.
of the desert,
The
other two entered Khiva almost without striking
a blow.
The Khan was obliged
to
acknowledge
Czar,^'
to
himself the vassal of
"the White
cede
all
that part of his territory situated on
the right
bank
of the
Oxus
to grant the Russians
the rights of navigation and commerce, and

to submit to a
his
war indemnity that exhausted
finances.
The Khans that had yielded
to the Russians were
now
the objects of the
scorn and hatred of the more fanatical

their
among
Mohammedan
subjects.
These did not
cease to rise in revolt against them.
The Khan
75
FURTHER CONQUESTS
of
Khokand
preferred to surrender his terri-
tories to Russia;
and they were formed

of
into the
new province
same
der
year, the
his
Ferghana,
of
in
1875.
The The
this
Khan
Khiva
for
offered to surren-
in
exchange
pension.
Russians did not wish
to
annex either
less
khanate or that of Bokhara,

of
through fear
EngUsh
protests than because the existence
of
two vassal Khans would allow them to
conceal the better their political plans.
They
maintain them on their thrones by paying
them a pension.
is
To-day, the
Khan
of
Bokhara
captain of a regiment of Terek Cossacks,

of
and the Khan

of the
Khiva
is
lieutenant-general
Orenburg Cossacks.
In 1851, the Russians had obtained from
China
some
commercial
advantages
in
the
Kuldja province.
Twenty years afterwards a
Mohammedan
and
incited a
adventurer, Yakub-Khan, seized
the Chinese khanates of Kashgar and Yarkand,
Mohammedan
76
rebellion in Kuldja.
The Russians entered the
province,
giving
FURTHER CONQUESTS
China to understand that they would remain
there
until
order
was reestabhshed
it;
(1871).
They would gladly have annexed

troops
of marching, they arrived in
but Chinese
after years
had been despatched; and,
Kashgar (where
1877),
Yakub had been

upon the Kuldja
assassinated in
frontier.
and
first
The Russians
thought of resisting the troops and holding

the province; but the territory in dispute did
not seem worth the risk of a war with China.
By
the St. Petersburg Treaty of 1881, they

district
gave back Kuldja, except one

river Hi,
in
on the
and renounced
in
their military position
Kashgar
exchange for certain commercial
advantages.
To complete
the conquest of Turkestan,
it
remained for them to subdue the nomadic
Turcomans (Tekke-Turcomans).
This was the
the object of the brilliant campaigns directed
by
of
Skobelef,
who
carried
by
assault the fortress

24,
Geok-Tepe on January
1881,
with a
loss to the
enemy
of eight
thousand men.
Then
77
FURTHER CONQUESTS
he
took
Askhabad,
which
was
afterwards
ceded by Persia.^
The agreement with Persia and the conquest

of
Turkestan brought Russia's power to the

of
frontier
Afghanistan,
which
the
Enghsh
regard as the protecting wall of their Indian
Empire.
Russians,
At every forward movement

they
protested
or
of the to
endeavored
secure guarantees against a

tried to gain for themselves
new advance
or
some new
strategic
point
that
would
strengthen their position.

successful.
They were not always

first siege
After the
in 1840,
of
Herat by the Persians,
the English
made
the conquest of Kabul.
Their
army was driven out by an

totally
If,
insurrection,
and
annihilated
while
retreating
(1841).
to save their honor, they afterwards recap-
(0 Colonel Mallesson, The Russo- Afghan Question, Sir Henry Rawlinson, Later Phases of the Cen1864.
tral
Asia Question, 1875.

(translated
Paris,
Kouropatkine, Les confines
anglo-russes
from the Russian by G.
le
Marchand),
1879. P. Lessar, Russie et V Angleterre en Asie Centrale, Paris. Marvin, The Russians at Merv and Herat, etc.
La
78
FURTHER CONQUESTS
tured Kabul, prudence led them to abandon
it
as
quickly as possible
(1842).
After the
annexation or subjection of the khanates by

the Russians,
the English again
made
their
way
into Kabul,
and
left
there a resident repre-
sentative,
in 1879,
Cavagnari; but a popular uprising,
brought about the murder of Cavagnari

of his retinue.
and eighty-seven
tion
The expediMarshal
of
sent
to
avenge this insult was led by

since
General
Roberts, ^
then Field
in
Lord Roberts, Commander

English
Chief
the
Army.
This
little
expedition,
however,
brought about as
definite result as did
the former intervention in Afghanistan.
In 1881, the English had gained from the

Russians
the
assurance
that
they
had no
intention of annexing the city of Merv, a very
important strategic point; but in 1884,
the
notables of that city presented themselves to

the
Russian Commander at Askhabad,
and
(0 Lord Roberts has published a work, Forty-one Years in India.
79
FURTHER CONQUESTS
made
ship
declaration that they accepted the lordof
'Hhe
White
Czar/'
The
English
made complaint
people of
to the cabinet at St. Petersburg.
They were answered that the
action of the
to
Merv had been a
surprise
the
Russians themselves; but that they believed

that they would have committed a great mistake
by
rejecting a submission that
was
so entirely
voluntary.
The
English
had
secured
the
appointment of an Anglo-Russian commission

for
settling
the
disputed
boundaries,
which
was
to decide
whether Penjdeh, another very

client,
important point, belonged to their
the
Emir
of
Afghanistan,
or
to
the
Turcoman
subjects of Russia.
The English commissioners,

wêre the
presided over
first to
by General Lumsden,
arrive at the place of meeting.

fortifying
seize
They
the
began by
Herat and inciting the

Seeing
this,
Afghans to
chief
Penjdeh.
Russian commissioner, General Komarof,
at the head of a strong Russian force, occupied
the Zulfikar Pass, and
made ready
to
march
80
'
FURTHER CONQUESTS
upon Penjdeh.
While on the waj^
thither,
he was attacked by the Afghans at Kushk.
He
30,
slew five hundred of their men, captured

their flags
two of
and
the
all their artillery
(March
1885).
Then
English commissioners
withdrew, charging Komarof with having been

the aggressor.
Great Britain was much
irritated.
Gladstone,
the
who had the Egyptian Soudan and Upper Burmah wars on his hands, called
Parliament
for
subsidies.
upon
The
^ '
belief
was general that a war was about

between
'
to ensue
'
the whale and the elephant.
Then
England calmed down, and accepted the explanation of the Russians, that the fight at
Kushk
was the
1887,
result of a
^'
mistake.^'
In 1885 and
she agreed to the Russian occupation
of Merv,
Penjdeh,
Kushk, and the Zulfikar
Pass.
The Russians were now within one

and
twenty
kilometres
of
hundred
Herat,
known
Indies.
for so long
'
a time as the ^^key of the
The question
of the settlement of ..the bound-
81
^-^.v
'
FURTHER CONQUESTS
aries
was scarcely disposed

itself
of,
when another
These form
question presented
the
in the settlement of
boundaries
of
the
Pamirs.
five
a plateau of from four to

in latitude,
thousand metres
'
known
as
' '
the roof of the world,
with a rigorous climate and sparse population.

This plateau conmiands both Afghanistan and
Cashmere, those two ramparts of India and

Chinese
Turkestan.
It
v\'as
broken up into
pettykhanates, over which the
Khan of Bokhara,
Emir
of
the vassal of the Russians, and the
Afghanistan,
the client of
the English,
laid
claim to sovereignty.
Neither of them had
recognized until then the value of the territory.
An
six
''expedition for study,
'^
accompanied by
hundred Russian
soldiers,
made
its
appear-
ance in Pamir in the summer of 1891, and

aroused,
by
its
presence there, the protests of

of winter, the
the English.
At the approach
Russians withdrew; but they again appeared

the following summer, in larger numbers, under
the
command
of Colonel
Yanof
They claimed
82
'
FURTHER CONQUESTS
that they were insulted
by the Afghans,
for
which they
defeat of
inflicted
upon
them the bloody

12)^
Somatash (July
back and took up
after
which
they
fell
their position at
Kalabery on the Oxus.
This clash of arms
was succeeded by a diplomatic controversy.

It
was not
until 1895, after a
keen discussion
between the two great powers, each contending

for its own client, that they reached an agreement.
The
disputed
region
was
divided
between
Bokhara and Afghanistan, the former receiving

the
little
khanates of Shugnan and Roschan,
and the
latter the
khanate of Wakhan, a narrow
strip of territory,
from twenty
to thirty kilo-
metres wide, which
now forms
after
* '
a buffer state'
between the two great empires of Russia and

Great
Britain.
Even
this
agreement,
Russia found a pretext in 1899 for occupying

the district of Sirikul, which belongs to Chinese
Pamir,
and which commands the source
of
the Kashgar
and Yarkand Rivers (March, 1889).

having
occupied
in
Great
Britain
Arabia
83
FURTHER CONQUESTS
the island of Perim in the imamate of Muscat,
in order to control the outlet of the
Red
Sea,
and
to establish a coaling station in her maritime
route,
Russia,
in
1899,
also
endeavored
to
obtain from the

station
Imam
coast.
the grant of a coaling
on his
From
this
arose
new
complaints and strenuous opposition on the

part of England.
self,
Russia also established her-
under color of orthodox proselytism, at

interests,
a point quite as annoying to British
on the
coast,
and at the very
capital of Menelik,
Emperor
direction
of Abyssinia.
A
in
first
attempt in this
was made
calling
'^
1889
by a Russian
Achinof,
of
adventmêr,
free
himself
''the
Cossack.
He
took
possession
the
dismantled fort of Sugallo on the territory of

the
French
colony
of
of
Obock.
The former
^ânommda
Sugallo" drove him away, and
the Russian government disavowed his action.
The mission
1892),
of
of
Lieutenant
Machkof (1889''
and the
so-called ''scientific mission
Captain Leontief in 1894,
thanks to the
84
FURTHER CONQUESTS
ready
assistance
of
the
French authorities,
succeeded
much
better.
Thus was Russian

influ-
influence, in close
harmony with French

upon the British
ence, estabHshed ahnost
Nile.
In 1898, the Russian Colonel, Artamonof, with
some Abyssinain
troops,
endeavored to meet
Major Marchand,who was moving upon Fashoda,
and
to reinforce
him on the great
river.
The English
that
alternate between doubting
and
believing
these
of
expansive movements of
Russia by
way
the Caucasus,
by way
of
Turkestan, and by
way
of the Pamirs, are all
directed towards one goal, the very one that
the
Czar Paul proposed to the

in 1800;
first
Consul
Bonaparte
Alexander
I.
to the
Emperor
to
to
Napoleon (1807);
Nicholas
his
I.
and General Duhamel

and the ardent Skobelef
(1855),
government.
To many
intelligent English-
men, the goal of so much
effort
can be no other
than the conquest of India.

frontier of the
Now
is
that
the
Russian Pamir
not more than
twenty or thirty kilometres from the kingdom
85
FURTHER CONQUESTS
of Cashmere,
and now that Kushk, the

Turkestan railroad system,
is
ter-
minus
one
of the
only
hundred
and
twenty
kilometres
is
from
infi-
Herat, the problem of invading India

nitely
more easy than

I.
it
was
in the time of
Bonaparte and Paul

sians spent so
Why
have the Rusblood in the
much money and
conquest of the impoverished and barbarous

nations of those sandy deserts and almost inaccessible
mountains,
as
if
they did not have before

their
sacrifices,
them,
a recompense for
I.
what Paul
Indies."
called
''all
the
riches
of
the
recent historian
of
Russian expansion,^
all
Alexis
Kjause,
reviewing
the
hardships
endured by Russia and the thankless task that

she has assumed, adds,
"On
its
is
own
account,
It
the conquest of Central Asia

is
worthless.
not done in ignorance,
but by carefully
thought-out design, as part of a programme,

(})
Alexia Krause, Russia in Asia, a Record and a
Study,
London and New York,
1899.
86
FURTHER CONQUESTS
the
execution
of
which
of
its
possession
will
assist.
The
capture
the
khanates
was
attempted,
not
as
pathway towards the

but as a road which
all
coveted Persian Gulf,
would lead
to the
Panjab and
that
is
beyond.
And now
begun."
James
that preliminary steps have been comis
pleted, the serious undertaking
about to be
J
MacGahan, one
Eastern
affairs,
of the best informed
men on
of the
wrote from the shores
Oxus
in 1876: ''The Russians are steadily

will,
advancing towards India, and they

or later,
sooner
acquire a position in Central Asia
which
will enable
them
to threaten
it.
Should
England be engaged
in a
European war, then,

blow at
indeed, Russia will probably strike a
England's Indian power.''
Other Englishmen pretend to believe that

the hypothesis of a conquest of India
''is
too
preposterous
to
be
entertained.
It
would
involve the most terrible
and
lingering
war the
world has ever seen.
On
87
the day that a Rus-
FURTHER CONQUESTS
sian well
army
leaves Balkh or Herat for Kandahar,
may
"
the
British
commander exclaim:
them
into
*Now hath
hand!'
It
is
the Lord delivered
my
thus that Lord Cm-zon, the present GovIt
ernor-General of India, expresses himself.

seems, however, that he
is
but assuming a tone
of assured certainty to conceal his deep anxiety.
This plan of conquest that he considers ^Hoo

preposterous to be entertained," has been dis-
cussed by other, and very competent persons,
who do not
reach conclusions so optimistic as

Perhaps, however, the
so
closely
regards Great Britain.^
Russians are at present pressing
towards the frontier of British India in order

to
have at
their disposal a
means
for
of intimidain
tion,
or even
of
coercion,
use
those
very frequent occasions in which Great Britain

sets herself in
stubborn opposition to Russia's

For, at the
plans in other parts of the world.
(0 Maximilian Graf Yorck von Wartenburg, Das Vordringen der Russischen Macht in Asien, Berlin, 1900.
88
FURTHER CONQUESTS
present
moment, the Czar Nicholas
II.
seems
in
much
more
interested
in
in
expansion
the
Far East than

south of Asia.
any movement towards the
89
THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA IN THE FAR EAST.' The Opening of Siberia Value of Siberia Chinese Wars Settlements on the Pacific Chinese Cessions Vladivostock Russian Influence AT Pekin.
The eastward expansion

the solitudes of Siberia and
of Russia tiirough
among
its
barbar-
ous tribes began about the close of the sixteenth century, immediately after the conquest
of the Tartar czarates of
Kazan and Astrakhan.

from
It
was betv/een the years 1579 and 1584 that
the Cossack,
Irmak Timofevitch,
fleeing
the punishment of the law and the wrath of the Czar, Ivan the Terrible, with a handful of
brigands like himself, Russians, Cossacks, Tartars,

(1)
German and
Polish prisoners of war, to

vol.
iii.
Krahmer, Russland in Asien,

1897,
1898.
Sibirien
und
die grosse sibirische Eisenbahn, vol.
iv.
Russland in
Ost- Asien, Leipzig,

Paris, 1899.
Legros,
La
Siberie,
90
RUSSIA IN THE FAR EAST

the
number
the
of
six
hundred and
traversed
the
fifty
men,
crossed
Ural,
immense,
untrodden forests of the Tobol, defeated the

Tartar Khan, Kutchum, took
Sibir, his capital,
and subjected
Irtysh
fevitch
to
tribute
the
tribes
of
the
and
the
Obi.
When Irmak Timodragged to

of the
was drowned
in the Irtysh,
the bottom of the river

cuirass given
by the weight
him by
the Czar, Russia
made a
hero,
and the Orthodox Church a
saint, of the
old outlaw.
Along the pathways that he had

there soon followed a stream of
of
marked
'^good
seekers,
out,
fellows"
every
description,
gold-
fur-hunters,
and peasants
fleeing
the
estates of their feudal lords in search of gov-
ernment lands that they might cultivate as

freemen.
ers,
Hither also flocked religious dissent-
persecuted by the Orthodox Church,
who
found a shelter in the immensity of the Siberian

forest,
retreats
concealed from
all
mankind.
Into this same wilderness escaped the German,

Polish,
and Swedish prisoners

91
of
war
of Peter I.
WW^
and
troops
serfs

^1rii^-II
^^-i^>
of Catherine II.
Then^ in long, wretched
came
in chains or in fetters the
unhappy
deported by their masters, often bearing
the
marks
of
cruel
beating
and mutilation;
nostrils
their sides scarred
by the knout, and
or tongue cut
by the executioner; strewing the

This barbarous
highways with their corpses.
feature of the old Russian penal code
came
and
II.,
to
an end at the
close of the last century,
it is
known
that the present Czar, Nicholas
has
suppressed deportation into Siberia for
common
law crimes in order to purify that colony of a

reproach like to that against which the English
colonies
of
Australia
long
protested.
The
rapidity with which colonization of every kind
was spread over the

which the immensity
millions
of
kilometers
is
of Siberia measures,
shown by the dates

cipal
of the fomiding of the prin-
towns:
Tobolsk on the Tobol in 1587;
Tomsk on
1604;
the Toms, a branch of the Obi, in
Yeniseisk on the Yenisei in 1619; Ya-
koutsk in 1632; Atchinsk in 1642; Nertchinsk

92

on the
Shilka, a
branch of the Amur, in 1654;

of the
Okhotsk on the sea

Siberia,
same name
in 1638.
even to om* own times, has been

its
valuable mainly on accomit of
inmiense
extent and the liberty that free immigrants
have foimd
three
there.
It
may
be divided into
the toundray
in
divisions:
in
in
the
north,
marshy
summer, a mass
the tdigay
of ice in winter;
the centre,
or forest,
dear to the
hunter;
in the south, the cultivated region, of
an area
thrice that of all France.
Even
this
last division,
except in the districts where

is
the
''black earth''
found,
is
not characterized by
fertility
that redeems the severity of a climate,

its
extreme in
cold.
summer heat
as in
its
winter
In the seventeenth century a
belief
was
was,
current that the region about the
Amur
on the contrary,
experience
of great fertility, to
a belief which
It
has shown
be ill-founded.
was, therefore, in this direction that the most
venturesome Cossacks and the most energetic

settlers hastened.
They were not disturbed by

93

the
fact
that
the
country belonged
to
the
Chinese
Emperor.
In
1649,
a young
to
officer
named Khabarof, imdertook

still
descend the
forts
unexplored
river,
building
at
the
jimction of the tributaries,

lious tribes of natives,
conquering rebelfighting troops of
and
Manchurian horsemen (1649-1652).
In 1658,
Pachkof, governor of Yeniseik, founded Nertchinsk on the Shilka, a branch of the Amur.
Five years later Albasin was founded.
This
was a
its
fortress
with ramparts of wood, and in
vicinity there arose
many Russian
villages.
Finally, the Chinese, irritated at seeing these
adventurers assume rulership over them, several

tunes attacked Albasin with armies of from
fif-
teen to twenty thousand men; but were invari-
ably repulsed.
Upon
receiving tidings of these
events, the court at
Moscow
long
sent envoys
to
that of Pekin with a letter written in Latin
and
in
Russian.
After
deliberation
at
Nertchinsk a treaty was signed in that
city, in
1689, in accordance with the terms of which
94

the heroic fort of Albasin
was
to be razed;
and the
frontier
between the two empires was

be observed
definitely fixed as it continued to
by both
countries
down
to the treaties of 1858.
On
their side, the Russians
renounced further
forcible
encroachment and settlement on Chi-
nese territory; but they did not renounce their

efforts to gain
a foothold by commerce,
reli-
gious mission work, and diplomacy in the Middle
Kingdom, and even

sians that
in
Pekin
itself.
The Rus-
had been made prisoners at Albasin, had been taken

to
or in battles at other places,
the capital of the empire.

established
Some
as
of
them had
or
themselves
there
artisans
merchants;
of the
others formed the Russian guard

of Heaven.'^
"Son
that
At Moscow
well
it
was
known
these
men were
treated at
Pekin, but that they

priest of their religion.
had neither church nor

Peter the Great resolved
to send
an embassy
to
Pekin to secure satisfacThis, indeed,
tory concessions on this point.
was
the object of a mission entrusted to Eberhard
95

Ysbrand, who reached Pekin in 1693, and there
obtained
what
the
Czar
wished.
In
1721,
Tsmailof was despatched to the Chinese capital

to secure
from the Emperor Kanghi the
privi-
lege of establishing there
a permanent Russian
legation.
He gave
but the
the
left
Bodgy-Khan a
letter
from the Czar and

d'affaires;
M. de Lange as chargt
ahnost immediately
latter
after
Tsmailof's departure was dismissed
by
that
the
Chinese
court.
In
1727,
treaty
secured greater commercial privileges for the
Russians
was signed at Kiakhta.
In
1806,
Golovine, another envoy, was sent to Pekin
with a view to obtaining the free navigation of

the
Amur
River.
This mission failed;
never-
theless the position of Russia in the Asiatic
East was
1807, they
continually
growing
stronger.
of
In
had annexed the peninsula

win the surname
Kam-
tchatka.
In 1847, Count Nicholas Muravief,

to
of
who was
Amourski,
became governor
of Eastern Siberia,
and
set
himself to develop and strengthen the colony.
96

He
perceived that
it
would have no future
if
possession
was not secured
of the chief river

is,
and the
of the
still
richest province of the region, that
Amur and
of Manchuria.
The
river
was
so
incompletely
known
was
that the
Grand
Chancellor Nesselrode declared to the
Emperor
In
Nicholas that
1848,
its
outlet
inaccessible.
a Cossack expedition,
under Vaganof,
perished without the escape of a single person

to tell the tale.
Two
years afterwards Captain

is
Nevelskoi discovered that Saghalin

island,
really
an
separated from the mainland by the
channel or strait of Tartary, and, in the course

of his exploration,
came upon the mouth

in a small boat,
of the
Amur, entered
it
and planted
the Russian flag on its banks;
proclaiming to
the natives that the country belonged to the
''White Czar" at St. Petersburg.
The Grand
Chancellor was terrified at NevelskoV's audacity;
he already saw hunself at war with China; he

insisted that the daring captain's action
be
dis-
countenanced, but the Emperor replied: ''When
97

Russia's
flag
has
been
raised
anywhere
it
should not
be
taken down."
On
his
part,
Governor Muravief endeavored to persuade the

local
mandarins that the best thing to do was

the
to
leave
Russians
alone.
The
Chinese
demanded
that negotiations be entered
upon
with their Emperor;
Muravief thought that
Pekin was too far away for that and that

Chinese diplomacy was too slow.
to act, therefore, as
if
He
continued
the country was already
a Russian province, and strengthened his position
by building along the
river
the
forts
Alexandrovsk, Mikhai'lovsk, and Nicolaievsk,

all of these,
baptismal names of the royal family.
Petropavlosk, on the southeast coast of

tchatka,
KamOther
had been established
in 1740.
fortresses arose at the junction of the several
principal tributaries of the
Amur
River.
^'The
the
Amur
will
be the death of you,''
said
Emperor Nicholas
jestingly to Muravief.
During the Crimean

fleet
War
the Anglo-French
blockaded the Russian Pacific coast, and

98

destroyed a part of the military establishments
and of the infant marine.

threatening
to
This blockade, by
the
colony,
starve
out
only
hastened a decision upon the part of Muravief,
who had need

his colonists.
of
Manchuria to furnish food
for
Its
fact,
annexation was already an
accomplished
when,
in
1857,
Admiral
Putiatin dropped anchor in the Gulf of Pechili
and proposed
sideration
of
to the Chinese
Emperor, in conin
Russia's
armed intervention
the Taiping rebellion, the cession of Manchuria. China's
only
reply
was
vigorous
protest
against Russian encroaclmient.
War seemed
Fortu-
inmainent between
the
two empires.
nately for Russia, just at that time came the
Anglo-French expedition and the march of the

alliqg
upon Pekin.
The Russians
profited
by
this event to
complete the annexation of the
coveted territory.
the Chinese waters,
relish
The Czar sent a

and the
fleet into
Celestials did not
having a third European power to deal
with.
By
the Treaties of Aigun
and Tientsin
99
LofC.

in 1858, they granted to Russia the entire left
bank
of the
Amur, the
entire territory
between
tributary
that river
and the ocean
as well as
its
stream, the Ossuri, the bay on which there was,

in time,
to rise the fortress of Vladivostock,
with
East).
its
prophetic
name (Dominator
acquired
lands
of
the
These
newly
formed
two provinces, the

Maritime Province.
Amur By the
and
Province and the
Treaty of Pekin, in
1860, China ceded to Russia the region adjacent

to the lakes Balkash
line
Issik-kul; the
boundary
re-
between Manchuria
and Siberia was
adjusted,
and the Russians were granted the

Fifteen
right to trade in all parts of the empire.
years more, and Russia obtained from Japan

the abandonment of the
latter's
rights
over
Isles.
Saghalin in exchange for the North Kurile
For nearly thirty years the boundary between

China and Russia remained as agreed upon in
the treaties of 1858 and 1860.
But already
the commercial and political activity of the
Russians was overstepping

100
it.
They had
estab-

lished
cities
themselves
of
in
large
numbers
in
the
Chinese
Kirin,
Manchuria,
in
Kiakhta,
Mukden,
the
and
Tsitsihar, the residence of
mandarin-governor.
The
navigation
fell
of
the Ossuri and the Sungari Rivers

into their hands.
wholly
The steamships
in rapid
of the
Amur
Company put Russia

Missions'^
communication
''Scientific
all
with Japan and San Francisco.

traversed
China in
directions.
At Pekin the Russian colony acquired a continually
greater
importance and the ambas-
sador of the Czar wielded more influence at

court than the representatives of any other
European power.
His open handed liberality
won him
darins,
the favor of the courtiers, the

generals.
man-
and the
In
all
the sea and
river ports, the colonies of Russian
merchants
multiplied,
and these seemed
to live
on better
terms with the native population than the

traders
arrival of
of
other
the
foreign
nations.
in
On
the
Czarovitch,
1891,
he was
honored with a
series of royal entertainments.
101
COREA.
The China-Japan War Interference of RussiaConflict With Japanese Interests Russia's
Gain.
China and Japan, '^The Middle Kingdom/'

and "The Land
of the Rising Sun/' the Bogdy-
Khan and
kingdom
the Mikado, had disputed with each
other for a long time, the protectorate of the

of Corea.
War
broke out between
the two empires in the July of 1894.
The
Japanese troops, drilled and equipped in the
European manner, were everywhere
victorious.
Their warships, built in the best shipyards of
Europe, sank the Chinese vessels.

ese occupied all Corea, stormed
The Japanand captured

of
Port
Arthur,
conquered
part
Chinese
Manchuria, captured Wei-hai-Wei, threatened

Pekin,
and
finally
imposed upon China the

17, 1895.
Treaty of Shimonosaki, April

102
China
COREA
was compelled
to renounce all her claims with to give to her conquerors the
respect to Corea;
Island of Formosa, the Pescadores, the peninsula

of
Liao-tung,
with Port Arthur and

five
Talien-Wan, to open
new
ports, including
Pekin, to their commerce;

right
to
to grant
them the
open manufacturing establishments
in the empire;
and
to
pay a war indemnity

miUions.^
of seven
hundred and
fiftj^
The
success of the Japanese

all
had been so
rapid that
prised
at
the European powers were sur-
this
sudden revelation of such a
military and naval strength in the hands of
the Mikado.
England, at
first
hostile
and
malevolent,
hastened to show more friendly

the United States
feelings for the conqueror;
concluded a commercial treaty with the Japanese government:
and
all
the
plans
that
Russia had formed for supremacy in the Far
{}) Vladimir, The China-Japan War, compiled from I, Japanese, Chinese, and Foreign Sources, London, Sampson Low, 1896.
103
COREA
East were threatened with
I
failure.
She could
not allow either Wei-hai-Wei or the peninsula

of Liao-tung, with the harbors that she
had
so long coveted, to remain in the hands of the
Japanese.
!
Should she do
so,
she would see
herself relegated to the ports of Siberia
and
Northern Manchuria, closed by

of the year,
ice for
a part
and her hope
of unfolding her colors

her.
in the seas of the
Far East taken from
She could not permit that the influence of

triumphant Japan should be substituted at Pekin for her own influence, already dating
back a century or more.

at
It
was necessary,
war, to pre-
any
cost,
even should
it
mean
was
vent the provisions of the Shimonosaki Treaty

being
carried
out.
She
successful
in
enlisting the cooperation of
two states which,

each
other,
although
antagonistic
to
had
reasons for keeping the good-will of Russia.
These three powers:
Russia,
might
104
France and Gerbe

called
many,
formed
what
"A
for-
Triple AUiance of the
Far East."
They
COREA
warded
to the court at
Tokyo some "friendly
advice" regarding the giving up of claims that
might bring about a general

It
conflagration.
was hard
for
Japan to renoimce the Liaoits
tung peninsula, with
harbors of Port Arthur,
Talien-Wan, and Wei-hai-Wei, that had been
conquered at the price of

such
brilliant
its
blood,
and by
Japanese
the
victories;
but
the
armies were on the Chinese mainland;

three powers were masters of the sea;
and
thus the island empire was

defence.
left
almost without
The
three protesting powers
had the
advantage.
Russia, in the deliberations over
the revision of the treaty, showed such passionate

insistence
that
twice,
all
May
5,
and
May
to
8,
Admiral Tyrtof made

fleet,
preparations
meet the Japanese
which probably
would have gone to the bottom.

of
By
the Treaty
to
Tokyo,
May
8,
1895,
Japan agreed
Wei-hai-Wei;
give
up the Liao-tung
satisfied
and
to
be
with Formosa and the Pescadores,

of
positions
the
utmost importance in the

105
COREA
Pacific;
and
to receive the
war indemnity and
certain commercial privileges.

^
-f
As a matter
of fact, Russia
had
just inflicted
herself
upon Japan the treatment that she
had
after
received
so
from
the
European
victories
powers,
many
It
splendid
over
the
Turks.
was under the pressure

lost the
of a ^'Euro-
pean Concert'^ that Japan
most precious
fruits of her success against the Chinese, just
as
the
Russian conquerors of the Ottomans

Russia set up against Japan
had
lost theirs.
the principle of the integrity of the Chinese
Empire
in
exactly
the
same way that the
powers had imposed upon her the principle

of
the
preservation of
of
the
in
Turkish Empire.
modified the
The Treaty
Tokyo
1895,
Treat)^ of Shimonosaki as completely as
had
the
Treaty of Berlin modified that of San
Stefano in 1878.
And
just as Russia, in 1878,
has had the mortification of seeing her political
foes,
Austria and England, enrich them-
selves
with the spoils of that very Turkish

106
COREA
Empire that they pretended
to protect against
her covetousness, laying their hands, the one
on Bosnia and Herzegovina and the other
upon the
island of Cyprus;
so
Japan soon had
the mortification of seeing Russia violate, for
her
own
profit,
that very principle of the con-
tinental integrity of the Chinese
Empire that
she had set up against Japanese ambition.
107
CHINA.
Russian Concessions Port Arthur Railways Loans Corea Germany Great Britain The United States.
England and
ticular,
France, the former in par-
obtained from China numerous import-
ant concessions i; but of more value were those

that Russia secured.
By
the convention of
June, 1895, China contracted with her, through

the intermediary of the Russo-Chinese bank,
recently
established
direction
at
of
St.
Petersburg,
and
under
the
Count
Oukhtomski
of four
whose Oriental policy we know, a loan

hundred million francs at four per
able in thirty-six years.
this
(})
cent.,
pay-
On
October 25, 1896,
same
R.
I.
bank
et J.
made
another
agreement
Pinon
de Marcillac,
Paris, 1900.
Pierre Leroy-Beaulieu,
La Chine qui s'ouvre La renovation de
V Asie: Siberie, Chine, Japon, 'Paris, 1900. Chas. Beresford, The Break- Up of China, London and New York,
1899.
108
CHINA
with the Pekin government.
ratified
This agreement,
by
the
Czar,
St.
became, on December
Petersburg.
It
26,
the
Treaty of
gave
the
the
Eastern Chinese Railroad
Company
right to build a road through Chinese

churia,
ManRus-
making
it
a branch
line of the
sian
coal
Trans-Siberian
Railroad;
in
to
develop
and other mines
the territory travitself to all
ersed
by
the road, and to devote
other
industrial
of
and commercial
enterprises.
The stock
the
company can be held by
Chinese and Russians only, which means that

it
will fall
almost exclusively into the hands
of the Russians.
special clause authorized \

i
the Czar to station in Manchuria both infantry
and cavalry
for the protection of the railroad.

all
This was the disguised annexation of
the
part of the vast province that had not already
been ceded to Russia in 1858 and 1860.
Fur-
thermore, China leased to Russia for fifteen

years a harbor in the province of Shantung,
and
finally,
Russian warships were given the

109
CHINA
privileges
of
the
two harbors
of
Liao-tung
peninsula,
Port Arthur and Talien-AVan.

27,
March
1898,
there
was formulated a
the
new agreement between
two countries.
all
Port Arthur and Talien-Wan and
their
dependencies were leased to Russia for a term

of twenty-five years.
With
this
was granted
the
privilege
of
building
through the Liao-
tung peninsula a railroad from Vladivostock

to Port Arthur,
which
is
merely another branch
of the Trans-Siberian road.
Nor
is
this all.
According to a
still
is
more
to be
recent agreement, a Russian railroad

built
from Mukden
in
Manchuria
is
to Pekin.
Another Russian company
to
construct a
system of Chinese railroads, the three principal

lines of
which, setting out from Pekin, are to
traverse, the first two, the provinces of Shansi
and Honan, the

and
to
third,
the province of
Hupe
Yang-
terminate at
Hankow on
the
tse-kiang.
Against this third railroad, Engvigorous protest.
land
made a
In her treaties
110
CHINA
with China, she had secured for herself the
building of railroads
and the commerce
of the
valley of the Yang-tse,
and here the Russians

her railroads, and in
were coming to cut
off
the very heart of China to
draw
off
the mer-
chandise that she was counting upon to export
by
sea,
and which was now

Trans-Siberian
the
of
likely to
be carried
by the
secured
sitions
line.
After
having
defeat
at
Pekin of the proposyndicate,
a Franko-Russian
she
encouraged two Chinese of high rank to apply

for
a contract to build the debated railroad.

to
raise
They foimd themselves unable

necessary funds, and
it
the
was then that Russia,
thanks to the energy of Count Oukhtomski,
had the franchise transferred

Belgian company.
Nevertheless,
in
to
a Franco-
November,
1897,
Russia
had neither the
ability nor the
wish to pre-
vent the Germans from landing in the bay

of
Kiao-chow which she seemed

for
herself,
to
have
re-
served
or
from securing a
lease
111
CHINA
of
it
for
ninety-nine
years.
Neither
could
she hinder the Enghsh, incensed at the action

of
the
Germans,
from
obtaining,
in
April,
1898, a lease of the harbor
and bay
of
Wei-
hai-Wei, evacuated
by the Japanese.
It thus
happens that
in the Pechili Gulf,
from which
its supplies,
Pekin receives the greater part of

three
European powers occupy places very
near one another; the Russians at Port Arthur
and Talien-Wan, the Germans
at Kiao-chow,
and the English
at Wei-hai-Wei.
The
Pechili
Gulf has become another Mediterranean,
on
whose shores
rival
Asiatic interests
continue
the rivalries of Europe.

is
The
position of Russia
much
the strongest.
She commands Pekin,

all
not merely by sea, but by

highways.
the overland
rival
She alone of the three
powers
in the Pechili Gulf possesses a vast continental
base of operations.
She fronts China along a

thousand miles in length;
boundary
line several
she embraces and pentrates China;

alone
and she
by her
railroads,
the
Trans-Siberian,
112
CHINA
the Trans-Manchurian, and the Trans-Chinese,
will
be able to pour into the very center of

its
China and into

army.
ace,
capital a great
European
Recently in the revolution of the palin
which took place

it
Pekin in September,
influ-
1898,
was manifest
to
what degree the
ence
of
the Russian legation there
was pre-
ponderant.
The young Emperor, Kwang-Su,

by Japan, and perhaps
off
supported
also
by
England, endeavored to shake

of
the tutelage
the
Empress-Dowager,
Tsu-Hsi,
the
and
friend
of of
the
viceroy,
Li-Hung-Chang,
the Russians, in order that he might inaugurate
an era
the
of reforms. of
The
the
plot
was discovered,
accomplices
Emperor were exe-
cuted or banished, and the Empress-Dowager
reassumed
full
power.
In Corea, Russia took the place of China

in the long-standing rivalry that the latter
had
carried
of
on with Japan.
Li-hui,
it
At
Seoul, in the palace
King
was the Russian faction
which, as a conservative party, took the place
113
CHINA
of the old Chinese faction in opposition to the
Japanese faction, which constitutes the progressive party of Corea.
Japan and Russia disputed

political influences,
with each other not only
but
commercial
exploitation.
Russia
lest
might
Japan,
have employed
force,
but she feared
the Great Britain of the Far East, might throw

herself into
an
alliance with the
Great Britain
of
Europe.
Therefore,
Russia
now openly
manipu-
opposed Japan, and now again

lated her.
tention, she
craftily
In spite of the keenness of the con-
had the shrewdness never

In a
series of
to
push
matters to a rupture.
agreements,
dated
May 14,
1896, February 24, 1897, April 25,
1898, respectively,
the
two
rivals
attempted
to define the conditions of this sort of condo-
minium and
to establish
an equitable division
of mail
force.
of commercial advantages,
and
In
tele-
graph monopoly, and of police

division, however, Russia
lion's share.
this
seemed
to secure the
in
She gained possession

lines
Corea of
a system of telegraph
which she annexed
114
CHINA
to her Siberian lines;
she
managed
and
to
have
the
financial
to
administration of the kingdom

Russians,
entrusted
succeeded
in
having King Li-hui issue an edict that the

future railways of Corea should be of the
same
gauge as those of Siberia.
With France
about;
in
Tonquin and the region round

in
Germany
Kelimg
Kiao-chow; England at
Wei-hai-Wei, on the Blue River, and in the peninsula

of
before
all
Hong-Kong;
with
Russia throughout
in Corea, in
north China; the Japanese
Formosa, and the Pescadores, and
the United States in the Philippines,
it
can
be seen that the poUtical problems of the Far
East have become as complicated as the hke

problems have ever been in Europe or America.
115
THE MEANS AND METHODS OF

RUSSIAN EXPANSION.
Fruits
sian Colonists Race Characteristics Religion Population Franco-Russian Alliance From

of
Diplomacy Absolutism of Russian Government An Enlightened Despotism Rus-
the Baltic to the Pacific.
We have followed Russia in all

It
the directions
that her policy of expansion has carried her.
now remains
for
us to study the means
that she has employed, especially in

cerns her expansion in the East.
what con-
The
essential characteristic that distinguishes

is
her Oriental from her Western policy,

^
that,
while nearly
all
the progress she has
made
in
Europe has been
either the cause or the result
of bloody wars like those of the Czars of
Mos-
cow against Poland,
of Peter the Great against
Charles XII., of Catherine II. and Alexander II.

against the Ottomans, of Paul
I.
against the
116
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
French Republic,
leon,
of
Alexander
I.
I.
against
Napo-
and
of Nicholas
against the Allies in
the Crimea, her Oriental expansions have never
brought her into war with a power of the

magnitude,
not
first
even with China.
However
herself
in
beUicose Russia
may have shown
Europe, in Asia she has exhibited a prudence
wholly Oriental.
A score of times it has seemed

over
the
frontiers
that she was on the brink of a mighty war with
Great
Britain
of
India;
with China over Albasin,

churia;
Kuldja,
or
Man-
and with Japan over Liao-tung and
Corea.
Some
sort of
an agreement has always

off
come
in
in time to
ward
1887,
an open rupture, as
1872,
1885,
and 1895, with Great
Britain;
Tientsin,
and as at Nertchinsk, at Aigun, af
and at Pekin with China.

latter
In 1871,
war with the

respect
to
seemed imminent with
the
Kuldja question, but, rather

to
than
proceed
extreme
measures,
Russia
preferred to
abandon a part
of her conquest.
it is
In these agreements, Russia

117
found, has
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
generally the better part of the bargain.
She
understands
how
to utilize the
amour propre
example, by
of her adversaries.
Thus, she helped the Chiface/'

for
nese 'Ho save
their
inducing them to lease for twenty-five or ninetynine years what they would obstinately have
refused
to
it
cede
definitely.
Thanks
to
this
expedient,
appeared to the Chinese that the
dignity and integrity of their empire would
remain
inviolate.
England
also
has
grown
accustomed to allowing herself 'Ho save her

face,''
and
to be put to sleep
by the mesmeric
time, caress-
passes, energetic,
and at the same
ing of Russian diplomacy.
She allows herself
to see in the "explanations" brought to
Lon-
don, the proof that some bold Cossack raid,
some
thorough
lesson
is
administered
to
her
Afghan cHents,
the result of an "error", a
"misunderstanding."
dred soldiers
expedition."
is
company
of six hun-
almost always a "scientific

minister,
in
The English
up
strife,
order
not to
stir
allows himself to yield,
118
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
and hands over
to his successor the task of
disentangUng the knot.

ful
This successor
is
care-
not to meddle with what he himself was not

in,
mixed up
and what the jingoes and London
cockneys have already forgotten; and so what

the Russians have skillfully acquired remains
permanently in their possession.

sion
If the occa-
demands
it.
they will declare that they did
not intend to conquer Bokhara; but have they
proved that they have not made a vassal state

of
it,
something that
will
be more useful to
them than an annexed province?

intended to advance to Merv; but
of
They never
if
the people
to them,
Merv
it
of their
own accord came
would
be a wise policy to reject a " volmitary'^
submission?
And
thus, slowly, silently, with-
out excessive cracking of her whip, Russian
supremacy, in her well-oiled car of progress,

has been moving on through
all
Central Asia.
Russia
is
the only European power which has

Its autocratic fea-
an absolute government.
ture, so fiercely assailed
upon the accession
of
119
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
Nicholas
I.
by
the
"Constitutionals/'
or
''Republicans/' of 1825, and under Alexander

II.
by
the Nihilist conspiracies, seems to have

life
taken on a new
in the estimation of the
Russian people, because, according to the expression of Prince Oukhtomski,

it is
the necessary
condition of the greatness of their nation and

of her ''supernatural"
and providential mis-
sion in Asia.
If the
foimdation of the governis
ment remains
least
autocratic, this autocracy,
at
more
sincerely
an " enlightened despotism"
than was the absolutism of the eighteenth century, a despotism thoughtful of the economic
interests
and the well-being

its
of
the
people,
blending
ambitions
the
with
It
the
legitimate
aspirations
of
nation.
has borrowed
self-
from the West municipal or provincial
government, but not the parliamentary, not
even the representative regimen.

there
is
In
Russia
no minister responsible to
legislative
bodies,
where changeable majorities successively
displace one another; but ministers having the
120
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
confidence of the sovereign continue in office
for a long time, in such to 1882 Russia
affairs,
manner that from 1815

of foreign
had only two ministers
Nesselrode and Gortchakof, and since
the latter date there have been only three,

Giers,
De
Lobanof,
and Muravief.
How many
have been those that have followed one another

during these past eighty-five years in France,
England, and even the United States!
This
permanency
in office allows continuity of the
same
them.
ings,
political
views and constancy in realizing
No
of
parliament, therefore, no question-
no blue or yellow books.

the
lips
restricted
liberty
press
of in
closes
with respect the
indiscreet
reporters
and
interviewers.
Hence secrecy
is
both planning and executing

is
possible.
There
no need of throwing dust
in the eyes of parliaments, of the newspapers,
and
of the people
nor
is
there
any need
of
of brag,
optimistic
heroics.
silently.
proclamations,
and
oratorical
Great conquests can be accomplished
121
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
This form of government,
though
it
may
appear as archaic as the despotism of Nebuchadnezzar or of the Grand Turk, does not exclude
the use of the most
scientific
modern appUances and

free peoples pride
methods over which

railroads,
themselves;
telegraphs,
rifles,
telephones,
improved cannon and
battleships
and
cruisers of the latest pattern, a thorough knowl-
edge of
history,
of ethnography,
and
of all
forms of
human
speech, from those of Finland

It does not exclude
to those of
Kamtchatka.
the system of military organization in vigorous
operation
by the powerful and enlightened

from the people the
nations of France and Germany, nor yet the

art of securing
maximum
of military power.
Russia has a regular army
like
France and
Germany, national
militia like Switzerland,
and
irregular troops like those of the
Shah
of Persia
and the Emperor
of China.
These irregulars
date back to the beginning of Russian expansion.
The Czars
of
Moscow had
122
their Cossacks
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
of the Dnieper, of the
Don, of the Volga, and of
the Ural,
conquest,
In proportion as conquest succeeded

the
soldier
class
of
the
subdued
peoples were amalgamated with the Russians

in the
''
Cossack armies'' of the Terek, of the

of
Kuban,
the Caucasus,
and
of
Turkestan.
There are to-day Cossacks of the Trans-Baikal,

of the Pamirs,
and
of the
Amur.
For hundreds
they constitute
and thousands
the
of kilometres,
grand guard of
the
regular
army,
the
mobile curtain of light cavalry that will screen

its
movements,
''free
lances,"
for
whose too
it
audacious encroachment and too bold raids,

will
be possible to disavow
these,
like
all responsibility.
Behind
another advance guard,

also,
come the merchants, adventurers

Behind
in
merchant
adventurers, as the English of the fifteenth cen-
tury said.
colonists
these, again, sally forth the
search of cheap land, and who,
following the course of the rivers
and streams,
at times venturing into the jungles, found villages over
which
will
soon
123
rise
the humble bell-
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
tower of a church.
officers,
All these people, Cossacks,
and
soldiers of the regular
army, mer-
chants, colonists,
officials,
and even the
tchinovniks, or
possess to a degree not
met with
in
any other European nation, the

tion to a
gift of
adapta-
new
climate and environment, and the
gift of assimilating native races or of
becoming
of
assimilated with them.
The peasant
Euroin
pean Russia, very much mixed, especially
the East, with Finnish or Turkish blood and

characteristics, does not differ essentially
from
the Ostiak and the Vogul of Western Siberia.
These, in turn, show no

the
marked
of
difference
from
Turkish
population
Eastern
Siberia,
such as the Yakuts.

lian races,
From
these to the
Mongo-
such as the Tunguses, the Buriats,

to the Chinese
and the Manchus, and from these

population,
transition.
there
is
scarcely
any noticeable
There was a time, when from the

Pacific,
all
Dnieper to the
obeyed the same
master, the Grand Khan, "the Son of Heaven,"
whose heir to-day
is
the
"White Czar."
From
124
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
the Dnieper to the Pacific extends the same
plain, are
soil,
found the same chmate and the same

steppes
alternating
life,
barren
with
fertile
mould; the same manner of
of dwelling, of
and
cold,
of dress; the
same endurance
extreme
excessive heat, privations, fatigue, long
journeys,
and a half-nomadic existence; and
the same tendency to Oriental fatalism, which

the orthodox term Christian resignation.
thus,
easily
easily
And
as Elisee
Reclus remarks,
the Yakuts
become Russians and the Russians as
become Yakuts, and both Russians and

same readiness
in acquiring
natives possess the
the language of the foreigner.
Does not the
difference in religion constitute
a barrier between them? with his rudimentary

less,
The Russian peasant

which, neverthe-
faith, to
he holds with
all his
heart,
and even the
pope, or parish priest, with his vaguely uncertain theology

all
and
his ignorance, are free of
from
intolerance.
Any form
it
the
Christian
religion,
whatever value
may
have, although
125
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
it
clashes with the
still
less
highly developed
peoples,
beliefs of the
Mohammedan
makes
its
way among
Fetichist,
tribes that are pagan, Shamanist,
or vaguely Buddhist.
is
Between the
established a
Russians and the pagans there
oneness of faith or superstition.
There
is
no
question of complicated dogmas devised
by the
subtle brains of Alexandria or of Byzantium.
The untutored Siberians do not

troversies over the
fall
into con-
mystery of the Trinity, the
twofold nature of the Redeemer, or transubstantiation.
The idea
of
God
all
is
too lofty for
these coarse minds, but they
agree in placing
on the summit
las,
of their
Pantheon Saint Nicho-
the Thaumaturgist, and above liim, beneath
him, or equal with him, Christ and the Virgin.
Beneath these come
saints. Christian or
with a
physiognomy that may be pagan. Buddhistic,

and at times Mohammedan.
form worship
tive
trees,
is
And
all this
multi-
in full
harmony with
demons
the primi-
cult of springs
and
of certain venerable
of the forests
with the
belief in
126
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
and
river sprites,
and with the custom
of wear-
ing certain amulets that the orthodox priest,

the Shamanist sorcerer, or the Hadji returned
from Mecca,
may
furnish.
What more
is
neces-
sary in order to be, in this Ufe, successful on

the farm, or in fishing, or in hunting, or in war,
and, in the next, to be certain of salvation?
The Tunguse, the

Ostiak,
Buriat, the Vogul,
and the
who
firmly believe in Saint Nicholas,
have already become, or are in the process of

becoming, Russian.
Are not the Tchuvashi,

all
the Mordva, and the Meshtcheraks

of
children
the
same
father,
that
is,
subjects of the
same Czar?
Though they may be Mohammestill
dans, do they not
believe in the virtue of
certain magical words uttered

priest, the efficacy of the
by the orthodox
holy waters in driving
away Cheitan
(Satan) and evil Djinns, in the
protection that Saint Blaise, the old-time god,

Valoss,
flocks,
of
the
Russians,
extends over their

in the
and
in the cures
wrought
name
of Saint
Cosme
or in that of Saint
Damian,
127
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
those
heavenly
physicians,
who
cure
their
adherents without requiring remuneration?
Those two scourges, journaHsm and theology,

being almost
unknown
in the Asiatic
Empire
of the Czar, one can live there in a
happy conany
fusion of things.
differences
Politics does not create
among men, and

is
religion scarcely
any.
There
no time to
or less
reflect
and
subtilize
upon the more
brown or yellow
color of
the face, the more or less turned-up shape of

the nose, the the
more or
less slant of the eyes, or
more or
less
prominence of the cheeks.

is
In
the
no degree
of the social scale
there
known
prejudice ''of the skin," so pronounced
among
the
English and Americans,
and
noticeable,
but to
much
is
less
extent,
among
the French,
Portuguese,
colonization
races;
it
and Spanish
not
colonists.
Russian
aboriginal
it
destructive
of
does not exterminate them,
absorbs
them.
Marriages, legal or othen\'ise, are fre-
quent between the conquerers and the conquered.
Already,
in
the
days
of
Ivan the
128
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
Terrible, Tartar
Khans became Russian

brown
princes.
To her
subjects of
or of saffron com-
plexion, of Buddhist or of
gion, Russia has always
Mohammedan
reli-
shown more
liberality
than France has to her Algerian subjects.

Algeria
it
In
has become
rise
difficult for
an Arab or
a Berber to
above the grade of captain, but
majors, colonels, and even generals of Turkish

or Circassian race, and even of the
Mohamme-
dan
religion, are
numerous
in the Asiatic armies
of the ''White Czar."
The Russians
themselves
to
of
Europe are
their
fully
able of
colonies
people
Asiatic
without having to assimilate the natives, and
without the assistance of foreign inmiigration.

Russia
is
fortunate in that her colonies are only

of
prolongation
her
own
territories.
To
become a
colonist, there is
no ocean to
cross,
no steamboat fare to pay.

ant, a staff in his hand,
The poorest peashis belt, his
an axe at
boots slung from a cord over his shoulder, can

pass from one halting-place to another, imtil
129
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
he reaches the ends of the empire.
the population of Russia,
Moreover,
birth rate,
by
its
own
increases, in spite of insufficient medical care at
childbirth,
with a rapidity
of
miknown
to
any
other
nation
the
European blood, excepting,

In
1878-79,
perhaps,
Canadian French.
the subjects of the Czar
nmnbered ninety-six
one hundred and
millions, in 1899 they reached
twenty-nine millions, an increase in twenty years

of thirty-three millions, a
to the population of the
number almost equal

kingdom
of Italy, or
an annual increase of about one million six
hundred thousand
souls,
a number that about
equals the present population of North Carolina

or Alabama.
With such a treasury

be lacking.
of
men
to
draw from, neither military power nor

strength will
colonial
In Siberia,
before
1895, the increase of population

tion alone
by immigra-
was only about ninety-two thousand

Since the suppression of penal trans-
per year.
portation, especially since the construction of
the
Trans-Siberian
railroad,
immigration has
130
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
brought
in
two hundred
of
thousand
annually.
this
The population
Siberia
must by
time
have reached the figure of seven millions.

this sians.
Of
number
at least
six
is
millions
are
Rus-
This, however,
one person for each

is
square kilometre of territory, so that neither

there any lack of land.
For a long time the Russian sovereign needed
two things
to enable
him
to plunge boldly into
the depths of Asia.
First,
he lacked the assur-
ance that England or the German powers would

not be able to foment on his European frontiers
one of those coalitions

in the
like those that resulted
Crimean
War
or in the revision of the
Treaty of San Stefano;

''the sinews of
secondly,
he lacked
war,"
or, as
the English phrase-
ology
is,
''the Cavalry of Saint George."
The
alliance with France, outlined at
Kronstadt in
1891, proclaimed at Paris in 1896,
and at
St.
Petersburg in 1897, has given the Czar two

things that were wanting.
of the
It assures the safety
European
frontiers against
any
effort of
131
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
the Triple Alliance.
In the Far East, in 1895,
we have
seen how, at the same time, France

in
and Germany took
hand the
interests
of
Russia against Japanese ambition and British

hostility.
The Germany
of
Bismarck attempted
to ruin Russia's credit in the Berlin exchange
and
in
the European market.
France threw
open her market and her
credit to Russia,
and
either in France, or thanks to her, the Czar,
within a few years, has been able to borrow

several
milliards.
This has
enabled him
to
strengthen
afloat,
his
army,
put a powerful
navy
consent to large loans to China and
Persia, complete his
European railroad system,
and push forward the work upon the TransCaucasus, the Trans-Siberian, the Trans-Manchurian,
and the Trans-Chinese

of
railroads.
The
and
the
results
the
darings
raids
through
Turkestan, in the direction of the Persian Gulf

of Afghanistan,
and towards the Amur and
Japan Sea, are now consolidated by a

In
wholly modern outfit of war and travel.

132
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
Turkestan, the ancient capitals of Tamerlane,
the fortresses conquered
by the heroism
of the
Perovskis, the Tchernaiefs and of the Skobelefs,
all of
which called
for so
much
of
skill
and
careful manipulation
on the part
Russian
diplomacy, are to-day railroad stations.

are
There
dining-room stations at Merv,
Bokhara,
etc.,
Samarkand, Kokhand, Andijan, Tashkend,
and the Russian
station of
Kushk
is
only one
hundred and twenty kilometres from Herat.
The Trans-Siberian
stations, its
railroad, with its

lines to
mmierous
branch
Khabarovsk, Port
Arthur, and Pekin, and the annexed systems

that penetrate the Chinese Empire, has consoli-
dated
all
that was accomplished

of former times,
by the venturefrom Irmak or
some explorers
Khabarof to Lieutenant Nevelsko'i of our day.
The
principal
line,
six
thousand two hundred

bridges of eight hun-
kilometres long, with
its
dred metres over the Obi and the Irtysh, of one
thousand
metres over the Yenisei and the

its
Selenga, with
ferryboat, one
hundred metres
133
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
long, that ferries the trains across the southern
bay
of
Lake Baikal, permits the transportation

and brings
of colonists, merchants, regiments, to bear
upon the further
side of Asia all the
power
of the Czar
who
reigns at St. Petersburg.
In 1889, the merchants of Nizhni Novgorod, in
an address
to the
Emperor Alexander
III., pre-
dicted in these terms the brilliant future of the
Trans-Siberian:
'Ît
will
unite
to
Europe,
through
the
Russian Empire,
four
hundred
of
millions of Chinese,
and forty-two millions
Japanese.
One
will
be able to go from Europe

in
to Shang-hai
by Vladivostock
twenty days
instead of the thirty-five which the Canadian
route requires, or the forty-five of the Suez

route."
The distance between Europe and the

still
Far East has been
further shortened
by
the extension of the Russian railroad to Port
Arthur.
In the commerce of the world, the
Trans-Siberian will work as important a revolution as did the discovery of the
Cape
of
Good
Hope
in the fifteenth century, or the construc-
134
RUSSIAN EXPANSION
tion of the Suez Canal in the nineteenth.
The
poUcy
of
Russia
is
to secure the full attain-
ment
for
of
what she has been

in
striving
after
centuries
her
onward march through

is,
the Siberian wilds, that
access to seas free
from
ice,
where her
fleets of
war and commerce

Russia
sea
four
is
may have unhindered course.

for
this
striving
freedom of
the
hundred
years later than Spain, Portugal, France, England,
and Holland.
so
She has
long.
lost
nothing in
she
having waited
Thus
far,
has
passed through the Baltic, and the Mediter-
ranean periods, with a power for expansion
unknown
to her predecessors.
She
is
about to
the
inaugurate
new
era
in
her
is
history;
oceanic, the world-wide era,

for the Slav.
merely beginning
135
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

A PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE:

A Psychological study.
J.
Novicow, Odessa.
is difficult
The
to
psychology of a great nation
determine.
When we have
in
before us an
organism composed of tens of millions of men,
we may assume
advance that
it
contains
the most varied and diverse elements.
You
may
say of
it
whatever you please; the most
opposite and contrary assertions

true in regard to
sarily
it.
may be
equally
One
is,
therefore, neces-
reduced to certain broad generalizations,

in a
which remain
very large measure

precision
is
superficial.
Even approximate
irregularities are
impossible
in
matters of this kind.
Errors and subjective

likely to arise here
more
than
every
anywhere
sociologist,
else.
Almost
involuntarily,
in determining
the psychology of
less
his nation, gives
more or
139
the psychology
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

of
his
own
individuality.
In vain we
may
employ every
truth;
result.
effort to arrive at the impartial
we can never completely
attain such a
On
the other hand,
when one under-
takes to define
the psychology of a foreign
nation, he falls into even greater inaccuracies.
When we
do not belong to a nation, when

in its inherent
we have not breathed

phere with our ver}^
feel
atmos-
first
breath,
we cannot
it
as
does this nation; and this makes

it
impossible to talk of
with any intelligence.

it is difficult
From
still
another point of view,
to define the psychology of a nation, because
psychology
indefinite.
is,
in its
very essence, vague and

of the American,
"^Hien
we think
English, or Russian people, a certain picture,

it is
true, rises before the
mind; but the outlines

it is
are so wavering
and intangible that

this
almost
words.
people
impossible
to
express
picture
in
The fundamental
is
difference
their
between
marked
far
more by
manner
of feeling
than by their manner of thinking.

140
But how
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

are
we
to define in
of
words
this
manner
of feeling
on the part
an individual, and,
still
more,
that of a nation composed of millions of individuals?
But
is
if
the psychology of any people in general

to determine, that of
is
difficult
the Russian
so.
people in particular
very
much more
ourselves,
' '
In the
is
first place,
we may ask
T\liat
the Russian nation?"

inhabiting
It is a
imion of Slav
populations
the northeastern part
of Europe, a part of the Caucasus,
and
is
Siberia.
But
this
branch
of
the Slav
race
fm*ther
di\'ided into
three great branches; the Great
Russians, Little Russians, and TMiite Russians.
Some ethnographers and
linguists
maintain
that the Little Russians should not be consid-
ered part of the Russian nation, but as an
independent Slav nation, just
like the
Czechs
and
us.
Poles.
And
here a
new
it,
obstacle confronts
We
shall
overcome
however, by limiting
ourselves in this essay to speaking of the Great
Russians.
This will be the more legitimate^

141
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

since
they
form much the most numerous
and important branch.
The Great Russians
compose more than two thirds of the Russian

nation
in
general.
There
are
about
fifty
milhons of them, and they have also the advantage in intellectual development.
The Great
Russian
dialect, the
Muscovite
all
dialect, is
now
the literary language of
Russia, the language
of Pushkin, of Lermontof,
and
of Tolstoi.
Imagine an instrimient
intellect
for
measuring the
and morality
of
men.
Imagine that,
with the aid of such an instrument, we had
measured the
Americans, of
Russians.
I
intellect
all
and morality
of all the
all
the English, and of
the
am
convinced
that
we should
one can
obtain
very
similar
averages.
No
dispute the fact, however, that at the different
epochs of history, some nations
may
be more
advanced than others.

are
But the nations which
most
in
advance at a certain period
may
not be so at another.
in
The
Italians were
in
much
advance of the English

142
the
fifteenth
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

century, which would seem to
show that the
psychology of a people
is
not immutable, and can
hardly be definitely determined once and for

all.
Like a living existence, a people
is
continof
it
ually changing; so that
what we say
it
to-day
may
be no longer true of
difficulty arises
to-morrow.
Hence a new
in determining
the psychology of a nation.
But the reader
will doubtless inquire,
'
'
Since
you recognize that

you,
so
many
obstacles
I
lie
before
why
imdertake this task?''
do so at
the solicitation of the Editor of this volume,
and the
remarks
precise
is
object
of
these
preliminary
to
secure
the reader's indulgence
for the imperfection of
my work.
defined,
if
If the opinions stated in the following pages
are not clear
and well
inaccuracies
and contradictions appear
there, it is for the

it is
reason that, in the nature of things,

sible
impos-
to
trace
with
geometric
precision the
Life
is
outlines of a
popular psychology.
continually changing metamorphosis.
He who
143
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

speaks of living things must perforce limit himself to
approximations more or
less
vague, and
with
little
resemblance to algebraic theorems.
I.
Race and Temperament.
The Russian Empire contains more than

sixty-five
independent
racial
groups.
It
is
a veritable Tower of Babel.
Even with
the
omission of Siberia and Central Asia,
there
remain
in
Russia in Europe, and the Cau-
casus alone, forty-six different peoples.
In the
northwest, the Fins; in the west, the Lithuanians

ians;
and Poles; and
in the southwest the
Rouman-
in the east,
on the banks
of the Volga,
numerous groups
of Uralo- Altaic populations:
the Tcheremisa, Mordia, Votiaki, and Permians.
In the southeast,
there
are
the
Tartars
in
Crimea, and Greeks on the Sea of Azof.

to this the sporadic groups of
Add
Germans and
Jews.
All
these numerous elements have in
a
of
great
measure
is
commingled.
reverse,
The
history
Russia
the
properly speaking
144
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

of that of the
United States.
While
in
America
there
is
an Aryan invasion proceeding from

is
east to west, in Russia there

sion going from west to east.
an Aryan invacentre from
The
set
which the Slav emigrations

to
forth seems
have been the region
of the
Dnieper and
Galicia.
The upper
first.
tributaries of the Dnieper
were
settled
The Slavs then reached
the Baltic and founded Novgorod the Great.
Later
(from the eleventh to
the
thirteenth
centuries) they invaded the basin of the Volga,
and founded successively Moscow, Nijni-Novgorod, Saratof, and
many
going
other
on.
cities.
This
movement
is
still
The American
''Far West'' has a counterpart in the ''Far
Easf
of
Siberia.
Nearly two hundred and

settle there
twenty thousand Russian colonists

every year.
But while the Aryans
of
America
have almost exterminated the autochthonous

population of the Redskins, the Russians emigrants
have
commingled
with
the
ancient
autochthonous populations of eastern Russia.

145
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

The Russian people
is
thus, in its
sum
total,
a mixture of Slavs and Fins.
Given such conditions,
it is
very
difficult to
determine the physical and physiological type
not only of
the Russian people
in
general/
but also of the Great Russians in particular.
Are the
latter
dark or light?
To
tell
the truth,
they are both.

of ethnographers,
According to the researches
we
see that the
number
of
Great Russians with dark hair varies, with

the different regions, from fifth-one to fifth-
seven
in
hmidred.
These
dark
shades,
furthermore, cover the entire scale from raven
black to light brown.

eyes as of the hair.
The same
Every shade
is
true of the
to be
is
met
and
with among the Russians, with a predominance,

however, of grey eyes.
If
we
consider blue
grey'êyes as belonging in the category of light,
and brown eyes as belonging

(i)
in the category
have already seen that they are divided into the Great Russians (about fifty millions), the Little Russians (about twenty millions), and the White Russians (about five millions).
three great branches:
We
146
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

of dark
colored ones,
we must
confess that,
although in a slight degree, light shades rather
predominate among the Russians.
As
is
to the conformation of the skull (to
which
is
now
attributed an importance which

it is
as
exaggerated as
arbitrary), all types thereof
are to be found in Russia.
We
the
find there the
brachycephalic type,
the
the mesaticephalic,
and
doUchocephalic.
But
archaeological
researches of recent years, which have been very

accurate, are responsible for a singular discovery,
to the
effect that in ancient times in
Russia
the
dolichocephalic
type
it
predominated,
and
that in recent times

decreasing.
certain
has been continually
This remark completely subverts

theories,
in
modern
with
It
accordance with
which the number of the dolichocephalic type

increases
intellect.
the
greater
development
of
may
be maintained, however, that
the Great Russians are
more dolichocephalic
than the Slavs of the south,
the
Bulgarians
and Servians.
147
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

Of what
very
is
race,
then are the Russians?
It
is
difficult to say.
In the
first place,
there
no longer a
single pure race in
Europe; but
is
of
them
all,
the Russian nation
certainly
composed
of the greatest
number
of races.
Into
the vast plain which serves as
its
country have
rushed
thousand
different
peoples.
The
modern Russians
are a
most complex mixture,

it
whose constituent elements

henceforth to distinguish.
in this respect, also,
is is
impossible
There
an analogy
between the Russians and

of the crossing
the Americans,
who are a product
of all the races of Europe, Asia, Africa,
and
the
new
continent.
is
Granted that the race of the Russians

difficult to
so
determine,
it is
even more
difficult
to describe their exterior aspect
and
their
is
tembe
perament.
Every type imaginable
to
met with in Russia.

and the
is
The
choleric, the
lymphatic
bilious.
Apparently, however (this
a personal opinion of the author's, for there
are no statistics on this subject), the lymphatic
148
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

type predominates.
are very
tall,
In general, the Muscovites

forms, soft thick beards,
have
full
and
abundant
hair.
This
Vvôuld
probably
represent the average type of masculine beauty

in
the Russian race.

consists, also, in
The type
of
feminine
beauty
a rather lofty stature,
and forms which

slender
are well rounded but neither
nor
graceful.
While
these lines, a type of the Russian
am writing woman arises

American,
pencil
is
before
me.
It
differs
from
the
English, and French
woman, but a
needed to draw
II.
it
and not a pen.
Genekal Psychology.
Moreover, I
am
in haste to pass
on
to the
psychical factors.
traits are of
The race and
its
exterior
very slight importance in sociology,
and
for this reason I
do not think
it
worth while
to dwell long
upon them.
be easily understood that there
But
it
will
are quite as
many,
if
not more,
difficulties to
be met with on the psychological plane than on

149
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

the physiological.
If it is
not easy to determine

in
is
what colored eyes predominate

(for
a people
required),
which direct observation only

so
is it
still less
to determine the sort of char-
acter.
On
this subject
we
shall
have to content
ourselves with general approximations.
Keeping within these
limits,
we may venture
traits
to assert that one of the
most prominent
is
if
of the Great Russian character

of effort. It
an inequality
the Russians
of
would seem as
had modeled themselves on the climate

their country,
which
cold.^
offers the greatest
extremes
of heat
and
It has
been known for a

.
long time, that
among
the Russians, periods
of eager activity are succeeded
by periods
of
an almost insurmomitable apathy.
Very
often,
in
Russia,
certain
individuals
are the victims of
an intermittent alcoholism.
They remain
(i)
for
months, sometimes, without
in
At Yakootsk, in Siberia, thirty-six degrees of heat summer follow sixty degrees of cold in winter, which
of ninety-six degrees.
makes a range
150
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

drinking a drop of liquor.
Then comes
from morning
too,
the
period of alcohoUsm, and for a long time they

are
uninterruptedly
tipsy
till
night.
For many Russians,

of labor.
this is their
method
They pass weeks doing

all
nothing; and, then,
at once, they are capable
of working thirty-six consecutive hours,
and
they then get through an enormous amount

of work.
Naturally, this remark applies rather
to the wealthy
classes of
and cultured,
for the laboring
both city and country work regularly
a fixed number of hours throughout the year.

This inequality of effort
is
the trait
the
among
the Russians which will strike
stranger
most
forcibly.
It
it
seems to constitute a charof
acteristic,
as
were,
the Russian mind.
It
is
in
no sense a
fatality inherent in the race,
as the exponents of certain pseudo-scientific

theories
is
maintain.
This inequality
of
effort
the result of historical circumstances,

these
and
been
when
circumstances
disappear.
shall
have
I
modified
it will
What
have said
151
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

as to the degree of morality
of the
may
be repeated
is
amomit
of energy.
This amount
evi-
dently present in equal force in every nation,
but according to the bent given by historical

cumstanceSj one nation
at a given
cirit
may
possess
more
of
moment than
century,
the
another.
Until the
sixteenth
for
their
,,
English were
apathy.
known
indolence
to
and
The Flor-
entines
who went
found
England
English
in the fifteenth
century
the
positively
inert.
The great
our
activity of the
American people
in
own time
lies
comes, in great measure, from
their realization of the
magnitude
entire
of the task
which
before
them (an
continent,
immense and amazingly

cultivate)
fertile,
to people
and
and the
political
facilities
which
they enjoy.
The Russians have a

fertile
territory
more vast and
even than that of the
Americans and quite as uncultivated.

is,
There
then,
no lack of work for them.
Un-
happily they have not yet had a chance to
have
free
play,
from
152
political
point
of
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

view; hence
their
state
of
apathy and
dis-
couragement.
But should
period in
their
there
come a more fortunate

it is
history,
quite
probable
that there would be found no less persistency

of
effort
among
the
Russians
than
among
ine-
the Anglo-Saxons.
Even now
this
certain indi-
vidual proofs of
quality of effort
fact
is
may
be seen, for
very far from being a universal
among
cultivated Russians.
If the
Russians often experience these periods
of apathy,
we may
at least exhibit in contrast
with them some examples of a force of energy,
calm and
tenacious,
which serves
Cases of this
to
over-
come
all
obstacles.
may
be
fre-
quently
that
is
observed
among
Per
the
men,
though
but natural.
remarkable
contra, they are
much
the
more
when
found
among
women.
For the Russian woman has given

of heroism.
some admirable examples

gling at times against
Strug-
much
greater obstacles
than her American
sisters,
she has succeeded
153
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

in
obtaining
an
important
place,
notwith-
standing, in science, art,

erally speaking,
and
literature.
Gen-
the intellectual emancipation
of the Russian
woman,
at the present time,
seems to us in advance of that of the German,

French,
Italian,
or
English
woman.
The
mental
American woman
culture,
alone, with her high
seems to us able to bear comparison
with the Russian.
What
say.
is,
in
our day, the dominant trait of

It
is
the Russian
woman?
meet
formal
it
very
difficult
to
All traits
of
in her.
Unquestionably
that
sentimentality
no
longer
predominates, as
did at the beginning of
the nineteenth century;

sible
is
but
it is
almost imposof
to determine just to
what type
at
woman
present
acknowledged
in Russia.
prevail
the
moment
III.
Sentiment.
From
the point of view of sentiment,
we
may
say that a large amount of good nature

154
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

is
very characteristic of the Russian.

peoples
of
Of
all
the
Europe, this
is,
perhaps, one
of the least cruel.
know
air
that such an opinion has
almost
the
of
a paradox.
The Russian people
have an execrable reputation.

Siberia,
The knout,
the extreme severity of the governintolerance,
ment,
Poland,
the
sufferings
of
the Nihilists, the persecution of the
unhappy
Jews,
all
this
has given the Russian nation
a reputation for imiversal cruelty.

In
order,
it
therefore,
will
to
have
my
opinion
it
respected,
be necessary to support
first
by
facts.
I shall allege, in the
place,
that you never observe
among
a brutal
the Russians
character,
any popular sport

such as cock
ing,
fights,
of
bull fights, or
even box-
or pugilism.
Neither are customs like
''lynch law'' to be
justified
met
with, which,
though
certain
by the
is
social
exigencies of
times,
nevertheless
a very cruel practice.

of
In
this
summary
course
procedure, ^the
155
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

penalty
of
death
is
very
often
inflicted
for offences which,

terrible
in truth,
hardly merit so
a punishment.
nature of the
Another proof of the

Russian people
is
gentle
the
security which reigns, both on the high roads
and
in
the
of
country
districts.
Within
the
memory
man, there has not been a region

which has been permanently
Night and day, one
of Great Russia
infested with brigands.
may
traverse
the
most lonely roads with a

Crimes are occaonly
in
sense of perfect security.

sionally
perpetrated,
cases.
but
sporadic
and
individual
For
centuries,
now,
there has not been seen in Russia a social
condition such as was presented recently

Spain, the
by
Kingdom
the
still
of Naples, Sicily, Greece,

still
and such as Turkey

portion
of
presents.
The only
Russian Empire where highexists, is in the
way robbery
of
southern part
is
the Caucasus;
but there
it
practiced
by the indigenous
populations, and
more often
by the Mussulmans.
156
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

Every one knows the
the lower classes
of
feelings
aroused in
the
Russian population
judicially convicted.
by those who have been

It
is
pity,
with which hardly an atom of hate

is
or resentment
mingled.
Finally,
first
we must
observe that Russia was the

the
to suppress
death
penalty
for
offences
against
the
common law. It may be

cases,
stated,
further,
that,
in
is
many
rather
the
Russian
administration
badly run, precisely because of the natural
good nature of the nation.
The
chiefs are
sometimes so complacent that they not only

cannot make up their minds to dismiss their
subordinates,
resolution
but
often
to
do
not
even
have
enough
censure
them.
It
is
The
same
public service naturally suffers.
the
with pensions.
The municipal and
provincial
council boards are extremely lavish with them.
Very few people have within them the courage

to
refuse,
categorically,
such help when de-
manded, even though
this
may
not be abso-
157
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

lutely needed.
this
Numerous abuses proceed from
kindness of character.
it,
Whence comes
then,
that the Russians
have so great a reputation for cruelty?
From
several causes.
In the
first place,
we
may
observe in them the same trait in point
of sentiment as in point of mental activity.
The Russian
is
very unequal.
If carried
is
away,
quite
under certain circumstances, until he

beside himself, he
excesses.
self
may commit
is less
the greatest
The Russian
master of him-
than the Anglo-Saxon.

of
But
these very
acts
cruelty,
which are very uncommon,

the
rarer
make
are.
the greater impression
they
is
The public
what
likes
to generalize,
and
apt to consider as an habitual trait of character

is
for the
most part exceptional.
I do not
mean
that there are no cases of cruelty
among
the Russian people, and that they are
better than
any
is
others.
No;
I only wish to
say that, as
are
very commonly believed, they
no worse.
158
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

Aside from the inequality in his character,
there are several other causes which lead to
belief
first
in
the
cruelty
facts
of of
the
Russian.
In
the
place,
a political
nature.
When
it is
a question of reasons of state, the
sentiment of pity seems to vanish.

legislation is believed to
Severe
be necessary, in order
all
to save the state,
and thus
If
pity seems a
culpable weakness.
our ancestors, in the
Middle Ages and up to within comparatively

recent times, had such harsh penal legislation
it is
not that individually they were any worse

it
than we are;
was only because they believed

Russia, having
such legislation indispensable.

developed
more
slowly
than
other
nations
of the West, preserved longer certain archaic
and
cruel
institutions,
like
slavery
and
cor-
poral punishment.
All the
European nations
have had, at some time, penal laws as barbarous as those of Russia;

given them up.
inflicting
but they have sooner

sight of the Russian
The
severe
very
punishments,
already
159
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

forgotten in the West,
inference that they were
is
the
source of the
cruel than the
case;
more
Occidentals.
This
less
was not the

in
they
ideas.
were only
advanced
these
point
of
They
ments
still
believed
barbarous
punish-
to be necessary, after the other nations

in their error.
no longer shared
And, then, the Russian government has an

execrable
reputation;
since
nearly
all
the
civilized countries
have become constitutional,
and Russia has

as
it
not, the line has been drawn,
were, between the Russian government

others.
and the
most
then,
The former
it is
is
in
nowise the
cruel,
but
believed to be so.
And,
the
Russian government commits one

it
great fault:
closed doors.
judges political offences with
There
may
thus naturally be
series of cruelties
put to their account a whole
which
they
have
never
committed.
of
am
convinced
that
the
number
individuals
sent to Siberia for political crimes, during the
whole course of the nineteenth century, does

160
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

not exceed, perhaps, three or four thousand
persons.^
But the
figures current in
pubHc
Of
opinion in the
West
are infinitely larger.
course these figures are hypothetical.
People
fifty
speak with the greatest fluency of

sixty thousand persons a year.
or
Human
imag-
ination has no limits
The
political prisons of
Russia have everyIt

is
where an execrable reputation.

that here and
there revolting
true
cruelties
may
be found.
unhappily, of
Political
all legal
convicts are deprived,

protection.
Their fate
depends upon the personal character of the

individual
who
is
in
charge of their prison.

are to be found
And among these individuals some who are monsters. But,

no worse treatment
countries.
generally speak-
ing, I believe that political prisoners experience
in Russia
than in other
in
This is a purely personal opinion, for precisely consequence of the very mystery with which the Russian government surrounds itself, there is no accurate information to be had on this subject.
(i)
161
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

If
we examine
closely certain special cases,
we may
others.
convince ourselves that the Russian

is
government
no more cruel than any of the
The reputation
Nicholas
that
I. is
for severity of the

It
Emperor
terrible
well known.
was so
certain
English author was
amazed
of
to learn that he
was an excellent father

of
his
family
It
and was very fond

this
children.
I.
seemed to
author as
if
Nicholas
were
a vampire, thirsting for blood.

the facts.
in 1825,
Let us see
I.
The Emperor Alexander

issue.
died,
without
His younger brother,
Constantine,
it
having
to
renounced
third
the
throne,
reverted
the
brother,
Nicholas.
But Constantine's renunciation was not generally
known.
of
On
the death of Alexander,

to
the
oath
allegiance
official
Constantine
was
taken by
burg.
availed
incite
many
bodies in St. Petersofficers of
A
the
few superior
of
the guard
to to
themselves
troops
this
circumstance
Nicholas,
against
and
162
'
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

make
power
the
attempt
to
suppress
is
autocratic
called the
in Russia. of
This
what
is
Revolution
December.
them,
After
the
to
Nicholas
officers
had
subdued
he
caused
who had
cuted.
their
revolted against
him
be
tried.
Five only were condemned to death and exe-
Thus a
legitimate
I.
revolt of
the
(for
army against
that was
the
sovereign
it)
how
Nicholas
regarded
caused
blood of
but
five persons to
be shed, and
this in bar-
barous Russia, and by one of her most cruel
monarchs.
Let us see what was passing

of the
in the countries
I shall
West
at this
same
period.
not
speak of France and the Revolution.
Such
There,
a comparison would be impossible.
under a mere suspicion, people were sent to

the guillotine.
The great poet Andre Chenier

for
also
was
beheaded
sympathizing
with
the
Royalists,
and
because he had written

of the
'
some verses against the members

tional
Na'
Convention
But, long after the

163
'
Terror,
"
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

the French government had become no more
beneficent.
In 1824, four unhappy sergeants
were executed in France only because they

were members of a secret society.
sary to recall the
Is it neces-
summary
military execution
by the Austrians
then perished!
either,
in 1848?
How many
victims
And no
vulgar conspirators
but noble warriors who
had fought
openly and bared their breasts to the enemy.
But
of all the
European
nations, Spain assuredly
holds the palm for cruelty.
In 1824, seven
Free Masons were there executed, simply for
having held a meeting!
In 1831, a young
man
!
was hung
for
having cried ^'Hurrah for Liberty

in
A woman
was hung
flag
Granada
for
having
embroidered a
with the inscription, ^'Law,
Liberty, Equality.^'
multiplied.
Such examples might be
But
it
these which I have just cited
are sufficient,
seems to me, to show that the

is far,
Russian government
indeed, from being
as cruel as those of Western Europe.
Simply
because
it
is
autocratic, while the others are
164
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

constitutional,
it
it
enjoys
a reputation which
does not always merit.
What
have just said
is
to
prove what I
have already advanced on the subject of the
good nature
consequence
of the of
Russian people.
unevenness
of
But, in
character
this
the
which
is
one of their dominant
traits,
habitual
good
nature
may
be
transformed
at times into very great brutality, as I shall
have occasion
speak of
to
point out
when
come
to
politics.
Next
to their
good nature, one of the most

is
universal traits of the Russian people
a large
life
share of melancholy and sadness.

the
one.
The
of
Russian
is
far
from being a very happy

itself is
The country
months
not cheerful.
it
Dur-
ing six
of the year,
is
shrouded in
is
snow, and, in
rather dull.
Summer
forests
also,
the coloring
The great pine
which occupy
all
the
northern part have a melancholy aspect.
But
in
even the caducous species which prevail

165
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

Russia (the birch, for example,) have not very
brilliant
tints.
is
Elsewhere the surface of the
ground
gently undulating.
relief
The country
is
completely lacking in
and character.
The
eye glides, as
it
were, over infinite spaces which
lose themselves
on the horizon, and seeing no

is
landmark, one
overcome as with a vague
feeling of unrest.
History has been even more severe upon the
Russian people than nature.
Russia has been,
during long centuries, exposed to the inroads
and predatory incursions

of Asia.
of the
nomadic
tribes
The
last invasion of the Tartars of
Crimea into Russia
in
Europe took place
in the
second half of the eighteenth century.
Up
to
comparatively recent times, the Russian people
have lived under an entire sense of insecurity
and constant apprehension.

of the
To
the invasions
terrible
nomads
is
added another
fire.
enemy
of the Russian,
Russia has almost no
stone, but possesses

forests.
on the contrary immense
Naturally, most of the dwellings there
166
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

have been built
flagrations
of
wood.
With wood, conand

this
are
inevitable,
plague
destroys fifty million dollars' worth of property
every year.
suffer most,
Naturally,
the
country villages
is
and as there personal property

it will
rarely insured,
be seen that
it is
the poorthe most
est class of the population
which
is
cruelly affected.
The
fact that the Russian people
have
this
constant sensation of international insecurity
has been the means of driving

large
it
to granting so
a measure of authority to the central
government.
As the
officials
have not been
slow to abuse this power, the Russian people
have been obliged

vexations.
to
submit to innumerable
serfdom, which was
Add
to this,
introduced in 1596, and which has been the

cause of the most horrible injustice and abuse.
In consequence of these and

cumstances, which
it
many
other
cir-
would be impossible
for
me
to set forth here, the Russian people has
in truth
been one of the most unfortunate upon

167
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

the face of the earth.
History has stamped
it
with a large share of melancholy, combined

with a profoimd resignation, and with a fatalism
which
ways.
is
manifested in a thousand different

at times, allows
it
The Russian,
his life
to glide along just at
happens, without even

react
making an
destiny.
himself,
effort
to
against
his
sad
He seems
''What
is
to
be constantly asking
the use?"
to be
constantly
that
consoling
''such
is
himself
with
the
reflection
the inevitable order of things."
On
mind
the other hand,
when he makes up
him
to
his
to act, his fatalism causes
have great
of the
faith in his lucky star.
The "go ahead"
Americans has
"avos."i
It
is
its
counterpart in the Russian
said that fatalism conduces to acquies-
0) ''Avos" is an adverb which exists in no other language. It corresponds to the French expression "k la grace de Dieu." More literally it means ''perhaps"! The "Quien sabe" of the Spanish is an analogous expression. "Perhaps it will succeed; let us risk it!" is the complete meaning of the word "avos."
168
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

cence.
This
is
not always true, for that
it
sometimes provokes to action, we must admit.

Together with evidences of an extreme conservatism, the Russian people give also at times
proofs of an endless spirit of adventure, so to
speak.
The occupation
this.
of Siberia
is
one of the
best examples of
Single individuals have,
during more than three centuries, been in the

habit of venturing into this region, and have
been stopped only on reaching the polar

the waters of the Pacific Ocean.
tion of the Russian
ice
and
The occupa-
Far East has been much
more
West,
difficult
if
than that of the American Far
only for the reason that the greater

it
part of
was undertaken
in the seventeenth
and eighteenth
centuries, before the
advent of
steam and telegraphy.

It
is
true, then, that
melancholy and fatalism
are characteristic traits of the Russian people,
who
has
certainly
cannot be ranged among the
cheerful
also,
nations of the earth.
The Russian
exuberance,
however, times of
169
mad
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

when he abandons
At such times the
is
himself entirely to pleasure.

inequality of his character
apparent in
its
greatest extent.
There
people
may
a
be observed among the Russian

element
of
large
generosity.
The
Russians are fond of saying that the national
mind
is
singularly free
from
all
niggardly ele-
ments.
Exceptions are doubtless in evidence
here and there;
some are
to be
found who are
very economical, and there are even misers,
but
that
is
not the
dominant type
of the
nation.
In the inmiense majority of the cases,

is
the Russian
hospitable,
and thinks nothing
of the expense
when
it is
a question of his
own
amusement, or that
of others.
great
many
Russians, too, live beyond their means, and

are
in
constant
pecuniary
embarrassments.
And
by a
generosity in
money
affairs is duplicated
universal generosity in personal relations.

is
The Russian
intercourse.
generally very tolerant in social

is
He
lenient in judging the con-
duct of others, and easilv overlooks violations

170
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

of morality
terity has
committed by
his associates.
Aus-
but a small place in his conception
of things.
all,
Many
foreigners, the English
above
in
are
amazed
at the tolerance
which reigns
Russia with regard to social
affairs.
Society
indi-
exercises but a feeble restraint

vidual,
upon the
and permits him
to live as
seems best
to church
to himself.
Whether a person goes

is
every Sunday or not,
something about which

little in
people trouble themselves very
Russia.
One might say

lack
of
that to compensate for their

liberty
political
the
Russians allow
themselves a very large share of social liberty.
Thanks
to the
good nature and tolerance

is
of
the nation, social intercourse

spirit of great cordiality
marked by a
the Russians.
among
call
Among
their equals,
they
each other by
their Christian
names, accompanied by that of
the father, with a termination which shows the

affiliation, as, for
example, Alexander NicolaeThis cus-
vitch (Alexander, son of Nicholas).
tom
lends great simplicity to the intercourse
171
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

between individuals, for
it is
almost invariably
used even between people of different hierarchical
rank.
Thus,
in
society,
for
instance,
off
between
officers
and
generals,
when
duty.
The
the
appellations which are used in dealing with
common
people are also very caressing:

(httle
"batiouchka"
(little
father),
'^goloubtchik''
pigeon), etc., etc.
In general, a certain democratic equality

pervades the intercourse between classes even
of a very different social status.
There
this.
are,
however, unfortunate exceptions to
Many
Russians belonging to the former generation
have not yet given up the custom

the
of addressing
common
this
people with ^Hhee'^ and "thou,''

of former lack of courtesy
though
remnant
shows, happily, an increasing tendency to disappear.
Having discussed
their
good
qualities, I
must
now
very
indicate
some
of the defects
which are very

are usually
frequent
among
the Russians.
They
careless,
both
in their dress,
and more par-
172
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

ticularly in their business affairs.
little
They have They
of
the
systematic temperament.
are also very prolix,
and have no more idea how
to introduce order into a statement of their
ideas than into the

holds.
management
also
of their house-
The
Russians
have
rather
an
indifferent idea of punctuality^
and do not yet
appreciate the value of time, for themselves,

nor,
imhappily, for others.
Neither
in
is
their
good faith very extraordinary, and

relations
legal
it
economic
is
often necessary to take
many
them.
precautions
is
when
dealing
with
is
"Time
money," and '^Honesty
the best
policy" are proverbs which have not as yet

received a very general application in Russia.
It
must not be supposed, however, that the
level of moralit}^ in business affairs is at all like
that to be foimd in Spain.
Certainly not
One
may even
point out some sufficiently conspicu-
ous features of honesty.

viduals, in
of gold
Thus, private indirolls
making payments, often give

in paper.
wrapped
These are usually
173
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

taken without being opened, and
rare that there
is
it
is
verj'-
any cheating.
This
is
no
longer
true,
however, of cheques.
These are
carefully verified
paid.
by the banks, before being

Intellect.
the
IV.
We
which
pass
is
now
to
domain
of
thought,
the proper sphere of a national psyI shall dwell

shall
chology.
this;
somewhat longer upon
speak of both philosophy and

briefly,
religion,
but only
of course,
as
com-
ports with the limits of this article.
Beginning with philosophy, I shall observe,

in the first place, that
Russia has produced no
great original philosophical system, like that of

Descartes, of Leibnitz, of Spinoza, or Hegel.
Doubtless the absence of the liberty of the

press has in a certain measure contributed to
this result.
Russian book, in which
it
was
said that Jesus
was merely the son
of Joseph,
a carpenter at Nazareth, would not be suffered

to pass
by the
censor.
It will be understood
174
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

that under such conditions as these,
it
would
be somewhat
difficult
to produce a complete
system of philosophy, to state one^s ideas without reserve, and with the purpose of saying
only what one believed to be true.
The
fact,
however, should be taken into consideration

that Descartes, vSpinoza, Leibnitz, and Voltaire
wrote at a time when censorship was hardly
more
tolerant than
it is
in Russia to-day.
In
reality,
researches which are purely abstract
into the
domain
of psychology or metaphysics,
receive
a sufficiently wide toleration in the

Besides,
if
empire of the Czars.
a Russian
author were unable to have his philosophical
works printed in
his
own
country, there would

his
have been nothing to prevent

done in a foreign one.
having
it
The absence
of great philosophical systems
may
ways.
be easily explained, moreover, in other

Russian thought began to mature in
the second half of the nineteenth century.
But
at that time the construction of great philo-
175
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

sophical systems
had been,
so to speak, given up.
The
last great
system of Europe,
^that
of evois
lution,
formulated
in
by Herbert Spencer,
rather a systemization of the sciences, in accord-
ance with a general plan, than a philosophical

construction
term.
the
true
acceptation
of
the
In any
case,
whether owing to the influence
of obstacles of a political nature, or that the

historical era
was not
propitious,
it is still
true
that Russia has produced no national philosophical synthesis.
There
is,
as yet, no system
which
phy.
may be
It
is
called the purely Russian philoso-
sufficiently difficult
even to discover
which
is
of the great systems of
Western Europe
in Russia,
really
most highly esteemed

the
greatest
and
possesses
nimaber of adherents.
Heine said that the
real philosophy of
Germany
was Pantheism.
to formulate
We
should be quite at a loss

in regard to
any such proposition
Russia.
Without contrasting doctrines as op-
posed to each other, such as Deism and Panthe176
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

ism,
one would find
it
very
is
difficult
to
say
whether the Russian mind

or positivist.
especially
more mystical
of
A
the
great
number
observers,
foreigners,
would
incline
without
hesitation
to
theory of mysticism.
The
Russian mind seems to them to have something
about
it,
the outlines of which are indefinite
and not
This
shall
to be distinguished
from the mystical.

in politics, as I
later.
is
the case, above
all,
have occasion to show

that
To
say,
however,
mysticism
is
the
most protrait
nounced, or even the wholly predominant

of the Russian mind,
true.
would not be absolutely

also,
There
is
in
it,
very strong current
not only of realism, but even of positivism.

large
number
of
Russians regard metaphysical
and mystical abstractions with a contempt as

profound as
it
is
unfeigned.
When
statistics
are taken of the blonds
and brunettes among
the Russians,
it is
seen that fifty-one in a hun-
dred have dark hair, and forty-nine in a hundred have light hair.
If statistics of the
Rus-
177
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

sian
mind could be
taken,
it
would perhaps be
found, also, that out of one hundred individuals forty-nine

tivists.
were mystics, and fifty-one posi-
But, of course, such a table of statis-
tics
is
out of the question.
We
must
turn,
then, to the publications
and teachings
of phi-
losophy.
Of what has been wTitten we must,

notice
of course,
the
different
in
periods.
Toward
1840,
Russia was
great
part
Hegelian.
Later,
toward 1860, there was a violent outbreak of

Materialism.
there
of
Biichner and Moleschott enjoyed

prestige.
an enormous
constellation
Russian
publicists,
with Pisemski at the
head,
threw themselves with ardor into the
Materialistic
movement, putting the greatest

undermining the ancient
amount
idols.
of fervor into
It was, to a certain extent,
from
this
intellectual
tendency
that
Nihilism
sprang.
II.,
When,
after the assassination of

it
Alexander
if
Nihilism again subsided,
seemed as
Russian
thought turned away from great speculations.

178
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

For more than twenty years Russia has seemed
to live without a philosophy.
cer's
Herbert Spen-
theory of evolution has gained some adher-
ents in Russia, as well as
some
of the other
systems, but without penetrating as deeply into

their
minds as the Materialism
of Biichner
and
Moleschott.
No
remarkable original work, consecrated to

in
philosophy, has appeared in recent years,

Russia.
Tolstoi,
after
having
written
very
remarkable
articles
novels,
has
published
different
on
religion, in
which he has been led

philosophical
to
consider
certain
questions;
but he has done so only in passing, without

devoting any great amount of attention to them.
What
the
lull
is
there in store for the future?

fallen
After
and languor which have
upon
Russian thought, at the present time, what

be expected to happen?
may
Let
me
venture an
hypothesis which I admit in advance to be a

purely personal intuition.
It
seems to
me
that
Monism
will
be the future philosophy of Russia.

179
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

This doctrine appears to
me
to
be the one
all
which
will
be most probably accepted by

it
other countries, and, I think,
will
end by
conquering Russia
If,
also.
after the philosophy, I
am
asked what
is
the religion of the Russians, I shall be even
more
It
at a loss for a reply.
may
be
said, in the first place, that there
are almost as
many
religions in Russia as there
are ethnical groups.
In the Baltic provinces
and
is
in Finland, Protestantism prevails.
Poland
of
Catholic.
In
the
ancient
principality
Lithuania, (the western Russia of the present)

the nobility and the upper middle class are
Catholics, the peasants in the country districts
orthodox.^
In the south there are the Mussul-
mans
in Crimea, in the east of the Volga.
Mussulmans again,
on the banks
(})
Add
to this four
that this is the name by which that Church, which in the fifth and sixth centuries separated itself from Rome, is called; the Greek Church of the East, denominated schismatic by the Catholics.
You know
branch
of the Christian
180
WHE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

or five million Israelites, scattered throughout
the western provinces of the empire,
tants again
and Protes-
on the banks
colonies.
of the Volga, recruits
from the German

Officially
all
great Russians
are
orthodox.
Russia
is
still
unhappily a confessional state
in every
sense of the word,
and
suffers
the
imfortunate
are
consequences
to
thereof.
The laws
made
uphold orthodoxy.
Above by a
all,
the Sovereign and his family
must be orthodox.
of religion set
The
of
state protects this
form
laws,
which practically abolish liberty of
conscience in the
ing to a petition
Empire
of the Czars.
Reply-
which had been addressed to
him
in favor of toleration
by an English
society,
Mr. Pobedonostzef, the procurator of the Holy

Synod,^ replied that religious toleration was the
(0 The Russian Church is administered by a superior council of three archbishops nominated by the Emperor.
The Emperor
has, besides, a delegate in this council,
who
tor.
the procurator of the Synod. In reality all the power in administrative affairs belongs to the procurais
It is said that the
If
it is
Emperor is pope in Russia. meant by that that the Emperor interferes in

ISl
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

fundamental rule of the Russian Empire.
In
making
this
reply, It
is
he was evidently plajdng

true that Catholics,
upon words.
Mus-
sulmans, and Israelites are authorized to practice
their
forms of worship in Russia.

tries to
But
of
any person who
convert a
member
the Orthodox Church from his faith, even in the

interest
liable
of
another
in
Christian
If
profession,
is
to
exile
Siberia.
the conversion
religion,
be in the interest of a non-Christian

it is
forced labor for eight or ten years.
Tol-
eration
must be interpreted
in
a very narrow
sense to be understood in the merely passive
way
in
which M. Pobedonostzef understands

liberty
it.
Religious
consists
in
recognizing
the
dogmatic questions, nothing is more untrue. Never has the Emperor of Russia shown any intention of modifying one iota of the canons of the Church or of
But, as regards the administration of the Church, this is indisputably in the hands of the Emperor, The nomination of the bishops cannot be made without his consent. Owing to this power he is able to remove any ecclesiastical dignitary who shows the slightest inclination toward independence.
the ritual.
182
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

sacred and inviolable right of the individual to
preach what seems to him to be the truth.
Russia
is,
at the present
moment,
then,
an
orthodox confessional
state, just as
England was
formerly an Anglican confessional state.
Let us
see,
now, what position
is
held in Russia
by
this orthodoxy,
which the government takes
under such excessive protection.

I
do not think
it will
is
be paradoxical to affirm
that orthodoxy
the religion of a very small
number
I
of the Great Russians.
This
is
what
mean.
Greek Christianity has been preached
in Russia since the tenth century.
And
it
not-
withstanding the long period which has since

elapsed,
it
may
be boldly asserted that
has
not yet penetrated into the conscience of the
whole Russian people; that
is,
to
no greater
degree than has Catholicism into the conscience

of
some
of the
Western nations,
like the Italians,
for example.
Out
of one thousand Russians,
eight or nine himdred (counting the
women
also)
would not know how
to recite,
even mechani-
183
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

cally,
the
Nicene
to
creed.
If
the
in
individuals
here
referred
were
asked
what they
little
beUeved, their reply would be but

tive
sugges-
of
Christianity.
Of
the
one
hundred
Russians out of the one thousand
who might
know
the Nicene creed, there would be, perhaps,
barely ten
who would understand
its
literal
meaning, and one, perhaps, who would understand

its
doctrinal meaning.
But, three quarthus understand

it
ters of the time, those
who
entirely believe
no longer
therein.
In
reality, Christianity is
merely a veneer
in
Russia.
It has not as yet penetrated to the

it is
consciences of the lower classes, and
already
given up by the upper classes of the nation.

Conscientious Christianity
is
the portion of a
very small minority belonging to the middle

class
and the
inferior nobility.
little
But we know how

in religion.
faith
is,
important
is
dogma
What man
ardently seeks in a
first,
a protector and then that special

called religious sentiment.
and exalted emotion
184
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

The more unhappy a people
appeal to Heaven for
is,
the less they can
obtain justice here below, the more do they

it.
We
have said before
that the Russian people was but poorly pro-
vided in the matter of happiness.

in
They
live
little
a severe climate, which permits of
indolence
and
little
of
the
dolce
of
far
niente.
is
On
the other hand,

fertile.
much
Russia
but
moderately
The Russian people
is
no
better off with regard to politics.
The nation
arbitrari-
has
pr.actically
no resource from the

officials,
ness and exactions of

their time
this people
who
take both
and
their
money.
It is natural that
should
feel
more than any other the
need of having recourse to divine protection.
They address themselves

Christ, to the Virgin,
to
God,
to
Jesus
and
to the Saints.
Hence
the great
in
amount
the
of devotion to be observed
Russia,
pilgrimages,
the
worship
of
miraculous images, the crowds of people

flock to the churches.
who
act
On
the
other hand,
adoration
is
the
185
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

which
satisfies the necessity for religious exal-
tation inherent in the

sians
human
soul.
The Rusto
give
themselves
up more ardently
exterior forms of worship than do the French,
the English, or the Americans.

it
This comes,
its civiliza-
seems to me, from the fact that
tion being less advanced,
the only
means
of
satisfying its emotional needs

is
which
it
possesses,
religious worship.
But
these forms of woreffect.
ship have
upon them a purely hypnotic
The Russian people understand almost nothing

of
what the
priest
is
saying during Mass.
They
probably do not know even that the orthodox
Mass
is
a commemoration, symbolical of the
sacrifice
made by
the Son of
God
to
redeem
mankind.
The Russian
priests
make every
manner.
the words
effort to give the parts of the
Mass which are
read in
totally
incomprehensible
if
They
of
are perfectly right in this, for

service
the
were clearly understood they
would appeal
directly to the intelligence,

their intended effect,
and
would not produce
namely,
186
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

a purely sentimental suggestion.
The
It
is
ortho-
dox Mass
is
singularly ritualistic.
is
no
liv-
ing condition, but
congealed within forms
which have endured
for centuries.
The Eastis
ern Church sustains the principle that what

true cannot change.
particular, either her
Thus she modifies
in
no
form of worship or her

disappearing more and
dogmas.
Preaching
the
is
more
in
Russian Church.
Sermons are
There are two
given only on rare occasions.

reasons for this.
First,
because preaching has

asserted beforehand
very
little object,
is
when
it is
that there
not an iota of anything to change

Jesus,
in the traditions of the past.
on the con-
trary, it is true, modified or obliterated that
which had been
'^said to
them
of old time,''
it
by
his
own
^'I
say imto you,'' and
was
just
to maintain this
new
doctrine,
which had not

that
been said to them of old time,

preached his sermons.
that
If it
Jesus
for
had not been
we would have had no reason
for speaking.
The second circumstance which has caused

187
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

preaching to be given up by the Russian church
is
the distrust of the government.
The
first
priest
who
it,
wishes to deUver a sermon must

it
write
and then submit
to the approval of his

it
bishop.
Then only may he read

is
in church.
But he
forbidden to say anything more than

in his notes;
what he has put down

not improvise, or
inspiration of the
let
he
may
himself go,
imder the
freely.
moment, and speak

that,
One may imagine
under such circum-
stances, very few priests in Russia care to sub-
mit to the drudgery
of
delivering
to
sermons,
and when they do decide

listen to
do
so,
the faithful
them with the most profound wearibecause they are generally deliv-
ness.
First,
ered in a cold, monotonous tone, and because,

too, nine-tenths
of the time they are utterly of liberty has killed
meaningless.
The absence
the eloquence of the pulpit in Russia.
We may make still

will
another observation which

Christianity has entered
show how
little
into the Russian soul.
For the nine centuries

188
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

during which they have been Christians, the
Russians have not introduced one atom of hfe

into orthodoxy.
Look
at France
and CathoU-
cism.
During the Middle Ages, and in modern
times, France has repeatedly been a leader of
Catholic thought.
The University
of Paris has,
at different times, possessed the
most remarkChristianity.
in
able
theologians
of
Western
like
There has been nothing
this
Russia.
There, they have accepted the Byzantine ritual
without change.
their
The Russians have confined

interpreting
pride
to
the
Greek texts
with the most complete and servile literalness.
The Russian Church has
not, in its nine cen-
turies of existence, given to the
world either a
great theologian, or a great doctor of the faith,
or a saint
who
is
at
all
remarkable or out of the
ordinary, or a celebrated missionary, or even
a great preacher.
The only new element which

Orthodox
the genius of the Russian people has introduced

into
the
is
mummified body
music.
of
the
Church
There, they have been crea-
189
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

tive,
and wonderfully
creative.
The celebrated
musician, Berlioz after hearing Mass sung by

the choir of the cathedral in St. Petersburg,
cried out, 'Î do not
know how they
sing in
Paradise, but
it
seems to
me
that
it
cannot be
of
very
much
better than
this.''
The music
the Russian Church, which developed especially

at the close of the eighteenth and beginning
of the nineteenth century,
original school;
it
forms an entirely
derives inspiration from no

is
other,
and
its
grandem*
at times as wonderful
as
its originality.
The Russian Church allows

in its service; not
no instrument to be used
even the most divine instrument of man's invention,
the organ.
boys
take
The
entire
Mass
is
thus sung
in
by
choirs
composed
entirely of
men,
which
little
the
soprano
and contralto
parts.
Is the Russian people, then, essentially reli-
gious or free thinking?

reply with one voice, ''It
Foreigners would
is religious; it is
all
even
the most religious of the nations of Europe,"
190
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

Certainly, to judge
by appearances
(the only
since he
thing
by which a stranger can judge,

only),
it
must look on the outside
the Russian
is
people are very religious, for

its
prodigal of
are
proof of devotion.
But
there
many
signs, too,
which indicate
matters
of
their complete indifreligion.
ference
in
first,
You must
and that
know,
that in Russia the Church alone

civil State,
holds the records of the

she
alone
can
of
dispense
certain
sacraments
which are
importance.
other
there
the greatest civil
and
political
There
is
no marriage in Russia
Consequently,
legal
than the religious one.

is
no other way of contracting a
marriage than by going to church.

is
Baptism
can
also of
enormous importance.
It alone
establish the affiliation
which transmits herediIn Russia
tary rights, civil as well as political.
the citizens are divided into several different

social
classes
etc.),
(peasants,
artisans,
merchants,
far
nobles,
whose privileges are

There
are,
from
^'non-
being equal.
besides,
the
191
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

Christians"^
who
are there deprived of a great
niunber of rights.
Since the certificate of baptism constitutes
the sole act of the civil state,
its
importance
may
be readily understood.
A
liberal
Russian be-
longing to a family which
is officially
orthodox
may
be in vain the most

it
thinker in
for
the world;
would be impossible
him
to
neglect having his child christened, for without

that,
it
would not be considered legitimate.

clergy are
The Russian
State.
not paid by the

its
The expense would be beyond

There are
means.
nearly three hundred and
twenty-five thousand parishes in Russia.
Now,
if
each had a single
priest,
and he were given

it
but
five
hundred
this
dollars a year,
would neces-
sitate
imder
head alone an annual expen-
diture of one hundred

dollars,
(i)
and sixty-two million

third of the
which would be about a
This
Israelites,
been
name denotes, above all, the unfortunate who, in these recent years of reaction have reduced to mediaeval being considered almost
192
Pariahs.
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

ordinary Russian budget.
For
their support
the priests in the country have

to
:
had assigned
of ground,
them two sources of revenue a plot
which they
may
cultivate
on
their
own
account,
and sometimes with
their
own hands, and

The
priest seeks,
the traffic in sacraments.

naturally,
sible.
the greatest
amomit
of profit pos-
He sometimes
particularly
for
exacts for christenings,

marriages,
fees
and
which
pay.
the peasants
are
not
always
are
able
to
Bargaining begins.
There
cases
where
young people are not able
to be married for
weeks and months, because they are unable

to
pay the sum demanded by the
priest for
the religious ceremony.
It will be understood
that such circumstances result in sufficiently
unpleasant relations between the pastor and

his flock.
tions,
And, notwithstanding these exacRussian

priest
the
remains
generally
very poor, for the reason that the sheep which

he
may
shear have
unfortunately
priest
is
but very
little
wool.
The Russian
193
ill-informed
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

and rarely
he
is
of
much
elevation
of
characters-
married,
and has many family

of all this, inspires
cares;
little
and by reason
but
is
respect in the faithful.
By some
is
he
detested
as one
who
of
is
continually taking advantage

little
of them,
and by others he
respected
on account
riority.
an obvious lack of moral superelations
The
between the clergy and

cordiality or
the faithful have thus no deep
sympathy
Then,
in Russia.
too,
the
churches are usually poor

are not open until the hour
filled
and
plain.
They
for service,
and then are

or
with people.
in
The Russian (man

of moral distress
woman)
his
hours
and anguish may not enter a

There
church to collect himself and to pray.
are found none of those corners, isolated
and
at the
same time
in so
inspiring,
which are to be
met with
Europe.
to
in
many
of the edifices of
it
Western
On
the other hand,

to
never occurs
any one
take counsel with the priest
moments
of difficulty, because the
orthodox
194
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

clergy has so
respected.
little
prestige,
and
is
so little
The
priests,
on
their side,
never
go into the different families to speak words

of kindness
and consolation.
of
this
is
In
consequence
the
series
of
circumin
stances,
Russian
but
moderately
sympathy with
his national Church.
There
are millions of peasants in the country
who
might pass as utterly indifferent in matters

of religion.
religious
Nor
is
the Russian
woman more
no more true
It
is
is
than the man.
This
is
of the lower than of the
upper
classes.
it
never in Russia, for example, as

in
often
France or
Italy,
where the husbands
may
be free thinkers, and the wives very devout,
and even bigoted.
The
Catholic
priest
(contrary to
what
is
seen
in
countries)
obtains
no power through the influence of women;

in general his influence in society
amounts
to
almost nothing.
may be observed in Russia, even among the common people, the most complete
There
195
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

irreverence
in
regard to holy things.
The
upon
manner
service
in
which the peasants speak of the

priests borders at times
and the
the
most biting sarcasm and the most absolute
indifference.
But,
nevertheless,
thousand
facts
bear
witness that a deep religious need torments

the Russian soul, even to
its
inmost recesses.
of
This
is
proved,
first,
by the multiplying
religious sects.
Among
the Catholics in France,
Austria,
and Italy there are no longer heretics
or "non-conformists.''^
The
last
Western
sect,
Old Catholicism, has exhibited a very moderate
amount
of vitality.
It died out in a
few years.
German
Protestantism, too, seems to be irrev-
ocably fixed within the limits established at

(0 There is another source of Russian non-conformity, and that is, the ''Old Believers," or rather, the "Old Ritualists." In the seventeenth century the patriarch Nicon caused the text of the liturgical books which had been altered by the copyists, to be revised and corrected. Numerous persons would not adopt the corrections, and separated themselves from the oflBLcial
church under the name of the "Old Believers."
196
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

TTiiTMniT^nm
the
time of the Reformation.
No
breath of
anything new has come to break through them.
The Orthodox Church

logical
in Russia, as a theoinstitution,
is
and
dogmatic
utterly
dead.
It confines itself to its

ritual.
forms of worship
it
and the
We
might say that
was
supported in a certain measure by right of

succession, being preserved for economic
political reasons.
and
The portion
has
to
of the
Russian
religious
population
which
the
deepest
needs finds nothing

established Church,
turies
satisfy
them
in
for
the
cen-
which has been

cold
congealed
within
and
hieratic
forms.
then,
The
aspirations of the Russian people,

of religion,
rise
in matters
far
beyond
in hosis
the established Church,

tility to it.
and are often
When
the priest of a village
too eager for gain,
when
his
conduct proves
a source of scandal, when revolt and indignation are excited against him, peasants then
separate from their pastor and throw themselves
into
the
sects
of
non-conformists,
as
197
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

happened
mation.
in
England at the time

appears^
of the Reforto
Some one
new
doctrines
and begins
upon
his
preach
based
own
private interpretation of the

It
is
Holy
sects
Scriptures.
thus that innumerable

in Russia. It
have been
formed
would take too long to
enumerate them here.
They have
all
taken
as a foundation the Old and
New
Testaments;
but
they
later, in the
course of their development,

the
greatest
have
reached
extremes.
Some have returned

itive
to the forms of the prim-
Church, and have no clergy.

to
Others have
Others
become reconciled
still,
Protestantism.
by the strangest
aberrations, have ended in
practices
which are monstrous and unnatural.^

of these
life
is
Whatever may be the aberrations

sects,
the
intensity
of
their
too,
religious
very great.
herents
all
One
the
finds,
among
qualities
their ad-
admirable
of
the
is
(0 Those, for example, of the "Skoptzi," a sect which founded on a literal interpretation of the twelfth verse in the nineteenth chapter of Saint Matthew's
Gospel,
198
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

neophyte;
an extraordinary sense
of honesty, of
sacrifice
unlimited devotion,
and a
spirit
amounting
Russian
America.
lers
to
martyrdom.
has
number
arrived
of
in
sectarians
recently
They
are the
^'Doukhobory" (wrest-
with the
spirit).
They have
preferred to
leave their country rather than submit to the

military service, which they believe contrary
to the teachings of the Bible.
The Russian non-conformists

and glory
of their country.
If
are the honor
anything could
of
show the depth

nobility,
of power,
of seriousness,
and
of perseverence
it
which
exists in
the Russian people,

ful
would be these wonder-
men.
Unhappily the present government,

love
far of
misled
by an immoderate
external
and bureaucratic symmetry,
from under-
standing that the non-conformists are the salt

of
the Russian earth,
persecutes
them
in
thousand ways, which are sometimes as cruel

as they are ineffectual.
Thus,
after
maintaining that
199
the
Russian
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

people
of
is
one of the most indifferent in matters

I
religion,
proceed
to
make
this
exactly
the
opposite assertion.
And
contradiction
it is
does not spring from

the facts
my own
all
mind;
in
themselves.
Among an immense
kinds are to be
full of
people like the Russians,
met with;
faith
sceptics as well as apostles,
and enthusiasm.
V.
Politics.
politics
From
religion
to
the
transition
is
not so abrupt in Russia as in the countries
which are non-confessional.

States of America
is
As
the
United
preeminently the repre-
sentative of the republican form of government,
Russia
is
the
recognized
representative,
so
to speak, of the autocratic.
Thus, the political
writers of almost every country have founded
upon
this fact
a series of far-fetched opinions,

thereon veritable sociological
the
and have
romances.
built
They have advanced

heredity,
of
phenom-
enon
of
the
innate
inclination
200
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

of
the
race,
and a thousand other
factors,
equally imaginary, to prove that the Russian
people
have been moved
to
absolute
piled
mon-
archy ad eternum.
stration
They have
demonthat
upon
demonstration
to
show
the only form of government conceivable
by
the Russian
mind
in
is
autocracy, and that any
other people
absolute
the
to
world might pass from
monarchy
more
liberal institutions.
The Russian
so, as
people,
however, can never do
they allege, because of a certain peculiar
mentality of their own.

This assertion will not survive for a
moment
will not?
an examination
of the facts,
if
one take the
trouble to look at
these closely
and
content
vective.
himself
with indulging in mere
in-
In the
first
place,
autocracy
is
relatively
a recent fact in Russia.

populations
of
The ancient Russian

the
lived
under
administrative
the clan.
They then passed under the

The
political authority
government
of the city.
201
THE RUSSIAN POEPLE

of a certain region
tral
was concentrated
in a cenfortified.
town (oppidum), which was usually

organization
of
The
the
Russian
city
was
republican.
A popular assembly
were
(the ''veche"),
whose
conferences
rather
tumultuous,
gave a general approval to the measures which

were proposed to
Russian ''veche^'
primitive
in the
it
by a kind
in
of senate.
The
recalls,
assemblies
of
many ways, the the Roman people

adventurers
Forum.
In the ninth century Norman
tempted
their fortimes in Russia, as they
had
preivousl}'
done
in
England, France, and Italy.
One
of these Scandinavian bands,
commanded
the
first
by a
chief
named Rurik, founded
monarchy
ciple
is,
in Russia.
The monarchial
prin-
then, a foreign importation into the

All
country.
of the
the
supposed predispositions
for this
Russian
''race''
form of govRurik,
ernment are thus purely imaginary.

after
having
installed
himself
at
Novgorod
(which was, in his time, a republic with quite
202
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

a
flourishing
trade),
pursued his
conquests.
He
is
descended as far as the Lower Dnieper,

for himself a vast
and made
to
Empire.
That
different
say,
he
levied
tribute
upon
Russian
cities.
In accordance with the Gerof
manic conception
that
time,
government
office,
was not looked upon as a public

a matter of private
ownership.
but as
Thus, the
descendants of Rurik divided up their father's

possessions as the sons of Louis
le
Debonnaire
divided up the Empire of Charlemagne.
The
princes of the house of Rurik received as their
share
different
cities,
and each created
for
himself a sort of kingdom.
But the primitive
organization of the Russian city was not de-
stroyed by the
Norman
invasion.
Some
of
the towns succeeded in driving out the descend-
ants
of
of
Rurik,
and restored the republican
form
government.
Novgorod retained
this
form
until 1480,
Pskof imtil 1509.

cities
Others of the
kept their princes, but
without conceding
to
them absolute power.
203
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

The
and
us.
relations
established between the prince
his people are
not accurately known to
Thus, in spite of the presence of the princes
of the house of Rurik, the popular assemblies
(the "veche'') continued to exist in
many
of
the
cities.
We
hear of these assemblies where
the prince appeared

in
and decisions were made
common.
In other places the '^veche''

It
is
disappeared very early.

that
the
relations
probable, then,
prince
between
the
and
his subjects were not very clearly or distinctly
determined.
diverse
cities,
It appears, also, that the
most
conditions
prevailed
in
the
different
and that very often everything depended

qualities
of
upon the personal

prince.
the
reigning
The
princes of the house of Rurik disputed
the heritage of the founder of their dynasty,

just as the Carlo vingians disputed the heritage
of Charlemagne.
Even
as Charles the
Bald
reestablished, at a certain time,
the unity of
of
the
Western Empire, so did several

204
the
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

Russian
cipalities,
princes
reunite
a number
to
of
prin-
and attempt
of Rurik.
restore
this
the
unity
of the
Empire
But
attempt was
neither a very determined nor a very perma-
nent one, and was, moreover, never crowned
with very lasting success.

established in a settled
The only thing
and permanent man-
ner was the supremacy of the city of Ejef.
The
prince
who reigned
there
was considered
the head of the family of Rurik, and, as such,

exercised a sort of hegemony, something after
the fashion of an honorary presidency.
He
held the
title
of
Grand
Prince.
The actual
authority of the Grand Prince over the other

principalities
amounted
to practically nothing,
if
but his moral authority,

it,
we may
so express
did not
fail to
be sought after by the Russian
princes,
who, for a long time, disputed the sovtitle of
ereignty of Kief and the
Grand
Prince,
which accompanied
reigned at
it.
The dynasty which

later
Moskow ended
by appropriating
this title to itself in
an exclusive manner.
205
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

Such was the situation
twelfth century.
in
Russia in the
She offered the spectacle of
series
of almost independent principalities,
with institutions which were badly administered
but in no sense autocratic.
The advent
of the
Mongols occurred, and modified

affairs.
this state of
The descendants
lost
of
Rurik never completely
the idea of the imity of their Empire.

of one
They considered themselves members

body, and
felt
themselves different from both
the Asiatic tribes of the East,
who were
usually
nomadic, and the settled populations of the
West
(Poles, Lithuanians, Germans,
and Swedes)
Thus, upon the arrival of the Mongols, the

princes of the house of Rm'ik joined together
to withstand them.
resistance,
They made but a

in
feeble
of
however,
consequence
the
complete absence of any unanimity in their

institutions.
The Russian
principalities
knew
under
not
how
to defend themselves,
and
all fell
the domination of the Tartars.
The Republics
206
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

of
Novgorod and Pskof alone succeeded
in pre-
serving their independence.
The Mongols did not suppress the Russian

principalities,
but contented themselves with

But, none the
less,
levying tribute upon them.

the Mongol yoke
was a very heavy one, because

Security
very
despotic.
disappeared
forever
for the people of Russia.
Delegates from the
Mongol
Khan were
the
continually
of
coming
to
demand
tions
payment
new
taxes.
The
least
resistance
brought down upon them expedi-
which made a merciless use at every point
of fire
and the sword.
And, further, bands of
Mongol marauders constantly overran the country,
and conducted forays on
their
own
account.
A
law
universal law of sociology receives its con-
firmation in the history of Russia.

is,
And
this
that the power accorded to the central

is
government
the direct result of the political
insecurity of a country.
When the Russian populations were oppressed

by the Mongols, they sought,
207
naturally,
the
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

protection of their reigning princes.
To them
they looked to put an end to the incursions of

the bands of marauders.
The power
of
the
princes would natui'ally increase from this very

fact, for
they must be furnished with, the means

the people,
that
is,
of protecting
they must
have a stronger army.
Among
Moscow
it
all
the
Russian princes,
those
of
(in
consequence of circmnstances which

to explain here)
would take too long
were
found to best understand the protection of their

subjects.
Their reputation as faithful protec-
tors spread
throughout the whole of Russia,

for
and secured
ity-
them both
prestige
and author-
In the same way that the Germanic princes

contended with one another over the
in
territories
the
heart
of
the
Germanic Empire, the

in the
Russian princes waged war over those

heart
of
the
Empire
of
the
Mongols.
The
princes of
Moscow were aided by

circiunstances.
a series of
fortunate
They made numer-
208
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

ous conquests, aggrandized their state by dispossessing other princes of the house of Rurik,
and became
Their
the
most powerful
in
Russia.
ambition increased with

title of
their
power.
They assumed the

claimed
again
Grand
Princes,
and
that
moral
hegemony which
formerly belonged to the sovereignty of Kief.
The
princes
of
Moscow had
difficulties
also
with their Mongol suzerains, and, as soon as

they
felt
themselves
sufficiently
powerful,
entered into conflict with them.

in
They engaged
a number of battles, and in some were vic-
torious.
The Russian people now began

by the hand
saw
to foresee a
possibility of ridding themselves of the
Mongols
of the princes of
Moscow.
They
all
clearly that without
a concentration of
the political power of the Russian people the
removal of the Mongol yoke was impossible.
They saw,
unlimited
too,
that their safety lay in the

of
power
the
Grand Prince who
reigned at Moscow.
Thus, naturally, anything

209
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

which increased
his authority
all
was looked upon
as beneficial, while
it
that tended to weaken
was considered
injurious,
and therefore sub-
versive.
Thus was the idea

Great Russia.
It
of autocracy implanted in
not,
was
as has been too
repeatedly asserted, the result of an idiosyncrasy of the Russian ^^race."

It
was, quite
simply, the result of certain historical circumstances.

is
The law that
political concentration
the direct result of insecurity of frontier
may
the
be demonstrated reversely by England,
exact opposite of Russia as to political institutions.
The one
is
the most constitutional
nation in Europe, the other the most autocratic.

is
But England
is,
too, the
country which
is
best protected
by nature; Russia
the least
so.
Complete security for Russian territory

in 1881, after the defeat of
was obtained only
the Tekke-Turcomans.
Thus, only for nine-
teen years have the Russians enjoyed the inviolability of their political
frontier,
which
is
210
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

natural possession of the English,
their insular position.
thanks to
Liberty was early estab-
lished in Great Britain for the reason that there
has never been
an}'-
necessity
for
conceding
great military power to the king.
The same
may
It of
is
be said of the United States of America.

their isolated situation,
beyond the reach

large
Em'opean aggression, which has had a
share in enabling them to assume that admirable political decentralization

liberty,
and that personal

in such large
is
which have contributed,
measure, to their prosperity.

proof of what I
France
another
am
saying.
Her continental
Eng-
situation offers less security than that of
land;
thus,
her organization has necessarily
remained for a longer time autocratic.
The present
situation in
Russia
is,
so
it
to
speak, diametrically opposed to

in the past.
what
was
After living for centuries imder

it is
the shadow of continual Asiatic invasions,
Russia herself
neighbors
who now menaces
her barbarous
on her eastern
211
frontiers.
Russia
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

enjoys to-day an external security greater than
that of ahnost any other European power.
case of a general war, Austria, Germany,
In
and
Italy might have to fight on two sides of their

borders, Russia on but one.
Russia cannot be
and, thanks to
is,
surrounded.
For
this reason,
the vast extent of her territory, she

speak, unconquerable.
so to
Since Russia
now
is
enjoys a security greater
than that of her neighbors, extreme concentration of
power
if
no longer necessary.
It
would seem as
lose
the principle of autocracy
must
much
of its prestige in the eyes of the
cultured classes.
extent.
tollitur
But
in
And it is human affairs

is
so
to
a certain
the suhlata causa,
effectus
not to
be
instantaneously
applied.
After
an
it
institution
has
lost
its
^'raison d'etre,"
may
still,
through force of
of its power.
tradition
and
is
inertia, retain
much
Such
the
present
situation
in
Russia.
There are already
many
persons in the country
who
appreciate the great advantage of popular
212
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

representation,
and look eagerly
for its coming.
But
it is
well to recognize that a large

still
number
it
of Russians
in political
persist,
eternally as
were,
conceptions of a totally different
kind.
We are not speaking of the state officials,

are afraid of losing their places, should
who
popular control be established.

uals are out of the discussion.
These individ-
They oppose
the establishment of a parliament, not as a
matter of principle
sciences
(for
in
its
their
inner con-
they recognize
advantages),
but
from the promptings
of a purely selfish interest.
The high
it
is
officials
who
are in this category are,
true,
verj^ influential,
but I
am
of the
opinion that their desires would not prevail,
were
it
not that a large number of individuals

the upper class cling to autocracy on
among
principle,
and not from any personal advantages
to be derived therefrom.
Every society nourishes within
its
breast
It
some individuals with

is
antisocial tendencies.
these persons
who
conscientiously put their
213
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

own
But
were
interests
above those of their country.
these individuals cannot be continuously

if
the most powerful in the nation, for

so,
this
the forces impelling toward dissolution

forces contrib-
would preponderate over the

uting
to
cohesion,
and
society
would be
dissolved.
We must
principle
thus recognize that
if
the autocratic
it is
still
survives in Russia,
because
it
a large nimiber of R,ussians consider

ficial for their
bene-
country as a whole.
this idea proceeds are
result,
The sources whence
many, but they are the

of historical circimistances.
one and
all,
The Russian mind has followed the same

course of evolution as that of other countries.
There
extent,
may
two
be observed here, to a certain

of
the
three
states
of
Auguste
Comte, the theological phase and the metaphysical phase.
This
is
what has happened.
While the other nations of Western Europe had

already received the positive phase, toward the
214
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

end
oi the eighteenth century, Russia has not,
as yet, even in our day, attained to this.

again, this does not proceed in
And,
any way from

but from
an innate quaUty
of the Russian race,
circumstances purely material and social.

sia is
Ruswidely
very poor, and
its
population
is
scattered.
For
this reason,
as well as
many
of
others, w^hich I caimot
now enumerate, educaThe number

hundred.
tion has spread very slowly.
those
who
are illiterate reaches the scandalous
figure of seventy-eight out of a
The
higher education
the primary.
is
much
less
widespread than
Briefly, the positive
method
of
reasoning
is
sufficiently rare in Russia, as yet,
and the
theological
and metaphysical methods

large
reign paramount.
A
alas,
number
of Russians
are
still
imbued with a great deal

all,
of mysticism,
intellectual
and,
above
with
much
for
indefiniteness.
Their faculty
analysis
is
very feeble.
idea of
They have,
to class social
as yet, but a poor
how
phenomena, and to
which are char-
give
them those
clear outlines
215
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

acteristic
of
the
science
of
positivism.
The
Russians bring into the State the ideas of the

family,
and make
of
them an
ideal
which
is
pohtically hazy
and incapable
of realization.
This ideal
may be
formulated thus: a sovereign,
father of his subjects, governing well in conse-
quence of his affection for them, and, in consequence of a consciousness of his duty as an
autocratic ruler, towering above
all
the rest.
The Russian mystics have a profound contempt

for a parliament.
They
call
this
a low and
vulgar institution, where takes place a series

of
compromises and bargaining between the
different interests at stake.
Now
this sort of
transaction
itself
is
it
degrading.
A goverimient
lowers
when
condescends to such maneuvers.

affirm that a government,
The Russian mystics

really
worthy
of the
name, should consider the

of the people.
interest of the
mass
Only an
autocrat can accomplish this mission, because
he alone has no need to enter into a compromise

with any one.
Bargaining and the do ut des
216
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

offer
no temptation to him.
He
can accom-
plish the
good
of all
without sacrificing the
interest of one class to that of another.
Natm'ally,
to
when
the
mind
of the mystic rises

all
such dizzy heights, he loses
sense of
reality.
The ultimate
result of such vagaries
can but be an entire weakening of the society

in
which they are produced.
It
is
enough,
indeed, to place, for one
moment, our
foot
upon
the solid rock of positive facts, to witness the
immediate disappearance
of all
such mirages.
The sovereign cannot accomplish everything by

himself.
He must
delegate his powers to an
immense
staff of officials.
How is it possible for

be assured
his
him
that
to control their actions, so as to
they
conform
to
benevolent
and
paternal designs?
trol of
It is evident that the con-
some
of the officials
by
others
of
is
absoto
lutely ineffectual.
For control
any kind
be effective
it
must be exercised by
those
outside,
disinter-
ested persons,
by
individuals,
that
is,
who
are not officials.
On
the other
217
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

hand, the mystics never take the pains to study
accurately natural phenomena.
see things as they really are.
They do not
the
From
moment
when we apply
in
ourselves to the study of nature
a positive
spirit,
we understand
is
that each
little
atom
in
the universe
It
in a constant
dynamic
state.
seems to be trying to attract

It
is
is
everything to
itself.
just the
in the
same with
state
society; each individual
dynamic
in regard to his fellow-creatures.
He
endeavors
It
is
to
compass
his
own
best welfare.
from
the union of such efforts, in opposition, some

to the others, that social institutions are born.
The Russian mystics make a very great mistake
when they imagine

promises are
a
that parliamentary comof
proof
moral debasement.
They
are,
on the contrary, but checks and
counter checks, by means of which a social

equilibrium, that
is
to say, the greatest possible

is
respect for the rights of the individual

tained.
main-
M. Pobedonostzef, Procurator
218
of
the
Holy
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

Synod, ^
articles
has
recently
published
series
of
which have been translated into French

title
under the
of
' '
Questions religieuses, sociales
et politiques/'^
In them he gives expression

if
to the opinion that
all
the representatives
the parliamentary
all.
of the people were saints,
regime would be the very best kind of
But
as the representatives of the people are usually

of a
more than doubtful morahty, the

is
parlia-
mentary regime
lent
the worst.
Here
is
an excel-
example
is it
of the reasoning of the mystic.
How
that
that M. Pobedonostzef does not see
the
argument may be turned
directly
against absolute
monarchy?
sovereign
If all the officials
appointed by
itself,
the
were perfection
absolute
monarchy would be the best

Is
it
of
all
forms of government.
possible
{}) The Procurator of the Holy Synod (a sort of minister of church worship) is one of the highest dignitaries in the Russian Empire. Furthermore, M.
Pobedonostzef possessed great personal influence during the reign of Alexander II., which, in a certain measure, he still retains. (2) Published at Paris by Baudry in 1897.
219
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

that M. Podebonostzef would have us beheve that
it is sufficient
for
an
official to
be appointed
by an
absolute sovereign to ensure his being

all
immediately clothed with
the virtues,
and
that the Holy Spirit would descend upon him,

as
it
descended formerly upon the apostles?

it
Truly, with ideas like these

sible to create
would be impos-
a positive and realistic political

miracles be admitted, the whole
system, for
if
scaffolding of the social science falls as does
a castle of cards.
Many
with
its
Russians have minds which are clouded

for the reason that
is
and visionary, and
monarchy,
right divine,
more
to their liking
than the concrete and
realistic
forms of a parlia-
mentary monarchy.
Another factor which has contributed toward
maintaining the prestige of autocracy in Russia
is
Panslavism.
From
letters,
the seventeenth century, but particI.,
ularly since the reign of Peter
the sciences,
philosophy, and art of Western Europe
220
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

have
made
in
their
of
way
into
Russia.
These
also,
same branches
it is
mental activity existed
true,
the ancient Muscovite Empire,
but
in
a rudimentary form, in sad contrast,
indeed, to that which
emanated from Europe.

She lived for
Russia was as
if
hypnotized.
more than a century and a
half under the It
com-
plete fascination of the West.
seemed to
the Russians that never would they be able,
not merely to surpass, but even to equal their

models.
society,
its
Naturally, no
human
being,
and no
can
live
while
constantly sacrificing
personality.
In
reality,
an abdication of
this
kind must lead, in the long run, either to a
species of mental death (in ordinary terms to

idiocy) or else the vital forces
must
react,
and
come
to
acknowledge
this personality.
Now,
the Russian people has far too large a share

of individuality for the reaction to fail to set
in.
It occurred in the first half of the nine-
teenth century under the
name
of Panslavism.
The
too great servility of Russian thought to
221
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

that of the
West brought about, by a natural
propensity, an excessive reaction of the national

pride.
The Panslavists maintained that Russia

and superior
to,
it
was
the
entirely different from,
other nations
of
Eiu"ope.
But when
from
became necessary
to
come
forth
the
clouds and to indicate the positive points in
which
fell
this difference consisted, the Panslavists

facts,
back principally upon these two
communal property and autocracy.
In certain
regions of Russia, the parish lands are, at specified

times,
divided
among
the
members
of
the
rural
to
community.
The Panslavists proceeded
affirm
that individual ownership of land,

rule in the other countries of Europe,
as
was the
opens the door to pauperism.

into
It divides society
differentiated,
two great
classes,
clearly
the non-owners, devoted to incurable poverty,
and the owners, who

of
live
by taking advantage
the
wretched
people.
The
is,
fundamental
then, unjust
principle of such
an organization
it
sovereignty.
And, because
222
is
unjust, this
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

organization
is is
imperfect and odious.
There
nothing of this kind in Russia, say the Pan-
slavists.
In
consequence
of
the
communal
divisions, every
Russian
is
necessarily a land
owner.
sible.
proletariat
becomes forever impos-
Contrary to that of the West, the fundais
mental basis of Russian society

the
Panslavists,
at
first,
justice.
As
no
could
discover
distribution of land
among
the Western nations,
they loudly proclaimed that Russia alone possessed this admirable organization, and that,
consequently, she was superior to

It
is
all
the others.
hardly necessary to state that these
arrogant delusions will not for a

the light of criticism.
ship of land
is
moment bear
The communal owner-
not the exclusive privilege of
Russia.
It
is
an archaic and imperfect form

which has existed every-
of landed proprietorship
where, at less advanced epochs of social evolution.
Furthermore,
all
Russians do not form
part of a rural community.

proletarians in Russia.
There are thus

finally the
And
mere
223
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

fact of possessing the usufruct of a hectare of
poorly cultivated land

will
(and communal land

hardly insure the com-
always be so)
of
in
life
will
forts
to
an entire family.
of
this
And, in
truth,
spite
far-famed
is
communal
the poorest
ownership, the Russian peasant
and most miserable
of all Europe.
But
the
Panslavists
did
not
perceive
all
these objections, and proclaimed that
communal
upon
proprietorship placed the Russian people
a lofty pedestal of justice and brotherhood.

Beside communal ownership, the Panslavists
discovered
Russia.
another
superiority
belonging
to
This was, that the States of Western

all
Europe were
founded upon brute force,
while Russia alone was not.

the
The States
of
West were
established
by Germanic warrior
chiefs
who had taken
possession of the
Roman
the
pro^dnces.
of France,
The Franks founded the kingdom

the Angles that of England,
that
of
Visigoths
Spain,
and so on.
But
Russia was not a part of the
Roman Empire;
224
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

she never suffered these great invasions.
the ninth century
it is
In
some Swedish adventurers,

into Russia.
true,
had come
But Rurik
and
his
companions did not come as conquerors.

invited
They were
by the
citizens of
Novgorod.
Thus, while the States of Western Europe

are based upon mihtary conquests, and therefore
upon \4olence and brute

State
is
force,
the
Russian
founded upon the free
will of its citizens,
therefore
upon
justice,
upon a purely noble
and
It
fraternal basis.
may
be understood that a military chief
who had
his
forcibly
annexed rebellious populations
could not govern except through fear, and in
own
interest.
This
warrior
chief
never
troubled himself about the well-being of his

subjects.
He
looked upon them as a flock, to
be shorn to the utmost, as a simple means of

procuring for himself the greatest
wealth.
amount
for
of
Such
political
foundation
State being given, there was no possibility of

cordial
relations
being
established
between
225
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

the sovereign and his subjects.
The
greatest
antagonism must reign between the monarch
and
his people.
It
is
from
this
very antag-
onism, according to the Panslavists, that parUa-
mentary
governments
have
arisen.
The
populations being too
much
oppressed revolted.
their
rulers,
They exacted guarantees from
and these guarantees were what were

constitutional charters.
called
Quite different was the evolution of Russia,

according to the Panslavists. dation of her
violent
Since the foun-
common law
no
is
not brutal and

can
exist
conquest,
antagonism
between the sovereign and
his subjects.
The
solely
monarchs
their
of
Western Europe desired
own good and not

good of
that of their subjects.

care
But a Russian autocrat who would not

for the
his people
is
inconceivable, say
the
Panslavists.
A
own
Russian
interests
sovereign
who
should put his

his subjects,
is
above those of
would be a contradiction which
in itself quite impossible.
226
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

It
is
through this kind of argument that the
Panslavists have estabhshed, anew, a capital

distinction
between Russia and the other nations.
These other reprobate nations have sovereigns
who
and
desire the unhappiness of their subjects,
who
consequently
is
cannot
love
them.
Russia, on the contrary,
the righteous nation
par
excellence.
Her
sovereign
wishes
only
the welfare of his subjects; he loves them, he

is
their father.
To
establish the rights of the

is
citizens against the sovereign
of
some use
when the
good
sovereign wishes evil to his subjects,
but to establish them when he desires their

is
useless,
and
is
to little purpose.
On
the other hand, to prevent the sovereign from
compassing the good of his subjects

ill
is
to desire
to the nation; it is to create tendencies

antisocial.
its
which
are
Consequently,
any
attempt
having for
of the
object the limiting of the power

antisocial,
is
monarch, being
criminal
and
cracy
subversive.
is
And,
consequently,
auto-
the ''Holy Ark'' of the Russian nation;
227
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

it is
the institution which differentiates

of the
it
entirely
from the other nations

places
it
West, and which

of
anew upon an elevated pedestal
greatness and justice.
Thus reason the

this as
it
is
Panslavists.
It
is
with
with the division of communal land;

necessary
are
to
hardly
demonstrate
that
their
arguments
not
founded
social
upon
knowledge of history and

the
first place,
science.
In
Rurik was as wholly a warrior

Guiscard.
chief
as
Robert
The
foundation
is
of
the
Scandinavian domination in Russia

as that of the
the
same
Norman
rule in Neustria
or at Naples.
The
princes of
Moscow
after-
wards acquired the other Russian
principalities
of
by
fire
and sword, exactly as the kings
France acquired their possessions.

dation of the Russian State
violent
is
The founmuch, then,

that of
the
as
as
and brutal conquest

States.
the
Western
State
is
And,
further,
Russian
of heteroall
composed
of a large
number
geneous ethnical elements, who have not

228
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

even yet received the right of citizenship.
then,
If,
the
sovereign
it
of
is
Russia
to
is
the
father
of his subjects,
his affection his children. Little
is
well
recognize
that
very unequally bestowed upon
as
the
theories
of
the
Panslavists
may
savor of positivism, they have, in large

contributed
measure,
toward
increasing
the
prestige of the autocratic idea in Russia.
Another fact which contributes to the same

result
is
the democratic tendency of the Russian
people.
Russia
is
a vast plain, nearly destitute of

for building
any beautiful material
purposes.
The
castle,
the
seignioral
is
dwelling,
erected
upon a hill which

built
visible
from a great distance,

of
from material capable
resisting
the
wear of centuries, and exhibiting architectural

beauties which are the pride of the district,
this
kind of dwelling,
it
has not been possible

castles
to build in Russia. of
The
on the banks
the Rhine,
even when in ruins, preserve

229
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

still
a powerful and picturesque individuality,

for miles around.
which renders them celebrated
The name
of the
Count
of Rheinfels,
pronoimced
a peasant
in former times in
the presence of
in
of
Nassau,
would produce
his
mind the
idea of a very powerful noble,
because the
magnificent Castle of Rheinfels, of which this
count was the owner, was known and admired

throughout
the
entire
region.
In
England,
the seignioral dwellings of are
some
of the nobility
among
the most remarkable of the architecof
tural
monuments
share
in
the
the
coimtry,
celebrity
and
of
their
their
owners
castles.
It has never been,
and
is
not yet, so in Russia.
The homes
of the boyars were formerly of

little
wood
or brick, and ahnost always

in point of architecture.
remarkable
the
life
Then,
too,
of the nobility
was not conspicuous, and made
but small impression upon the people.
On
the other hand, the law of primogeniture
has never been implanted in Russia.
230
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

No
matter how
illustrious
a family, from the
single fact that the title passed to all the
male
descendants,
iduals
it
might be borne by some indiv-
whose condition of fortune was of the
most moderate.
lost its prestige.
The
title,
for the
same reason,
It
must be
said, further, that the source of

is
the Russian nobility

It originates, for the
not always of the purest.

part, in administrative
most
or military offices.
The lowest
of the peasants
if
may
he
enter the service of the State;
he attain
a certain grade in the administrative hierarchy,

acquires
hereditary
nobility.
But
state
officials
receive
but a moderate amount of
esteem,
admiration,
and sympathy; and

This
for
very
good
reason.
administrative
of prestige.
nobility enjoys but a small
amount
Add, further, that the nobles

for
in Russia
had
a long time been in the enjoyment of a

as
useless
privilege
as
it
was odious.
serfs.
They
alone had the right to

this
own
They abused
right
in
a revolting manner, and very

231
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

naturally, therefore, were not
much
loved or
respected
by the masses
of the people.
Thus the Russian
nobility
had no
traits
which
relief
brought them out in a certain powerful
from the other
classes of society;
they had
for these
neither prestige nor popularity,
and
reasons the Russian people has become democratic,
and upon
this
democratic sentiment the
few attempts in the annals of Russian history

to limit absolute
power have foundered.
They
proceeded from a small number of dignitaries

in high places
and a
select
number
of enlight-
ened people.
upheld by
But
their
these chosen ones were not
immediate associates.
The
greater part of the governing class have ranged
themselves behind the Emperor, and have sustained his unlimited power through fear of an
oligarchical
government vested
in a small
group
of nobles.
These are the circumstances, which I have

so
rapidly outlined,
that have moulded the
autocratic tendencies,
and even now uphold
232
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

them.
It
may
are
be seen, therefore, that such

the
tendencies
consequence of historical
circumstances, and that they have nothing of

the quahties which
it
is
pretended are innate
in the Russian ''race."
Let us now consider the value of Russia as

^wov
in
ttoXltikov.
We
in
are
this
forced
respect
to
recognize,
is
truth,
of
that
her value
but
moderate
I.,
kind.
Apart from the
Emperor Peter
no remarkable
Russia has produced almost
political personality.
The
great-
er part of her statesmen

tives.
have been conservain the
Very few among them have been

or have
least progressive,
had broad minds,
together with that wonderful eagle-eyed penetration
which
sees clearly the aspirations
and
needs of the times, which dares even boldly

project itself into the future.
The
larger
num-
ber of Russian statesmen have been of a timid

spirit,
filled
with narrow prejudices,
forever
taken up with an archaic ideal which history

in
its
majestic
onward march has already

233
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

thrown aside among the ruins and disregarded
possessions of the past.
in this the dull
And, further, imitating

plains of their
little
and monotonous
country, Russian statesmen have been of

distinction,
and have shown no personality to
speak
of.
And
if
they have sometimes come

it
out from their framework of mediocrity,
has
been, for the most part, alas, through an exaggeration of their tyranny and extravagance.
From
another point of view, however,
it
is
not to be denied that the Russians possess
some very valuable

these
is
political qualities.
One
of
a strong spirit of subordination, which
causes them, the greater part of the time, to
put the interests of the State above their own.
There
is
barely an example in Russian history

of a province has rebelled
where the governor
against the central authority of the State,
and
has endeavored to cut out. to form for himself
from the general mass a personal domain.

Russia has never offered the sad example of the
egotistic
and
anarchical
opinions
which
so
234
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

frequently occur in the history of Poland.
spirit of strict discipline
The
with which the govern-
ing classes in Russia are inibued has undoubtedly
contributed, in great measure, to establish their
dominion over so vast an extent of
territory.
But
to be conquerors
is
not everything, those
that have been conquered must be governed.
Now, the Russians have been much

in the latter
less skilful
than in the former task, in conseit
quence of some of their good qualities

be, but,
may
above
all,
because of one of their great-
est defects.
Russia has but a faint conception

justice.
of law
and
In this she
people.
is
the exact
opposite of the
Roman
It is this
main
defect which renders Russian domination so
odious and insupportable to the people
who
I
must submit
to
it.
thousand circumstances
concur to produce this unfortunate result.
have already said that the Russian

open-hearted
is
usually
and very generous.
Rapacity,
sordid avarice, dull and vindictive cruelty, enter
but slightly into his character.

235
He
is
hospit-
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

able, not supercilious^
much
in
given to sympathy,
social
and very
Because of
coiu'teous
all
his
relations.
this,
he coalesces easily with
the foreign populations coming under his rule.

It
is
because of these qualities, for example,
that the Russians have better understood

to keep their
how
supremacy over
their
Mussulman
subjects in Tm'kestan than the English over

theirs of India.
But the Russian character
is
very uneven.
And, further, his
political concep-
tions are, as yet, indefinite, mystical, impreg-
nated with paternalism.
If
under certain
cir-
cumstances a
conflict of interests arises
between
he
him and the people under
his domination,
breaks out in sudden passion, and indulges in
measures of extreme brutality.

are, then, all the
tion,
These measures
more
surprising to the popula-
because they are so accustomed to indul-
gence and good nature.
Then, when the mo-
ment
of anger has passed, the
Russian unbends,
comes
to
himself again, and without always
repealing his imrighteous acts, he allows
them
236
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

quietly to
this
fall
into
desuetude.
regime of
for
kind
is
of all orders the
most precarious most
those governed, and consequently

able.
tion,
ter,
intoler-
The populations mider Russian subjecbeing never able to foresee from what quarin the
minds
of their masters, the
wind
may
is
blow, live in continual anxiety and con-
stant apprehension.
Beside the fact that this
in the highest degree disagreeable for the

it is, also,
governed,
in the highest degree con-
trary to the true interests of the governors.

fact,
In
with no feeling of security for the morrow,
no one dare undertake those business enterprises

of a
more extended character which are the
basis
of the material prosperity of a country.
The Russian State has been established by

violence,
by
strokes
of
individual authority.
Thence proceeds the

of
illusion that the

is
renewal
these
brutal
attempts
the
Alpha and
Omega
sians,
of political
wisdom.
Very many Rusclasses,
even among the most cultured

it
have an idea that
would be impossible
237
to
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

insure general prosperity unless governments
were
to
take,
at
certain
times,
measures
is
described in Russia as administrative, that

say, measures
is
to
which are
illegal.
This idea, which
securely anchored in the Russian mind, shows

refractory
it still
is
how
as to
any perception
of true justice,
is
still,
and
to
what extent the Russian

a
after all his efforts at civilization,
''political
animal,'^
and
of
a very
ordinary
quality. 1
VI.
Present State.
After having glanced rapidly over the more

or less permanent traits of the Russian nation,
I should like, before finishing this hasty sketch,
to
add a few words upon the
situation of the
moment.
First
of
is
all,
with reference to economics,
Russia
in a fair
way
to accomplish
an impor-
tant transformation.
She
is
passing from the
purely agricultural stage into the industrial.

(i)
What
is
taking
place
in
Finland
perfectly
sustains
my
opinion.
238
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

England
is
the country in which this phase

its
has attained
highest development.
Out
live
of
in
one hundred Englishmen seventy-one

cities
and twenty-nine
is
in
the
country.
In
Russia the proportion

of this
five
:
more than the reverse

and eightyin
fifteen persons live in cities
in the
country
districts.
But
conse-
quence of the strides which manufacturing has
made, the population

increase.
of the cities continues to

class is beginning to
is
A
The
working
'^
be
formed.
bourgeoisie"
growing.
These
movements
are
are already plainly visible, but they
being brought
about slowly.
In conse-
quence of a thousand impediments produced
by bureaucratic
been
set going,
centralization,
snail's pace.
everything in
Russia advances at a
Things have
however, and, as Russia pos-
sesses vast mineral
wealth
(still
very largely
fail,
unexplored), manufactures cannot

or later, to rise to great importance.
sooner
Another important event

is
in
Russian history
the establishment of a network of railways,
239
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

which from
this time
forward are destined to

Doubtless the
extend over the entire country.
Russian network
is
still
modest, indeed, comit is, it
pared to that of America/ but such as
has already produced a fairly immeasurable

revolution.
Russia was formerly an amorphous
country.
Some
of her regions
were practically
inaccessible, because of their
immense distance
from the
certain
sea.
On
of
the other hand, during a
number
weeks in the Spring and

entirely.
Autumn, commimication ceased almost

All this
is
a thing of the past, thanks to the
railroads.
These transport
men and goods

this
at
one and the same time.

constant
ideas
is
Through
means a
of
and continually flowing current
established between the different parts
of Russia,
and has reimited them as with an
organic bond.
In spite of the frightful obstacles which overThere were in Russia, July 1, 1900, fifty-four thousand six hundred kilometres of railroads, and in the United States, January 1, 1899, three hundred thousand six hundred and thirty-six kilometres.
(i)
240
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

whelm them,
making
the press and pubUshing trade are
great
progress
in
Russia.
Russian
editions do not yield

to those of
much
in point of elegance
Western Europe.
Here
is
another
sign of the times;
very expensive publications
have begun
to
have a financial value in Russia.
Leipzig house,
combined with another in
St. Petersburg, is
now
publishing an imimense
encyclopaedia, after the

clopaedia
dollars
model
of the 'Êncy-
Britannica."
More than a million

in this enterprise,
have been invested

is
which, however,
very profitable.
Twenty or
would
thirty years ago, no such thing as this
have been
possible.
cannot enlarge upon
these matters which are not exactly in line with
my subject.
development
mention them only to show that

is
economic power (which

of
the foundation of the

is
the
mind)
increasing
in
Russia, even though slowly.
What
mind?
is
the present tendency of the Russian
In order to answer this question we

years.
must go back a few
241
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

The shameful
in
defeats suffered in the Crimea,
1854 and 1855, had shown, with the most

clearness,
absolute
how
fatal
had been the
ultra-conservative policy of the

olas
I.
Emperor Nich-
powerful liberal reaction set in under

II.
Alexander
series of beneficent
reforms
was the
1861;
result:
the suppression of serfdom, in
the reformation of the courts of justice

of the jury system,
and the introduction
in
1864; provincial self-government for the provinces, in 1865,
and the suppression of preliminary
censure at St. Petersburg and
Moscow
in the
same
year.
spirit.
These reforms created a new
Toward
1872, the Russian youth were at the boiling

point.
They
desired to enter
upon a
sort of
crusade to free the peasants from their ignorance.
Youthful apostles went abroad over the country,

preaching
theories
among
If
the
workmen
in the
towns
that were liberal and more or less

the Russian government
subversive.
had
been endowed, at that time, with even a par242
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

tially
clear
sense
of
justice,
it
would have
understood that to preach what seems to him

the truth
creature.
is
the primordial right of every

the other hand,
if
human
On
the Russian
government had possessed the most elementary

principles of sociology,
it
would have seen at
once that the Nihilist apostleship had no sort

of chance of
amounting
to
anything serious.
Indeed, to modify the political ideas of seventy
men would require an enormous amount of money and immense efforts, protracted for generations. What could
millions
of
illiterate
be accomplished by some thousands, or rather
by some hundreds,
of
young
Nihilists,
spread
about through the country
districts of
Russia?
Their propaganda would quickly disappear in

the vast ocean of ignorance around them, with-
out leaving further trace than would a small
brook in the Atlantic.

only to shut
its eyes.
The government had
The youthful enthusiasts

their social illu-
would have been freed from

sions;
and
in a very little while they
would
243
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

have
This
abandoned
is
their
premature
in
attempts.
cases.
just
what did happen
many
Many young
disgusted,
preachers became very quickly

their apostleship
it
and gave up
among
the peasants, seeing that
could lead to nothing.
Unhappily, the Russian government had no

sufficient
amount
of liberalism, nor of foresight.
The
reactionists
who surrounded
the
the noble and
generous
Sovereign,
great-hearted
Alex-
ander
II.,
began
of
to frighten him,
and advised
against
measures
Nihilists.
merciless
severity
the
The young persons who were preachmost rigorous
ing in the country districts were arrested, put

in prison, subjected to the
treat-
ment, and, in consequence of sentences rendered
behind closed doors by special tribimals that

offered no guarantee of impartiality
and equity,
were transported to Siberia.
In the face of
such persecutions as these the Nihilists resisted.
They transformed themselves

society
into
secret
and opposed
to the severities of the
government, assassinations and outrages even

244
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

more
II.
daring.
Holding the Emperor Alexander
responsible for the policy urged

his advisers, they
upon him
by
became enraged against

to
him
kill
personally,
and made repeated attempts
him.
In the meanwhile, the Turkish
War
broke out.
The Russian arm}^

Nevertheless,
in
suffered
great privations.
time,
they
triumphed,
and
In
arrived under the walls of Constantinople.

Februar}^, 1878, Russia
was breathlessly awaitand the

For an
ing the accomplishment of her destiny
crowning of her historical mission.
immense majority
1877 had
all
of the Russians the
war
of
the effect of a
new
crusade.
A
of of
glorious hope
their
had taken supreme possession

Every moment the capture
hearts.
Constantinople was looked for and the end of

the
Mussulman power on our

if
continent.
It
would seem as
plished in
the inauspicious work, accom-
1453 by
Mahomet
the Conqueror,
were about to be imdone by the hand of Holy

Russia.
It
seemed as
if
Europe were about
to
245
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

enter into possession of that eastern basin of
the Mediterranean which
had formerly been her
most splendid domain.

Alas,
how
cruelly deceived were the Russian
people, in maintaining these glorious expectations!
Constantinople was not occupied, the

of
Mussulmans were not driven out
Europe, and
even the independence of Bulgaria was effected

in
but a limited and narrow way.

Discontent
followed
these
misconceptions.
The
plots of the Nihilists were renewed,
and
side.
aroused further
exasperation
on every
The more nervous and severe the government

appeared,
redouble
the
its
more did the
terrorist
party
audacity.
II.
Alexander
was a monarch who was too

was too
tender, not to
is
enlightened, whose heart

feel
that the mere civil administration

life
not
everything in the
of
a great nation.
Toward
was
living
the beginning of the year 1881, Russia

in
a state of extraordinary tension.
Each day
a change in the regime was expected.

246
con-
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

stitution
was the universal theme; and
it
was
even said that one had been already drawn up,
and that
it
would be promulgated before
long.
Unhappily the plots of the
terrorists did
not
blow over.
fanatics
The narrow-minded and stupid

led the
who
movement appeared
neither
to
be utterly blinded.
They
saw nor heard
anything of what was passing aroimd them, and
pursued their vengeance against such a Sovereign

as
it,
Alexander
II.
As
ill-fortune
would
have
1881,
the odious crime of the 13th of March,

successful.
was
This great crime was naturally succeeded by
fiu'ious political reaction,
which lasted with-
out interruption throughout the reign of Alex-
ander
III.,
and bore the acknowledged
seal of
a narrow Muscovite nationalism and of an ortho-
dox
clericalism
of
even more narrow

Alexander
direction
II.
still.
The
all
institutions
were nearly
reaction.
revised
in
the
of
Self-
government
in the
towns and provinces was
limited, the independence of the jury percepti-
247
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

bly restricted.
The unfortunate
Israelites
were
deprived of most of their privileges; they were
excluded from the municipal councils of the

cities;
their admittance into
the middle
and
primary schools, and to the committees, was

restricted.
They were driven out en masse from

which reigned under Alexander
certain parts of the Empire, in which, thanks

to the toleration
II.,
they had been able to establish themselves.

severities of the censorship
The
were redoubled.
were sup-
Many
of the
most
influential journals
pressed.
Military law was established in the
large Russian to^\Tis
which gave privileges to
the provincial governors and the prefects of
customs which were often abused.

While,
about 1873, the apostle who went
about the coimtry carrying good news to the

people
was the most

life,
striking
character
in
Russian
under Alexander
III., it
was the
''careerist"
who became
the characteristic type.
This type, which, in France, Alphonse Daudet
has
named
the ''Struggle for Life," was repre-
248
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

sented by the young
official,
with no kind of
ideal,
moral aspiration,
to
Tvith
no sort of
seeking
obtain,
by every imaginable means, the
greatest possible
number
of material advantages.
Men
of this type multiplied as rapidly as weeds.
leaden
gloom
fell
upon Russian
society.
People hved, from day to day, in a sad, monoto-
nous fashion, without having even a glimpse of

anything better.
Revolutionary plots grew
less frequent, little
by
little,
and
finally ceased entirely, at least as
far as the public

case,
knowledge extended.
In any
political
there were no
more astounding
assassinations.
This was one of the singularly
happy
features of the reign of Alexander
HI.
in
Let us hope
that
the
progressive
party
Russia has already perceived

foolish
how
is
odious and
to resort to
and disadvantageous
it
brute force.
Alexander
the
liberals
III.
being
now
dead, the hopes of
strongly revived.
They thought
that the reactionary party would, on the acces-
249
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

sion of Nicholas II., be broken up, as
had hapNothing
sur-
pened after the death of Nicholas

of the kind occurred.
I.
The men who had
rounded Alexander
III.
remained in power dur-
ing the reign of his son,

of
and the greater part
them are
in
power now.
The course
of poli-
tical
opinion did not change.

still
Some
reaction-
ary measures were
taken.
Nationalism in
a narrow sense continued to

the
flourish.
None
had
of
exceptional
measures
which
been
enacted against the unhappy Israelites were

repealed.
Thus, apparently, everything
is
going
on since the death

it
of Alexander III., just as
did during his

that!
life.
But, however,
conscious,
in
it is
not
of
is
quite
We
is
are
spite
everything, that the force of the reaction
blunted.
It
not as yet receding;
but
it is,
however, no longer advancing.
Russia
is
at
the
turning-point.
Russian
thought has become

liberals
a stagnant
pool.
The
have not to a marked degree the courage

do the reactionaries
of their convictions, nor
250
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

dare engage in any too great violence.
AVe live
from day
is
to day,
It
and no one knows whither one

if
tending.
seems even as
people were
legislative
delighted not to go anywhere.
Some
measm"es of very slight importance have been

enacted.
But no one seems
to
have the cour-
age to attack the great political problems, ripe

for so
many
years.
Life formulates its imperiits inabil-
ous demands, but the government, in

ity to act,
seems to wish to stop up
its
ears
and
close its eyes.
Russia continues to linger along
in
superannuated and nearly vanished instituhardly worthy of the eighteenth century,

to
tions,
and continues
be an archaic state.
The
man,
breath of no powerful and generous idea seems

to animate this country.
Not a
single
no great character, no conspicuous personality,

appears to captivate the crowd and to vibrate
in the hearts.
ficial
The novel
is
reduced to a superlife
impressionism,
it is,
it.
which paints daily
exactly as
without in the least attempting

It
to interpret
would seem as
251
if
the novel-
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

ists
are chiefly ambitious to reduce themselves
to the level of photographic machines,
and
to
carefully
avoid
all
traces
of
an independent
thought.
At
this
present
moment, Russian society
seems to be without aspiration, and with no

ideal of
any kind.
There
is
not a single great

is
question about which intellectual war
waged.
The most sacred

and unbelievers.
principles count
It
but sceptics
if
would seem as
the
chosen few of Russian society (among

in
whom,
of
other
times,
such
powerful
currents
thought have been produced) had lost the faculty of feeling the beating of their
own
heart.
An
atmosphere, dull and gray, pervades the
whole.
There
is
absolute stagnation.
will this state of things last?
For how long
Ten, twenty, thirty years?

deliverer?
Who
to
will
be the
Who
will
come
and
drag Russian
Alas,
society
from
its dull
lifeless state?
no one can answer
this question.
One event
alone has been as a ray of light on
252
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

this
dark and gloomy sky,
the
circular of the
24th of August, 1898, and the conference at
The Hague, which was the

pily, neither
result of
it.
Unhap-
has this event succeeded in rousing

its torpor.
Russian society from

in
Many
people
Russia expressed themselves on the subject
of
The Hague conference with a pessimism both

and
ironical.
scornful
Furthermore, the noble

11.
attempt of the Emperor Nicholas
has hardly
passed out of the domain of theory.
Russia
has not disarmed a single regiment;

contrary.
called
to
quite the
This year the number of recruits

active service
is
greater than last.
And
even
Russia has also experienced a recrudesaffairs,
cence in naval
a more foolish madness
than
militarism.
The
construction
of
ironclads has been
resumed with great ardor.
Russia
dullest
tory.
is
at present going through one of the

spiritless periods of
and most
her hissure, too
The Russian people have,

of vital
am
much exuberance
eventually.
power not to react
Some day
the nation will resume
253
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

its
forward march.
of doubt.
Of that there can be no
shadow
as
if
But
just now, Russia seems
motionless,
hesitating
and
irresolute
between progress and reaction.
254
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Contemporary Ubougbt Series

ZIONISM AND ANTI-SEMITISM. By Max

the Important Political and Social Questions of the

the Editorial Staff of the

PROBLEMS OF THE EAST. A

Max Nordau, Kentaro Kaneko, W. Conant, Prof. F. W. Williams,

ART AS A MEANS OF EXPRESSION,

Contemporari? 'Sbougbt Series

THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA

THE SOUTHWARD EXPANSION OF RUSSIA

THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA

The United States.

THE MEANS AND METHODS OF RUSSIAN EXPANSION

THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE: A

Study Race and Teimperament.

any indication that

was ever desIn the were

become a maritime power.

political organization desig-

shut in on the west, by the Poles and the

on the north, by the Finnish

Finnish tribes again,

THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA

allowing but a single

one of the Slavo-Russian peoples to hold a

White Sea and the Arctic Ocean were Finnish;

those of the Baltic, Finnish or Scan-

those of the Black Sea were held

Finnish tribe that had imposed

In the East and North, the Slavs were not

Beyond began those

immense spaces that stretch away

depths of Central Asia, and even to the Pacific Ocean,

and other branches

THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA

To speak now only

of the Russia of Europe,

did the Slavo-Russians,

in the ninth of their

hand, the Slavo-Russians, very venturesome in

out over the vast plains that stretch

right in the midst

of the territory of the aboriginal tribes.

part of those tribes, and imposed

therefore, took place, a colonization of the soil

THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA

has disappeared from the

some scattered remnants

destined soon to disappear.

are to be foimd in fairly compact groups only

where the severity of the climate,

the barren character of the

and the desert steppes

medley, moreover, occupying only a very small

part of the Euro-

Russians formed an agglomeration which was

everywhere well-nigh entirely shut