Bibliography of Language Endangerment

Introduction

As you will appreciate the amount of literature on this subject is vast. So to help we have compiled a list of websites and also included bibliographys on Lanuguage Endangerment. To those that are interested in this field they will find them very useful. We have also included brief background information on the individuals or organizations that have compiled the bibiliographies.

Dr Peter Keegan Peter Keegan ( Waikato-Maniapoto, Ngati Porou) is a lecturer in Te Aratiatia (Mori Education) in the Faculty of Education at the University of Auckland. He graduated with his phD in Applied Linguistics at Victoria University of Wellington in 2003. He has worked as a reseacher for NZCER. Research interests include Mori word formation, Mori language and education.

Te Puni Kokiri Is the New Zealand Governments principal adviser on Mori issues, there work aims to improve outcomes for Mori and ensure the quality of government services delivered to Mori. Since Te Puni Kokiris inception in 1992 they have expanded into areas of service delivery and state sector leadership. Today they contribute to accelerating Mori Development in: Providing advice to Government Work with Mori to establish development targets Monitor and audit programmes delivered by Mori and mainstream agencies. Work with Government departments and agencies to improve outcomes for Mori.

Tasaku Tsunoda

Is a professor in the Graduate school of Humanities and Sociology at the University of Tokyo. He is a world authority on Australian aboriginal lingustics and researchers widely in the areas of language endangerment and language typology. Dr Tsunoda is also the author of UNESCOs Comprehensive Bibliograpy Language Endangerment. He received his phD from Monash University, Australia.

Websites

www.Morilanguage.info/mao_lang_abib.html

www.tpk.govt.nz/publications/subject/default.asp#language

www.tooyoo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/BibLe/

Articles and Reports R. Benton, Mori perceptions of school experiences and other influences on the maintanace and use of the Mori language, (Wellington: NZCER,1986) R. Benton, Mori and English at Pukekaraka, (Wellington: NZCER, 1981)

R. Benton, The Mori language in Porirua and District, NZCER Information Bulletin 6 (1982) I. Bruce and H. Whaanga, Creating a curriculum for indigenous and community languages: te reo Mori as an example, Jounal of Mori and Pacific Development, 3(1) 2002: 3-24 E. Douglas, Mori Language Nests (Khanga Reo) Their Impact on New Zealand Communities, Journal of Indigenous Studies 3(1) 13-31 A. Fleras, Te Khanga Reo: A Mori renewal program in New Zealand, Canadian Journal of Native Education 16 (2) 78-85 (1989) R. Harlow, On the role of literature and translation in language maintenance, Journal of Mori and Pacific Development, 3 (1) 2002: 73-87 B. Makoare, Ngati Whatua heru hapai : reo, (Whangarei: Te Runanga o NgatiWhatua, 2003) R. Nicholson and R. Garland, New Zealanders attitudes to the revitalization o the Mori language, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 12(5) (1991)

 J. Te Rito, Revitalising the Mori language some lessons from abroad, (Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Report, 1999) Te Runanga o Tranganui, Te rangahau reo o Tranga, (Gisborne: Te Rnanga o Tranganui, 2003)

Bibliography on Language Endangerment

Compiler: Tasaku Tsunoda
This page has 24111 visitors since 19 July 2002. Version of 1 July 2003

This bibliography deals with topics or works such as the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. general works on language endangerment; collections of papers on language endangerment; history of language endangerment; degree of language endangerment; language endangerment situations in specific areas of the world; 6. approaches to language endangerment; 7. language death; 8. external facors of language endangerment; 9. sociolinguistic aspects of language endangerment; 10. structural changes in endangered languages; 11. typology of speakers in language andangerment; 12. language revitalisation: language maintenance and language revival; 13. value of cultural and linguistic heritage; 14. language policy, language planning; 15. role and ethics of researchers, and; 16. method of documentation. This bibliography does not contain descriptions or grammars of individual languages, apart from a small number of exceptions.

Abbi, Anvita. 1995. Language contact and language restructuring: a case study of tribal languages in Central India. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 116:175-85. Abbi, Anvita. 2001. A manual of linguistic field work and structures of Indian languages. Muenchen: Lincom Europa.

Adelaar, Willem F.H. 1991. The endangered languages problem: South America. In Robert H. Robins and Eugenius M. Uhlenbeck (eds.), Endangered languages, 45-91. Oxford and New York: Berg. Adelaar, Willem F.H. 1998. The endangered situation of native languages in South America. In Kazuto Matsumura (ed.), Studies in endangered languages (ICHEL Linguistic Studies Vol.1), 1-15. Tokyo: Hituji Syobo. Adelaar, Willem F.H. 2001. Descriptive linguistics and the standardization of newly described languages. In Osamu Sakiyama (ed.), Lectures on endangered languages: 2 - from Kyoto conference 2000 - (Endangered Languages of the Pacific Rim, 2001, C002), 6980. (For distribution: elpr@utc.osaka-gu.ac.jp.) Adley-SantaMaria, Bernadette. 1997. White Mountain Apache language: issues in language shift, textbook development, and native speaker-university collaboration. In Jon Reyhner (ed.), Teaching indigenous languages, 129-143. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Aitchison, J. 1994. Pidgins, creoles, and changes. In R.E. Asher (Editor-in-Chief), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol.6:3181-86. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Allen, Shanley E.M. 1996. Aspects of argument structure acquisition in Inuktitut. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Almasude, Amar. 1999. The new mass media and the shaping of Amazigh identity. In Jon Reyhner et al. (eds.), Revitalizing indigenous languages, 117-128. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Alpher, Barry. 1993. Out-of-the-ordinary ways of using a language. In Michael Walsh and Colin Yallop (eds.), Language and culture in Aboriginal Australia, 97-106. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press. Amery, Rob. 1994. Heritage and second language programs. In Deborah Hartman and John Henderson (eds.), Aboriginal languages in education, 140-62. Alice Springs, Australia: IAD Press. Amery, Rob. 2000. Warrabarna Kaurna!: reclaiming an Australian language. Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger. Andersen, Roger (ed.). 1983. Pidginization and creolization as language acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Andersen, Roger W. 1989. The up and down staircase in secondary language development. In Nancy C. Dorian (ed.),

Investigating obsolescence[:] studies in language contraction and death, 385-394. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Anderson, Stephen R. 1977. On the mechanisms by which languages become ergative. In Charles N. Li (ed.), Mechanisms of syntactic change, 317-63. Austin and London: University of Texas Press. Anderson, T. 1971. Matanza. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Anderton, Alice. 1997. The Wordpath Show. In Jon Reyhner (ed.), Teaching indigenous languages, 222-227. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Annamalai, E. 1998. Language survival in India: challenges and responses. In Kazuto Matsumura (ed.), Studies in endangered languages (ICHEL Linguistic Studies Vol.1), 17-31. Tokyo: Hituji Syobo. Anonby, Stan J. 1999. Reversing language shift: Can Kwakwala be revived ? In Jon Reyhner et al. (eds.), Revitalizing indigenous languages, 33-52. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. [Anonymous] 1998. The Huaxyacac (Oaxaca) declaration on adult education for indigenous peoples. In Linda King (ed.) Reflecting visions[:] new perspectives on adult education of indigenous peoples, 217-21. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Education. [Anonymous. Gina Cantoni ?] 1996. College and universities summary. In Gina Cantoni (ed.), Stabilizing indigenous languages, 131-32. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. [Anonymous. Gina Cantoni ?] 1996. Journal of Navajo Education. In Gina Cantoni (ed.), Stabilizing indigenous languages, 232-33. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. [Anonymous] 1996. Public Law 101-477 - October. 30, 1990[,] Title I -- Native American Language Act. In Gina Cantoni (ed.), Stabilizing indigenous languages, 69-73. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Anthropology & Education Quarterly Vol.30, No.1, March 1999. Theme issue[:] Authenticity and identity: Lessons from indigenous language education. Guest editors: Rosemary Henze and Kathryn A. Davis. (This issue contains articles by Rosemary Henze and Kathryn A. Davis; David Welchman Gegeo and Karen An Watson-Gegeo; Beth Dementi-Leonard and Perry Gilmore; Leanne Hinton and Jocelyn Ahlers; Sam L. Noeau Warner; and Liliana Wong.)

Aoki, Haruo. 1972. Horobi yuku kotoba o otte (In pursuit of disappearing languages). Tokyo: Sanseido. Arnold, Bob; and William Demmert. (Native American Language Policy Group facilitators). 1996. Native American Language Policy Group summary. In Gina Cantoni (ed.), Stabilizing indigenous languages, 43-48. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Atknine, Victor. 1997. The Evenki language from the Yenisei to Sakhalin. In Hiroshi Shoji and Juha Janhunen (eds.) Northern minority languages[:] problems of survival, 109-21. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology. Auld, Glenn. 2002. The role of the computer in learning Ndjbbana. Language Learning & Teaching, Vol.6, No.2. (Available at: http://llt.msu.edu/vol6num2/auld/default.html) Austin, Peter. 1986. Structural change in language obsolescence: some eastern Australian examples. Australian Journal of Linguistics, Vol.6, No.2:201-30. Australian Advisory Council on Languages and Multicultural Education. 1990. The National Policy on Languages December 1987 March 1990. Report to The Ministry for Employment, Education and Training. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. n.d. Linguistic materials for fieldworkers in Australia. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. 2000. Guidelines for ethical research in Indigenous studies. Available at: http://www.aiatsis.gov.au/news.htm Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. 2002. Guidelines for ethical research in Indigenous studies. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. Australian Linguistic Society. 1990. Statement of ethics. Australian Linguistic Society Newsletter 1990, No.4:14. Baarda, Wendy. 1994. The impact of the bilingual program at Yuendumu, 1974 to 1993. In Deborah Hartman and John Henderson (eds.), Aboriginal languages in education, 204-213. Alice Springs, Australia: IAD Press. Baker, Colin. 1993. Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Baldauf, Richard, Jr.; and Allan Luke (eds.) 1990. Language planning and education in Australia and the South Pacific. Clevedon and Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters. Bamgbose, Ayo. 1993. Deprived, endangered, and dying languages. Diogenes (161) 41,1:19-25. Bar-Adon, Aaron. 1978. On the role of children in the revival of Hebrew. In William C. McCormack and Stephen A. Wurm (eds.), Approaches to language [:] anthropological issues, 531-52. The Hague: Mouton. Barnes, Janet. 1984. Evidentials in the Tuyuca verb. International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol.50, No.3:255-71. Batchelder, Ann; and Sherry Markel. 1997. An initial exploration of the Navajo Nations language and culture initiative. In Jon Reyhner (ed.), Teaching indigenous languages, 239-247. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Batibo, Herman. 1992. The fate of ethnic languages in Tanzania. In Matthias Brenzinger (ed.), Language death[:] factual and theoretical explorations with special reference to East Africa, 85-98. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Bauman, James A. 1980. A guide to issues in Indian language retention. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Bavin, Edith L. 1989. Some lexical and morphological changes in Warlpiri. In Nancy C. Dorian (ed.), Investigating obsolescence[:] studies in language contraction and death, 267-86. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bavin, Edith L. 1992. The acquisition of Warlpiri. In Dan Isaac Slobin (ed.), The crosslinguistic study of language acquisition, Vol.3:309-371. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Beeler, Madison S. 1977. The sources for Esselen: a critical review. In Kenneth Whistler et al. (eds.), Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, 37-45. Berkeley: Berkeley Linguistics Society, University of California. Bell, Jeanie (ed.) 1982. Language planning for Australian Aboriginal languages. Alice Springs, Australia: Institute for Aboriginal Development. Bell, Neil. 1982. Central Australian language and literature. In Jeanie Bell (ed.), Language planning for Australian Aboriginal languages, 7782. Alice Springs, Australia: Institute for Aboriginal Development.

Bennett, Ruth (ed.) 1997. It really works: cultural communication proficiency. In Jon Reyhner (ed.), Teaching indigenous languages, 158-205. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Bennett, Ruth; Pam Mattz; Silish Jackson; and Harold Campbell. 1999. The place of writing in preserving an oral language. In Jon Reyhner et al. (eds.), Revitalizing indigenous languages, 84-102. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Bergsland, Knut. 1998. Two cases of language endangerment: Aleut and Sami. In Kazuto Matsumura (ed.), Studies in endangered languages (ICHEL Linguistic Studies Vol.1), 13-47. Tokyo: Hituji Syobo. Berndt, Ronald M.; and Catherine H. Berndt. 1964. The world of first Australians. Sydney: Ure Smith. Bickerton, Derek. 1981. Roots of language. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers. (Japanese translation published in 1985, by Taishukan Publishing Company, Tokyo.) Bickerton, D. 1994. Origins and evolution of language. In R.E. Asher (Editor-in-Chief), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol.5:2881-83. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Bielenberg, Brian. 1999. Indigenous language codification: cultural effects. In Jon Reyhner et al. (eds.), Revitalizing indigenous languages, 103-112. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Bin-Sallik, Mary Ann; and Nan Smibert. 1998. Anangu teacher education: an integrated adult education programme. In Linda King (ed.) Reflecting visions[:] new perspectives on adult education of indigenous peoples, 89-110. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Education. Black, Paul. 1993. New uses for old languages. In Michael Walsh and Colin Yallop (eds.), Language and culture in Aboriginal Australia, 207-223. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press. Blake, B.J. 1979. A Kalkatungu grammar. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. Blake, Barry. 1987. Australian Aboriginal grammar. London: Croom Helm. Blake, Barry J. 1994. Case. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Blake, B. J. 1994. Australian languages. In R.E. Asher (Editor-inChief), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol.1:266-73. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Blake, Barry J.; and R.M.W. Dixon. 1991. Introduction. In R.M.W. Dixon and Barry J. Blake (eds.), The Handbook of Australian Languages, Vol.4, The Aboriginal language of Melbourne and other grammatical sketches, 1-28. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Blake, B.J.; and R.M.W. Dixon. n.d. [Guideline for] Handbook of Australian Languages. (Unpublished) Blanc, M. 1994. Bilingualism, societal. In R.E. Asher (Editor-inChief), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol.1:354-58. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Bloomfield, Leonard. 1927. Literate and illiterate speech. American Speech, Vol.11, No.10:432-39. Boas, Franz. 1917. Introductory. International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol.1, No.1:1-8. Bobaljik, Jonathan David; Rob Pensalfini; and Luciana Storto (eds.) 1996. Papers on language endangerment and the maintenance of linguistic diversity (The MIT Working papers in Linguistics Vol.28). Cambridge, MA: Department of Linguistics MIT. Bohnemeyer, Juergn; Christian Lehmann; and Elisabeth Verhoeven. 1994. Situation of the language. (Allgemeine-Vergleichende Grammatik, Arbeitspapier Nr.6). Universities of Bielefeld and Muenchen. Bord na Gaeilge. 1998. An Ghaeilge[:] the Irish language. Kilala, Ireland: Bord na Gaeilge. Bouquiax, Luc; and Jacqueline M. C. Thomas. 1992. Studying and describing unwritten languages. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Bourke, Colin J. 1980. Aboriginal bilingual education: a case study of schools in the Northern Territory and several states. Clayton, Victoria, Australia: Aboriginal Research Centre, Monash University. Bowden, Michael. 1994. The Arrernte language program at the Ntyarlke Unit of the Catholic High School[:] Alice Springs. In Deborah Hartman and John Henderson (eds.), Aboriginal languages in education, 66-77. Alice Springs, Australia: IAD Press. Bowe, Heather. 1997. Language issues relating to the Yorta Yorta land claim. Report submitted on behalf of the claimants in the Native Title

case: The members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community and The State of Victoria & Others in the Federal Court of Australia, VG 6001 of 1995. Bowe, Heather. 2002. Linguistics and the Yorta Yorta native title claim. In John Henderson and David Nash (eds.) Language in native title (Native Title Research Serries), 101-59. Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press. Bowe, Heather. n.d. Language issues relating to the Yorta Yorta land claim. Unpublishd report. Clayton, Australia: Monash Universtity. Heather, Bowe. Yorta Yorta Language Heritage. Bowe, Heather; and Stephen Morey. 1999. The Yorta Yorta (Bangerang) Language of the Murray-Goulburn including Yabula Yabula Canberra: Pacific Linguistics Bowe, Heather; Lois Peeler; and Sharon Atkinson. 1997. Yorta Yorta Language Heritage. Clayton, Australia: Monash University Department of Linguistics. Bowerman, Melissa. 1979. The acquisition of complex sentences. In Paul Fletcher and Michael Garman (eds.), Language acquisition: Studies in first language development, 285-305. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bradley, David. 1989. The disappearance of the Ugong in Thailand. In Nancy C. Dorian (ed.), Investigating obsolescence[:] studies in language contraction and death, 33-40. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bradley, David. 1998. Minority language policy and endangered languages in China and Southeast Asia. In Kazuto Matsumura (ed.), Studies in endangered languages (ICHEL Linguistic Studies Vol.1), 49-83. Tokyo: Hituji Syobo. Bradley, David. 2001. Language attitudes: the key factor in language maintenance. In Osamu Sakiyama (ed.), Lectures on endangered languages: 2 - from Kyoto conference 2000 - (Endangered Languages of the Pacific Rim, 2001, C002), 151-60. (For distribution: elpr@utc.osaka-gu.ac.jp.) Bradley, David; and Maya Bradley (eds.) 2002. Language endangerment and language maintenance. London: Curzon Press. Bradshaw, Joel. 1995. How and why do people change their languages ? Oceanic Linguistics, Vol.34, No.1:191-201.

Brenzinger, Matthias. 1992a. Lexical retention in language shift: Yaaku/Mukogodo-Maasai and Elmolo/Elmolo-Samburu. In Matthias Brenzinger (ed.), Language death[:] factual and theoretical explorations with special reference to East Africa, 213-54. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Brenzinger, Matthias. (ed.) 1992b. Language death[:] factual and theoretical explorations with special reference to East Africa. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Brenzinger, Matthias. 1997. Language contact and language displacement. In Florian Coulmas (ed.), The Handbook of Sociolinguistics, 273-84. Oxford: Blackwell. Brenzinger, Matthias. 1998a. Various ways of dying and different kinds of deaths: scholarly approaches to language endangerment in Africa. In Kazuto Matsumura (ed.), Studies in endangered languages (ICHEL Linguistic Studies Vol.1), 85-100. Tokyo: Hituji Syobo. Brenzinger, Matthias (ed.). 1998b. Endangered languages in Africa. Koeln: Ruediger Koeppe. Brenzinger, Matthias. 1999. Selection and ranking of endangered languages for documentation. (Paper presented at the expert panel Documentation of Endangered Languages, held at the University of Bielefeld, Germany, on the 13th and 14th January, 1999. Brenzinger, Matthias. 2001. Language endangerment through marginalization and globalization. In Osamu Sakiyama (eds.), Lectures on endangered langauges:2 - from Kyoto Conference 2000 - (ELPR Publication Series C002), 91-116. (For distribution: elpr@utc.osakagu.ac.jp.) Brenzinger, Matthias (ed.). Forthcoming. Language diversity endangered. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Brenzinger, Matthias; and Gerrit J. Dimmendaal. 1992. Social contexts of language death. In Matthias Brenzinger (ed.), Language death[:] factual and theoretical explorations with special reference to East Africa, 3-5. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Brenzinger, Matthias; Bernd Heine; and Gabriele Sommer. 1991. Language death in Africa. In Robert H. Robins and Eugenius M. Uhlenbeck (eds.), Endangered languages, 19-44. Oxford and New York: Berg. Brown, Penelope; and Stephen C. Levinson. 1992. Left and right in Tenejapan: Investigating a linguistic and conceptual gap. Zeitschrift fr Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationforschung Vol.45, No.6:590-611.

Brown, Roger; and Albert Gilman. 1960. The pronouns of power and solidarity. In Thomas A. Sebeok (ed.), Style in language, 253-76. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Bucknall, Gwen and John. 1994. We want to keep that language : What is happening with Aboriginal languages in the Aboriginal Independent Community Schools in Western Australia. In Deborah Hartman and John Henderson (eds.), Aboriginal languages in education, pp.257-75. Alice Springs, Australia: IAD Press. Bunte, Pamela A.; and Martha B. Kendall. 1981. When is an error not an error ? Notes on language contact and the question of interference. Anthropological Linguistics, Vol.23, No.1:1-7. Burger, Julian. 1998. Indigenous peoples: progress in the international recognition of human rights and the role of education. In Linda King (ed.) Reflecting visions[:] new perspectives on adult education of indigenous peoples, 11-21. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Education. Burnaby, Barbara. 1996. Aboriginal language maintenance, development, and enhancement: a review of literature. In Gina Cantoni (ed.), Stabilizing indigenous languages, 22-40. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Burnaby, Barbara. 1997. Personal thoughts on indigenous language stabilization. In Jon Reyhner (ed.), Teaching indigenous languages, 292-300. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Burnaby, Barbara; and Jon Reyhner (eds.) 2002. Indigenous languages across the community. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Buszard-Welcher, Laura. n.d. Can the web help save my language ? (Available at: http://www.potawatomilang.org/Reference/endlgsweb4.htm) Bynon, Theodora. 1977. Historical linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University. Calvet, Louis-Jean. 1998. Language wars and linguistic politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Campbell, George L. 2000. Maori. In his Compendium of the worlds languages (Second edition), 1077-80. London: Routledge. Campbell, Lyle. 1994. Language death. In R.E. Asher et al. (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vo.4:1960-68. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Campbell, Lyle; and Martha C. Muntzel. 1989. The structural consequences of language death. In Nancy C. Dorian (ed.), Investigating obsolescence[:] studies in language contraction and death, 181-96. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Canagarajah, Suresh (ed.) 2002. Special issue: Celebrating local knowledge on language and education (Journal of Language , Identity and Education Vol.1, No.4). Cantoni, Gina. 1996a. Introduction. In Gina Cantoni (ed.), Stabilizing indigenous languages, vi-xi. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Cantoni, Gina (ed.) 1996b. Stabilizing indigenous languages. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Cantoni, Gina P. 1997. Keeping minority languages alive: the schools responsibility. In Jon Reyhner (ed.), Teaching indigenous languages, 19. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Cantoni, Gina P. 1999. Using TPR-storytelling to develop fluency and literacy in Native American languages. In Jon Reyhner et al. (eds.), Revitalizing indigenous languages, 53-58. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Capell, A. n.d. Methods and materials for recording Australian languages. Sydney: Department of Anthropology, University of Sydney. Capell, A.; and H.E. Hinch. 1970. Maung grammar, texts and vocabulary. The Hague and Paris: Mouton. Carpenter, Veronica. 1997. Teaching children to unlearn the sounds of English. In Jon Reyhner (ed.), Teaching indigenous languages, 3139. Flagstaff, Arizona: Center for Excellence in Education, Northern Arizona University. Cataldi, Lee. 1990. Language maintenance and bilingual education at Lajamanu School. In C. Walton and W. Eggington (eds.), Language: maintenance, power and education in Australian Aboriginal contexts, 83-87. Darwin: Northern Territory University Press. Catter, Teresa Valiente. 1998. Youth and adult education and literacy for indigenous peoples in Latin America[:] Guatemala, Honduras, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. In Linda King (ed.) Reflecting visions[:] new perspectives on adult education of indigenous peoples, 53-67. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Education.

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Annotated Working Bibliography on Maori Language Revitalization (3rd version, 15 December 2004)
Introduction
This bibliography lists what I currently regard as the key literature on Maori Language revitalization. There isn't a definitive account. The documentation cited derives from a variety of sources, both published and unpublished, some of which is not readily available to those outside of New Zealand. At present there are 11 annotated references. When further good material becomes available it will be added to the list. Those seriously interested should follow up the references therein. Please note I am unable to provide copies of any the literature cited here. It is worthwhile to familiarize oneself with the general literature on endangered languages and bilingual/immersion education (this is often an integral part of language revitalization efforts). Eventually, some starting points for these areas will be listed. The bibliography ends by providing a brief summary of the literature and noting the gaps. Ideally, I'd like any feedback and critique. The idea of putting up working versions and continuing with revisions is to keep up to date with the relevant literature.

Key Literature on Maori Language Revitalization

(1) Fishman. J. (1991). Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations of assistance to threatened languages.
An important academic book by perhaps the leading scholar on language revitalization. Fishman proposes a model whereby languages are ranked on scale (i.e stages) ranging from stage eight (language severely endangered, e.g. few remaining elderly speakers) to stage one (language well supported in education, government, media, communities etc. etc.) The book details 10 languages as case studies of endangered languages at various stages according to the model (in many cases there is overlap between the stages). It includes a chapter on Maori.

The account of Maori revitalization is as accurate as can be expected given the literature available at that time. There were many activities not mentioned in the text, e.g. groups and individuals based at educational institutions and settings (especially universities), others were based on Maori organizations. Much has changed since then and in retrospect many in New Zealand probably now have a better understanding of what actually happened and why. This book was widely read in New Zealand. My impression is that some have misinterpreted the book, others considering it to be the final word or the only worthy explanation of language revitalization. It is important, however, models are almost always simplifications of reality and many are extensively revised or are sometimes discarded. Fishman's model has its critics and there are alternative models and viewpoints by other authors (see Baker, 2001:81-83; Crystal, 2000; Spolsky, 2004, chapter 12). In summary, an extremely important book which has made an enormous contribution to the understanding of language revitalization. Fishman's writing is sometimes dense and his ideas or messages are not always clear. A follow up volume has been produced (see entry 2) i.e. Fishman (2001).

(2) Fishman, J. (Ed.) (2001). Can threatened languages be saved? Reversing language shift, revisited: A 21st century perspective.
This volume contains updates on languages mentioned in the first volume and discusses others previously not covered. Local or USA based experts provide updates on a selection of languages with Fishman providing an overview and revisiting the framework proposed in the original volume. The chapter on Maori was written by Richard and Nena Benton who know the New Zealand situation intimately and have made an enormous contribution to Maori language and education through research, writings and much behind the scenes activity. The Bentons conclude that under Fishman's framework Maori has only made modest gains in the last decade. Clearly there is much than could be said about Maori in the last ten years (and no doubt other languages) than

a chapter space allows. Fortunately, the Bentons provide details in other publications(see entries 3 and 5). My impression is that a different picture emerges for some of the larger (in terms of numbers of speakers) endangered 'European' languages such as Basque, Catalan, and Canadian French (Hebrew, as the volume argues is a rather unique case). These languages may fit Fishman's framework better than the others and their chances of survival are much greater. Welsh is not mentioned in either volume, however, under a case study approach not every language of interest can be included. Fishman's commentary on the case studies and reversing language shift provides further clarification and a re-stating of positions given in the first volume. Again, I find some of Fishman's writing dense and not easy to understand. Perhaps the book needs to be read a number of times or may be more readily understood by those familiar with the associated literature. In summary, another important book which should be studied in conjunction with the previous volume. Contains insights and challenges for both scholars and activists battling daily to revive or maintain their own languages. My major gripe, apart from sections I consider to be dense, with both Fishman volumes is that despite being gems they are lumbered with some of the most boring covers ever.

(3) Benton, R. A. (1991).The Maori language: Dying or reviving?

This paper (44 pages) provides an overview of the now famous NZCER (New Zealand Council for Educational Research) Sociolinguistic Survey of Maori Language Use undertaken in the 1970s. It is important because it was first research evidence confirming that the Maori language was in a perilous state (i.e. in rapid decline) and would soon disappear unless drastic measures were urgently undertaken. The survey focused on rural Maori communities and demonstrated that there were only several isolated places in the North Island where Maori was still being used by a significant number of the local Maori community. Much has changed since the 1970s and the paper is largely of historic value. Should still be read.

This paper appeared in 1991 and was reprinted by NZCER in 1997.

(4) Spolsky, Bernard. (2003) Reassessing Maori regeneration. Language in Society32 (4), 553-578.
A key paper by world renown academic who has made important contributions to bilingual education, language testing, language policy, sociolinguistics as well as language revitalization. The paper argues that Maori language revitalization should not be understood as language loss followed by revitalization activities, rather it is the result of a long process of negotiation between the indigenous Maori and European Settlers. Spolsky was domiciled in New Zealand for many years and has kept in touch with developments. Well known in New Zealand for his 1987 Report on Maori Bilingual Education which highlighted the need for increased and diversified teacher training to supply the anticipated growth in programmes. The provision of good teachers for Maori-medium programmes is still a major problem. Finally, Spolsky's recent (2004) book on language policy is relevant and well worth reading.

(5) Benton, N. B. E. and R. A. Benton (1999). Revitalizing the Maori language, Unpublished Consultants Report to the Maori Development Education Commission.
An eclectic document (128 pages, almost exclusively text) that ranges over many issues concerning Maori language and Maori language revitalization. Written as a report to a now defunct commission it assumes its audience is already highly familiar with the New Zealand scene. The Bentons suggest future directions for Maori language revitalization efforts which on occasions conflict with current thinking and practices (especially the role of Maori in bilingual/immersion education). Some may not agree with the authors, however this report is clearly very important and needs to be read by all seriously interested in this topic. To my knowledge this report can only be obtained via a request under the Official Information Act from Te Puni Kokiri.

(6) Te Puni Kokiri (Ministry of Maori Development)(2002). The Health of the Maori language in 2001.
A key government publication which contains summaries and overviews of recent research (much of which Te Puni Kokiri themselves commissioned) into Maori language use and attitudes to Maori language. It includes comments on the results of the language question appearing in New Zealand's 1996 and 2001 national censuses. Prior to 1996 there were no language questions any previous census. If you are interested in overviews then this publication is useful. On the other hand if you are interested in detailed analyses and their interpretations you will be disappointed. There is much scope for further research on these data, for example on iwi (tribes) Maori language usage (few tribes have sizable numbers of Maori speakers). Most Te Puni Kokiri publications can be downloaded in PDF format from their web site.

(7) King, J. (2001). Te Kohanga Reo: Maori language revitalization. in L. Hinton and K. Hale. (eds.) The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice. San Diego, Academic Press, pages 119-128.
This chapter is probably the most recent update (of substance) on kohanga reo (Maori language nest or centre for pre-school children). It appears in an excellent volume that provides details on progress of language revitalization efforts particularly amongst Native Americans/indigenous groups in North America/Hawai'i. The efforts to revitalize Hawai'ian are especially relevant. Maori and Hawaiian(s) share very similar histories, both linguistically and in terms of their not always pleasant experiences of colonization. The kohanga reo model is well known and often cited in the indigenous language revitalization literature. There is not a great deal of up to date literature on kohanga reo.

(8) Reedy, T. (2000). Te Reo Maori: The past 20 years and looking forward. Oceanic Linguistics 39(1): 157-169.
An important overview (although rather brief) with observations on changes taking place by a well-respected Maori academic. Tamati Reedy is a native speaker of Maori who has had a long involvement in Maori language revitalization activities. There is not a lot of good literature on this topic by Maori authors.

(9) Grin, F. and Vaillancourt, F. (1998).Language Revitalisation Policy: An

Analytical Survey. Theoretical Framework, Policy Experience and Application to Te Reo Maori. Wellington, New Zealand/Aotearoa.
This report (238 pages long) was commissioned New Zealand's Treasury (a government department) in attempt to gain an economist's perspective on language revitalization. Grin and Vaillancourt are economists who have attempted elsewhere to quantify and explain language revitalization by using economic frameworks and modeling. Their work is well known in some circles, but not by most New Zealanders. The report is divided into three sections, an analytical framework, policy experience, and implications for Maori. Of particular interest is the commentary on effective language policies, from economic perspectives. Examples are mostly from language minorities which seem to be increasing (in terms of numbers of speakers), i.e., Welsh and Basque. The report finishes by suggesting implications of policies aimed at the revitalization of Maori. It concludes that Maori has the potential for revitalization, but much (policy) work is required and that there is a need for affective and regular measures of policy implementation. Some of policy approaches suggested by the authors, in particular a reliance on Maori-medium education to produce large numbers of Maori speakers will be regarded as controversial by many. In my opinion the report's conclusions need to be treated with caution given that much more detailed data is now available.

As Fishman's revisitation has shown, there is much that can be gained by re-examining case studies in the light of new data and further input from other expertise. My hope is that the authors undertake a further study of Maori between 2005 and 2010.

(10) Waitangi Tribunal (1996). Te reo Maori report: Wai 11. Wellington, GP Publications.
This report (51 pages) details the 1986 claim to the Waitangi Tribunal to have Maori recognized as a taonga 'treasure' and therefore guaranteed government protection under the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi signed between Maori and the (British) Crown. The Tribunal found in support of the claimants and its subsequent recommendations to the government of the day lead directly to the establishment of the Maori Language Commission and a commitment from the government to support Maori language revitalization initiatives. Clearly a major milestone and turning point in the history of Maori language revitalization. You don't need to read this report, but should be aware of its existence.

(11) Christensen, I. (2003). Proficiency, use and transmission: Maori language revitalisation. New Zealand Studies in Applied Linguistics 9, (1):41-61.
This journal article examines recent attempts to assess Maori Language proficiency, use and transmission and then proposes a goal for Maori language revitalization based in these three attributes. The author has had a long involvement in this area and is well respected in New Zealand. Christensen completed a PhD thesis on Maori Language Revitalization in 2001 (through Massey University, Palmerston North). I'd certainly like to add it to this bibliography but haven't read it yet as it is unavailable in electronic form.

Summary
The literature cited consists of book chapters, journal articles, and government commissioned reports. It is mainly written by academics, of which three are

prominent, i.e. Benton, Fishman, and Spolsky. There is little by Maori authors and those involved (especially the leaders) in Maori language revitalization efforts. The general consensus appears to be that although Maori revitalization efforts have resulted in dramatic gains over the last three decades the future survival of the language is by no means assured. There is disagreement in the literature on where efforts should be focused in order to ensure the revitalization of Maori. There are many gaps in the literature, for example Maori-medium education, the media, variation in language use amongst iwi (tribes), language planning, and viewpoints from those outside of academia and government organizations. Further critique, analyses, and comparisons of the existing literature are required and along with further (and independent) analyses of the recently collected data.

Notes
1 The term 'revitalize' is sometimes written as 'revitalise'. I generally use the -ize form (it seems to be the most common) except when quoting the title of a publication. 2 Some authors prefer not to use the term 'revitalize'. Alternatives are used, including 'regeneration', 'restoration', 'reversing language shift', 'language revival', or even 'language revernacularisation'. Other writers use these alternatives to distinguish between (language) situations. I tend to use 'revitalize', but don't really have strong views on the suitability of alternative terms. Terminology often needs to be defined. Especially if terms are being used in non-standard ways. 3 The term Maori can refer to either the people or language of the indigenous inhabitants of New Zealand. 4 Some authors (mainly academics) use Aotearoa/New Zealand or New Zealand/Aotearoa, or just Aotearoa when referring to the country commonly known in the English speaking world as New Zealand.

References Baker, C. (2001). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism (3rd Edition). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Benton, R. A. (1991b). The Maori language: Dying or reviving? Honolulu: East West Center. (Reprinted by New Zealand Council for Educational Research in 1997). Benton, N. B. E. and R. A. Benton (1999). Revitalizing the Maori language, Unpublished Consultants Report to the Maori Development Education Commission.

Christensen, I. (2003). Proficiency, use and transmission: Maori language revitalisation. New Zealand Studies in Applied Linguistics 9, (1):41-61. Christensen, I. (2001). Ko te Whare Whakamana: Te Whakaora i te reo Mori. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. Crystal, D. (2002). Language Death. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fishman, J. A. (1991). Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations of assistance to threatened languages. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Fishman, J. A., (Ed.) (2001). Can threatened languages be saved? Reversing language shift, revisited: A 21st century perspective. Multilingual Matters. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Grin, F. and Vaillancourt, F. (1998). Language Revitalisation Policy: An Analytical Survey.Theoretical Framework, Policy Experience and Application to Te Reo Maori. Report to the Treasury, Wellington, New Zealand/Aotearoa. King, J. (2001). Te Kohanga Reo: Maori language revitalization. in L. Hinton and K. Hale.(eds)The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice. San Diego:Academic Press. pp. 119-128. Reedy, T. (2000). Te Reo Maori: The past 20 years and looking forward. Oceanic Linguistics 39(1): 157-169. Spolsky, B. (2004) Language Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Spolsky, B. (2003) Reassessing Maori regeneration. Language in Society 32(4), 553578. Spolsky, B. (1987). Report on Maori - English bilingual education. Wellington: Department of Education, New Zealand. Te Puni Kokiri (Ministry of Maori Development) (2002). The Health of the Maori language in 2001. Wellington, Maori Language Monitoring Team, Te Puni Kokiri (Ministry of Maori Development). Waitangi Tribunal (1996). Te reo Maori report: Wai 11. Wellington, GP Publications.
Last updated 15 December 2004 This page is Copyright Peter J Keegan, PhD, 2003-2005