Urban Settlements Size & Cooking Energy An Appraisal of Andhra Pradesh

Geetha Reddy Anant

Introduction: Cooking Fuel Choices by households are reflections of fuel availability, personal capacities and preferences and project the prospective demand for particular energy carriers. Studies on these dimensions of household energy consumption commenced in the 1980s and have since expanded in scope. Beginning with pricing and subsidies, they expanded to include supplydemand projections, transitions, substitutions, impact on user health and clean fuel technology propagation. Two very important concerns are the need emphasis on clean fuel use vis-s vis solid fuels to reduce burden of disease, and energy consumption reduction mechanisms. This necessitates the understanding of the nuances of cooking energy choices, preferences, transitions, substitutions as settlements sizes-energy choice inter-relation, and as products of household incomes. In the developing countries/ regions in particular, the use of multiple fuels due to insecure supply system and individual socio-economic disposition, persists. The nature of this trend is appraised with respect to the state of Andhra Pradesh in India. The focus is on fuel choice and settlement size on the one hand, and the income profile of select user households and the income threshold for fuels, on the other. The data is essentially drawn from the Census of India, complemented by a survey of 285 households (0.4% sample) from different designated size classes of settlements, and data previously collected for another study on household energy consumption in metropolitan Hyderabad. Significance of Fuel Choice:

Fuel choice is a factor of resource availability, supply adequacy, price parity, subsidy, and consumer awareness, as well as inter-sectoral demand related competition. The kind of fuel used reflects the capacity of the system to support transition to clean commercial Table 1: Andhra Pradesh: Fuel Choice of Urban Households Commercial Regions Andhra Pradesh Telangana Rayalaseema Coastal Andhra TelanganaMinus Hyderabad 20.9 40.4 23.4 Source: Computed form Census of India 2001 5.3 LPG 21.3 29 15.8 13.7 Kerosene 46.1 48.8 47.2 35.3 non-commercial Fuelwoo d 27.8 17.4 32.1 47.2 Others 4.2 4.8 20.7 3.8

fuels by making them increasingly available and accessible. It has implications for the quality of life of user household in terms of both active and passive users (all inhalers). The rural households are almost totally traditional or solid fuel consumers with almost nil assessment - at best they can be approximations projected with the help of case studies. In any case with the escalating urbanisation, the demand for commercial fuels is growing and the pollution implications here can be far greater than in rural areas that essentially have open-to-sky kitchens. The complexities of energy-development relations are yet to gain clarity (Smil and Knowland -1980) but persistent inquiries alone can make inroads into such information. In urban India in general the proportion of commercial energy consumer households stands at 51 per cent, ranging from less than 10 percent in Orissa and Bihar states to over 51 percent in Maharashtra and

Gujarat states (reddy, mjit, P.70). In Andhra Pradesh the share of commercial energy users in urban settlements increased from just around 20 percent in 1991 to 67.4 per cent in 2001 - ranging from 77.8 in Telangana (61.3 if Hyderabad is deleated), 63 in Rayalaseema and 49 percent in Coastal Andhra. While policy implications (for distribution and pricing) have a strong bearing, the impact of agricultural output and waste generation, the prevalence of forests and coal fields have their own typical effects. Settlement Size and Fuel Choices: The size of settlements have a significant bearing and that is because of the neglect of small and medium towns in terms of infrastructure amenities and services, vis a vis the metro-cities. It is a universal fact that rural households are essentially non-commercial energy dependent, given the near absence of commercial fuel supply in the settlements. Table 2: Andhra Pradesh: Cooking Fuel Choice of Households (2001) Size Class of Households (000) Using Different Cooking Fuels Settlements (No.settlemen ts) Hyd I (76) II(43) III(47) IV(22) V(21) VI (2) LPG 298 1511 230 134 29 20 0.3 2222.3(47. Kerosene 279 763 68 41 8 9 0.1 Fuelwood 24 667 263 169 37 29 1 Other s 1 95 27 21 3 2 0.6 Total Households 602 3036 588 365 77 60 2 4730 (100)

All 3) 1168.1 1190 149.6 Source: Obtained and computed, from Census of India, 2001 The elements of choice and compulsions determine these trends and patterns. Developing countries offer a wide choice in all rural areas and numerous urban areas with respect to traditional and free fuels, but with respect to commercial fuels purchasing power at the individual level and distribution at the institutional and marketing level constitute serious

impediments. The tendency for larger settlements to consume more commercial fuels exists. An appraisal of the share of households using different energy sources shows that of the main commercial fuels LPG and Kerosene, LPG dips off, becoming unsustainable in settlements with less than 25,000 population, and kerosene displays a very sharp drop at the 50,000 population size settlements itself. Fuelwoods significance increasing in the second size class, its use in the class I settlements (100,000 population) by a substantial proportion of households persists. It is interesting to note the intersection

A.P.: Fuel Choice by Size Class of Settlem ents -2001 60

S iz e C l ass of S ettl ements

of Fuelwood with Kerosene at the 100,000 population size, while despite being a more superior fuel, LPG intersects at the second size class of 60,000. This is probably on account of the use of back-up fuels and combinations rather than inter-fuel substitution apart from availability of LPG under deepam scheme to the low income group households. The other energy sources essentially agricultural residues and wood-droppings, gain significance in the last size class of less than 10,000 population where the number of even kerosene users drops. Respondents in some of the household energy studies attributed this tendency to the availability of free fuels (agro-waste and collected twigs). There is need and scope to obtain more accurate energy threshold information from a wider data base and improved precision tools. Commercial and Non-Commercial Fuels

The inverse relation between the commercial and non-commercial fuel users, as also between the Size class of settlements and the commercial fuels/ noncommercial fuels is
Andhra Pradesh:Commercial-Non-Commercial Cooking Fuel Use (2001)
1 20

Percent Households

1 00 80 60 40 20 0

Series2 Series1

Metro

II

III

IV

VI

Size CLass of Urban Settlements

evident in the graph given above. The disparity between metropolitan Hyderabad and the smallest urban settlements signifies the latters marginal status in terms of access and affordability. This trend is not unexpected. Commercial Energy LPG, Kerosene: An appraisal of all the urban settlements is attempted here to examine the possible relation between the size of settlements, percent of households using particular fuels for the three most widely used energy sources LPG Kerosene and Fuelwood. The three commercial energy sources in use in India are LPG, Kerosene and to a very limited extent electricity. Electricity is used almost exclusively for food processing, storage and cooling. Hence its direct use for active cooking is extremely limited and hence not taken into consideration here.

Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Commercial Energy Users (2001)

Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of LPG Users (2001)

Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Kerosine Users (2001)

60
Class I

% of Households

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50
Class VI Class IV Class III

60 50 40 30 20 10 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Class V Class III

% of Households

Class II

% of Households

50
Class II

40
Class III

Class IV

30
Class IV

20
Class V

Class V

10
Class VI

Class I

0 0 10 20 30 40 50

No. of cities

No. of Cities

No. of Cities

The proportion of households using commercial energy across all the six settlement sizes shows over 60 percent in the highest size class, 40 to 70 percent in the second category, 30 to 60 percent in the third category. The fourth size class displays a mix of the patterns common to the first three and last two, and the proportions range from 10 to 65 per cent. It can be considered a transition size. Commercial energy consumer households in the last two size classes constitute less than 35 percent of the total households. As compared to the aggregate figures of combined commercial fuel

consumer households, LPG consumers, within each size class the more populous settlements tend to have higher proportion of LPG consumers as substantiated by the slight (25 0) gradient in the distribution from Y to X axis in all the categories. This underscores the earlier statement of demand threshold. Compared to LPG, kerosene does not entail heavy upfront costs. Both the cooking stoves and the fuel are easily available in the market unlike LPG. Hence its use as main fuel and as back-up fuel persists. The distribution of kerosene users in each of the urban settlement is more clearly displayed in the graph, than in the case of LPG. The class I towns at one end and the class five and six towns at the other end seem to form their own group/ cluster, leaving the class II and III to form their own cluster. Traditional Fuels (Non-Commercial Fuels) Use: The use of traditional fuels is on account of non-availability or inaccessibility of commercial fuels due to affordability handicaps, or due to apprehension of using something non-accustomed to, and also because of free availability of traditional fuels. The possibility of the last is highest in rural settlements and small towns located in close proximity to agricultural regions and forest areas. In the urban areas the traditional and freely available energy sources include wood, twigs, charcoal, cow-dung cakes, etc in

Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Non-Commercial Energy users (2001)

Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Firewood users (2001)

100
Class II

100

Class I

% of Households

% of Households

80
Class III

80

Class II

60
Class IV

60

Class III

Class IV

40
Class V

40
Class V

20
Class VI

20
Class VI

0 0 10 20 30 40 50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

No.of Cities

No. of Cities

that order. Not all are freely available, but they are all freely accessible, and can be purchased in small quantities according to the purse strings of the household. A comparison of the non-commercial or traditional fuel users with the users of only fuelwood shows no difference because of the predominance of fuelwood among the various traditional energy sources. It was noted in earlier studies on household energy preferences in urban (Reddy 1997) and metropolitan (Alam et al 1995) areas that culture and menu specificity also impacts fuelwood consumption for cooking. But gradually, this is declining, with the changing work structure of household members and mushrooming of traditional food outlets (who prepare and market food cooked on fuelwood stoves in fact specific woods alone are used). The end-use of fuelwood used to be water heating across all income groups but has been gradually relegated to the low income households, the affluent having switched to electrical appliances for water heating, electric stoves and LPG for cooking and electricity for lighting. The incidence of fuelwood use in higher order settlements is o account of the low income dwellers, the slum dwellers and the sub-urban residents who constitute household of the settlements but whose lifestyles are still rural in nature.

Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Commercial Energy Users (2001)

Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Non-Commercial Energy users (2001)

100
Class II
Class II

% of Households

% of Households

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50
Class VI Class IV Class III

80
Class III

60
Class IV

40
Class V

Class V

20
Class VI

0 0 10 20 30 40 50

No. of cities

No.of Cities

Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of LPG Users (2001)

Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Kerosine Users (2001)

Andhra Pradesh: Distribution of Firewood users (2001)

100

Class I

50

% of Households

Class II

% of Households

% of Households

60 50 40 30 20 10 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Class V Class III

Class II

80

Class II

40
Class III

60

Class III

Class IV

30
Class IV

Class IV

20
Class V

40
Class V

10
Class VI

20 Class I
Class VI

0 0 10 20 30 40 50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

No. of Cities

No. of Cities

No. of Cities

A clear distinction is evident between the proportion of specific cooking fuel users (traditional versus commercial fuels) across the different size classes of settlements, with the prominence of the lower order and higher order settlements highlighting the higher share of traditional - lower order solid fuels and commercial modern higher order fuels respectively. The middle order settlements in both cases project the transition stage of household and settlements alike halfway up the energy transition ladder. The difference between the cooking energy consumption patterns of metropolitan households (settlements) and the non-metropolitan households (settlements) is very high. In order to obtain a clearer picture of the other settlements the few metropolitan settlements have been deleted from the graph. Two factors are to be noted the first is with respect to the socioeconomic factors impacting fuel choice, and the second is the prospective demand for commercial energy from the household sector together with its implications for subsidies, healthcare, and supply preparedness. Socio-economic Determinants of Fuel Choice: Households in most developing countries use a wide range of cooking fuels and the transition to clean commercial fuels is yet to take place, with

saturation levels still at 30 (in African countries) and 60 (Asian and Latin American countries). Most of even those households that have commenced commercial fuel use depend on back-up fuels because of supply as well as purchasing power uncertainties. As a result one finds widespread and a range of fuel mixes. LPG-elctricity, LPG-kerosene, LPG-kerosene-fuelwood, LPG kerosene-charcoal, charcoal, kerosene-fuelwood, cakes, kerosene wood charcoal, fuelwoodcakes, fuelwood-cow-dung shavings-cowdung

fuelwood-agricultural residue, as the more common combinations. Among these only the electricity-LPG combination users may be stated to be energy secure households. The rest of the households are subjected and vulnerable to fuel supply and pricing fluctuations. In India in general and Andhra Pradesh (Hyderabad) in particular, income, education, culture wield equal influence on fuel choice, fuel-mixes, and quantum cooking fuel consumed, as per the 1994 and 1997 studies. This is still applicable, but to a declining degree. Awareness and policy interventions through pricing, subsidies, free supplies have actually jumped the energyladder trends facilitating the switch from fuelwood to LPG. Thus while the natural change in household energy choice and use is evident because of increasing affordability and availability, but facilitating factors are important push-factors enabling the low income households to more ahead. As a result one finds households that use exclusive fuels as well as fuel-mixes. Exclusive fuel users are not too many, and are essentially metropolitan households with assured commercial energy supplies. They constitute less than one-third of the all households. A survey of 265 households across small and medium towns (geeta - 2002) projected the predominance of LPG as main fuel (32 % households) followed by fuelwood and kerosene (12 % households). A hefty 51.7 percent of the sample households use fuel-mixes and that is mainly due to supply uncertainties (as stated earlier) with respect to higher income households, and affordability and supply uncertainty among low income households. Less than two percent respondents entertain fuel mixes and that is on account of menu specificity and special dishes.

An examination of the cooking fuel security position of the urban households projects that 58 percent households face severe, 29 percent households medium and 13 percent households experience mild fuel insecurity. The tendency to switch to solid fuels and the frequency of such switch-overs (also called inter-fuel substitution) adversely affects the health of the active users.

Andhra Pradesh: Fuel Use in Small and Medium Towns (2001)

Andhra Pradesh: Main Fuel of Households Across Income Groups, Field Survey, 2000
1 00 80 60 40 20 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Fuelwoo d Agri. Residue Kerosen e LPG

Incom e Decile

The above graphs show fuel use trends across the income decile. Both LPG and fuelwood project income-impact, with the former displaying a sharp rise at the 8th income level i.e. it can be inferred that a per capita monthly income of Rs. 800 constitutes the threshold supporting LPG use the cleanest of available fuels. Similarly, with respect to the most polluting of the available fuels fuelwood use projects a sharp fall at the second income group but again experiences a rise in the fourth group. This trend can be better

10

understood when one examines it vis a vis the fuel mix of kerosene-fuelwood. In the case of metropolitan Hyderabad, ( geetha MJTG) lpg threshold is the 6th income group (Rs.550 per capita per month) and the place of fuelwood is marginal, but kerosene use declines from the seventh income group or Rs. 650 per capita per month. The evident use of LPG in the income groups below this threshold, is on account in both metropolitan Hyderabad and in other size classes is on account of the deepam scheme and continued subsidy support to target groups and ease out policy to other low income households, despite world bank directions to withdraw. The economic burden incurred through this stand is amply compensated by the man-hours gained through declining burden of disease in clean fuel user households. Although a scientific account of the man hours is not available, it emanates from a logical deduction. The implications of urbanisation in terms of population increases and lifestyle changes impact the energy consumption patterns in all developing countries, because of the entailed fuel supply and accessibility imbalances.
A.P.: Percent Population by Size Class of Settlem ents-1981
1 00 80 60 40 20 0 1 2 3 4 5 S iz e C lass of S et tlements 6 No.settle % pop

A.P.:Percent Population by Size Class of Settlements -1991

A.P.:Percent Population by Size Class ofSettlem ents -2001

S iz e C lass of S ettlements

With the number of households in progressively larger settlements escalating - expected to reach 70 percent by around 2030, the demand for commercial fuels is expected to increase rapidly. Some studies identify low household incomes, locational disadvantages and high delivery thresholds as variables defining the accessibility and availability limitations. The inclination in most rural - and low-income urban households is therefore would be towards traditional and solid fuel use. Conclusion: References:

11

Geetha Reddy Anant (2004): Andhra Pradesh: Nuances of Cooking Fuels Use in Small and Medium Towns, in Review Projector (India) Vol.7 No.1, March 2004, PP.28-36 ------------------------(2002): Urban Household Energy Consumption: A Case Study of Hyderabad, India, in Malaysian Journal of Tropical Geography , Vol 32, No.1 & 2, Pp 69-80 ------------------------(2002): Indoor Air Pollution, World Bank, ESMAP, TERI, unpublished ----------------------(): Women and Household Energy:

Simpson A Vesteinsson Orri, Adderley Paul W. & Thomas H.McGovern: (2003): Fuel Resource Utilisation in Landscapes of Settlement, Elsevier Pundo M.O. & Frazer G C G(2006): Multinational Logit Analysis of Households Cooking Fuel Choice in Kenya: The Case of Kisumu Heltberg,Rasmus ()Factors Determining Household Fuel Choice in Guatemala, The World Bank Campbell John R. (1994): Cooking Energy and Fuel in Dar es Salaam, Issue 32 Brinda Visvanathan & Kavi Kumar K.S. (2005): Cooking Fuel Patterns in India 19932003, in The Energy Policy, Vol. 33, Issue 8, No. May 2005, Pp1021

12

1026 Dsa Antonette & K.V.Narasimha Murthu (): Clean Cooking Fuel Options for India: the case of LPG, Regional Energy Initiatice, Asia International emergy Boadi K. Owsu & Kuitunen M. (2006): Factors Affecting the Choice of Cooking Fuel, Cooking Place Respiratory Health in Accra Metropolitan Area, Ghana Farsi, Mehdi, Filippini Massimo, Pachauri, Shonali (2007): Fuel Choices in Urban Indian Households, in Environmental and Development Economics, 12:757-774, Cambridge University Press Baughman, Martin & Joskow Paul (1975) : The Effects of Fuel Prices on Residential Appliance Choice in the US, in Land Economics, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Feb.1975) Pp41-49, University of Wisconsin Press Heltburg Rasmus (2004): Fuel Switching-Evidence from Eight Developing Countries, in Social Protection Economist, World Bank

13