Module III: Relativistic ED: Applications: Lectures 14-15: EM Radiation Passing Through Matter

Module III: Relativistic ED: applications
Lectures 14-15: EM radiation passing through matter

Amol Dighe
TIFR, Mumbai
Outline
Interactions of EM elds with electrons
Scattering of EM wave by a free electron
Scattering of an EM wave by a bound electron
Absorption by a bound electron
Refractive index: collective scattering by electrons
Outline
Electron in a harmonic potential
When an EM wave passes through matter, its propagation may

be understood at the microscopic level by looking at its
interactions with the electrons in the material.
A simple model that helps in understanding many phenomena is

that of electrons in a harmonic potential that are acted upon by
the EM eld and the radiation reaction force.
This model will help us understand Thomson scattering,

resonant scattering of light, Rayleigh scattering, absorption and
refractive index of materials.
The harmonic force

F = k
x = m
2
0
x, provided by the binding

of the electrons with the atoms, is the dominant force and gives
rise to the leading order equation of motion
m
a = m
2
0
x . (1)
The braking force
The leading order EoM gives rise to d
a/dt =
2
0
v, leading to
the radiation reaction force
f
rad
=
e
2
6
0
c
3
d
a
dt
=
e
2
2
0
6
0
c
3
v = m
v , (2)
where = (e
2
2
0
)/(6
0
mc
3
).
The equation of motion, in the absence of any external EM eld,

is then
x +
x +
2
0
x = 0 . (3)
The
x term is like a general braking/friction term, which may

have origins other than the radiation reaction force. The origin of
does not matter for the rest of our analysis in this lecture.
For small , the solution to this equation is
x =

x
0
exp
_
i
0
t
t
2
_
. (4)
The external EM eld
Let the external EM eld be a linearly polarized one, with the

electric eld component

E
ext
= E
0
z exp[i (kx t )].
If the motion of the electron (equilibrium position

x =

0) is limited
to a small region (|
x| , or k|
x| 1), the force on this electron

will be

F
ext
= eE
0
z exp(i t ).
The magnetic component of the EM eld will also contribute to

the Lorentz force on the charge. However, this force is
suppressed by a factor v/c compared to e
E
0
, where v is the
typical speed of the electron. Since v/c 1 for electrons inside
normal materials, we can neglect this component of the force.
The equation of motion for the electron is then
x +
x +
2
0
x =
e
m
E
0
z exp(i t ) . (5)
Solution for EoM of the electron (1D motion)
Let us restrict ourselves to a one-dimensional situation, where

the motion of the electron is in the same direction as the
polarization of

E
ext
, i.e. the z-axis.
Looking for solutions of the form z = z
e
i t
, we get
2
z i z +
2
z =
e
m
E
0
. (6)
The solution is
z
=
e
m
E
0
1
(
2
2
0
) + i
. (7)
We shall now see how this simple model can explain many
situations.
Outline
Radiation due to the acceleration of free electron
For a free electron, there is no harmonic restoring force, so that
0
= 0. Let us neglect the radiation reaction force, i.e. well work
in the limit 0.
In this situation,
z
=
e
m
E
0
1
2
; , a
=

z
=
e
m
E
0
. (8)
Thus, a
is independent of , the frequency of incident radiation.
This acceleration leads to the radiation eld
E
rad
=
e
4
0
c
2
r
3
[
r (
a)] . (9)
Note that we are in the non-relativistic limit.
The magnitude of this electric eld is

|
E
rad
| =
ea sin
4
0
c
2
r
(10)
where is the angle made by
r with the z axis, which is the

direction of acceleration.
Intensity of radiation
The magnitude of the Poynting vector, which represents the

intensity of radiation, is then
I
rad
= |
N
rad
| =
1
2
_
0
|
E
rad
|
2
=
1
2
_
0
_
eE
0
4
0
mc
2
_
2
sin
2
r
2
. (11)
where we have used the relation between the acceleration and
incident electric eld

E
ext
.
In terms of the intensity of the incident radiation

I
0
=
1
2
_
0
E
2
0
, (12)
this may be written as
I
rad
= I
0
sin
2
r
2
e
r
2
, (13)
where r
e
e
2
/(4
0
mc
2
) is the classical radius of the electron.
Radiated power and Thomson cross section
The total rate of radiative energy loss is

dU
dt
=
_
I
rad
r
2
d =
_
I
0
sin
2
r
2
e
r
2
,
=
8
3
r
2
e
I
0
(14)
This may be interpreted as the scattering of the incident

radiation by the electron, resulting in the loss of the incident
power by radiation. The scattering cross section is then
0
=
dU/dt
I
0
=
8
3
r
2
e
(15)
This is the Thomson scattering cross section.
Note that the Thomson cross section is more than the naive
surface area of the classical electron, r
2
e
.
Outline
Cross section for scattering off a bound electron
For a bound electron,

z
=
e
m
E
0
1
(
2
2
0
) + i
, a
=

z
=
e
m
E
0
2
(
2
2
0
) + i
.
(16)
Note that now the acceleration depends on , the frequency of
incident radiation.
Then the magnitude of the radiated electric eld is

|
E
rad
| =
qa sin
4
0
c
2
r
=
q
4
0
mc
2
2
E
0
_
(
2
2
0
)
2
+ ()
2
sin
r
(17)
This leads to the scattering cross section
scat
=
0
4
(
2
2
0
)
2
+ ()
2
. (18)
where
0
is the Thomson cross section.
Resonant scattering
The scattering cross section

scat
as a function of becomes
large at =
0
. This is the resonance condition.
At resonance, the cross section is
res
=
0
2
0
2
. (19)
For
0
, this could be a large enhancement. The cross
section at this frequency can be much larger than the classical
electron area.
Strong binding limit: Rayleigh scattering
When the restoring harmonic force is much stroner compared to

the energy of the incident radiation, i.e.
0
, one gets
large
0
=
0
4
0
, (20)
where we have also assumed
2
0
.
Thus in the strong binding limit, the scattering cross section

increases as the fourth power of the incident frequency. This is
Rayleigh scattering.
Rayleigh scattering implies that the blue colour in the sunlight is

scattered much more than the red colour in the atmosphere, and
hence the sky looks predominantly blue as long as we are not
looking at the sun directly.
Outline
Work done by the EM eld on an electron: 1D
The EM wave imparts energy to the electron by doing work on it,

which can be computed as
U = Re
__
+
E
ext
(t )

x(t ) dt
_
= Re
__
+
eE
0
(t )
z(t ) dt
_
,
(21)
where the electric eld as well as the motion of the electron is
along z direction.
For calculating U, we shall use the Fourier transform identity

_
+
p(t )q(t )dt = 2

_
+
0
p
d , (22)
For this, we need to use the Fourier-transformed quantities E
and
= i z
=
e
m
E
0
i
(
2
2
0
) + i
. (23)
Energy absorbed by an electron
The total energy absorbed is

U = 2
e
2
m
Re
__
+
E
2
i
(
2
2
0
) + i
d
_
= 2
e
2
m
_
+
0
E
2
2
2
(
2
2
0
)
2
+
2
2
d (24)
The factor 2 in the integrand comes from the change in the
limits of integration.
For small , the resonance term is sharply peaked and we may

approximate
U = 2
e
2
m
E
2
0
2
2
0
_
+
0
1
(
2
2
0
)
2
+
2
2
d
=
2e
2
m
E
2
0
2
2
0

2
2
0
=
2
2
e
2
m
E
2
0
(25)
Thus, the total energy absorbed is independent of

(in the small- limit).
Incident energy ux
The total incident energy ux per unit area is

S =
_
+
N(t )dt =
_
0
_
+
E
2
0
dt =
0
c
_
+
E
2
0
dt . (26)
In terms of the Fourier-transformed quantities,

S = 2
0
c
_
+
E
2
d . (27)
The incident energy ux at a frequency is

S
= 4
0
cE
2
(28)
where the factor of 2 comes from the fact that the contribution is
from both, .
Absorption cross section
One may dene the absorption cross section at frequency as

the ratio of total energy absorbed at that frequency to the energy
ux per unit area at that frequency.
The energy absorbed at frequency is

U
= 2
e
2
m
E
2
2
2
(
2
2
0
)
2
+
2
2
, (29)
which is just the integrand in the expression for U.
Then one gets the absorption cross section as
abs
() =
U
= 2
e
2
m
2
2
(
2
2
0
)
2
+
2
2

1
4
0
c
. (30)
Absorption cross section at resonance
For small , the absorption takes place only at frequencies close

to the resonance frequencies. The incident energy ux at this
frequency is S
0
= 4
0
cE
2
0
.
The cross section at this energy is
abs
(
0
) =
U
0
S
0
=
4e
2
m

1
4
0
c
=
4r
e
c
. (31)
Note that the resonant cross section is independent of the actual
value of
0
.
Outline
Polarization due to an incident EM wave
At a microscopic level, the refracive index may be viewed as

arising from the polarization of the material, which itself is
caused by the action of the incident EM eld on the electrons.
In the absence of the external EM eld, the material is

unpolarized, that is the positive and negative charge densities
cancel each other out everywhere inside the material.
When the EM eld is incident on the material, the electrons (free

electrons, valence electrons, or electrons which are loosely
bound), being lighter, move under its inuence. The movement
of the rest of the ions may be neglected.
If the displacement of an individual electron from its mean

position is

x, and the number density of such electrons is N, the
collective polarization is
P = N e

x . (32)
Wave equation in the presence of polarization
In the presence of polarization

P, the Maxwells equation that
gets modied is
B =
0
_
E
t
+

P
t
_
(33)
This, combined with
E =
B/t yields
(
E) =
t
(
B)
i.e. (
E)
2
E =
_
E
t
2
+
0
P
t
2
_
(34)
Since the net charge density inside the dielectric is zero,
E = 0 and we get
E
1
c
2
E
t
2

0
P
t
2
= 0 . (35)
Refractive index
With the direction of motion of the electrons and the polarization

of the incident

E eld along z direction,
P = N e z

z =
Ne
2
E
m
1
(
2
0
2
) i
z . (36)
Thus our situation is that of a linear dielectric, with the

polarizability

P
0
E
=
Ne
2
m
1
2
0
2
i
. (37)
With

P =
0
E, the wave equation becomes
E
(1 +)
c
2
E
t
2
= 0 . (38)
The speed of propagation of this wave is c/
1 +, and hence
the refractive index is
n =
_
1 + . (39)
Complex refractive index of a dilute electron gas
Our analysis is valid for dilute electron gases, since we have

assumed that the local eld

E is the same as the incoming eld
E
ext
. In such case, we get
n
2
= 1 + = 1 +
Ne
2
m
1
2
0
2
i
. (40)
It is assumed that all the electrons have the same binding
frequency
0
.
If there are more than one set of electrons with different binding
frequencies, the linearity of the problem allows us to just add the
contributions to .
The refractive index n is in general a complex number, implying

absorption. A nonzero value of is one source of such
absorption.
Behaviour of the refractive index
At low incident frequencies ( <

0
):
As long as
0
, the refractive index is almost real, and
greater than unity. Also, when increases, the refractive index n
aso increases. This is the same as the behaviour of light rays
through prism.
Around
0
:
The refractive index has a signicant imaginary component, and
the dilute gas acts as an absorber.
At large frequencies ( >

0
):
The refractive index is less than 1. Note that this does not lead to
faster-than-c propagation. (See Problem on the following page.)
At extremely large frequencies (

2
Ne
2
/(m
0
)):
The refractive index n 1. (We referred to this while discussing
Cherenkov radiation.)
Dilute gas of free electrons
Problem
Using the expression for the refractive index of a dilute electron
gas with number density N, plot the phase velocity and group
velocity of an EM wave as a function of . Neglect the damp-
ing term and choose an appropriate value for N. Where is the
dilute nature of the gas relevant ?
Problem
Show that a dilute gas of free electrons will not allow an EM
wave to propagate through it, if the frequency of the wave is less
than a cutoff frequency
cutoff
. Determine the cutoff frequency
in terms of the number density of electrons and other universal
constants. For >
cutoff
, qualitatively plot the behaviour of the
wavenumber k as a function of .
Take-home message from this lecture
A simple model of electrons bound to the nucleus with a

harmonic potential can help model the scattering and absosption
of an EM wave
The cross sections of Thomson scattering, resonance

scattering, Rayleigh scattering and resonant absorption follow
naturally in this model.
Essential properties of the refractive index of a dilute electron

gas can also be calculated, and its frequency behaviour studied.

Module III: Relativistic ED: Applications: Lectures 14-15: EM Radiation Passing Through Matter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module III: Relativistic ED: Applications: Lectures 14-15: EM Radiation Passing Through Matter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module III: Relativistic ED: Applications: Lectures 14-15: EM Radiation Passing Through Matter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module III: Relativistic ED: applications

Lectures 14-15: EM radiation passing through matter

When an EM wave passes through matter, its propagation may

A simple model that helps in understanding many phenomena is

This model will help us understand Thomson scattering,

The harmonic force

x, provided by the binding

The leading order EoM gives rise to d

The equation of motion, in the absence of any external EM eld,

x term is like a general braking/friction term, which may

For small , the solution to this equation is

Let the external EM eld be a linearly polarized one, with the

z exp[i (kx t )].

If the motion of the electron (equilibrium position

x| 1), the force on this electron

The magnetic component of the EM eld will also contribute to

The equation of motion for the electron is then

Let us restrict ourselves to a one-dimensional situation, where

Looking for solutions of the form z = z

For a free electron, there is no harmonic restoring force, so that

is independent of , the frequency of incident radiation.

This acceleration leads to the radiation eld

The magnitude of this electric eld is

r with the z axis, which is the

The magnitude of the Poynting vector, which represents the

In terms of the intensity of the incident radiation

The total rate of radiative energy loss is

This may be interpreted as the scattering of the incident

For a bound electron,

Then the magnitude of the radiated electric eld is

This leads to the scattering cross section

The scattering cross section

At resonance, the cross section is

When the restoring harmonic force is much stroner compared to

Thus in the strong binding limit, the scattering cross section

Rayleigh scattering implies that the blue colour in the sunlight is

The EM wave imparts energy to the electron by doing work on it,

For calculating U, we shall use the Fourier transform identity

p(t )q(t )dt = 2

For this, we need to use the Fourier-transformed quantities E

The total energy absorbed is

For small , the resonance term is sharply peaked and we may

Thus, the total energy absorbed is independent of

The total incident energy ux per unit area is

In terms of the Fourier-transformed quantities,

The incident energy ux at a frequency is

One may dene the absorption cross section at frequency as

The energy absorbed at frequency is

Then one gets the absorption cross section as

For small , the absorption takes place only at frequencies close

The cross section at this energy is

At a microscopic level, the refracive index may be viewed as

In the absence of the external EM eld, the material is

When the EM eld is incident on the material, the electrons (free

If the displacement of an individual electron from its mean

In the presence of polarization

This, combined with

Since the net charge density inside the dielectric is zero,