Global warming Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and oceans

since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. Global surface temperature increased 0.74 0.18 C (1.33 0.32 F) during the last century.[1][A] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) concludes that increasing greenhouse gas concentrations resulting from human activity such asfossil fuel burning and deforestation caused most of the observed temperature increase since the middle of the 20th century.[1] The IPCC also concludes that variations in natural phenomena such as solar radiationand volcanoes produced most of the warming from pre-industrial times to 1950 and had a small cooling effect afterward.[2][3] These basic conclusions have been endorsed by more than 45 scientific societies and academies of science,[B] including all of the national academies of science of the major industrialized countries.[4] A small number of scientists dispute the consensus view. Climate model projections summarized in the latest IPCC report indicate that the global surface temperature will probably rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 C (2.0 to 11.5 F) during the twenty-first century.[1] The uncertainty in this estimate arises from the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations and the use of differing estimates of future greenhouse gas emissions. Some other uncertainties include how warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe. Most studies focus on the period up to the year 2100. However, warming is expected to continue beyond 2100 even if emissions stop, because of the large heat capacity of the oceans and the long lifetime of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.[5][6] An increase in global temperature will cause sea levels to rise and will change the amount and pattern ofprecipitation, probably including expansion of subtropical deserts.[7] The continuing retreat of glaciers,permafrost and sea ice is expected, with warming being strongest in the Arctic. Other likely effects include increases in the intensity of extreme weather events, species extinctions, and changes in agricultural yields. Political and public debate continues regarding climate change, and what actions (if any) to take in response. The available options aremitigation to reduce further emissions; adaptation to reduce the damage caused by warming; and, more speculatively, geoengineering to reverse global warming. Most national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Radiative forcing External forcing is a term used in climate science for processes external to the climate system (though not necessarily external to Earth). Climate responds to several types of external forcing, such as changes in greenhouse gas concentrations, changes in solar luminosity, volcaniceruptions, and variations in Earth's orbit around the Sun.[2] Attribution of recent climate change focuses on the first three types of forcing. Orbital cycles vary slowly over tens of thousands of years and thus are too gradual to have caused the temperature changes observed in the past century. Greenhouse gases Greenhouse effect schematic showing energy flows between the atmosphere, space, and earth's surface. Energy exchanges are expressed in watts per square meter (W/m2). Recent atmospheric carbon dioxide(CO2) increases. Monthly CO2measurements display seasonal oscillations in overall yearly uptrend; each year's maximum occurs during the Northern Hemisphere's late spring, and declines during its growing season as plants remove some atmospheric CO2. The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared radiation by gases in theatmosphere warm a planet's lower atmosphere and surface. It was discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1824 and was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in

1896.[17] Existence of the greenhouse effect as such is not disputed, even by those who do not agree that the recent temperature increase is attributable to human activity. The question is instead how the strength of the greenhouse effect changes when human activity increases the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases have a mean warming effect of about 33 C (59 F). [18][C] The major greenhouse gases are water vapor, which causes about 3670 percent of the greenhouse effect; carbon dioxide (CO2), which causes 926 percent; methane (CH4), which causes 49 percent[not in citation given]; and ozone (O3), which causes 37 percent. [19][20] Clouds also affect the radiation balance, but they are composed of liquid water or ice and so are considered separately from water vapor and other gases. Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radiative forcing from CO2, methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs andnitrous oxide. The concentrations of CO2 and methane have increased by 36% and 148% respectively since the mid-1700s.[21] These levels are considerably higher than at any time during the last 650,000 years, the period for which reliable data has been extracted from ice cores.[22] Less direct geological evidence indicates that CO2 values this high were last seen approximately 20 million years ago.[23] Fossil fuelburning has produced about three-quarters of the increase in CO2 from human activity over the past 20 years. Most of the rest is due to land-use change, particularly deforestation.[24] CO2 concentrations are continuing to rise due to burning of fossil fuels and land-use change. The future rate of rise will depend on uncertain economic, sociological, technological, and natural developments. Accordingly, the IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios gives a wide range of future CO2 scenarios, ranging from 541 to 970 ppm by the year 2100.[25] Fossil fuel reserves are sufficient to reach these levels and continue emissions past 2100 if coal, tar sands or methane clathrates are extensively exploited.[26] The destruction of stratospheric ozone by chlorofluorocarbons is sometimes mentioned in relation to global warming. Although there are a few areas of linkage, the relationship between the two is not strong. Reduction of stratospheric ozone has a cooling influence, but substantial ozone depletion did not occur until the late 1970s.[27] Tropospheric ozone contributes to surface warming.[28] Environmental effects Sparse records indicate that glaciers have been retreating since the early 1800s. In the 1950s measurements began that allow the monitoring of glacial mass balance, reported to the WGMS and theNSIDC. It usually is impossible to connect specific weather events to global warming. Instead, global warming is expected to cause changes in the overall distribution and intensity of events, such as changes to the frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation. Broader effects are expected to include glacial retreat, Arctic shrinkage, and worldwide sea level rise. Some effects on both the natural environment and human life are, at least in part, already being attributed to global warming. A 2001 report by the IPCC suggests that glacier retreat, ice shelf disruption such as that of the Larsen Ice Shelf, sea level rise, changes in rainfall patterns, and increased intensity and frequency of extreme weather events are attributable in part to global warming. [64] Other expected effects include water scarcity in some regions and increased precipitation in others, changes in mountain snowpack, and some adverse health effects from warmer temperatures.[65] Social and economic effects of global warming may be exacerbated by growing population densities in affected areas. Temperate regions are projected to experience some benefits, such as fewer cold-related deaths.[66] A summary of probable effects and recent understanding can be found in the report made for theIPCC Third Assessment Report by Working Group II. [64] The newer IPCC Fourth Assessment Reportsummary reports that there is observational

evidence for an increase in intense tropical cyclone activity in the North Atlantic Ocean since about 1970, in correlation with the increase in sea surface temperature (seeAtlantic Multidecadal Oscillation), but that the detection of long-term trends is complicated by the quality of records prior to routine satellite observations. The summary also states that there is no clear trend in the annual worldwide number of tropical cyclones.[1] Additional anticipated effects include sea level rise of 0.18 to 0.59 meters (0.59 to 1.9 ft) in 2090-2100 relative to 1980-1999,[1] new trade routesresulting from arctic shrinkage,[67] possible thermohaline circulation slowing, increasingly intense (but less frequent) hurricanes and extreme weather events,[68] reductions in the ozone layer, changes in agriculture yields, changes in the range of climate-dependent disease vectors,[69]which has been linked to increases in the prevalence of malaria and dengue fever,[70] and ocean oxygen depletion.[71] Increased atmospheric CO2 increases the amount of CO2 dissolved in the oceans.[72] CO2 dissolved in the ocean reacts with water to form carbonic acid, resulting inocean acidification. Ocean surface pH is estimated to have decreased from 8.25 near the beginning of the industrial era to 8.14 by 2004,[73] and is projected to decrease by a further 0.14 to 0.5 units by 2100 as the ocean absorbs more CO2.[1][74] Heat and carbon dioxide trapped in the oceans may still take hundreds years to be re-emitted, even after greenhouse gas emissions are eventually reduced.[6] Since organisms andecosystems are adapted to a narrow range of pH, this raises extinction concerns and disruptions in food webs.[75] One study predicts 18% to 35% of a sample of 1,103 animal and plant species would be extinct by 2050, based on future climate projections.[76] However, few mechanistic studies have documented extinctions due to recent climate change,[77] and one study suggests that projected rates of extinction are uncertain.[78] Responses to global warming The broad agreement among climate scientists that global temperatures will continue to increase has led some nations, states, corporationsand individuals to implement responses. These responses to global warming can be divided into mitigation of the causes and effects of global warming, adaptation to the changing global environment, and geoengineering to reverse global warming. Mitigation Carbon capture and storage(CCS) is an approach to mitigation. Emissions may be sequestered from fossil fuel power plants, or removed during processing in hydrogen production. When used on plants, it is known as bio-energy with carbon capture and storage. Mitigation of global warming is accomplished through reductions in the rate of anthropogenic greenhouse gas release. Models suggest that mitigation can quickly begin to slow global warming, but that temperatures will appreciably decrease only after several centuries.[90] The world's primary international agreement on reducing greenhouse gas emissions is the Kyoto Protocol, an amendment to the UNFCCCnegotiated in 1997. The Protocol now covers more than 160 countries and over 55 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions.[91] As of June 2009, only the United States, historically the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases, has refused to ratify the treaty. The treaty expires in 2012. International talks began in May 2007 on a future treaty to succeed the current one.[92] UN negotiations are now gathering pace in advance of a meeting in Copenhagen in December 2009.[93] Many environmental groups encourage individual action against global warming, as well as community and regional actions. Others have suggested a quota on worldwide fossil fuel production, citing a direct link between fossil fuel production and CO2 emissions.[94][95] There has also been business action on climate change, including efforts to improve energy efficiency and limited moves towards use of alternative fuels. In January 2005 the European Union introduced its European Union Emission Trading Scheme, through which companies in conjunction with government agree to cap their emissions or to purchase credits from those

below their allowances. Australia announced its Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme in 2008. United States President Barack Obama has announced plans to introduce an economy-wide cap and trade scheme.[96] The IPCC's Working Group III is responsible for crafting reports on mitigation of global warming and the costs and benefits of different approaches. The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report concludes that no one technology or sector can be completely responsible for mitigating future warming. They find there are key practices and technologies in various sectors, such as energy supply, transportation,industry, and agriculture, that should be implemented to reduced global emissions. They estimate that stabilization of carbon dioxide equivalentbetween 445 and 710 ppm by 2030 will result in between a 0.6 percent increase and three percent decrease in global gross domestic product.[97] Adaptation A wide variety of measures have been suggested for adaptation to global warming. These measures range from the trivial, such as the installation of air-conditioning equipment, to major infrastructure projects, such as abandoning settlements threatened by sea level rise. Measures including water conservation,[98] water rationing, adaptive agricultural practices, [99] construction of flood defences,[100] Martian colonization,[101] changes to medical care, [102] and interventions to protect threatened species[103] have all been suggested. A wideranging study of the possible opportunities for adaptation of infrastructure has been published by the Institute of Mechanical Engineers.[104] Geoengineering Geoengineering is the deliberate modification of Earth's natural environment on a large scale to suit human needs.[105] An example isgreenhouse gas remediation, which removes greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, usually through carbon sequestration techniques such ascarbon dioxide air capture.[106] Solar radiation management reduces insolation, such as by the addition of stratospheric sulfur aerosols.[107] No large-scale geoengineering projects have yet been undertaken.
How is Wildlife Affected by Global Warming? Most researchers agree that even small changes in temperature are enough to send hundreds if not thousands of already struggling species into extinction unless we can stem the tide of global warming. And time may be of the essence: A 2003 study published in the journal Nature concluded that 80 percent of some 1,500 wildlife species sampled are already showing signs of stress from climate change. Plants And Animals Struggle To Adapt Behavioral changes endanger whole food chains. For example,some hibernating animals have been observed to wake up earlier or to stop hibernating all together. These animals require food when they are awake, and this need to eat endangers the animals since the food may not be there. It also puts them in competition with other species in need of the same scarce food resources. [2] One-Third Of All Species Extinct By 2050 Global warming could lead to a mass species extinction. Some scientists predict as many as a third of all species will become extinct by 2050. [4] Ecological collapse is major bad news for all living things. If you don't want humans to go the way of the dinosaurs, it's best to do everything in your power to reduce these effects. Danger looms even if we avoid ecological collapse. Species extinctions still lead to a loss of biodiversity, and biodiversity is a major factor in ecological health. We don't even know all the species that have already been lost or what critical roles they might have played. Some of these extinct plants and animals may have even held the cures to diseases. Depletion of the ozone layer Atmospheric ozone is continually broken-down and reformed; until recently this process has been in a state of natural balance. This balance has been upset as a result of human activity; specifically, the manufacture and use of a group of synthetic chemical substances known as CFCs and HCFCs. These chlorine-containing compounds, used in aerosols, refrigeration, solvents and foam insulation, have drifted up into the stratosphere. Through a complex series of chemical chain-reactions, small amounts of these compounds are able to destroy very large quantities of ozone. The result is that ozone is being broken down more quickly than it is forming; parts of the layer are becoming thinner - 'holes' are developing. Over recent years, very large holes have developed over Antarctica (owing to climatic conditions, the atmosphere over the Antarctic is particularly susceptible to ozone depletion). There is now evidence that ozone layer is thinning, albeit less extensively, throughout the world.

Measures to protect the ozone layer International concern over the seriousness of the problems associated with ozone layer depletion lead to the adoption of the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone layer, in 1985. This was followed up with the formation of the Montreal Protocol, to which over 140 countries agreed to the reduction and eventual phasing-out of the manufacture and use of most of the ozone depleting substances. Unfortunately, many countries in the developing world have as yet been unable to sign to any international agreement; while in the West, a (un)healthy black market trade in CFCs has developed. It is difficult to predict how far the ozone layer will become depleted before it begins to recover. 3. Acid Rain During the 1980s, acid rain emissions became the major environmental issue. More recently, the problem has become overshadowed by concern over the ozone layer and global warming. This does not mean that acid rain has gone away; indeed, in Wales at present its effects are being felt as strongly as ever. There is evidence of damage to trees, peat erosion, reduced fish-stocks, and a general reduction in the biodiversity of our natural habitats. Coal and oil-fired power stations are responsible for the bulk of acid gas emissions. Their tall chimneys spew sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the skies where they are carried away with the wind. During the time they are airborne, these gases are converted into dilute sulphuric and nitric acids which later fall back to earth - often hundreds of miles away. Road transport is responsible for most of the remainder of acid gas emissions. Because petrol and diesel are fairly low-sulphur fuels, their SO2 emissions are limited; their NOx emissions, however, are high, making road transport the biggest contributor of this particular acid gas. The term 'acid rain' was first coined in 1872, after a link was made between sulphur dioxide emissions from the burning of coal in Manchester to the acidification of nearby rainfall. The term now tends to be used indiscriminately to describe all forms of pollution associated with the burning of fossil fuels. Not only rain, but also snow, sleet, and mist: collectively known as 'wet deposition'; and gases, dusts, and smog: collectively known as 'dry deposition'. Really, we are talking about acid pollution. Effects of acid pollution Dry deposition affects the environment directly. It combines with fog and dust to produce smog, a major killer in UK cities prior to the Clean Air Act of 1956, and still a serious contributor to respiratory problems among susceptible people. It damages buildings, historical and modern: eroding away limestone and marble, and penetrating concrete structures to corrode the steel reinforcement within. Deposition on farmland and forestry affects plant growth and reduces crop yields. Because sulphur and nitrogen are both plant nutrients their deposition can affect the competitive abilities of different plant species: plants with a high nutrient demand thrive at the cost of those with a lower nutrient demand. The Acid Cycle (Source: NSCA) Wet deposition shares all of the same direct effects of dry deposition. In addition, it has a particularly potent acidifying effect on lakes, rivers, and streams. Direct deposition in the water is compounded by the inflow of groundwater from nearby acidified soils; the effects on aquatic life are twofold: 1. Acidification is further intensified; the more the pH decreases the more the damage, below 4.5, most aquatic life is gone. 2. Toxic metals, such as aluminium, leached by the acid in the soil, are introduced to the water. Aluminium has a direct effect on the respiratory systems of fish, causing their gills to clog-up. The presence of toxic metals in water supplies presents a health problem to all animal life, including humans. The severity of the effects of wet deposition depends on a number of area-specific factors: Soil type - the more acid the soil is naturally, the more at risk the ecosystem it supports is from the effects of acid rain. The geology of Snowdonia National Park is slightly acidic. Soil cover - the thinner the soil layer the more readily it is affected by acidification. Over many of Wales' slate hills, soil cover is at most a few centimetres. Mix of plant species - acidification tends to be exacerbated in areas with conifer plantations, such as the forestry land in mid and north Wales. Conifers are particularly effective scavengers of pollutants, the unfortunate effect of this is that more acid pollution can pass into the soil beneath them. The acid then leaches out toxic metals which pass into groundwater. Rainfall levels - the more acid rain that falls, the greater the damage: Wales is at risk owing to high rainfall levels. Altitude - upland areas are more affected than lowland areas: (1) through higher rainfall, and (2) through increased contact with acid clouds and mists.