PHR 250 5/17/06, 6,7p MICROBIAL ECOLOGY OF FOODS Dean O.

Cliver

Every food is an ecosystem for the microorganisms it contains. They don't know they are in food! ! Bacteria and molds present may multiply, survive, or die. ! Viruses and parasites may only persist or be inactivated (die, lose infectivity). ! Most of our attention will be devoted to the fates of bacterial pathogens. If pathogenic bacteria contaminate a food, there are several potential outcomes: ! Persistence the bacteria remain viable, numbers unchanged; this may be either a lag phase, a stationary phase, or (as appropriate) a spore stage ! Growth (multiplication) this can usually be described by a rate parameter (not necessarily constant) based on the doubling time ! Death this also can usually be described by a rate parameter; however, it should be noted that some bacteria enter a viable-nonculturable state (injured, but capable of resuscitation) ! Sporulation another defense against unfavorable conditions, for certain bacteria ! Toxigenesis bacteria that produce toxins must usually multiply in order to do so; however, conditions for toxigenesis are usually more restrictive than those for growth, so growth is necessary, but possibly not sufficient The classical bacterial growth curve comprises four phases: lag, logarithmic growth, stationary, and logarithmic death.

log CFU

time

Modeling (prediction of the fate of bacteria in a specific food under specific conditions) has focused on the logarithmic growth phase with some success; attempts to predict the lag phase have been less successful. You have been shown some examples and may copy the software. Bacteria (and fungi) may be quiescent, metabolically active, multiplying, adapting, injured,

150N - 2 dying, or dead. ! Spores and lag phase cells are essentially quiescent, but may be adapting to environmental conditions. Adaptation entails selection of needed enzymes (by activation of appropriate genes) from the broad bacterial repertoire. ! Multiplying cells are metabolically active, and often adapting; but not all metabolically active cells are multiplying; multiplication = doubling. ! Stress causes adaptation or injury. ! Stationary phase may represent quiescence or growth rate = death rate. ! Some injured cells are hard to distinguish from dead (viable nonculturable). ! Some dead cells autolyze. Bacteria may be studied while dispersed in broth (planktonic cells), but ! they tend to aggregate (or not separate after division) or ! attach to surfaces, growing as colonies or forming biofilms. ! Most foods provide a solid matrix that may include a variety of microenvironments. ! Sterile foods do not contain pathogens, but pathogens are likely to be outnumbered by other bacteria in non-sterile foods. Research is often done with sterile substrate and monoculture, but bacteria dont usually live like that. ! Most sources of contamination to food (water, air, soil, raw material, feces) have a mixed microflora. ! Occasionally, the food ecosystem is so selective that one best-adapted organism overgrows all others. ! At high enough levels, bacteria signal each other chemically. ! Usually, different species interact within the resources available, sometimes competitively, but sometimes beneficially. ! Programmed successions among species occur as bacterial growth modifies the environment. ! Genetic exchanges among strains or species are also known. ! Toxigenic agents (including molds) may grow under conditions that do not permit toxigenesis. Major factors in the microbes ecosystem (all of these interact intimately): ! Temperature ! Eh ! aw ! pH (specific cations & anions) ! Nutrients available ! Physical structure (of food, etc.) ! Microflora ! Specific antimicrobial agents: preservatives, radiation, etc. Temperature

150N - 3 Temperature ranges for procaryotic organisms (C) Group Minimum Optimum Maximum ________________________________________________ Thermophiles 4045 5575 6090 Mesophiles 515 3045 3547 Psychrophiles -5+5 1215 1520 Psychrotrophs -5+5 2530 3035? ________________________________________________ Coldbacteria generally require a liquid environment for metabolism and growth, so these occur only above the freezing-thawing temperature of the medium. ! Freezing kills some of the cells in a typical microbial population (gram-negatives more sensitive); further die-off in frozen storage is limited (persistence longer at colder temperatures); frozen food. ! Refrigerator temperatures generally preserve mesophilic bacteria; psychrophiles and psychrotrophs can multiply, with doubling times of several hours; rapid chilling may shock bacteria; refrigerated food. Warmsomewhere near optimum for the group of organisms in question ! Food spoilage organisms are generally mesophiles, psychrophiles (which build up due to poor sanitation), or psychrotrophssometimes thermophiles (also poor sanitation). ! Danger Zone: 4 to 60C (40 to 140F; or 5 to 57C = 41 to 135F) see page 5; rapid transition from hot to cold or cold to hot Hottemperatures above maximum growth temperature cause death ! D value: time for decimal reduction at tC; organisms are in log death phase ! z value: temperature change (C) to reduce the D value 10-fold ! Heat treatments called cooking, blanching, or pasteurization are not intended to produce even commercial sterility. ! Cells in logarithmic growth phase are more heat-sensitive than otherwise. ! Cells adapt to heating by producing heat-shock proteins that help them adapt and survive; some of these adaptive proteins are also produced in response to other stresses. ! Pathogens are generally mesophiles or psychrotrophsinfectious agents must be able to multiply at body temperature. Purposeful temperature fluctuatione.g., tyndallization ! Boil a food (internal temperature ~100C) on 3 successive days ! Day 1: vegetative cells killed, spores heat-shocked ! Day 2: vegetative cells from germinated spores killed, remaining spores heatshocked ! Day 3: vegetative cells from final, germinated spores killed ! Endpoint: sterility

150N - 4

8
7
NUMBER

100 10 D 1 0.1 0.01

DtC = 5 min

z (oC) = 15

6
5

LOG

70

80

90

100

HEATED (MIN) AT t o C

TEMPERATURE (o C)

Eh: oxidation-reduction potential ! Bacteria are classified as aerobes, microaerophiles, facultative, or anaerobes, on the basis of their preferences for an oxidizing or reducing atmosphere. ! Strict aerobes may not grow at Eh < 0 mV, and obligate anaerobes may grow only at Eh < -300 mV; facultative organisms often use available energy more efficiently under aerobic conditions; C. perfringens may not start growing under aerobic conditions, but is not inhibited by oxygen once growth begins. ! Eh of foods is difficult to measure accurately and may differ in different parts of a food: muscle of animals, including fish, will afford anaerobic conditions in its interior. Vegetables that are alive when packaged may metabolize oxygen and drastically reduce their Eh during storage. ! Packaging materials and the atmosphere within a food package can be selected with a view to controlling the Eh of the stored product. ! Molds are generally strict aerobes aw: water activity, defined as the ratio of the water vapor pressure of a food to the vapor pressure of water at the same temperature (range is 0 to 1). ! aw of fresh meats, fish, fruits, and vegetables is generally at or above 0.98 (see p.10). ! Reduction of aw by removal of water or by adding solute such as salt or sugar is one of the oldest means of food preservation. ! Gram-negative bacteria generally have the highest aw requirements for growth, followed by gram-positive bacteria and then molds and yeasts.

150N - 5

DANGER ZONE FOR NEUTRAL FOODS Averages of Aeromonas hydrophila, Bacillus cereus, E. coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, & Yersinia enterocolitica

32 40 48 (T2) [h] 2 1.5 1 (T1/2) [min] 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 0 10

64

80

96

112

128 140 F

-1

-1

20

30

40

50

60 C

150N - 6 pH: hydrogen-ion potential ! Foods range naturally from near neutrality (pH 7) downward, with few exceptions (see p. 10). Acidification of food, which inhibits spoilage and the growth of many pathogens, has long been used in food preservation; it is achieved by fermentation or by adding fermented products such as vinegar. ! The single pH value that is most important in food safety is 4.6, in that Clostridium botulinum will not grow at this pH, even if other conditions are optimal; therefore, foods above this pH are low acid and subject to special regulation if they are preserved. ! In addition to pH as it may be measured with a meter, there is great significance to the types of acids or anions (and sometimes cations) in the solute: organic acids (e.g., lactic, acetic, etc.) at a given pH tend to be much more effective antimicrobial substances than are mineral acids; organic acids are usually most effective when undissociated, so it is important to note that at a given pH the molar quantity of organic acid is likely to be much higher than that of a mineral acid. Nutrients available ! Bacterial growth basically requires a source of carbon and a source of nitrogen; some bacteria require specific growth factors as well. ! In general, foods are good sources of both C and N, and some provide needed growth factors for organisms that need them. ! At least initially, bacterial growth is more likely to be determined by factors discussed earlier than by nutrient availability; however, competition among organisms for nutrients can have a very significant effect on which predominates. Physical structure (of food, etc.) ! As was mentioned above, bacteria grow on surfaces when they can. ! Some food surfaces (melon rind, eggshell) limit the access of contaminating bacteria to the nutrients insideuntil the surface is disrupted. ! Foods that have a highly viscous or cellular structure limit the ability of bacteria to diffuse through the food matrix; molds tend to have enzymes that facilitate mycelial growth in foods. ! Because water and solutes cannot diffuse freely in some foods, local variations in Eh, aw, and pH are highly possible in some foods. ! High viscosity or strongly cellular structure can greatly limit heat transfer (both heating and cooling) in foods because conduction is slower than convection. Microflora ! As was mentioned above, bacteria in foods seldom occur in monoculture: there is almost always variety and competition. ! In addition to the competition for nutrients, microbial growth in food may lower Eh and pH; molds that use organic acids as carbon sources may raise the pH. ! Bacteria may produce acetic, lactic, and other acids as fermentation products; some produce bacteriocinsproteins that have a highly-specific lethal effect on closely related organisms.

150N - 7

! Accumulation of metabolites, rather than depletion of nutrients, may be responsible for the transition from logarithmic growth to stationary phase or death. In milk, the rapid producers of lactic acid (lactococci) are succeeded by slower acid producers (lactobacilli) that tolerate lower pH's, followed by acid-stable putrefactive (proteolytic) bacteria and finally molds, if the process runs its course. This is determined at least as much by how each organism tolerates the metabolites of its predecessors as by what nutrients are left.
Specific antimicrobial agents ! Preservatives are materials added to food specifically to inhibit microbial growth. Nitrite, a component of curing salts for meats, has an important effect in inhibiting growth of C. botulinum. Sorbates, benzoates, and many other salts of organic acids can delay food spoilage and often prevent multiplication of pathogens; these are not necessarily bactericidal (e.g., E. coli O157:H7 in chemically preserved apple cider). Gases such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide have a long history of use in foods; the latter is highly toxic to a small segment of the population. Spices especially those with strong flavors are often viewed as preservatives or disinfectants. Although some are able to inhibit bacterial growth under some circumstances (bacteriostasis), few or none are capable of killing bacteria in food. ! Radiation, both nonionizing and ionizing, have important antimicrobial applications Ultraviolet light is widely applicable to decontamination of food surfaces, food contact surfaces, and water used in food processing; its penetrating ability is limited, but efficiency of surface action can be enhanced by pulsed laser. application (some antimicrobial pulsed laser applications are based on visible light). Ionizing radiation (gamma rays, x-rays) can penetrate food and kill pathogens with very limited applications of energy; pasteurization treatments are more commercially attractive than sterilization treatments, but special diets for immune impaired people (as well as astronauts) and laboratory animals may be radiation sterilized. EVERYTHING AFFECTS EVERYTHING ELSE! ! The pH that permits growth of a bacterium near its optimal temperature may be limiting at a less favorable temperature. ! Safe foods can be designed by combining slightly unfavorable conditions for several parameters to ensure that target pathogens and spoilage organisms do not grow. ! Because this kind of food design has heavy safety implications, modeling (discussed last time) is used to make choices which are usually validated by inoculated-pack, productabuse trials before a new food product is marketed; we have seen that this fits into the HACCP approach as well.

150N - 8 Bibliography Buffo, R. A., and R. A. Holley. 2006. Effects of food processing on disease agents, pp. 713832. In Riemann, H. P., and D. O. Cliver, eds. 2006. Foodborne Infections and Intoxications, 3d ed. Academic Press (Elsevier), London, Amsterdam. Hajmeer, M. N., and D. O. Cliver. 2002. Microbiology of food preservation and sanitation, pp. 331352. In Cliver, D. O., and H. P. Riemann, eds. Foodborne Diseases, 2d ed., Academic Press, London. International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods. 1980. Microbial ecology of foods. Vol. 1. Factors affecting life and death of microorganisms. Academic Press, New York. International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods. 1996. Microorganisms in foods. 5. Characteristics of microbial pathogens. Blackie Academic & Professional, London. Pathogen Modeling Program: http://www.arserrc.gov/MFS/PATHOGEN.HTM

150N - 9 ECOLOGIC VALUES FOR SOME FOODBORNE BACTERIAL PATHOGENS (ICMSF, 1996)
Species C pH aw

$
Bacillus cereus Campylobacter jejuni Clostridium botulinuma Gp. I (proteolytic) Gp. II (nonproteolytic) Clostridium perfringens Escherichia coli (pathogenic) Listeria monocytogenes Salmonella spp.b Shigella sonnei Staphylococcus aureusa,b Streptococcus pyogenes Vibrio cholerae Vibrio parahaemolyticus Vibrio vulnificus Yersinia enterocolitica
a b

Opt. 3040 4243

#
55 45

$
5 4.9

Opt. 67 6.57.5

#
8.8 ~9

$
0.93 >0.997

Opt.

4 32

1012 3.3 12 ~78 0.4 5.2(7) 6.1 10 1015 10 5 8 1.3 4045 37 37 37 37 2527 4347 3540 37 3543 50 ~4446 45 46.2 47.1 48 4045 43 43 43 42

5 5.2 5.55.8 4.4 4.39 3.8 4.9 4.5 4.85.3 5 4.8 5 4.2 78 7 7.6 7.88.6 7.8 7.2 7.2 67 7.0 77.5 8.09.0 9.0 9.4 9.5 9.34 9.6 <9.3 9.6 11 10 <10

~0.94 ~0.97 0.93 0.95 0.92 0.94 5.18c 0.87 46.5c 0.97 0.94 0.96 <7c 0.984 0.981 0.98 0.998 0.996 0.997 0.98 >0.99 0.99 >0.99 0.950.96 0.995 0.97

Conditions for toxin production, rather than growth Other conditions optimal c Lowest % NaCl that inhibits, not expressed as aw

150N - 10 Addendum, from: Gavin, A., and L. M. Weddig (eds.). 1995. Canned foods: Principles of thermal process control, acidification, and container closure evaluation, 6th ed. Food Processors Institute, Washington, DC. Water activities of some common foods Food aw Liverwurst 0.96 Cheese spread 0.95 Fudge sauce 0.83 Semi-moist pet food 0.83 Salami 0.82 Soy sauce 0.80 Peanut butter15% total moisture 0.70 Dry milk8% total moisture 0.70 ___________________________________ Additional foods (other references) Food aw Fresh fruit or vegetables $0.97 Fresh poultry or fish $0.98 Fresh meats $0.95 Juices, fruit & vegetable 0.97 $0.91 Cheese, most types Honey 0.54-0.75 Cereals 0.10-0.20 Crackers 0.10 ____________________________________

Influence of product pH on required degree of thermal processing

Sp o re

Sp o re

Bacteria (Vegetative Cell)

Bacteria (with spore)

Bacteria (Vegetative Cell)

Bacteria (with spore)

Corn Meat Peas Asparagus Spinach Green Beans Beets Carrots Sweet Potatoes Tomatoes Apricots Pears Pineapple Cherries Plums Sauerkraut Berries pH 3.0 High Acid Foods pH 4.6 Low Acid Foods pH 7.0