TLE (Drafting, food, cosmetology, electricity, electronics, business math, entrepreneurship, masonry, plumbing and carpentry...

these are the 10 areas of TLE) but when I took the LET there were questions about DRESSMAKING...You need to study all of these, you have to read a lot, don't memorize, make sure you understand everything. Ooops wait! you also need to review philosophy, methods of teaching...these are under professional education...with general education, these are just basic math, English,Filipino...but of course you still need to refresh your coconut shell...coz general education is still 20%... (Followers if you have any question, don't hesitate to ask, I promise to answer all your 1. It is the period when one prepares for adulthood and maturity

Ans. Adolescense
2.This is when physical or bodily changes take place to boys and girls Ans. Physical Tasks 3. As an individual grows, the ability to think and reason out becomes deeper Ans. Mental Tasks

4. This is the time when an individual becomes interested in the opposite sex
Ans. Socio-Emotional Tasks

5. awareness of the changes that are taking place in their body.

Ans. Body Image

6. This is knowing what coavtion they wish to take that will prepare them in their future.
Ans. Career Decision 7. This is when adolescents struggle for independence from their parents. Ans. Independence from Parents 8. Uncooperative, quarrelsome, disagreeably critical, and prone to giving derogatory comments. Ans. Social Antogonism 9. Withdrawn from peer and family activities, do not communicate, give way to day dreaming and brooding about how they are misunderstood, shy, conscious of bodily changes and fearful of negative remarks. Ans. desire for isolation 10. Moody, quick in exhibiting temper outburst, anxious, and irritable. Ans.Emotional instability 11. Fearful of failure resulting from constant criticisms. Ans. Lack of self-confidence 12. These are activities that develop the teenager's skills for civic effieciency and competence. Ans. Volunteerism 13. It is a quality characterized of being truthful, absence of deceit and fraud; being fair in dealing with others

Ans. Honest 14. It is a condition characterized by full confidence of a person and the ability and integrity of another person Ans. Trusthworthy 15. It is thoughtfulness, always ready to help you Ans. Concern

Electricity comes from many sources. Some of the sources, such as fossil fuels, are disappearing because there is such a big demand for them. Scientists are researching new ways of generating electricity, so that if fossil fuels run out, there will be other sources. None of these alternative sources is ideal, but they all have their pros and cons. Here are some of the most popular sources of electricity; chose your favorite source in the poll on this page.

Solar energy is the energy that comes from the sun. We capture solar energy through solar panels. This

energy produces no pollution; also it doesnt taint anything. About the equivalent of 22 million barrels of oil of solar energy hits the United States alone per day. This might sound like the perfect energy but it is costly and besides, you cant be sure that the sun will shine brightly without cloud cover everywhere in the country every day.

Fossil fuel is a material that can be burned and that comes from the fossil remains of animals and plants, such as long-dead dinosaurs. Some examples of fossil fuels are coal, natural gas and petroleum. This source is currently available and it is not dependent upon the weather. Some of the problems of fossil fuel use are that it causes pollution, it is a nonrenewable resource and it needs to be mined from the earth. In addition, it causes acid precipitation which destroys life in lakes.

Hydroelectric energy is produced when water falls from a high place to a low place. A hydroelectric power station contains a turbine driven by falling water from a dam. The turbine drives the generator. This form of energy produces little pollution; in addition, it does not ruin the water. The water still can be used for other purposes. Hydroelectric power does not cost any more than fossil fuels. Another advantage is that there are a lot of lakes or rivers where a dam can be built to produce energy. One disadvantage is that fish, such as salmon, can not climb over the dam, so the dam changes the environment. Another disadvantage is that when a dam is built, a huge area is flooded to make a lake, so the water displaces the people and animals living there.

This energy is made by fusion or fission (if you don't know the terms go to the "about electricity" page.) It is produced in the reactor of a nuclear power station. The energy turns water into steam, which drives a turbine that powers a generator. Nuclear power produces lots of energy and can be made to power major cities. This energy, unlike other sources, produces lots of radioactive waste. If that waste gets released, it could cause devastation to a large area. In addition, it warms its waste water, so fish in the nearby lake might lay their eggs at any time of year in the warmed spot. Some fish, such as trout, cannot live in warm water.

Wind power is produced by the wind turning a turbine. Wind power, through using windmills, has been known for many centuries. This source of energy produces almost no pollution, and it is easy to capture in many parts of the United States. Some people think that the fields of windmills ruin the beauty of the land, and some other people are bothered by the noise generated by the windmills. Also, in order to be effective, the wind speed at a power site has to be over 12 kilometers per hour. Finally, this source of power is costly and requires special equipment.

Sources of Electricity Introduction Sources of electricity are everywhere in the world. Worldwide, there is a range of energy resources available to generate electricity. These energy resources fall into two main categories, often called renewable and non-renewable energy resources. Each of these resources can be used as a source to generate electricity, which is a very useful way

of transferring energy from one place to another such as to the home or to industry. Non-renewable sources of energy can be divided into two types: fossil fuels and nuclear fuel. Fossil fuels Sources of electricity include fossil fuels are found within the rocks of the Earth's surface. They are called fossil fuels because they are thought to have been formed many millions of years ago by geological processes acting on dead animals and plants, just like fossils. Coal, oil and natural gas are fossil fuels. Because they took millions of years to form, once they are used up they cannot be replaced. Oil and natural gas Sources of electricity include oil and gas are chemicals made from molecules containing just carbon and hydrogen. All living things are made of complex molecules of long strings of carbon atoms. Connected to these carbon atoms are others such as hydrogen and oxygen. A simple molecule, called methane (CH4), is the main component of natural gas. Crude oil (oil obtained from the ground) is a sticky, gooey black stuff. It contains many different molecules, but all are made of carbon and hydrogen atoms. How were they formed? Gas and oil were formed from the remains of small sea creatures and plants that died and fell to the bottom of seas. Over many millions of years, layers of mud or other sediments built up on top of these dead animals and plants. The pressure from these layers and heat from below the Earth's crust gradually changed the once-living material into oil and natural gas. Over time, the layers of rocks in the Earth's crust move and may become squashed and folded. Gas and oil may move through porous rocks and may even come to the surface. In some places, pockets of oil and gas can be found, because non-porous rocks have trapped them. Natural gas and crude oil can be found in many places around the world, such as the Middle East (about 70 per cent of the world's known resources of oil), the USA and under the North Sea off the coast of the UK. When gas and oil burn they produce mainly carbon dioxide and water, releasing the energy they contain. Crude oil is a mixture of different chemicals and is usually separated out into fuels such as petrol, paraffin, kerosene and heavy fuel oils. The oil-based fuels provide less energy per kilogram than natural gas. Both oil and natural gas produce carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas. How long will they last? Oil and gas are non-renewable: they will not last forever. New sources of oil and gas are constantly being sought. It is thought that the current resources under the North Sea will last about another 20 years and the world resources will last for about 70 years. Estimates vary, however, because we do not know where all the resources are and we do know how quickly we will use them. It is thought that with new discoveries these fossil fuels will last well into the next century. Advantages These sources of energy are relatively cheap and most are easy to get and can be used to generate electricity. Disadvantages

When these fuels are burned they produce the gas carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas and is a major contributor to global warming. Transporting oil around the world can produce oil slicks, pollute beaches and harm wildlife. Coal Sources of electricity can include coal, which mainly consists of carbon atoms that come from plant material from ancient swamp forests. It is a black solid that is reasonably soft. You can scratch it with a fingernail. It is not as soft as charcoal, however, and is quite strong. It can be carved into shapes. There are different types of coal. Some contain impurities such as sulphur that pollute the atmosphere further when they burn, contributing to acid rain. How was it formed? Millions of years ago, trees and other plants grew rapidly in a tropical climate, and when they died they fell into swamps. The water in the swamps prevented the plant material from decaying completely and peat was formed. As time passed, layer upon layer of peat built up. The pressure from these layers and heat from below the Earth's crust gradually changed the material into coal. Coal can be found in parts of the world that were once covered with swampy forests, such as the UK about 250 million years ago. There are large deposits in China, USA, Europe and Russia. South Africa also has relatively large deposits. When coal burns it produces mainly carbon dioxide, some carbon monoxide and soot (which is unburned carbon). Many coals when burned produce smoky flames. Their energy content weight for weight is not as great as oil. When coal burns it produces more carbon dioxide than oil. How long will the supply of coal last? The world has relatively large reserves of coal, more so than oil and gas. Estimates vary, but suggestions are that supplies will last well into the next century. Advantages Coal is relatively cheap, with large deposits left that are reasonably easy to obtain, some coal being close to the surface. It is relatively easy to transport because it is a solid. Disadvantages Some sources of coal are deep below the ground, as in the UK. They can be difficult, costly and dangerous to mine. Burning coal without first purifying it contributes to global warming, as well as to the production of smog (smoke and fog), which is harmful to health. It is a finite resource and will eventually run out.

Types of electricity
There are two types of Electricity, Static Electricity and Current Electricity. Static Electricity is made by rubbing together two or more objects and making friction while Current electricity is the flow of electric charge across an electrical field. Static Electricity

Static electricity is when electrical charges build up on the surface of a material. It is usually caused by rubbing materials together. The result of a build-up of static electricity is that objects may be attracted to each other or may even cause a spark to jump from one to the other. For Example rub a baloon on a wool and hold it up to the wall. Before rubbing, like all materials, the balloons and the wool sweater have a neutral charge. This is because they each have an equal number of positively charged subatomic particles (protons) and negatively charged subatomic particles (electrons). When you rub the balloon with the wool sweater, electrons are transferred from the wool to the rubber because of differences in the attraction of the two materials for electrons. The balloon becomes negatively charged because it gains electrons from the wool, and the wool becomes positively charged because it loses electrons. Current Electricity Current is the rate of flow of electrons. It is produced by moving electrons and it is measured in amperes. Unlike static electricity, current electricity must flow through a conductor, usually copper wire. Current with electricity is just like current when you think of a river. The river flows from one spot to another, and the speed it moves is the speed of the current. With electricity, current is a measure of the amount of energy transferred over a period of time. That energy is called a flow of electrons. One of the results of current is the heating of the conductor. When an electric stove heats up, it's because of the flow of current. There are different sources of current electricity including the chemical reactions taking place in a battery. The most common source is the generator. A simple generator produces electricity when a coil of copper turns inside a magnetic field. In a power plant, electromagnets spinning inside many coils of copper wire generate vast quantities of current electricity. There are two main kinds of electric current. Direct (DC) and Alternating (AC). It's easy to remember. Direct current is like the energy you get from a battery. Alternating current is like the plugs in the wall. The big difference between the two is that DC is a flow of energy while AC can turn on and off. AC reverses the direction of the electrons.

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT REQUIREMENTS A complete Electrical Circuit is required in order to make electricity practical. Electrons must flow from and return to the power source. There are three different circuit types, all require the same basic components: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Power Source is needed to supply the flow of electrons (electricity). Protection Device prevents damage to the circuit in the event of a short. Load Device converts the electricity into work. Control Device allows the user control to turn the circuit on or off Conductors provide an electrical path to and from the power source.

LOADS The illustration below has a horn in place of the lamp. Any device such as a lamp, horn, wiper motor, or rear window defogger, that consumes electricity is called a load. In an electrical circuit, all loads are regarded as resistance. Loads use up voltage and control the amount of current flowing in a circuit. Loads with high resistance cause less current to flow while those with lower resistance allow high current rates to flow.

AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICAL CIRCUITSx In an automotive electrical circuit, one end of the wire from each load returning to the battery is connected

to the vehicle body or frame. Therefore, the vehicle body or frame itself functions as a conductor, allowing current to flow though the body or frame and back to the battery. The body or frame is then referred to as the body ground (or earth) of the circuit (meaning that part of the circuit that returns the current to the battery).

WHAT IS OHM'S LAW? A simple relationship exists between voltage, current, and resistance in electrical circuits. Understanding this relationship is important for fast, accurate electrical problem diagnosis and repair. OHM'S LAW Ohm's Law says: The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and inversely proportional to the amount of resistance. This means that if the voltage goes up, the current flow will go up, and vice versa. Also, as the resistance goes up, the current goes down, and vice versa. Ohm's Law can be put to good use in electrical troubleshooting. But calculating precise values for voltage, current, and resistance is not always practical ... nor, really needed. A more practical, less time-consuming use of Ohm's Law would be to simply apply the concepts involved: SOURCE VOLTAGE is not affected by either current or resistance. It is either too low, normal, or too high. If it is too low, current will be low. If it is normal, current will be high if resistance is low, or current will be low if resistance is high. If voltage is too high, current will be high. CURRENT is affected by either voltage or resistance. If the voltage is high or the resistance is low, current will be high. If the voltage is low or the resistance is high, current will be low. RESISTANCE is not affected by either voltage or current. It is either too low, okay, or too high. If resistance is too low, current will be high at any voltage. If resistance is too high, current will be low if voltage is okay. NOTE: When the voltage stays the same, such as in an Automotive Circuit... current goes up as resistance goes down, and current goes down as resistance goes up. Bypassed devices reduce resistance, causing high current. Loose connections increase resistance, causing low current. OHM'S LAW FORMULA When voltage is applied to an electrical circuit, current flows in the circuit. The following special relationship exists among the voltage, current and resistance within the circuit: the size of the current that flows in a circuit varies in proportion to the voltage which is applied to the circuit, and in inverse proportion

to the resistance through which it must pass. This relationship is called Ohm's law, and can be expressed as follows:

E=IR
Voltage = Current x Resistance E Voltage applied to the circuit, in volts (V) I Current flowing in the circuit, in amperes (A) R Resistance in the circuit, in ohms

In practical terms "V = I x R" which means "Voltage = Current x Resistance". 1 volt will push one amp through 1 ohm of resistance. NOTE: E = IR, V=AR, or V=IR are all variations of the same formula. How you learned Ohm's law will determine which one you will use. Personal preference is the only difference; anyone will get you the correct answer. OHM'S LAW SYMBOL SHORTCUT Mathematical formulas can be difficult for many who don't use them regularly. Most people can remember a picture easier than a mathematical formula. By using the Ohms law symbol below, anyone can remember the correct formula to use. By knowing any two values you can figure out the third. Simply put your finger over the portion of the symbol you are trying to figure out and you have your formula.

What is an electrical circuit? An electrical circuit is a closed loop of "conducting " material in which electrical charges can move. Each charge is an electron, which moves through good conductors of electricity such as metals. Charges moving in the same general direction within a circuit is a current. This can be made with a copper wire, a battery, and a light bulb connected to form a closed loop or complete circuit. Charges need a "push" to move them in the same general direction to produce a current. This push is provided by a battery. What is a battery? A battery provides the energy of motion needed to make a light bulb glow. The energy released by chemical reactions within the battery is transferred to the light bulb as energy of motion carried by electrons. In the battery, chemical energy is stored in the bonds between the atoms of certain chemicals. A chemical reaction that breaks these bonds and releases energy results in the push that causes the electrical current. As long as the chemical reaction in the battery continues and the circuit remains closed, there will be a current. After all of the chemicals in the battery have undergone the chemical reaction, the battery is dead and the current stops. What is a light bulb? The glass part of the light bulb is a casing for a thin wire called a filament. Most of the air is removed from the bulb and replaced with an oxygen-free gas (inert) to prevent the filament from oxidizing (burning up) when it gets hot and glows. The filament is also part of the closed circuit. One end is connected to the little bump at the bottom of the light bulb and the other is connected to the bulbs threaded metal base. The filament is made of thin tungsten and resists the flow of current far more than metal wire of ordinary thickness, thus leading to glowing. The filament causes the electrons moving in one general direction to have more random motion, which produces the light. In summary, the resistance due to the filaments thinness acts to convert the electrical energy in the current into the energy of light. The basic refrigeration cycle for beginners If we are interested in learning how a refrigeration system works, it is helpful to understand from the Ph (Pressure Enthalpy) chart perspective. It makes our life easier. This is how the refrigeration cycle diagram looks:

Yeah, it seems complicated at first, but it will be easier to understand once I explain the refrigeration cycle diagram section by section. It is important to understand the basic refrigeration cycle, it help us to comprehend what is going on within the air conditioner units. The refrigeration cycle tells us if there is air in the air conditioner units, what to repair after troubleshooting the refrigeration system, if there is enough air conditioner Freon, or if the filter is dirty. We could know the entire thing by knowing the pressure and temperature of the evaporator, condenser, and compressor. Once we have found the pressure and temperature, we plot in the Ph charts to determine what and where sub-cooled and superheat take place in the Ph charts. Here is how a Ph charts looks:

The Ph chart graphically shows where the physical states of these four mechanical components is and what is happening to the refrigerant within these components. However, first lets understand air conditioning theory, the basic principle, types of heat, how hea t transfers and well discuss how the basic refrigeration cycle diagram works. Air conditioning theory There are two laws that are significant to understand the basic refrigeration cycle and air conditioning. Thermodynamics first law explains that energy cannot be neither created nor destroyed, but can be changed from one form to another.

Thermodynamics second law can help us better understand how the basic refrigeration cycle works. Once of these laws state that heat always flows from a material at a high temperature to a material at a low temperature. This is just the basic btw. If were interesting, we should take thermodynamic class. Well learn all the equation and calculation behind it. As I have mentioned in the residential air conditioning section, air conditioning (the refrigeration cycle) is a process that simply removes heat from an area that is not wanted and transfers that heat to an area that makes no difference. The air conditioner itself does not create heat, it just transfers heat. For heat to transfer, there has to be a temperature and pressure difference. In the refrigeration process there are two sections which produce a pressure difference: a high-pressure, high temperature section (condenser) and a low-pressure, low temperature section (evaporator).

The refrigeration system removes heat from an area that is low-pressure, low temperature (evaporator) into an area of high-pressure, high temperature (condenser). For example, if cold refrigerant (40F) flows through the evaporator and the air surrounding evaporator is 75F, the cold 40F will absorb the heat from the 75F space. By absorbing the heat from the warm space, it also cools the space. It then transfers that heats to condenser (high side) through compressor. A hot refrigerant from the compressor flows to a cooler location the condenser medium (air surround condenser) for example, the refrigerant will give up the hot vapor heat it absorbs from the indoor evaporator and becomes cool again and turns back to liquid. This is what the second thermodynamics law stated.

Air conditioning is a way to keep our home comfortable by controlling the temperature, air movement, cleanliness, humidity, or dehumidify for our comfort. To move heat from the evaporator to the condenser we need Ac Freon, and other mechanical components, therefore we need to understand how heat transfers. So how does heat transfer occur in the basic refrigeration cycle? Maybe we are wondering how hot 75F air transfers it heat to cool 40F refrigerant. Well, there are three methods of heat transfer. They are conduction, convection, and radiation or any combination of the three methods. Heat transfer is the movement of heat from solid, liquid or gas materials to other solid, liquid and gas materials. According to the second law of thermodynamics, heat always flows from a material at a high temperature to a material at a low temperature. For heat to transfer, there has to be a temperature difference between the two materials. Heat transfer by conduction is when we heat a copper pipe to 100F and grab that hot copper with our bare hand (I dont recommend that anyone should do that, its just for the example). That is molecule to molecule heat transfer. Radiation is the transfer of heat in an invisible ray, for example, sun ray. We cannot see it, but we can feel the sun ray hits our skin. Convection is the transfer of heat from one place to a different location by circulating it with a fan (force movement) or natural movement. Air conditioner refrigerant is a chemical substance that air conditioner units use; these refrigerants absorb heat from low-pressure, low temperature evaporator and condensing at a higher pressure, high temperature condenser. These refrigerants could be R-22, R 410a, or R134a. It depends on what kind of refrigerant the air conditioner units are designed for. Refrigerant can change state from vapor (by absorbing heat) to liquid (by condensing that heat). In residential, the Freon is R-22 and R410a.

Basic refrigeration cycle principles: 1. As refrigerant in the latent state or as vapor refrigerant in the process of changed state to liquid, this is the phase where it absorbs or rejects large quantities of heat. The quantities of heat absorbed or rejected can be managed by controlling the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant. 2. The boiling point of closed-system liquid can be controlled by changing the vapor pressure above it.

3. Gauge pressure is used to determine the pressure inside the closed refrigeration cycle system. Its expressed in pounds per square inch gauge (psig). 4. Heat flows from a material at a higher temperature to a material at low temperature. 5. Heat energy is not created but converted and transferred.

Cosmetology (from Greek , kosmtikos, "beautifying";

[1]

and -, -logia) is the study and

application ofbeauty treatment. Branches of specialty includes hairstyling, skin care, cosmetics, manicures/pedicures, and electrology. Hair stylist A hair stylist is someone who cuts and styles hair. He or she can also offer other services such as coloring, extensions, and straightening. Cosmetologists help their clients improve on or acquire a certain look with the right hairstyle. Hair stylists often style hair for weddings, proms, and other special events in addition to routine hairstyling. Hair Stylists are governed by their state cosmetology board. All specialties within cosmetology except for estheticians and nail technicians must hold a valid cosmetology license before working on the public. Hair colorist A colorist is a hair stylist that specializes in coloring hair. In the US, some colorists are board certified through the American Board of Certified Hair colorists. This designation is used to recognize colorists that have a greater level of competency in the industry. Shampoo technician A shampoo technician shampoos and conditions a client's hair in preparation for the hair stylist. This is generally an apprentice position and a first step for many just out of cosmetology school.

Estheticians Estheticians are licensed professionals who are experts in maintaining and improving healthy skin. An [4] esthetician's general scope of practice is limited to the epidermis (the outer layer of skin). Estheticians work in many different environments such as salons, med spas, day spas, skin care clinics, and private practice. Estheticians perform skin treatments that include hair removal (waxing, threading, tweezing, sugaring), facial massage, body treatments (wraps, exfoliation, hydrotherapy), skin care consultations, chemical exfoliation, eyelash and eyebrow tinting, eyelash extensions, aromatherapy, and makeup application. Estheticians may also specialize in machine treatments such as microdermabrasion, microcurrent (also called non-surgical "face lifts"), cosmetic electrotherapy treatments (glavanic current, high frequency), LED (light emitting diode), ultrasound/ultrasonic (low level), and mechanical massage [5][6] (vacuum and g8 vibratory). The esthetician may undergo special training for treatments such as laser hair removal, permanent makeup, and electrology. In the US, estheticians must be licensed in the state in which they are working and are governed by the cosmetology board of that state. Estheticians must complete a minimum 260 to 1500 hours of training and pass both a written and hands-on exam in order to [7] be licensed by the state. Additional post graduate training is sometimes required when specializing in areas such as medical esthetics (working in a doctors office). Estheticians work under a dermatologists supervision only when employed by the dermatologist's practice. Estheticians treat a wide variety of skin issues as long as cosmetic in nature, such as mild acne,hyperpigmentation, and aging skin. Skin disease and disorders are referred to a dermatologist or other medical professional. The word esthetician is an [8] alternative spelling of aesthetician, a derviation of the word aesthetic, or beauty. Nail technician A nail technician specializes in the art form and care of nails, which includes manicures, pedicures, acrylic nails, gel nails, nail wraps, artificial nails, and hand and foot massages. Although nail technicians are generally trained to recognize diseases of the skin and nail, they do not treat diseases and would typically refer a client to a physician. Nail Technicians are also called manicurists and are regulated by their states cosmetology board. Manicure A manicure is a cosmetic treatment for the fingernails or hands. The word manicure derives from Latin: manusfor "hand", cura for "care". When performed on the feet, such a treatment is a pedicure. Many manicures start by soaking the hands in a softening substance, followed by the application of lotion. A common type of manicure involves shaping the nails and applying nail polish. Some manicures can include the painting of pictures or designs on the nails, or applying small decals or imitation jewels. Makeup artist A makeup artist is in a branch of cosmetology that specializes in the application of cosmetics to a person's face, by using such products as foundation or powder, blush, or eye makeup. Makeup artists work in a variety of different scenarios: department store cosmetic counters, special events such as weddings/prom, salons/spas, theater and visual arts, photography studios, editorial fashion shoots, runway shows for designers/fashion schools, or television and film. They are not licensed by any state and will generally hold a cosmetology or esthetics license. Currently California is the only state in America that has a voluntary registration. Minimum education can vary depending on the specialty, for example [9] media make up or special effect make up require intensive training.
[3]

Electrologist An electrologist offers hair removal services with the use of a machine. Unlike the wax hair removal offered by an esthetician, hair removal via electrology is permanent.

Becoming a cosmetologist

Electric face mask, circa 1939

General cosmetology courses in the United States focus primarily on hairstyling, but also train students as general cosmetologists with minor training in nail technology and esthetics. In a state-licensed beauty school, a certificate course in general cosmetology typically takes approximately one year to complete. Specialized courses such as nail technology, esthetics, or makeup artist are usually of shorter duration, lasting anywhere from two weeks to six months. In higher learning institutions, an Associate's Degree can be earned in cosmetology. In the United States, all states require personal appearance workers (with the exception of shampooers in a small number of states) to be licensed; however, qualifications for a license vary by state. Licensing for those working with the Military, deceased, and handicapped may vary depending on the [10] state. Generally, a person must have graduated from a state-licensed cosmetology school. Some states require graduation from high school, while others require as little as an eighth-grade education. In a few states, the completion of an apprenticeship can substitute for graduation from a school. Applicants for a license usually are required to pass a written test and demonstrate an ability to perform basic barbering or cosmetology services. In most states, there is a legal distinction between barbers and cosmetologists, with different licensing requirements. These distinctions and requirements vary from state to state. In most states, cosmetology sanitation practices and ethical practices are governed by the state's health department and a Board of Cosmetology. These entities ensure public safety by regulating sanitation products and practices and licensing requirements. Consumer complaints are usually directed to these offices and investigated from there.

Occupational hazards
Many chemicals in salon products pose potential health risks, the majority of which are not well regulated. Examples of hazardous chemicals found in common treatments (e.g. hair coloring, straightening, perms,

relaxers, keratin treatments, Brazilian Blowouts, and nail treatments) include dibutyl phthalate, formaldehyde, lye (sodium hydroxide), ammonia, and coal tar. Allergies and dermatitis have forced [13] approximately 20% of hairdressers to stop practicing their profession.

Chemical exposures
Dibutyl phthalate
Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) is used in some nail enamels and hardeners. DBP is a plasticizer that is used because of its flexibility and film forming properties, making it an ideal ingredient in nail polishes. When a polish is applied, it dries to the nail as some of the other chemicals volatilize. DBP is a chemical that remains on the nail, making the polish less brittle and apt to crack. The chemical may not only be absorbed through the nail, but through the skin as well. When nail-polished hands are washed, small amounts of DBP can leach out of the polish and come into contact with the skin. The application of nail [14] polish can also provide an opportunity for skin absorption.

Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde is a colorless, strong smelling liquid that is highly volatile, making exposure to both workers and clients potentially unhealthy. Both the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) classify formaldehyde as a human carcinogen. Formaldehyde has been linked to nasal and lung cancer, with possible links to brain cancer and [15] leukemia. Growing evidence reveals that various popular hair-smoothing treatments contain formaldehyde and release formaldehyde as a gas. Four laboratories in California, Oregon, and Canada, confirmed a popular hair straightening treatment, the Brazilian Blowout, contained between 4% and 12% formaldehyde. Oregon OSHA demonstrated that other keratin-based hair smoothing products also contain [16] formaldehyde, with concentrations from 1% to 7%.

Salon worker exposure to formaldehyde and related health effects

Formaldehyde may be present in hair smoothing solutions or as a vapor in the air. Stylists and clients may inhale formaldehyde as a gas or a vapor into the lungs and respiratory tract. Formaldehyde vapor can also make contact with mucous membranes in the eyes, nose, or throat. Formaldehyde solutions may be absorbed through the skin during the application process of liquid hair straighteners. Solutions of formaldehyde can release formaldehyde gas at room temperature and heating such solutions can speed up this process. Exposure often occurs when heat is applied to the treatment, via blow drying and flat ironing. Stylists and clients have reported acute health problems while using or after using certain hair smoothing treatments containing formaldehyde. Reported problems include nose-bleeds, burning eyes and throat, skin irritation and asthma attacks. Other symptoms related to formaldehyde exposure include watery eyes; runny nose; burning sensation or irritation in the eyes, nose, and throat; dry and sore throat; respiratory tract irritation; coughing; chest pain; shortness of breath; wheezing; loss of sense of smell; [18] headaches; and fatigue.

OSHA requirements regarding formaldehyde

OSHA requires manufacturers, importers, and distributors to identify formaldehyde on any product that contains more than 0.1% formaldehyde (as a gas or in a solution), or if the product can release

formaldehyde at concentrations greater than 0.1 parts per million (ppm). Material safety data sheets (MSDS) must also be accompanied with the product and kept on premises with the product at all times. The MSDS must explain why a chemical in the product is hazardous, how it is harmful, how workers can [19] protect themselves, and what they should do in an emergency. Salon owners and stylists are advised to look closely at the hair smoothing products they use (read product labels and MSDS sheets) to see if they contain methylene glycol, formalin, methylene oxide, paraform, formic aldehyde, methanal, oxomethane, oxymethylene, or CAS Number 50-00-0. According to OSHA's Formaldehyde standard, a product containing any of these names should be treated as a product containing formaldehyde. OSHAs Hazard Communication standard ( Right to Know) states that salon owners and other employers' must have a MSDS for products containing hazardous chemicals. If salon owners or other employers decide to use products that contain or release formaldehyde they are required [19] to follow the guidelines in OSHAs Formaldehyde standard.

Foods
Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the body. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells in an effort to produce energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, people secured food through two methods: hunting and gathering, and agriculture. Today, most of the food energyconsumed by the world population is supplied by the food industry. Food safety and food security are monitored by agencies like theInternational Association for Food Protection, World Resources Institute, World Food Programme, Food and Agriculture Organization, and International Food Information Council. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, and access to food. The right to food is a human right derived from the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), recognizing the "right to an adequate standard of living, including adequate food," as well as the "fundamental right to be free from hunger."

Food sources
Most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants; but even animals that are used as food sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a staple food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Maize, wheat, andrice in all [2] of their varieties account for 87% of all grain production worldwide. Most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock. Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, especially mushrooms. Fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue] green algae such as Spirulina Inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient.

Plants
See also: Herb and spice Many plants or plant parts are eaten as food. There are around 2,000 plant species which are cultivated [4] for food, and many have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a good source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plant's initial growth, including many healthful fats, such as Omega fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods. Edible seeds include cereals (maize, wheat, rice,et cetera), legumes (beans, peas, lentils, et cetera), and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils [5] sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed (including canola oil), sesame, et cetera. Seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, while seeds from applesand cherries contain a poison (cyanide). Fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants have evolved fruits that are attractive as a food source to animals, so that animals will eat the fruits and excrete the seeds some distance away. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures. Some botanical [6] fruits, such astomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. (For more information, see list of fruits.) Vegetables are a second type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables(potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family), leaf vegetables (spinach and lettuce), stem vegetables (bambooshoots and asparagus), and inflorescence vegetables (globe [7] artichokes and broccoli and other vegetables such as cabbage or cauliflower).

Animals

Main articles: Animal source foods and Food chain Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce. Meat is an example of a direct product taken from an animal, which comes from muscle systems or from organs. Food products produced by animals include milk produced by mammary glands, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into dairy products (cheese, butter, etc.). In addition, birds and other animals lay eggs, which are often eaten, and bees produce honey, a reduced nectar from flowers, which is a popular sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures consume blood, sometimes in the form of blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, or in a cured, salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as jugged [8] hare. Some cultures and people do not consume meat or animal food products for cultural, dietary, health, ethical, or ideological reasons. Vegetarians choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Vegans do not consume any foods that are or contain ingredients from an animal source.

Production

Tractor and Chaser bin

Main articles: Agriculture, Food industry, and Genetically modified food Most food has always been obtained through agriculture. With increasing concern over both the methods and products of modernindustrial agriculture, there has been a growing trend towardsustainable agricultural practices. This approach, partly fueled by consumer demand, encourages biodiversity, local [9] self-reliance andorganic farming methods. Major influences on food production include international organizations (e.g. the World Trade Organization and Common Agricultural Policy), national government [10] policy (or law), and war. In popular culture, the mass production of food, specifically meats such as chicken and beef, has come under fire from various documentaries, most recently Food, Inc, documenting the mass slaughter and poor treatment of animals, often for easier revenues from large corporations. Along with a current trend towardsenvironmentalism, people in Western culture have had an increasing trend towards the use of herbal supplements, foods for a specific group of person (such as dieters, women, or [11] athletes), functional foods(fortified foods, such as omega-3 eggs), and a more ethnically diverse diet. Several organisations have begun calling for a new kind of agriculture in which agroecosystems provide food but also support vital ecosystem services so that soil fertility and biodiversity are maintained rather than compromised. According to the International Water Management Institute and UNEP, well-managed agroecosystems not only provide food, fiber and animal products, they also provide services such as flood mitigation, groundwater recharge, erosion control and habitats for plants, birds fish and other [12] animals.

Main article: Taste perception Animals, specifically humans, have five different types of tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. As animals have evolved, the tastes that provide the most energy (sugar and fats) are the most pleasant to [13] eat while others, such as bitter, are not enjoyable. Water, while important for survival, has no [14] taste. Fats, on the other hand, especially saturated fats, are thicker and rich and are thus considered more enjoyable to eat.

Sweet

Structure of sucrose

Generally regarded as the most pleasant taste, sweetness is almost always caused by a type of simple sugar such as glucose or fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose, a molecule combining [15] glucose and fructose. Complex carbohydrates are long chains and thus do not have the sweet taste. Artificial sweeteners such as sucralose are used to mimic the sugar molecule, creating the sensation of sweet, without the calories. Other types of sugar include raw sugar, which is known for its amber color, as it is unprocessed. As sugar is vital for energy and survival, the taste of sugar is pleasant. The stevia plant contains a compound known as steviol which, when extracted, has 300 times the [16] sweetness of sugar while having minimal impact on blood sugar.

Sour
Sourness is caused by the taste of acids, such as vinegar in alcoholic beverages. Sour foods include citrus, specifically lemons, limes, and to a lesser degree oranges. Sour is evolutionarily significant [17] as it is a sign for a food that may have gone rancid due to bacteria. Many foods, however, are slightly acidic, and help stimulate the taste buds and enhance flavor.

Salty
Salt mounds in Bolivia.

Saltiness is the taste of alkali metal ions such as sodium andpotassium. It is found in almost every food in low to moderate proportions to enhance flavor, although to eat pure salt is regarded as highly unpleasant. There are many different types of salt, with each having a different degree of saltiness, including sea salt, fleur de sel, kosher salt, mined salt, and grey salt. Other than enhancing flavor, its significance is that the body needs and maintains a delicate electrolyte balance, which is the kidney's function. Salt may be iodized, meaning iodine has been added to it, a necessary nutrient that promotes thyroid function. Some canned foods, notably soups or packaged broths, tend to be high in salt as a means of preserving the food longer. Historically speaking, salt has been used as a meat preservative as salt promotes water [18] excretion, thus working as a preservative. Similarly, dried foods also promote food safety.

Bitter
Bitterness is a sensation often considered unpleasant characterized by having a sharp, pungent taste. Dark, unsweetened chocolate, caffeine, lemon rind, and some types of fruit are known to be bitter.

Umami
Umami, the Japanese word for delicious, is the least known in Western popular culture but has a long tradition in Asian cuisine. Umami is the taste of glutamates, especially monosodium [15] glutamate (MSG). It is characterized as savory, meaty, and rich in flavor. Salmon and mushrooms are [citation needed] foods high in umami. Meat and other animal byproducts are described as having this taste.

Cuisine
Main articles: Cuisine, Regional cuisine, and Global cuisines Many cultures have a recognizable cuisine, a specific set of cooking traditions using various spices or a combination of flavors unique to that culture, which evolves over time. Other differences include preferences (hot or cold, spicy, etc.) and practices, the study of which is known as gastronomy. Many cultures have diversified their foods by means of preparation, cooking methods, and manufacturing. This

also includes a complex food trade which helps the cultures to economically survive by way of food, not just by consumption. Some popular types of ethnic foods include Italian, French, Japanese, Chinese, American, Cajun, Thai, African, and Indian cuisine. Various cultures throughout the world study the dietary analysis of food habits. While evolutionarily speaking, as opposed to culturally, humans are omnivores, religion and social constructs such as morality, activism, or environmentalism will often affect which foods they will consume. Food is eaten and typically enjoyed through the sense of taste, the perception of flavor from eating and drinking. Certain tastes are more enjoyable than others, for evolutionary purposes.

Presentation

A French basil salmon terrine, with eye-appealing garnishes

Main article: Food presentation Aesthetically pleasing and eye-appealing food presentations can encourage people to consume foods. A common saying is that people "eat with their eyes". Food presented in a clean and appetizing way will [19][20] encourage a good flavor, even if unsatisfactory.

Contrast in texture
Texture plays a crucial role in the enjoyment of eating foods. Contrasts in textures, such as something crunchy in an otherwise smooth dish, may increase the appeal of eating it. Common examples include adding granola to yogurt, adding croutons to asalad or soup, and toasting bread to enhance its [21] crunchiness for a smooth topping, such as jam or butter.

Contrast in taste
Another universal phenomenon regarding food is the appeal of contrast in taste and presentation. For example, such opposite flavors as sweetness and saltiness tend to go well together, as in kettle corn and nuts.

Food preparation
Main article: Outline of food preparation While many foods can be eaten raw, many also undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety,palatability, texture, or flavor. At the simplest level this may involve washing, cutting, trimming, or adding other foods or ingredients, such as spices. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling, pressure cooking, fermentation, or combination with other food. In a home, most food preparation takes place in a kitchen. Some preparation is done to enhance the taste or aesthetic appeal; other preparation may help

to preserve the food; others may be involved in cultural identity. A meal is made up of food which is [22] prepared to be eaten at a specific time and place.

Animal preparation
The preparation of animal-based food usually involves slaughter,evisceration, hanging, portioning, and rendering. In developed countries, this is usually done outside the home inslaughterhouses, which are used to process animals en masse for meat production. Many countries regulate their slaughterhouses by law. For example, the United States has established the Humane Slaughter Act of 1958, which requires that an animal be stunned before killing. This act, like those in many countries, exempts slaughter in accordance to religious law, such as kosher, shechita, and dhabia halal. Strict [23] interpretations of kashrut require the animal to be fully aware when its carotid artery is cut. On the local level, a butcher may commonly break down larger animal meat into smaller manageable cuts, and pre-wrap them for commercial sale or wrap them to order in butcher paper. In addition, fish and seafood may be fabricated into smaller cuts by a fish monger. However fish butchery may be done [24] on board a fishing vessel and quick-frozen for preservation of quality.

Cooking
Cooking with a wok in China

Main article: Cooking The term "cooking" encompasses a vast range of methods, tools, and combinations of ingredients to improve the flavor or digestibility of food. Cooking technique, known as culinary art, generally requires the selection, measurement, and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure in an effort to achieve the desired result. Constraints on success include the variability of ingredients, ambient conditions,tools, and [25] the skill of the individual cook. The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the myriad [26] nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural, and religious considerations that affect it. Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually, though not always, chemically changes the [27] molecules, thus changing its flavor,texture, appearance, and nutritional properties. Cooking certain proteins, such as egg whites, meats, and fish, denatures the protein, causing it to firm. There is archaeological evidence of roasted foodstuffs at Homo erectus campsites dating from 420,000 years [28] ago. Boiling as a means of cooking requires a container, and has been practiced at least since the 10th [29] millennium BC with the introduction of pottery.

Cooking equipment
A traditional asado (barbecue)

Main article: Cookware and bakeware There are many different types of equipment used for cooking. Ovens are mostly hollow devices that get very hot (up to 500 F) and are used for baking or roasting and offer a dry-heat cooking method. Different cuisines will use different types of ovens; for example, Indian culture uses a Tandoor oven, which is a cylindrical clay oven which operates at a single high [30] temperature. Western kitchens use variable temperature convection ovens, conventional ovens, toaster

ovens, or non-radiant heat ovens like the microwave oven. Classic Italian cuisine includes the use of a [31] brick oven containing burning wood. Ovens may be wood-fired, coal-fired, gas, electric, or oil-fired. Various types of cook-tops are used as well. They carry the same variations of fuel types as the ovens mentioned above. Cook-tops are used to heat vessels placed on top of the heat source, such as a saut pan, sauce pot, frying pan, or pressure cooker. These pieces of equipment can use either a moist or dry cooking method and include methods such as steaming, simmering, boiling, andpoaching for moist [32] methods, while the dry methods includesauting, pan frying, and deep-frying. In addition, many cultures use grills for cooking. A grill operates with a radiant heat source from below, usually covered with a metal grid and sometimes a cover. An open pit barbecue in the American south is one example along with the American style outdoor grill fueled by wood, liquid propane, or charcoal along [33] with soaked wood chips for smoking. A Mexican style of barbecue is called barbacoa, which involves the cooking of meats such as whole sheep over an open fire. In Argentina, an asado (Spanish for "grilled") is prepared on a grill held over an open pit or fire made upon the ground, on which a whole [34] animal or smaller cuts are grilled.

Raw food preparation

Many types of fish ready to be eaten, including salmon and tuna.

Main article: Raw foodism Certain cultures highlight animal and vegetable foods in their raw state. Salads consisting of raw vegetables or fruits are common in many cuisines. Sashimi in Japanese cuisine consists of raw slicedfish or other meat, and sushi often incorporates raw fish or seafood.Steak tartare and salmon tartare are dishes made from diced or ground raw beef or salmon, mixed with various ingredients and [35] served with baguettes, brioche, or frites. In Italy, carpaccio is a dish of very thinly sliced raw beef, [36] drizzled with a vinaigrette made with olive oil. The health food movement known as raw foodismpromotes a mostly vegan diet of raw fruits, vegetables, and grains prepared in various ways, including juicing, food dehydration, sprouting, and other methods of preparation that do not heat the food [37] above 118 F(47.8 C). An example of a raw meat dish is ceviche, a Latin American dish made with raw meat that is "cooked" from the highly acidic citric juice from lemons and limes along with other aromatics such as garlic.

Restaurants
Main article: Restaurant Restaurants employ trained chefs who prepare food, and trained wait staff to serve the customers. The term restaurant is credited to the French from the 19th century, as it relates to the restorative nature of the bouillons that were once served in them. However, the concept pre-dates the naming of these establishments, as evidence suggests commercial food preparation may have existed during the age of the city of Pompeii, and urban sales of prepared foods may have existed in China during the Song Dynasty. The coffee shops or cafs of 17th century Europe may also be considered an early version of [38] the restaurant. In 2005, the population of the United States spent $496 billion for out-of-home dining. Expenditures by type of out-of-home dining were as follows: 40% in full-service restaurants, 37.2% in limited service restaurants (fast food), 6.6% in schools or colleges, 5.4% in bars and vending machines,

4.7% in hotels and motels, 4.0% in recreational places, and 2.2% in others, which includes military [39] bases.

Food manufacturing
Packaged household food items

Main article: Food manufacture Packaged foods are manufactured outside the home for purchase. This can be as simple as a butcher preparing meat, or as complex as a modern international food industry. Early food processing techniques were limited by available food preservation, packaging, and transportation. This mainly [40] involved salting, curing, curdling,drying, pickling, fermenting, and smoking. Food manufacturing arose [41] during the industrial revolution in the 19th century. This development took advantage of new mass markets and emerging new technology, such as milling, preservation, packaging andlabeling, and transportation. It brought the advantages of pre-prepared time-saving food to the bulk of ordinary people [42] who did not employ domestic servants. At the start of the 21st century, a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few international food processing giants controlling a wide range of well-known food brands. There also exists a wide array of small local or [43] national food processing companies. Advanced technologies have also come to change food manufacture. Computer-based control systems, sophisticated processing and packaging methods, and logistics anddistribution advances can enhance product quality, improve food safety, and reduce [42] costs.

Commercial trade
International exports and imports
The World Bank reported that the European Union was the top food importer in 2005, followed at a distance by the USA and Japan. Food is now traded and marketed on a global basis. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the [44] local growing season. Between 1961 and 1999, there was a 400% increase in worldwide food [45] exports. Some countries are now economically dependent on food exports, which in some cases [46] account for over 80% of all exports. In 1994, over 100 countries became signatories to the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in a dramatic increase in trade liberalization. This included an agreement to reduce subsidies paid to farmers, underpinned by the WTO enforcement of agricultural subsidy, tariffs, [47] import quotas, and settlement of trade disputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved. Where trade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of public health and safety, the WTO refer the dispute to the Codex Alimentarius Commission, which was founded in 1962 by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Health Organization. Trade liberalization has greatly affected [48] world food trade.

Marketing and retailing

Main article: Food marketing Food marketing brings together the producer and the consumer. It is the chain of activities that brings [49] food from "farm gate to plate". The marketing of even a single food product can be a complicated

process involving many producers and companies. For example, fifty-six companies are involved in making one can of chicken noodle soup. These businesses include not only chicken and vegetable processors but also the companies that transport the ingredients and those who print labels and [50] manufacture cans. The food marketing system is the largest direct and indirect non-government employer in the United States. In the pre-modern era, the sale of surplus food took place once a week when farmers took their wares on market day into the local village marketplace. Here food was sold to grocers for sale in their local shops [26][42] for purchase by local consumers. With the onset of industrialization and the development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food could be sold and distributed in distant locations. Typically early grocery shops would be counter-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they [26][51] wanted, so that the shop-keeper could get it for them. In the 20th century, supermarkets were born. Supermarkets brought with them a self service approach to shopping using shopping carts, and were able to offer quality food at lower cost through economies of scaleand reduced staffing costs. In the latter part of the 20th century, this has been further revolutionized by the development of vast warehouse-sized, out-of-town supermarkets, selling a wide range of food from [52] around the world. Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large companies control a large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield great purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, less than 10% of consumer spending on food goes to farmers, with larger percentages going to advertising, [53] transportation, and intermediate corporations.

Prices
Some essential food products includingbread, rice and pasta

Main articles: 20072008 world food price crisis and Food vs. fuel It was reported on March 24, 2008, that consumers worldwide faced rising food prices. Reasons for this development include changes in the weather and dramatic changes in the global economy, including [54] higher oil prices, lower food reserves, and growing consumer demand in China and India. In the long [54] term, prices are expected to stabilize. Farmers will grow more grain for both fuel and food and [54] [55][56] eventually bring prices down. Already this is happening with wheat, with more crops to be planted in the United States, Canada, and Europe in 2009. However, theFood and Agriculture [54] Organization projects that consumers still have to deal with more expensive food until at least 2018. It is rare for the spikes to hit all major foods in most countries at once. Food prices rose 4% in the United States in 2007, the highest increase since 1990, and are expected to climb as much again in 2008. As of December 2007, 37 countries faced food crises, and 20 had imposed some sort of food-price controls. In China, the price of pork jumped 58% in 2007. In the 1980s and 1990s, farm subsidies and support programs allowed major grain exporting countries to hold large surpluses, which could be tapped during food shortages to keep prices down. However, new trade policies have made agricultural production [54] much more responsive to market demands, putting global food reserves at their lowest since 1983.
[54]

Food prices are rising, wealthier Asian consumers are westernizing their diets, and farmers and nations of the third world are struggling to keep up the pace. The past five years have seen rapid growth in the contribution of Asian nations to the global fluid and powdered milk manufacturing industry, which in 2008 accounted for more than 30% of production, while China alone accounts for more than 10% of both production and consumption in the global fruit and vegetable processing and preserving industry. The trend is similarly evident in industries such as soft drink and bottled water manufacturing, as well as global cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery manufacturing, forecast to grow by 5.7% and 10.0% [57] respectively during 2008 in response to soaring demand in Chinese and Southeast Asian markets. Rising food prices over recent years have been linked with social unrest around the world, including [58] [citation needed] rioting inBangladesh and Mexico, and the Arab Spring.

As investment
Institutions such as hedge funds, pension funds and investment banks like Barclays Capital, Goldman [58] Sachsand Morgan Stanley have been instrumental in pushing up prices in the last five years, with investment in food commodities rising from $65bn to $126bn (41bn to 79bn) between 2007 and 2012, contributing to 30-year highs. This has caused price fluctuations which are not strongly related to the [58] actual supply of food, according to the United Nations. Financial institutions now make up 61% of all investment in wheat futures. According to Olivier De Schutter, the UN special rapporteur on food, there was a rush by institutions to enter the food market following George W Bush's Commodities Futures [58] Modernization Act of 2000. De Schutter told the Independent in March 2012: "What we are seeing now is that these financial markets have developed massively with the arrival of these new financial investors, who are purely interested in the short-term monetary gain and are not really interested in the physical thing they never actually buy the ton of wheat or maize; they only buy a promise to buy or to sell. The result of this financialisation of the commodities market is that the prices of the products respond increasingly to a purely speculative logic. This explains why in very short periods of time we see prices spiking or bubbles exploding, because prices are less and less determined by the real match between [58] supply and demand." In 2011, 450 economists from around the world called on theG20 to regulate the [58] commodities market more. Some experts have said that speculation has merely aggravated other factors, such as climate change, [58] competition with bio-fuels and overall rising demand. However, some such as Jayati Ghosh, professor of economics at Jawaharlal Nehru University in New Delhi, have pointed out that prices have increased irrespective of supply and demand issues: Ghosh points to world wheat prices, which doubled in the [58] period from June to December 2010, despite there being no fall in global supply.

Famine and hunger

Food deprivation leads to malnutrition and ultimately starvation. This is often connected with famine, which involves the absence of food in entire communities. This can have a devastating and widespread effect on human health and mortality. Rationing is sometimes used to distribute food in times of shortage, [10] most notably during times of war. Starvation is a significant international problem. Approximately 815 million people are undernourished, [59] and over 16,000 children die per day from hunger-related causes. Food deprivation is regarded as a [60] deficit need inMaslow's hierarchy of needs and is measured using famine scales.

Food aid

Main article: Food aid Food aid can benefit people suffering from a shortage of food. It can be used to improve peoples' lives in the short term, so that a society can increase its standard of living to the point that food aid is no longer [61] required. Conversely, badly managed food aid can create problems by disrupting local markets, depressing crop prices, and discouraging food production. Sometimes a cycle of food aid dependence [62] can develop. Its provision, or threatened withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the policies of the destination country, a strategy known as food politics. Sometimes, food aid provisions will require certain types of food be purchased from certain sellers, and food aid can be misused to [63] enhance the markets of donor countries. International efforts to distribute food to the neediest countries [64] are often coordinated by the World Food Programme.

Safety
Main article: Food safety
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) Flowchart

Foodborne illness, commonly called "food poisoning", is caused bybacteria, toxins,viruses, parasites, and prions. Roughly 7 million people die of food poisoning each year, with about 10 times as many [65] suffering from a non-fatal version. The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control. Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as "foreign bodies") during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution, or sale. These foreign bodies can include pests or their droppings, hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, and all manner of other contaminants. It is possible for certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a [65] ceramic pot with lead-based glaze. Food poisoning has been recognized as a disease since as early as Hippocrates. The sale of rancid, contaminated, or adulterated food was commonplace until the introduction of hygiene, refrigeration, and vermin controls in the 19th century. Discovery of techniques for killing bacteria using heat, and other microbiologicalstudies by scientists such as Louis Pasteur, contributed to the modern sanitation standards that are ubiquitous in developed nations today. This was further underpinned by the work of Justus von Liebig, which led to the development of modern food storage and food [67] preservation methods. In more recent years, a greater understanding of the causes of food-borne illnesses has led to the development of more systematic approaches such as the Hazard Analysis and [68] Critical Control Points (HACCP), which can identify and eliminate many risks. Recommended measures for ensuring food safety include maintaining a clean preparation area with foods of different types kept separate, ensuring an adequate cooking temperature, and refrigerating foods [69] promptly after cooking. Foods that spoil easily, such as meats, dairy, and seafood, must be prepared a certain way to avoid contaminating the people for whom they are prepared. As such, the general rule of thumb is that cold foods (such as dairy products) should be kept cold and hot foods (such as soup) should be kept hot until
[66]

storage. Cold meats, such as chicken, that are to be cooked should not be placed at room temperature [70] for thawing, at the risk of dangerous bacterial growth, such as Salmonella or E. coli.

Allergies
Main article: Food allergy Some people have allergies or sensitivities to foods which are not problematic to most people. This occurs when a person's immune system mistakes a certain food protein for a harmful foreign agent and [71] attacks it. About 2% of adults and 8% of children have a food allergy. The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a particularly susceptible individual can be quite small. In some instances, traces of food in the air, too minute to be perceived through smell, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in extremely sensitive individuals. Common food allergens [71] are gluten, corn, shellfish (mollusks), peanuts, and soy. Allergens frequently produce symptoms such as diarrhea, rashes, bloating, vomiting, and regurgitation. The digestive complaints usually develop within [71] half an hour of ingesting the allergen. Rarely, food allergies can lead to a medical emergency, such as anaphylactic shock, hypotension (low blood pressure), and loss of consciousness. An allergen associated with this type of reaction is peanut, [71] althoughlatex products can induce similar reactions. Initial treatment is with epinephrine (adrenaline), [72][73] often carried by known patients in the form of an Epi-pen or Twinject.

Other health issues

Human diet was estimated to cause perhaps around 35% of cancers in a human epidemiological analysis [74] byRichard Doll and Richard Peto in 1981. These cancer may be caused by carcinogens that are present in food naturally or as contaminants. Food contaminated with fungal growth may contain mycotoxins such asaflatoxins which may be found in contaminated corn and peanuts. Other carcinogens identified in food includeheterocyclic amines generated in meat when cooked at high temperature, polyaromatic hydrocarbons in charred meat and smoked fish, and nitrosamines generated [75] from nitrites used as food preservatives in cured meat such as bacon. Anticarcinogens that may help prevent cancer can also be found in many food especially fruits and vegetable.Antioxidants are important groups of compounds that may help remove potentially harmful chemicals. It is however often difficult to identify the specific components in diet that serve to increase or decrease cancer risk since many food, such as beef steak and broccoli, contain low concentrations of [75] both carcinogens and anticarcinogens.

Diet
Main article: Diet (nutrition)

Cultural and religious diets

Dietary habits are the habitual decisions a person or culture makes when choosing what foods to [76] eat. Many cultures hold some food preferences and some food taboos. Dietary choices can also define cultures and play a role in religion. For example, only kosher foods are permitted by Judaism, halal foods [77] by Islam, and inHinduism beef is restricted. In addition, the dietary choices of different countries or regions have different characteristics. This is highly related to a culture's cuisine.

Diet deficiencies

Main article: Avitaminosis Dietary habits play a significant role in the health and mortality of all humans. Imbalances between the consumed fuels and expended energy results in either starvation or excessive reserves of adipose tissue, [78] known as body fat. Poor intake of various vitamins and minerals can lead to diseases that can have farreaching effects on health. For instance, 30% of the world's population either has, or is at risk for [79] developing,iodine deficiency. It is estimated that at least 3 million children are blind due to vitamin [80] [81] A deficiency. Vitamin C deficiency results in scurvy. Calcium, Vitamin D, and phosphorus are interrelated; the consumption of each may affect the absorption of the others. Kwashiorkor and marasmus are [82] childhood disorders caused by lack of dietary protein.

Moral, ethical, and health-conscious diets

Many individuals limit what foods they eat for reasons of morality, or other habit. For instance, vegetarianschoose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees. Others choose a healthier diet, avoiding sugars or animal fats and increasing consumption of dietary fiber [83] and antioxidants. Obesity, a serious problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of [84] developing heart disease, diabetes, and many other diseases. More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about possible impacts on health or the environment [85] from genetically modified food. Further concerns about the impact of industrial farming (grains) on animal welfare, human health, and the environment are also having an effect on contemporary human dietary habits. This has led to the emergence of a movement with a preference for organic and local [86] food.

Nutrition and dietary problems

MyPlate replaced MyPyramid as theUSDA nutrition guide.

Between the extremes of optimal health and death from starvationor malnutrition, there is an array of disease states that can be caused or alleviated by changes in diet. Deficiencies, excesses, and imbalances in diet can produce negative impacts on health, which may lead to various health problems such as scurvy, obesity, or osteoporosis, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases as well as psychological and behavioral problems. The science of nutrition attempts to understand how and why specific dietary aspects influence health. Nutrients in food are grouped into several categories. Macronutrients are fat, protein, and carbohydrates. Micronutrients are the minerals and vitamins. Additionally, food contains water anddietary fiber. As previously discussed, the body is designed by natural selectionto enjoy sweet and fattening foods for evolutionary diets, ideal for hunters and gatherers. Thus, sweet and fattening foods in nature are typically rare and are very pleasurable to eat. In modern times, with advanced technology, enjoyable foods are easily available to consumers. Unfortunately, this promotes obesity in adults and children alike.

Legal definition
Some countries list a legal definition of food. These countries list food as any item that is to be processed, partially processed, or unprocessed for consumption. The listing of items included as foodstuffs include any substance intended to be, or reasonably expected to be, ingested by humans. In addition to these foodstuffs, drink, chewing gum, water, or other items processed into said food items are part of the legal

definition of food. Items not included in the legal definition of food include animal feed, live animals (unless being prepared for sale in a market), plants prior to harvesting, medicinal products, cosmetics, tobacco and tobacco products,narcotic or psychotropic substances, and residues [87] and contaminants.

Types of food
Comfort food Fast food Junk food Natural food Organic food Slow food Whole food Cooking or cookery is the art or practice of preparing food for consumption with the use of heat. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely across the world, reflecting unique environmental, economic, and cultural traditions. Cooks themselves also vary widely in skill and training. Cooking can also occur through chemical reactions without the presence of heat, most notably as in Ceviche, a traditional South American dish where fish is cooked with the acids in lemon or lime juice. Sushi also uses a similar chemical reaction between fish and the acidic content of rice glazed with vinegar.
Chicken, pork and bacon-wrapped corncooked in a barbecue smoker

Preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans, and some scientists believe the [1] advent of cooking played an important role in human evolution. Most anthropologists believe that cooking fires first developed around 250,000 years ago. The development of agriculture, commerce and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients. New inventions and technologies, such as pottery for holding and boiling water, expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food preparation

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates include the common sugar, sucrose (table sugar), a disaccharide, and such simple sugars as glucose (from the digestion of table sugar) and fructose (from fruit), and starches from sources such as cereal flour, rice, arrowroot, and potato. The interaction of heat and carbohydrate is complex. Long-chain sugars such as starch tend to break down into simpler sugars when cooked, while simple sugars can form syrups. If sugars are heated so that all water of crystallisation is driven off, thencaramelization starts, with the sugar undergoing thermal decomposition with the formation of carbon, and other breakdown products producing caramel. Similarly, the heating of sugars and proteins elicits the Maillard reaction, a basic flavor-enhancing technique.

An emulsion of starch with fat or water can, when gently heated, provide thickening to the dish being cooked. In European cooking, a mixture of butter and flour called a roux is used to thicken liquids to make stews or sauces. In Asian cooking, a similar effect is obtained from a mixture of rice or corn starch and water. These techniques rely on the properties of starches to create simpler mucilaginoussaccharides during cooking, which causes the familiar thickening of sauces. This thickening will break down, however, under additional heat.

Fats
Types of fat include vegetable oils, animal products such as butter and lard, as well as fats from grains, including corn andflax oils. Fats can reach temperatures higher than the boiling point of water, and are often used to conduct high heat to other ingredients, such as in frying or sauting.

Proteins
Edible animal material, including muscle, offal, milk, eggs andegg whites, contains substantial amounts of protein. Almost all vegetable matter (in particular legumes and seeds) also includes proteins, although generally in smaller amounts. Mushrooms have high protein content. Any of these may be sources of essential amino acids. When proteins are heated they become denatured (unfolded) and change texture. In many cases, this causes the structure of the material to become softer or more friable meat becomes cooked and is more friable and less flexible. In some cases, proteins can form more rigid structures, such as the coagulation of albumen in egg whites. The formation of a relatively rigid but flexible matrix from egg white provides an important component in baking cakes, and also underpins many desserts based on meringue.

Vitamins and minerals

Vitamins are materials required for normal metabolism but which the body cannot manufacture itself and which must therefore come from external sources. Vitamins come from several sources including fresh fruit and vegetables (Vitamin C), carrots, liver (Vitamin A), cereal bran, bread, liver e ( B vitamins), fish liver oil (Vitamin D) and fresh green vegetables (Vitamin K). Many minerals are also essential in small quantities including iron, calcium, magnesium and sulphur; and in very small quantities copper, zinc andselenium. The micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins
[11]

in fruit and vegetables may be

destroyed or eluted by cooking. Vitamin C is especially prone to oxidation during cooking and may be completely destroyed by protracted cooking

Water
Cooking often involves water, frequently present in other liquids, which is both added in order to immerse the substances being cooked (typically water, stock or wine), and released from the foods themselves. Liquids are so important to cooking that the name of the cooking method used is often based on how the liquid is combined with the food, as insteaming, simmering, boiling, braising, and blanching. Heating liquid

in an open container results in rapidly increasedevaporation, which concentrates the remaining flavor and ingredients this is a critical component of both stewing and sauce making. METHODS There are very many methods of cooking, most of which have been known since antiquity. These include baking, roasting, frying, grilling, barbecuing, smoking, boiling, steaming and braising. A more recent innovation is microwaving. Various methods use differing levels of heat and moisture and vary in cooking time. The method chosen greatly affects the end result because some foods are more appropriate to some methods than others. Some major hot cooking techniques include: Roasting Roasting Barbecuing Grilling/Broiling Rotisserie Searing Baking Baking Baking Blind- Flashbaking Boiling Boiling Blanching Braising Coddling Double steaming Infusion Poaching Pressure cooking Simmering Smothering Steaming Steeping Stewing Vacuum flask cooking Frying Fry Deep frying Hot salt frying Hot sand frying Pan frying Pressure frying Sauting Stir frying Smoking Smoking Food preservation Food preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi (such as yeasts), and other micro-organisms (although some methods work by introducing benign bacteria, or fungi to the food), as well as retarding the oxidation of fats which cause rancidity. Food preservation can also include processes which inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in apples after they are cut, which can occur during food preparation. Many processes designed to preserve food will involve a number of food preservation methods. Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling (to reduce the fruit s moisture content and to kill bacteria, yeasts, etc.), sugaring (to prevent their re-growth) and sealing within an airtight jar (to prevent recontamination). There are many traditional methods of preserving food that limit the energy [1] inputs and reduce carbon footprint. Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavour is an important aspect of food preservation, although, historically, some methods drastically altered the character of the food being preserved. In many cases these changes have come to be seen as desirable qualities cheese, yoghurt and pickled onions being common examples. Drying is one of the most ancient food preservation techniques, which reduces water activity sufficiently to prevent bacterial growth.

Pasteurization is a process for preservation of liquid food. It was originally applied to combat the souring of young local wines. Nowadays it is prominently applied to milk. In this method, milk is heated at about 70C for 15 to 30 seconds to kill the bacteria present in it and cooling it quickly to 10C to prevent the remaining bacteria from growing. The milk is then stored in sterilized bottles or pouches in cold places. This method was invented by Louis Pasteur in 1862. Refrigeration preserve foods by slowing down the growth and reproduction of micro-organisms and the action of enzymes which cause food to rot. The introduction of commercial and domestic refrigerators drastically improved the diets of many in the Western world by allowing foods such as fresh fruit, salads and dairy products to be stored safely for longer periods, particularly during warm weather.

Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes commercially and domestically for preserving a very wide range of food including prepared food stuffs which would not have required freezing in their unprepared state. For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark place to ensure many months' storage. Cold stores provide large volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries. Vacuum-packing - stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in an air-tight bag or bottle. The vacuumenvironment strips bacteria of oxygen needed for survival, slowing spoiling. Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts to reduce loss of flavour from oxidation. Salting or curing draws moisture from the meat through a process of osmosis. Meat is cured with salt or sugar, or a combination of the two. Nitrates and nitrites are also often used to cure meat and contribute the characteristic pink color, as well as inhibition ofClostridium botulinum. Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in syrup with fruit such asapples, pears, peaches, apricots, plums or in crystallized form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to the point of crystallisation and the resultant product is then stored dry. This method is used for the skins of citrus fruit (candied peel), angelica and ginger. Smoking is used to lengthen the shelf life of perishable food items. This effect is achieved by exposing the food to smoke from burning plant materials such as wood. Most commonly subjected to this method of food preservation are meats and fish that have undergone curing. Fruits and vegetables like paprika, cheeses,spices, and ingredients for making drinks such as malt and tea leaves are also smoked, but mainly for cookingor flavoring them. It is one of the oldest food preservation methods, which probably arose after the development of cooking with fire. Preservative food additives - can be antimicrobial; which inhibit the growth of bacteria or fungi, including mold, orantioxidant; such as oxygen absorbers, which inhibit the oxidation of food constituents.

Common antimicrobial preservatives include calcium propionate, sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, sulfites (sulfur dioxide, sodium bisulfite, potassium hydrogen sulfite, etc.) and disodium EDTA. Antioxidants include BHA and BHT. Other preservatives include formaldehyde (usually in solution), glutaraldehyde (kills insects), ethanol andmethylchloroisothiazolinone. Pickling - is a method of preserving food in an edible anti-microbial liquid. Pickling can be broadly categorized into two categories: chemical pickling and fermentation pickling.

In chemical pickling, the food is placed in an edible liquid that inhibits or kills bacteria and other microorganisms. Typical pickling agents include brine (high in salt), vinegar, alcohol, and vegetable oil, especiallyolive oil but also many other oils. Many chemical pickling processes also involve heating or boiling so that the food being preserved becomes saturated with the pickling agent. Common chemically pickled foods includecucumbers, peppers, corned beef, herring, and eggs, as well as mixed vegetables such as piccalilli. In fermentation pickling, the food itself produces the preservation agent, typically by a process that produceslactic acid. Fermented pickles include sauerkraut, nukazuke, kimchi, surstrmming, and cursextido. Some pickled cucumbers are also fermented.

Canning - involves cooking food, sealing it in sterile cans or jars, and boiling the containers to kill or weaken any remaining bacteria as a form ofsterilization. It was invented by Nicolas Appert.
[2]

Foods have

varying degrees of natural protection against spoilage and may require that the final step occur in a pressure cooker. High-acid fruits like strawberries require no preservatives to can and only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal fruits such as tomatoesrequire longer boiling and addition of other acidic elements. Low acid foods, such as vegetables and meats require pressure canning. Food preserved by canning or bottling is at immediate risk of spoilage once the can or bottle has been opened. Lack of quality control in the canning process may allow ingress of water or micro-organisms. Most such failures are rapidly detected as decomposition within the can causes gas production and the can will swell or burst. However, there have been examples of poor manufacture (underprocessing) and poorhygiene allowing contamination of canned food by the obligate anaerobe Clostridium botulinum, which produces an acute toxin within the food, leading to severe illness or death. This organism produces no gas or obvious taste and remains undetected by taste or smell. Its toxin is denatured by cooking, though. Cooked mushrooms, handled poorly and then canned, can support the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, which produces a toxin that is not destroyed by canning or subsequent reheating. Jellying Food may be preserved by cooking in a material that solidifies to form a gel. Such materials include gelatine,agar, maize flour and arrowroot flour. Some foods naturally form a protein gel when

cooked such as eels and elvers, and sipunculid worms which are a delicacy in Xiamen in Fujian province of the People's Republic of China. Jellied eels are a delicacy in the East End of London where they are eaten with mashed potatoes. Potted meats in aspic, (a gel made from gelatine and clarified meat broth) were a common way of serving meat off-cuts in the UK until the 1950s. Many jugged meats are also jellied. Jugging - Meat can be preserved by jugging, the process of stewing the meat (commonly game or fish) in a coveredearthenware jug or casserole. The animal to be jugged is usually cut into pieces, placed into a tightly-sealed jug with brine or gravy, and stewed. Red wine and/or the animal's own blood is sometimes added to the cooking liquid. Jugging was a popular method of preserving meat up until the middle of the 20th century. irradiation of food is the exposure of food to ionizing radiation; either high-energy electrons or X-rays from accelerators, or by gamma rays (emitted from radioactive sources as Cobalt-60 or Caesium-137). The treatment has a range of effects, including killing bacteria, molds and insect pests, reducing the ripening and spoiling of fruits, and at higher doses inducing sterility. The technology may be compared to pasteurization; it is sometimes called 'cold pasteurization', as the product is not heated. However, it is fundamentally different from pasteurization as it reduces the microbial load by incremental (logarithmic) steps whereas in heat treatment the observation of a minimum temperature and minimum duration of exposure insures the elimination of the microorganisms under consideration. Pulsed electric field (PEF) electroporation is a method for processing cells by means of brief pulses of a strong electric field. PEF holds potential as a type of low temperature alternative pasteurization process for sterilizing food products. In PEF processing, a substance is placed between two electrodes, then the pulsed electric field is applied. The electric field enlarges the pores of the cell membranes which kills the cells and releases their contents. PEF for food processing is a developing technology still being researched. There have been limited industrial applications of PEF processing for the pasteurization of fruit juices. Modifying atmosphere is a way to preserve food by operating on the atmosphere around it. Salad crops which are notoriously difficult to preserve are now being packaged in sealed bags with an atmosphere modified to reduce the oxygen (O2) concentration and increase the carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration. There is concern that although salad vegetables retain their appearance and texture in such conditions, this method of preservation may not retain nutrients, especially vitamins. Grains may be preserved using carbon dioxide by one of two methods; either using a block of dry ice placed in the bottom and the can is filled with grain or the container can be purged from the bottom by gaseous carbon dioxide from a cylinder or bulk supply vessel. Nonthermal plasma - This process subjects the surface of food to a 'flame' of ionised gas molecules such as helium or nitrogen. This causes micro-organisms to die off on the surface

High pressure food preservation or pascalization refers to the use of a food preservation technique which makes use of high pressure. "Pressed inside a vessel exerting 70,000 pounds per square inch (480 MPa) or more, food can be processed so that it retains its fresh appearance, flavour, texture and nutrients while disabling harmful microorganisms and slowing spoilage. By 2005 the process was being used for products ranging from orange juice to guacamole to deli meats and widely sold. Burial of food can preserve it due to a variety of factors: lack of light, lack of oxygen, cool temperatures, pH level, or desiccants in the soil. Burial may be combined with other methods such as salting or fermentation. Most foods can be preserved in soil that is very dry and salty (thus a desiccant), or soil that is frozen. Many root vegetables are very resistant to spoilage and require no other preservation than storage in cool dark conditions, for example by burial in the ground, such as in a storage clamp. Century eggs are created by placing eggs in alkaline mud (or other alkaline substance) resulting in their "inorganic" fermentation through raised pH instead of spoiling. The fermentation preserves them and breaks down some of the complex, less flavorful proteins and fats into simpler more flavorful ones. Cabbage was traditionally buried in the fall in northern farms in the USA for preservation. Some methods keep it crispy [citation needed] while other methods producesauerkraut . A similar process is used in the traditional production of kimchi. Sometimes meat is buried under conditions which cause preservation. If buried on hot coals or ashes, the heat can kill pathogens, the dry ash can desiccate, and the earth can block oxygen and further contamination. If buried where the earth is very cold, the earth acts like a refrigerator.

Controlled use of micro-organism

Some foods, such as many cheeses, wines, and beers will keep for a long time because their production uses specific micro-organisms that combat spoilage from other less benign organisms. These microorganisms keep pathogens in check by creating an environment toxic for themselves and other microorganisms by producing acid or alcohol. Starter micro-organisms, salt, hops, controlled (usually cool) temperatures, controlled (usually low) levels of oxygen and/or other methods are used to create the specific controlled conditions that will support the desirable organisms that produce food fit for human consumption. Biopreservation is the use of natural or controlled microbiota orantimicrobials as a way of preserving food [19] and extending its shelf life. Beneficial bacteria or the fermentation products produced by these bacteria [20] are used in biopreservation to control spoilage and render pathogens inactive in food. It is a benign [19] ecological approach which is gaining increasing attention. Of special interest are lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Lactic acid bacteria have antagonistic properties which make them particularly useful as biopreservatives. When LABs compete for nutrients, their metabolites often include active antimicrobials such as lactic and acetic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and peptide bacteriocins. Some LABs produce the antimicrobial nisin which is a particularly effective [21][22] preservative. These days LAB bacteriocins are used as an integral part of hurdle technology. Using them in combination with other preservative techniques can effectively control spoilage bacteria and other

pathogens, and can inhibiting the activities of a wide spectrum of organisms, including inherently [19] resistant Gram-negative bacteria. Hurdle technology is a method of ensuring that pathogens in food products can be eliminated or controlled by combining more than one approach. These approaches can be thought of as "hurdles" the pathogen has to overcome if it is to remain active in the food. The right combination of hurdles can ensure [23] all pathogens are eliminated or rendered harmless in the final product. Hurdle technology has been defined by Leistner (2000) as an intelligent combination of hurdles which secures the microbial safety and stability as well as the organoleptic and nutritional quality and the [24] economic viability of food products. The organoleptic quality of the food refers to its sensory properties, that is its look, taste, smell and texture. Examples of hurdles in a food system are high temperature during processing, low temperature during storage, increasing the acidity, lowering the water activity or redox potential, or the presence of preservatives orbiopreservatives. According to the type of pathogens and how risky they are, the intensity of the hurdles can be adjusted individually to meet consumer preferences in an economical way, [ without sacrificing the safety of the product. Cookware and bakeware are types of food preparation containers commonly found in a kitchen. Cookware comprises cooking vessels, such as saucepans and frying pans, intended for use on a stove or range cooktop. Bakeware comprises cooking vessels intended for use inside an oven. Some utensils are both cookware and bakeware. The choice of material for cookware and bakeware items has a significant effect on the item's performance (and cost), particularly in terms of thermal conductivity and how much food sticks to the item when in use. Some choices of material also require special pre-preparation of the surface - known as seasoning - before they are used for food preparation. Both the cooking pot and lid handles can be made of the same material but will mean that when picking up or touching either of these parts oven gloves will need to be worn. In order to avoid this, handles can be made of non heat conducting materials for example Bakelite, plastic or wood. It is best to avoid hollow handles because they are difficult to clean or to dry. A good cooking pot design has an 'overcook edge' this is where the lid lays on (that way the lid is laying somewhat inside the cooking pot and not on top of it). The lid has a dripping edge that avoids condensation fluid from dripping off when handling the lid (taking it off and holding it 45) or putting it down. History The history of cooking vessels before the development of pottery is minimal due to the limited archaeological evidence. The earliestpottery vessels, dating from 19,200020,000 BP, were discovered in Xianrendong Cave, Jiangxi, China. The pottery may have been used as cookware, manufactured [1] by hunter-gatherers. Harvard University archaeologist Ofer Bar-Yosef reported that "When you look at [2] the pots, you can see that they were in a fire." It is also possible to extrapolate likely developments based on methods used by latter peoples. Among the first of the techniques believed to be used by stone age civilizations were improvements to basicroasting. In addition to exposing food to direct heat from either an open fire or hot embers it is possible to cover the food with clay or large leaves before roasting to preserve moisture in the cooked result. Examples of similar techniques are still in use in many modern [3] cuisines.

Of greater difficulty was finding a method to boil water. For people without access to natural heated water sources, such as hot springs, heated stones could be placed in a water-filled vessel to raise its [4] temperature (for example, a leaf-lined pit or thestomach from animals killed by hunters). In many locations the shells of turtles or large mollusks provided a source for waterproof cooking vessels. Bamboo tubes sealed at the end with clay provided a usable container in Asia, while the inhabitants of the Tehuacan Valley began carving large stone bowls that were permanently set into a hearth as early as 7000 BC. According to Frank Hamilton Cushing, native American cooking baskets used by the Zuni (Zui) developed from mesh casings woven to stabilize gourd water vessels. He reported witnessing cooking basket use by Havasupai in 1881. Roasting baskets covered with clay would be filled with wood coals and the product to be roasted. When the thus hardened clay separated from the basket, it would become a usable clay roasting pan in itself. This indicates a steady progression from use of woven gourd casings to waterproof cooking baskets to pottery. Other than in many other cultures, native Americans used and still use the heat source inside the cookware. Cooking baskets are filled with hot stones and [5] roasting pans with wood coals. Native Americans, both in the East and in the West, would form a basket from large leaves to boil water, according to historian and novelist Louis L'Amour. As long as the flames [citation needed] did not reach above the level of water in the basket, the leaves would not burn through. The development of pottery allowed for the creation of fireproof cooking vessels in a variety of shapes and sizes. Coating the earthenware with some type of plant gum, and later ceramic glazes, converted the porous container into a waterproof vessel. The earthenware cookware could then be suspended over a fire through use of a tripod or other apparatus, or even be placed directly into a low fire or coal bed as in the case of the pipkin. Ceramics (including stoneware and glass) conduct poorly, however, so ceramic pots must cook over relatively low heats and over long periods of time (most modern ceramic pots will crack if used on the stovetop, and are only intended for the oven). Even after metal pots have come into widespread use, earthenware pots are still preferred among the less well-off, globally, due to their low [citation needed] production cost. The development of bronze and iron metalworking skills allowed for cookware made from metal to be manufactured, although adoption of the new cookware was slow due to the much higher cost. After the development of metal cookware there was little new development in cookware, with the standard Medievalkitchen utilizing a cauldron and a shallow earthenware pan for most cooking tasks, with [6][7] a spit employed for roasting. By the 17th century, it was common for a Western kitchen to contain a number of skillets, baking pans, a kettle and several pots, along with a variety of pot hooks and trivets. In the American colonies, these items would commonly be produced by a local blacksmith from iron while brass or copper vessels were common inEurope and Asia. Improvements in metallurgy during the 19th and 20th centuries allowed for pots and pans from metals such as steel, stainless steel and aluminum to be economically produced. Cookware materials Metal pots are made from a narrow range of metals because pots and pans need to conduct heat well, but also need to be chemically unreactive so that they do not alter the flavor of the food. Most materials that are conductive enough to heat evenly are too reactive to use in food preparation. In some cases

(copper pots, for example), a pot may be made out of a more reactive metal, and then tinned or clad with another. Aluminium is a lightweight metal with very good thermal conductivity. It is resistant to many forms of [8] corrosion. Aluminium is commonly available in sheet, cast, or anodized forms, and may be physically combined with other metals (see below). Sheet aluminium is spun or stamped into form. Due to the softness of the metal it may be alloyed with magnesium, copper, or bronze to increase its strength. Sheet aluminium is commonly used for baking sheets, pie plates, and cake or muffin pans. Deep or shallow pots may be formed from sheet aluminium. Cast aluminium can produce a thicker product than sheet aluminium, and is appropriate for irregular shapes and thicknesses. Due to the microscopic pores caused by the casting process, cast aluminium has a lower thermal conductivity than sheet aluminium. It is also more expensive. Accordingly, cast aluminium cookware has become less common. It is used for Dutch ovens, heavyweight baking pans such as bundt pans, and wares such as ladles or handles where low thermal conductivity is desired. Anodized aluminium has had the naturally occurring layer of aluminium oxide thickened by an electrolytic process to create a surface that is hard and non-reactive. It is used for saut pans, stockpots, roasters, [8] and Dutch ovens. Uncoated and un-anodized aluminium can react with acidic foods to change the taste of the food. Sauces containing egg yolks, or vegetables such as asparagus or artichokes may cause oxidation of nonanodized aluminium. Aluminium exposure has been suggested as a risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. The Rondeau, Commenges et al. article cited below states "These findings support the hypothesis that aluminium in drinking water is a risk factor for AD." (Alzheimer's [9][10][11][12] disease)". The Alzheimer's Association states that "studies have failed to confirm any role for aluminium in causing Alzheimer's. [Today] few [experts] believe that everyday sources of aluminium pose any threat Copper - In classical Western cooking, pots are formed with thick coppersheets with a thin inner layer of tin. The copper provides the best thermal conductivity of common metals and therefore results in even heating (see: Copper in heat exchangers). Copper is reactive with acidic foods, which can result in copper toxicity. This was discovered in the new world when tomatoes were cooked in old world copper pots. A tin lining prevents copper from reacting with acidic foods. Lead-free and cadmium-free tin linings are susceptible to tin pest. In some cases unlined copper is desirable, for instance in the preparation of meringues and foams. Copper pots are expensive, require re-tinning and, when made with thick copper plates, are heavy. Cast iron cookware is slow to heat, but once at temperature provides even heating. Cast iron can also withstand very high temperatures, making cast iron pans ideal for searing. Being a reactive material, cast iron can have chemical reactions with high acid foods such as wine or tomatoes. In addition, some foods (such as spinach) cooked on bare cast iron will turn black.

Stainless steel is an iron alloy containing a minimum of 11.5% chromium. Blends containing 18% chromium with either 8% nickel, called 18/8, or with 10% nickel, called 18/10, are commonly used for kitchen equipment. Stainless steel's virtues are resistance to corrosion, non-reactivity with either alkaline or acidic foods, and resistance to scratching and denting. Stainless steel's drawbacks for cooking use is that it is a relatively poor heat conductor and contains chromium; a toxic metal considered unsafe when ingested as metal particles. Since the material does not adequately spread the heat itself, stainless steel cookware is generally made as a cladding of stainless steel on both sides of an aluminum core or an aluminum/copper/aluminum core to conduct the heat across all sides, thereby reducing "hot spots", or with a disk of copper or aluminum on just the base to conduct the heat across the base, with possible "hot spots" at the sides. Carbon steel cookware can be rolled or hammered into very thin sheets of material, while still maintaining high strength and heat resistance. This allows for rapid and high heating. Carbon steel does not conduct heat as well as other materials, but this may be an advantage for woks and paella pans, where one portion of the pan is intentionally kept at a different temperature than the rest. Like cast iron, carbon steel must be seasoned before use. Rub a fat on the cooking surface only and heat the cookware over the stovetop. The process can be repeated if needed. Over time, the cooking surface will become dark and nonstick. Carbon steel will easily rust if not seasoned and should be stored seasoned to avoid rusting. Carbon steel is often used for woks and crpe pans. Steel or aluminum cooking pans can be coated with a substance such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) in order to minimize food sticking to the pan surface. There are advantages and disadvantages to such a coating. Coated pans are easier to clean than most non-coated pans, and require little or no additional oil or fat to prevent sticking.

Coated and composite cookware

Enameled cast iron cooking vessels are made of cast iron covered with a porcelain surface. This creates a piece that has the heat distribution and retention properties of cast iron combined with a non-reactive, low-stick surface. Cladding is a technique for fabricating pans with a layer of heat conducting material, such as copper or aluminum, covered by a non-reactive material, such as stainless steel. Some pans feature a copper or aluminum layer that extends over the entire pan rather than just a heat-distributing disk on the base. Aluminum pans are typically clad on both their inside and the outside surfaces, providing both a stainless cooking surface and a stainless surface to contact the cooktop. Copper is typically clad on its interior surface only, leaving the more attractive copper exposed on the outside of the pan. Some high-end cookware uses a dual-clad process, with a thin stainless layer on the cooking surface, a thick core of aluminum to provide structure and heat diffusion, and a thin layer of copper on the outside of

the pot that provides additional diffusion and the "look" of a copper pot. This provides much of the functionality of tinned-copper pots for a fraction of the price. Non-metallic cookware can be used in both conventional andmicrowave ovens. Non-metallic cookware typically can't be used on the stovetop, but some kinds of ceramic cookware, for exampleCorningware and Pyroflam, are an exception. Ceramics Glazed ceramics, such as porcelain, provide a nonstick cooking surface. Some unglazed ceramics, such as terra cotta, have a porous surface that can hold water or other liquids during the cooking process, adding moisture in the form of steam to the food. Historically some glazes used on ceramic articles have contained high levels of lead, which can possess health risks. A lot of ceramic pottery can be placed on fire directly. Glass Borosilicate glass is safe at oven temperatures. The clear glass also allows for the food to be seen during the cooking process. However, it can't be used on a stovetop, as it cannot cope with stovetop temperatures. Glass-ceramic Glass ceramic is used to make products such as Corningware in the USA and Pyroflam in Europe, which have many of the best properties of both glass and ceramic cookware. WhilePyrex can shatter if taken between extremes of temperature too rapidly, glass-ceramics can be taken directly from deep freeze to the stove top. Their near-zero coefficient of thermal expansionmakes them almost entirely immune to thermal shock. Stone a natural stone, or a stone-like substitute can be used to diffuse heat for indirect grilling or baking, as in a baking stone or pizza stone, or the French pierrade. Silicone Silicone bakeware is light, flexible, and able to withstand sustained temperatures of 675 F (360 C).
[20][21] [19]

It melts around 930F (500C), depending upon the fillers used. Its flexibility is

advantageous in removing baked goods from the pan. This rubbery material is not to be confused with the silicone resin used to make hard, shatterproof children's dishware, which is not suitable for baking.

Types of Cookware and bakeware

Braising pans and roasting pans (also known as braisers androasters) are large, wide and shallow, to provide space to cook a roast (chicken, beef, or pork). They typically have two loop or tab handles, and may have a cover. Roasters are usually made of heavy gauge metal so that they may

be used safely on a cooktop following roasting in an oven. Unlike most other cooking vessels, roasters are usually oblong or oval. There is no sharp boundary between braisers and roasters - the same pan, with or without a cover, can be used for both functions. In Europe, a clay roaster (Swedish: Lergryta, German: Rmertopf, Slovene: Rimski lonec) is still popular because it allows roasting without adding grease or liquids. This helps preserve flavor and nutrients. Having to soak the pot in water for 15 minutes before use is a notable drawback. Casserole pans (for making casseroles) resemble roasters and Dutch ovens, and many recipes can be used interchangeably between them. Depending on their material, casseroles can be used in the oven or on the stovetop. Casseroles are commonly made of glazed ceramics or pyrex. Dutch ovens are heavy, relatively deep pots with a heavy lid, designed to re-create oven conditions on the stovetop (or campfire). They can be used for stews, braised meats, soups, and a large variety of other dishes that benefit from low heat, slow cooking. Dutch ovens are typically made from cast iron, and are measured by volume. A Wonder Pot is an Israeli invention that acts as a dutch oven but is made of aluminum. It consists of three parts: analuminum pot shaped like a Bundt pan, a hooded cover perforated with venting holes, and a thick, round, metal disc with a center hole that is placed between the Wonder Pot and the flame to disperse heat. Frying pans, frypans, or skillets provide a large flat heating surface and shallow sides, and are best for pan frying. Frypans with a gentle, rolling slope are sometimes called omelette pans. Grill pans are frypans that are ribbed, to let fat drain away from the food being cooked. Frypans and grill pans are generally measured by diameter (2030 cm). Spiders are skillets with three thin legs to keep them above an open fire. Ordinary flatbottomed skillets are also sometimes called spiders, though the term has fallen out of general use.
[22]

Griddles are flat plates of metal used for frying, grilling, and making pan breads (such as pancakes, injera, tortillas, chapatis, and crepes). Traditional iron griddles are circular, with a semicircular hoop fixed to opposite edges of the plate and rising above it to form a central handle. Rectangular griddles that cover two stove burners are now also common, as are griddles that have a ribbed area that can be used like a grill pan. Some have multiple square metal grooves enabling the contents to have a defined pattern, similar to a waffle maker. Like frypans, round griddles are generally measured by diameter (2030 cm). In Scotland, griddles are referred to as girdles. In someSpanish speaking countries, a similar pan is referred to as acomal. Crepe pans are similar to griddles, but are usually smaller, and made of a thinner metal.

Both griddles and frypans can be found in electric versions. These may be permanently attached to a heat source, similar to a hot plate. Saucepans (or just "pots") are vessels with vertical sides about the same height as their diameter, used for simmering or boiling. Saucepans generally have one long handle. Larger pots of the same shape generally have two handles close to the sides of the pot (so they can be lifted with both hands), and are called saucepots or soup pots (312 liters). Saucepans and saucepots are measured by volume (usually 18 L). While saucepots often resemble Dutch ovens in shape, they do not have the same heat capacity characteristics. Very small saucepans used for heating milk are referred to as milk pans, such saucepans usually have a lip for pouring the heated milk.

Ironically, the saucepan is not the ideal vessel to use for making sauces. It is more efficient to use saucepans with sloping sides, called Windsor pans, or saucepans with rounded sides, called sauciers. These provide quicker evaporation than straight sided pans, and make it easier to stir a sauce while reducing. Saut pans, used for sauteing, have a large surface area and low sides to permit steam to escape and allow the cook to toss the food. The word "saut" comes from the French verb "sauter", meaning to jump. Saute pans often have straight vertical sides, but may also have flared or rounded sides. Stockpots are large pots with sides at least as tall as their diameter. This allows stock to simmer for extended periods of time without reducing too much. Stockpots are typically measured in volume (6-36 L). Stock pots come in a large variety of sizes to meet any need from cooking for a family to preparing food for a banquet. A specific type of stockpot exists for lobsters, and an allmetal stockpot usually called a caldero is used in Hispanic cultures to make [23] rice. Woks are wide, roughly bowl-shaped vessels with one or two handles at or near the rim. This shape allows a small pool ofcooking oil in the center of the wok to be heated to a high heat using relatively little fuel, while the outer areas of the wok are used to keep food warm after it has been fried in the oil. In the Western world, woks are typically used only for stir-frying, but they can actually be used for anything from steaming to deep frying.

Bakeware is designed for use in the oven (for baking), and encompasses a variety of different styles of baking pans as cake pans, pie pans, and loaf pans. Cake pans (or cake tins in the UK) include square pans, round pans, and speciality pans such as angel food cake pans and springform pans often used for baking cheesecake. Another type of cake pan is amuffin tin, which can hold multiple smaller cakes.

Sheet pans, cookie sheets, and jelly-roll pans are bakeware with large flat bottoms. Pie pans are flat-bottomed flare-sided pans specifically designed for baking pies.

Carpentry is a skilled trade in which the primary work performed is the use of wood to construct items as large as buildings and as small as desk drawers. [Note: in the UK, strictly speaking, the term is more correctly used to describe the skill involved only in 'First Fixing' of timber items and mainly covers areas such as constructing roofs, floors and timber framed buildings - i.e. those areas of construction that are normally unseen in the finished building. 'Second Fix' work - i.e. skirting boards, architraves, doors etc., is more correctly referred to as 'Joinery'.] Carpentry is also used to construct the formwork into which concrete is poured during the building of structures such as roads and highway overpasses. [Note: in the UK, the skill of making timber formwork for poured (in situ) concrete, is referred to as 'shuttering'.] While the primary material used is wood, the construction of walls with metal studs, and concrete formwork with reusable metal forms is a carpentry skill. Professional status as a journeyman carpenter in the United States may be obtained in a number of ways. The most formal training is acquired in a four year apprenticeship program administered by the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, in which journeyman status is obtained after successful completion of a 12 weeks of pre-appenticeship training, followed by 4 years of on-the-job field training working alongside journeyman carpenters. There are two main divisions of training: Construction Carpentry and Cabinetmaking. During preapprenticeship trainees in each major division spend 30 hours a week for 12 weeks in classrooms and indoor workshops, learning mathematics, trade terminology, and skill with hand and power tools. Construction carpentry trainees also have a daily calisthentics period to prepare for the physical aspect of the work. Upon completion of pre-apprenticship, trainees who successfully pass the graded curriculum (taught by highly experienced journeyman carpenters) are assigned to a local union, and to union carpentry crews at work on construction sites or in cabinet shops as First Year Apprentices. Over the next four years as they progress in status to 2nd Year, 3rd year, and 4th Year Apprentice, they periodically return to the training facility for one week every three months for more detailed training in specific aspects of the trade. Less formal methods of obtaining Union Journeyman status exist, such as working alongside carpenters for years as a laborer, and learning skills by observation and peripheral assistance. While such an individual may obtain journeyman status by paying the union entry fee and obtaining a journeyman's card (which provides the right to work on a union carpentry crew) the carpenter foreman will by necessity dismiss any worker who presents the card but not demonstrate the expected work skill. Carpentry skill of a varying degree may be gained through non-union vocational programs, such as high school shop classes. The word "carpenter" is the English rendering of the Old Frenchword carpentier (become charpentier) [1] which is derived from theLatin carpentrius [artifex], "(maker) of a carriage. The Middle English and Scots word (in the sense of "builder") was wright (from the Old English wryhta), which could [2] be used in compound forms such as wheelwright or boatwright. In British slang, a carpenter is sometimes referred to as a "chippy".

Carpentry in the United States is almost always done by men. With 98.5% of carpenters being male, it was the fourth most male-dominated occupation in the country in 1999. TYPES AND OCCUPATION A finish carpenter (North America) also called a joiner (traditional name now obsolete in North America) is one who does finish carpentry; that is, cabinetry, furniture making, fine woodworking, model building,instrument making, parquetry, joinery, or other carpentry where exact joints and minimal margins of error are important. Some large-scale construction may be of an exactitude and artistry that it is classed as finish carpentry. A trim carpenter specializes in molding and trim, such as door and window casings, mantels, baseboard, and other types of ornamental work. Cabinet installers may also be referred to as trim carpenters. A cabinetmaker is a carpenter who does fine and detailed work specializing in the making of cabinets made from wood, wardrobes, dressers, storage chests, and other furniture designed for storage. A ship's carpenter specializes in shipbuilding, maintenance, and repair techniques (see also shipwright) and carpentry specific to nautical needs; usually the term refers to a carpenter who has a post on a specific ship. Steel warships as well as wooden ones need ship's carpenters, especially for making emergency repairs in the case of battle or storm damage. A cooper is someone who makes barrels: wooden staved vessels of a conical form, of greater length than breadth. A scenic carpenter in filmmaking, television, and the theater builds and dismantles temporary scenery andsets. A framer is a carpenter that builds the skeletal structure or wooden framework of buildings most often in theplatform framing method. Historically balloon framing was used until the 1950s when fire-safety concerns made platform framing inherently better. A carpenter who specializes in building with timbers rather than studs, is known as a timber framer which may be traditional timber framing with wooden joints including mortise-and-tenon joinery, post and beam work with metal connectors or pole building framing. A luthier is someone who makes or repairs stringed instruments. The word luthier comes from the French word for lute, "luth". A formwork carpenter creates the shuttering and falsework used in concrete construction. In Japanese carpentry, daiku is the simple term for carpenter, miya-daiku (temple carpenter) performs the works of both architect and builder of shrine and temple and the sukiya-daiku work on teahouse [4] construction and houses. (Sashimono-shi build furniture and tateguya do interior finishing work.) A Restoration carpenter is a carpenter who works in historic building restoration. A conservation carpenter works in Architectural conservation known as a "preservation carpenter" andHistoric Preservation in the U.S. Green carpentry is the specialization in the use of environmentally friendly, energy-efficient and [7] sustainable sources of building materials to use in construction projects. They also practice building [8] methods that require less material to be used yet have the same structeral soundness.
[5] [6]

Training Carpentry schools and programs Formal education in the carpentry trade is available in seminars, certificate programs, high school programs, online classes,[9]associate degree programs, and advanced college degrees[10] in the new construction, restoration and preservation carpentry fields. Journeyman carpenter
Tradesmen in countries such as Germany are required to fulfill a formal apprenticeship (usually five years) to work as a professional carpenter. Upon graduation from the apprenticeship, he or she is known as ajourneyman carpenter. Up through the 19th and even the early 20th century, the journeyman traveled to another region of the country to learn the building styles and techniques of that area before (usually) returning home. In modern times, journeymen are not required to travel, and the term refers more to a level of proficiency and skill. Union carpenters in the United States - United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America - are required to pass a skills test to be granted official journeyman status, but uncertified professional carpenters may be known as journeymen based on their skill level, years of experience, or simply because they support themselves in the trade, and not due to certification or formal woodworking education.

Master carpenter
After working as a journeyman for a period, a carpenter may go to study or test as a master carpenter. In some countries, such as Germany or Japan, this is an arduous and expensive process, requiring extensive knowledge (including economic and legal knowledge) and skill to achieve master certification; these countries generally require master status for anyone employing and teaching apprentices in the craft. In others, it can be a loosely used term to describe a skilled carpenter. In Canada, each province sets its own standards for apprenticeship. The average length of time is four years and includes a minimum number of hours of both on the job training and technical instruction at a college or other institution. Depending on the number of hours of instruction an apprentice receives, he or she can earn a Certificate of Proficiency, making them a journeyman, or a Certificate of Qualification, which allows them to practice a more limited amount of carpentry. Canadian carpenters also have the option of acquiring an additional Interprovincial Red Seal that allows them to practice anywhere in Canada. The Red Seal requires the completion of an apprenticeship and an additional examination.