A Study of Yogacara Theory of the Ten Causes

by

Chan Ngan Che

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy At The University of Hong Kong November 2007

Abstract of the thesis entitled

A Study of Yogacara Theory of the Ten Causes

Submitted by Chan Ngan Che For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy At The University of Hong Kong In November 2007

The theory of dependent co-origination is a fundamental doctrine of Buddhism. In the period of Nikaya Buddhism, ten conditions and thirty three causes mentioned in the Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastra and Sarvastivadas theory of six causes represent the most sophisticated views of causality and may probable be the origins of the Yogacaras doctrine of ten causes. The framework of ten causes is expounded in Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra (YBW). In addition to the ten causes theory, we also come across six causes, ten kinds or twenty kinds of cause from other treatises of this school. Asavga modifies the ten causes theory to twenty kinds of causes. The motive of Asavga is to establish a true cause for the theory of causality. Moreover, Asavga introduces an innovative way to understand the six causes of Sarvastivada from seven aspects. Although Asavga criticizes Sarvastivadas six causes, he cannot deny the necessity of co-existent cause for upholding the mere-consciousness doctrine. It is worth the effort to inquire into the transitional stages on the thought of Asavga. The scope of this dissertation will limit to the early stage of Yogacara School, with special emphasis on Asavgas treatises. It is an attempt to trace the origin, definition and significance of YBWs ten causes theory. This thesis is divided into nine chapters. Chapter one gives an account of issues to be discussed and the methodological approach. Chapter two and chapter three trace the possible origins of Yogacaras theory of

causation. Chapter four provides an overview of the Sautrantika and Madhyamika doctrines that have impacts on Yogacara doctrine of causation. Chapter five deals with the major doctrines of Yogacara School. Its ground for a true cause is explored so as to understand the significance of the ten causes theory. The six causes established in Lavkavatara sutra and the four conditions from the perspective of mere-consciousness will be distinguished with Sarvastivadas six causes. Chapter six is an exposition of Yogacaras ten causes theory in accordance with the Chinese and Sanskrit texts of YBW. The definitions of ten causes appeared in various texts will be compared and translated in English to assure the correct comprehension of the ten causes. Chapter seven distinguishes three types of ten causes, i.e. the worldly ten causes, defiled and non-defiled ten causes in relation with the twelve links of dependent origination. Chapter eight demonstrates Asavgas discrimination of the ten causes from various aspects. Asavgas criticism of the Sarvastivada scheme of the six causes in preference to that of the ten causes will be highlighted. Chapter nine is the conclusion summarizing the significance of ten causes theory. This dissertation is an original work dealing with various causal theories of the Buddhist schools. The reciprocal relations and influences of these theories are examined. All these contribute to the understanding of the Yogacara theories of causality.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, professor Jing Yin who has guided me through the whole writing process with great patience and provided helpful advices necessary to complete my dissertation. I am grateful to the committee members of my dissertation, namely, Professor Dhammajoti, Guang Xing and Yao Zhihua, for their comments and valuable suggestions to improve the style of my dissertation. A great debt of gratitude is owe to Professor Dhammajoti who has guided me in reading the Sanskrit text and provided extensive bibliographer assistance. The translations of the Sanskrit passages are credited to him. I would like to thank Professor Chad Handsen for sharing his ideas and insight with me for further intellectual development. My thanks are also due to my friends, namely, Ven. Hoi Cheun, Susanna Yeung and Liza Cheung for their constant encouragement and support for my study.

ii

List of Abbreviations
AKB : Abhidharmakowabhasya of Vasubandhu, (T1558) Chinese tr. by Xuan Zang Asm : Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya of Asavga. Chinese tr.Xuan Zang (T1605) Asmv : Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya-vyakhya of Buddhasijha , compiled by Sthiramati. , , Chinese tr.Xuan Zang (T1606) Ascht: Abhidharma Samuccaya, The Compendium of Higher Teaching (Philosophy), English tr. by Sara-Boin Webb. BCYBW : Brief Compilation of Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra , Kuiji (T 1829) BBW : Bodhisattvabhumi-sutra (T1581). Chinese tr. by Dharmaksema CWSL: Cheng Wei-Shih Lun, The Doctrine of Mere-Consciousness. Tr. by Wei Tat. EPBW : Ethical Precepts of Bodhisattva Sutra (T1582). Chinese tr. by Gunavarman () JPW : Jbanaprasthana-wastra (T1544). LS: Lavkavatara sutra (T672). Chinese tr.by Wiksananda Madhyanta-vibhanga-wastra (T1600) Xuan Zang

MB:

MMK : Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna (T1564) MPPS : Mahaprajbaparamita-wastra (T1509) MSS: Mahayana-sajgraha-wastra (T1594) MB: Madhyantavibhanga (T 1600)

MVW: Abidharma-maha-vibhasa-wastra (T1545) Ny : Abhidharma-nyayanusara (T 1562) PP : Patthana-ppakarana

i

PS: Prajbaparamita-sutra PSW: Prakaranaryavaca-wastra (Acclamation of the Scriptural Teaching) of Asavga (T1602) RYBW : Records for Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra , (Tun Lun, ) (T1828) SA: Sarvastivada Abhidharma , KL Dhammajoti () SBCSamaya-bhedoparacana cakra (Treatise of the Wheel of the Different Divisions of the Tenets, (T2031) SAg : Sajyuktagama (T99) WAW : Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastra (T1548) SJ: Cheng wei shi lun shu ji , Kuiji (T1830) SL: Lankavatara Sutra SMD: The Summation of Mahayana Doctrines (T1851) Wei Yuan SRYBW : The Search Records of Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra , Han Chin Jing, SWAS : A Study of the Wastra and Acaryas of the Sarvastivada and Other Schools , Yin Shun ()

T : Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo , ed. J. Takakusu, 1924-1932 TVMS: Trijwika-vijbapti-matratasiddhi (, Thirty Verses on Consciousness-only (T1586) TSMD: The Syncretism of Mahayana Doctrines, , (T1861) Kuiji VMS: Vijbaptimatrata-siddhi (T1585)

YBW : Yogacarya bhumi wastra (T1579)

ii

Contents
List of Abbreviations 1. Introduction 1.1 Background of the proposition 1.2 Objective and Methodology of the Research 1.3 The Structure of the Thesis 1.4 Significance of the Study 2. The Causes Theory of Wariputra-Abhidharma-Wastra 2.1. The Period of the Nikaya Buddhism 2.1.1. An Overview of the Buddhist Schism 2.1.2 The Characteristics of the Abhidharma Buddhism 2.2 The Ten Conditions and Thirty-Three Causes of Wariputra-Abhidharma 2.2.1 The Issue to which Buddhist Sect should Wariputra-Abhidharma-Wastra Belong 2.2.2 The Ten Conditions and Ten Causes expounded in WAW 2.2.3 The Inclusive or Exclusive Relationship between Ten Conditions 2.2.4 Characteristics of Thirty-Three Causes 3. The Sarvastivada Theory of Causality 3.1 The establishment of Sarvastivada School and its Major Treatises 3.2 The Important Proposition and Taxonomy of Sarvastivada 3.3 The Central Theme of the Sarvastivada Philosophy 3.4 The Six Causes Theory 3.4.1 The Fundamental Standpoint of the Six Causes Theory 3.4.2 The Underlying Reason for the Sequence of Six Causes 3.4.3 The Analysis of Six Causes 3.4.4 The Mutual Relation between Six Causes 3.4.5 Distinction of the Six Causes in terms of Time Frame 3.4.6 Six Causes in relation to Four Conditions and Five Fruits 3.4.7The Correlation between Six Causes Four Conditions and WAW Ten Conditions 4. Insight of Two Buddhist Schools Influencing Yogacaras Causal Theory 4.1 The Theory of Sautrantika School 4.2 Fundamental Doctrines of Madhyamika School 4.2.1 The Principle of Middle Way 4.2.2 The Refutation of Sarvastivadas Causation Theory 4.2.3 Nagarjunas Doctrine of Emptiness versus Sarvastivadas Realism 4.3 Summary 5. Yogacaras Philosophical Views On Cause and Effect 5.1. Establishment of Yogacara School 5.1.1 The Genealogy of the Yogacarins 5.1.2 The Distinction between Early and Later Periods of Yogacara 5.2.The Cause and Effect Principle of Mind-Manifestation 5.2.1. The Connotation of Mind-Only

i 1 1 15 19 22 25 27 27 29 30 30 34 48 53 56 56 59 62 65 65 70 71 84 86 87 89 92 92 98 98 100 104 106 108 108 108 112 116 116

5.2.2. Cause in the sense of Substance of Consciousness 5.2.3. Cause in the sense of Potencies 5.3. Justification of Four Conditions not outside the Mind 5.4. Justification of Six Causes not separated from Consciousness 5.5. Summary 6. The Establishment of Causation Theory by Yogacarya Bhumi Wastra 6.1 The Composition and Authorship of YBW 6.2 Five Realms of Hetu-pratyaya-phala 6.1.1 The Arising of Conjointed and Unconjointed Dharmas for Three Spheres 6.1.2 The Attainment of Nirvana 6.1.3 6.1.4 Establishment of the Theory The Accomplishment of Conventional Undertaking and Life Sustenance

120 123 125 131 140 142 142 146 148 150 152 153 155 156 158 160 163 165 167 170 173 175 177 179 182 182 184

6.1.5 The Specific Activity of Various Existents 6.2. The Establishment of Ten Hetu 6.2.1 Dependent on Speech Supporting Basis to designate Conventional-Speech-Conforming Cause 6.2.2 Dependent on Experience Supporting Basis to designate Relative Cause 6.2.3 Dependent on Perfuming Supporting Basis to designate Projecting Cause 6.2.4 Dependent on Nourished Seeds Supporting Basis to designate Origination Cause 6.2.5 Dependent on Immediate Cessation and the other Supporting Basis to designate Favoring Cause 6.2.6 6.2.7 Dependent on Conformity Supporting Basis to designate Inducing Cause

Dependent on Manifoldness of Force Supporting Basis to designate Determining Cause 6.2.8 Dependent on Concourse Supporting Basis to designate Assistant Cause 6.2.9 Dependent on Hindrance Supporting Basis to designate Contradictory Cause 6.2.10.Dependent on Non-hindrance Supporting Basis to designate Non-Contradictory Cause 6.3. The Establishment of Four Pratyayah 6.4. The Establishment of Five Phala 6.5. The Subsumptive Relation of Yogacara and Nikaya Causation Theories

6.6. The Importance of the Hetu-pratyaya-phala 7 Three Kinds of Ten Causes In Terms of Twelve Links Dependent Origination 7.1 The Worldly Undefined Ten Causes 7.2 The Defiled Ten Causes

185

187 188 192

7.2.1 Projecting Sets and Projected Sets consisting of the First Seven Links 193 7.2.2 Actualizing Set and the Actualized Set consisting of the Remaining Five Links 196 7.2.3 Defiled Ten Causes in relation to Twelve Links 7.3 Non-defiled Ten Causes 199 206

8. Asavgas Annotation and Discrimination on Ten Causes of 213 8.1.The Authorship of Asavgas Treatises 213 8.2 Asavgas Deconstruction and Reformation of Sarvastivadas Six Causes 216 8.2.1. The Refutation of Sarvastivadas Six Causes 216 8.2.2. Seven Aspects of Causation In Relation With Six Causes 221 8.2.3 Two Types of Ten Causes Theory Making Up The Divisions of Twenty Karana 228 8.3 The discrimination of Rational True Cause 232 8.4 The Significance of Simultaneity of Cause and Effect in the Mind-Only Doctrinal System 235 8.4.1. The Mutual Dependence of Alaya and Seeds of All Dharmas 235 8.4.2 The Co-existent Cognitive Relation of Perceiving and Perceived 239 8.4.3. Justification of the Existence of Defiled Manas Through Coexistent Faculty 243 8.5 Summary 245 9. Conclusion 248 Bibliography 258

A Study of Yogacara Theory of the Ten Causes

Chapter One Introduction
1.1 Background of the Proposition From the historical perspective on various stages of Buddhism, different Buddhist schools put their efforts on elucidating the law of dependent origination. Some Buddhist schools establish the theory of causality with specific features so as to infer the relativity of causes and conditions for all aspects of phenomena. They believe that if they understand the rules of causation, especially the conditioned elements for transmigration and liberation of living beings, this would help to make our lives more prosperous. The causation theory reflects the caring kindness of Buddhism to the sentient beings. It also establishes a steady foundation for Buddhist practice and soteriology.

The theory of dependent co-origination or the law of causality (pratityasamutpada, ) is a fundamental doctrine of Buddhism. The universal principle of pratitya-samutpada is taught by the Buddha: When this exists, that comes to be; with the arising of this, that arises. When this is absent, that does not come to be; with the cessation of this, that ceases. In this statement, this refers to the causes and conditions, and that means the fruit. Fruit (phala,) is a compounded entity or phenomenon that appears through the co-existence of various causes (hetu, ) and conditions (pratyaya, ). If the required causes and conditions were not existed, the corresponding 'fruit' could not possibily come into existence. This denotes the interdependent relation of existents constituted by various cause and
1

conditions. The explanation of the relativity of those essential elements constituting a particular phenomenon is called the doctrine of causation ().

In Sajyuktagama Sutra (abbr. as Sag ), Buddha says,

Through the assemblage of various causes and conditions, the worldly phenomena arise. Through the dispersion of the causes and conditions, the worldly phenomena extinct. 1 Buddha illustrates the law of dependent co-arising to all sentient beings. Since all

conditioned phenomena are products of the congregation of causes and conditions, dependent origination implies that there is no intrinsic nature for the conditioned entities.

Venerable Yin Shun () distinguishes the meanings of conditioned co-arising and conditioned co-arisen entity by the following citation: Buddha says: If this exists, that exists, and if this arises, that arises. Thus the purely great bitterness assembles; if this is inexistent, that is inexistent, and if this disperses, that disperses. Thus, the purely great bitterness disperses. Transmigration and liberation of life are also in accordance with this law of conditioned co-arising [pratitya-samutpada]But for the entity of conditioned co-arisen (pratitya-samutpanna), it contrasts with the conditioned co-arising in the Agama Sutra ( ). The law of pratitya-samutpada is the interdependence of causes and conditions, but conditioned co-arisen entity refers to existents originated by various conditions. 2

: (T99: 12c.) 2 pratitya-samutpanna Yin Shun The History of Indian Buddhism ( ), p.263-264p.268. 2

Therefore, the term causality on one hand refers to the general principle of pratitya-samutpada but on the other hand it refers to the conditioned existents. The doctrine of causality is the exploration of a series of causes and effect on various phenomena. Since the investigation of a phenomenon can be of various perspectives for its causal relationship, that is why Buddha told Ananda () that the doctrine of causality is profound and is not easy to apprehend thoroughly.

It is interesting to note that different causation theories are found within the system of Yogacara School (), i.e. ten causes of Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra (YBW ), six causes of Lavkavatara sutras (LS ), ten causes of Madhyanta-vibhanga-wastra (MB ) and twenty causes of Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya (Asm ). The most important one is the ten causes theory of YBW. The framework of ten causes is firstly expounded in YBW with special emphasis on relative causes of existents (dharma-s) from the pertaining and non-pertaining perspectives of three spheres, complemented with illustrations of worldly ten causes, defiled ten causes and non-defiled ten causes. In the period of Nikaya Buddhism ( ), ten conditions and ten causes mentioned in the Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastra (WAW ) and Sarvastivadas () theory of six causes represent the most sophisticated views of causality and may probable be the origins of the Yogacaras doctrine of ten causes. There is mutual relation among these theories. Therefore, YBWs ten causes theory in relation with the other causal theories should be an interest area for study.

During the period of Mahayana Buddhism, the Yogacara School is also known as Vijbanavada ( ), advocating the mere-consciousness doctrine (vijbapti-matra ) and proclaiming that all phenomena are products of

mental manifestation. This school establishes a concept of alaya-vijbana () as the fundamental consciousness of every sentient beings. Alaya-vijbana accumulates all potential energies for the mental and physical manifestations and it is the basis of ones individual existence. All phenomenal existence is nothing but consciousness. The representation of the world is caused by a series of manifestations originated from the potency of alaya-vijbana. The actualized process of a phenomenon is a function of ten causes and four conditions (). This means that the law of causality is operated under the activity of alaya-vijbana. This is the essence of Yogacaras doctrine of alaya-arising ().

According to the Yogacaras doctrine of mere-consciousness, the process of transformation of the universe mainly depends on the function of ten causes and four conditions. Yu Fang stresses the importance of such thought as follows: All existents in the universe are no doubt the manifesting functions of three kinds of consciousness-transformation, so as the cause-transformation and effect-transformation. Should these functions not abided by ten causes and four conditions, various consciousnesses could not perform such activities, then relevant principle of causality could not be known. On this account, Vijbanavada regards three kinds of transforming consciousnesses as the most important theories; ten causes and four conditions would be the fourth important theory. No matter spatial or temporal, material or mental, internal or external seeds, all of these could not exceed the boundary of ten causes and four conditions. Those studying Vijbanavada doctrine should pay attention to this important theory. 3 The Vijbanavada theory of causation is a combination of ten causes (), four
3

A Study of Vijbanavada theory of Four Conditions and Ten Causes, p. 169-208. ). 4

conditions () and five fruits () illustrating the constitution of all material and mental phenomena that come into existence.
4

According

to

Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra, these terms are enumerated as follows: Ten causes include:

1. Conventional-speech-conforming cause (anuvyavahra-hetu ) 2. Relative cause (apeksa-hetu ) 3. 4. 5. 6. Projecting cause (ksepa-hetu ) Origination cause (abhinirvrtti-hetu ) Favoring cause (parigraha-hetu ) Inducing cause (vahaka-hetu )

7. Determining cause (pratiniyama-hetu ) 8. Assistant cause (sahakri-hetu ) 9. Contradictory cause, (virodha-hetu ) 10. Non-contradictory cause (avirodha-hetu )

Four conditions include: 1. Condition qua cause (hetu-pratyaya ) 2. Equal-immediate condition (samanantara-pratyaya ) 3. Condition qua object (alambana-pratyaya ) 4. Condition of dominance (adhipati-pratyaya )

Five Fruits are: 1. Retribution fruit (vipaka-phala ) 2. Equal-emanation fruit (nisyanda-phala ) 3. Disconnection fruit (visajyoga-phala ) 4. Manly fruit (purusa-phala ) 5. Fruit of dominance (adhipati-phala )

The doctrines of ten causes, four conditions and five fruits are established with an objective of setting up the regularity of dharma-s in terms of connection

T1579: 301b. 5

(pratisajyukta ) and disconnection (apratisajyukta ) of the three spheres. The treatise of YBW demonstrates dependent origination as the spontaneous dynamic principle of existence in all aspects of lives. The motive of Yogacarins to establish the ten causes reflects their dissatisfaction with the preceding theories. Sautrantika ( ) of Hinayana is generally regarded as the forerunner of Yogacara philosophy. Through the influence of Sautrantikas theories of seeds (biji ) and subtle consciousness (cittasamtana ) , Yogacarins take serious consideration of the issues of seed potency for explaining the origination of a phenomenon. The advancement of Yogacaras doctrines of ten causes with regard to Sarvastivadas six causes and Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastras ten causes is the assurance of the direct cause, which is the potency of an existent. Depending on the seeds of all dharma-s stored in the alaya-vijbana as the direct cause, worldly defiled and unworldly non-defiled phenomena come into beings. This is the essence of dependent origination according to Yogacara. In this regard, the philosophies of both Sautrantika and Yogacara should be explored for a good appreciation of the YBW ten causes theory. The doctrine of four conditions is found in the Agama Sutra which is the authentic teaching of the Buddha. Sarvastivada establishes the doctrine of six causes for which Xuan Zang () translated as efficient cause (karana-hetu ), co-existent cause (sahabhu-hetu ), conjoined cause (sajprayuktaka-hetu ), homogeneous cause (sabhaga-hetu ), universal cause (sarvatraga-hetu ) and retributive cause (vipaka-hetu ).5 To the Sarvastivadins, the six

causes theory is a better elaboration of the doctrine of four conditions.

5

Nagarjuna () of the Madhyamika School () has comments on Sarvastivadas six causes in his Mahaprajbaparamita-wastra (MPPS,). The corresponding synonymies translated by Kumarajiva () in Chinese are different from Xuan Zangs. Six causes are translated as (T1509: 296b) 6

Prior to the prevailing of Yogacaras treatises, the doctrine of ten causes is not found from the other Buddhist canons. However, there are another type of ten conditions and ten causes mentioned in the Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastra ( WAW, ), which was translated by Dharmayawas ( ) and Dharmagupta () during the period of Yao-Qin () dynasty. The ten conditions and ten causes are:
6

1. Condition qua cause, direct cause (, ) 2. Equal-immediate condition, equal-immediate cause (, ) 3. Condition qua object, object cause (, ) 4. Condition of dependence, dependence cause (, ) 5. Karmic condition, karmic cause (, ) 6. Retribution condition, retribution cause (, ) 7. Arising condition, arising cause (, ) 8. Differentiation condition, differentiation cause (, ) 9. Succession condition, succession cause (, ) 10. Condition of dominance , dominance cause (, )

The above list includes the orthodox ideas of four conditions. As for the Palis Buddhist canon, Patthana-ppakarana (PP, ) of the Theravada () system extensively discusses about twenty four conditions that also involve the four conditions. The meanings of the remaining conditions are somewhat similar to that of ten causes. It is probable that these causation theories are the origins of the Yogacaras doctrine of ten causes. Lu Cheng () points out that Sarvastivadas six causes is probably a simplification of the twenty four conditions and ten conditions of WAW, but he has not further explored the issue.7 Venerable Yin Shun follows the view of Lu Cheng and has a thorough inquiry of WAW ten conditions in his A Study of the Wastra and Acaryas of the Sarvastivada and Other Schools (SWAS,
6 7

WAW, T1548: 679b. See The Origin and Development of Indian Buddhism, Lu Chengs Selected Essays of Buddhism. Vol. 4. ( ) p. 1990. 7

), but he has not explored the six causes in depth. Sarvastivada Abhidharma (SA) of Venerable Dhammajoti () deals comprehensively with all the major doctrines of Sarvastivada. In his book, Dhammajoti provides a full account of the six causes and four conditions, with special emphasis on sahabhu-hetu ( ) and he regards this cause as the fundamental view of the Buddhist causality. All these researches provide a good foundation and references for my study of the Yogacaras ten causes. The six causes of Sarvastivada and the ten conditions in WAW are sophisticated and can represent the most important views of causation in the Abhidharma Buddhism. Therefore, this

dissertation only concentrates on these two causation theories. Twenty four conditions of PP is beyond the scope of my research area. In accordance with Kuijis ( ) Brief Compilation of Yogacarya-bhumi-

wastra (BCYBW, ), the doctrine of Yogacaras ten causes, four

conditions and five fruits can be found in YBW V.38, Prakaranaryavaca-wastra

(PSW, Acclamation of the Scriptural Teaching, ) V.18 and Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya (Asm, which is generally named as Abhidharma in Chinese) V.4, Vijbaptimatrata-siddhi, (VMS, ) V.7 & V.8 and the relevant commentaries for VMS. Therefore, these treatises are the primary sources for the ten causes theory.8 From the traditional viewpoint, YBW, PSW and Asm are literatures composed in the early stage of Yogacara School whilst VMS belongs to the later stage. It is highly probable that the first proposition of the ten causes theory came from YBW. The Chinese Buddhist canon preserves three versions of Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra. Xuan Zang ( ) translated the complete version of YBW. There are two other translations of YBW in
8

() (BCYBW T1829: 29c) 8

Chinese. One of them is named Bodhisattvabhumi-sutra (BBW) , another one is Ethical Precepts of Bodhisattva Sutra, (EPBW, ).

9 10

BBW was translated by Dharmaksemas ( ) and EPBW was translated by Gunavarman (). BBW and EPBW also have translations for the relevant text of the ten causes. There are similarities and differences in translation of the synonymies of the ten causes. For the Sanskrit version, it is not as complete as that of Xuan Zangs but we can find some relevant information from the edited texts of V. Bhattacharya and N. Dutt.11 The main theme of YBW is the discourse on the seventeen stages of yogic practice. Xuan Zangs translation includes all the stages whilst the other two only describe the bodhisattva stage (bhumi). As a result, the explanations of BBW and EPBW concerning the ten causes are not as exhaustive as that of YBW. Moreover, the synonymies and the implicit meanings of the ten causes theory have some differences. Other treatises mentioned by Kuiji serve the purpose of providing commentaries to YBW.

According to my preliminary view, apart from the above-mentioned literatures, there are other theories of causation found from the major treatises of Yogacara. Lavkavatara sutra (LS, ) advocates a theory six causes which is quite different from that of Sarvastivada. Different English translations from Suzuki concerning those six causes are found in his books:12

The corresponding translation of ten causes in BBW is: (T1581: 902c-903b) 10 The corresponding translation of ten causes in EPBW is: (T1582: 976c) 11 V.Bhattacharya has edited the first five stages in his The Yogcrabhmi of crya Asavga , Part I, ( University of Calcutta: Sankibo Buddhist Book Store, 1957). The content can be found from the website: Yogacarabhumi database. Bodhisattvabhumi, edited by N.Dutt, also has information of ten causes. 12 English Tr. by D.T. Suzuki, The Lankavatara Sutra, p. 73 and Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra, p. 9

1. Possibility or becoming cause (bhavisyad-hetu ) 2. Dependence or mutual dependence cause (sambandha-hetu ) 3. Objectivity or signs cause (laksana-hetu ) 4. Agency cause (karana-hetu is generally translated as efficient cause) 5. Manifesting or manifested cause (vyabjana-hetu ) 6. Indifference or discontinuation cause (upeksa-hetu )13

On the other hand, Madhyanta-vibhanga-wastra (MB, ) mentioned ten causes (karana-hetu) as follows:14 1. Arising cause 2. Maintaining cause 3. Sustaining cause 4. 5. 6. 7. Manifesting cause Transforming cause Disjoining cause Evolving cause

8. Conviction cause 9. Understanding cause 10. Attaining cause The extant Sanskrit commentary of MB written by Sthiramati () is edited by Susumu Yamaguchi ( ) in his Sthiramati. Madhyantavibhagatika, Exposition systematique du Yogacaravijbaptivada Bhattacharya and G. Tucci also ().15 part of the V.

published

Sanskrit,

Madhyantavibhagasutrabhasyatika of Sthiramati.16 MB has English translation by

458, also An Index to the Lankavatara Sutra. These texts are correspondent to Wiksanandas ( ) Chinese translation, T672: 600a. Tam Sak-Wing points out that upeksa was mistakenly regarded as apeksa and that is why the Chinese translation shown as relative cause. But this is incorrect since the meaning of upeksa is non-endowment. upeksa apeksa . See The New Translation from Sanskrit:The Lankavatara Sutra, p. 81. ( , p. 81.) See Anacker (1986): 227. Sthiramati. Madhyantavibhagatika, Exposition systematique du Yogacaravijbaptivada, Libraire Hajinkaku, Nagoya, 1934. Madhyantavibhagasutrabhasyatika of Sthiramati, being a sub-commentary on Vasubandhus 10

13

14 15

16

Th. Stcherbatsky. In his Madhyanta-vibhanga: discourse on discrimination between middle and extremes, Stcherbatsky has only translated and commented the first chapter of MB which has not touched the issue of ten karana-hetu. The same situation also applies to D.L. Friedman17 and Thomas Wood.18 Therefore, these ten causes are not dealt with in these books. Fortunately, we can find a brief commentary from Stefan Anacker by his Seven Works of Vasubandhu. Moreover, Asm also lists a total of twenty kinds of cause (karana-hetu). It is noteworthy that it is a combination of ten karana-hetu from MB and ten causes from YBW. These are the theories of causation in the early stage of Yogacara. Among these treatises, YBWs ten causes theory is the most influential. The other theories of causation have not received much attention from the contemporary scholars. Nevertheless, these theories have mutual relation between each other that should not be neglected. PSW and Asm are two treatises written by Asavga of Yogacara. These two are considered as the summaries of YBW and are important materials for study. V.V. Gokhale published the fragmented Sanskrit text of Asm. 19 Later on, Pralhad

Pradhan edited the Sanskrit and Tibetan texts.20 Asm has an English translation by Sara-Boin Webb in his Abhidharma Samuccaya, The Compendium of Higher Teaching (Philosophy). Buddhasijha () has commentary for Asm. Sthiramati ( ) compiled both works of Asavga and Buddhasijha into the Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya-vyakhya (Asmv, ). This

Bhasya on the Madhyantavibhagasutra of Maitreyanatha, pt. 1 (Calcutta Oriental Series 24), London 1932. 17 Sthiramati. Madhyantavibhagatika, Analysis of the Middle Path and the Extremes, Utrecht 1937. 18 See Mind Only, Thomas Wood (1991: 1-29) 19 Fragments from the Abhidharmasamuccaya of Asavga, Journal of Bombay branch, Royal Asiatic Society, N.S, vol. 23, (1947), p. 13-38. A rare manuscript of Asavgas Abhidharmasamuccaya, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 11, No. 1.2 (Jun 1948) P. 207-213. 20 Abhidharma-Samuccaya of Asavga, critically edited and studied, Visva-Bharati Studies 12, Santiniketan 1950. 11

treatise provides detailed explanatory notes for most of the important terminologies of YBW. The works of Asavga demonstrate that in early stage, Yogacara has laid special emphasis on the interpretation of those important dharma-s of the universe. These works put forth the cause-effect of defilement and non-defilement in relation to the realms of existences. Therefore, the ten causes of early Yogacara have thorough investigation into the specific characteristics of all existences.

Concerning the relevant explanations of the ten causes, we can study V.18 of PSW and V.4 of Asm. PSW arranges in an orderly structure and explains the objective of the doctrine. To reassert various meanings of dependent arising, Asavga points out the fallacies of six causes of Sarvastivada. In this regard, Asavga queries on the justification of six causes. On the other hand, we cannot find any criticism from Asavga in Asm. Instead he combines the ten causes of both YBW and MB into twenty kinds of causes (karana-hetu). Asavga also introduces an innovative way to understand the six causes of Sarvastivada from the ten causes. In doing so, the ten causes are considered reciprocally harmonized with six causes in certain aspects. It is noteworthy that there are divergent attitudes towards Sarvastivada six causes from the works of Asavga. It inevitably arouses the query of the authorship of PSW since the relevant Sanskrit and Tibetan scriptures are not extant for this treatise. Moreover, in his Mahayana-sajgraha-wastra (MSS, ), Asavga reaffirms the importance of co-existent faculties (sahabhu-indriya, ) as co-existent cause (sahabhu-hetu, ). Furthermore, the perceived objects cannot lie outside the mind and the actualization of phenomena is arisen from potencies simultaneously. The co-existence of mind and object, potentialities and actualization assert the necessary condition of sahabhu-hetu. As a result, Asavga cannot deny the necessity of sahabhu-hetu for upholding the mere-consciousness doctrine in the end. In
12

viewing the treatises of Asavga in different stages, it is evident that he has undergone works of exhaustive investigation, discrimination, rearrangement and annotation. These reflect the ideological development and change of Asavga with respect to the doctrine of causation. The details of Asavgas argumentation will be examined in this dissertation. The above is the causation theories expounded in the early period of the

Yogacara School.
When Yogacara School developed into the mature stage, VMS provides the most explicit annotation to the ten causes. The French translation by Poussin concerning the ten causes is a valuable source.21 The essence of Poussins work is

translated in English by Wei Tat () named as Cheng Wei-Shih Lun, The Doctrine of Mere-Consciousness (CWSL). As said by V.8 of VMS, For those four conditions, dependent on the variance of the fifteen kinds of supporting bases, the ten causes are established. 22 This means that the ten causes theory is derived from the four conditions and the fifteen supporting bases are expression of the four conditions. The fifteen supporting bases comprise all the essential dharma-s for the conditioned entities whilst the ten causes denote the regulative functions of the bases. Since functions cannot be separated from the entities, the variance of the bases alternatively leads to the setting up of the ten causes. Therefore all the existences can be considered inclusively and exhaustively under this doctrine. This is how VMS distinguishes the issues of ten causes and four conditions. Most of the Buddhist philosophers in Tang Dynasty follow the idea of VMS and lay particular emphasis on elucidating this aspect. Among these interpretations, Kuijis commentaries are the most important one. Kuijis Cheng wei shi lun shu ji (SJ, ) expounds

21

Louis de La Vallee Poussin traduite et annotee par, Vijnaptimatratasiddhi: la Siddhi de Hiuan-Tsang. Tome I-II, Paris, France: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1928-1929.p. 453-467.

22

(T1585: 41b) 13

this view in four perspectives. Firstly, identify ten causes from the fifteen supporting bases. Secondly, distinguish between ten causes from two causes. Thirdly, identify the establishment of four conditions supporting bases so as to include ten causes and two causes. Fourthly, identify four conditions supporting bases that can bring out the magnitude of effects. 23 Besides SJ, Kuijis The Essential Doctrines of Vijbaptimatrata-siddhi ( ), Hui Zhaos ( ) The Explicit Illumination of Vijbaptimatrata-siddhi ( ) and Zhi Chous () The Exploration of Inmost Meaning of Vijbaptimatrata-siddhi () also have various supplements which are useful for comprehending the implicit meaning of the doctrine of ten causes. With reference to V.5 of Kuijis The Syncretism of Mahayana Doctrines (TSMD: ), the chapter on Ten Causes provides an analysis in ten aspects:
24

Tenfold analysis [of ten causes] in brief: 1. Distinguish the name. 2. Identify the nature generally and individually. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Distinguish the broad and narrow scopes of three kinds of ten causes. Identify the abolishment and constitution. Establishment in accordance with the fifteen supporting bases. Identify the attainment of five fruits. The inclusion of the four conditions.

8. The inclusion of the two causes. 9. The intersection of three ethical natures and ten causes. 10. Further discrimination through question and answer.

23

24

() (T1830: 503c) (T1861: 337c) 14

A comprehensive exposition of Yogacaras ten causes could be worked out by investigating the above-mentioned information and outline.

The relevant discussions on the ten causes theory can be divided into early and later periods within the system of Yogacara. To have a better understanding of the definition and significance of the ten causes, this research paper will limit to the investigation of those literatures composed in the early stage of Yogacara.

1.2 Objective and Methodology of the Research

This thesis is to an attempt to trace the origin, definition and significance of YBWs ten causes theory complemented with theories of four conditions and five fruits. Through the thorough study of YBW, it is hoped to identify the standpoints and implicit meanings in the early stage of Yogacara School. Besides, by investigating Sarvastivadas six causes and WAWs ten causes theories, these would help to trace the origin and development of the theories concerned. Asavga puts forth new ideas on the ten causes theory and modifies the theory to twenty kinds of causes. It is worth the effort to inquire into the transitional stages on the thought of Asavga. The scope of this dissertation will limit to the viewpoints in the early stage of Yogacara School, with special emphasis on Asavgas treatises. The approach in this thesis is mainly philosophical and conceptual analysis together with textual commentary. To furnish the historical background on the evolution of the theory of causality, I will track down the philosophical inquiry, exegesis and systematic hermeneutics from various influential Buddhist schools.

Vijbanavada sets up a sophisticated philosophical system for explaining the

15

origination and appearance of the universe. There are lots of terminologies involved in the philosophy of mere-consciousness. The argumentations of these theories are difficult for contemporary readers to understand. Moreover, most of the original Sanskrit texts of the Buddhist scriptures have been either lost or scattered. Fortunately, the Chinese tripitaka () preserves most of the valuable treatises. Researches on the topic of ten causes are rarely found. Among the modern scholars, Yu Fangs research paper known as A Study of Vijbanavada and Four conditions Ten causes provides a comparatively overall study on this issue. In this paper, he focuses on the four conditions for illustrating the ten causes. Yu Fang adopts Kuijis idea in SJ for an analysis of ten causes from four aspects as I have mentioned above. Basically his research has already made very good explanatory note to the ten causes. However, Yu Fang overlooks the fact that YBW expounds the ten causes of dharma-s from the pertaining and non-pertaining perspectives of three spheres, complemented with illustrations of worldly ten causes, defiled ten causes and non-defiled ten causes. Moreover, Asavga refutes the six causes of Sarvastivada on one hand but harmonizes the ten causes into the Sarvastivada theory of causation on the other hand. These are the evidences of Asavgas transition of thought in different periods. Furthermore, LSs six causes assert that all phenomenal manifestation is originated from

alaya-arising. It is found that the expressions of karana-hetu from MB and Asm are
in unanimity with the implication of YBWs ten cause. Therefore, the ten causes theory in the early stage of Yogacara deserves further investigation.

Prior to Xuan Zangs new translation of YBW, we have old translations such as BBW and EPBW. Although the old texts are incomplete translation of the seventeen stages, these two texts have included the doctrine of the ten causes. However, differences in synonymies and meanings are found. As for the commentaries of Xuan
16

Zangs YBW, we have Tun Luns () Records for Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra (RYBW, ). In this Records, Tun Lun has included the brief compilation (BCYBW) of Kuiji. Another important reference book is Han Ching Jings () The Search Records of Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra (SRYBW, ). Based on RYBW as the chief source, SRYBW sums up most of the important materials of Yogacara treatises and the contents are comprehensive. Regarding the explanatory note for ten causes in BBW, this can be found in The Summation of Mahayana Doctrines (SMD,

) written by Wei Yuan () of Pure Shadow Temple () during the Sui () dynasty. I will compare the various translations and the relevant explanatory notes so as to explore the essential meanings of the ten causes. For a better comprehension of the ten causes, the relevant Chinese and Sanskrit texts will be translated in English. Since the applications of three kinds of ten causes are related to our daily lives, I will rely mainly on Xuan Zangs material for a good apprehension. As mentioned before, the Yogacara ten causes theory might be inspired by the Sarvastivadas doctrine, therefore, the meanings of six causes should be explained so as to understand their mutual relation. The important literatures involved will be: Abhidharmakowabhasya (AKB, ) of Vasubandhu ( ), Abidharma-maha-vibhasa-wastra (MVW, ), Abhidharma-nyayanusara (Ny, ) of Sajghabhadra (). The ten conditions and ten causes expounded in SAW is another major source for study. As far as the Yogacara doctrine of ten causes is concerned, apart from those literatures mentioned in Kuijis BCYBW, I will also consult Wei Yuans SMD in an attempt to contrast the viewpoints and argumentations within the Yogacara School. For the sake of comprehending the explicit meaning of the ten causes, I will compare the synonymies and expositions of these three translations.

17

This thesis will expound the fundamental principles and definitions of YBWs ten causes in the first place, followed by distinguishing the worldly ten causes, defiled and non-defiled ten causes. With a correct understanding of the principle of causal conditions for life transmigration and liberation, the outcome can be predicted and assured with proper actions and conditions. The sentient beings can effectively develop their potentialities in all aspects, such as the aspiration of wisdom for attaining enlightenment.

During the long period of development for centuries, it would be better for us to divide Yogacara School into early and later periods. Representatives in early stage are Asavga and Vasubandhu whilst the later stage are Dharmapala (), Xuan Zang and his disciples. Both Sino-Indian Buddhist philosophers put much effort in inquiring into the essence of the ten causes and there remain lots of materials for study. Therefore, the scope of this dissertation will limit to the viewpoints in early stage of Yogacara School, with special emphasis on Asavgas treatises.

Most of the contemporary scholars have interests in studying VMS and there are lots of publications. As ten causes is one of the theories involved in VMS, we can easily find the basic interpretation from these documents. However, researches on ten causes in early stage are rarely found, especially the viewpoints of Asavga on this issue, therefore, I have interests in exploring this area. This research study will limit to Yogacara literatures in the early stage, with emphasis on Asavgas thoughts in different treatises. For those literatures in the later stage, these are beyond the scope of this research.

Yogacaras ten causes should have close connection with Sarvastivadas six causes. Both are the most influential Buddhist Schools prevailing for a long time. It
18

is not surprising that these two schools have reciprocal influence in certain aspects. It is highly possible that Sarvastivadas theory of causality influences Yogacaras, but the latter has attempts to have distinction from the former, particularly the designation of the potency as the direct cause. In the end, Yogacara was successfully developed a comprehensive causal doctrine. For the reasons mentioned above, there still have rooms for investigation into the issues for an overall comprehension.

The above-mentioned Chinese Buddhist texts are mainly translated by Xuan Zang or commented by his disciples. The explanatory notes and terms should be reliable. Among the modern scholars books and explanatory notes, the most important is Han Chin Jings RYBW. Though YBW has Sanskrit scripture, it is not in full details as that of Xuan Zangs. There are no English translations of YBW and PSW. MB, Asm and VMS have been translated in English but the relevant textual parts of the ten causes are only briefly explained. Since source of references in English are insufficient, there will be a heavy reliance on the Chinese materials. For the present research, the sources of major treatises and commentaries come from existing Chinese and English translations with supplements of research findings from various publications, academic dissertations and articles. Since the details of Buddhist viewpoints and philosophical discourses are preserved in Chinese texts, such as Abhidharma pitaka and Yogacara treatises, these texts would be the main source of references in this research work. 1.3 The Structure of the Thesis

This thesis is divided into nine chapters for probing into Yogacaras ten causes theory.

19

Chapter one sets out to provide background and historical development of various Buddhist theories of causality. The objective of this thesis is to carry out the research with focus on Yogacaras ten causes, complemented with four conditions and five fruits. Through the study of YBW, it would be easier to identify the standpoints and implicit meanings in the early stage of Yogacara School. By investigating Sarvastivadas six causes and Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastras ten causes theories, these would help to trace the origin and development of the theories concerned. Focusing on this objective, the scope of the research and methodology adopted are defined for this thesis, with an attempt to reinforce the importance of this theory within the system of Yogacara philosophy and the development of Buddhist theory of causality.

The main ideas of chapter two and chapter three are to trace the possible origins of Yogacaras theory of causation, such as Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastras ten causes and Sarvastivadas six causes theories. In particular, Sarvastivada already has intact argumentation on various dimensions of cause-effect, there should be certain extent of inspiration and influence on Yogacaras doctrine. Chapter two will be divided into two parts. The first part is a general introduction of the abhidharma sects of Buddhism about their split and characteristics. The second part is a study of WAW, on the different dimensions of the doctrine of ten causes. Chapter three introduces the historical development, the major treatises and the realistic standpoints of Sarvastivada. The six causes theory will be expounded from different aspects. Finally, the relationship of Sarvastivadas six causes theory and WAW ten conditions will be compared.

Chapter four provides an overview of two important philosophical systems of

20

Buddhism. One is the Sautrantika () of Hinayana and the other is Madhyamika of Mahayana. The theories of these two schools have impacts on Yogacara doctrine of causation.

Chapter five will deal with the historical development and major doctrines of

Yogacara School. Its ground for a true cause is explored to provide a background for
understanding the significance of the ten causes theory. The six causes established in

Lavkavatara sutra () and the four conditions from the perspective of

mere-consciousness will be distinguished with Sarvastivadas six causes.

Chapter six will provide an exposition of Yogacaras ten causes theory. It is mainly in accordance with the elucidation of three Chinese translations and the Sanskrit texts of Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra. The definitions of ten causes appeared in various texts will be translated in English. By comparing different texts and notes, correct comprehension of the basic definitions of the ten causes would be assured.

Chapter seven distinguishes three types of ten causes, i.e. the worldly ten causes, defiled and non-defiled ten causes with respect to the reincarnation and liberation of the three spheres. These causes in relation with the twelve links of dependent origination will be expounded. Xuan Zangs translation will be the major source for reference supplemented by relevant commentaries.

Chapter eight demonstrates Asavgas discrimination of the ten causes based on the texts of PSW and Asm in an attempt to inquire into the change of his views. By comparing the similarity and difference of six causes and ten causes, we may get a glimpse of the ideological inheritance of these theories. Besides, evidences are found to prove the Vijbanavadas doctrines confirming the necessity of the co-existent
21

cause. The findings indicate that Vijbanavada School cannot deny the six causes of Sarvastivada eventually.

Chapter nine is the conclusion of the findings. It summarizes the significance of ten causes in the early stage of Yogacara School. It is hoped that this will provide a systematic explanation and integration of phased theories of the causality within this system. This would help to demonstrate the soteriological objective of Buddhist ontology.

1.4 Significance of the Study

It is hoped that this thesis could contribute to the following aspects:

Firstly, this study present various Buddhist causation theories including Sarvastivadas six causes, WAWs ten causes, Lavkavatara sutras six causes, YBWs ten causes, MBs ten causes and Asms twenty causes. Their reciprocal relationship and influences are examined. This will help to understand the development of the Buddhist causation theories.

Secondly, since the Yogacara theory of ten causes is scattered into different sections in YBW, the meanings and intentions of these causes are so far not expressed clearly. If this thesis can provide a comprehensive and systemic investigation in this respect, it would help to identify the motive of Yogacarins causation theory and provide an overview to the readers.

Thirdly, researches carried by contemporary scholars are mainly concentrated on the later stage of Yogacaras ten causes, and therefore, the focal point and implication of the early stage still need to be explored. Wei Yuans commentary to
22

Bodhisattvabhumi-sutra deserves the attention for comparative study. By contrasting the original Sanskrit and three different Chinese translations of YBW as well as various commentaries, the definitions of the ten causes should be apprehended precisely.

Fourthly, this study will try to prove the causal doctrines of WAW and Sarvastivada are the origins of Yogacaras theory of causality.

Fifthly, Asavgas criticism of the Sarvastivada scheme of the six causes in preference to that of the ten causes will be highlighted. This thesis will carefully tracks down his criticism, justification and how he finally synthesizes various views of the Buddhist causation theories.

Sixthly, it is found that Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastras ten causes basically include Sarvastivadas six causes four conditions. The examination of various causes applied in this treatise demonstrates the logical thinking in compliance with relations of inclusion, exclusion and intersection. This investigation reflects the standard of methodology and inference in the period of Nikaya Buddhism.

Seventhly, through the exhaustive analysis of causation by various Buddhist scholars, their efforts reinforce the significance of the principle of causality in different aspects. Their contributions help the Buddhist disciples to have full understanding of the major factors for ascendant and descendant of our lives. Therefore, the study of these theories reveals the essence of soteriological objective of Buddhism.

23

The above outline illustrates the plan and research scope of this dissertation.

24

Chapter Two
The Ten Causes Theory of Wariputra-Abhidharma-Wastra
All Buddhist schools uphold the theory of causality which is the central theme of Buddhism. However, there is no unanimous opinion on primary or auxiliary causes in relation to the fruits produced. It is noteworthy that Buddhist philosophers classify causes into several types. Sarvastivada of Northern tradition establishes the six causes theory. Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastra (WAW) proposes the ten conditions and thirty-three causes theory with ten causes as a fundamental basis. Furthermore, Pali () tradition advocates the theory of twenty four conditions. The Yogacara School proposes another ten causes theory which has similarities and differences with the forerunners ideas. Those theories prevailing in the period of Nikaya Buddhism may be regarded as the origin of Yogacaras doctrines.

It seems to have no arguments on the Yogacaras ten causes theory during the period of Mahayana Buddhism. Several reasons may be given to explain this situation. Firstly, since the ten causes theory has been established on a later stage and it has included the essence of the earlier theories, therefore, it happens to have fewer problems for argumentation. Secondly, its contents are relevant to the mere-consciousness theory which is comparatively complicated for understanding by the other schools. Thirdly, Yogacara School itself only has inter-religious dialogues within its own system, and therefore, this theory has not received enough attention and reactive response from the academic circle. Fourthly, when Yogacara School was prevailing during the Mahayana period, other Hinayana sects were already on their fall or decline, therefore they failed to put forward criticisms on the ten causes theory. If the above inferences can be established, Yogacaras ten causes theory will be

25

considered as a refined theory. For investigating the theme of this subject, we should take into consideration how Yogacarins appraise and criticize earlier causal theories and in turn synthesize those ideas into their theory of causality. This probing process will involve exploration of the sources of thought. Those inspiring and influencing theories relevant to the ten causes theory will be examined and evaluated carefully for understanding their mutual relation.

The establishment of causal theories of various Buddhist Schools had gone through hundred years of evolution. The argumentations on causes, conditions and fruits during the period of Nikaya Buddhism have different philosophical standpoints resulting in complicated theories. In particular, the six causes theory of Sarvastivada is the essence of Buddhist philosophy. The causal theories of WAW and Sarvastivada pose an inspiring effect on the ten causes theory of the Yogacara School. Therefore, these two theories have important standings in the history of Buddhism. Since Mr. Lu Cheng conceives that the Sarvastivadas six causes theory is a simplification of the ten causes from WAW,1 therefore, this chapter will examine WAW ten causes and the next chapter will investigate Sarvastivadas six causes. Due to the sophistication and significance of these two causal theories in the Nikaya Buddhism, this paper only concentrates on these two theories. The research of twenty-four conditions of PP is beyond the scope of my research area.
2

The objective of this research is to trace the possible origins of Yogacaras theory of causation from the sources of Northern tradition, such as WAWs ten causes

See The Origin and Development of Indian Buddhism, Lu Chengs Selected Essays of Buddhism. Vol. 4, .p.1990. ( ) A brief comparison of WAWs ten conditions and PPs twenty-four conditions and their relationship can be found from Frauwallner, Erich, tr. by S.F. Kidd, Studies in Abhidharma Literature and the Origins of Buddhist Philosophical Systems. State University of New York Press, 1995.P. 97-116. 26

and Sarvastivadas six causes theories. This chapter will be divided into two parts. The first part is a general introduction to the Nikaya Buddhism, about their schism and characteristics of the abhidharma pitika (). The second part is a study on WAW, about the doctrine of ten causes and ten conditions. 2.1 The Period of the Nikaya Buddhism An Overview of the Buddhist Schism

2.1.1

After Buddha's demise about 400 B.C., the venue for the first sajgiti (the collection of the Buddhist canons, ) was held in Rajagrha ( ). The Buddhist community established the Buddhist fundamental doctrines and codes of disciplines (vinaya, ). The monastic community was good at categorizing the Buddha teachings into the tripitaka () and continued their development under the conditions of concordance and unification.

About 100 years later, the first schism of Buddhist community happened due to divergent views on disciplines and doctrines. The unified community was split into two sects, the Theravada () and the Mahasajghika (). These two sects then gradually divided into eighteen or twenty sects. In the history of Buddhism, the period for the development of various sects after the primitive Buddhism is named as Nikaya Buddhism. Contrasted with the later Mahayana Buddhism that emphasizes benefiting oneself and others, Nikaya Buddhism pursues self liberation and is called Hinayana Buddhism.

Every Buddhist sects has different views on the Buddhas teachings. Some Buddhists are conservative whilst some are innovative. Since their standpoints are different, it is easy to have disputes and eventually these lead to their divergence.

27

According to the records of Mahavajsa () and

Dipa-vajsa () of

the Southern Buddhism, the split of Buddhist community happened 200 years after the nirvana of the Buddha. The event of ten immoral practices resulted in a dispute in Vaiwali (). The second Buddhist council of tripitaka sajgiti was held and the elders of the bhiksu-s ( ) announced that these ten behaviors were illegal according to the Buddhist precepts. However, the judgment was not consented by majority of the young bhiksu-s, and therefore the Buddhist community was split into the Theravada and the Mahasajghika which was called the fundamental schism ( ). These two groups further divided into twenty sects according to Northern tradition, or eighteen sects according to Pali tradition. In history, this is called subdivision schism ().

According to Samaya-bhedoparacana cakra (SBC, Treatise of the Wheel of the Different Divisions of the Tenets, ) which is a source book of the history of Buddhism, the division of Buddhist sects was due to the proposition of bhiksu Mahadeva () who declared the imperfection of arhat () in five aspects. Mahadeva criticized that the attainment of arhatship has not reached the perfection of the Buddha. The views of Mahadeva subsequently influenced some Buddhist disciples who admired the attainment of Buddhahood and became the forerunner of Mahayana Buddhism.

The elders vigorously objected the opinion of Mahadeva and the event aroused extensive disputes among the monastic community. Eventually, the great majority of open-minded young disciples assented with Mahadevas idea. The Buddhist community was then split into two clans. One was the rigorous and conservative Theravada, and the other was the liberal and progressive Mahasajghika.

28

2.1.2

The Characteristics of the Abhidharma Buddhism

Various Buddhists scriptures are compiled in tripitaka in which sutra-pitaka () contains Buddhas doctrines, vinaya-pitaka () contains Buddhist precepts, abhidharma-pitaka () contains the compositions from abhidharmika-s (experts of Buddhist studies, ) for analysis of those essential doctrines of the Buddha. In these abhidharma ( or ) treatises, implicit meanings of the sutra-s are explored and explained comprehensively.

The teachings of primitive Buddhism are scattered in different canons and are not easy for mastery. By organizing the Buddhist doctrines into orders with clear classification, discrimination and explanation, these are the mission and academic achievements of the Nikaya Buddhism. As said by MVW, Constant discrimination of the nature of dharma-s from the sutra-s is called Abhidharma. Frequent analysis of the dharma-s from innumerable doctrinal perspectives is called AbhidharmaThe doctrines of defilement, purification, bondage, liberation, sajsaric process and its cessation are systematically complied, classified and analyzed in sequence by means of words, phrases and sentences, all these are called Abhidharma. 3 The central issues of Buddhism are about the problems of defilement, purification, sajsara and nirvana. During the compilation of the abhidharma, the

abhidharmika-s insisted that intellectual analysis and inference must be in

compliance with Buddhas teaching in order to construct a reliable and intact system. Various Buddhist sects complied their own abhidharma-s according to their specific philosophical viewpoints to explain the Buddhas teaching. MVW summarizes the

(T1545 4b). Also see SA: 8-9. 29

definitions of Abhidharma as follows: As said by Mahiwasaka (), intellectual apprehension can illuminate the doctrines through clear and explicit expressions, therefore it is called Abhidharma. As said by the sutra, among all kinds of illuminations, wisdom illumination is supreme. As said by Darstantika (), Abhidharma is just next to nirvana, the supreme among all dharma-s. According to Venerable Buddhadeva (), abhi is a prefix which means predominance According to Venerable Vamalabdha (), abhi means veneration, and this dharma is honorable and venerable . 4 The Sanskrit word abhi is a prefix with transliteration as in Chinese. It implies facing towards or direct realization of the dharma in the highest sense nirvana. Dharma is a term with transliteration in Chinese as . This word has various meanings such as nature, phenomenal existence, truth, doctrine and the highest teaching, etc. Because of the above-mentioned characteristics and contribution, abhidharma is praised as superior dharma (adhipati-dharma ). The academic style and the development of the Buddhas teaching can be found in different treatises of abhidharma. This includes the seven Pali abhidharma-s of the Southern Buddhism and the seven Sarvastivada abhidharma-s of the Northern Buddhism in Chinese. These literatures provide the major source of reference for studying the Nikaya Buddhism. 2.2 The Ten Conditions and Thirty-Three Causes of Wariputra-Abhidharma 2.2.1 The Issue to which Buddhist Sect should Wariputra-Abhidharma-Wastra Belong

. [Abhi] . (T15454b) and SA: 10-11. 30

It

is

generally

believed

that

Wariputra

is

the

composer

of

Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastra ( WAW). This treatise was

translated by Dharmayawas () and Dharmagupta () during the period of Yao-Qin () dynasty. Since WAW only has Chinese translation, study of this treatise is rarely found from the Western scholars. We can find the study of WAW from the contemporary scholars, such as Mizuno Kogen (), Shiio Benkyo (), Kimura Taiken (), Watanake Balyu (), Nishi Giyu (), Lu Cheng, Yin Shun, Erich Frauwallner and Andre Bareau. Shiio infers that WAW could be composed before 200 B.C. after his comparison with those Pali abhidharma-s. Mizuno has summarized various opinions from the scholars concerning the issue to which Buddhist sects should WAW belong.5 I would like to list out the possible sects that may have connection with WAW as follows: 1. Independence from various sects Nishi argues that the treatise of WAW is a summary of those important Buddhist doctrines and is composed in the period before the distinctive philosophical establishment of different sect. Therefore, it is not appropriate to assert to which sects should WAW belong. Shiio also holds this opinion. 2. Vatsi-putriya () According to Nagarjunas () Mahaprajbaparamita-wastra (MPPS )6 and the quotation from Jizangs () The Profound Meaning of the Three Treatises (),7 WAW was composed by Wariputra () for analyzing the Buddhas nine parts of abhidharma doctrines.

6 7

See Mizuno, Kogen, tr. by Hui Yeung Chu, The Study of Buddhist Literatures, the selected works of Mizuno Kogen, Vol. 1, 2003. P. 389-416. (, , (), , 2003, p.389-416.) T1509:70a. T1852: 2b, 9c. The views are quoted from Paramarthas () Commentary to Different Disputes of Nikaya Buddhism (a different translation of Samaya-bhedoparacana cakra,). 31

2. Sammitiya () Sammitiya is a derived sect from Vatsi-putriya . Jizang and Kuiji believe that WAW follows the basic doctrine of Sammitiya ().8 3. Mahiwasaka () Lu Cheng believes that WAW has succeeded Mahiwasaka theoretical system and also has connection with Dharmaguptatika ( ). Both the Northern and Southern Abhidharma-s should be developed from this treatise. 4. Mahasajghika () Kimura believes that WAW should belong to Mahasajghika according to the doctrines established in this treatise, such as the nature of mind is pure () and nine unconditioned dharma-s etc. These prove that the standpoints of WAW are coherent to Mahasajghikas doctrines. 5. Dharmaguptatika () Through an extensive research study, Andre Bereau has pointed out that the classification of WAW is different from the other abhidharma-s. The structure of WAW deals with four parts of abhidharma, i.e. Have Query section (saprasna ), Non-query section (aprasna ), Subsumption and Conjunction section (samgraha-samprayoga ), Cause section (prasthana ). It is found that only Dharmaguptatika adopts a similar type of classification for which its abhidharma consists of five parts, i.e. the basic structure is same as WAW but separates the Subsumption section and Conjunction section into two distinctive parts that makes up to five parts. Moreover, Andre ascertains that the doctrines of WAW are
9

See The Profound Meaning of the Three Treatises (T1852: 2b), Profound Praised Commentary on Saddharmapundarika-sutra ( T1723: 657a) and Brief Compilation of Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra (BCYBW, T1829: 38b). See The Origin and Development of Indian Buddhism, Lu Chengs Selected Essays of Buddhism. Vol. 4, .p.1965-1967. ( ) 32

mostly ascribed to the Dharmaguptatika. 10 Erich Frauwallner, Mizuno and Lu Cheng consent to the findings from Andre. In addition to Andres findings, Mizuno finds that twenty two dhyana (meditation ) heavens of the fine-material realm ( ) mentioned in WAW is a distinctive doctrine of Dharmaguptatika. 6. Vibhajyavada () Venerable Yin Shun infers that the theory of WAW is close to the view of Vibhajyavada ( ). 11 Vibhajyavada is a sect upholding the tradition of Theravada who advocates methodology of analysis through separate discrimination (vibhava ) since the teaching of the Buddha should be explained and analyzed through different perspectives, i.e. paramartha-satya (absolute truth ), sajvrti-satya (conventional truth ) , nitartharevelation of the whole meaning and neyarthapartial revelation , etc. In contrast to Vibhajyavada, Mahasajghika advocates that all entities are conceptualization only without any substantiality. The Buddhist disciples should apprehend the doctrines of Buddha in totality and it is not necessary to discriminate the doctrines from different aspects. Therefore, it is obvious that Vibhajyavada takes opposite position against Mahasajghika. Moreover, there are various opinions as to which sect of Theravada should Vibhajyavada belongs. Mr. Lu Cheng suggests that Vibhajyavada is a merging of last lineage of Mahasajghika and Theravada in the Northwest India. Comments and criticisms against Vibhajyavada are often found from the treatises of Sarvastivada.
12

However, Venerable Yin Shun believes that Vibhajyavada is a large sect derived
10

There are several articles published by Andre Bareau in French concerning WAW, Les sectes bouddhiques du petit vehicule et leurs Abhidhamma, Saigon, 1955, pp. 190-200. Rcherches sur lAbhidharma de Sariputra, CIDO 21, 1947, 187-188. Les origines du Sariputrabhidharmasastra, Museon LXIII, 1950, 69-95. 11 SWAS: pp. 429-430. 12 A General Introduction of Abhidharmain Collection of Academic Buddhist Journal Vol. 95, 183-205. ( 95 ). 33

from Theravada. It is highly probable that Vibhajyavada is a combination of Tambapanniya ()

13

, Kawyapiya (), or in general refers to prevailing

schools popularized in the region of Kashmir (), such as Mahiwasaka (), Dharmaguptatika ( ), Kawyapiya ( ), with Mahiwasaka as the mainstream which is also influenced by Mahasajghika. This is because they are in the similar academic groups and happen to have integrated and harmonized views in the beginning. However, confronting positions were undergone in the historical development that might be unanimous with other academic systems.
14

In conclusion, it is difficult to determine which Buddhist sect should WAW belong to from the above analysis. As said by Venerable Yin Shun, it is generally believed that WAW is a treatise belonging to a Buddhist sect derived from Theravada. All root and branches of Vatsi-putriya (), Vibhajyavada () and Dharmaguptatika ( ) of the Theravada system regard WAW as their fundamental treatise.

2.2.2 The Ten Conditions and Ten Causes expounded in WAW

Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastra discusses various aspects and characteristics of

all significant entities (dharma-s). Its contents are mainly classification, organization and exposition of important dharma-s. The treatise is divided into four sections with thirty-three chapters. In WAW, the methodology employed by the author is differentiation and classification of various dharma-s through methods of subsumption and conjunction. This methodology also applies to the investigation on causality. The causes for each dharma-s and interconnection with other dharma-s are tracked down carefully so as to illustrate the meaning of causation in a clearer way.
13 14

Tambapanniya belongs to Vibhajyavada and was spread in Ceylon. SWAS: 408-427. 34

WAW expounds ten conditions and thirty-three causes in details. Concerning the thirty-three causes, the definitions of the first ten causes are identical with the definitions of ten conditions. As a result, we can learn the meaning of causes from the definition of conditions. The establishment of ten conditions and ten causes formulates the criterion of the primary and auxiliary causes. Its importance is in the demonstration of universal principle for all phenomena. Moreover, the relationship of each condition to all the other conditions is discussed in great detail. As for the remaining twenty three causes, these involve the theory of the twelve links of dependent origination (dvadawavga-pratitya-samutpada ) and four kinds of food (), etc. These causes involve conditions for existence and belong to the applicable aspects of our living. This chapter will analyze mainly the first ten causes and the remaining twenty-three causes will be explained in brief. In Buddhism, it is common to call those conditions that produce result or effect directly as cause and those which are less important as condition. But in various abhidharma-s, cause can be used as condition for emphasis on cause as one of numerous conditions and in this sense, cause and condition are synonym.

The names of ten conditions and ten causes are as follows: 1. Condition qua cause and direct cause (, ) 2. Equal-immediate condition and equal-immediate cause (, ) 3. Condition qua object and object cause (, ) 4. Dependence condition and dependence cause (, ) 5. Karmic condition and karmic cause (, ) 6. Retribution condition and retribution cause (, ) 7. Arising condition and arising cause (, ) 8. Differentiation condition and differentiation cause (, ) 9. Succession condition and succession cause (, ) 10. Condition of dominance and dominance cause (, ) If a dharma influences or gives birth to other entity, that dharma is defined as
35

condition. In Buddhism, various conditions are classified into four types, i.e. condition qua cause (hetu-pratyaya), equal-immediate condition

(samanantara-pratyaya), condition qua object (alambana-pratyaya) and condition of dominance (adhipati-pratyaya). These are conditions required for the rise of a compounded existent. Condition qua cause has the meaning of producing its own fruit. It can be regarded as the direct cause of a compounded entity. The other conditions make contributions to the uprising of an effect to different degrees. Thus it is a wide domain for the coverage of the other supporting conditions. Under this circumstance, all phenomena are dependent co-arising.

WAW expounds ten conditions in more details than ten causes on their unique
characters and subsumptive relation with other conditions. In fact, the definitions of the first ten causes (hehuh) are same as those ten conditions (pratyayah) and can simply be substituted hehuh for -pratyayah everywhere.15 For convenience, this chapter analyses these ten conditions in order to use the relevant contextual meanings to understand the ten causes.

It is noteworthy that WAW puts forward a specific methodology for analysis of some important dharma-s within the categories of skandha, ayatana, dhatu.16 This can apply to the ten conditions and ten causes as well. It will be helpful to understand the methodology prior to the exposition concerning the ten conditions since those essential dharma-s are examined by some of the following aspects: [1]What does possessing retribution dharma mean? For a dharma which has karmic reaction, it is called possessing retribution dharma.

15 16

See Frauwallner (1995): 107. This method can be found from Have query section (), see chapter one to six of WAW, T1548: 525c-575b. 36

[2]What does perceiving dharma mean? For a dharma which is mental activity or consciousness, it is called perceiving dharma. [3]What does non-perceiving dharma mean? For a dharma other than consciousness and mental activities, that entity is called non-perceiving dharma. [4]What does accompanying consciousness dharma mean? For a dharma accompanying with consciousness all along in the process of arising, abiding and extinction, it is called accompanying consciousness dharma. [5]What does non-accompanying consciousness dharma mean? For a dharma not accompanying with consciousness all along in the process of arising, abiding and extinction, it is called non-accompanying consciousness dharma. [6]What does accompanying karma dharma mean? For a dharma which is accompanying with karma all along in the process of arising, abiding and extinction, it is called accompanying karma dharma. [7]What does non-accompanying karma dharma mean? For a dharma not accompanying with karma all along in the process of arising, abiding and extinction, it is called non-accompanying karma dharma. [8]What does cause dharma mean? If a dharma which is either a perceiving or non-perceiving dharma that will induce retribution, except the attained fruit, that dharma is a cause. Those entities including non-perceiving wholesome dharma-s and four great elements (maha-bhuta) are called the cause dharma. [9]What does non-cause dharma mean? For a dharma which is non-perceiving and without retribution, non-accompanying with karma but has an effect, it is called the non-cause dharma.17 From these nine aspects, apart from possessing retribution dharma (), there are four pairs of dharma-s with contrasting nature. According to WAW, we can find the defined meaning for some of these terms. Possessing retribution means
17

[1][] [2][] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8][] [9](T1548: 664c-665a) 37

rendering response through karmic cause. For accompanying with retribution dharma ( ), it refers to wholesome and unwholesome dharma-s. Non-accompanying with retribution dharma () is morally non-defined dharma-s, such as the five sensory faculties and perceived objects.18 With regard to the non-perceiving dharma, it refers to five sensory organs and five physical objects which are ten physical matters under the category of mental objects (dharma ayatana, ).19 As for accompanying consciousness dharma-s, these are mental activities, bodily and vocal actions, etc.20 As for non-accompanying consciousness dharma-s, these are ten physical matters and mind (manas ) of twelve ayatana.21 For accompanying karma dharma, it includes manas, mental activities, bodily and vocal actions, etc. matters.23.
22

Finally, non-accompanying karma dharma-s are those ten physical

With an understanding of the structure and content of these different aspects, we can then employ the relevant methodology for analysis of those ten conditions individually in the following text. The first member of the ten conditions is condition qua cause and its unique characters is defined as follows: What does condition qua cause mean? If a dharma is a cause, it is called condition qua cause. Moreover, if a dharma accompanies or not accompany with retribution, it is called condition qua cause. For a dharma which is either a perceiving or non-perceiving dharma with retribution, except the attained fruit, the remaining non-perceiving wholesome dharma-s and four great elements (maha-bhuta), these are called

18 19 20 21 22 23

T1548: 528a-b. Ibid, 528c. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid, 529b. Ibid. 38

the condition qua cause.24 Referring to the above citation, a dharma, which serves as a cause, is the basic definition of condition qua cause. The others are different types of condition qua cause. It is said that the condition qua cause are of six kinds: 1. Condition qua cause accompanying with retribution is a dharma projecting a fruit through wholesome and unwholesome deeds. 2. Condition qua cause not accompanying with retribution is a non-defined dharma such as sensory organs and perceived objects. 3. Perceiving condition qua cause with retribution includes all mental activities. Mental activities are necessary conditions for rendering an effect such as exquisite skill of painting. 4. Non-perceiving condition qua cause with retribution are dharma-s other than mental activities. This kind of condition produces fruit without the operation of the mind. It is like the seed as condition qua cause in the natural world, as long as it happens to fall into suitable soil to grow, then the function of mind is not required. If the required conditions are inadequate, the seed remains unchanged, but its ability to produce fruit still exists. 5. Remaining non-perceiving wholesome retribution refers to those desirable materials existed in the spheres of sensuality and fine-materials. This is because these are wholesome retribution of virtuous conducts but without perceiving function. 6.Four great elements are the causes of physical matter. Obviously, WAW excludes the meaning of attained fruit from the condition qua cause. Fruit is designated relative to cause and therefore it should be excluded from the sense of condition qua cause. How many conditions do a condition qua cause have? [Answer:] Four What Four? [Answer:] Co-existent, 25 uprising, growth and retribution are
24

Ibid, p.679b . 25 Co-existent () is corresponding to the differentiation condition () and the reason will 39

called the four conditions of a condition qua cause. It is said that condition qua cause gives birth to something just as mother and son.26 There are four implicit meanings for a condition qua cause. These are co-existent condition, uprising condition, growth condition and retribution condition. These four conditions are relevant to differentiation condition, arising condition, succession condition and retribution condition respectively. Their meanings will be expounded later. Therefore, it is said that a cause has the meaning of giving birth to something like mother giving birth to a son. Once a fruit has been grown, it then becomes the condition for producing other dharma. A dharma that can produce its own fruit is called condition qua cause.

The second member of the ten conditions is equal-immediate condition (samanantara-pratyaya ) and its unique characters are defined as follows:

What does equal-immediate condition mean? If a dharma arises and ceases, it is called equal-immediate condition. Moreover, equal-immediate condition is a dharma in the process of passing away and not completely passing away; or a dharma which is either skandha, dhatu or ayatana and is by nature succeeding upon the ceasing of the preceding moment. Therefore, it is called equal-immediate condition.27 Moreover, equal-immediate condition has the meaning of succession, such as taking a seat [after someone left].28

26

be explained when dealing with the differentiation condition in the following passage. [] [] Ibid, p. 680b .

27

Ibid, p. 679b. 28 Ibid, p. 680b. 40

Just as the analysis of condition qua cause, a dharma arises and ceases is the basic definition of equal-immediate condition. Its variances are dharma-s of five skandha, eighteen dhatu and twelve ayatana. Each of these dharma-s arises and ceases instantly in the immediate past, then it makes room for the emergence of the subsequent dharma in the next moment, such as cessation of a preceding seed giving rise to a succeeding sprout, etc.29 Therefore, it is one of the conditions for the uprising of a dharma. It is just like someone must leave a seat in order to let the next person to sit on it. In general, it is a notion entailing that a subsequent thought can only arise upon the cessation of the preceding thought.30 The third member of the ten conditions is the condition qua object (alambana-pratyaya, ), its unique characters are defined as follows:

What does condition qua object mean? All dharma-s are condition qua object. Just like the image of a dharma gives rise to mind and mental activities (caitta), that dharma is called condition qua object.31 Moreover, condition qua object is a target, like a target for shooting.
32

The image or appearance of an entity can enable the mind and its mental functions to arise. The object serves as a condition for cognition. This is the basic meaning of

alambana-pratyaya. Just like the center of an arrow butt, it is a target to be aimed at

for shooting. Similarly, alambana-pratyaya is the clinging object of mental activities during the cognitive process. Therefore, cognition cannot arise independently by itself without taking an object.33

29 30 31 32 33

Ny, p. 445b. SA: .129. T1548: 679b. SA: 129.

Ibid, p.680b.
41

The fourth member of the ten conditions is the dependence condition and its unique characters are defined as follows: What does dependence condition mean? For a dharma which is to be depended on, it is called dependence condition. Moreover, if this dharma depends on that dharma for its existence, that dharma is called dependence condition for this dharma. Depending on body, speech and thought, there comes the bodily, vocal and thought karma. Depending on four great elements, there comes the physical conducts. Depending on the earth, there comes planting and harvesting activities, heaps of seeds, so as groups of villages, sentient beings, herbs and jungles. Depending on bad friends, there comes erroneous views. Depending on good and virtuous friends, there comes the wholesome dharma. Depending on eye faculty (indriyas ) and object, there comes the arising of eye consciousness and concomitant mental activities, so as the ear, nose, tongue, body and mind.. The situation of cessation is the same. All these are called dependence condition.34 Moreover, dependence condition means any entity, such as residence.35

The basic definition of dependence condition is something to be depended on for its uprising or cessation. There are a lot of examples mentioned in the text such as the contact of eye organ and object will give rise to consciousness. Therefore, dependence condition is like a residence that people rely on for their daily living. Not only the rise of a phenomenon requires dependence condition but the extinction of a phenomenon also requires dependence condition. The coverage of dependence condition is the broadest. Basically, all other nine conditions are subordinate to dependence condition. Without the dependence condition, the
34

T1548: 679b. [][] [] [][] . 35 Ibid, 680b. 42

other nine conditions cannot come into existence. In this sense, dependence condition is the upper set and the highest level of the concept of condition.

The fifth member of the ten conditions is the karmic condition and its unique characters are defined as follows: What does karmic condition mean? Action itself is a 'karmic condition. The other non-karmic deed is karmic condition. Either karmic cause or non-karmic cause that arouses a deed, it is called karmic condition.36 Moreover, karma is an action, such as a conduct.37 The explanation of karmic condition from the above text is not clear. For a better comprehension of this text, we have to refer the meaning of accompanying karmic dharma and non-accompanying karmic dharma. Accompanying karma dharma is a dharma that is accompanying with karma all along in the process of arising, abiding and extinction. This includes mental activities, bodily and vocal actions, etc. Once an action is finished, these things are subsided eventually. On the other hand, non-accompanying karma dharma is a dharma not accompanying with karma all along in the process of arising, abiding and extinction. Like those ten physical matters that include five sensory organs and objects, these are foundation for a karmic deed to act upon. Once an action is finished, these things are not subsided eventually. The meaning of accompanying karmic dharma is the karmic action. Non-accompanying karma dharma is non-karmic deed but functions as a condition for a karmic action to act upon. Therefore, the scope of karmic condition includes both types. According to the text, it can be certain that the meaning of an action is a

36

37

Ibid, 679c.[] Ibid, 680b. 43

conduct. A conduct is induced by volition so as to cause something to act upon. This is why it is called karmic condition.

The sixth member of the ten conditions is the retribution condition and its unique characters are defined as follows: What does retribution condition mean? Retribution condition is a dharma rendering a response through karmic deeds.38 Moreover, retribution has a meaning of defiled overflow. It is just like a tree grows fruits. 39 A dharma rendering a response or an effect through karmic deeds is the basic definition of retribution condition. The example of ripened fruits from a tree is to illustrate that retribution is a result of defilement and overflow. These are the bitter rewards causing the sentient beings to flow around in the three spheres of existence.

The seventh member of the ten conditions is the arising condition and its unique characters are defined as follows: What does arising condition mean? Arising condition is a dharma that can cause other things to arise. It is called arising condition Moreover, arising condition is a dharma that can cause arising of oneself and other to grow, accompanying with continuous defilement and overflow, such as defilements, roots of wholesome, roots of unwholesome, consciousness (vijbana , ), ideation (sajjba ), volition (sajskara ), sensation

38 39

Ibid, 679c. Ibid, 680b. 44

(vedana , ) and four great elements (rupa ). These entities are called 40 arising conditions The meaning of arising condition is production, such as a bud of a plant.41 A dharma that can cause other things to rise up is the basic definition of arising condition. An appearance of a dharma can exert influence to the growth of other things with the same category, like planting beans to give birth to bean sprouts. Therefore, those defiled dharma-s will result in the arising of elements of five aggregates to grow, causing sentient beings to flow around in the ocean of sajsara. These factors are called arising condition.

The eighth member of the ten conditions is the differentiation condition and its unique characters are defined as follows: What does differentiation condition mean? Differentiation condition is a dharma that co-exists with some other things. It is called differentiation condition
42

Moreover, the meaning of differentiation condition is inseparate, such as family dependents.43 A dharma that co-exists (for a support) with some other things is the basic definition of differentiation condition. It is a condition not mutually separate from an effect and so implies the co-existence of two things. The definition of differentiation condition is similar to Sarvastivadas co-existent cause

(sahabhu-hetu ). It is curious that the name of differentiation is not

40

Ibid, p. 679c. () 41 Ibid, p. 680b.

42 43

Ibid, p. 679c. Ibid, p. 680b. 45

coherent with the definition of this condition. The possible explanation of this situation is the Chinese translated text might be corrupted for which the term co-exist is mistakenly written as differentiation Another evidence is that in the previous passage illustrating the four conditions of the condition qua cause, i.e. co-existent (corresponding to the differentiation condition), uprising (corresponding to the arising condition), growth (corresponding to the succession condition) and retribution condition, and among these four conditions, a cause having an attribute of co-exist is clearly mentioned.
44

Hence, the differentiation cause should be

understood as co-existent cause according to the above inference. The ninth member of the ten conditions is the succession condition and its unique characters are defined as follows: What does succession condition mean? Succession condition is a dharma that can continue to increase or enhance the strength of an effect. It is called succession condition. Moreover, succession condition makes progress from a dharma that is inferior in the beginning to middle-average, and keeps on upgrading to superior level. In this process, the inferior dharma is said to be the succession condition of the middle-average middle-average to the superior dharma.45 dharma, so as the

The meaning of succession is enhancement, just like the growth of wealth.46 The basic definition of succession condition is a condition leading to positive progress or enhancing the force of an effect. It is like the inferior wholesome dharma-s which induce the middle-average wholesome dharma-s. Likewise, the

44

[] []Ibid, p. 680b .

45

Ibid, p. 679c.() 46 Ibid, p. 680b. 46

middle-average dharma-s conduce the emergence of superior grade of the same species. It is like the case of wealth accumulation that grows gradually from little to many so as to make a mickle.

The tenth member of the ten conditions is the condition of dominance and its unique characters are defined as follows: What does condition of dominance mean? Condition of dominance is a dharma that is a condition having prominent efficacy to the arising of an effect and is called condition of dominance. Moreover, condition of dominance refers to a dharma that contributes, directs, tends and leads to the uprising of an entity. These include prominence in terms of ambition, diligence, meditation and contemplation; craving, hatred and ignorance; anti-covetousness, anti-hatred and anti-delusion; precepts, meditation and wisdom; oneself, world and existence; eye-organ, ear-organ, nose-organ, tongue-organ, body and mind; with efficacy in object and support as dominance. What is meant by ambition dominance? If a dharma which happens by means of the prominence of ambition, that ambition is the condition of dominance of that dharma.47 The meaning of dominance is free and unrestrained, such as the king of people.
48

The basic definition of condition of dominance is a dharma possessing the efficient force for the arising of an entity. It has the directing, unrestraining, striving ambition to drive to an end or to make a certain result, therefore, it is regarded as

47

Ibid, p. 679c, 680a. . 48 Ibid, p. 680b. 47

condition of dominance. WAW enumerates many kinds of condition of dominance for the defiled and non-defiled dharma-s.

The above analysis provides the basic definitions and relevant examples of the ten conditions. In terms of time frame, various conditions are differentiated into simultaneity, different periods or periods unrestricted. Different periods means anterior as condition of posterior (). They have two types. One is inferior or superior undetermined () and the other is anterior inferior but posterior superior (). Unrestricted period can either be simultaneous or different. Their relationship is illustrated as follows: Time frame Corresponding Ten Conditions

simultaneity differentiation condition, arising condition, condition of dominance inferior or superior undetermined equal-immediate condition, retribution condition different anterior inferior but posterior superior succession condition unrestricted condition qua cause, condition qua object, condition of dominance, karmic condition

From the aspects of simultaneity, different or unrestricted period, some conditions affect present entities whilst some conditions affect future existents. Conditions of simultaneity and different period are mutually exclusive and could not arise altogether. For example, succession condition cannot emerge simultaneously with arising condition. On the other hand, since condition qua cause is unrestricted, it can have efficacy either in simultaneous or different period. 2.2.3 The Inclusive or Exclusive Relationship between Ten Conditions

The composer of WAW examine ten conditions not only from the aspect of
48

unique characteristic (svalaksana ), they also analyze the inclusive or exclusive relationship between ten conditions employing the methodological device of subsumption (sajgraha ). The discussion of the relationship of various conditions to each other is in the following manner. For example, there are dharma-s which are simultaneously condition qua cause and equal-immediate condition. It is possible that there are dharma-s which are condition qua cause but not equal-immediate condition. Furthermore, there are dharma-s which are

equal-immediate condition but not condition qua cause. Finally, there are dharma-s which are neither condition qua cause nor equal-immediate condition. The possible relationship of each condition to all the other conditions is listed in this treatise.49 It is obvious that some conditions have subsumptive relationship which is similar to the concept of subordination in logic, and some are partly subsumption and non-subsumption that are similar to intersection. There are some conditions that are totally exclusive with each other.

WAW takes the ten conditions as examples to demonstrate the subsumptive relation. Dependence condition includes all conditions because other conditions have to depend on it. In other word, dependence condition has the broadest range of conditions. According to set theory, it is the upper set for the other subsets. Since any upper set contains its subsets, when dependence condition is compared with the other conditions, dependence condition contains the other conditions and thus they have inclusive relationship. The investigation into the relationship of various conditions by WAW is typical, as said by Venerable Dhammajoti, The catechetical investigation into the relationship viw-a-viw several dharma-s A, B, C, D, E, etc., takes several rounds: First between A and B, A and C, A and
49

Frauwallner (1995): 105. 49

D, A and E, Next, between B and C, between B and D, between B and E, The whole process can be a rather complex one.50 Catechetical methodology is a method by answering a question for investigating into the relationship of different dharma-s. It is usually adopted in the abhidharma texts which answers a propositional question in alternatives (pada ), such as purva-padaka (that which accords with the former (not the latter) alternative ) and pawcat-padaka (that which accords with the latter (not the former) alternative ). The question is in the form of If p is true, is q also true? The answer then may be either: p is true, but not q purva-padaka; or q is true, but not p pawcat-padaka. Sometimes, the same question may have an answer in four alternatives, a tetralemma (catus-koti ): (i) p is true, not q; (ii) q is true, not p; (iii) both p and q are true; (iv) neither p nor q is true.51 An example of such method of catechism is illustrated by WAW as follows: Every condition qua cause must [belong to] dependence condition but not all dependence condition is condition qua cause.52 This is the formal expression of purva-padaka adopted in abhidharma. Since p is subordinate to q, when p exists, it implies that q exists too, and then p and q is a subsumptive relationship. We may substitute condition qua cause for p and dependence condition for q. Therefore, when p is true, q is true. Alternatively, when q exists, it does not imply the existence of p. This is the formal expression of pawcat-padaka. When dependence condition exists, it does not imply the existence of condition qua cause. Therefore, condition qua cause implies dependence condition but not vice versa. WAW points out that the other eight conditions in

50 51 52

SA: 33. See also SWAS: 202-203. SA: 32. T1548: 683a.[] 50

relation with dependence condition is just the same as condition qua cause.

With respect to those four conditions, condition qua cause versus equal-immediate condition, condition qua object and condition of dominance, these would be the case of tetralemma which has four alternatives: (1)A.~B, (2) B.~A, (3)A.B, (4)~A. ~B. The first pada is a dharma that is condition qua cause but not equal-immediate condition. The second pada is a dharma that is equal-immediate condition but not condition qua cause. The third pada is a dharma that is both equal-immediate condition and condition qua cause. The fourth pada is a dharma that is neither equal-immediate condition nor condition qua cause.53 Just like the relation of condition qua cause with equal-immediate condition, the condition qua object and condition of dominance are the same.

Thereafter, we come to analyze the relation of condition qua cause versus the remaining five conditions. These are the karmic, retribution, uprising, differentiation and succession conditions. These five conditions are subordinate to condition qua cause. We can employ the purva-padaka and pawcat-padaka expressed above for understanding their relationship. As said by WAW: All karmic condition must [belong to] condition qua cause, not all condition qua cause is karmic condition54 Equal-immediate condition, being the anterior as condition of posterior, when compared with those simultaneous conditions, such as condition of dominance, arising condition and differentiation condition, they are totally exclusive with each

53

54

Ibid, p. 680b.(1)(2)(3)(4) Ibid, p. 680b. 51

other. Since equal-immediate condition and retribution condition are anterior as condition of posterior, these two conditions have tetralemma relationship with karmic condition. Moreover, the characteristics of equal-immediate condition is inferior or superior undetermined whilst succession condition is anterior inferior but posterior superior. Although both are anterior as condition of posterior, these two conditions are mutually exclusive.

Condition of dominance is a simultaneous condition and it is exclusive with those anterior as condition of posterior such as equal-immediate condition, retribution condition and succession condition. On the other hand, condition of dominance has tetralemma relationship with differentiation condition, arising condition and karmic condition.

Since the scope of condition qua object is broad when compared with the other conditions except the dependence condition, condition qua object has tetralemma relationship with the other nine conditions.

Lastly, when compared with condition qua cause, the five conditions from karmic up to succession condition are in subsumptive relation. When compared with the equal-immediate condition, condition qua object and condition of dominance, those five conditions could either be inclusive or exclusive. When any of these five conditions are compared with one another, they are also either inclusive or exclusive.55

The catechetical investigation into the relationship viw-a-viw ten conditions

55

For the details, see SWAS: 442-443. 52

demonstrates the sophisticated defining method of WAW. According to Venerable Yin Shuns viewpoint, the definition of ten conditions is very close to the six causes of Sarvastivada. It is obvious that dependence condition is similar to efficient cause (karana-hetu ). Succession condition is similar to homogeneous cause (sabhaga-hetu ). Retribution condition is vipaka-hetu ( ). Differentiation condition is co-existent cause (sahabhu-hetu ) and conjoined cause (sajprayuktaka-hetu ). Arising condition is similar to sahabhu-hetu and it is just like the derived matters co-existed with the four great matters. Moreover, unwholesome mental activities arouse together with the corresponding roots of unwholesome. Arising condition is mental activities aroused from ten defilements and three unwholesome roots, and therefore it is actually another expression of universal cause (sarvatraga-hetu ). Although WAW has mentioned the arising condition of karma but it fails to provide detailed explanation of sarvatraga-hetu. This makes it different from Sarvastivadas six causes. From the above comparison, ten conditions of WAW is a causal theory in composite of four conditions and six causes. At a later stage, it is very likely that Yogacaras ten causes doctrine is established on the basis of WAWs ten causes and ten conditions. 2.2.4 Characteristics of Thirty-Three Causes

After the exploration of ten conditions, WAW lists a total of thirty-three causes: Direct cause, equal-immediate cause, object cause, dependence cause, karmic cause, retribution cause, arising cause, differentiation cause, succession cause, dominance cause; psychic cause, physical cause; ignorance cause, karmic force cause, consciousness cause, psycho-physical complex cause, six entrances cause, contact cause, sensation cause, craving cause, grasping cause, existence cause, birth cause, old-age cause, death causes, anxiety cause, sorrow cause, suffering cause, harassment cause, numerous
53

suffering causes; nutrition cause, overflow cause and rebirth cause.56 The definitions of the first ten causes are actually the same as those ten conditions. Then there are psychic and physical causes that signify the causes for mental and physical phenomena. Thereafter, from ignorance to death, these are twelve causes that correspond with twelve links of dependent origination, with addition of anxiety, sorrow, suffering and harassment causes, amounting to eighteen causes. Finally there are nutrition cause, overflow cause and rebirth cause. Nutrition cause includes nourishment from physical food, sensory food, volition and consciousnesses. Since four kinds of nourishment sustain the lives of all sentient beings, it is called the nutrition cause. Overflow cause includes desire, existence and ignorance and these are the causes of defiled livings in the three spheres. Rebirth cause is the cause inducing the existence of skandha, ayatana, dhatu. It is the cause of reincarnation of living beings.

It is notably that some of the last twenty-three causes are repeating causes. Psychic and physical causes are actually the same as psycho-physical complex causes. Some causes are extended to more items, such as old-age-and-death is divided into two distinctive causes, with addition of anxiety cause, sorrow cause, suffering cause, harassment cause and numerous suffering causes. In general, all these are grouped into the twelfth link of old-age-and-death. The reason why WAW lists more causes is to illustrate the unsatisfactory phenomena of sajsaric process. .

At the end of the chapter, WAW mentions that there are several situations for the
56

T1548: p. 687b. 54

connection of various causes: Cause and becoming cause, cause and conforming cause, anterior cause and co-existent causes, anterior cause and posterior cause, posterior cause and co-existent cause.57 Since any singular cause can be combined with becoming cause, conforming cause, anterior cause, posterior cause and co-existent cause, it may constitute varieties of phenomena in the empirical world. WAW depicts the dynamic influences and conformity of various causes and conditions for the production of an effect. It is clear that the analysis emphasizes the defiled aspects of sentient beings flowing around in the three spheres of existence. Among those thirty-three causes, Yogacara inherits the essence of the basic ten causes to constitute its ten causes theory and the remaining causes are expressed under the defiled causes () from the aspect of twelve links of dependent origination (dvadawavga pratityasamutpada). Therefore, these two theories should have close relationship with one another. From the above analysis, various causes are well defined by WAW from different aspects such as possessing retribution, non-possessing retribution, accompanying consciousness, non-accompanying consciousness, accompanying karma,

non-accompanying karma. Moreover, the catechetical investigation presents a logical exposition. With these specific methodological devices, WAW is capable of providing a comprehensive classification of the causes and conditions. Nevertheless, WAWs theory of causality has not received much attention for its significance.

57

Ibid, p. 688a- 698a. 55

Chapter 3
The Sarvastivada Theory of Causality
As far as the issue of causality is concerned, one possible origins of Yogacaras theory of causality is Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastras ten causes. Another possible origin that has influence on the Yogacaras doctrines would be Sarvastivadas six causes theory. The Sarvastivada School is one of the most prominent Buddhist sects during the period of abhidharma. This chapter will introduce the historical development of Sarvastivada School, its major treatises and methodology. An understanding of its background is indispensable for apprehending the major doctrines of Sarvastivada, especially on the theory of the six causes. 3.1 The Establishment of Sarvastivada School and its Major Treatises Sarvastivada School originated from the orthodox Theravada system and developed into a distinct school by the middle of the 3rd century B.C. After

the first schism of the two fundamental sects, the process of sub-division of Theravada was recorded by Samaya-bhedoparacana cakra ():1 The Sarvastivada remained united for a certain period of time. 300 years after the demise of the Buddha, there arose some disputes, and it split into two schools: 1. the Sarvastivada, also called Hetuvada ( ) ; 2. the original Sarvastivada which [then] changed its name as the Haimavada ( ).There were a total of eleven sects from the fundamental sects to the sub-divisions.

..()() (T2031: 15b). Also, see SA: 36. 56

Since there are a total of eleven sects for the Theravada, including the nine sects divided from Mahasajghika, there were twenty sects altogether. Each school formed a particular theory on which its ontological structure is built so as to reflect the nature of reality given in experience. Among these sects, it is Sarvastivada who has a lot of literatures and Buddhist specialists (abhidharmika-s ). The philosophical views of Sarvastivada can be found in seven canonical treatises of the Northern Buddhism. These were translated by Xuan Zang and are called a body with six limbs.
2

The

theoretical system of this school is refined and sophisticated, specializing in elucidation and argumentation of Buddhist doctrines. It includes various views of Buddhist schools. Eventually these standpoints are compiled into the great work of Abidharma-maha-vibhasa-wastra (MVW, ). This is why Sarvastivada is also called Vaibhasika (Great Exposition School, ).

Vasubandhu ( ) of Vijbanavada originally was follower of Sarvastivada. His Abhidharmakowabhasya (AKB, ) summarizes the central doctrines of Sarvastivada. Moreover, he puts forth the viewpoints of Sautrantika through discourse of controversy. As a result, AKB includes those profound philosophies of both Buddhist schools.

Sajghabhadra () was another famous abhidharmika at the time of Vasubandhu. His Abhidharma-nyayanusara (Ny, ) puts
2

The seven canonical treatises are: 1. Dharma-skandha, () 2. Sajgiti-paryaya (), 3. Prajbapti-wastra, () , 4. Vijbanakaya (), 5. Prakaranapada (), 6. Dhatukaya (), 7. Jbanaprasthana (JPS, ) . JPS is like a body in relation to the other six as its limbs. Xuan Zang translated these six treatises except Prajbapti-wastra. Later there was a brief translation of Prajbapti-wastra by Dharmaraksa ( 963-1058) during the Sung dynasty. 57

many efforts for justification of the tenets held by Sarvastivada and rebuts the criticism of Sautrantikas view in AKB. Since Sajghabhadra upholds and explains the Sarvastivada views more clearly, he is praised as the Neo-Sarvastivada. According to the comment of SA, the contribution of Neo-Sarvastivada is mainly on the effort of fine-tuning the theory of Sarvastivada. However, this does not amount to a novel interpretation since those important doctrinal propositions were already found in MVW.3

These abhidharma treatises of the Sarvastivada include the philosophical discourses of various Hinayana sects providing the source of materials for study. While discussing the doctrines of Sarvastivada, I mainly draw materials from MVW, Vashubandhus AKB and Sajghabhadras Ny since these texts represent the orthodox position of Sarvastivada.

The name of Sarvastivada comes from the genuine belief of sarvam asti whose literal meaning is all exists. According to Vasubandhus AKB, Those who hold all exists the past, the present and the future belongs to the Sarvastivada.4 What Buddha says about all exists refers

to the reality of the 12 ayantana-s which include eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, mind, visible, sound, smell, taste, tangibles and mental object. 5 The first six

ayantana-s are subjective sensory faculties (indriya) and the latter ayantana-s
are perceived objects. The literal meaning of ayantana is the gate of arising. The contact of organ with object gives rise to various kinds of sensation. That is why Buddha says that twelve ayantanas conclude all realms of our

3 4 5

SA: p. 98. SA, p. 15. SAg () T99: 91a. 58

experience Nothing exists outside those empirically verifiable twelve

ayantanas. If we claim that there exists something that we cannot experience,

such unconvincing assumption will only lead to doubts and absurdity.6

Sarvastivada defines the Sanskrit dharma as svalaksana-dharanad

dharmah.7 Every existent possesses its specific characteristic (svalaksana ) that can be apprehended by the people. In Buddhism, dharma-s include all kinds of physical and mental existences. Moreover, these dharma-s have senses of cognitive standard, norms and principle, etc. For the purpose of exploring the doctrinal Buddhism, abhidharmika-s of Sarvastivada systematically analyze various kinds of dharma-s in terms of specific (svalaksana ) and universal (samana-laksana ) characteristics. They assert that a uniquely characterized entity is a real entity (dravya ) with a specific intrinsic nature (savbhava ). That is why people conceive the philosophy of Sarvastivada as a kind of realism. MVW declares the fundamental philosophical assertion of Sarvastivada: All dharma-s exist tri-temporarily, and their savbhava are persistent.8 Our understanding of the six causes theory should not be deviated from this basic principle.

3.2 The Important Proposition and Taxonomy of Sarvastivada:

The qualification of an abhidharmika includes the expertise of his scope of study, especially the comprehension of the fourteen or seven things. This reflects the area of interest of the Sarvastivadins:

6 7 8

Ibid. T1545: 395b. 59

The meanings of the abhidharma-pitaka should be understood by means of fourteen things: the six hetu-s, the four pratyaya-s, sajgraha, sajprayoga, samanvagama and asamanvagama. Those who, by means of these fourteen things, understand the abhidharma unerringly are called abhidharmika-s; not [those who] merely recite and memorize the words. Other masters say that the meanings of the abhidharma-pitaka should be understood by means of seven things: hetu-kauwalya, pratyaya-kauwalya, svalaksana-kauwalya, samanalaksana-kauwalya, sajgraha-asajgraha-kauwalya, sajprayoga-viprayoga-kauwalya, and samanvagama-asamanvagama-kauwalya. Those who, by means of these seven things understand the abhidharma unerringly are called abhidharmika-s; not [those who] merely recite and memorize the words. 9 The scope of doctrinal study includes six causes and four conditions which belong to the aspect of causation. By adding the other sajgraha (subsumption), sajprayoga (conjunction), samanvagama (endowment), asamanvagama (non-endowment), there are total of fourteen things. On the other hand, those fourteen things can be contracted to seven things. This involves hetu (cause), pratyaya (condition), (universal and svalaksana (unique

characteristics), sajgraha-asajgraha

samanalaksana (subsumption

characteristics), and

non-subsumption)

samanvagama-asamanvagama (endowment and non-endowment). It is obvious that the basic area of study remains unchanged.

By investigating the teaching of Buddha, the abhidharmika-s classify those important dharma-s into different categories for examining their svalaksana and samanalaksana. Discernment of svalaksana is to investigate

SA: p. 15. (T1545: 116b) 60

the specific nature of concrete dharma-s taught by the Buddha, such as skandha, ayatana, dhatu, satya and indriya etc. Apart from discerning the intrinsic nature of these dharma-s, abhidharmika-s have to know their universal characteristics, such as impermanence, unsatisfaction, emptiness and non-substantiality. Based on the taxonomy, the relation of sajgraha or asajgraha can be determined respectively, and the inclusive or exclusive relation between different dharma-s can be distinguished. Thereafter, the study of sajprayoga (conjunction) and viprayoga (non-conjunction) indicates that activities of body and mind are not isolated, so as spiritual cultivation and virtuous conducts. Originally the study of sajprayoga and viprayoga deals with all sorts of questions, and gradually the emphasis puts on the conjunction and non-conjunction of mind and mental concomitants. For differentiating the precedent or subsequent relation of different dharma-s, the doctrine of hetu-pratyaya is established. In the process of conglomerating causes and conditions, there comes the situation of samanvagama and asamanvagama. For a person to acquire a dharma and continue to possess it, he is said to have the samanvagama of that dharma. The situation of asamanvagama is that a person is losing or disassociating with a dharma.10

The abhidharmika-s devote to the study of the fundamental thesis through examining these doctrinal aspects. They eventually set up a formal way of examination. Such methodological devices constitute the essence of canonical treatises of abhidharma. Abhidharmika-s are specialists who are familiar with these fourteen or seven scopes. Later on the Yogacarains also

inherit this tradition for studying the nature of existents.

10

See SWAS: 79-90. 61

3.3 The Central Theme of the Sarvastivada Philosophy

The main theme proclaimed by the Vaibhasika is that the substance of everything remains unchanged during the three periods of time, i.e. past, present, and future.11 This gives the Vaibhasika the name of Sarvastivadins. All kinds of existence can be classified into five basic categories, i.e. matter, mind, mental factors, compositional factors not associated (with either mental or physical factors), and finally the unconditioned existence. Each category consists of various substantial entities. Each entity possesses an essential character (svabhava) that is independent and can last permanently in the past, present and future.

In accordance with the definition of an absolute truth (paramarthika sat), Sarvastivada holds that for a dharma claimed to be substantially existent, it could be either irreducible material substance not being broken down by force or indivisible mental state of a point instant. This idea of a substance (svabhava) is itself not derived or is irreducible. In contrast with the absolute truth, the definition of a conventionl truth (samvrti sat) is that when a phenomenon, either a physical object being destroyed or a mental state being separated into individual parts, the awareness of that object is subsided. A clay pot is a good example to illustrate the conventionl truth because, if a hammer breaks a clay pot, the consciousness apprehending that object as a clay pot is vanished.12

11 12

See Kalupahana (1976): 105. See Geshe Lhundup Sopa, Jeffrey Hopkins, Cutting Through Appearances, The Practice and Theory of Tibetan Buddhism, (New York: Snow Lion Publications 1989), p. 184. Also, SA: 42-44. 62

Since Sarvastivada asserts that when a dharma transverses from one period of time to another, its substance (svabhava) is not altered but its mode is changed. To defend the idea of dharma existing in different modes without losing its svabhava, Sajghabhadra illustrates the reason as follows: The svabhava of vedana-s is sensation, yet we can speak of various types of sensations pleasurable, etc. The various organs visual, auditory, etc; within the same personal series (santati ) are all of the essential nature of prasada rupa (clean derived matters, ); yet among them there are different modes of existences there are different functions of seeing, hearing, etc. Now, herein, it is not the case that the function being different from the existence, there can be the difference in the functions of seeing, hearing, etc. Rather, the very function of seeing, etc., is none other than the existence of the eye, etc. Since it is observed that there are dharma-s which co-exist as essential substances, and whose essential characteristics do not differ, but which [nevertheless] have different modes of existence; we know that when dharma-s traverse the three times, their modes of existence vary while their essential characteristics do not change.13 The substantial mental and physical entities asserted by the Sarvastivada are unique and discrete. Reality reduced to point-instant of efficiency is conceived as cause. Th. Stcherbatsky points out that Existence is nothing but efficiency and it is this very efficiency which is called a creative cause.14 Dependent on other conditions, these units of existence account for the causal efficiency (artha kriya karitva) that constitutes a particular phenomenon. To the Sarvastivada, the entire reality that is generally understood in terms of physical and mental phenomenon is a series of changing shortest moments
13

See SA: 100. (T1562625a.). 14 Stcherbatsky (1962) Vol. 1: 119. 63

(ksana ) since existence is a flux. The discrete momentary existence explains the reality of incessant changes in terms of dependent origination. In this sense, the Sarvastivadas substantial existent is an approach for interpretation of the doctrine of dependent arising. The doctrine of impermanence was subsequently formulated as doctrine of momentariness, and then it is integrated with the doctrine of dependent origination constituting the essence of the Sarvastivadas ontology.

Sarvastivadins classify all existents of the universe into categories of sajskrta (conditioned) and asajskrta (unconditioned), each having its specific nature. MVW defines their difference as follows: A dharma is said to be conditioned if it has arising and ceasing, cause and effect; and acquires the characteristics of conditioned. A dharma is said to be unconditioned if it has no arising and ceasing, cause and effect; and acquires the characteristics of the unconditioned.15 All phenomenal existents are dependently originated from an assemblage of conditions. In this respect, they are compounded or conditioned. It is said that the svabhava is weak in nature and has to arise through the power of many factors for its activity. On the other hand, the unconditioned dharma-s are strong and therefore not depending on other factors. Moreover, those unconditioned are in fact no activities at all and thus not requiring the use of causes and conditions.16

Based on the viewpoint of svabhava permanently existed in three periods of time, Sarvastivada infers that the phenomena is in fact a relation of
15

16

(T1545405b). See SA: 26. MVW (T1545: 711a-b, 885-887). See Willemen (1998): 28. 64

conventionl existents necessarily relying on absolute existents. It is a universal assertion to the conditionings. The doctrinal system of Sarvastivada is based on such fundamental criterion for its ontological and epistemological philosophy. According to Sarvastivadas standpoint, dharma-s are distinct ontological entities which, in their intrinsic nature, are eternal and unchanging elements, and abide throughout time, totally unrelated to one another and devoid of any activities. On the ground of svabhava, Sarvastivada has to rely on an articulated causal doctrine that can account for the arising of dharma-s as phenomena and their dynamic inter-relatedness in accordance with the principle of pratitya samutpada.17 Therefore, it is of fundamental importance for this school to establish a peculiar causal theory that can be coherent to the theme of tri-temporal existence of dharma-s. It requires a rational interpretation of the fundamental thesis: What is produced (utpanna), what is being produced (utpadyamana) and what is to be produced (utpattavya), are all applied to causes (sahetuka), and that is why the Sarvastivadins is also known as Hetuvadins (causalists) who expounded a sophisticated doctrine of six causes and four conditions.18 3.4 The Six Causes Theory 3.4.1 The Fundamental Standpoint of the Six Causes Theory Generally speaking, a cause is the main condition, while conditions are the auxiliary causes. Every existent arises in functional dependence upon a combination of causes and conditions. Sarvastivada differentiates those causal factors into six causes: i.e. efficient cause (karana-hetu ), co-existent

17 18

SA: 18. See Willemen (1998): 17. 65

cause (sahabhu-hetu ), homogeneous cause (sabhaga-hetu ), conjoined cause (sajprayuktaka-hetu ), universal cause

(sarvatraga-hetu ) and retributive cause

(vipaka-hetu ).

Everything is explained as coming into existence by means of a set of six causes (hetu) and four conditions (pratyaya). If we want to master the cause-effect relation between various things, we have to distinguish an entity with respect to six causes. This will help to comprehend the formation of an entity and the relevant necessary conditions for achieving an effect.

Some people query that the six causes have not been found from the Buddhist sutra-s: The six causes are not mentioned in the sutras. The sutras only say that there are four conditions. 19 Sarvastivada defends that the establishment of the theory is to better elucidate the meaning of four conditions. In Sarvastivadas abhidharma, the theory of six causes is first discussed in Katyayaniputras Jbanaprasthana (JPW, )20, where this issue is brought up in the following dialogue: Moreover, some people say that six causes are taught in the sutra of Ekottaragama ( ) though the text has been lost. Venerable Katyayaniputra () etc, with their devotion and commitment, examined various passages indicating the six causes and composed the Jbanaprasthana. And in this abhidharma, the six causes are expounded.21 Apart from JPW, Vijbanakaya () is the first abhidharma to systematize the doctrine of six causes in terms of six

19 20 21

MVW:(T1545: 79a.) T1544: 920c-921a. MVW: [](T1545: 79b.) 66

consciousness.22 For the purpose of establishing the authority of the six causes theory, Sarvastivadins put forth various evidences to support this doctrine. Some masters say that although these six causes are not found in even one sutra for an overall exposition, there are scattered teachings about the six causes in other sutra-s. As said in the sutra: The visual consciousness arises through the mutual dependences of visual faculty (as supporting basis), faith and discerning knowledge (as mental activities). Such utterance is related with conjoined cause. As said in the sutra: On condition of visual faculty and visible object, the visual consciousness arises. The coming together of these three gives rise to contact (sparwa) which is accompanying with sensation, ideation and volition. Such utterance is related with co-existent cause. As said in the sutra: Therein, a pudgala (person, ) endows with wholesome and unwholesome dharma-s and while wholesome dharma-s immerge and unwholesome emerge, the accompanying root of wholesome dharma-s has not yet cut off. Since the root of wholesome dharma-s has not yet destroyed, there is still chance for the dharma-s of purities to emerge in the future. Such utterance is related with homogeneous cause. As said in the sutra: For those people holding erroneous views, their bodily, vocal and mental actions, their ambition and expectation, all their conducts are in accord with their erroneous views that could induce the undesirable fruits. Such utterance is related with universal cause. As said in the sutra: It could not be possible that non-meritorious bodily, vocal and mental actions conduce desirable retributive fruits and it could be the case that these actions conduce undesirable fruits. Such utterance is related with retributive cause. As said in the sutra: Two causes and two conditions give rise to correct
22

T1539: 547c-548a. 67

view, i.e. the teaching of other and systematic mental application. Such utterance is related with efficient cause. Therefore, these six causes are taught by the Buddha and that is why the venerable composed the treatise according to the views of sutra.23 Based on the above quotation of MVW, Sajghabhadra further gives a clear exposition in Ny and summarizes as follows: .[It is obvious that] Buddha has mentioned these six causes in many places. But those people filled with opposing views refuse to recognize due to their delusion.24

What is the reason for Sarvastivadins to propose the six causes theory Their proposition may be directed against opponents of heretics and also the disputing views of Buddhist schools, such as Darstantika, Vibhajyavada and Sautrantika of the Theravada system, so as Ekavyavaharika, Lokottaravada and Prajbapti-vadin of Mahasajghika system. Some of these schools assert erroneous views on causality. Some admit that only dravya (svabhava) exists in present but not in the past or future, while some maintain the non-substantiality of dharma-s in tri-temporality, and some hold that everything is nominally designated, etc. All these theories are apparently divergent with the standpoints of Sarvastivada since this school stresses that the dravya (svabhava) remains unchanged throughout the three periods of
23

(T1545: 79b) 24 ..(T1562: 416b, c) 68

time.

Mahasajghika and its sub-schools, Ekavyavaharika, Lokottaravada and Kaukkhtika (), hold that the Buddha has the ability of comprehending all dharma-s instantaneously. This is because Buddha attains omniscience after his enlightenment and is equipped with supernatural qualities that can expound all his teachings with a single utterance, etc.25 On the contrary, Sarvastivada refutes the possibility of omniscience in a single moment in JPW: [Q:] Does there exist wisdom that can comprehend all dharma-s? [A:] No. [Q:] If such wisdom arises to know that everything is non-substantiality, why it cannot comprehend everything? [A:] No, this is because the wisdom itself, its associates and its co-existents are not to be apprehended. [Q:] Does there exist a mind that can comprehend all dharma-s? [A:] No. [Q:] If such mind arises to know that everything is non-substantiality, why is that it cannot comprehend everything? [A:] No, this is because the mind itself, its associates and its co-existents are not to be apprehended.26 The mind here refers to the cognizing consciousness. Its associates are those mental concomitants and its co-existents are those sensory faculties. Non-substantiality is the universal characteristics of all dharma-s. However, why Sarvastivada refuses to admit such wisdom but in fact the Sarvastivada abhidharmika-s also have this kind of intuition for realizing that everything is

25

26

See Yao (2003): 23-24. [] [] [] [] (T1544: 919b) See Yao (2003): 25. 69

non-substantial and impermanent? Hence, to comprehend everything, we should not just refer to the direct realization on the universality of all dharma-s. To the Sarvastivadins, the true meaning of comprehending everything is not limited to apprehension of the samanalaksana only, but also the svalaksana, the associates and co-existents, and relative causes as well. Only if someone fully comprehends these factors attributing to the production of an effect, then he could be capable of comprehending all dharma-s. This is the fundamental standpoint on the establishment of the six causes. In order to deny those causal views and illustrate the true causation, Sarvastivada puts forth the six causes theory in their canonical treatises.

3.4.2 The Underlying Reason for the Sequence of Six Causes

Sarvastivadins believe that the six causes have already exhausted all the categories of the causal factors for the conditioned existents. Therefore, there is no requirement to adjust by increase or diminution. Furthermore, the sequence of the six causes has its specific implication. The broadest range is arranged first, and then followed by the narrower ranges. As it is said by Sajghabhadra: The fundamental treatise [of the Sarvastivada] admits only six causes without addition or reduction. 1. efficient cause, 2. co-existent cause, 3. homogeneous cause, 4. conjoined cause, 5. universal cause, 6. retributive cause. The nature of efficient cause covers all kinds of dharma-s (including conditioned and unconditioned) and is arranged in the first place. The nature of co-existent cause covers all conditioned dharma-s and is arranged in the second place. The nature of the remaining homogeneous cause, etc., each covers certain portions of the conditioned, and therefore they are arranged in the
70

subsequent orders respectively. These are the factors to be depended on for the arising of a dharma, and are named as causes.27 Since the coverage of efficient cause includes conditioned and unconditioned dharma-s, it represents the broadest type of cause. The next one is the second broadest co-existent cause which affects conditioned existents. The third is homogeneous cause because both wholesome and unwholesome conditioned dharma-s belonging to this category. Since conjoined cause is one type of co-existent cause, the former is subordinate to the latter and that is why this cause is ranked the fourth. Since universal cause includes unwholesome dharma-s only and is subordinate to homogeneous cause, therefore it ranks the fifth. The last one is retributive cause, which relates only to the karmic deeds. On this account, the six causes are arranged in proper order after careful examination.

3.4.3 The Analysis of Six Causes

As a matter of fact, there are extensive discussions on the issue of six causes in the Sarvastivada abhidharma. It is not possible to record down all the materials and I will choose some important points for easy apprehension. The Sarvastivada defines the six causes from strict analytical methodology. Moreover, the analysis is related to two areas. On the one hand, the establishment of individual cause is to refute the illogical cause of other schools. In this regard, there exists an opponent for whom Sarvastivada
27

Ny:
(T1562: 416b) 71

targeted to repudiate with relevant justification. On the other hand, Sarvastivada has to establish the logical cause. This includes the definition of an individual cause, its applied area, and its effect, together with concrete examples and how a cause is distinguished with the other causes as well. In this regard, this chapter will follow the Sarvastivadas analytical method for a detailed exposition. The analytical device for each type of the six causes will be abbreviated as follows: A. The refutation of illogical causes proposed by other schools: opptarget opponent reasonrefuting justification B. Establishment of logical cause: defdefinition scopeapplied scope exampleinstance fruiteffect to be induced diffdistinguished with the other causes 1. Efficient cause (karana-hetu) oppSomeone may hold that the existence of all dharma-s are produced without cause, such as those non-Buddhist. To renounce such erroneous view, the fact that all dharma-s are produced by decisive causes should be illustrated. Or someone may hold that only the conditioned dharma-s are efficient cause, not unconditioned. To renounce such erroneous view, the fact that unconditioned dharma-s are also efficient cause should be illustrated. Or someone may hold that a thing itself (svabhava) is also the efficient cause itself. To renounce such erroneous view, the fact that a thing itself (svabhava) is not the efficient cause should be illustrated.

72

To avoid all sorts of erroneous views and to illustrate the correct cause, this is the reason why the theory [of efficient cause] should be established.28 reasonQ: What is the reason that a thing itself (svabhava) cannot be the efficient cause? A: If a thing itself (svabhava) were the efficient cause of itself, then there would be no difference between cause and effect, the doer and what is done, producer and what is produced, leader and what is led, perceiver and what is perceived, transformer and what is transformed, the one who is continuous and what is continued. However, they do have differences, therefore a thing itself cannot be the efficient cause of itself. Moreover, if a thing itself can be the efficient cause of itself, it would violate what we see in the world. The finger-tip cannot touch itself; the knife-blade cannot cut itself; the pupil cannot see itself; a strong man cannot carry himself, etc. 29 def Being non-obstructive is the meaning of efficient cause, and accomplishing something is the meaning of efficient cause.30 Therefore, efficient cause is not only non-obstructing but also empowering relative to the produced effect. Due to deficiency of direct cause and concourse conditions, everything is unable to arise suddenly.31 scopeA conditioned dharma has all dharma-s, except itself, as efficient

28

MVW: .. [](T1545: p. 103c-104a) 29 MVW: .. (T1545: p. 104b). See Yao (2003): 84, 87. 30 Ibid, p. 107b. 31 Ny: (T1562: p. 417b)
73

cause, for its arising.32 Moreover, sajskrta can be the efficient cause of sajskrta, and also dependent on it as its predominance fruit. Although asajskrta can be the efficient cause of sajskrta, it cannot be its predominance fruit. This is because unconditioned dharma-s are incapable of grasping its own fruit (phala-grahana ) or producing a fruit (phala-dana ).33 exampleIn the case of the arising of visual consciousness, with visual faculty as dependent cause, with perceived object as supporting cause, with the potentiality of eye consciousness as unbroken lineage cause, with its associates as favoring cause, with co-existent dharma-s as its companying cause, and so as the arising of auditory consciousness with the dependent cause, etc. All these dharma-s are concluded as efficient cause.34 fruitThis efficient cause is worldly dharma-s in the three periods of time or unworldly dharma-s, and produces predominance fruit.35 diffThe feature of efficient cause is none other than the condition of dominance, being the contributing factor to the arising of all dharma-s. But there is a difference between these two terms, the broadest sense of condition of dominance is [the essence of] condition of dominance and the non-obstruction sense is [the essence of] efficient cause.36 2. Co-existent cause (sahabhu-hetu) oppAs said by the venerable: there are definitely no conascent causes for the conditionings. Or there would be no cause that can account for
32 33

34

35 36

Ibid. See SA: 112. MVW: . (T1545: p.105c) Ny: [][] (T1562: p. 417a). Also, AK (T1558: p. 30a). MVW: (T1545: p 107b) MVW: (T1545: p 104c) 74

the arising of the conditionings. Just like the relation of seeds and sprouts in the world, such simultaneous cause and effect does not occur in the affairs of determined cause-effect relationship.37 reasonMoreover, in many sutra-s, the Blessed One (Bhagavan, ) has mentioned the conascent cause and the previously-arisen cause: This being, that exists. From the arising of this, that arises. In this statement, the first sentence illustrates the case of the conascent cause and the second sentence further illustrates that of the previously-arisen cause. Therein, the Bhagavan has mentioned two types of cause in the sutra: For those ignorant without wisdom, they can perform meritorious deeds although in the state of ignorance. This sutra illustrates the previously-arisen cause. Therein, the sutra says: Conditioned by visual faculty and visual object, up to mental faculty and object of dharma, there arises the defiled mental application accompanying with delusion This sutra illustrates the conascent cause.38 defNot mutually separated is the meaning of co-existent cause, sharing the same effect is the meaning of co-existent cause, mutually according with one another is the meaning of co-existent cause.39 The co-existent causes are those which are reciprocally manly effect, on account of the fact that they can arise by virtue of mutual support.40

37

Ny:
(T1562: p. 418c)

38

Ny:
(T1562: p. 417a). See SA: 117. Ny: (T1562: p. 419c, 420a) Ny proclaims a detailed argumentation of co-existent cause in p. 419-421. Dhammajoti also has essays dealing with the issue of co-existent cause. See SA, p. 117-124 and Sahabhu-hetu, Causality and Sarvastivada, p. 149-168 Ny: (T1562: p.417c) SA: 114. 75

39

40

scopeAll of the conditioned.

41

exampleFor example: the four Great Elements are co-existent causes mutually among themselves;So as thoughtaccompaniments dharma-s are thought and the co-existent causes

mutually among themselves Since co-existent causes are mutually as effect among themselves, they are applicable to all the conditioned dharma-s respectively.42 Like the case of fellow merchants traversing a dangerous road through their mutual strength.43 fruitThis sahabhu-hetu is definitely found in the three periods of time, and produces the manly fruit.44 diffWhatever are conjoined causes, they are also co-existent causes and there exist some co-existent causes which are not conjoined causes, viz., the disjoined co-existent causes. 3. Homogeneous cause (sabhaga-hetu) opp Someone holds that essentials (svabhava) of dharma-s are non-existent in the past or future time, or someone may hold that the present is unconditioned, or someone hold that dharma-s belonging to their own category are the homogeneous cause. For example, minds are reciprocally homogeneous causes as the minds; sensations are reciprocally homogeneous causes as the sensations, so as the other dharma-s. To avoid all sorts of erroneous views and to illustrate the reality of three periods of time, and conditioned dharma-s in relation to their own or other categories are the homogeneous cause.46
45

41 42

MVW: (T1545: p 85b) Ny: [] (T1562: p.417c). Also, AK, (T1558:p. 30b). SA: 114. 43 Ny:(T1562: p.425c). Also, AK, (T1558: p.32c). SA: 116. 44 MVW: (T1545: p 85b). See SA: 114. 45 MVW: (T1545: p.81b) SA: 116. 46 MVW: (T1545: p. 85b, c) 76

 reason The companions with wholesome dharma-s function as homogeneous causes to generate relevant companions and also the root of wholesome dharma-s.So as the unwholesome and undefined dharma-s. 47 This causal category asserts the moral species of succeeding effect is the same as that of the preceding cause.48 defDharma-s belonging to the same species, a given stage and category are homogeneous causes 49 That wholesome dharma which has arisen previously in the past is the homogeneous cause in relation to that which has arisen later in the same category, and in relation to the companions. That wholesome dharma which has arisen in the present is the homogeneous cause in relation to that which will be arisen in the future for the same category, and in relation to the companions.50 scopeAll dharma-s in the past and in the present. (The future dharma-s would not be homogeneous cause.)51 exampleThe similar dharma-s are said to be the homogeneous causes of dharma-s similar to them. Otherwise, how can dharma-s of a given category and stage function as homogeneous causes for dharma-s of a given category and stage? Just like duhkha-darwana-heya (abandonment through insight of realizing the suffering, ) defilements pertaining to sensuality sphere functions as the homogeneous causes for duhkha-darwana-heya defilements of the sensuality sphere, so as the bhavana-heya (abandonment through cultivation, ) defilements pertaining to sensuality sphere functions as the homogeneous causes for bhavana-heya defilements pertaining to

47

MVW: (T1545: p. 85b). 48 See SA: 112. 49 Ibid, p. 90b, c. SA: 112. 50 Ibid, p. 85b. See Willemen (1998): 30. 51 Ibid, p. 80a. 77

sensuality sphere.52 It should be understood that this [homogeneous] cause functions only in the case of similar dharma-s with regard to similar dharma-s, not with regard to those of a different species. For example, the five skandha-s which are wholesome, are reciprocally the sabhaga-hetu of the five wholesome skandha-s. In the same manner, the five unwholesome or undefined skandha-s should be known respectively.53 fruitThe homogeneous cause, on account of inducing uniform-emanation fruit, only functions in the past and present.54 diffHowever, the capability of inducing its [uniform-emanation] fruit is unlimited for this homogeneous cause. It is not in the case of retributive cause whose capability of inducing its [retribution] fruit is definitely limited.55 4. Conjoined cause (sajprayuktaka-hetu) oppSomeone holds that the citta-caitta-dharma-s arise successively, not simultaneously. As said by Darstantika: On account of the cause and conditions, the citta-caitta-dharma-s arise successively.56 reasonConjunction could not be possible if the time and supporting basis [etc] are mutually apart. To signify conjunction, it should be known that they should be simultaneous, they must be supported by the same sensory organ, they must have the same mode of activity

52

Ny: (T1562: p. 422b) 53 Ny: (T1562: p. 422a ) And also AK: (T1558: p. 32c). See SA: 112. 54 MVW: (T1545: p. 90b, c). See SA: 112. 55 Ny: (T1562: p. 424c). 56 MVW: (T1545: p. 79c) 78

and they must take the same object.57 Because conditioned dharma-s are weak in their intrinsic nature, they can accomplish their activities only through mutual dependence.58 defBecause they (the thought and mental concomitants) are reciprocally causes, arisen through their mutual strength, mutually induced, mutually nourished, mutually strengthened, mutually dependent.59 The thought and mental concomitants, depending on the same supporting basis, accomplish the same deed by grasping the same object, being conjoined and not mutually apart, arise simultaneously and respectively.60 scopeWhat is conjoined cause? It is all sorts of thought and mental concomitants.61 exampleThe maha-bhumika-s (universal dharma-s belongs to caitta) are conjoined causes. The word maha refers to mental activities, and these ten dharma-s are the origination of citta.62 This is like two bundles of straw which stay in position through mutual dependence. [Likewise,] when many ropes are combined, a huge log can be dragged; and many people can cross a big river by joining hands together.63 fruitThe conjoined cause definitely functions in three periods of time and
57

Ny: (T1562: p. 425c). See SA: 126. 58 MVW:(T1545: p. 81b). See SA: 115. 59 MVW: [] (T1545: p. 81b). See SA: 115. 60 Ibid, p. 79c. 61 Ibid, p. 80a. 62 Ibid, p. 80b. The ten maha-bhumika-s are vedana (sensation), sajjba (perception), cetana (volition), sparwa (contact), manaskara (mental application), chanda (predilection), adhimoksa (resolve), smrti (recollection), samadhi (concentratin), prajba (understanding). 63 Ibid, p.80b. See SA 115. 79

induces manly fruit.64 diffThe distinction between conjoined cause and co-existent cause has been explained before.65 5. Universal cause (sarvatraga-hetu) opp Someone holds that all defilements are universal cause. To avoid such erroneous view, the fact that for all defilements, some will constitute the sarvatraga and some will not constitute the sarvatraga, should be illustrated.66 reasonIn order to illustrate that the svabhava exists in the past and the future, and the present is conditioned. It is just like duhkha-darwana-heya defilements functioning as the universal cause, so as samudaya-darwana-heya (abandonment through insight of realizing the cause of suffering, ) defilements, due to the same nature and species.67 defBeing a cause applicable to all defilements is universal cause.68 scope All sorts of universal anuwaya-s (the dormant defilement, ) and their relevant companions either in the past or in the present.69 example Universal causes are those universal anuwaya-s and their relevant companions which have arisen previously in the past as the universal causes in relation to those posterior defilements belonging to the same or other categories, and in relation to the arising of their relevant companions.70 Eleven defilements (klewa-s) pertaining to the sphere of

64 65

Ibid, p. 81b. See SA: 116 for a detailed exposition. 66 . Ibid , p. 90 c. 67 Ibid, 91b. 68 [] Ibid , p. 96a. See SA: 113. 69 Ibid, p. 80a. 70 Ny: (T1562: p. 426a) 80

sensuality for which five drsti, doubt, ignorance are abandonment through insight of realizing duhkha; mighyadrsti (erroneous view ), drsti-paramarwa (stubborn erroneous views ), doubt and ignorance are samudaya-darwana-heya. Klewa-s pertaining to the fine-material and immaterial spheres are also eleven kinds for each realm in the same manner.71 fruit The universal dharma-s inducing their own species

(uniform-emanation fruit) only function in the past and present.72 diff Since the strength of universal causes surpass the homogeneous causes, therefore it is established as a specific type of cause distinguishing from homogeneous cause. 73 This is because universal cause functions in relation to same species of both own and other categories whilst homogeneous cause confines only to own category. 6. Retributive cause (vipaka-hetu) opp Someone holds that there is no vipaka-hetu apart from volition (cetana), and no vipaka-hetu apart from sensation (vedana), such as Darstantika. To avoid such erroneous view, the fact that vipaka-hetu and vipaka-phala comprise all the five skandha-s should be illustrated. Or someone holds that only citta-caitta have vipaka-hetu and vipaka-phala, such as Mahasajghika. To avoid such erroneous view, the fact that all kinds of rupa and citta-viprayukta-sajskara also have vipaka-hetu and vipaka-phala should be illustrated. Or someone holds that: As long as vipaka-hetu has not reached the matured stage, its svabhava exists permanently. Until the fruit has

71

72 73

MVW: (T1545: p. 91b) MVW: (T1545: p.96a) Ny:(T1562: p. 426a) 81

ripened, its svabhava is then dissolved. As said by Kawyapiya: It is just like the seed, if the sprout has not matured, the potentiality exists permanently until the maturation of sprout. The situation of vipaka-hetu-s is the same. To avoid such erroneous view, the fact that the intrinsic nature of vipaka-hetu still exists after maturation should be illustrated. Or Someone holds that There are no desirable or undesirable retributions for the karma, just as those non-Buddhists. To avoid such erroneous view, the fact that desirable or undesirable retributions aroused as a result of the karma should be illustrated.74 reasonThe rupa-s, citta-caitta dharma-s and citta-viprayukta-sajskara-s are retributions of citta-caitta. Citta-caitta dharma-s with regard to those retributions constitute vipaka-hetu-s. Therein, citta-caitta dharma-s are those unwholesome and wholesome defiled mind and mental concomitants. These also include those cittanuvrttaka-rupa and citta-viprayukta-sajskara-s because all of these constitute the same effect. The retributive rupa-s are aggregate of matters, i.e. the five sensory faculties, form, smell, taste, and tangible objects. Minds are six consciousnesses. Mental concomitants are three aggregates, i.e. sensation, ideation and volition, etc. Citta-viprayukta-sajskara-s are aggregate of conditioning forces, such as jivitendriya (root of life ) and nikaya-sabhaga (commonality of sentient beings ), etc. The above illustrates that vipaka-hetu and vipaka-phala comprise

74

MVW: (T1545: p. 96a). See SA: 113. 82

all five skandha-s.75 defA vipaka is a result dissimilar from its cause; such as wholesome and unwholesome causes constitute the neutral retribution. 76 The effect has a meaning of maturation. There are two types of maturation: 1. Maturation of similar type. 2. Maturation of dissimilar type. Maturation of similar type is nisyanda-phala, such as wholesome produces wholesome, unwholesome produces unwholesome and neutral produces neutral. Maturation of dissimilar type is vipaka-phala, such as wholesome and unwholesome causes constitute the neutral retribution. Since neutral retribution is originated from wholesome and unwholesome dissimilar causes, it is called maturation dissimilar from its cause.77 scope Vipaka-hetu-s are all unwholesome and wholesome defiled dharma-s.78 exampleThe unwholesome and wholesome dharma-s are vipaka-hetu-s, since they are of the nature of retribution. Why do the neutral dharma-s not bring about retribution? Because they are weak, like rotten seeds. Why not the outflow-free [dharma-s]? Because they are not moistened by craving, like unmoistened intact seeds. [Why not] those not belonging to any sphere? Because, not belonging to any sphere, what kind of sphere-specific (bound to a sphere) retributions could they bring about? The remaining [unwholesome and wholesome] dharma-s have those two conditions (i.e. not weak and moistened by craving) and therefore

76 77

78

[] Ibid, p. 96b. Ibid, p. 103c. Ibid, p. 96b. Ibid, p. 80a. 83

75

can induce retribution, just like intact seeds that are moistened by water.79 fruitThis vipaka-hetu can definitely be found in the three periods of time and is capable of inducing the retributive fruit.
80

diffSee the distinction with homogeneous cause mentioned above. The above extracts from Sarvastivada abhidharma-s illustrate different aspects of the six causes and should be able to give a comprehensive exposition attributing to the theory of causality.

3.4.4 The Mutual Relation between the Six Causes

As for the inclusive or exclusive relationship between these six causes, it can be understood by the summation found in MSW. Firstly, the intersection or non-intersection relationship of conjoined cause with the other five causes are examined: If anything that is conjoined cause, that thing is also co-existent cause; there exists a thing which is co-existent cause but not conjoined cause, such as citta-viprayukta-sajskara-s. If anything that is conjoined cause, that thing is also efficient cause; there exists a thing which is efficient cause but not conjoined cause, such as citta-viprayukta-sajskara-s. [Q:] Is conjoined cause also homogeneous cause? A: It should be considered in terms of four alternatives, a tetralemma (catus-koti ). [Q:] Is conjoined cause also universal cause? A: It should be considered in terms of four alternatives. [Q:] Is conjoined cause also retributive cause? A: It should be considered
79

[]AK, (T1558: p. 33a). SA: 113. 80 MVW: (T1545: p. 103c) 84

in terms of four alternatives.

81

After the investigation of conjoined cause, then the relationship of co-existent cause with the remaining four causes is examined: If anything that is homogeneous cause, that thing is also co-existent cause; there exists a thing which is co-existent cause but not homogeneous cause, such as future dharma-s. If anything that is universal cause, that thing is also co-existent cause; there exists a thing which is co-existent cause but not universal cause. If anything that is retributive cause, that thing is also co-existent cause; there exists a thing which is co-existent cause but not retributive cause. If anything that is co-existent cause, that thing is also efficient cause; there exists a thing which is efficient cause but not co-existent cause, such as unconditioned dharma.
82

After the investigation of the conjoined and co-existent causes, then the relationship of homogeneous cause with the remaining three causes is examined: If anything that is universal cause, that thing is also homogeneous; there exists a thing which is homogeneous cause but not universal cause. [Q:] Is homogeneous cause also retributive cause? A: It should be considered in terms of four alternatives. If anything that is homogeneous cause, that thing is also efficient cause; there exists a thing which is efficient cause but not homogeneous cause, such as future and unconditioned dharma-s. 83 After the investigation of the conjoined, co-existent and homogeneous causes, then the relationship of universal cause with the remaining two causes is examined: [Q:] Is universal cause also retributive cause? A: It should be considered in terms of four alternatives. If anything that is universal cause, that thing is also efficient cause; there

81 82 83

MVW (T1545: p. 107b). MVW (T1545: p. 107c). MVW (T1545: p. 107b-108a). 85

exists a thing which is efficient cause but not universal cause. The last one to examine is efficient cause:

84

If anything that is retributive cause, that thing is also efficient cause; there exists a thing which is efficient cause but not retributive cause, such as undefined and outflow-free dharma-s.85 The methodological device of Sarvastivada is the same as that of WAW. The mutual relation of six causes is summarized as follows: 1. The scope of efficient cause is the broadest. The other five causes are subordinate to efficient cause, and therefore they are subsumptive relation. 2. The scope of co-existent cause is the second broadest. The homogeneous, universal, conjoined and retributive causes are subordinate to co-existent cause. Therefore, they are subsumptive relation. 3. When homogeneous cause is compared with universal cause which is subordinate to homogeneous cause, they are subsumptive relation. When homogeneous cause is compared with retributive and conjoined causes, they are intersection relation. 4. When conjoined cause is compared with homogeneous, universal and retributive causes, they are intersection relation. 5. When universal cause is compared with conjoined and retributive causes, they are intersection relation. 6. When retributive cause is compared with homogeneous, universal and conjoined causes, they are intersection relation.

3.4.5 Distinction of the Six Causes in terms of Time Frame

From the perspective of tri-temporality, the functions of six causes inducing corresponding fruits are distinguished: Universal and homogenous causes only exist in the past and present, but not in the future, and the reason has already been explained before. Conjoined, co-existent, retributive causes can be found in the three
84 85

MVW (T1545: p. 107b-108a). MVW (T1545: p. 107b-108a). 86

periods of time. Although the passage has no indication of the efficient cause, by inference, this cause exists in both tri-temporal worldly realm (conditioned) and temporal transcendental unworldly realm (unconditioned), and therefore is not determined in term of time.86 It is said that the universal and homogenous causes could have functions in the past and the present but not in the future. Conjoined, co-existent, retributive causes could have functions in the past, present and future. Efficient cause is undetermined since this cause could have function for conditioned (abided by time frame) and unconditioned (not abided by time frame) realms.

3.4.6

Six Causes in relation to Four Conditions and Five Fruits

According to the Sarvastivadins, the doctrine of six causes is another way for expression of the four conditions. Four conditions including condition qua cause (hetu-pratyaya), equal-immediate condition

(samanantara-pratyaya), condition qua object (alambana-pratyaya) and condition of dominance (adhipati-pratyaya) are classification of various causes and conditions adopted by both Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism. These four categories of conditions comprise numerous conditions for the arising of various dharma-s. The definitions of four conditions have already been explained in the last chapter.

According to MVW, the functions of the four conditions can be found in the mental phenomena: A citta or caitta of a given ksana (moment ) induces the arising of
86

Ny: (T1562: p. 428b) 87

a similar citta or caitta this is condition qua cause. This same citta or caitta gives way to the citta or caitta of the next moment so that it can arise this is equal-immediate condition. This very one can serve as the object of cognition for the citta or caitta of the next ksana this is condition qua object. This very one does not obstruct the arising of the citta or caitta of the next ksana this is condition of dominance. Thus all mental activities have functions of the four conditions in the past and present, except the final citta-caita-s of an arhat. The other conditioned dharma-s only can function as three conditions [except the equal-immediate condition].87 With the exception of an arhats final citta-caita-s due to no continuation of another mental activities, all cita-caitta-s may function as the four conditions. In general, the tenet of the Buddhism is to conceive the primary factor as cause and secondary factor as condition. The primary factor is also named as condition since it is one of the factors contributing to the production of an effect. Therefore, the two terms, cause and condition were used more or less synonymously in the sutra-s. Nevertheless, MVW distinguishes various differences between cause and condition. One important point is mentioned in SA:there is a difference in significance: a cause signifies what is proximate, a condition signifies what is remote.88

Based on the cause-effect relation, five fruits are the effect aroused from six causes or four conditions. The definitions of five fruits are: There are five fruits (or effects): 1. Nisyanda-phala, 2. Vipaka-phala, 3. Visajyoga-phala, 4. Purusa-phala, 5. Adhipati-phala.
MVW , [] (T1545: p. 109a) 88 See SA: 131. 88
87

Nisyanda-phala is uniform-emanation fruit of the same species, e.g., wholesome is produced from previous wholesome, unwholesome is produced from previous unwholesome, neutral is produced from neutral dharma-s. Vipaka-phala is retribution fruit induced from previous unwholesome, wholesome defiled karma-s. The causes are morally defined but the fruit is undefined. Since the retribution matured in different categories, the fruit is therefore named as vipaka. Visajyoga-phala is disconnection fruit for detachment from all klewa-s or bondages, during the path of no interruption. Purusa-phala is the manly fruit. By virtue of activity, another dharma is produced as a result of human efforts. Adhipati-phala is predominance fruit. For a dharma comes into existence from the superior strength of another dharma, this dharma is named as predominance fruit of that dharma.89 The respective fruits for each of six causes are: co-existent and conjoined causes induce manly fruit, homogenous and universal causes induce uniform-emanation fruit, retributive cause induces retribution fruit, and efficient cause induces predominance fruit and disconnection fruit. 3.4.7 The Correlation between Six Causes Four Conditions and WAW Ten Conditions The Sarvastivadas four conditions are the same as that of WAW. As far as the Sarvastivadas six causes and the other six conditions in WAW are concerned, similar meanings are observed. Efficient cause is similar to dependence condition, retributive cause is related with karmic and retribution

89

MVW . (T1545: p. 629c-630b). 89

conditions, homogeneous and universal causes are similar to succession condition, co-existent and conjoined causes are relevant to differentiation condition 90 and co-existent cause is similar to arising condition. We can conclude that the six causes and four conditions of Sarvastivadas have similarities with ten conditions of WAW. Apart from the definitions, the methods of investigating the mutual relation and time frame between various causal factors are similar. Both of them demonstrate the logical thinking of Buddhist causation theory in compliance with relations of inclusion, exclusion and intersection. This reflects the standard of methodology and inference in the period of Nikaya Buddhism. With respect to the analysis and exposition, it is obvious that Sarvastivadas examination is more precise and systematic. That is why the Sarvastivad deserves the reputation of Hetuvada among the Buddhist sects.

To the Sarvastivadins, a dharma with its unique characteristic is known as specific intrinsic nature (svabhava) carrying a real force or causal efficacy. It is this causal efficacy that suffices to account for the existence of a dharma (real entity). The emphasis on the six causes on the part of the Sarvastivadin is their concern to prove the realities of the tri-temporal dharma. These entities are eternally without transformation; and therefore their activities necessarily depend on the function of cause and conditions.

The theory of ten conditions thirty-three causes advocated by WAW and the six causes four conditions of Sarvastivada have gradually developed a systematic and sophisticated doctrinal thesis illustrating the dynamic interplay
90

For the differentiation cause defined by WAW, the word differentiation should read as co-existent as highlighted and explained in Chapter two. 90

and reciprocal influences among the conditioned dharma-s in the phenomenal world. These two causal theories have their footing in the Buddhist history and should have influence on Yogacaras theory of ten causes.

91

Chapter Four
Insight of Two Buddhist Schools Influencing Yogacaras Causal Theory
After the schism of various Buddhist sects for several hundred years, Mahayana Buddhism appeared during the first century B.C. and developed along with the Hinayana Buddhism. Madhyamika () and Yogacara () are two major Mahayana Buddhist schools in India. The philosophy of these two Mahayana schools was originated from the Nikaya Buddhism. Every Hinayana sect has influence on the Mahayana Buddhism to a certain extent, especially the Sarvastivada, Sautrantika and Mahasajghika. Among these schools, Sarvastivada and Sautrantika belonging to the Theravada system have close connection with Yogacara. The objective of this chapter is to introduce the philosophical standpoint of

Sautrantika and Madhyamika that have impacts on the Yogacaras theory of

causation.

4.1 The Theory of Sautrantika School Sautrantika () is one of the major Hinayana sects evolved from the Samkrantivada () and Darstantika ().1 It is a philosophical school along with the Sarvastivada, Madhyamika and Yogacara, making up the four representative Buddhist schools of the Indian Buddhism. However, there are limited sources about the philosophy of Sautrantikas. As stated in Samaya-bhedoparacana cakra (), Sautrantika was a

See Kato (1989): 70, for eighty-six references to Darstantika ideas. 92

sub-school of Sarvastivada:2 The Sarvastivada remained united for a certain period of time. 300 years after the demise of the Buddha, some disputes arose and it split into two schools: 1. the Sarvastivada, also called Hetuvada () ; 2. the original Sarvastivada which [then] changed its name as the Haimavada (). About hundred years later, there was another sect derived from Sarvastivada and was named as Samkrantivada. The adherents of this sect were claimed to be the disciples of Ananda (). Contemporary scholars have investigated the establishment of the Sautrantika.3 This Buddhist sect emphasizes the sutra-oriented tradition of Samkrantivada. Sautrantika is supposedly more progressive and concerned with the defense of the original Buddhas message against revision in the abhidharma texts. The name Sutra-pramanika () indicates that this school takes the sutra-s as the final authority and repudiates the orthodox abhidharma-s as criterions for Buddhist teaching.4 As asserted by the Sautrantika master, Sthavira Wrilata (), Those noble teachings elaborated by the Buddha Himself are called nitartha-sutra-s ( ); all the other sutra-s are said to be neyartha ().5 A new methodology is introduced by this school for learning the Buddhist canons.6 According to the study of Kato, Wrilata (330-410) established Sautrantika at the end of the fourth century. He was a disciple of Harivarman ( 310-390), who was a disciple of Kumaralata ( 280-360). Vasubandhu was once a disciple of Wrilata and his AKB presents the views of his teacher. AKB is best known as a compendium of Sarvastivada abhidharma. In this work, Vasubandhus own
2

3 4 5 6

.. (T2031: 15b). Also, see SA: 36. See SWAS: 528-572, Kato (1989): 93-125, Robert (2005): xxvi-xxx, and Singh (1984): 18-48. Singh (1984): 18-23. Ny: 495b. See Singh (1984: 18-23) and his The Sautrantika Analytical Philosophy, 1995. 93

standpoint is in preference to Sautrantika. Moreover, he also puts forth the viewpoints of Sautrantika through discourse of controversy. As a result, AKB includes those profound philosophies of both Sarvastivada and Sautrantika schools. Apart from AKB, the main theme of Vasubandhus Karmasiddipakarana ( ) deals with the Buddhist doctrine of karma. This treatise also consists of Sautrantika doctrines of potentialities and subconscious. Sajghabhadras Ny criticizes Sautrantika from the orthodox Sarvastivada point of view. These treatises provide important information on the doctrinal theory of Sarvastivada. The doctrinal thesis of this sect includes the establishment of a subtle

consciousness comprising various kinds of potentialities similar to alaya-vijbana ( ). The Sautrantika creates a dichotomy between elements of matter and mind. In this regard, the Sautrantika also shares the realistic dualism with the Sarvastivada School. Sarvastivada doctrine of holding that dharma-s exist tri-temporarily is critically repudiated by the Sautrantika since past and future dharma-s are merely designations. To the Sautrantika, nothing exists beyond what is empirically verifiable through the twelve ayatana-s which include six sensory faculties and six perceivable objects. According to Sautrantika Buddhists, an external object exists irrespective of its being apprehended by the mind. This school maintained a representative theory of perception, or the theory of the inferability of the external object. Furthermore, Sautrantika initiates a mode of perceiving activity whereas the mental consciousness is self-cognizant in nature. Therefore the mind can know itself as well as other in the cognitive process. The theory of self-cognition also assures the possibility of memory of our previous experience. Sautrantika is generally supposed to be the forerunner of the Yogacara School. This is because most doctrines of Sautrantika are inherited and advanced by the Yogacarins. As far as the issue of the causal theory of Yogacara is concerned, the most
94

important one among those Sautrantika doctrines is the notion of potentiality (bija) contained in the subtle mental series. These views influence the Yogacaras model of formulating a sarva-bijaka vijbana (alaya-vijbana comprising all sorts of dharma-s ) which signifies a mechanism for holding the potencies and karmic forces. The notion of a seed is a metaphor for a potency constituting the individual phenomenal existent and is conceived to be the direct cause or condition qua cause by the Yogacarins. The discussion of the similar issues reviews the fact that Sautrantikas contributed to the formation of the Yogacara doctrines.

In the Indian history of Buddhism, theories of the subconscious were gradually articulated before the Yogacaras alaya-vijbana doctrine. There have been other doctrines of the Abhidharma schools with elements resembling the alaya-vijbana which are derived primarily from the consideration of the preservation of karmic efficacy, sajsaric transmigration, memory and meditational experiences. The essences of these theories in the Nikaya Buddhism were in fact synthesized among proofs for the existence of the alaya-vijbana in various Asavgas treatises, such as YBW and PSW. These include: 1. The existence-factor consciousness

(bhavavga-vijbana ) of the Tamraprniya is a underlying consciousness for the existence of life. 2. The root-consciousness (mula-vijbana ) of Mahasajghika is a fundamental consciousness moving along in the sajsaric process. 3. The skandhas co-terminous with sajsara (asajsarika-skandha ) of Mahiwasaka is a subtle consciousness of an individual continuous to flow along the numerous lives until transcending the sajsara. 4. The one-taste skandha (ekarasa-skandha ) of the Sautrantika.7 Among these theories, one-taste

This doctrine is advocated by Samkrantivada ( which is equated with Sautrantika) according to Samaya-bhedoparacana cakra. See T2031: 17b. 95

skandha is defined by Kuiji as follows:8 It is held by the Sautrantika that there is a pudgala (person ) in the absolute sense (paramartha). The noble dharma exists also at the stage of the ordinary worldling. There is the root-end skandha (mulanta-skandha ) and there is the one-taste skandha. The latter is the subtle consciousness ( ).

One-taste skandha is a subtle consciousness which is always existent and is able to transmigrate from life to life. According to Kuijis exposition, the theory is derived from the Sarvastivadas notion of the dharma having both an intrinsic nature to exist in the three periods of time and its activity is momentary.9 With such theory, the question of the agent of sajsaric transmigration, karma and memory are then answered. Kuiji clearly says that one-taste skandha is a subtle consciousness and should be the forerunner of the notion of alaya-vijbana.

Vasubandhu raises a question of how the karma can be preserved in the discontinuous stage of mental series (cittasamtana ). In response to the query, different schools propose various theories. It is asserted in Karmasiddipakarana that there is a continuation of the residue of karmic efficacy retained within the subtle mental series ( ) for future maturation. Sautrantika doctrine of the distinctive transformation of the series (santati-parinama-viwesa ) is expounded through the retribution-fruit consciousness (vipakaphala-vijbana ). 10 This is a subconscious comprising seeds of various dharma-s which incessantly continues from rebirth to rebirth manifesting in different forms on account of the retribution-cause and is ceased only at the time of nirvana. The
8

TSMD: (T1861: 250c). See also Samaya-bhedoparacana cakra, T2031: 17b. 9 See SWAS:529-531. 10 T1609: 783a, 784b. Also see Pruden (1988): 25-31. 96

existence of vipakaphala-vijbana is serially uninterrupted even at the non-conscious stage of the six consciousnesses. The Sautrantika concedes that the citta can still exist in the state of non-consciousness such as the meditation in nirodhasamapattii () or those being born among the ideationless beings because there are two types of citta. As said in Karmasiddipakarana, one is accumulation (acaya ) citta where innumerable seeds are stored and due to repeated perfuming, and the force of seeds increases accordingly until maturation based on conditions. The other is diverse (nana ) citta which operates differently depending on different objects and modes of understanding. In the non-conscious stage, only the second type of diverse citta is not functioning, therefore it is said to be without citta. The first type of accumulation citta is serially uninterrupted at all time.11 This theory of holding the residue of karmic force by a subconscious mind was attributed to some Sautrantikas and was also apparently upheld by Vasubandhu.

Moreover, the Sautrantika holds the idea of the continuation of sajsara by mutual perfuming of consciousness and materiality. This can account for the situation of how one can get out of nirodhasamapattii with the continuous activities of the mental phenomenon.12 This view is closely connected to the early stage of YBW illustrating that the potentialities of mind that can be stored in the physical body and the potentialities of body can be retained in the mind too.

The view of cittasamtana held by the Sautrantika is regarded as the predecessor of the Yogacara alaya-vijbana as an agent for the seed depository. The Sautrantika definition of potentiality within the subconscious becomes a member of
11

(T1609: 784b) 12 T1609: 783c. 97

the formula of conditioned origination suggested by the ten causes theory of Yogacara.

4.2 Fundamental Doctrines of Madhyamika School Madhyamika School was founded by Nagarjuna () and his followers in approximately the second century A.D. The tenets of Madhyamika School are mainly based upon the Prajbaparamita-sutraPS, . This school stresses the teaching of dependent origination and emptiness (wunyata) through the explanation of Mulamadhyamakakarika (MMK, Fundamental Verses on the Middle Way, ). Due to the significance of MMK, the followers of Nagarjuna are named as the Madhyamika School. It becomes the mainstream of Indian Buddhism during the next few centuries.13 4.2.1 The Principle of Middle Way This school is known as Madhyamika because of its emphasis on madhyama pratipada a middle path for avoiding all extremes. Nagarjuna establishes a critical relation between emptiness, dependent origination and verbal designation. He asserts that this relation itself is the middle way towards ultimate objective of his philosophical system. Whatever dependent co-arisen is an appellation concept without any ontological substance. This is because dependently co-arisen is used as a premise to argue for the lack of inherent existence of things.
14

The contents of MKK do not go beyond the Agama Sutra, however, the language of its preaching methods was innovative. Nagarjuna applies the methodology of PS for neither abiding nor negating all conventional existents. Therefore, the middle way is an attitude not falling into the two extremes. It is
13 14

M.Walleser (1979) and D.J. Kalupahana (1986). Garfield (1995): 304. (T1564: p. 33b) 98

incorrect to conceive conventional existences as inherent existence or non-existence. Dependent arising without substantiality is the universal characteristic of all beings.

The negation of a self-sustained entity is the essence of emptiness (wunyata). Since self-nature is denied, the formation and transformation of all dharma-s can be actualized by means of various causes and conditions. If everything is steady and immobilized, empirical existences will be impossible.15 Although the true nature of compounded entities is impermanent, selfless and empty, there is no denial of their existence and function. Non-substantiality in essence is the ultimate reality. With the right view of middle way, people can be devoid of abiding worldly things or taking designations as reality. This is the meaning of discerning ultimate reality without denial of the designated concepts
16

Sarvastivada holds realistic viewpoints to explain the law of dependent co-arising. This school continuously analyzes physical and mental phenomena until they reach the state of irreducible elements. No matter they are physical or mental entities, all dharma-s under final analysis must have irreducible substance (svabhava) which are permanently existed. Svabhava being permanently existed in reality without increase or diminution is a proposition of Sarvastivada.17 The substantial mental and physical entities asserted by Sarvastivada are unique and discrete. Depending on other conditions, these units of existence account for the causal efficiency (karitra ) constituting a particular phenomenon. All kinds of conventional existents have to depend on different efficacies of causes and conditions, either assemblage or dispersion. These tri-temporal existents are only

15 16 17

Garfield (1995): 309. (T1564: p. 33a) MPPS:T1509: 452a. MVW, T1545: p. 395c. 99

phenomena from the activities of various dharma-s and their svabhava-s are unchanged. Therefore, it is said in MVW that, To speak of existent or non-existent, these are only [in a sense of ] activities (karitra ).18 The reality is always changing, but the change is not accidental since it is causally regulated. Therefore, Sarvastivada proposes that substance is permanent and operational function is transformable. On the other hand, Prajbapti-vadin () of Mahasajghika () is representative of nihilism since this sect holds that all dharma-s are non-existent such as the hairs of a tortoise. The true nature of five aggregates etc. is only concept that does not have any substantiality. MMK refutes both views of realism and nihilism since these are not correct views discerning the reality. According to Nagarjuna, the true view towards the reality is the middle way. The middle way is a way of observing every phenomenon impartially without clinging to existence or non-existence. Dependent co-arising with emptiness in nature is the central theme of Madhyamika School. 4.2.2 The Refutation of Sarvastivadas Causation Theory

Sarvastivada maintains a list of essential elements under the categories of skandha, ayatana and dhatu. Madhyamika School repudiates any opinion asserting substance in the ultimate sense because dependently co-arisen amounts to emptiness and emptiness amounts to nonexistence. If every dharma exists independently, it could not possibly be produced through various conditions. The interesting point is that both Madhyamika School and Sarvastivada declare that empirical entities are dependent co-arising. To the Madhyamika, the effectiveness of dependent co-arising

18

T1545: p. 395c. 100

is due to emptiness of any substance. To the Sarvastivada, dependent arising functions on the basis of essential substance.

The law of causality is derived from the subjective thinking of human beings. When two events happen one after another, it evidences a closed connection between them through numerous observations. Literally, cause and effect implies mutual dependence. Due to customary and psychological tendency, people believe that there must be necessary connection between cause and effect. Our understanding of cause and effect of an entity is customarily put in a time series. By understanding cause and effect in the locus of time, there appears a progressing direction through which cause in the past generates effect in the present whereas the production of fruits simultaneously results in the destruction of cause. This is our apprehension of the category of cause and effect on the relation of two dharma-s. In reality, causal relation is only an ideation of human beings but not the innate properties of empirical existences. When we say a cause produces a dharma, it is only a conventional expression. We ought to have said: the result arises in functional dependence upon such and such a thing. There is no real production but only interdependence.
19

Mahayana and Hinayana both adopt the doctrine of four conditions for explanation of the production of all dharma-s. Sarvastivada conceives each condition contributing to the birth of a thing has its own self-nature (svabhava). It is on this ground that the production of a phenomenon can be aroused through various conditions. If a condition does not possess its unique nature, the corresponding effect could not possibly be happened. However, Nagarjuna denies the view of

19

See Stcherbatsky (1962) Vol.1: 121. 101

Sarvastivada on this regard: Essence arising from Causes and conditions makes no sense. If essence came from causes and conditions, Then it would be fabricated. How could it be appropriate For fabricated essence to come to be? Essence itself is not artificial And does not depend on another.
20

Essence by definition is eternal and independent. It implies that there is no dependent co-arising. But in reality, all entities arise from compounded conditions. It follows that none of them have essence and is fabricated in a sense of being compounded from various factors. It makes no sense that essence itself is artificial since the concepts of essence and artificial things are mutually exclusive. If existence were through essence, Then there would be no nonexistence. A change in essence Could never be tenable. 21 If a thing exists with an essence, that very thing would never cease to exist or change in any way. However, it is not the objective of Nagarjuna to deny the four conditions. He argues that if eternal substance were to be found from four conditions, it would violate the principle of dependent co-arising. Nagarjuna finally concludes that there is no definite effect coming from conditions with essence. In his MMPS, Nagarjuna also refutes the realistic and eternal properties of six causes and four conditions:
20

21

Garfield (1995): 220-221. , , , ? , (T1564: p. 19c). Garfield (1995): 223. , ; , (T1564: p. 20b). 102

All worldly dharma-s arise from four conditions which are condition qua cause (hetu-pratyaya), equal-immediate cause (samanantara-pratyay), condition qua object (alambana-pratyaya) and condition of dominance (adhipati-pratyaya). The condition qua cause includes conjoined cause, co-arising cause (i.e. co-existent cause), own-growing cause (i.e. homogeneous cause), universal cause and retributive cause. These five causes are called condition qua cause. 22 As explained in previous chapters, the six causes are another interpretation of the four conditions. The first five causes in the six causes are regarded as the condition qua cause whilst the last non-hindrance cause (i.e. efficient cause) is similar to condition of dominance. The definition of six causes and four conditions in MMPS basically follows that of Sarvastivadas.23 It is said by Nagarjuna: It does not occur that any existent is produced from a singular cause. If anything arisen from six causes, that thing is also arisen from four conditions from another aspect. When bodhisattva practices prajbaparamita and contemplates on four conditions, his mind is free from any attachments. The wise man discriminates the empty nature of a dharma and knows that it is unreal. The discrimination of ordinary people is upside down as deluded by the eyes. They think that the four conditions are substantial.24 Since the wise man understands the six causes and four conditions without attachment, it is not necessary to refute the phenomena of causes and conditions. On the contrary, the foolish one thinks that these causes and conditions are real with inherent substances and such delusion should be abandoned. The objective of Nagarjunas refutation of Sarvastivadas causation theory is to illustrate the true
22

23 24

T1509: 296b. Ibid, p. 296b-297a. []T1509: 297a. 103

reality: Since bodhisattva apprehends that all dharma-s are arisen from the four conditions, they do not hold a decisive characteristic of those four conditions. The combination of these four conditions is like the moon reflected in the water. Although it is illusory and unreal without substantiality, the appearance comes into existence only through moon and water, not from the other conditions. Likewise, the compounded existents are arisen from particular causes and conditions and are devoid of any definite substance. For this reason, if a bodhisattva desires to correctly understand the condition qua cause, equal-immediate condition, condition qua object and condition of dominance, he should learn the prajbaparamita.25 It should be clear that Nagarjunas denial of causation is to renounce the abiding of categorical conceptualization. Cause and effect should not be conceived as objective phenomenon but as conventional designation. It is incorrect to presuppose any ontological substantiality for the causal theory. 4.2.3 Nagarjunas Doctrine of Emptiness versus Sarvastivadas Realism

Nagarjuna has made an attempt to provide a philosophical analysis of the interrelationship of emptiness (wunyata) and dependent origination (pratitya samutpada) for all kinds of existents (dharma-s) expounded in the scriptures of Prajbaparamita. For the Madhyamika philosophers, they refute all assertions on ontological substance of any kind that inevitably lead to a false conception of self-existent from an ultimate analysis. Based on the doctrine of emptiness, Nagarjuna denies Sarvastivadas six causes and four conditions. All these are against Sarvastivadas realistic doctrines. On the contrary, Sarvastivada also opposes Nagarjunas claim on emptiness for violating the law of causality. Nagarjuna
25

T1509: 297a-b. 104

defends his proposition by upholding that there is no conflict between emptiness and dependent co-arising. This is because conditioned co-arising is explained from the level of the conventional world whilst wunyata is explained from the ultimate standpoint. Conversely, wunyata in self-nature is the foundation for establishment of the conventional dharma-s. With emptiness, all dharma-s can be composed in one way or another. The logical reasoning of Nagarjuna is that essence is equal to asserting eternal svabhava and assertion of svabhava means negating the interdependence between dharma-s. Eventually, there will be a negation on the law of causal effect.26 The conflict in Sarvastivada theory is that, if there is self-nature in an existent, there is no need to be existed interdependently. A persistent entity not arisen from dependent co-arising is untenable. Therefore, Nagarjuna says that if we employ the middle way to observe things, we will neither see dharma-s as inherent existences nor voidness. Without falling into two extremes, we can realize the truth of the law of causality.

By taking an attitude of repudiation but not proposition, MMK repudiates any ontological proposition on the dharma-s in relation to causes and effect. This has the effect of renouncing those erroneous views. With respect to the theoretical construction of Buddhism, Madhyamika School fails to provide positive exposition of causes and conditions as that of Sarvastivada. Although there are imperfections in the Sarvastivadas theories of six causes and four conditions, we cannot obliterate their contributions for the exposition of phenomenal existence through an articulate theory of causality. During the decadent stage of the Madhyamika School, the
26

Garfield (1995): 302, 304. (T1564: p. 33b). (T1564: p. 33b) 105

adherents of this school deny excessively on many concepts such that they have the tendency of falling into the view of nihilism. This is the reason why the Madhyamika School being upbraided as having malicious and erroneous views on emptiness.

4.3 Summary The above analysis gives a brief outline of two influential Buddhist schools, one is Sautrantika and the other is Madhyamika. Yogacara School has absorbed some of the standpoints of both schools. The view of subconscious established by the Sautrantika is said to be the forerunner of the Yogacaras alaya-vijbana. The designation of a fundamental consciousness comprising all sorts of potencies provides a solution for explaining the critical issues of karma retribution, memory and accumulated experiences during the sajsaric process. The potentiality within the alaya-vijbana is conceived as the direct cause for actualization of a phenomenon. The notion of seed gradually accounts for the most important cause, i.e. the origination cause, among the ten-causes suggested by the Yogacara.

Through

the

experimental

analysis,

Nikaya

Buddhism

explains

the

phenomenon of conditioned co-arising by establishing the ten causes ten conditions and six causes four conditions, etc. The interpretation of cause and effect is categorized into distinctive features that could easily hold a realistic standpoint. To avoid the defect of Sarvastivada, the Mahayana Madhyamika focuses on the non-substantiality in interpreting the causal relation. The theory of emptiness aims at eliminating all sorts of attachments with appreciation of the middle way. On this account, Yogacara School consents the views of Madhyamika for avoiding the deficiency of realistic viewpoint. However, Yogacara differs from Madhyamika in that they provide constructive explanations that can justify the
106

functions of cause and effect in the empirical world. We should not hold any substantiality on these cause, condition and effect since all are manifested from the consciousness. Therefore, Yogacara takes the attitude of renouncing the shortcomings and adopting the beneficences from the thoughts of Sarvastivada and Madhyamika. This is why they claim to be the truly in the middle path among all the Buddhist schools for not falling into either realism or nihilism. The insights of those predecessors before the Yogacarins have great impacts on the establishment of doctrinal system of Yogacara School.

107

Chapter Five
Yogacaras Philosophical Views On Cause and Effect
Yogacaras philosophical system is scholasticism since it employs logical
reasoning and sophisticated analytic approach. Theories of Yogacara School ( ) have close relation with Sarvastivada, especially with regard to their methodology of analysis, definition and classification of elements. On the other hand,

Yogacara School emphasizes cultivating oneself through different phased practices

for life liberation. This school regards theory and practice as equally important. In rejecting the false notion of absolute elements (svabhava), Yogacara would join hands with the line of Madhyamikas thought. The causation theory of Yogacara should be comprehended with its important theories such as seed perfuming and

alaya-arising inherited from the Sautrantika School.

The objective of this chapter is to explore the development and the principal philosophical views of the Yogacara School. Its ground for a true cause will be explored to provide a background for understanding the significance of the ten causes theory. The six causes established in Lavkavatara sutra () and the four conditions from the perspective of mere-consciousness will be distinguished with Sarvastivadas six causes.

5.1 The Establishment of Yogacara School 5.1.1 The Genealogy of the Yogacarins Yogacara or Vijbanavada School is one of the major streams of Mahayana Buddhism. During the fourth and fifth century C.E., two famous Buddhist philosophers, Asavga () and Vasubandhu (), integrate the essential theories
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of Madhyamika, Sarvastivada and Sautrantika into the doctrinal system of Yogacara. The Vijbanavadins re-examine the dharma-s from the principle of dependent co-arising and claim that the world is nothing but consciousness (vijbapti-matra ). They put forward a systematic exposition of various aspects of existence for the purpose of avoiding the defect of realism or nihilism.

Traditionally, the disciples of Yogacara School regarded Maitreya ( ) Bodhisattva as their founder. According to a legend, Maitreya once preached the five great treatises to Asavga. These are Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra (), Discrimination of Yogic Practice (), Madhyanta-vibhanga ( ), Mahayana-sutralajkara ( ) and Treatise of Diamond Sutra .

Historically, Asavga (310-390) is considered as the real founder. There was a legend saying that Asavga ascended to Tusita ( ) during his trance in

meditation. He invited Maitreya to descend on this world to teach those five great treatises. This was how the Yogacara doctrines began to spread in India. Important compositions of Asavga, such as Prakaranaryavaca-wastra ( ), Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya ( ) and

Mahayana-sajgraha-wastra () etc., all contribute to the establishment of the fundamental doctrines of Yogacara School.

The younger brother of

Asavga, Vasubandhu 320-400 originally was

a follower of Sarvastivada. His great work of Abhidharmakowabhasya ( ) provides a systemic annotation to Buddhist philosophy and he was famed as the great Buddhist scholar. Vasubandhu was later impelled by Asavga and converted to

Mahayana Vijbanavada. He wrote a lot of commentaries and devoted to developing

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the themes of the mere-consciousness. Vasubandhu asserted that all dharma-s are vijbapti-matra in his Mahayana watadharma-praka wamukha wastra ( , Lucid Introduction to the One Hundred Dharmas). In Pabcaskandhaka-prakarana, (, Mahayana Treatise on the Five Skandhas), he orderly presented those constituent elements under the scope of skandha. In Vijwatika

vijbapti-matratasiddhi ( Twenty Verses on Consciousness-only) , he criticized the realism held by Hinayana and defended the standpoint of mind-only doctrine. During his old age, Vansubandhu finalized the

Trijwika-vijbapti-matratasiddhi (TVMS, , Thirty Verses on Consciousness-only) and established the theoretic system of mere-consciousness. The numerous literatures written by Vasubandhu influenced the set up of various Chinese Buddhist Sects, such as the Dilun School (), Shelun School (), Kowa School(), Vinaya School () and Pureland School (). These are influential Buddhist schools before the Tang Dynasty in China.

Dignaga (, 420-500) was one of the outstanding disciple of Vasubandhu. He founded the system of Buddhist Logic (Hetuvidya, ) and focused on the the theory of epistemology. Dharmapala (, 530-561) and Sthiramati (, 475-555) are the representatives of ten great masters who individually wrote explanatory notes for Vasubandhus TVMS. Thereafter, philosophy of Mind-only was widespread and popular in India. Xuan Zang , 600-664 studied abroad in India during the Tang Dynasty. He learned the doctrine of vijbapti-matra from

Wilabhadra (, 529-645) who was the disciple of Dharmapala. He also studied

different philosophy from various Hinayana sects and Madhyamika School. After returning to China, Xuan Zang fully devoted himself to translate major literatures of Yogacara, Hetuvidya, Prajbaparamita-sutra and Sarvastivada. Kuiji ( ) was
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Xuan Zangs prominent student who founded the Faxiang School (), the Chinese Yogacara School. The teaching of Xuan Zang was systematized by Kuiji in his two important works, Cheng wei shi lun shu ji (SJ, The Commentary of Vijbaptimatrata-siddhi, ) and The Syncretism of Mahayana Doctrines (TWMD, Fa yuan i lin chang , ). After Kuiji, Hui Zhao () and Zhi Chou () were great masters of this School.

The doctrines of Vijbanavada mainly come from six sutra-s and eleven important treatises. Some of these literatures have Chinese translations, such as Sajdhinirmocana-sutra ( ), Lavkavatara sutra ( ), ) and Avatamsaka-mahavaipulya-sutra ( ), Ghana-vyuha-sutra ( Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra (), Prakaranaryavaca-wastra ( ), Mahayana-sutralajkara (), Pramana-samuccaya ( ), Mahayana-sajgraha-wastra (), Dawabhumika-wastra ( ), Madhyanta-vibhanga-wastra ( ), Vijwatika vijbapti-matratasiddhi ( ) and Trijwika-vijbapti-matratasiddhi ( ), Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya ( ) and Alambanapariksavrtti (). The essence of those ten commentaries for TVMS is selectively compiled in Vijbaptimatrata-siddhi () by Xuan Zang. This treatise widely quotes various materials from the six sutra-s and eleven treatises and comprehensively includes the essential views of vijbapti-matra. 1 These are the
1

There are lots of commentaries of VMS, such as Kuijis SJ and The Essential Doctrines of Vijbaptimatrata-siddhi ( ), Hui Zhaos The Explicit Illumination of Vijbaptimatrata-siddhi ( ) and Zhi Chous The Exploration of Inmost Meaning of Vijbaptimatrata-siddhi ( ). Lo Shi-hin () had selected the main points of SJ in his Cutout Annotation of Cheng wei shi lun shu ji (), 4 vols. Also, Lu Cheng, Tsui Fan-ching, Fok Tao-hui, Han Jing Qing translated Sthiramatis commentary of TVMS, ( , , , ). There are English translation by Lusthaus, Dan, A philosophic investigation of the Cheng Wei-shih Lun. Vasubandhu, Hsyan-tsang and the transmission of Vijbapti-matra (Yogacara) from India to China. Vol. I & II. Also, Wei Tats () 111

important reference books for studying the mere-consciousness theory. The doctrines of Mind-Only preached by Asavga and Vasubandhu are inherited and developed from the philosophy of Agama, Abhidharma, Prajbaparamita and

Madhyamika. Theoretically, this school upholds the idea of seed perfuming doctrine
with alaya-arising as the fundamental basis of living beings and the world. The manifesting activity of alaya-arising requires the relative dependence of ten causes, four conditions and five fruits. To put forth the implicit meaning of Nagarjunas two truths concerning dependent origination, Vijbanavada proposes tri-svabhava ( ) theory. In particular, thorough observation of spiritual states during meditation could experience the true nature of mere-consciousness. Vijbanavada integrates those influencing Buddhist doctrines into the system of vijbapti-matra.

5.1.2 The Distinction between Early and Later Periods of Yogacara Yogacara School is not a unified school since it has developed in multiple directions throughout the history. Various scholars tend to distinguish this school from various ways. From the perspective of the Buddhist history in China, contemporary scholars such as Quyang Jian ( ) attempts to distinguish

Yogacara School into two system, i.e. The idealistic Mere-consciousness and Faxiang (dharmalaksana or dharma characteristics, ) from a abhidharma oriented tradition. During the Tang period, Xuan Zang and Keiji are representing the orthodox Yogacara School in China and name themselves as the Faxiang School. The establishment of the new school aroused the conflict between the old and new Yogacarins in China. Xuan Zang is ascribed to the new school whilst Paramartha () refers to the old one. The similar situation is also noted in the Buddhist history in India. Traditionally, there are two mainstreams named as Nirakaravada (a
Cheng Wei-Shih Lun, The Doctrine of Mere-Consciousness. 112

school advocating that the perceived object image is unreal, ) and sakaravada (a school advocating that the perceived object image is real, ). The following is a lineage of the two traditions:2 NirakaravadaAsavga Vasubandhu Sthiramati Sakaravada Dignaga Dharmapala Dharmakirti The genealogy of the masters can provide a distinction between earlier and later periods of the Yogacara School. For the Chinese Yogacara School, Paramartha was believed to be an adherent of Sthiramati whilst Xuan Zang learned directly from

Wilabhadra who was a follower of Dharmapala. Therefore, Paramartha belongs to

Nirakaravada and Xuan Zang as ascribed to Sakaravada. Apart from the genealogy of Yogacara School, we can identify the early and later periods through the doctrinal development of various Yogacara literatures.The early Yogacara doctrines bears a stong mark of Sautrantikas influence, although it was modified by contact with the Yogacara idealism. It is generally believed that the two Mahayana sutras, The Samdhinirmocana Mahayana Sutra and

Mahayanabhidharmasutra constitute the earliest Yogacara texts. But Schmithausen argues that some portions of the YBW, as well as Prakaranaryavaca-wastra and

Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya of Asavga prove to be earlier than these two sutras.3

Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra is the most fundamental text of the Yogacara School. According to some scholars, Maitreya was a historical person.4 It is possible that the teachings from various early sources which Asavga inherited were ascribed to

2 3 4

See Katsura (1969):10. See Schmithausen (1987): 11-12. Ui, Hakuju, The Study of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1. ( , , 1963) p. 355-372. 113

Maitreya who symbolized those ancient sources. Schmithausen conceives that YBW is the earliest source of Yogacara philosophy. The contents of this treatise indicates that it is a compilation of material by various authors over a long period of time.5

The philosophy expounded in the various Yogacara literatures reflects the continuous process of doctrinal development on the basis of Sarvastivada Abhidhamra and the Sautrantika doctrines on the one hand, and meditational experiences from some Buddhist masters in the region of Kasmira on the other hand.6 Yin Shun argues that some fragments of YBW have been introduced to China in the period of 414 to 435 A.D. Therefore, the YBW could not possibly be compiled later than 4th century.7 The earliest form of this School may exist in the late second to third century and is later systematized by Asavga and Vasubandhu around the fourth and fifth century. Moreover, Asavga who is the founder of this School is credited with systematizing the tradition of Buddhism. His thoughts seem to have gone through a process of evolution.

The foundation of Yogacara doctrines can be found in the early portion of YBW. The research carried by Schmithausen is to trace the earliest source of alaya-vijbana within the Yogacara literatures. Nevertheless, the concept of alaya-vijbana, which is the subliminal consciousness, has not been established to its mature form in the early portion of YBW.

Since Vijbanavada School declares that nothing can be known apart form the mind, the nature of objects of cognition and the way in perceiving these objects are
5 6 7

See the argumentation of Schmithausen (1987): 183-189. See SWAS: p. 611-645. Yin Shun The History of Indian Buddhism (), p.241-243. 114

the central issues of the Vijbanavada School. The discussions of sakaravada or nirakarvada are concerned with the relationship between cognition and the external object. The views of these two schools are preserved mainly in Xuan Zangs Cheng Wei-Shih Lun. Sakaravadins emphasize the dependent arising (paratantrika) nature of the object-forms whilst the Nirakaravadins regard these as products of imaginary (parikalpita). In contrast with Sakaravadins, Sthirmati ascribed to nirakarvada adheres to Asavga and Vasubandhus mere-consciousness theory. Since the atman (self) and dharmas (existents) are products of vijbana-parinama (manifestation of mind), these are not real entities in the eyes of enlightened saints. Through the continuous efforts of our detachment to the thinking of inherent existence, we can achieve insight of pure consciousness (the true nature of consciousness) without differentiating into subjective and objectives aspects. This is the essential theory designated by Sthirmati. His doctrine not only demonstrates the effective way of religious practice and soteriology, but also the ontological thinking of mind structure for the dualistic evolution. According to Dharmapala, with the combination of the seeds (bija-s) as direct cause, and together with the habitual karmic force as condition, the objects of phenomenal existence are projected through various manifesting consciousnesses. The form of object and the perceiving means are inseparable. They are mutual co-existence and dependent models for cognition, showing the relation of subject and object being grasped by the consciousness and stressing that object cannot be an appearance apart from our own mind. The epistemology of Dharmapala makes use of the seed theory of transformable cause and transformable effect for explaining the origin of a phenomenon. It provides a rational ground for judging the truth and

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falsehood of an object in terms of ontological interpretation since the object of cognition is not delusive in the conventional world. On this account, the nirakaravada is generally classified as vijbanavada of the old tradition () whilst the sakaravada as vijbanavada of the new tradition ().8 The standpoint concerning the nature of perceived object is not only representing the diversity of this school but also signifying the different periods of doctrinal development. In this regard, the earlier and later periods within the Yogacara School can be distinguished accordingly. Since the ten causes theory is firstly introduced in YBW, followed by PSW and Asm, these are the important treatises of the early Yogacara for the study of this topic. 5.2 The Cause and Effect Principle of Mind-Manifestation 5.2.1 The Connotation of Mind-Only The origin of Mind-only theory was derived from the experience of meditation. The adherents of this school held that the world is nothing but mind or consciousness (vijbana-matra) and repudiates the object of cognition existing externally and independent of the cognizing consciousness. Since the Vijbanavada advocates consciousness alone is real, it is regarded specifically as Buddhist idealism.9 From the Vijbanavada point of view, both subjective and objective aspects are evolved
8

See The Origin and Development of Indian Buddhism, Lu Chengs Selected Essays of Buddhism. Vol. 4. ( ) p. 2220-2236. Concerning the idealistic thinking of Vijbanavada, there are some modern scholars, such as Alex Wayman, Lambert Schmithausen, Thomas Kochumuttom, etc., and they suggest that although Asavga and Vasubandhu deny the theories of realists such as the Sarvastivada, they do not actually deny the existence of external objects. They raise the possibility that Vasubandhu and other Vijbanavadins assert that only external objects cannot appear directly to the mind. The mind instead processes mere representations of those phenomena, with those representations being the same entity as the mind. They believe that the confusion may be a result of consistent misinterpretation of Vijbanavadas position by subsequent Buddhist thinkers. The detailed analysis can be found from Alex Wayman, A defense of Yogacara Buddhism, published in Philosophy East & West, Vol. 46, No. 4, Oct. 1996, p. 447-476. 116

from the mind since the cognitive object is also the very same mind. This is why the Buddha has said in The Samdhinirmocana that the image of an object is not different from the mind because the image is simply cognition-only (vijbapti-matra). Its implicit meaning can be expressed as the mind seeing the very same mind. Originally this explanation is ascribed to an experience in meditation, but later on, the Vijbanavadins try to generate this phenomenon to our ordinary experience. The philosophy of Vijbanavada asserts that the appearance of the universe cannot be independent of the activities of the eight consciousnesses. Representation of all existence is through consciousness. The literal meaning of vijbapti-matra is that the experienced world is vijbapti coming forth from the manifestation of our own consciousnesses. This is called mind-transformation (vijbanaparinama ). The Sanskrit word parinama has the meaning of transformation or realization. The eight consciousnesses of the sentient beings can be grouped into three kinds of transformation (trividha-parinama ). The first transformation is the eighth consciousness (alaya-vijbana), the store-consciousness manifesting our lives and the inhabited world. The second transformation is the seventh consciousness (manas-vijbana ) manifesting the illusion of one's own ego. The third transformation is the first six consciousnesses constituting the sense data and concepts for our experience. The notions of inner self and external world are products of mind only. Through these three kinds of transformation, there is actually no objective reality outside the minds. This is similar to the declaration of George Berkeley that To be is to be perceived. Vijbanavada holds that every phenomenon is a product of mind and therefore everything is mind in its ultimate nature.

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Concerning the alaya-vijbana, Schmithausens work provides a comprehensive study on the origin of this notion. 10 On account of alaya-vijbana forming the substratum of the seventh consciousness, manas which in a state of ignorance, gives rise to the illusion of an ego. It is this repository consciousness which the mano-vijbana and the sixth consciousness, defiled by intellectual discrimination, motivated by desire or aversion, misinterpret alaya-vijbana as a permanent self. Store consciousness accumulates all potential energy for the mental and physical manifestation of one's existence. It also receives impressions from all functions of the other consciousnesses and retains them as potential energy for their future manifestations and activities (pravrtti ). Since alaya serves as the basis for the

pravrtti of the other seven consciousnesses (the evolving or transforming

consciousness), it is also known as the root consciousness (mla-vijna ). Moreover, it serves as the container for all experiential impressions (termed metaphorically as seeds, bija or vasana) and is also called the seed consciousness (sarva-bijaka vijbana ). The seeds contained in the alaya, being perfumed by the other seven consciousnesses, are thus caused to grow, resulting in the appearance of phenomenal existents. The alaya is what is perfumed and the other seven consciousnesses are the perfuming agents. The internal seeds include individual mental dispositions and the residual forces of our past actions. The alaya is not an unchangeable substance but is itself ever changing instantaneously, just like the metaphor of the continuity of a stream. It is the internal vasana (seeds) that give rise to the perceived form of object. Since the ignorants misunderstand and cling to the objects that produce defilement and karma, sentient beings are sunk in sajsara and do not exert themselves to obtain deliverance by the contemplation of the mind.

10

See Schmithausen, L. (1987). 118

The modes of activity of alaya are twofold: it is a receptacle place for holding and receiving the perfumed seeds. As a storehouse, it plays the active part of storing up the seeds. The bija-s being stored are passive sense of alaya. On the other hand, it is passive alaya in the sense that it is perfumed by the defiled dharmas. The alaya and the defiled dharmas are the cause of one another. Alaya as effect is called

vipaka-phala, the fruit of retribution of good or bad deeds which draws the individual
into a certain destiny. Considered as a cause, the alaya is called the seed consciousness which means that it is endowed with all the bija-s. It is capable of holding and retaining the bija-s of all dharmas. There are three ways in ascribing

alaya, as effect, cause and self-nature. The bija-s of various dharmas in relation to
the alaya is the relation among the substance, cause and fruit. The idealistic position of the Vijbanavada School for its proposition of all is mere-consciousness aims at pointing out the true nature of existences. Vijbanavada not only puts forth a kind of ontological view but also depicts the principle of mankind's cognitive ability. Such epistemological sense can be found in Asavgas Mahayana-sajgraha-wastra ())11, In every process of knowledge, the same consciousness consists of two elements: an apprehended form () and an apprehending act (). This is the basic structure of every consciousness.12 To explain the constituents of the mind proposed by Asavga, Vasubandhu says that these two parts are produced in the process of cognition through mind transformation (vijbana-parinama) in the Trijwika (Treatise of Thirty Stanzas).13 It is on this basis that Vasubandhu expounds a universal proposition that Everything is nothing but
Asavgas Mahayanas-sajgraha-wastra is an important source for identification of the Vijbanavadas position. The original Sanskrit text was not available but the whole treatise was translated into Chinese by Xuan Zang, Taisho 31, T1594, p. 132-152. Parts of this treatise were translated into Tibetan and English. 12 T1594: p. 138c. 13 T1585: p. 38c. Wei Tat (1973): p. 503.
11

119

representations of consciousness. This statement is not just a claim about the nature of reality as dependent on mind from a metaphysical perspective, but also concerns with epistemic issue, the cognitive roots of knowledge.14 Dignaga then suggests that the constituents of a mind should possess triple divisions. These are prameya (the objective aspect being cognized, ), pramana (the perceiving act or the means of cognition, ) and pramanaphala (the self-consciousness or svasajvedana being a result of knowledge, )
15

. All

of these parts are indivisible but with different faculties of function in the cognitive process. This embarks a landmark for the Buddhist epistemology as the evolution of a consciousness from a two-fold division to a three-fold model through which the idea of reflexive knowledge (knowledge about knowledge) is integrated in the mind-only theory. In brief, the Vijbanavadins uphold that every consciousness manifests a certain object. The object being cognized is interpreted as its appearance in cognition.

5.2.2 Cause in the sense of Substance of Consciousness Where is the origin of the meaning of substance of every consciousness? According to Xuan Zangs Cheng Wei-Shi Lun and Kuijis Commentary, the concept of substance comes from Dharmapala and Sthiramati. To understand the truth of
It is interesting that the vijbapti-matra theory is close to the thinking of phenomenologists who assert that the essential character of every consciousness is the capability of holding its own object intentionally. The intentionality of consciousness plays an important part in the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl (1859-1938). According to Husserl, the intentional act of consciousness is something directed towards an object outside itself. Consciousness, therefore, is always consciousness of something. The intentional object is known only as something constituted by the intentional consciousness. Phenomenology thus becomes a study of the principles governing the intentional act by which an object is constituted out of the hyletic data. Hussels view of consciousness meant a critical concern with epistemological issues. It is a recognition that knowledge comes through cognition. His thoughts are extensively appropriated by his successors, from Heidegger, Fink, Sartre and Merleau-Ponty, etc., and subsequently formed a philosophical school. 15 See Hattori M. (1968): p. 28.
14

120

the Vijbanavadins, we may need to refer back to the Buddhist doctrine of two truths. The two truths focus on the distinction between the degrees of reality for all the existences and how things appear in relation to the percipients that look at them through various views and standpoints, i.e. on the conventional and ultimate levels. The conventional level of truth (samvrti sat ) is the empirical world that we experience in our ordinary life. It is a reality that is amenable to empirical knowledge and linguistic expression. The ultimate truth (paramarthika sat ) can only be apprehended by transcendent experience. For the purpose of distinguishing different nature of the conventional truth, the Vijbanavada puts forth three levels of reality (tri-svabhava-laksana ) as advancement for the doctrine of two truths. The first is the purely imagined nature (parikalpita-svabhava ) which is entirely non-existent, such as the inherent substance of things. The second is the other-dependent nature or empirical reality (paratantrika-svabhava ). The third is the perfected nature reality (parinispanna-svabhava ) that can be equated with suchness (tathata) or emptiness (wunyata). The first two svabhava are ascribed to the conventional level whereas the third is the ultimate level of truth. On the level of conventional truth, only the other-dependent nature has a sense of reality in conventional world whilst the purely imagined nature is considered as unreal. According to Sthiramati, the true nature of every consciousness itself is not in a state of differentiation into subject and object. The appearances of subject and object emerged from discrimination are falsely perceived as real existence by the sentient beings. Sthiramati declares that there is neither subject nor object because these are products of the human discrimination (parikalpita ). Through the detachment from the imaginary subject and object, one comes to realize the state of pure

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consciousness (vijbapti-matra in transcendental sense) in which there is no differentiation between subject and object. The duality of the perceiving act and the perceived object exists only as a matter of opinion but not in truth.16 Although the structure of consciousness is in triple divisions, only one part, the svasajvedana (self-consciousness ) is real. The other two parts are delusive. In this sense, Sthiramatis mode of cognition is called onefold consciousness theory (). Svasajvedana is not only the true nature of mind but it is also the cause of cognitive knowledge. Like Sthiramati, Dharmapala also conceives svasajvedana as the substance of consciousness in both empirical and transcendental levels. The difference between Sthiramati and Dharmapala is that, according to Dharmapala, the perceiving act (pramana) and perceived object (prameya) arise from a varieties of real conditions and are thus, like self-consciousness (svasajvedana), should be ascribed to the other-dependent nature of realities (paratantrika-svabhava ). Only from

the real basis of this dualistic mode, imaginary discrimination (parikalpita-svabhava which is a function of the intellect, ) conceives false notions of existence such as the independent objects outside of consciousness and the like.17 Therefore, the form of mental image (prameya) appears within the mind does exist in the conventional world. In ordinary experience, it is inappropriate to say these forms of object as illusive because in effect these forms constitute the content of our human knowledge. We can apply the knowledge in different aspects of our daily lives and achieve various objectives. We are reminded of what Dharmakirti says, All successful human actions are (necessarily) preceded by right knowledge.18 Right

16 17

See Kuijis SJ, T1830: p. 241b. Iso Kern, The Structure of Consciousness According to Xuanzang, Journal of the British Society for Phenomenology, Vol. 19, No. 3, October 1988, p. 290. 18 Stcherbatsky Th., (1962) Vol. I: p.69. 122

knowledge is successful cognition and it is cognition followed by a successful action. It is meaningful not only for the human beings in common sense, but also for those Buddha-s and bodhisattva-s who aim at benefiting sentient beings in their preaching. From the ontological sense, the self-cognizing consciousness is conceived as the substratum for the manifestation of the dual aspects within the mind itself. The self-consciousness comprises both cause and effect because on the one hand it is the base (cause) for discrimination whilst on the other hand it also performs the realization (result) of the apprehension. Therefore Xuan Zang and Kuiji elucidate the implicit meaning of the svasajvedana in terms of substantive consciousness ( ).

5.2.3 Cause in the sense of Potencies The concepts of cause and effect have their respective relevance with the Vijbaptimatra theory. Interpretation of manifestation (parinama) of consciousness

lies on the actualization of cognitive states by virtue of seeds (bija-s) or potencies deposited in the alayavijbana. Potencies or seeds are latencies that generate the physical or mental phenomenon upon the maturation of ones own karmic force. With the support of conditional causes, the latency of consciousness becomes active and manifests itself in two functional divisions. In this sense, the potencies are the cause and the consciousnesses transformation is the effect. Hence, Dharmapala terms the former as cause-manifestation (hetuparinama ) and the latter as effect-manifestation (phalaparinama ). Among the divisions of a consciousness, only the substance of the consciousness (svasajvedana) can be called phalaparinama because it is the actualization or fulfillment of potential cause (seed). Since the manifestation of mind arises from potencies (bija-s), the
123

resulting effect (phala or fruit) should not be treated as something illusive on the level of conventional truth. It is a phenomenon originated from various causes and

conditions. This is why Dharmapala declares that all parts of consciousness are real faculties, in a sense not separating from the mind. The false imaginations (parikalpita-svabhava ) of atman (real self) and dharma (existent of object) are results of our failure to comprehend the true nature of the mind structure and their operation. If we realize that the semblance of perceived object and perceiving subject are results of dependent origination, then we can achieve insight into their nature of ultimate reality (parinispanna-svabhava ). Based upon the assumption that all consciousnesses manifest themselves into two parts by the force of potencies, Dharmapala views the subjective (pramana) and objective parts (prameya) of a consciousness are nature of dependence on others (paratantrika-svabhava ), to the same extent as the svasajvedana (self-consciousness). He argues that if the two parts which are born of bijas (potencies), were not paratantrika, then the svasajvedana which is the supporting basis for the two parts, would not be paratantrika either, since there is no reason for this entity to be paratantrika if the two parts are not.19 The same attributes should be applied to the fourth part, i.e. the consciousness of self-consciousness () as well. The fourfold consciousness theory ( ) asserted by Dharmapala emphasizing that the interior object-form is not caused by an external object but rather by the potencies within the alayavijbana (the store-consciousness). The origin of cognition is the seeds (bija-s) as the primary cause, and then the substance of the consciousness (svasajvedana) as the secondary cause. The form of object and the perceiving means are inseparable. On the basis of svasajvedana, the

19

Wei Tat (1973): p. 631. 124

cause accompanies the fulfilled result in its realization of the cognitive acts. This is a convincing argument to support the theory of sakaravada (consciousness with a form of object which is real, ). The exposition of self-cognition in its ontological and epistemological senses is eventually fitted into the doctrines of vijbanaparinama (transformation of mind).

5.3 Justification of Four Conditions not outside the Mind The difference between Vijbanavada and Madhyamika School is that Vijbanavada provides a better explanation after refuting the theory of Sarvastivada. Based on the mind-manifestation originated from bijas, Vijbanavada admits the conventional truth and function of conditioned dharma-s. If there is non-existence of external objects, what is the nature of those phenomena such as mountains and rivers etc.? VMS quotes a stanza from Trijwika-vijbapti-matratasiddhi ( ) for elucidating such situation: From the consciousness which contains all Bijas (seeds) (the Alayavijnana) Such-and-such evolution or transformation takes place. Through the force of the mutual co-operation of the actual Dharmas Such-and-such kinds of distinction are engendered.20 Through the force of the potentials (bija-s) stored in alaya-vijbana as the direct cause, together with the manifesting an apprehended form and an apprehending act of every consciousness as supporting conditions, the assemblage of these causes and conditions enable the minds to transform the phenomenal existents. These conditions are not something existing outside the minds, as said by VMS: Although there is no independent objects outside the minds, with the various powers and potentials (sakti, bijas) in the sarvabija vijnana, the root consciousness (Mulavijnana or Alayavijnana) which contains all seeds (bijas),
20

T1585: p. 40a. Wei Tat (1973), p. 529. 125

the actualized eight consciousnesses are capable of engendering their own discrimination and all conditioned dharmas (samskrta) spontaneously. There is 21 no condition outside the minds required for the uprising of mental activities Vijbanavada School classifies different causes and conditions that can produce conditioned existents into four types. This classification is used especially in explaining the nature of dependent arising. According to the elucidation of Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya-vyakhya of Buddhasijha (Asmv, ), the first condition is hetupratyaya which is defined as:22 What is the condition qua cause (hetupratyaya)? It is the store-consciousness (alayavijbana) and the residues of the wholesome, defiled (kuwalavasana) [and undefiled (akuwalavasana) perfumed energies]. .23 Condition qua cause is the residues of perfumed energies. The manifestation of defiled and undefiled phenomena are actualized by the seeds in the alayavijbana and are cognized through the other seven consciousnesses. Hetupratyaya is the seeds (bija-s) with a meaning of various potentials within the alayavijbana that can produce their respective own fruit without mediation. 24 The substance of this pratyaya is twofold: (1) the bija-s that engender and (2) the actual dharma-s that perfume: 1. Bija-s are the different powers or potentials of the wholesome, unwholesome, non-defined, of all material and mental phenomena, etc. stored in alayavijbana. The bija-s are conceived as hetupratyaya in two aspects. On the one hand, bija-s lead to the production of bija-s which are of the same species subsequent to them (a bija creates a bija similar to itself). On the other hands, bija-s produce actual consciousnesses of the same species, which are simultaneous with them.
21

()
()T1585: p. 40a. Wei Tat (1973), p. 529. Webb (2001): 59-64. Asmv T1606: 713a. VMS: ()T1585: p. 8a. 126

22 23 24

2. Actual dharmas ( ) 25 refer to the seven evolving or transforming consciousnesses or pravrttivijbana, with their caittas, their two parts, wholesome, unwholesome, non-defined, etc., with the exception of the wholesome dharma-s of the Buddha and the non-defined extremely-weak dharma-s which perfume the Mulavijbana ( ) and engender bijas of their own species. The actual dharma-s are regarded as hetupratyaya in such operation.26 From the viewpoint of Vijbanavada, hetupratyaya refers to the bija-s partly because of the coming forth or manifestation of conditioned dharma-s and partly because of the continuing series of the their own species. This is the distinctive definition concerning hetupratyaya of Vijbanavada School, which is different from the traditional meaning. The second condition is samanantara-pratyaya which Asmv defines: What is the equal-immediate (samanantara)? The equal-immediate condition should be understood as the constant immediate (nairantaryasamanantara) and as that which immediately gives rise to the mind and conjoined and non-conjoined mental activities (sabhagavisabhagacittacaitta).27 Since the precedent instant of mind or mental functioning gives rise directly to the succeeding instant of mind, there is no gap in their leading into one another and this is why it is called equal-immediate condition. As expounded by VMS, in the case of the eight actualized consciousnesses together with their caittas, constitute a preceding group which passes away to give place to a subsequent group of the same

25

Lusthaus queries about this term as literally in Chinese it should mean projecting/perceiving activity but Vallee Poussin and WeiTat translated as actual dharma. Lusthaus (1989 Vol.II):357. 26 VMS: T1585: p. 40a. Wei Tat (1973), p. 535. 27 Asmv T1606: 714a. Webb (2001): 62. 127

species, opening the way to that group and acting in such a way that it immediately comes into being.28 The meaning of samanantara-pratyaya from Vijbanavada is similar to the traditional meaning but restricted to the activities of the mental phenomena only. The third condition is alambana-pratyaya which Asmv defines: What is the object (alambana)? The condition qua object should be understood as: [1] object of a limited sphere (paricchinnavisayalambana), [2] object of an unlimited sphere (aparicchinnavisayalambana), [3] object of an unvarying sphere (acitrikaravisayalambana), [4] object of a varying sphere (sacitrikaravisayalambana), [5] object of the sphere of existing things (savastukavisayalambana), [6] object of the sphere of non-existing things (avastukavisayalambana), [7] real object (vastvalambana), [8] imaginary object (parikalpalambana), [9] perverse object (viparyastalambana), [10] non-perverse object (aviparyastalambana), [11] resisting object (savyaghatalambana), [12] unresisting object (avyaghatalambana).29

According to Vijbanavada, it is impossible for a cognizing consciousness to arise without the cognizing object. In this sense, the object is one of the conditions for the arising of consciousness and is named as condition qua object. The object is what is perceived and is known by the mind and its associates. These objects are divided into twelve types in Asmv. But in VMS, alambana-pratyaya is classified into immediate and remote conditions:

28

() T1585: p. 40a. Wei Tat (1973), p. 537. 29 Asmv [1][2][3][4] [5][6][7][8][9] [10][11][12]T1606: 714c. Webb (2001): 62. 128

1. The dharma which is not separated from the perceiving consciousness and on which the apprehending act contemplated and taken as its supporting basis is the immediate alambana-pratyaya (). 2. The dharma, which is separated from the perceiving consciousness, but functions as the archetype capable of manifesting the external image from the force of past deeds and internal cause. Such is the remote alambana-pratyaya () which is the supporting basis whereupon the immediate alambana-pratyaya ( ) produces an image for the apprehending act to perceive.30 From the above definitions, the meaning of alambana-pratyaya from Vijbanavada is quite different with the traditional meaning for a warrant of external objects. In contrast with Sarvastivada, Vijbanavada upholds the sense that no objects can exist outside the perceiving consciousness. According to the Vijbanavada, although the minds and their objects seem to be unconnected entities, they are actually one inseparable entity. Objects are different from the perceiving consciousness, but not different entities since there are no external objects acting as conditions for consciousnesses. Minds and appearances of objects arise simultaneously from a single cause and the ripening of a predisposition (vasana) is established by a previous action (karma). All appearances of objects are caused by these karmic dispositions that are contained within the

store-consciousness. On account of latencies for the perception of external objects having been infused and subsequently ripened in the alayavijbana, phenomena are then projected and are perceived as external objects. Through the mechanism of store-consciousness, together with the operation of predispositions and karmic theory,

30

() T1585: p. 40c. Also, Wei Tat (1973), p. 543-544. 129

external objects are not necessary to explain the uprising of consciousness. The appearance of objects and the perceiving consciousness arising from predispositions that are in the store-consciousness is feasible. It can only be the fruition of ones own karma and ones reactions to those events that determine the chain of latency-generated appearances comprising ones stream of experience. The fourth condition is adhipati-pratyaya which Asmv defines: What is dominance (adhipati)? The condition of dominance should be understood as: [1] dominance in means of support (pratisthadhipati), [2] dominance of penetration (avedhadhipati), [3] dominance through co-existence (sahabhavadhipati), [4] dominance of the sphere (visayadhipati), [5] dominance of productivity (prasavadhipati), [6] dominance of the place (sthanadhipati), [7]dominance of the experience of the result (phalopabhogadhipati),

of

actions

[8] dominance of worldly purity (laukikaviwuddhadhipati), and [9] dominance of transcendental purity (lokottara-viwuddhyadhipati).31 As in VMS, adhipati-pratyaya is a dharma capable of promoting or counteracting the evolution of another dharma. In a broader sense, adhipati-pratyaya includes the hetupratyaya, samanantara-pratyaya and

alambana-pratyaya.

Therefore,

adhipati-pratyaya represents variety of modes of causality. 32 In this sense, adhipati-pratyaya is also a projecting force from the potent energies that makes a difference between Vijbanavada and traditional definition. When some of the seeds deposited in the alaya-vijbana reach mature stage, through the conformity of various conditions, the actualized dharma-s (sajskrta)

31

32

Asmv [1][2][3][4] [5][6][7][8][9] T1606: 715c. Webb (2001): 62-63. T1585: p. 40c. Also, Wei Tat (1973), p. 547. 130

come into existence, such as rivers and mountains, five material organs and sensory objects, etc. All kinds of material and mental phenomena are manifested through the force of the mutual co-operation of the four conditions from the inner potencies. The uprising of every consciousness depends on the four conditions. Since all these four conditions are potentials within the sentient beings, there is no reliance on the external substantial entities for the origination of mental activities. The theory of four conditions is one of the argumentation for proving everything is

mere-consciousness.

5.4 Justification of Six Causes not separated from Consciousness

The above definition of four conditions is a synthesis of doctrinal systems of six sutra-s and eleven treatises by Vijbaptimatrata-siddhi ( ) and became the refined theories in the mature stage. In contrast to the early stage of Yogacara School, it is found that the Lavkavatara sutra (LS ) advocates another type of six causes to explain four conditions. Moreover, the standpoint of LSs six causes is mainly to refute the misconception of upholding the causes and conditions as something really independent of the mind. To a certain extent, Yogacara takes the same position similar to Madhyamika School. The content of Lavkavatara sutra is a philosophical discourse attributing to the Buddha delivered on the Lavka Mountain in Ceylon. It may have been composed in the fourth or fifth century A.D. The Sanskrit text is available and is edited by Nanjro Bunjru ( ). Two Tibetan translations are extant. There have been four translations in Chinese. The first translation was by Dharmaksema () between translated 412-433, which no longer existed. The second was

131

by Gunabhadra () in 443. The third was translated by Bodhiruci () in 513, and the fourth was translated by

Wiksananda ( ) in 700-704. Among these Chinese texts, Ouyang-Jian

regards the translation of Bodhiruci to be the best among the three translations.33 There are English Translations by D.T. Suzuki, The Lavkavatara sutra and Studies in the Lavkavatara sutra. Lavkavatara sutra holds an idealistic view that ones own mind (citta) manifests the three realms of existences. This sutra distinguishes the correct and incorrect views of causation with an objective of denying the false discrimination and revealing the truth. Vijbanavadas understanding is somewhat similar to that of Madhyamika School particularly with the denial of self-sustained and intrinsic substance of conventional entities. It is just like a house constructed by conformity of various conditions, the self-nature of the house does not exist and this is called emptiness in essence. However, people in the world have delusive discrimination and therefore they stick to false notions. LS also employs the terms of non-arising and non-substantiality of Prajbaparamita-sutra. 34 However, LS puts more emphasis on the co-existent of various consciousnesses manifesting the phenomenal existents. The Vijbanavada emphasizes alaya-vijbana as the base for the principle of dependent co-arising. This can avoid the misconception of emptiness leading to opinion of nihilism. Instead, Vijbanavada speaks more about selflessness since all things are aroused from consciousness and therefore all things lack inherent substance.35

33

Ouyang-Jian (1989): 3. Bodhirucis LS, T0671: p. 528b. 35 Vasubandhus Baifa mingmen lun () declares the selflessness of everything which includes five categories of hundred dharma-s. This is because their existences are not separate from mind. (T1614: p. 855b)
34

132

As said by the Buddha in the LS:36 Mahamati (), there are two factors of causation by which all things come into existence: external and inner. Mahamati, the external factors are a lump of clay, a stick, a wheel, thread, water, a worker, and his labour, the combination of all of which produces a jar.with all things which, governed by external causes, appear one after another in continuous succession. As regards the inner factors of causation, Mahamati, they are of such kind as ignorance, desire, and action, which make up our idea of causation. Born of these, Mahamati, there is the manifestation of the Sandhas, Dhatus, and Ayatanas. They are not separate [realities] but discriminated [as such] by the ignorant. Venerable Yin Shun said that the idea of this sutra corresponds to the law of conditioned co-arising [pratitya-samutpada ] and the entity of conditioned co-arisen (pratitya-samutpanna ) mentioned in Agama Sutra. From the aspect of cause, the potencies of alaya-vijbana are called conditioned co-arisen entity (pratitya-samutpanna) which refers to existents originated by various conditions.
37

Through ignorance, desire, and action which are the causes for dependent arising, the decimating mind projects the outer image of appearance. Five skandha, twelve

ayatana and eighteen dhatu are the products of conditioned co-arisen. This is
coherent with what Buddha says, Things arise because consciousness arises38, If this exists, that exist.39

When the multitudinousness of objects is wrongly imagined as real substances

36

Suzuki (1956): 73. . . (T0671: p.530b.) 37 The record of Lavkavatara sutra ( ), p. 265, 1995. This book was recorded by Yin Hoi () and was preached by Yin Shun. The text is based on Gunabhadras translation. 38 39 133

and attached to, discrimination goes on evolving; and as people are attached tenaciously to the notion of grasping as they have not ascertained in their minds as to the nature of the objective world which is no more than the Mind itself, as they have fallen into the dualistic view of being and non-being and they are nourished by the habit-energy of the views and discriminations of the philosophers, they perceive the multitudinousness of external objects as real and become attached to them.40 Said the Blessed One; Mahamati, discrimination, indeed, does not evolve, nor is it put away. Why? Because there is no evolving of discrimination as regards being and non-being; because all that is seen is to be recognized as noting but the Mind itself..for the sake of the ignorant who are addicted to discriminating the multiplicity of things which are of their own Mind, it is said by me that discrimination whose first function is to produce multiplicity as characteristic of objects..Those who, regarding the world as evolving from causes and conditions, are attached to these notions as well as to the fourfold proposition, fail to understand my teaching.41 If we understand that the nature of three spheres of existence is aroused by our delusive discrimination and bounded by the perceived objects from beginningless time, then we should not be deceived by the our discrimination. Since there is no dharma-s existed independently from the mind, there is no real assemblage of causes and conditions. Self-sustained causes and effects are delusive thought and the true nature of existence is originated from the mind only. The correct apprehension of the mere-consciousness enables us not to hold a false view on causality.

The appearance of conventional existence is dependent upon six causes, as said

40 41

Suzuki (1956): p. 129-130. Ibid, p. 131. (T0671: 529c-530a) 134

in LS; Now, Mahamati, there are six causes: (1) possibility cause, (2) dependence-cause, 42 (3) objectivity-cause, (4) agency-cause (i.e. efficient cause), (5) manifesting-cause, and (6) indifference-cause. The possibility-cause means, Mahamati, that when a cause to be becomes effective there is the rising of things inner and outer. The dependence-cause means, Mahamati, that when conditions to be, become effective there is the rising of the Skandha-seeds, etc., inner and outer. Further, the objectivity-cause means, Mahamati, that bound by the objective world [Vijbana] keeps up its continuous activity. Again, Mahamati, the agency-cause means that like a sovereign king a cause invested with supreme authority asserts itself. Again, the manifesting-cause means that when the discriminating faculty rises, as the result it reveals individual marks as a lamp does forms, etc. Lastly, the indifference-cause means that when there is a dissolution the power of the combination non-discrimination.43 discontinues, and there rises a state of

Firstly, possibility cause (bhavisyad-hetu, ) is a becoming cause for the rising of inner and outer existences. Because of the past ignorance, carving and karmic action, self-consciousness manifests both inner and outer existences. Likewise, the present ignorance, carving and karmic cause will induce retribution of the future inner life and external world as well. Therefore, the evolution of discriminating (vikalpa ) self-consciousness is a possibility cause which is the condition qua cause for the becoming of the universe. Secondly, dependence-cause (sambandha-hetu ) is five skandha seeds
Suzuki points out that it should be apeksha (apeksa) for dependence-cause rather than upeksha (upeksa) with a meaning of mutual reference. See Suzuki (1956): 73. 43 Suzuki (1956): 73-74. (T0671: p.530b.)
42

135

etc. The present manifesting activities of the first seven consciousnesses are dependent on the perfumed energy accumulation of ignorance and carving to evolve inner and outer existences. The objective external world and subjective mental phenomena are evolved by the skandha-seeds which include material, sensation, ideation, volition, and consciousness. These five skandha-seeds are stored in the

alaya-vijbana as potentialities for projecting both inner and outer things. After the six
consciousnesses perceive the objects of the external world, the contents of cognizing experience will then be deposited into the alaya-vijbana as vasana and will actualize again when conditions are suitable. Five skandha-seeds will become the active manifested objects of the six consciousnesses and further give rise to new potency of inner and outer skandha-seeds, etc. Therefore, dependence-cause is the perfuming function of five skandha seeds for projecting both inner and outer object realm. In this sense, it is similar to the condition qua object. Thirdly, objectivity-cause (laksana-hetu ) is the successive occurrence of mental activities and events. Bound by the objective world, those eight consciousnesses keep up their continuous evolving activities, events of cause and effect appear successively with their own corresponding natures. Objectivity-cause is the precedent mind functioning as equal-immediate condition for the subsequent mind. Fourthly, agency-cause (karana-hetu ) is similar to condition of dominance which is an auxiliary cause with powerful strength to give birth to an effect. It is just like a sovereign king who effectively governs the entire realm with authority and enables many people to have prosperous and comfortable living. Fifthly, manifesting-cause (vyabjana-hetu ) is the force of causal combination for the rise of discrimination that manifests the object forms. It is like a
136

lamp shining on things. Similarly, the material seeds within the alaya-vijbana can project the appearance of mountains, rivers and lands etc. Ordinary people mistakenly perceive those external entities as real dharma-s existing outside our minds. Sixthly, indifference-cause (upeksa-hetu )44 is the dissolution of the power of causal combination resulting in a discontinuity of successive events and thereafter a state of non-discrimination arises. In contrast with manifesting-cause, which is the rise of discrimination manifesting objects with continuous events, indifference-cause is the rise of non-discrimination towards manifested objects leading to discontinuity of events. It is noteworthy that Lavkavatara sutra advocates six causes which is quite different from that of Sarvastivada. The first four causes of LS becomes another expression for four conditions. The last two causes reveal discrimination and non-discrimination towards continuity and discontinuity of the phenomenal occurrences. LS provides a special interpretation for what Buddha said about all phenomena are produced by four conditions.45 Although the states of production and dispersion of dharma-s of the world are through these six causes, it is actually the outcome of discrimination carried by the ignorant. Just as the Buddha said, Every existence is just like the image on the mirror which has no substance since what is seen is nothing but the mind itself. When there is manifestation of mind, dharma-s exist. Likewise, when there is

The Sanskrit upeksa may be mistakenly regarded as apeksa and was translated as Relative Cause in Tang translation. (Tam Sak-WingThe New Translation from Sanskrit:The Lankavatara Sutra, p. 81. ). However, Suzuki also points out the same mistake but this is under dependence-cause instead of indifference cause. See Suzuki (1956): 73. 45 MPPS T1509: p. 456c.
44

137

indifference of mind, dharma-s are dissolved.46 Therefore, the Buddha declares: All existences are neither a gradual nor a simultaneous rising of things possible.47 Buddha elucidates the specific characteristics of various causes and conditions, such as those inner and outer conditions together with six kinds of causes, with an objective to renounce the misconception of successive or simultaneous occurrences. If there is a simultaneous rising of existence, there would be no distinction between cause and effect, and there would be nothing to characterize a cause as such. If a gradual rising is admitted, there is no substance that holds together individual signs, which makes gradual rising impossible. While a child is not yet born, the term father has no significance.48 If cause and effect arise simultaneously, then there is no distinction between the specific nature of cause and effect. How can we say that there is a necessary connection in cause and effect? If the cause and effect are gradually rising, then the nature of an effect cannot be identified. Since the causes of conventional existences happen in different circumstances, it could not be the case that preceding cause necessarily produces subsequent effect during the process of development. It is like a lump of clay not necessarily be used to produce a jar but it may possibly be a bowl or anything else. It is evident that an effect is not necessarily determined in the changing world. Therefore, gradual arising should not be held as having the self-nature of cause and effect since the outcome is unknowable and not predestinated. If the effect is unknown, then how can we say that there is a definite cause of production? It is just like the relationship of father and son. One will not be named as father if he does not has any son. The relation of cause and effect is
46

Mahayana-prasada-prabhavana (Commentary on the Awakening of Mahayana Faith, )tr. by Paramartha. (T1666: p. 577b.)
47 48

Suzuki (1956): 74. (T0671: p.530c.) Ibid. () (T0671: p. 530c.) 138

established only when people trace back the origination of an appearance. Absolute and intrinsic natures are not found in various causes and effects. The theory of LSs six causes denotes the four conditions in essence. However, the Hinayana, foolish and simple-minded sentient beings uphold condition qua cause, equal-immediate cause, condition qua object and condition of dominance as entities with intrinsic substance. This is because they do not comprehend the true nature of those six causes and four conditions correctly. LS skillfully uses the inner and outer conditions and six causes to explain the conventional existences for the purpose of refuting any substantial existences from dependent co-arising. In this regard, Vijbanavada and Madhyamika Schools both have the same opinion. The objective of the Buddha is not to repudiate the law of cause and effect, but to repudiate the clinging attitude and attachment of sentient beings to absurdity. Since the past and the present dharma-s have already been produced and the future dharma-s have not come into existence, it is concluded that intrinsic substance of causes and effect is untenable in the tri-temporal period. Similarly, absolute sense of inner body (direct retribution of life ) and outer worlds (circumstantial retribution ) etc. is untenable. According to Vijbanavada, if all beings are evolved by the consciousness in essence, the mind and object are mutually dependent in the rising and extinction because of our discrimination. If the self-consciousness realizes that all things are beyond birth and decay, then it has the wisdom in witnessing the non-arising nature of all existences

(anutpattika-dharma-ksanti ). Therefore, it is summarized by LS, Just as what the foolish to discriminate, there is no real substance to be perceived outside. It is the habitual energy which disturbs the mind and projects image of the object. Dharma-s of existence and non-existences are all non-arising but manifested by the consciousness. Therefore, we should be devoid of all discriminations. If anyone who says that all dharma-s are aroused
139

from conditions, he is a fool rather than a wise man. For not pertaining to the boundary of duality, the mind is liberated by it true nature. The state of pure mind is the place where all saints to abide.49 The views of LS on four conditions are very close to what MPPS says: Just as Buddha says there exist four conditions, the simple-minded people will have attachment with false interpretation. To repudiate their bindings, it is said that everything are empty in nature but not to refute the compounded existents. Just like the mind aroused from inner and outer factors, it is like a dream which is illusive without substantiality, the mental activities are the same.50 To conclude, these two Mahayana schools maintain that various cause and effects do not possess any inherent substance. 5.5 Summary Vijbanavada School interprets dependent co-arising as paratantra-svabhava () in a sense that the energy forces originated from the alaya-vijbana manifesting all phenomenal existences. The seeds within the alaya-vijban are condition qua cause (hetu-pratyaya) for actualization of various dharma-s, whereas equal-immediate cause and (samanantara-pratyaya), condition of dominance condition qua object are

(alambana-pratyaya)

(adhipati-pratyaya)

supplementary conditions. Ordinary people uphold those cognized objects possessing self-nature and this accounts for the discrimination of parikalpitah-svabhava ( ). In fact, the external objects do not have self-nature since these are mere-consciousness. If there is true understanding of the cause and effect, then the attachments of the self and dharma will be renounced. With such realization of

49

50

T0672: p. 627b,c. T1509: 296b. 140

non-discrimination, the true nature of paratantra-svabhava of compounded entity is identical to the ultimate reality (parinispanna-svabhava ). On this account, Vijbanavada School succeeds the views of Madhyamika and refutes substantial entities of Sarvastivada. However, Vijbanavadins differs from Madhyamika in that they provide constructive explanations after refutation through the theory of alaya-arising. In this regard, Vijbanavada follows Sarvastivadas analytical methods and admits that there must have some real forces that can account for the functional operation of cause and effect in the empirical world. However, we should not hold any substantiality on these causes, conditions and effects since all are manifested from the consciousness. The true cause is the bija-s that engender the phenomenal existents. With the understanding of the doctrinal systems of Vijbanavada, we can explore Yogacaras ten causes theory in the next chapter.

141

Chapter Six
6 The Establishment of Causation Theory by Yogacarya Bhumi Wastra
The main purpose of causation theory is to examine the interrelation of phenomenal existences of the universe. With regard to the causation theories developed in the period of Nikaya Buddhism, no matter ten conditions thirty-three causes or six causes four conditions, these doctrines already demonstrated the systematic examination of the relative dependence of co-arising. In view of the WAW ten causes, in particular the direct cause, it is a detailed analysis in relation to the perceiving, karmic and retributive aspects. Thereafter the Sarvastivadins claim that the first five causes except for the dominance cause function as direct causes. However, to the Yogacarins, the six-causes doctrine of Sarvastivada fails to provide an essential constituent that can directly bring about an existent of its own kind. The deficiency of these theories leads to a review of the principle of Buddhist causality by the Yogacara School with an emphasis on the seed potency as a direct cause, and with the support of other causes, the phenomenal existences can be arisen respectively. The ten causes theory is established under such circumstance. This chapter will illustrate the definition of the ten-causes based on various texts and commentaries of Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra. 6.1 The Composition and Authorship of YBW The fundamental text of the Yogacara School is most probably the Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra. The name of this school might probably be derived from this text. As far as the composition and Authorship of the YBW is concerned, the Chinese ascribes the author of YBW to Maitreya. The Tibetan tradition is more

142

willing to attribute the actual authorship of YBW to Asavga,1 so as the Sanskrit text. In addition, differences of authorship are noted in the canonical collections. The author of YBW is Maitreya in Taisho edition (T1579: 279a). However, the author of YBW is Asavga according to the index to the Peking edition of the Bstan gyur ( ).2 Modern scholars have a variety of opinions regarding the authorship of the YBW. Willis and Rahula simply accept the traditional attribution to Asavga and fail to recognize a difference of opinion exists. Some scholars such as Wayman, do recognize the differences of opinion but do not engage the issue in depth. Schmithausen conceives that YBW is the earliest source of Yogacara philosophy. The content of this treatise indicates that it is a compilation of material by various authors over a long period of time. Its final form is believed by many scholars to have been finalized by Asavga. Schmithausen makes a great effort to prove that YBW is a heterogeneous compilation that cannot be attributed to Asavga only.3 Since there are different opinions, we can no longer take for granted that the author of YBW is Maitreya or Asavga.4 The term alaya-vijbana is lack of reference in the early portion of YBW. It is certain that the doctrine of the alaya-vijbana evolved gradually within the Yogacara. Moreover, the Sautrantikas view of material sense-faculties and mind can mutually be seeded to each other is also found in YBW.5 In other word, the depository function of alaya-vijbana receiving the seeds perfuming has not fully been established in YBW. Furthermore, the position of metaphysical idealism for a denial of external reality is not found in YBW. It asserts the existence of the ineffable intrinsic nature (nirabhilapya-svabhavata ) which is beyond the domain
1

2 3 4 5

See Chimpa and Chattopadhyayas translation of Taranathas History of Buddhism in India. (1970: 168). See Kritzer, R. (1999: 15). See Schmithausen, L. (1987): 13-15. See Kritzer, R. (2005: xvii-xviii) for a summary of the modern scholars opinions. See T1579: 583b. 143

of linguistic activities. This is referred to as the mere-thing (vatsu-matra ). Such a doctrine hardly amounts to the consciousness only (vijbaptimatra ) as a metaphysical theory developed in the later Yogacara texts. Earliest Yogacara adopts the Sarvastivada position that the unreal or the conceptualized is necessarily based on the real existent and attempts to reinterpret the Madhyamika Schools emptiness and middle way. As said in YBW, it is inappropriate to say that everything is empty since it is easily mistakenly understood as spiritual practice not being necessary. The middle-way is avoidance of two extremes, i.e. neither superimposing on what does not exist nor everything is empty and does not exist.6 In other words, the position of Yogacara is not negating what actually exists and not superimposing on what do not actually exist. The superimposition of something not actually exist is referring to the extreme idea of svabhava held by the Sarvastivadins. The proposition that everything does not exist refers to the extreme expression of Madhyamikas doctrine of emptiness. Based on these evidences, the doctrines of YBW should belong to the earlier period of Yogacara. The extant Chinese version of this great treatise is divided into five portions:7 1. Mauli Bhumi (Basic Portion , fas. 1-50) expounds seventeen stages of the Buddhist practice.8 2. Viniwcaya-sajgrahani (, fas. 51-80) is a commentary on the seventeen bhumis in their order.9 3. Vivarana-sajgrahani (, fas. 81-82) explains the exegetical principles for interpreting the agama scripture.10 4. Paryaya-sajgrahani (, fas. 83-84) collects, classifies and expounds on the synonyms found in the sutras. 5. Vastu-sajgrahani (, fas. 85-100) explains all the significant doctrines of
6

(T1579: 488b) 7 See Kritzer, R. (2005: xiii-xvii). 8 See Hattori, Masaaki. (1987: 525). 9 See Wayman (1961:43) 10 The latter three portions, see Ui, Hakuju (1958: 9) 144

the tripitaka. Schmithausen tries to trace the earliest sources of alaya-vijbana in his

Alayavijbana and suggests a stratification of YBW. He distinguishes three main

layers of the YBW:11 1. The earliest layer refers to some portions within the Basic Portion which has no reference to the alaya-vijbana. 2. Another layer is the rest of the Basic Portion with sporadic reference to the

alaya-vijbana, but with no reference to the Sajdhinirmocanasutra. 3. The remaining layer refers particularly to Viniwcaya-sajgrahani for treating the alaya-vijbana extensively and quoting the Sajdhinirmocanasutra.
The distinction on layers of YBW provides a clue that some of the Basic Portion includes fairly old materials and therefore YBW should be regarded as the earliest source of Yogacara.

The causation theory of Yogacara School is a collection of ten causes, four conditions and five fruits illustrating the causality of the material and mental phenomena. Among these six sutra-s and eleven treatises, YBW should be the first treatise mentioning the ten causes theory in the Basic Portion (). According to the literatures of Kuiji, the argumentations and explanations of ten causes can be divided into earlier stage and later stage. The earlier stage refers to YBW as fundamental source, with Prakaranaryavaca-wastra (PSW, ) and Abhidharma-samuccaya (Asm, ) as supplementary materials. Moreover, Kuijis Brief Compilation of Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra (BCYBW, ) and Tun Luns () Records for Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra (RYBW

) are important commentaries. As for the later stage, it would be

11

See Schmithausen, L. (1987): 14. 145

Vijbaptimatrata-siddhi, (VMS, ) as the most important material. This thesis will base on the definitions asserted by the earlier stage of Yogacaras ten causes so as to explain the causal law for the dharma-s connected or not connected to the three spheres. Since there are different translations of YBW, it is not easy for the readers to comprehend the contextual meaning and therefore, it is necessary to put in order the comprehensive explanations for an overall understanding. Based on the above-mentioned materials, this chapter will probe into the implicit meanings of those ten causes established by YBW. 6.2 Five Realms of Hetu-pratyaya-phala The ten causes theory is first found in the V.4 of YBW under the stage of reasoning and investigation (sa-vitarka sa-vicara bhumi ). In this stage, the ten causes theory is explained under the section of the establishment of spheres (). The content of this topic deals with cause and effect for the sentient beings bound by the three spheres, i.e., sphere of sensuality (kama-dhatu ), sphere of fine-material (rupa-dhatu ), sphere of immaterial (arupya-dhatu ) and also the causation for abandonment of all bondage. The main theme is to explain different status in the three realms of existences in terms of causality under karmic reaction. Living creatures existing conditions, span of longevity, desirable or undesirable endowment, all of these are retributive effects of various causes and karmic actions. On this account, if we wish to promote the quality of our living, we must understand the dharma-s belonging to three spheres of existences with regard to the corresponding rules of cause and effect. On the basis of correctly apprehending the law of causality, we should be able to improve our lives prosperously with skillful means. This corresponds with the words, If and only if apprehending the origination of causal law, then the true view is shining and it is

146

named as skillfulness (kauwalya ) on dependent origination.12 The establishment of hetu-pratyaya-phala () in sa-vitarka sa-vicara bhumi ( )is in fact an exposition of ten causes, four conditions and five fruits with distinctive definitions. The structural system of cause and effect is explicitly demonstrated as follow: Therein, the establishment of cause and fruit is to be understood by four aspects: in terms of characteristic, supporting basis, difference and establishment. Therein, what is the characteristic of cause? That which is precedent to, that having depended on which, that having come together with which, that is the acquisition, of the establishment with which, of the accomplishment, of the activity of which dharma that one is its cause.13

The content of hetu-pratyaya-phala can be explored from four aspects, i.e. characteristic, supporting basis, difference and establishment. In terms of causes, conditions and fruits, all these have four aspects individually. That which is precedent refers to the cause which is a prerequisite for generating an entity. That having depended on refers to the condition which is an auxiliary condition for supporting the rise of an appearance. That having come together with refers to the concourse which includes the necessary causes and assistant conditions, and the cooperation of these forces jointly helps an effect to come into existence. The formula for the arising of all phenomenal existents is cause as precedent, conditions as dependent, concourse as cooperation, and such and such effects occur. Just like the arising of a dharma, the causal laws of acquisition, establishment, accomplishment and activity of certain dharma-s are in the same manner.
12 13

(T1579: p.613c) tatra hetu-phala-vyavasthnam caturbhir krair veditavyam /laksanato adhisthanatah prabhedato vyavasthnata ca / tatra hetu-laksanam katamat/ yat-prvam yac ca pratisthya yac ca savgamya yasya dharmasya prptir v siddhir v nispattir v kriy v sa tasya hetur ity ucyate / (T1579: 301a) 147

6.2.1 The Arising of Conjointed and Unconjointed Dharmas for Three Spheres

The enquiry of hetu-pratyaya-phala of YBW is based on a mode of thinking From what cause? What conditions? What concourse? What fruit can be generated? This kind of formula for inquiring into the law of causality can be traced to Agama Sutra. Buddha once talked about the way he realized the truth of causality, I recalled my past life that had not yet enlightened, stayed alone in quiet place and practiced meditation attentively, then a thought occurred to me: From what dharma (cause) for the becoming of old age and death, from what conditions, there comes the old age and death (fruit)? During that proper contemplation, the true view arisen immediately. Depending on existence of birth (cause), the old and death (fruit) comes into existence, and depending on the condition of birth, there comes the old age and death (fruit). Then, grasping, craving, sensation, contact, six entrances, psycho-physical complex are like this. From what dharma (cause) for the existence of psycho-physical complex, from what conditions, there comes the psycho-physical complex (fruit)? During that proper contemplation, the true view arisen immediately. Depending on existence of consciousness (cause), psycho-physical complex (fruit) comes into existence, and depending on the condition of consciousness, there comes the psycho-physical complex (fruit).14

YBW enumerates the hetu-pratyaya-phala of five realms, i.e. arising, acquisition, establishment, accomplishment and activity, in terms of dharma-s conjoined to and unconjoined to three spheres of existence. The first realm of hetu-pratyaya-phala is arising and YBW defines arising as follows Which is that precedent to, having depended on what, having come together with what, there comes to be the arising of what dharma? Having their own-seeds as preceding, having depended on material and non-material basis
14

() () (T99: p.80b) 148

other than that having excluded the seed-basis, and also karma, having come together with the companion(s) and object, there comes to be the arising [of the dharma] conjoined with the sensuality [sphere], conjoined with the [sphere] of the fine-material, conjoined with [sphere of] immaterial, and the unconjoined. And that is accordingly as the case may be.15

According to Asmv, dharma-s conjoined with the sensuality sphere are the wholesome, the unwholesome and the neutral, endowed with impurities in a person who is not free from craving. One should investigate these dharma-s for the purpose of abandoning attachment from the realm of sensuality to a person. Dharma-s conjoined with the fine-material sphere are the wholesome and the neutral endowed with impurities in a person, who is free from craving for the realm of sensuality, but not as yet free from craving for fine-material. One should investigate these dharma-s for the purpose of abandoning attachment from the realm of fine-material to a person. Dharma-s conjoined with the immaterial sphere are the wholesome and the neutral endowed with impurities in a person, who is free from craving for the realm of fine-material, but not as yet free from craving for immaterial realm. One should investigate these dharma-s for the purpose of abandoning attachment from the realm of immaterial to a person.16 The impure defilements (klewa) such as sensual greed, hatred, delusion, conceit, view and doubt perturb and afflict the psychophysical series. They arouse delusive views and detain sentient beings within the ocean of sajsara. These fetters are grouped into three bondages: the greed-bondage (raga-bandhana), the hatred-bondage (dvesa-bandhana) and the delusion-bondage
15

kim-prv kim pratisthya kim savgamya kasya dharmasyotpattir bhavati / sva-bja-prv bjrayam sthpayitv tad-anyam rayam pratirpinam arpinam v karma ca pratisthya sahyam lambanam ca savgamya kma-pratisamyuktnm rpa-pratisamyuktnm rpya-pratisamyuktnm apratisamyuktnm utpdit bhavati / tac ca yath-yogam // (T1579: 301a) 16 Webb (2001): 51-53. Also T1606, p. 710a, b. 149

(moha-bandhana). The defilements are conceived as the root of existence because karma-s are incapable of producing new existences without the fostering of vexations. From another perspective, all defilements arise on account of ignorance and constitute the becoming of rebirth.17 Dharma-s not conjoined with the three spheres of existences are the detachments which include aversion for conditions that cause suffering, the exhaustion of engaging in sexual relations, the aversion of the ignorant for nirvana and abandonment of the defilements, etc.18 The seeker for liberation should discern the Four Truths, i.e. the unsatisfactory (duhkha), the cause of duhkha, the cessation of duhkha and the path of liberation. Moreover, one should engage in proper practice of spiritual progress until all defilements are detached at the stage of the perfection. Dharma-s pertaining to three realms of existences emerged from their individual potentiality (bija) as direct cause, with the conditions of material and non-material bases and the companions. The same rule also applies to the dharma-s not pertaining to three realms of existences.

6.2.2

The Attainment of Nirvana

The second realm of hetu-pratyaya-phala is acquisition, YBW defines acquisition as follows Which is that is precedent to, having depended on what, having come together with what, there comes to be the acquisition of what dharma? The lineage-type of listener, self-enlightened one and the Thus Gone as proceeding, having depended on the internal part of power, having come together with the external part of power, there comes to be the acquisition of nirvana, the disjunction from defilement. Therein, this power of internal part, namely, is systematic mental application and the state of little desire. Internally, the skillful dharma-s namely,
17 18

SA: 211-217. Ibid,53. Also T1606, p. 710b. 150

humanity, birth in noble abode, non-impairment with the faculties, activities being unobstructed, faith in the abode dharma-s of such categories are called power of the internal part. Therein, this is the power of external part that is, the arising of Buddha-s, the teaching of true dharma, the abiding of dharma-s that have been taught, and the perpetuation of the abided, the compassion in respect of others dharma-s of such types as mentioned are called power of the external part.19

The general meaning of acquisition (prapti ) in Buddhism refers to a dharma of a corresponding force associated with a person. When a person first acquires a dharma, he is said to have the prapti of that dharma. When he continues to possess it, he is said to have the endowment (samavagama ) of that dharma.20 Prapti belongs to the category of conditionings disjoined from thought (viprayukta- sajskrta ). As defined by Asmv, Obtaining, acquisition (pratilambha), possession (samavagama), it is a designation (prajbapti) indicating the increase (acaya) and diminution (apacaya) of favorable (kuwala) and unfavorable (akuwala) things.21 However, in the text of YBW, the acquisition is related with the fruits of the spiritual life and the nirvana that is a disjunction from defilements. Nirvana is the condition where the flames of greed, hatred and delusion
19

kim-prv kim pratisthya kim savgamya kasya dharmasya prptir bhavati / rvaka-pratyekabuddha-tathgata-gotra-prvdhytmnga-balam pratisthya bhynga-balam savgamya klea-visamyogasya nirvnasya prptir bhavati // tatredam adhytmnga-balam / tad yath yonio manasi-kro alpecchatdaya ca / adhytmam kual dharms tad yath manusyatvam /ryyatane pratyjtih / indriyair avikalat / aparivrtta-karmntat / yatana-gatah prasdah / ity evam-bhgy dharm adhytmnga-balam ity ucyate // tatredam bhynga-balam tad yath buddhnm utpdah / sad-dharmasya dean / deitnm dharmnm avasthnam / avasthitnm cnupravartanam / parata ca pratyanukamp / ity evam-bhgy dharm bhynga-balam ity ucyate // (T1579: 301a) 20 SA: 19. 21 Webb (2001): 19. Also T1606, p. 700a. 151

have been blown out. Because of the realization of the reality, all defilements are abandoned through insight. It is in fact the disconnection fruit (visajyoga-phala ) from all vexations or bondages through the realization of the pure path and disconnection from all obstacles. Depending on lineage-type which is individual specific undefiled potential as cause, together with internal part of strength functions as condition, and external part of strength functions as cooperation, with the compounded causal factors, the acquisition of nirvana is resulted. This category focuses on the causal laws of unconjoined dharma-s not pertaining to three realms of existences.

6.2.3

Establishment of the Theory

The third realm of hetu-pratyaya-phala is establishment, YBW defines establishment as follows Therein, which is that is precedent to, having depended on what, having gone together with what, there comes to be the establishment of what dharma? The determination of the knowable and the inclination with regard to the knowable is precedent; having depended on the proposition, reason, example; having come together with antithesis-opponent and a non-contradicting assembly, there comes to be the establishment of the thesis to be proved.22

The category of theory establishment should involve all subjects of knowledge but here it takes Buddhist logic (hetuvidya ) for illustration. Through the inference with the syllogistic method, a thesis is thus proved. The argumentative method employed by the Buddhist logicians is named as three-part syllogism ( ). The logical reasoning contains three statements which involve the proposition
22

tatra kim-prv kim pratisthya kim savgamya kasya dharmasya siddhir bhavati / jeydhi-mukti-ruci-prv pratij-hetdharanaj pratisthya prativdinam avilomm ca parisadam savgamya sdhyasyrthasya siddhir bhavati // [] (T1579: 301a) 152

(pratijba ), the reason (hetu ), and the simile (udaharana ). To set forth ones theory, there are prerequisite conditions such as undoubtful apprehension and the inclination with regard to the knowledge, being capable of comprehending the viewpoints of own and other schools, and possessing the necessary techniques of argumentation and debate. With determination and inclination with regard to the proposition as cause, three-part syllogism as condition, antithesis-opponent and a non-contradicting assembly as concourse, the proof of a thesis which is the effect is established, so as the other faculties of knowledge. The establishment of theory or knowledge is an important area for cultural development and is crucial for spiritual and material progress in this world.

6.2.4 The Accomplishment of Conventional Undertaking and Life Sustenance The fourth realm of hetu-pratyaya-phala is accomplishment, YBW defines accomplishment as follows Which is that is precedent to, having depended on what, having come together with what, there comes to be the accomplishment of what dharma? Knowledge of skill as precedent, having depended on effort that has been accorded with that (skill), having come together with instruments that are relevant to the activity of the skill, there comes to be the production of that particular type of activity of skill. Furthermore, [with craving as the precedent,] having depended on the karmic basis of the abode of nourishment, having come together with the four nourishments, there comes to be the abiding of living beings, sustenance and growth.23
23

kim-prv kim pratisthya kim savgamya kasya dharmasya nispattir bhavati / wilpa-jna-prv tad-anugam vyavasyam pratisthya wilpa-karma-sthnyam bhndopaskaram savgamya tasya tasya wilpa-karma-sthnasya nispattir bhavati // [trsn-prv] punar hra-sthiti-karmrayam pratisthya catura hrn savgamya bhtnm sattvnm sthitir bhavati / ypana pusti ca / 153

Activity of skill (wilpasthana-vidya ) is one of the five faculties of knowledge dealing with the arts of all industries, such as various crafts, mechanics, natural science, technologies, calculations and astrology, etc. YBW encourages that the bodhisattvas should seek for the teaching of Mahayana and Hinayana, so as doctrines of heretics and skills of all industries.24 It is obvious that the Buddhists not only need to study the Buddhist doctrines but also various kinds of knowledge in this world, even the craftsmanship of industrial skill, such as gold, iron, jewelry, so as to earn a living with proper careers. Therefore, by obtaining a skill as cause, diligence accorded with particular skill as condition, tool apparatus relevant to the activity of the skill as concourse, the profession of that type of skill would be resulted. Apart from the undertaking for making a living, the sentient beings also require nourishment and sustenance. The maintenance of the living requires four kinds of food. The first kind is solid food such as fruits, meats, vegetables, etc. that provide necessary nutrition for our physical body. The second is sensory nourishment that one takes through the contacts of the five senses. The third is the nourishment one takes through thought. The fourth nourishment is the consciousnesses, i. e. alaya-vijbana, being the root cause of living. For those already existed sentient beings, on condition of craving as cause, activities of seeking the abode of nourishment as condition, four nourishments as cooperation, the compound of these factors conduces their sustenance and growth. The category of accomplishment includes the undertakings of all industries and different kinds of nourishment, which are essential for the living of mankind. In
(T1579: 301a) (T1579: 500c) 154

24

other words, it is an important principle of existence that we should learn to master the causal law of this realm.

6.2.5

The Specific Activity of Various Existents

The fifth realm of hetu-pratyaya-phala is activity, YBW defines activity as follows What is that precedent to, having depended on what, having come together with what, there comes to be the activity of that dharma? Own seed as precedent, having depended on arising, having come together with arising condition, the own activity of that dharma was known. The own karma of the remained faculties should be known. Therein, the earth can hold, the water can damp, the fire can burn, the wind can dry. Such categories (of own karma) as previously mentioned, the own karma of very exterior existences should be known.25

The category of activity refers to the function, a utility of an entity. Everything has its own particular function which is also the attribute of an entity. In this sense, the attribute or activity is originated from the potentiality of a dharma. Therefore, with the seed as cause, together with the other conditions and concourse, the activity of an entity can be actualized. Just like the four great elements, each has its peculiar utility, therefore, earth, water, fire and wind, each has its decisive function of holding, damping, burning and drying respectively.

25

kim-prv kim pratisthya kim savgamya kasya dharmasya kriy bhavati / sva-bja-prvotpattim pratisthyotpatti-pratyayam savgamya sa-karma kasya dharmasya sva-kriy prajyate sva-karma-karanam tad yath caksuso daranam / evam avaistnm indriynam svakam-svakam karma veditavyam / tath prthiv dhrayati / pah kledayanti / agnir dahati / vyuh osayatty evam-bhgyam bhynm api bhvnm svaka-svakam karma veditavyam // (T1579: 301a) 155

In the first place, YBW establishes the definitions of cause, condition and effect in terms of characteristic. Through the formula of the precedent cause, the depending conditions, together with the concourse, an effect is induced. It also illustrates the universal principle of pratitya-samutpada which means that all phenomenal existences are dependently originated from an assemblage of causes and conditions. Concerning the five realms of hetu-pratyaya-phala, i.e. arising, acquisition, establishment, accomplishment and activity, these are related to five important aspects of our daily lives, such as the rise of dharma-s conjoined to and unconjoined to three spheres of existence, the attainment of spiritual life free from all bondages, the establishment of knowledge, the accomplishment leading to fullness of living, and the utility of everything. These five areas convey the content of conditioned co-arisen (pratitya-samutpanna). The profound meaning and the relativity of pratitya-samutpada and pratitya-samutpanna are expounded explicitly in YBW and can give significant cues to us. Through understanding and in accordance to the law of causality, people can apply it on various opportunities effectively so as to attain the welfare and happiness of our living.

6.3 The Establishment of Ten Hetu The establishment of cause and effect should be understood in terms of four aspects, i.e. characteristics of cause and effect, supporting basis of fifteen causes and four conditions, differences of causes, and conditions and effects. In accordance with the supporting basis, YBW distinguishes the differences of the hetu-pratyaya-phala. Through the analysis of the fourth aspect, i.e. the establishment, it helps to apprehend the commensurate meanings between supporting basis and difference. Therein, the true meaning of causality could be

156

reflected.

The Sanskrit hetu-pratyaya-phaldhisthanaj ( ) includes the supporting bases of cause (hetu ), condition (pratyaya ) and fruit (phala ). Regarding the hetu-adhisthanaj, there are a total of fifteen bases for the establishment of the ten causes. Moreover, there are four supporting bases for the establishment of the four conditions and five supporting bases for the establishment of the fruit. The definitions of hetu-pratyaya-phala will be elaborated respectively below. Since these three Chinese translations all involve ten causes theory with different translated terms and meanings, I will try to make a contrast in this thesis in order to distinguish the similarities and differences among these texts. All the relevant source materials can be found from Taisho Vol. 30, Bodhisattvabhumi-sutra (BBW p.903a, b), Ethical Precepts of Bodhisattva Sutra (EPBW, p.977a) and Yogacara-bhumi-wastra (YBW p.301b-302a). Apart from these translations, the commentary of BBW will be mainly based on The Summation of Mahayana Doctrines (SMD, written by Wei Yuan (), Taisho

Vol.44, p.540b-541a ). SMD analyses ten causes from seven aspects which are very exhaustive. It is a valuable source but receives little attention from the scholars. As far as YBW is concerned, the elaboration will be in accordance with the commentary of Tun Luns () Records for Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra (RYBW, ). In RYBW, Tun Lun has also included the brief compilation (BCYBW) of Kuiji (Taisho Vol.44, p.340c-341a). I will translate the relevant ten causes theory from romanized Sanskrit text in English according to V. Bhattacharyas The Yogcrabhmi of crya Asavga which can be extracted from the Yogacarabhumi database website. Corrections will be marked with asterisk for the Sanskrit scripture, and there would
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be comparison of all relevant texts for a better comprehension to the implicit meaning of the theory. For convenience, the following text will no longer list the number of pages.

6.3.1

Dependent on Speech Supporting Basis to designate Conventional-Speech-Conforming Cause

The first conventional-speech-conforming cause (anuvyavahra-hetu ) is defined as follows

EPBW BBW YBW [] SMD [] RYBW Skt hetu-pratyaya-vyavasthnam katamat / tatra vcam hetv-adhisthanam adhisthaynuvyavahra-hetuh prajyate / tat kasya hetoh / tath hi / kma-pratisamyuktesu dharmesu rpa-pratisamyuktesv rpya-pratisamyuktesu apratisamyuktesu nma-vyavasthna-prv samj pravartate / samj-prv vk pravartate / vc yath-drstam yath-rutam yath-matam yath-vijnam anuvyavahriyate / tasmd vcam adhisthaynuvyavahra-hetuh prajpyate // Eng What is the establishment of cause and condition? Having depended on speech and the cause-base, the conventional-speech-conforming cause is understood. Why is this? Because the ideation which is preceded by the establishment of name, operates with regard to the dharma-s pertaining to
158

sensuality [sphere], pertaining to fine-material [sphere], pertaining to immaterial [sphere], not pertaining [to any sphere]. Speech, preceded by ideation operates, words are conventionally spoken, as it has been seen, as it has been heard, as it has been thought, as it has been cognized. Therefore, having depended on speech, the conventional-speech-conforming cause is designated.

The word vak(vac-speak, utter) has a meaning of utterance andvak adhisthana () means verbal expression which serves as a basis. For the wordanuvyavahra (anu-vi-ava-hr-carry), it is a use of verbal expression. Therefore, anuvyavahra-hetu is conventional-speech-conforming cause (, ). It is a cause along with linguistic usage (vyavahara), such as name (nama), ideation (samjba) and word (vak). With preceding establishment of appellation, the ideation with regard to whichever realms of existences forms the ground for conceptualization and words are spoken in conformity to convention. These are established by conventional construction to signify our experience in cognizing various phenomenal existences. Various names are composed with their unique definitions for denoting different things. The ideation or notion in turn induces us to apprehend the characters of certain things. Moreover, the gradual accumulation of our knowledge enables us to convey our ideas through communication. By means of speech and in conformity with our experiences, we speak of all the things that we see, hear, think and cognize. The language that we use is an instrument to constitute the meanings of the world. With the name, ideation and dharma, these are the supporting bases (adhisthana, ) for speech. This also agrees with the text of Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya (Asm) of Asavga in defining the efficient cause (karana) of vyavahara, Reason (Cause) of [linguistic] usage (vyavahara), such as

159

name (nama), notion (samjba) and opinion (drsti). 26 Hence, the conventional speech is the cause that conforms to the entities of all spheres.27

SMD clearly points out that the name conventional-speech-conforming cause (anuvyavahra-hetu ) does not express fully the meaning of this cause. Apart from the speech, it should include the name and ideation as well. Wei Yuans justification is that if one renounces the name, ideation and speech so as to grasp the nature of the existents, no distinct nature can be grasped. This is because the assemblage of causes compounds the nature of a dharma. Only by conceptualization one can denote the characteristic of a dharma. Following the expression of name, ideation and speech, we have the distinguishability of various phenomenal existences. Dependent on speech, etc. we can regard those existences as the cause of the dharma-s and give the name of anuvyavahra-hetu. RYBW also holds a similar view. Concerning these translated texts, the basic meanings are more or less the same, but we notice that YBW says that anuvyavahra-hetu involves all existences pertaining to three spheres together with those non-bondage dharma-s not belonging to any of these three spheres. The detailed description of Xuan Zangs translation matches with the Sanskrit text. However, the meaning of is more clear in Sanskrit because the designation of anuvyavahra-hetu () is relying on two causes, the speech-base (vk adhisthana ) and the cause-base (hetuadhisthana ) that make up the cause of speech supporting basis ().

6.3.2 Dependent on Experience Supporting Basis to designate Relative Cause

26 27

Webb (2001): 60. Wei Tat (1973): p. 553. 160

The second relative cause (apeksa-hetu ) is defined as follows EPBW BBW SMD YBW Skttatra anubhava-hetv-adhisthanam adhisthaypeks-hetuh prajpyate / tat kasya hetoh/ tath hi / yah kma-pratisamyuktena sukhenrth bhavati sa tad apeksya kmnm lbham paryesate samnicayam v pratinisevanam v paryesate // yo rprpya-pratisamyuktena sukhenrth bhavati sa tad apeksya tat-pratyaynm lbham v pratinisevnm v paryesate / yo v pratisamyuktena sukhenrth bhavati sa tad apeksya tat-pratyaynm lbham v pratisevanaj v paryesate / yo v punar duhkhenn-arth sa tad apeksya tat-pratyaynm parihram tat-prahana-pratyaynm lbham v pratisevanaj v paryesate / tasmd anubhavam adhisthayksepa-hetuh prajpyate // Eng: Therein, having depended on experience and the cause-base, the relative cause is understood. Why is this? Because he who comes to be desirous of the happiness pertaining to sensuality [sphere], he, having dependent on that, seeks the gain of sensuality, or the accumulation, or the utilization. He who comes to be desirous of the happiness pertaining to the fine-material and immaterial spheres, he, having dependent on that, seeks the gain of its conditions, or the accumulation. Or he who, moreover, does not seek (non-desirous) for suffering, having dependent on that, he searches for the avoidance of its conditions, or the gain of the conditions for its abandonment, or the utilization. Therefore, having depended on the experience base, the relative cause is designated.

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The word anubhava (anu-bhu-become) has a meaning of impression on mind or experience. Therefore, anubhava adhisthana ( ) means experience or sensation derived from personal observation as basis. Apeksa-hetu (apa-iks-see, ) means from that point to see another point and it can be interpreted as dependence on, regard to or looking for, etc. In Chinese, apeksa-hetu is translated as , and . On this account, apeksa-hetu is a relative cause of something. It is just like a desire arises for something with respect to something else, such as a desire for nutriment because of hunger.28 If through the experience of observation, and in dependence upon this, a thing is obtained or abandoned, this thing is the relative cause of that thing. On this basis, the apeksa-hetu is established. Just like anuvyavahra-hetu, the designation of apeksa-hetu is relying on two causes, the experience supporting base (anubhava adhisthana ) and the cause-base () that make up the relative cause (apeksa-hetu). We are reminded of the dependence-cause with a meaning of mutual reference in Lavkavatara sutra from the previous chapter. It is clear that relative-cause and dependence-cause are the same. The apeksa-hetu also involves all existences pertaining or not pertaining to three spheres according to Sanskrit and Xuan Zangs translation. It is notably that he who comes to be desirous of the happiness pertaining to dharma-s not pertaining to any sphere ( ) has not been mentioned in Sanskrit. In particular, SMD mentions two reversals of relative causes in terms of depending on something. One is compliant relative cause () and just like depending on hands, some activities can be executed. The other is incompliant relative cause () and just like depending on the suffering of hunger and thirsty, one is urging for food and drink, etc. Compliance or incompliance should be
28

Webb (2001): 61. 162

related to ones desire. Since suffering is not desirous, for a cause to avoid suffering, that kind of cause is incompliant relative cause. There are many examples of our daily life with regard to relative cause. That is why the scope of relative cause is broad and includes dharma-s of all spheres.

6.3.3 Dependent on Perfuming Supporting Basis to designate Projecting Cause

The third projecting cause (ksepa-hetu ) is defined as follows EPBW[] BBW SMD YBW RYBW Skttatra vsan-hetv-adhisthanam adhisthayksepa-hetuh prajpyate / tat kasya hetoh/ tath hi / ubhubha-karma-paribhvitah samskrs traidhtukaista-anista-gatisv ista-anista-atma-bhvn ksipanti / bhynm ca bhvnm tena eva adhipatyena sampanna-vipannat / tasmt samskranaj ubhubha-karma-vsanm adhisthaya apeks-hetuh prajpyate // EngTherein, having depended on perfuming, and the cause-base, the projecting cause is understood. Why is this? Because of the conditionings, [when] perfumed by the pure and impure karma-s, project desirable and undesirable personal existence of the three spheres, and the state of being prosperous and decadant of the external existents are on the very account of that prominence. Therefore, having depended on the perfuming of pure and impure karma-s of the conditionings, the projecting cause is designated.
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The Sanskrit word vsan-adhisthana, (vas-dwell), perfuming supporting basis () refers to the remnants of past impressions produced by birth, life-span and experience, and all dwell unconsciously in mind (alaya-vijbana). It is a supporting basis that consists of perfuming influence, i.e., the pure or impure bija-s. Concerning ksepa (-ksip-draw), it means capable of projecting something, and ksepa-hetu is translated as projecting cause and , , in Chinese. Moreover, it is a distant cause () for fulfilling the fruit from previous karmic deeds. Therefore, the designation of projecting cause (ksepa-hetu) is relying on two causes, the perfuming supporting base (vsan-adhisthana ) and the cause-base ().

The definition of projecting cause from YBW matches exactly with the Sanskrit text. The other two Chinese translations illustate ksepa-hetu with planting work, which includes conformity of human effort, water, soil, seed in a short period of time (). Thereafter, SMD highlights that the scope of this cause is broad () but is urging for more time () for the harvest (). Wei Yuans comment is coherent with the traditional view that the activity of dharma in one moment projects specific existence in the future. This is because the activity of a dharma is capable of grasping its own fruit (phala-grahana, phalaksepa ).29 It is noteworthy that the word phala-ksepa () is another expression of ksepa-hetu () from a different aspect. RYBW claims that vsan consists of potentialities based on language (abhilapa-vsan, ) and potentialities based on karma and its effects (bhavavga-vsan, ). Bhavavga-vsan are those bija-s perfumed by
29

SA: 90, 97. 164

karmic conducts that function as causes to draw out the consequent retributive effects (), such as wholesome dharma-s from moral deeds or unwholesome dharma-s from evil deeds. Therefore, the frequent perfuming of particular types of forces affects the prosperity or decadence of the environment. On the other hand, abhilapa-vsan are those bija-s perfumed by linguistic usage, with a sense of expression or manifestation of a phenomenon. This kind of bija-s functions as causes to draw out the consequent effects of the same species ().

6.3.4 Dependent on Nourished Seeds Supporting Basis to designate Origination Cause

The fourth origination cause (abhinirvrtti-hetu ) is defined as follows EPBW[] BBW SMD YBW RYBW Skt tatra sbhisyandam bjam hetv-adhisthanam adhisthaybhinirvrtti-hetuh prajpyate / tat kasya hetoh / tath hi / kma-pratisamyuktnm dharmnaj rprpya-pratisamyuktnm svaka-svakd bjt prdur-bhvo bhavati / trsna punar bjbhinisyanda ity ucyate / tatas tay abhisyandam bjam ksiptnm tma-bhvnm abhinirvrttaye bhavati / yathoktam / karma-hetur upapattaye / trsna-hetur abhinirvrttaya iti / tasmt sbhisyandam bjam adhisthaybhinirvrtti-hetuh prajpyate // Eng Therein, having depended on nourished seeds supporting base and the cause-base, the origination cause is understood. Why is this? Because of the
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dharma-s pertaining to sensuality, fine-material and immaterial [spheres], the state of the appearance arises from ones own seed. Moreover, the craving is [the name of] moistened seeds. Due to it, the seed of moisture comes to be the origination for individual self-being. As it is said [by the sutra], The karma-cause conduces to rebirth and the craving-cause conduces to arising. Thus, based on the nourished seeds, the origination cause is designated.

The Sanskrit sbhisyandam bjam adhisthana is moistening seed support basis (). Sbhisyandam (sa-abhi-syand-to flow) has a meaning of having water, and that is why sbhisyandam bjam is the moistened seed and in particular, refers to those seeds that have been nourished with an implication of reaching a mature stage. Concerning abhinirvrtti-hetu, (abhi-nir-vrt-turn) which means capable of producing something, that is why it is translated as , and in Chinese. Therefore, the designation of abhinirvrtti-hetu is relying on two causes, the nourished seed supporting base

(sbhisyandam-bjam-adhisthana ) and the cause-base () that make up the origination cause (abhinirvrtti-hetu). Referring to SMD, origination cause is like the seeds that can directly grow the buds. SMD highlights that the scope of this cause is narrow () and restricted only to the seeds, and not including those causes such as water and soil. Moreover, the timing for the origination cause to conduce its fruit is very short (). It is an immediate cause (, in contrast with projecting cause which is a distant cause)

for completion of its own fruit from previous karmic deeds. Wei Yuans comment is coherent with the traditional view that activity of dharma at present moment can produce a fruit (phala-dana ).30 The difference between projecting cause and origination cause is the stages with regard to the completing or filling-up of the corresponding fruit. The former is long and the latter is short in conducing the
30

SA: 90. 166

retributive effect. These two causes may be understood from the terms of phala-grahana and phala-dana respectively. Origination cause will fulfill the fruit shortly whilst producing cause may take a long period of time to complete the fruit. RYBW emphasizes that only the bija-s belong to nourished seed supporting base due to the fact that direct cause conduces its own fruit. The nature of both perfuming seeds and moistured seeds is vsan, but the stage of fruit ripening is different. On this account, both commentaries carry the same meaning. According to the scripture, karmic deeds are the causes to bring about the effect of rebirth and this is the implication of projecting cause. On the other hand, all vexations have the power of nourishing the potentialities inhabited in the alaya-vijbana. However, only craving can be regarded as origination cause since it is the fundamental force of all defilements. Through the nourishment of craving, the defining dharma-s come into existence. This explains why the craving-cause conduces to arise. Just like the worldly seeds, having been moistened, will give rise to sprouts. The potencies stored in alaya-vijbana also require nourishment prior to their actualization. YBW quotes the scripture for the justification of establishing projecting cause and origination cause. The significance of the origination cause is to provide the essential constituent as the potentiality of an uprising of an entity. It is signified as the truly direct cause among all these causes which both Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastras ten-causes and Sarvastivadas six-causes theories fail to establish. This is the motive for the causal theory founded by the Yogacara School under the influence of Sautrantika School.

6.3.5 Dependent on Immediate Cessation and the other Supporting Bases to designate Favoring Cause

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The fifth favoring cause (parigraha-hetu ) is defined as follows EPBW[] BBW SMD YBW RYBW [] . Skt tatra lista-nirodham hetv-adhisthanam adhisthaya tath visayam indriyam kriym purusa-kram tattva-daranam ca hetv-adhisthanam adhisthaya parigraha-hetuh prajpyate / tat kasya hetoh / tath hi / kma-pratisamyuktesu dharmesu samanantara-nirodha-parigrht samskrnam pravrttir bhavati / visaya-parigrhtendriya-parigrht kriy-parigrht purusa-kra-parigrht ca / yath kma-pratisamyuktnm evam rpa-pratisamyuktnm rpya-pratisamyuktnm tattva-darana-parigrht v punas tad-anyesam apratisamyuktnm dharmnam pravrttir bhavati / tasmc chista-nirodham visayam indriyam kriym purusa-kram tattva-daranam cdhisthya parigraha-hetuh prajpyate // EngTherein, having depended on the cause-base, the immediate cessation, likewise, object-domain, faculty, activity, efforts, seeing of reality, and having depended on cause-base, the favoring cause is understood. Why is this? Because with regard to the dharma-s pertaining to the sensual [sphere], when it is assisted by the immediate cessation, and assisted by the object-domain, faculty, activity and efforts, there comes to be the occurrence of the conditioning forces. Just like the dharma-s pertaining to the sensual [sphere], the fine-material and immaterial [spheres] are in the like manner. Or moreover, when assisted by the seeing of reality, the arising of dharma-s not pertaining [to any sphere], which are other than those [mentioned earlier]
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comes to be. Thus, basing on the immediate cessation, object-domain, faculty, activity, efforts, and seeing of reality, the favoring cause is designated.

The word parigraha (pari-grah-benefit, help, link) has a sense of benefiting, helping or favoring. That is why parigraha-hetu is translated as favoring cause ( , ). The meanings of favoring cause explained in YBW and Sanskrit text are the same. The other two Chinese translations clearly point out that apart from the seeds, the other conditions such as water and soil contributing to the birth of a fruit are called the favoring cause. However, this is not found in YBW and Sanskrit text. In addition, SMD says that the scope of favoring cause is narrow () because it does not include the seed which is the direct cause and is only limited to the span before the birth of a bud. The fulfillment of the fruit lies only in the bud, not in the other different growing stages. According to RYBW, immediate cessation and object-domain are indeed the two conditions out of the four conditions. Indriya is the six sensory faculties. Activities includes the other present conditions that function as instruments or tools. Effort attributes to manly functions. These five favoring causes contribute to the effect of the conditioned entities. The nature of seeing of reality is anasrava-drsti (), and apart from producing its own bija, it is capable of assisting the companions, inducing pure dharma-s and direct realization of unconditioned reality. Therefore, the sixth favoring cause contributes to the effect of both pure conditioned and unconditioned existences.

To conclude, the favoring cause is established from six supporting bases: 1. Wlista-nirodha dhisthna (immediate cessation supporting basis): This is the equal-immediate cause (samanantara-pratyaya ) of citta-caittas. 2. Visaya dhisthna (object-realm supporting basis): This is the perceived-object cause (alambana-pratyaya ) of citta-caittas. 3. Indriya dhisthna (faculty supporting basis): These are those six sensory organs
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which are dominance causes (adhipati-pratyaya ) of citta-caittas. 4. Kriy dhisthna (activity supporting basis): This is the activity in using the instrument for certain works, such as an axe in the operation of chopping. 5. Purusa-kra dhisthna (efforts supporting basis): This is activity of the agent in performing certain functions, just like a lumberman cutting the wood. 6. Tattva-daran dhisthna (seeing of reality supporting basis): This is the true view to bring about pure entities and unconditioned dharma-s. From the above classification, it is obvious that favoring cause is the complementary cause because it assists the direct cause, i.e. the bija-s. It is just like a cereal grows on conditions of water, soil and fertilizer, etc. Both YBW and Sanskrit text divide favoring cause into six supporting bases, but this is not found in EPBW and BBW. For this reason, these two Chinese translations have not mentioned about fifteen supporting basis. This is the main difference between the old and new translations concerning the ten causes theory.

6.3.6

Dependent on Conformity Supporting Basis to designate Inducing Cause

The sixth Inducing Cause (vahaka-hetu ) is defined as follows EPBW[] BBW SMD YBW
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 RYBW Skttatrnuklya-hetv-adhisthanam adhisthayvahaka-hetuh prajpyate / tat kasya hetoh / tath hi / kma-pratisamyukth kual dharmh kma-pratisamyuktn kualn vaiesikn dharmn vahanti / evam kma-pratisamyukt kual dharm rpa-pratisamyuktn rpya-pratisamyuktn apratisamyuktn kualn dharmn vahanti /tad-anuklatay yath kma-pratisamyukt evam rpa-pratisamyuktrpa-pratisamyuktn kualn dharmn vaiesikn rpya-pratisamyuktn apratisamyuktn / yath rpya-pratisamyukt evam rpya-pratisamyukt rpya-pratisamyuktn kualn dharmn vaiesikn pratisamyuktn apratisamyuktm ca kualn dharmn vahanti / yath-rpya-pratisamyukt evam apratisamyukt apratisamyuktn kualn dharmn vahanti / apy asamskrtam sksad rpam vahanti / tath kuala-dharm akualn vaiesikn dharmn vahanti / tad yath kma-rgo dvesam moham mnam drstim vicikitsm kya-du-caritam vg-du-caritam mano-du-caritam / yath kma-rgau evam dveso moho mno drstir vicikits yath-yogam veditavyh / evam avykrt dharm kualkualvykrtn dharmn vahanti / tad yath kualkualvykrta-bjakam laya-vijna[m vahanti] / tath vykrt dharm avykrtn vai esikn dharmn vahanti / tad yath kavadi-kra hro bhtnm sattvnm sthitaye ypany ojaso balasya puste cvhakas tad-anuklatay / tasmd anuklya-hetum adhisthayvahaka-hetuh prajpyate // Eng Therein, having depended on the conformity supporting basis and the cause-base, wholesome wholesome wholesome the inducing cause is understood. Why is this? Because, dharma-s connected to the sensuality [sphere] induce superior dharma-s connected to the sensuality [sphere]. Just as dharma-s pertaining to sensuality [sphere] induce superior

wholesome dharma-s connected to the fine-material [sphere], immaterial [sphere], not pertaining [to any sphere], on account of the fact of being conforming to them. Just as wholesome dharma-s pertaining to sensuality [sphere], likewise, wholesome dharma-s connected to the fine-material [sphere] induce superior wholesome dharma-s connected to the fine-material [sphere], immaterial [sphere], not pertaining [to any sphere].
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Just as wholesome dharma-s pertaining to fine-material [sphere], likewise wholesome dharma-s connected to the immaterial [sphere] induce superior wholesome dharma-s connected to the immaterial [sphere] and not pertaining [to any sphere]. Just as wholesome dharma-s pertaining to immaterial [sphere], likewise wholesome dharma-s connected to not pertaining [to any sphere] induce superior wholesome dharma-s connected to not pertaining [to any sphere] and also induce discerning unconditioned dharma of that type. Just like wholesome dharma-s, unwholesome dharma-s induce superior unwholesome dharma-s, such as sensual greed [induces] hatred, delusion, conceit, view, doubt, bodily evil act, vocal evil act, mental evil act. Just like sensual greed, hatred, delusion, conceit, view, and doubt should be known respectively. Just as undefined dharma-s induce wholesome, unwholesome and undefined dharma-s, and it is like alaya-vijbana comprising wholesome, unwholesome, undefined seeds. Therein, undefined dharma-s induce superior undefined dharma-s. For example, solid food carry really existed beings to stay, sustain, energize and growth of power, on account of the fact of being conforming to them. Therefore, depending on conformity supporting basis, the inducing cause is designated.

Anuklya (anukulalineage) has a meaning of conforming ( ). Anuklya-adhisthana means conformity supporting basis (). The word avahaka (avahcarry, lead) has a sense of inducing. Xuan Zang translates

avahaka-hetu as whilst the other translators emphasize on the progressive

cause (, ). The definitions of those two earlier Chinese translations are very brief and confined to the appearance of sprout to the ripening of a plant. In contrast to old translations, YBW and Sanskrit provide detailed illustrations for inducing cause and both contents match with each other. SMD regards the scope of avahaka-hetu to be narrow since it does not include the preceding conditions such as water and soil. Moreover, the span of ripening is long. Since the cause makes maintenance continuity to the fruit, in this regard, it has

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the implicit meaning of promotion or progression. According to RYBW, the conformity supporting basis refers to wholesome, unwholesome and undefined conditioned entities, overflow and no-outflow (anasrava ), actualized and potential states, etc. On account of adductive nature, inducing cause promotes various conditioned dharma-s connected to own sphere and other superior spheres, as well as the discernment of unconditioned dharma. The perfuming of wholesome, unwholesome and undefined dharma-s either pertaining or not pertaining to three spheres of existence, will promote the potentialities within alaya-vijbana and induce the actualization of superior categories of the same species.

6.3.7 Dependent on Manifoldness of Force Supporting Basis to designate Determining Cause

The seventh determining cause (pratiniyama-hetu ) is defined as follows

EPBW BBW SMD YBW RYBW Skt tatra akti-vaicitryam hetv-adhisthanam adhisthaya pratiniyama-hetuh prajpyate / tat kasya hetoh / tath hi / kma-pratisamyukt dharm vicitra-sva-bhv vicitrt sva-bhva-viesc chakti-vaicitryd utpadyante /
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yath kma-pratisamyukt evam rpa-pratisamyukt rpya-pratisamyukt apratisamyuktah/ tasmc chakti-vaicitryam adhisthaya pratiniyama-hetuh prajpyate / Eng Therein, having depended on the manifoldness of force supporting basis and the cause-base, the determining cause is understood. Why is this? Because the dharma-s pertaining to the sensuality [sphere], with varieties of own natural force, produce variance of differentiated natural force. Just as dharma-s pertaining to sensuality [sphere], dharma-s pertaining to fine-material [spheres], immaterial [spheres], not pertaining to [any sphere] are in the like manner. Therefore, depending on manifoldness of force supporting basis, the determining cause is designated.

Wakti is power or potency and vaicitrya (vi-citramanifold) is differentiation. Therefore, akti-vaicitrya means manifoldness of force.

Wakti-vaicitryam-adhisthana is manifoldness of force supporting basis (

). Pratiniyama (pratini-yamreach) possesses meaning of particularity or ones own self. That is why the old texts translate pratiniyama-hetu as particular cause () or own seed cause () whilst Xuan Zang translates this term as determining cause ().

SMD defines the characteristic of pratiniyama-hetu as cause possessing natural force to produce fruit of its own species. In order to distinguish this cause from different types of dharma-s, the cause for the succession of homogeneous dharma-s is called pratiniyama-hetu (). It is just like the wheat gives rise to wheat and the rice gives rise to rice bud, etc. The scope of pratiniyama-hetu is narrow and is similar to origination cause because it is confined only to the span of the seed. However, the span to engender sprout up to the ripening of its own fruit is long for pratiniyama-hetu. This makes a difference to origination cause because the timing for the origination cause to conduce its fruit is very short.

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The explanation of RYBW is similar to SMD but Tun Lun highlights the different forces of conditioned and unconditioned dharma-s. The potencies of conditioned entities are capable of conducing individuals own effect. Although unconditioned entity has no sense of production, its natural force enables the discernment of the true reality. This asserts the existence of different categories each having its special type of natural force. The definitions of this term from YBW and Sanskrit are the same. Variance of dharma-s connected or not connected to three spheres, each of them has its distinctive force to produce an effect of its own species. In this regard, the significance of determining cause is the differentiation of various phenomenal existences. To avoid the disorder of cause-effect in the conventional reality, the establishment of pratiniyama-hetu assures the compliant relation between cause and effect.

6.3.8

Dependent on Concourse Supporting Basis to designate Assistant Cause

The eighth Assistant Cause (sahakri-hetu ) is defined as follows EPBW BBW SMD YBW RYBW
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 Skttatra smagr-hetv-adhisthanam adhisthaya saha-kri-hetuh prajpyate / tat kasya hetoh / tath hi / svm utpatti-smagrm gamya kma-pratisamyuktnm dharmnm utpdo bhavati /yath kma-pratisamyuktnm evam rpa-pratisamyuktnm rpya-pratisamyuktnm apratisamyuktnam / yathotpatti-smagry evam prpti-smagr siddhi-smagr nispatti-smagr kriy-smagr / tasmt smagrm adhisthaya saha-kri-hetuh prajpyate // Eng Therein, having depended on the concourse supporting basis and the cause-base, the assistant cause is understood. Why is this? Because of attaining the concourse of their own arising, the dharma-s pertaining to the sensuality [sphere] come to arise. Just as dharma-s pertaining to the sensuality [sphere], dharma-s pertaining to the fine-material, immaterial [spheres], not pertaining to [any sphere] come to arise. Just like concourse of arising, concourse of acquisition, establishment, accomplishment, activity are the same. Therefore, depending on concourse supporting basis, the assistant cause is designated.

The word smagr (sam-agrapeak) has a sense of conformity, concourse and harmony. Therefore, smagr-adhisthana is concourse supporting basis ( ). Sahakri (saha-kr-do) means to do things together and sahakri-hetu matches with the Chinese translations of , and , all having the meaning of assistant cause. Assistant cause is a complete collection of the conditioning factors to function simultaneously. BBW clearly mentions that sahakri-hetu includes those six causes mentioned above, i.e. relative cause, projecting cause, origination cause, favoring cause, inducing cause and determining cause. SMD comments that the harmonized co-operation of these six helping causes accomplishes the worldly tasks and affairs and that is why this cause is called assisting cause (sahakri-hetu). Moreover, the reason why assisting cause does not include conformity-speech-cause is that linguistic expression can denote individual dharma but is helpless in giving birth to a
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dharma. The scope of this assistant cause is broad and includes all primary and secondary causes. RYBW highlights the difference between the other six causes and assistant cause. The former is distinguished individually whilst the latter is a unification of these six causes. The contents of YBW and Sanskrit are coherent with each other. It is notably that EPBW only provides an example to illustrate the assisting cause. Based on the concourse of four great elements, the materialistic entities are established.

6.3.9 Dependent on Hindrance Supporting Basis to designate Contradictory Cause The ninth contradictory cause (virodha-hetu ) is defined as follows

EPBW BBW SMD YBW RYBW Skttatrntarya-hetv-adhisthanam adhisthaya virodha-hetuh prajpyate / tat kasya hetoh / tath hi / kma-pratisamyuktnm dharmnam utpattaye saced antaryah pratyupasthito bhavati notpadyante / yath kma-pratisamyuktnm evam rpa-pratisamyuktnm rpya-pratisamyuktnm apratisamyuktnm / yathotpattaya evam prptaye siddhaye nispattaye kriyyai / tasmd antaryam adhisthaya virodha-hetuh prajpyate //

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Eng Therein, having depended on the hindrance supporting basis and the cause-base, the contradictory cause is understood. Why is this? Because dharma-s pertaining to the sensuality [sphere] come to arise and if an obstacle occurrence be present, the dharma-s comes to be non-arising. Just as dharma-s pertaining to the sensuality [sphere], dharma-s pertaining to the fine-material, immaterial [spheres], not pertaining to [any sphere] are the same. Just like arising, hindrance to acquisition, establishment, accomplishment, activity are the same. Therefore, depending on hindrance supporting basis, the contradictory cause is designated.

The Sanskrit word antarya (antara-i-go) has a meaning of to go between, which implies an obstacle. Antarya-adhisthana is the hindrance supporting basis (). Virodha (vi-rudh-impede) possesses a meaning of suppressing and preventing. Therefore, virodha-hetu is a contradictory cause and is named as and in Chinese. EPBW only provides an example to illustrate the contradictory cause. Just like the offenses of four grave precepts, i.e. sexual intercourse, stealing, killing a human being and lying about one's spiritual attainments, this will result in preventing the arising of wholesome dharma-s. SMD explains that all conditioned dharma-s have the characteristics of production and destruction. If a dharma makes harm to another thing and leads to destruction of that thing, or acts as obstacle to the arising of an entity, then that dharma is named as contradictory cause. The contents of YBW and Sanskrit are coherent with each other. The explanation of RYBW is that contradictory cause not only refers to conditioned dharma-s but also the unconditioned dharma. How can unconditioned dharma be contradictory cause? It is just like the space of the sky which cannot support building of an accommodation. Therefore, it is a hindrance to the unconditioned dharma. Thereafter, it is asked that what is the effect of contradictory cause? The
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impeding influence to the arising, acquisition, establishment, accomplishment and activity of a future effect is a contradictory cause. Just like the frost and hail with regard to grain, vexation with regard to nirvana, true view with regard to sajsara, all these are obstacles and are contradictory causes.

6.3.10 Dependent on Non-hindrance Supporting Basis to designate Non-Contradictory Cause The tenth non-contradictory cause (avirodha-hetu ) is defined as follows EPBW[] BBW SMD YBW RYBW Skt tatrnantaryam hetv-adhisthanam adhisthayvirodha-hetuh prajpyate / tat kasya hetoh / tath hi / kma-pratisamyuktnm dharmna[m utpattaye] / saced an-antaryah pratyupasthito bhavati bhavaty esam utpdah /kma-pratisamyuktnm evam rpa-pratisamyuktnm rpya-pratisamyuktnm yathotpattir evam prptih siddhir nispattih / kriy / tasmd an-antaryam adhisthanam adhisthayvirodha-hetuhprajpyate // EngTherein, having depended on the non-hindrance supporting basis and the cause-base, the non-contradictory cause is understood. Why is this? Because dharma-s pertaining to the sensuality [sphere] will come to be arising, if an non-obstacle occurrence of this be present, the dharma-s will come to be arising. Just as dharma-s pertaining to the sensuality [sphere], dharma-s pertaining to the fine-material, immaterial [spheres], not pertaining to [any sphere] are the same. Just like arising, non-hindrance to acquisition, establishment, accomplishment, activity are the same. Therefore, depending on non-hindrance supporting basis, the non-contradictory cause is
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designated.

An-antarya (an-antara-i-go) has a meaning of non-opposition, which implies non-interruption and an-antarya-adhisthana is the non-hindrance supporting basis (). Avirodha (a-vi-rudh-impede) possesses meaning of non-incompatibility and harmony. Therefore, avirodha-hetu is non-contradictory cause and in Chinese is named as and .

SMD conceives non-contradictory causes as those harmonized factors which help the production of a dharma. In particular, after the birth of a sprout, non-contradictory causes are those water and soil that have to be dependent for its growth. In general, all harmonized factors required for the planting are non-contradictory causes. The contents of YBW and Sanskrit are coherent with each other. The explanation of RYBW is that non-contradictory cause not only refers to conditioned dharma-s but also the unconditioned dharma. As long as these factors can help and do not obstruct the arising, acquisition, establishment, accomplishment and activity of a dharma, then they are said to be the non-contradictory causes. From the above elucidation of the ten causes, YBW establishes the causality of the arising, acquisition, establishment, accomplishment and activity of a phenomenal existent through correlation of the fifteen supporting bases and ten causes. Supporting basis (adhisthana ), difference (prabheda ) and establishment (vyavasthana ) are three aspects in exposition of the causation theory. Together with the first character (laksana ), it should be clear to understand the meaning of that (cause) which is preceded, that (conditions) having dependent on which, that (assemblage of cause and conditions) having come together with which, that (effect)
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is the acquisition, of the establishment with which, of the accomplishment, of the activity of which dharma.31 Yogacara School concerns the causality of the dharma-s pertaining to three spheres and not pertaining to any sphere because this is essential for our existences in the five realms (gati, ). The Yogacarins should frequently contemplate the theme of ten causes theory that is crucial to the ascendance and decadence of our lives. From these texts, EPBW and BBW only use the simile of crop cultivation to illustrate the ten causes. YBW and Sanskrit provide detailed exposition of conditioned and unconditioned dharma-s. In conclusion, the most comprehensive description is found from YBW and Sanskrit. EPBW is very brief and BBW is moderate. The commentaries of SMD and RYBW are excellent supplements with important clues on the contextual meaning. For a detailed explanation of the theory of ten causes, there should be four aspects of implicit meaning mentioned above. For the sake of comprehending the ten causes to the point, we should understand that the ten causes are in fact divided into two types, i.e. the generative cause (janaka hetu ) and the secondary cause (upaya-hetu ). The generative cause is actually the origination cause and the other nine causes are the secondary cause.32 Such division is based on the direct cause and the dominant cause.

YBW finally concludes that the analysis of ten causes is causation for the conditioned dharma-s. As for the effect of the conditioned dharma-s, these can be understood in terms of arising, acquisition, establishment, accomplishment and
31

YBW (T1579: 301a) YBW (T1579: 302a) 181

32

activity, since these effects contain all respects of our lives.

6.4 The Establishment of Four Pratyayah The establishment of causes is based on fifteen supporting bases. As a matter of fact, the broad meanings of causes include all conditions (pratyaya). As said by YBW, Therein, depending on potentiality condition supporting basis, the condition qua cause is designated. Depending on immediate cessation condition supporting basis, the equal-immediate condition is designated. Depending on object-realm condition supporting basis, the condition qua object is designated. Depending on the other remaining conditions supporting basis, the condition of dominant is designated.33

The establishment of four conditions is the supporting basis of conditions (pratyaya adhisthana ). Various conditions can be divided into four types, i.e. hetupratyaya, samanantara-pratyaya, alambana-pratyaya and adhipati-pratyaya. Contrast to the traditional definitions of four conditions, Vijbanavada school interprets the four conditions so as to conform the theories of potentialities (bija-s) and mind transformation (vijbanaparinama). The definitions of these four conditions have already been elaborated in the previous chapters, on both the Sarvastivada and Vijbanavada.

6.5 The Establishment of Five Phala The collection of causes and conditions will conduce effects. According to

33

(T1579: 302a) tatra bjam pratyaydhisthnam adhisthaya hetu-pratyayah prajpyate // lista-nirodham pratyayadhisthnamadhisthaya samanantara-pratyayah prajpyate // visayam pratyayadhisthnam adhisthaylambana-pratyayah prajpyate // tad-anyni pratyayadhisthnny adhisthaya-adhipati-pratyayah prajpyate // 182

Yogacara School, the resulting effects can be grouped into five types. Therefore, the establishment of five fruits is on cause-base and condition-base. Five fruits are retribution fruit (vipaka-phala ), uniform-emanation fruit (nisyanda-phala ), disconnection fruit (visajyoga-phala ), manly fruit (purusa-phala ) and predominance fruit (adhipati-phala ). As said by YBW, Therein, depending on perfuming, conformity cause-base and condition-base, retribution fruit and uniform-emanation fruit are designated. Depending on seeing of reality cause-base and condition-base, disconnection fruit is designated. Depending on human efforts cause-base and condition-base, manly fruit is designated. Depending on the other remaining cause-base and condition-base, predominance fruit is designated.34 The essence of these five fruits can be understood with the complements of VMS. The vipaka-phala refers to the non-defined retributive fruit that are matured at varying times for those defiled wholesome and unwholesome dharma-s. The

nisyanda-phala is a fruit of the same species, e.g., goodness reborn from previous goodness. The uniform-emanation fruit are dharma-s which are brought about through the perfuming of similar dharma-s or karmic deeds. The visajyoga-phala refers to undefiled and unconditioned dharma-s. It is a fruit of freedom from all vexations or bondages through the realization of the pure path and disconnection to all obstacles. The purusa-phala refers to manly rewards of earnest endeavour for accomplishment through various kinds of implements. The adhipati-phala refers to predominance fruit obtained from the remaining contributory factors not belonging

34

(T1579: 302a) tatra vsanm nuklyam ca hetv-adhisthanam pratyaydhisthnam cdhisthya vipka-phalam nisyanda-phalam ca prajpyate / tattva-daranam hetv-adhisthanam pratyaydhisthnam cdhisthya visamyoga-phalam prajpyate / purusa-kram hetv-adhisthanam pratyaydhisthnam cdhisthya purusa-kra-phalam prajpyate / avaistni hetv-adhisthanni pratyaydhisthnni cdhisthydhipati-phalam prajpyate // 183

to any one of the four preceding categories. 35 Among these five fruits, visajyoga-phala is unconditioned dharma whilst the others are conditioned dharma-s. The scope of adhipati-phala is broad and includes both conditioned and unconditioned dharma-s. With a thorough exposition of the basic definitions of five fruits, we should be able to understand the mutual relation of ten causes, four conditions and five fruits. YBW concludes the essential meanings of hetu-pratyaya-phala: Conforming to benefit is the meaning of cause, whilst sustenance is the meaning of condition, and accomplishment is the meaning of effect. 36 Hetu-pratyaya-phala denotes the aspects of conforming to benefit, sustenance and accomplishment respectively. These three aspects cause a dharma to come into existence.

6.6 The Subsumptive Relation of Yogacara and Nikaya Causation Theories

Contrast to Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastras ten causes and Sarvastivadas six causes four conditions, it is noteworthy that some of the Yogacaras ten causes consist similar definitions but with different synonyms. The credit should be given to the exhaustive and conclusive ten causes theory of Yogacara School since the adherents of this school explore the broadest scope of various causes. Therefore, it can contain the other causation theories within its doctrinal system. The following chart can demonstrate the subsumptive relations between these causes and conditions:

35

36

VMS (T1585: p. 41b) (T1579: 302a) 184

15 supporting bases
1. Speech 2. Experience 3. Perfuming 4. Nourished seeds 5. Immediate Cessation 6. Object-realm 7. Faculty 8.Activity 9.Efforts 10.Seeing of reality 11.Conformity 12.Manifoldness of force 13.Concourse 14.Hindrance 15. Non-hindrance

Ten Causes
Conventional-Speech-Conforming Relative Projecting Origination

Ten Conditions
Dependence Karmic, retribution Condition qua cause Equal-immediate Condition qua object Dominance

Six Causes
Efficient Retributive Co-existent Co-existent Homogeneous, conjoined Homogeneous, universal Co-existent, conjoined Efficient Efficient

Favoring

Dominance Dominance Dominance

Inducing Determining Assistant Contradictory Non-contradictory

Succession Arising Differentiation Dominance Dominance

From the above comparison, we can make an assertion that the ten causes of Yogacara School is a derived and extended theory from

Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastra and Sarvastivada. The significance of Yogacara

causation theory is to include more essential items of causes. The objective of its refined theory is to designate the crucial and direct cause, i.e. the origination cause, being a specific force to account for the emergence of a phenomenal existent. Nevertheless, Yogacara follows the idea of Sarvastivada that the svabhava is weak in nature and has to arise through the power of assemblage of conditions for its activity. Likewise, the actualization of an origination cause requires the inducing force from the projecting cause, together with some other causes to give rise to an entity.

6.6

The Importance of the Hetu-pratyaya-phala

185

The aforesaid is how YBW establishes the framework of ten causes, four conditions and five fruits. The objective of the theoretic establishment is to apprehend the operation of the causal law of conditioned dharma-s connected to three realms of existences, as well as dharma-s not connected to any sphere. The general idea of Yogacaras hetu-pratyaya-phala is to back up the universal law of dependent origination, i.e. With the arising of this, that arises. With the cessation of this, that ceases. The determining force of the causality is the alaya-vijbana comprising all defined and undefined potentialities, with the assistance of other supporting conditions and therefore, the worldly defiled and undefiled dharma-s come into existence based on the general principle of pratitya-samutpada. Depending on various conditions for its generation is the entity of conditioned co-arisen (pratitya-samutpanna ). The ten causes doctrine is in conformity with the general Buddhist principle that nothing arises independent of conditions or from a creator, which is conceived as inequality cause. If someone possesses faith, conviction and supreme determination of hetu-pratyaya-phala, this is a training factor of a bodhisattva. YBW mentions eight kinds of supreme determination. One is relevant to cause and conditions and another one is relevant to effect. The systematic mental application of hetu-pratyaya-phala makes a bodhisattva not to go completely upside down with regard to cause and effect.37 The theory of causality belongs to the study of Buddhist philosophy (adhyatmavidya ). With a good mastery of hetu-pratyaya-phala, the Buddhist followers should cultivate themselves according to these doctrines and proclaim the causation theory for the benefits of the sentient beings. That is why the Yogacarins recommend us to understand the ten causes theory for the prosperity of our living.
37

[] (T1579: p.500b,c) 186

Chapter Seven
Three Kinds of Ten Causes In Terms of Twelve Links Dependent Origination
The last chapter illustrates the definitions of Yogacaras doctrine of ten causes. Yogacara school further divides three kinds of ten causes, namely the worldly ten causes (), defiled ten cause () and non-defiled ten causes ( ). All of these are relevant to entities (dharma-s) pertaining or not pertaining to the three spheres of existence. The expositon of these three kinds of ten causes are especially conspicuous in their objective of setting up the regularity of dharma-s in which a given karma is to be retributed. The entities come into beings by dependent co-arising are called the conditioned existents (sajskrta). Conditioned dharma-s indeed are the effects from the interdependence of various causes. Depending on the seeds (bija-s) of all dharma-s stored in the alaya-vijbana as the direct cause, through twelve links of dependent origination, worldly defiled and unworldly non-defiled phenomena come into existence. Since the doctrine of Buddha stresses on the soteriology of sentient beings, it is without exception on the part of Yogacara School, and therefore the ten causes are also expressed in terms of progressive and regressive twelve links of dependent origination. This is the central theme of Yogacaras theory of causality. This chapter deals with three kinds of ten causes in terms of twelve links. Its importance is to understand the cause-effect relation of various aspects of our living, with emphasis on the progressive and degressive situations in life. The essence of this issue will be examined from the extant Chinese translations and commentraries, with reliance on Xuan Zangs translation in particular. However, I will not compare various sources as what I have been done in last chapter. One reason is that the last chapter deals with the basic definitions of ten causes. It is

187

important to comprehend their implicit meanings as far as possible. Another reason is that we are assured of the preciseness and comprehensiveness of Xuan Zangs translations. Although the Sanskrit text concerning the section of three kinds of ten causes is available, Xuan Zangs translation is coherent with the Sanskrit material from the result of previous comparision, therefore I am confident to rely mainly on Xuan Zangs material for a good apprehension. The worldly ten causes relate to the world affairs such as undertaking for making a living. The defiled ten causes relate to the causations of rebirth in the sajsaric process. The Yogacara School explores the progressive order of twelve links dependent origination in relation with the defiled ten causes in depth but there is little study in this area. This is the reason why this chapter will focus on the exploration of this area. As far as the non-defiled ten causes are concerned, the examination will be related to the proper practice aiming at regression (nivrtti, ) from sajsara. Through the analysis of various aspects, the significance of the ten causes theory in application to our daily lives will be illustrated. 7.1 The Worldly Undefined Ten Causes For the nature of all existents in terms of moral qualities, it can be classified into kuwala (wholesome ), akuwala (unwholesome ) or avyakrta (undefined, ). A kuwala dharma is anything which is sustained by wholesomeness, which effects desirable existence, which causes rebirth in the desirable plane, and which pertains to regression (nivrtti, ) from sajsara. The nature of akuwala dharma-s is opposed to those kuwala dharma-s. What are neutral, neither kuwala nor akuwala, are avyakrta dharma-s. An avyakrta dharma is neither capable of inducing a desirable nor undesirable retribution fruit. The avyakrta dharma-s are divided into two categories: (i) nivrta-avyakrta (veiled-undefined ) and (ii) anivrta-avyakrta
188

(non-veiled-undefiled ). The neutrality of the former is impedimentary to the arising of the outflow-free wisdom whilst the latter is not obstructive to the outflow-free wisdom.1

As said by SMD, all the phenomenal existents produced by ten causes can be divided into undefined, unwholesome and wholesome natures: As said by the treatise (BBW), ten causes give birth to undefined, unwholesome and wholesome phenomenal existents. The first one to understand is undefined existents which include internal and external [dharma-s]. External [dharma-s] refers to non-sentient existents whilst internal [dharma-s] refers to sentient beings. Ten causes relevant to the external existents are same as what has been explained before (such as the planting affairs). Ten causes relevant to the internal existents are: (i) karmic retribution, (ii) iryapatha, (iii) wailpasthanika and (iv) abhijba-phala. The karmic retribution is aroused from defiled causes and belongs to defiled dharma-s. The remaining three are not mentioned by the treatise, and therefore should be distinguished here. The abhijba-phala is either wholesome or undefined, according to various sutra-s and treatises.2 From the above illustration, undefined dharma-s can be divided into two categories. One is non-sentient objects existing in the external world; the other is various kinds of sentient beings which are conceived as internal. SMD mentions four kinds of undefined dharma-s but only expounds karmic retribution and abhijba-phala, leaving the remaining iryapatha and wailpasthanika unexplained. The reason may probably be due to the assumption that the general meanings of these two terms should be understood. The meanings of four kinds of avyakrta can be
1 2

See SA: 28-29. () [] (T1851: p. 541a) 189

supplemented by YBW: There are four kinds of avyakrta in brief: Karmic retribution () and part of deportment (iryapatha ), the knowledge of a particular art and craft (wailpasthanika ) and the mind associated with a supernormal power (abhijba-phala ). For those wailpasthanika-s, as long as these are for fun, not for a living, not for a career, not for obtaining a skill, they are defiled. Other than that, they are undefined. Just like the activity of wailpasthanika-s, iryapatha is the same. There are two kinds of abhijba-phala, wholesome and undefined.3 Since wholesome and unwholesome karmic causes constitute neutral retribution, therefore vipaka-phala is a maturation of dissimilar type, neither wholesome nor unwholesome. Mode of deportment refers to the neutral quality of thoughts that arise in connection with the movement of certain physical positions. Generally, a particular skill of art and craft is undefined as long as it is not obtained for fun. Abhijba-phala refers to the neutrality of the transformation arisen through the supernatural powers. The instance for undefined ten causes explained by YBW is related to area of agriculture, like farming and planting affairs. The coverage of undefined ten causes should include activities of various fields, such as education, industry and commerce, etc. These are particularly relevant to different deportments and skills of art and craft. The situation of undefined ten causes is illustrated by YBW as follows: With respect to the farming and harvesting activities in this world, those fall into the category of corn, all sorts of appellation, ideation and speech, such as barley, wheat, corn, sesame, big and small bean, etc., are said to be conventional-speech-conforming cause. For example, holding the barley to come and fro, rub or put, etc., all sorts of expression are speech-conforming.
3

(T1579: p. 292b) 190

Just like barley, wheat, etc. are various kinds of speech-conforming. In respect to the abode of thirsty, hungry or weak body, one seeks for the enjoyment and utilization of morsel-food, this kind of factors is relative causes. From each specific kind of seeds, different sorts of farming and harvesting activities are generated respectively. And in this sense those seeds are regarded as projecting cause. Conditions such as soil, rainwater, etc., all can assist the generation of sprout, and is said to be the favoring cause. With regard to those seeds, they are named as origination cause. The sprout, stem, and leaf gradually make progress to the stage of maturation. In regard to those farming and harvesting activities, they are the inducing causes. The planting of barley seed only gives rise to barley bud, but the planting of barley will not generate fruit of different species. Likewise, the other corns are the same. That very seed in relation to its own fruit is the determining cause. The harmonized co-operation of relative cause, projecting cause, origination cause, favoring cause, inducing cause and determining cause is helpful for the maturation of the farming, and is called assisting cause. It is not the case that those farmings could be successful for deficiency of any one cause. Therefore, the concourse of all the necessary causes are said to be the assisting cause. Those obstacles such as disaster of frost or hail, etc., in regard to farming, are the contradictory cause. The absence of those obstacles is non- contradictory cause. These ten causes, with regard to other worldly affairs, should be understood respectively, as illustrated comprehensively by the Theory of Farming.4
4

[] 191

According to Kuijis commentary, Theory of Farming is a popular book in India for learning the skill of planting.5 The worldly ten causes illustrate the required causes of our daily activities with regard to various industries. The instance of the farming is well enough to expound the nature of undefined ten causes because it is a routine function for supporting our living. 7.2 The Defiled Ten Causes Dvadawavga pratityasamutpada is a fundamental Buddhist doctrine for illustrating the causal relationship of the twelve links in the chain of sajsaric process. When inquiring into what it is that gives rise to human suffering, the Buddha found it to be a continuum of twelve phases of conditioning in a regular order. The twelve links of conditioned existence are: (1) ignorance (avidya ); (2) karmic forces (sajskara ); (3) consciousness (vijbana ); (4) psycho-physical complex (nama-rupa ); (5) six entrances (sadayatana ); (6) contact (sparwa ), (7) sensation (vedana ); (8) craving (trsna ); (9) grasping (upadana ); (10) existence (bhava ); (11) birth (jati ); (12) old-age-and-death (jara-marana ).6 In this order, the preceeding phase is the condition for the arising of the subsequent phase. On the contrary, if the preceeding condition is extinguished, the subsequent condition is extinguished. The former is progressive pratityasamutpada

5 6

(T1579: p. 501b,c.) T1828:527c. See SA: 284. 192

whilst the latter is regressive pratityasamutpada. The exposition of the defiled and non-defiled ten causes from YBW is in accordance to the twelve links of dependent orgination. The ten causes theory is applicable to twelve links from the perspertive of sajsara and regression. The characteristic of dvadawavga pratityasamutpada explained by YBW is its focus on the dharma-s connected or not connected to the three spheres of existence. In this way, the profundity of the doctince in terms of spiritual progress is clearly expounded. 7.2.1 Projecting Sets and Projected Sets consisting of the First Seven Links How should conditioned origination of sajsaric existence be understood from the point of view of each member attributing to dvadawavga pratityasamutpada? YBW divides twelve links into four sets: the projecting set of members (aksepakavga ), the projected set of members (aksiptavga ), the actualizing set of members (abhinirvartakavga ) and the actualized set of members (abhinirvrttyavga ).7 The division accounts for two distinct stages: the first is aksepakavga-aksiptavga relation starting from ignorance up to sensation, and the second is abhinirvartakavga-abhinirvrttyavga relation starting from craving to old-age-and-death. The essence of these four sets are: All the conditioned origination should be understood by these four sets of members, that which projects and that which is projected at the time of cause, and that which actualizes and that which is actialzed at the time of result.8 We only come across this kind of division for twelve links in the treatises of Yogacara School. The first seven links represent aksepakavga-aksiptavga relation is elucidated by YBW one by one.

7 8

See Kritzer (1995): 27. Ibid. 193

1. Ignornance Ignorance is the first member of the twelve links of conditioned origination. Avidya literally means darkness without illumination. In fact it refers to a lack of discernment to the reality. YBW lists various differences of ignorance: 19 ignorances, 7 ignorances and 5 ignorances.9 Concerning the 19 ignorances, these include a lack of knowledge on: (1) past existence, (2) future existence, (3) middle existence, (4) internal, (5) external, (6) both internal and external, (7) karma, (8) retribution, (9) karmic retribution, (10) dharma, (11) Buddha, (12) sajgha, (13) suffering, (14) cause of suffering, (15) cessation, (16) path leading to the cessation, (17) causes, (18) compounded conditioned, (19) realization of six contacts.10 The 19 ignorances include the three periods of time, sentient beings and outside world, karmic action and retribution, Three Precious Ones, four noble truths, cause and effect, as well as objects. These are the fundamental doctrinal perspective of Buddhist teaching.11 Moreover, 19 ignorances can be subsumpted with 7 or 5 ignorances. Adiviwcsavibhagasutra points out that ignorance is conjoined with all kinds of defilements, i.e. defilements consisting of klewa (affliction), defilements consisting of karma, defilements consisting of birth, and is the root basis for causality.12 Due to a lack of real knowledge on one's own existence that is causally compounded, erroneous views on eternal soul aroused as a condition of misconduct that will induce unsatisfactory effect. 2. Karmic Force Karmic force is the second member of the twelve links of conditioned origination. Sajskara means action, activity. It includes bodily, vocal and mental actions: What is bodily action? It is the action performed through the body. For bodily action performed in the sensuality or fine-material spheres, that which is pertaining to lower sphere is meritorious or non-meritorious, the upper sphere is called immovable. What is vocal action? It should be understood as that of bodily action. What is mental action? It is the action performed through the mind. For mental action performed in the sensuality sphere is meritorious or non-meritorious, action which is pertaining to two upper spheres is only named as immovable.13
9

T1579:322c. Ibid. 11 The same classification of ignorance can also be found from Adiviwcsavibhagasutra, tr. by Xuan Zang, (T717). 12 (T717: p. 837c). 13
10

194

All these karma-s are driven by ignorance for making inproper decision and conducts. The function of the kamic forces distinguishes sentient beings with their corresponding destinies (gatisu ) and they are the conditions of the impressions contained in consciousness.14 The distinctive nature of three karma-s can also be identified as meritorious, non-meritorious and immovable karma-s. Meritorious and non-meritorious karma-s exist in sensuality sphere only and induce favourable and unfavorable effects respectively. Immovable karma-s are accomplishment of meditation which can be found only in the upper two spheres and induce favorable effects. 3. Consciousness Consciousness is the third member of the twelve links of conditioned origination. Consciousness generally refers to the six consciousnesses. But to the Vijbanavada School, the term should include the manas-vijbana and alaya-vijbana as well. The implicit meaning of consciousness relies on the alaya-vijbana which functions as a retributive consciousness. This is because alaya-vijbana comprising all kinds of the bijas retains the perfuming of meritorious, non-meritorious, or morally neutral actions so that the karmic force continuously inhabited until maturation. Through the actualization of matured potentialities, the individual existence of a particular destiny will come into being. Therefore, alaya-vijbana is a consciousness that enters the mothers womb in the persons present rebirth and therefore it is a condition of psycho-physical complex. 4. Psycho-physical complex Psycho-physical complex is the fourth member of the twelve links of conditioned origination. It denotes mind and matter in the state of embryonic development of which the six sensory faculties and perceiving powers gradually developed in their complete forms. Psycho-physical complex includes the potencies of five skandha-s and represents the basis for a sentient being to grasp his personal existence and therefore it is a condition of the six entrances. 5. Six Entrances Six entrances are the fifth member of the twelve links of conditioned origination. These are the six sensory organs including eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.
(T1579: p. 322c-323a) Asm: (T1605: p. 671a.). Also see Kritzer (1995): 33. 195

14

These six organs are the entrance for collecting outside perceivable data through different media of faculties and therefore are conditions of contact. The fully developed six sensory organs originated from the corresponding seeds cause sentient beings to actualize the completion of their own personal existence. 6. Contact Contact is the sixth member of the twelve links of conditioned origination. It represents the contact between sensory organs and their objects constituting all kinds of personal experiences. Generally there are six kinds of contact (sparwakayas ) based on the functioning of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind. The actualization of both the sensory faculties and related objects are originated from the potencies stored in alaya-vijbana. It is a condition of sensation. 7. Sensation Sensation is the seventh member of the twelve links of conditioned origination. Sensation aroused from experiencing an object field. It represents a being discriminating between different types of feeling, either pleasurable, painful and neither pleasurable nor painful. It is a condition of craving. In coherence with the doctrine of mind-only, Vijbanavada defines twofold sensations, the seeds of sensation and the sensation produced by that seeds. From ignorance up to sensation, they are members of the projecting and the projected set. The actualized effect from every member is originated from the corresponding potentialities. These two sets represent the linkage of past life with the present rebirth. In other word, it represents a cause-effect relation. The projecting set of members consists of ignorance, karmic force and consciousness. This is because the consciouness, which is impressed by actions preceded by ignorance, could project a furture rebith. The projected set of members consists of psycho-physical complex, six entrances, contact and sensation. Due to the perfumed seeds, the seeds of psycho-physical complex, etc., develop so as to actualize individual existence.

7.2.2 Actualizing Set and the Actualized Set consisting of the Remaining Five Links

196

The next stage consisting of the links from craving up to old-age-and-death which are members of the actualizing and the actualized set. Their individual meanings are illustrated as follows:

8. Craving Craving is the eighth member of the twelve links of conditioned origination. It is the desire for desirable material and sextual enjoyment, etc. The power of craving draws sentient beings to future existences in the ocean of sajsara. According to YBW, the craving is the greedy desire of those conditioned entities with respect to sensuality sphere and eventually induces unsatisfactory retribution pertaining to this sphere. The same situation applies to fine-material and immaterial spheres. 15 Indulgence in craving is an inclination caused by our habitual activities and therefore it is a condition of grasping. Due to this force, there is no interruption in the stream of future existence. 9. Grasping Grasping is the nineth member of the twelve links of conditioned origination. It is indeed an intensified craving leading to strong clinging to the desirable objects. The intensity of clinging is also connected to the respective spheres of existences that would result in unsatisfactory retribution. The perfuming force of grasping brings about the bondage with defilements and drives sentient beings to seize a new birth to a particular destiny and therefore it is a condition of karmic existence.16 10. Existence Existence is the tenth member of the twelve links of conditioned origination. It is karmic existence in nature. It subsumes all the present karma-s driven by the defilements of craving and grasping that could project a future existence (bhava). 17 Therefore it is a condition of birth. In YBW, there are three types of karmic existence, namely existence in the sensuality, fine-material and immaterial spheres.18 11. Birth
15

16 17 18

(T1579: p. 323b) See Kritzer (1995): 41-42. See SA: 285. T1579: p. 323b,c. 197

Birth is the eleventh member of the twelve links of conditioned origination. It brings out emegence of the five skandha-s. YBW gives a full account of different situations of birth from the first moment of birth up to the root of life (jivitendiya ) fulfilled the length of a beings life is determined.19 It serves as a condition for the old-age-and-death. 12. Old-age-and-death Old-age-and-death is the twelve member of the twelve links of conditioned origination. After birth, the physical bodies of sentient beings are undergoing gradual decline leading to temination of life. All sorts of fears, sorrows, pains and hopelessness etc., are experienced in the final stage of our lives. These are the five links belonging to actualizing and the actualized set. The actualized effect from every member is originated from the corresponding potentialities. These two sets represent the linkage of present life with the future rebirth. In other word, they also represent a cause-effect relation. The members of actualizing set consist of craving, grasping and existence. This is because, preceded by varities of good and bad behaviours with respect to the three spheres, together with intensified expectation of holding ones individual existence, seeds of desires and grasping are moistened at the stage of dead, and thus yields the actualization of a new becoming. The members of actualized set consist of birth and old-age-and-death. A particular destiny actualizes as a result of karmic retribution of perfumed actions in past lives and generates a process of reincarnation. The cycling of life is conditioned co-arising under three categories of defilements, i.e., ignorance generates karma, karma generaes unsatisfactory result (duhkha) and duhkha generates ignorance. Hence, the assertion of three defilements is another expression of twelve links dependent origination in relation to sajsaric process. Then the four sets structure concerning projecting, projected, actualizing and actualized are the distinctive doctrinal exposition of dvadawavga pratityasamutpada designated by Yogacara
19

See Kritzer (1995): 44. 198

School. 7.2.3 Defiled Ten Causes in relation to Twelve Links Since the twelve links of dependent origination can be divided into three aspects, i.e. ignorance, karma and duhkha, these are defilements by nature. The defiled nature of twelve links with regard to ten causes is expounded individually. The relevant informatons can be found in V3 of EPBW and BBW, V31 & 38 of YBW, V4 of SMD and V10 of RYBW. The English translation is mainly based on Xuan Zangs Chinese version. Concerning the defiled conventional-speech-conforming cause

(anuvyavahra-hetu ), the basic content of various texts is the same: All sorts of defiled dharma-s aroused through conditioned origination, in their respective appellation, ideation and speech, such as ignorance, karmic force, consciousness, psycho-physical complex, up to old-age-and-death, anxiety, sorrow, worry, suffering, harassment and disturbance, and with respect to those defiled dharma-s, are anuvyavahra-hetu. All sorts of conventional speech, such as karmic force has ignorance as its condition, up to old-age-and-death has birth as its condition, etc., are anuvyavahra-hetu.20 As mentioned before, conventional-speech-conforming cause is linguistic expression in nature. Different concepts are established to denote our experiences of cognition. The doctrine of twelve links is a theory designated by the Buddha for illustrating the sajsaric process. Depending on these concepts, people could understand the reality of existence and the relevant causes constituting the aggregation of unsatisfactory experience. The exposition of the twelve links in the progressive order, namely,

20

(T1579: 501c) 199

karmic force having ignorance as its condition, etc., will lead sentient beings to contemplate the undesirable nature of sajsara and arouse their determination for abandoning all kinds of defiled dharma-s pertaining to three spheres of existence. Concerning the defiled relative cause (apeksa-hetu ), the basic content of various texts is the same: All kinds of craving in relation to the desired object realms, are the relative causes of the progressive process of those links.21 RYBW comments that craving is the root or origination of sajsara. Since it generates other defilements which are conditions of karmic deeds, and in return grasps a corresponding retribution. That is why the craving is said to be the relative cause for the progressive process of those links.22 SMD has a detailed elucidation of the relative cause: There should be three expositions with respect to relative cause: 1. Exposition in relation to the twelve links of conditioned origination: Depending on the preceding link, the succeeding link comes into existence, and therefore it is named as relative cause. 2. Exposition in relation to the relativity of cause and effect. Because of the previous causes, the present fruit is produced. Likewise, because of the present causes, the future fruit will come into being, and therefore it is named as relative cause. 3. Exposition in relation to the strong driving power of rebirth. The reincarnation in the three realms of existence is because of craving. That is why it is said in BBW that craving in relation to the desired object realms, is the relative cause.23

21 22

23

(T1579: 501c) ()(T1828: 527c) [][] [] [] (T1851: 541a) 200

From the above explanations, SMD provides a comprehensive exposition of relative cause in terms of continuance of individual existence. Concerning the defiled projecting cause (ksepa-hetu ), it is said in YBW: For all present existents, such as ignorance, [karmic force] etc., all uprising and growing perfuming influence (vsan), in relation to the future birth and old-age-and-death, are projecting cause.24 The remnants of past impressions, such as ignorance, karmic force as well as craving and grasping, are capable of projecting future impurities such as psycho-physical complex, six entrances, birth, old-age-and-death etc. This is due to the perfuming influence (perfuming supporting basis) for the function of the projecting cause. Concerning the defiled origination cause (abhinirvrtti-hetu ), it is said in YBW: Their own individual seeds of the impurities such as ignorance, [karmic force] etc., are origination cause.25 Origination cause is the indulgence of sensation on condition of contact driven by ignorance, and due to the attachment of objects, it gives rise to an urge to actualize a future existence, and because of that craving, it is capable of fetching all sorts of grasping with desires and ignorance by nature. On account of this force and this efficacy, seeds [of defiled dharma-s] are moistened for generating all kinds of retribution fruits. All of these are named abhinirvrtti-hetu.26 The exposition of YBW is coherent with the definition of origination cause which is dependent on nourished seed supporting basis. EPBW mentions three grades of

24

(T1579: 501c) (T1579: 501c) (T1579: 454b,c) 201

25 26

potentialities, from the lower to the upper grades, indicating varieties of power of the seeds. SMD regards karmic deeds as condition qua cause, defilements and bad friends as secondary conditions; these constitute the origination cause of defiled individual existence. Concerning the defiled favoring cause (parigraha-hetu ), the basic meaning of various texts is the same. It is said in YBW:

In close relation with unwholesome friends, learning erroneous teaching, illogical mental application, and preceded by the power of habitual practice, there comes to be the arising of ignorance, etc., [these factors] are named favoring cause.27 As conclued by all the texts, the essential causes leading to defilements in the process of reincarnation are the influence of bad friends, lacking the knowledge of dharma teaching, not contemplating the correct views, desirous of pleasurable object fields. With the force of all these habibutal practicie, the defiled potencies are nourished and the impurities of future retribution would be generated. As mentioned before, the favoring cause includes the immediate cessation, object-domain, faculty, activity, efforts and seeing of reality. With the exception of seeing of reality, the remaining five factors contribute to the defiled dharma-s of three realms. With regard to the defiled retribution, the immediate cessation refers to the illogical thinking of the citta-caittas; faculties refer to the pursuance of desirable six cognized objects (object-domain); activity refers to perfuming of defilements; efforts refers to close contact with unwholesome people. With the linking and helping of these causes, the twelve links of conditioned origination continue to function in the progressive order, that is why these causes are named as parigraha-hetu.

27

(T1579: 501c) 202

Concerning the defiled inducing cause (vahaka-hetu ), it is said in YBW: From the link of ignorance, up to the link of existence, [these links] induce gradually after one another in a continouse process, in relation to future birth and old-age-and-death, are the inducing causes.28 RYBW distinguishes the difference between projecting cause and inducing cause, the former is the proximate cause whilst the latter is the remote cause. With regard to the future birth and old-age-and-death, proximate cause directly induces the retribution whereas remote cause indirectly induces the retribution. Nevertheless, the nature of both causes is perfuming influence (vsan).29

SMD points out that the inducing cause is the habitual practice of defiled dharma-s and enpower their growing force. Taking ignorance etc., as example, each of them is capable of inducing superior unwholesome dharma-s of the same kinds, and therefore approaching the retribution of reincarnation. In this regard, the inducing cause has the meanings of progression and promotion that can induce the actualization of superior categories of the same types of potentialities within

alaya-vijbana. Besides, SMD stresses that the mind and mental activies possess the
engendering power of potentialities.30

Concerning the defiled determining cause (pratiniyama-hetu ), the meaning of various texts is basically the same. It is said in YBW: The other link of ignorance and its own seed, up to the link of existence, [are capable of] projecting the sentient existence of naraka (hell). It should be
28 29

30

(T1579: 501c) (T1828: 527c) T1581: 541a. 203

understood respectively, the other link of ignorance and its own seed, up to the link of existence, [are capable of] projecting the sentient existences of animal, hungry ghost, god and human. These five destinies in relation to those defiled dharma-s, are named as pratiniyama-hetu 31 The determining causes is similar to origination cause and refers to distinctive force to produce an effect of its own species, in particular with the five kinds of destinies, and the natural force of individual retribution fruit. Just like the wholesome deeds result in desirable destinies and unwholesome deeds result in undesirable destinies. The manifoldness of forces signify particularity or ones own self for assurance of mutual corresponding forces of cause-effect of the similar natures.

Concerning the defiled assistant cause (sahakri-hetu ), different meanings are found. It is said in EPBW: All sentient beings equally undergo the twelve links of conditioned origination, and is named as assistant cause.32 The meaning of defiled assistant cause in BBW and YBW are the same: From relative cause up to determining cause, are named as assistant cause.33 EPBW does not illustrate the defiled assistant cause from the perspective of the harmonized co-operation of relative cause, projecting cause, origination cause, favoring cause, inducing cause and determining cause, and contributing to the outcome of defiled dharma-s. Instead, the defiled sahakri-hetu is the common experience of reincarnation throughout the twelve links of conditioned origination. Though differences in interpretation of assistant cause are noted, the implicit
31

32 33

(T1579: 501c) (T1582: 977b) (T1579: 501c) 204

meaning of these texts should be coherent with each other. SMD comments that conformity-speech-cause can denote individual dharma but is helpless in giving birth to a defiled dharma, therefore, this casue is excluded from the defiled assisting cause.34 Concerning the contradictory cause (virodha-hetu ), the meaning of various texts is basically the same. It is said in YBW: Contradictory cause to the defiled dharma-s are endowment of outflow-free lineage-type, having the opportunity of the Buddha appearing in the world and preaching true doctrines, learning from those wholesome people, listening to true teaching, systematicmental application, practice according to the true dharma-s and all kinds of factors of enligtenment (bodhipaksya-dharma ).35 SMD highlights the importance of those bodhipaksya-dharma-s which are overflow-free in nature. The cultivation of those bodhipaksya-dharma-s can resist or obstruct the arising of defilements.36 It is noted that there is a disagreement in the textual meaning of EPBW that may probably be caused by the misplacement of translated word.37 Concerning the non-contradictory cause (virodha-hetu ), the meaning of various texts is basically the same. It is said in YBW: For those mentioned wholesome dharma-s, either absence or deficiency, is the non-contradictory cause to the defiled dharma-s,.38 The same mistake is noted in EPBW.39 Lastly, the defiled ten causes are concluded by YBW:
34 35

36 37 38 39

T1581: 541c. (T1579: 501c-502b) T1581: 541c. Cause of hindrance () instead of cause of non-hindrance (), see T1582: 977c. (T1579: 502a) T1582:977c. 205

The above ten causes induce all sorts of defilements to all sentient beings should be understood respectively.40 The defilements pertaining to the three spheres of existence can be apprehended from the defiled ten causes in terms of twelve links dependent origination. The integration of these two theories provides an overall view of the causation of defilements. The illustration is helpful for us to understand those essential factors leading to the overflow situation of lives. The abandonment of these factors in turn will improve the quality of our living. This is the value of the theoretical establishment of Yogacara School. 7.3 Non-defiled Ten Causes

The investigation of cause-effect relation is to ascertain the consequent effect from certain causes through purposeful actions. Karma is moral action which causes future retribution, and good or bad destinies experienced in the sajsara process are the result of one's previous good or evil behavior. Everyone has to undertake the responsibility of the behavior by oneself. The wholesome management of the law of dependent co-arising could improve the situation of our living. In this regard, the non-defiled ten causes specified by YBW are those important factors contributing to the spritual progress and entities of purities. Endowment of these dharma-s on one hand is capable of suppressing defilements or suffering, and on the other hand is capable of acquiring liberation of life. Concerning the non-defiled conventional-speech-conforming cause

(anuvyavahra-hetu ), the basic content of various texts is the same: All sorts of non-defiled dharma-s and complete extinction (pari-nirvana), in their respective appellation, ideation and speech, with respect to those non-defiled dharma-s, are anuvyavahra-hetu. Such as four subjects of
40

(T1579: 502a) 206

reflection, (smrtyupasthana ), four proper lines of endeavor (samyakprahana ), up to eightfold noble path; the cessation of karmic forces is on condition of cessation of ignorance, so as cessation of old-age-and-death is on condition of cessation of birth, etc., are conventional speech.41

The non-defiled conventional-speech-conforming cause refers particularly to the teaching of Buddhism. Dharma-s are doctrines established through various concepts for illustrating all kinds of non-defilements that should be understood by the Buddhists. By following the dharma practice, we can gradually have spirtual progress and eventually attain enlightenment through realization of the truth. We are advised to engage in thirty-seven kinds of practices for the attainment of enlightenment, i.e. 37 bodhipaksya-dharmas divided into seven categories: (1) four subjects of reflection, (smrtyupasthana ), (2) four proper lines of endeavor (samyakprahana ), (3) four steps towards supernatural power (radhipada ), (4) five spiritual faculties (pabca indriyani ), (5) five spiritual powers (pabca balani ), (6) seven degrees of enlightenment (sapta bodhyavga ), (7) eightfold noble path (asta-marga ). The doctrinal practice enables us to abandon the defilements, unwholesome karmic force and all unsatisfactory sufferings. Since three defilements of ignorance, karmic force and suffering are another way of understandng the progressive order of twelve links of dependent origination, the establishment of the Buddhist theories is on the ground of guiding sentient people towards the regressive order of twelve links of dependent origination. The ultimate goal is to have disjoinment of dharma-s pertaining to three spheres of existence. The importance of these names, ideation and speech are medium for us to distinguish the
41

(T1579: 502a) 207

difference between defiled and non-defiled dharma-s, their corresponding rules and orders, the way of practice and the goal of liberation. Concerning the non-defiled relative cause (apeksa-hetu ), it is expressed by YBW: Through the experiece of distress and anxieties aroused by the defiled conditionings [of sajsara], in relation to these, one is looking for purities, accumulating for purities and accomplishing purities [of nirvana]. For those experiences in terms of these, are the relative causes.42 RYBW distinguishes the differences with respect to three kinds of purities: Looking for purities is the aspiration for enlightenment, accumulating purities is engagement in practice, accomplishing purities is the retribution of practice.43 As illustrated by EPBW, purities are those thirty-seven bodhipaksya-dharmas, and in relation to nirvana, are the relative causes, so as the regressive order of twelve links of dependent origination. The desire to renounce the defiled reincarnation is the origination of the cessation. Those people endowed with outflow-free lineage-type will practice the bodhipaksya-dharmas and the engagement in such spiritual practice will attain the nirvana. All these are named as relative causes.44 Concerning the non-defiled projecting cause (ksepa-hetu ), the basic meaning of various texts are the same. It is said in YBW: Those people endowed with outflow-free lineage-type, being the excellent people, are capable of attainging nirvana with residue and nirvana without residue. Those factors in relation to these non-defiled dharma-s are projecting cause.45 Endowment of outflow-free lineage-type ( ) refers to seeds of

42 43

(T1579: 502a) ()(T1828: 527c) 44 T1582: 977b. 45 (T1579: 502a) 208

enlightenment. Lineage-type refers to family boundaries of blood lineage. This term often refers to the spiritual predisposition one possesses by the three vehicles, i.e. disciples of the listerner (), pratyeka-buddha (the self-enlighted one ) or bodhisattva (). According to Yogacara School, not all sentient beings have the potentials of enlightenment. Only if people possess the non-defiled seeds, they would have the inclination for pursuing life liberation and will engage in spirtual practice. Therefore, it is the inducing cause for non-defiled dharma-s. Concerning the non-defiled origination cause (abhinirvrtti-hetu ), the basic meaning of various texts are the same. It is said in YBW: Those lineage-types possessing all kinds of outflow-free seeds of enligtenment, in relation to the practice of 37 bodhipaksya-dharmas, are origination cause46 Potentialities of enlightenment with regard to the actualization of enlightenment are origination cause. RYBW distinguishes origination cause as immediate cause and projecting cause as remote cause in relation to the acquisition of fruits.47 Concerning the non-defiled favoring cause (parigraha-hetu ), the basic meaning of all texts is the same. It is said in YBW: In close relation with wholesome friends, learning true doctrine of the Buddha, systematicmental application, and preceded by the power of habitual practice empowering the spirtual faculties, are favoring cause.48 The content of non-defiled favoring cause is just the opposite of the defiled favoring cause mentioned before. These helping factors will enable the actualization of enlightenment. Concerning the non-defiled inducing cause (vahaka-hetu ), the basic meaning of all texts is the same. It is said in YBW:
46 47 48

(T1579: 502a) T1828:527c. (T1579: 502a) 209

On

account

of

the

individual

potentialies

for

the

uprising

of

bodhipaksya-dharmas, and gradually realizing the nirvana residue and nirvana with residue, are named inducing cause.49 Just like the explanation of defiled inducing cause, SMD points out that the habitual practice of non-defiled dharma-s and their growing force are capable of inducing superior wholesome dharma-s of the same kinds, and therefore approaching the retribution of nirvana. This is because the inducing cause has the meanings of progression and promotion that can induce the actualization of superior categories of the same species. Starting from the good intention, then put in practice for accumulating purities, all these are helpful for progressing to enlightenment and liberation. Concerning the non-defiled determining cause (pratiniyama-hetu ), the meaning of all texts is basically the same. It is said in YBW: Lineage-type of disciples of the listener will attain the complete extinction of disciples of the hearer, lineage-type of pratyeka-buddha will attain the complete extinction of pratyeka-buddha, and lineage-type of supreme vehicle (bodhisattva) will attain the complete extinction of supreme vehicle. All these in relation of those non-defiled dharma-s, are determining cause.50 The determining causes refer to manifoldness of distinctive forces for producing an effect of its own species. That is why different potentialities of three vehicles will result in their distinctive way of complete extinction (pari-nirvana). Concerning the non-defiled assistant cause (sahakri-hetu ), different

49

(T1579: 502a) 50 (T1579: 502a) 210

meanings are found. It is said in YBW: For all non-defiled dharma-s, from relative cause up to determining cause, in terms of purities, are named as assistant cause.51 In contrast with EPBW, the non-defiled assistant cause contributing to the outcome of purities is not illustrated from the perspective of the harmonized co-operation of relative cause, projecting cause, origination cause, favoring cause, inducing cause and determining cause. Instead, the non-defiled sahakri-hetu is the common practice of 37 bodhipaksya-dharmas by the practicers of three vehicles.52 Concerning the non-defined contradictory cause (virodha-hetu ), the meaning of all texts is basically the same. It is said in YBW: Contradictory cause to the non-defiled dharma-s are deficiency of outflow-free lineage-type, abode in eight conditions of no leisure time and no arising of Buddha, not learning from those wholesome people, not listening to true doctrines, illogical mental application, practice according to the inproper methods, all these are cntradictory causes of enligtenment.53 Concerning the non-contradictory cause (virodha-hetu ), the meaning of all texts is basically the same. It is said in YBW: For those mentioned unwholesome dharm-s, either absence or deficiency, are the non-contradictory causes to the non-defiled dharma-s, It should be understood that the contradictory causes of defiled dharma-s, are the factors of purities. It should be understood that the contradictory causes of non-defiled dharma-s are the factors of impurities..54 Lastly, the non-defiled ten causes are concluded by EPBW: The above ten causes induce all sorts of worldly and unworldly non-defiled

51 52 53

54

[](T1579: 502a) [](T1582: 977b) (T1579: 502a) (T1579: 502a) 211

dharma-s. For these two (worldly and unworldly) categories, each has tri-temporality, i.e. the past, the future and the present. It could not be possible for someone to claim that there exist some other causes beyond these ten causes.55 It is said in YBW: Just like the present ten defiled causes and ten non-defiled causes, they are the same for the past and the future. These ten causes have already exhausted the possible contributing factors, there should not be any further increase or diminution to these ten causes.56 The defilements pertaining to the three spheres of existence can be extincted by the non-defiled ten causes, particularly in achieveing the regressive order of twelve links of dependent origination. The integration of these two theories provides an overall view of the causation of purification. The illustration is helpful for us to understand those essential factors leading to life liberation. The distinguishment of three types of ten causes, i.e. the worldly ten causes, defiled and non-defiled ten causes with respect to the twelve links of dependent origination provides an oversall view of the application to our daily lives. The causes relevant to reincarnation and liberation should be understood for wholesome mastery. The exposition encourages the Buddhist disciples engaging in proper practice for the acquisition of spiritual life and the nirvana the disconnection fruit (visajyoga-phala ) as the ultimate goal. In this regard, the central theme of ten causes theory is in coherence with the soteriological objective of Buddhism

55

56

() (T1582: 977b) (T1579: 502a) 212

Chapter Eight
Asavgas Annotation and Discrimination on Ten Causes
From the analysis of previous chapters, Sarvastivada should have inspired the Yogacaras ten cause theory to a certain extent. However, Yogacarins were not satisfied with the former theories and therefore they had criticisms on the six causes theory of Sarvastivada. This chapter mainly explores the annotation and discrimination of Asavga on the ten causes theory with reference to Prakaranaryavaca-wastra (PSW ) and

Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya Mahayana-sajgraha-wastra

(Asm ) and

(MSS ). In particular with the

Sarvastivadas six causes, contradicting position is noted from Asavgas treatises. Asavga criticizes Sarvastivadas six causes in PSW but integrates those six causes into the ten causes theory in Asm. This chapter will explore the different views shown in the Yogacara literatures in this area. Through the thorough investigation from different aspects, we can detect the changes of thinking from Asavga and the issue of the authorship of these Yogacara abhidharma. Moreover, the similarity and difference of six causes and ten causes together with their lineage and development will be compared. 8.1 The Authorship of Asavgas Treatises Prakaranaryavaca-wastra is one of the main treatises of the Yogacara School and only has Chinese translation. This text is a brief summary of the essence of Yogacarya-bhumi-wastra. It contains discussions and reconstruction of all the major doctrines of Yogacara School, such as the eight consciousnesses, three natures,
213

elemental dharma-s, etc. This treatise is compiled in the Buddhist canon as two versions. One is stanzas treatise only1 whilst another contains both stanzas and exposition2. These two texts are ascribed to Asavga according to Xuan Zangs translation. Kuiji once has written a commentary for PSW but was lost later. YBW is extant in Tibet but there is no mention of PSW from the Tibetan Buddhist literatures. Since the stanza treatise is extracted separately and the fact that neither Sanskrit nor Tibetan texts is found, it arouses the controversy on the authorship of this treatise among the modern scholars.

According to Yi Jing ( 635-713)3 in his famous Nanhai jigui neifa chuan (), the works of Asavga are eight treatise excluding PSW.4 It is strange that Yi Jing has not mentioned PSW after his long stay in the Nalanda monastery ( ) which was a prominent Buddhist center advocating the Yogacara doctrines. Schmithausen conceives that at least some of the works of Yogacarins such as PSW and Asm do not lack compilatory features according to his view that the composition of YBS could have been a compilation of material by various authors.5 Besides, he proves that some portions of the YBW, as well as Prakaranaryavaca-wastra and Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya of Asavga predate

T1603:583-588. T1602:480-583. 3 Yi Jing was a famous monk who traveled to India learning Buddhism for twenty-five years in the Tang period. After his return to China, he translated some fifty Buddhist texts. Nanhai jigui neifa chuan ( ) is the most famous work providing valuable account of his travel and life in India. 4 To have a thorough study of the Yogacara School, one should apprehend the eight treatises of Asavga. This includes: 1. Vijwatika-vijbapti-matratasiddhi. 2. Trijwika-vijbapti-matratasiddhi. 3. Mahayana-sajparigraha-wastra. 4. Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya. 5. Madhyantavibhaga. 6. Adiviwcsavibhagasutra. 7. Mahayana-sutralajkara. 8. Karmasiddhiprakarana. Although some treatises are written by Vasubandhu but the outcome should be ascribed to Asavga due to his teaching. ( )(T2125: 229c) 5 See the argumentation of Schmithausen (1987): 183-189.
2

214

The

Samdhinirmocana

Mahayana

Sutra

( )

and

Mahayanabhidharmasutra (). In this regard, PSW and Asm belong to the early period of Yogacara texts. R. Kritzer also has doubt on the traditional attribution of Asavga, the author of Asm, since he has found controversial views between different Yogacara literatures.6

Ui Hakuju () claims that the stanza treatise is written by Asavga whilst the exposition is composed by Vasubandhu. The saluted stanza at the beginning of PSW clearly stated that Asavga heard the teaching from Maitreya Bodhisattva. Hence, he has the obligation to summarize the essence of the YBW so as to spread the scriptural teaching, but this declaration is shown in the stanzas only.7 Concerning Uis inference of Vasubandhu exposition of PSW, the supporting evidence is based on Vasubandhus Try-asvabhava-prakarana (The Treatise of Three Kinds of Non-Substantiality, ).8 It is a treatise focuses on the doctrine of the three kinds of non-substantiality. After a thorough textual comparison and analysis, Ui concludes that this treatise is another version of the exposition of the chapter The Establishment of the Non-substantiality () in PSW.9 Many passages of Try-asvabhava-prakarana are duplicated in The Establishment of the

Non-substantiality. Moreover, Try-asvabhava-prakarana has close relation with Vidyanirdew-wastra (Treatise on the Manifestation of Consciousness, )10 and also Zhuanshi lun (Treatise on the Transformation of Consciousness,
Kritzer has undergone a thorough study concerning the biography of Asavga. See Kritzer (1999): 5-13. 7 , , (T1602: 480b) See Ui, Hakuju, The Study of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 1. ( , , 1963) p. 355-372. 8 T1617: 867-878. 9 See Ui, Hakuju, The Study of Indian Philosophy, Vol. 6. ( , , 1963.) p. 293-358. 10 T1618878-882.
6

215

),11 the latter two treatises are also written by Vasubandhu. These three texts are translated by Paramartha (). Vidyanirdew-wastra deals with various manifesting functions of the alaya-vijbana and is originally a part of the Wuxiang lun ( ) which has not been translated in Chinese. The author of Wuxiang lun is unknown. The content of Zhuanshi lun is another version of

Trijwika-vijbapti-matratasiddhi (Thirty Stanzas on Consciousness-only, ). Based on the similar philosophical views expressed in these treatises, it provides a strong evidence to prove that the exposition of PSW could probably be written by Vasubandhu. If Uis inference is established, this can explain the reason why there is different viewpoints shown in the treatises of Asavga.

In contrast to the views held by the above-mentioned scholars, Lu Cheng12, Yin Shun13, Hakamaya Noriaki ()14 and Takemura Makio (),15 all believe that Asavga is the writer of PSW. Among the various opinions, I tend to agree with Venerable Yin Shuns viewpoint that a transitional change of Asavgas thought is illustrated in his works in the process of Yogacara development.16

8.2. Asavgas Deconstruction and Reformation of Sarvastivadas Six Causes 8.2.1. The Refutation of Sarvastivadas Six Causes In view of the controversy among the scholars, it raises the question whether
11 12

T158761-63. See The Origin and Development of Indian Buddhism, Lu Chengs Selected Essays of Buddhism. Vol. 4. ( ) p.2201. 13 Yin Shun The History of Indian Buddhism () p.247-249. 14 Hakamaya, NoriakiThe Study of Vijbanavada Doctrine. ( 2001) p. 91. 15 Takemura, Makio: The Study of Vijbanavadas Doctrines of Three Natures. ( , ) p. 74-75. 16 Yin Shun The History of Indian Buddhism (), p.247-249. 216

the refutation of Sarvastivadas six causes in PSW is really Asavgas view. I have noticed that the criticism is found from both the stanzas and the exposition. It clearly reflects the denial position taken by Asavga towards the fallacies of Sarvastivadas six causes. The criticism of Sarvastivadas six causes in the stanzas text of PSW is illustrated in a short verse: Three fallacies and five illogical causes. It is corresponding with the Chinese text as 17 The meaning of is three kinds of fallacy for the six causes doctrines. The meaning of is that five causes out of the six causes are not true causes. The exposition of this brief verse is as follows:18 There is a thesis held by someone to establish the six causes, i.e. homogeneous cause (sabhaga-hetu ), universal cause (sarvatraga-hetu ) co-existent cause (sahabhu-hetu ), conjoined cause (sajprayuktaka-hetu ), retributive cause (vipaka-hetu ) and efficient cause (karana-hetu ). With the exception of the retributive cause, the definitive features of the remaining five causes are illogical due to three fallacies. What are these fallacies? Taking the homogeneous cause (sabhaga-hetu) as illustration, it has three fallacies. If homogeneous cause is the cause of homogeneity, it denotes something already accomplished resulting in the fallacy of accomplishment. What is the reason For the wholesome dharma, the nature of wholesomeness has already
17

18

T1602: 570a. PSW: (T1602: 570a) 217

been accomplished. What is the point of setting up a cause for a result that has already attained? If homogeneous cause is homogeneity itself is that very cause, it would have no result and then there would be a fallacy of indetermination. What is the reason There is no distinction between cause and effect. If undetermined cause can be accepted, then dissimilar dharma-s can be treated as the causes since there is no distinctive feature of cause. If neither cause of homogeneity nor homogeneity itself is that very cause were homogeneous cause, it would have the fallacy of useless designation. It is meaningless to establish the thesis of homogeneous cause. Similar to the homogeneous cause, the remaining four causes [sahabhu-hetu, sarvatraga-hetu, sajprayuktaka-hetu, karana-hetu] also have such three fallacies that should be refuted in the same way. Among the six causes advocated by Sarvastivada, Asavga only admits retributive cause but rejects the remaining five causes. Asavga takes homogeneous cause as example to show three kinds of faults. The definition of sabhaga-hetu is found in Abhidharmakowa of Vasubandhu: What is homogeneous cause? Similar dharma versus similar dharma is defined as homogeneous cause (sabhaga-hetu ), such as wholesome five skandha versus wholesome five skandha as homogeneous cause. Defiled versus defiled, undefined versus undefined, and five skandha versus five skandha are just the same. 19 The past and present

compounded entities have homogeneous similar dharma-s as causes to induce uniform-emanation fruit (nisyanda-phala ). Since future dharma has not existed and could not have the function of inducing the fruit, therefore there is no homogeneous cause. We can infer that present wholesome dharma depends on past wholesome dharma as cause. Likewise, the future wholesome dharma depends on present wholesome dharma as cause. In this sense, they are called homogeneous causes. Unwholesome and undefined dharma-s homogeneous causes are with the
19

(T1558: 31a) 218

same principle.

Asavga skillfully employs the six interpretative rules (sat-samasa ) with regard to a compound term to point out the inconsistency of six causes whose natures are compound terms. Since homogeneous cause is a compound, there are different ways to understand its meaning. One is tatpurusa () and the other is karmadharaya (). Tatpurusa compound is a dependent and determinative compound. The basic form of tatpurusa is b of a, which has a meaning of b belongs to a. For example, the compound universities in Hong Kong refers to those universities within the territory of Hong Kong but not in the other nations. In this case, universities is a subset of Hong Kong. The upper set Hong Kong includes those universities within the region of Hong Kong and those universities outside Hong Kong are excluded. The karmadharaya compound is a descriptive compound. It is a special type of tatpurusa compound in which the first member refers to the second member. The basic form of karmadharaya () is a is b, which has the meaning of a has the attribute of b or a itself is b. For example, Mahayana is composed by maha and yana, signifying great and vehicle respectively. The vehicle, which is great, refers to the same entity and both terms are inseparably for composing the word Mahayana. We can comprehend the compound sabhaga-hetu (homogeneous cause ) through the interpretative rules of tatpurusa or karmadharaya. Sabhaga-hetu in terms of tatpurusa is the cause of homogeneity whereas sabhaga-hetu in terms of karmadharaya is the homogeneity itself is that very cause. The first fallacy mentioned by Asavga is sabhaga-hetu in terms of tatpurusa, i.e. the cause of homogeneity () which has the fallacy of accomplishment (). By definition, homogeneous cause is similar dharma-s versus similar dharma-s, i.e.
219

wholesome dharma as cause so as to have an effect of wholesome dharma-s. This means that there must be an existence of wholesome dharma for this cause to be established. However, if a dharma has already possessed wholesome nature, then why this dharma requires a cause? Therefore, sabhaga-hetu in terms of tatpurusa is self-refuting and cannot be established. On the other hand, the second fallacy mentioned by Asavga is sabhaga-hetu in terms of karmadharaya, i.e. homogeneity itself is that very cause () which has the fallacy of indetermination ( ). Homogeneity itself is that very cause refers to homogeneous similar dharma. According to the principle of cause inducing effect, since homogeneous similar dharma itself is the cause, therefore, it can exist as cause only and will not take the form of effect. This means that effect is unobtainable and thus results in the fallacy of indetermination. This is because homogeneity itself is that very cause cannot reveal a distinctive result clearly. Asavga points out that if such inference can be accepted, we may regard homogeneous dissimilar dharma as cause because the same outcome of non-distinction in its effect can also be derived, but this will lead to absurdity. From the above argumentations, if neither cause of homogeneity nor homogeneity itself is that very cause is homogeneous cause, it would have the third fallacy of useless designation (). The definition of homogeneous cause from the perspective of causal relation is meaningless. It is useless to establish the thesis of homogeneous cause.

After undergoing the examination of Sarvastivadas six causes, Asavga concludes that, with the exception of retributive cause, the other five causes all commit these three kinds of fallacies. The definitions of the six causes appear to be contradictory to the relation of cause producing fruits. We can go through the same reasoning of Asavga to infer the defects of other causes. For example, universal
220

cause by definition belongs to one kind of homogeneous cause and therefore will have the same kind of defects as homogeneous cause. As for co-existent cause, according to tatpurusa, it is the cause of co-existence. Co-existence implies the simultaneity of cause and fruit and since the fruit has already existed, then why should it need a cause for its existence? If according to karmadharaya, then co-existence itself is that very cause only contains the characteristic of cause, and what fruit will be resulted? Therefore, it has the fallacy of indetermination. Conjoint-cause is also a kind of homogeneous cause and therefore it has the same fallacy. As for efficient cause, according to tatpurusa, it means the cause of efficiency. Since the cause was established, then why should this cause be set up again? If karmadharaya is efficient as cause, then all dharma-s are not known to have definite cause relation with other fruits and therefore have the fallacy of being indefinite. Therefore, with the exception of retributive cause, whether they are tatpurusa or karmadharaya, or neither tatpurusa nor karmadharaya, they all commit the fallacies of accomplishment, indetermination and useless designation. On this account, among these six causes, there are at least five causes which cannot be established.

8.2.2

Seven Aspects of Causation In Relation With Six Causes

From the above analysis, although Asavga points out the illogical proposition of five causes from Sarvastivada, it does not mean that Asavga totally denies the specific features of the six causes. He uses another expression to convey the meaning of the six causes under the doctrinal system of Yogacara School. In Asavgas Asm, together

221

with Asmv commentary of Buddhasijha (), the characteristics of cause and condition are defined as follows:20 What is the condition qua cause (hetupratyaya)? It is the store-consciousness (alayavijbana) and the residues (vasana) of the wholesome (kuwala), overflow (sasrava) and overflow-free (anasrava), with its corresponding features, to be the condition qua cause. According to Asavga, the condition qua cause can be expounded from seven aspects including the fundamental meanings of Sarvastivadas six causes:

Own nature, divisions, association, common attainment, increase, obstruction and grasping are characteristics of condition qua cause. It should be understood that there are six features illustrating the condition qua cause. Own nature and divisions establish the efficient cause, and the remaining establishes co-existent cause, conjoined cause, homogeneous cause, universal cause and retribution condition respectively. 21 The relations between seven aspects of condition qua cause and Sarvastivadas six causes are as follows:

Seven aspects of condition qua cause

Sarvastivada six causes

own nature divisions association common attainment increase obstruction grasping

efficient cause co-existent cause conjoined cause homogeneous cause universal cause retribution cause

According to Wong Yin Yangs () opinion, Asavga puts forth the seven
20

Asm:(T1606: 671b) Asmv: (T1606: 713a) Also, Webb (2001): 59. The translation of Webb for is causal condition, and here the writer change to condition qua cause which is more accurate in conveying the literal meaning of the Sanskrit hetupratyaya. 21 Asm:(T1606: 671b) Asmv: (T1606: 713a) Also, Webb (2001): 59. 222

aspects of condition qua cause to match with Sarvastivadas six causes for the sake of showing the common ground of both schools. However, we should take it as the supplementary meaning of condition qua cause.22 As for the fundamental meaning of condition qua cause, Asmv says,23 The real meaning of conditioned origination is the fact that there is no creator (nihkartrkartha), the fact of causality (sahetukartha), the fact that there is no being (nihsattvartha), the fact of dependence [relativity](paratantrartha), the fact that there is no (driving) power (nirihakartha), the fact of impermanence (anityartha), the fact that everything is momentary (ksanikartha), the fact that there is an uninterrupted continuity of cause and effect (hetuphalaprabandhanupacchedartha), the fact that there is conformity between cause and effect (anurupahetuphalartha), the fact of the varieties of cause and effect (vicitrahetuphalartha) and the fact of the regularity of cause and effect (pratiniyatahetuphalartha). The seven aspects of condition qua causes are illustrated as follows. The first two aspects are hetusvabhava and its divisions: [I] What is its own nature? It is the cause (karana ), since it is the own-nature of cause (hetusvabhava ). 24 [II] What are its divisions () ? [They are the divisions of the cause. In brief, they are of twenty kinds.]25 It is notably that the translation of the Sanskrit word karana in the Chinese version of Asm is a bit confusing. It is because Xuan Zangs translation is

Wong Yin Yang : The commentary of Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya-vyakhya, p. 212. ( ) 23 Webb (2001): 58. Asmv: (T1606: 712b) 24 Webb translates karana as reason. See also Asm (Pralhad 1950: 28): hetu-pratyayah katamah /karanaj hetu-svabhavatah / It is clear that karana is same as hetu. 25 Webb (2001): 60.
22

223

which is normally translated in English as efficient cause. In fact, the original Sanskrit text has only karana which means cause and is interchangeably used with hetu. Literally, the word karana means that which does/makes/causes or that which is efficient. Xuan Zang adds a to and is easily misread as efficient cause ().
26

The word karana can of course mean reason with a

sense of cause. Webbs English translation of Asm is using reason for karana. Nevertheless, the writer will use cause instead of reason in the following passages so as to have a clearer apprehension.

Asavga defines the meaning of hetu-pratyaya (condition qua cause) from the aspects of own-nature and divisions. Since all causes can exert certain force on the effect, this is why Asavga says that hetusvabhava is karana. The varieties of efficient causes, association, common attainment, increase, obstruction and grasping are thus established but they are also karana by nature. Divisions of karana are of twenty kinds as follows:27 [1] Cause of arising (utpatti karana ) [2] Cause of duration (sthiti karana ) [3] Cause of support (dhrti karana ) [4] Cause of manifestation (prakawa karana ) [5] Cause of transformation (vikara karana ), [6] Cause of separation (viyoga karana ). [7] Cause of transmutation (parinati karana ) [8] Cause of conviction (sampratyaya karana ). [9] Cause of understanding (sampratyayana karana ) [10] Cause of reaching (samprapana karana ). [11] Cause of linguistic usage (vyavahara karana ) [12] Cause of regard (apeksa karana )28
26

27 28

Asm:(T1605: 671b) Asmv: (T1606: 713a) Webb (2001): 60-61. (T1605: 671b-c & T1606: 713b) Webb translates apeksa as regard which is corresponding with relative, see Webb (2001): 61. 224

[13] Cause of projection (aksepakarana karana ). [14] Cause of production (abhinirvrttikarana karana ). [15] Cause of linkage (parigraha karana )29 [16] Cause of induction (avahaka karana )30 [17] Cause of diverse regularity (pratiniyama karana ) [18] Cause of co-operation (sahakarikarana karana ) [19] Cause of adversity (virodhikarana karana )31 [20] Cause of non-adversity (avirodhi karana )32 The first ten karana are extracted from Madhyantavibhaga-bhasya (MB, ) whilst the latter ten karana are from Yogacara-bhumi-wastra (YBW, ). Therefore, the twenty-karanas are in fact a combination of two kinds of ten causes with the same meanings from these literatures. Sanskrit terms of the last ten causes in Asm are exactly the same as the ten-causes of YBW, i.e. conventional-speech-conforming cause, relative cause, projecting cause, origination cause, favoring cause, inducing cause, determining cause, assistant cause, contradictory cause and non-contradictory cause. It is noted that the Chinese translation of Asm from Xuan Zang is slightly different with the YBW for the same Sanskrit words of the ten causes.

The third aspect of condition qua cause is association (sahaya ):

33

[III] What is association (sahaya)? They are things (dharma) which arise in co-existence (sahabhava) and not through some deficiency (vaikalya), such as the elements (bhuta) and those derived from the elements (bhautika ).

29 30 31 32

33

Webb translates parigraha as linkage which is corresponding with favoring, ibid. Webb translates avahaka as introduction which is corresponding with induction, ibid. Webb translates virodhi as adversity which is corresponding with contradictory, ibid. Webb translates avirodhi as non-adversity which is corresponding with non-contradictory, ibid. Webb (2001): 61. Asm (T1605: 671c) Asmv (T1606: 713c) 225

The definition of sahaya is same as co-existent cause that have reciprocal effects on a dharma. For example, the four great elements and the derived matters co-exist simultaneously. Asavga highlights the essence of association to express co-existent cause.

The fourth aspect of condition qua cause is common attainment (sampratipatti ):

34

[IV] What is common attainment (sampratipatti)? They are those things (dharma) which attain the object in co-existence (sahabhava) and not through some deficiencies (vaikalya), such as the mind (citta) and mental activities (caitasika). The definition of sampratipatti is same as conjoined causes. Mental activities must have related perceived objects. Since all citta-caitta-s are arisen through their mutual strengths and are mutually dependent for cognizing the same object, they are conjoined causes for common attainment.

The fifth aspect of condition qua cause is increase (pusti ):

35

[V] What is increase (pusti)? It is, in the future, the ever increasing continuity of wholesome, unwholesome and neutral actions accomplished in the past. The definition of pusti is same as homogeneous cause. A dharma can exert influence on the growth of other things in the same category. Therefore, those wholesome, unwholesome and neutral actions of the past will induce the present and future

34 35

Webb (2001): 62. Asm (T1605: 671c) Webb (2001): 62. Asm (T1605: 671c) Asmv: (T1606: 713c) 226

dharma-s of the same categories. They pose the enforcement in the serial continuity of both matter and mental phenomena.

The sixth aspect of condition qua cause is obstruction (paripantha ):

36

[VI] What is obstruction (paripantha)? It is the consolidation of the increase of a certain series by means of a certain development of the defilements in such a way that one is kept away from the series leading to Nirvana. The definition of paripantha is same as the universal cause. It is applicable to the strength of all defiled dharma-s, such as defilements (Asavga ) and secondary defilements (upaklewa ). The defilements pertaining to the three spheres of existence is strengthened. This is why paripantha is an obstacle for attaining the enlightenment through realizing the nirvana.

The seventh aspect of condition qua cause is grasping (parigraha ):

37

[VII] What is grasping (parigraha)? It is the unwholesome (akuwala) and defiled wholesome (kuwalasasrava) dharma-s which grasp the idea of personality (atmabhava). The definition of parigraha is similar to retribution cause. The sentient beings are bound to receive unwholesome dharma-s and defiled wholesome dharma-s which are retributions of their past karmic deeds. In this sense, karmic deeds can grasp a reward and is named as parigraha. The causes of karmic retribution can be morally distinguished but the fruit is undefined. Retribution causes are within the boundary of

36

Webb (2001): 62. Asm (T1605: 671c) Asmv: (T1606: 713c)

37

Webb (2001): 62. Asm (T1605: 671c) Asmv: (T1606: 713c)

227

overflow that can be differentiated from outflow-free (anasrava), which is not abided by the sajsara.

In conclusion, the motive of Asavga is to point out the contradiction of the connotation of six causes so as to abandon the nominal attachment. To avoid the contradiction, he suggests a deconstruction of the six causes and reforms the six causes theory from seven aspects mentioned above. In doing so, Asavga claims that we can avoid the fallacies and the essence of six causes can be maintained without false comprehension. From the above seven aspects of condition qua cause defined by Asavga, it is obvious that the general attributes are same as Sarvastivadas six causes with emphasis on energetic force (bija) within the alaya-vijbana to be the direct cause of an effect. With the assurance of the bija as the primary cause, together with the assistance of the other conditions, the combined forces of various causes constitute phenomenal existents. Without the establishment of the seed as a true cause, the fundamental Buddhist theory of causality will have some deficiencies. In this regard, the proposition of Asavga upholds the principle of conditioned co-arising with coverage of those essences of six causes but is coherent with the Yogacara doctrine of seed theory. 8.2.3 Two Types of Ten Causes Theory Making Up The Divisions of Twenty Karana In his Asm, Asavga says that the nature of cause (hetusvabhava) is karana whose application is very broad in our daily lives. The divisions of karana are of twenty kinds as mentioned above. The content of these karana is a combination of two types of ten cause theory proposed by the Yogacara system. The first ten karana is from MB and the latter ten karana is from YBW.

228

The first ten karana from MB is:38 Causes of ten kinds: for arising, maintaining, sustaining, manifesting, transforming, disjoining, evolving, conviction, understanding as well as attaining: for these the eye, foods, the earth, a lamp, a fire, are examples, and a cutting instrument, an artisans skill, smoke, justifications, and the Path. [1]Arising cause is a condition qua casue for the arising of another thing. For example, the eye organs give rise to a visual consciousness. It is named as cause of arising (utpatti karana ) in Asm.39 [2]Maintaining cause is a condition for the existence of other things. It is just like the four kinds of nourishment that can maintain the lives of sentient beings. The four nutriments are four kinds of foodsmorsel-food () maintaining the bodily organism, contact () giving comfortable stimuli to the living being, manas () or volition motivating its activity, and consciousness () is the alaya-vijbana providing the continuity basis for living beings. It is named as cause of duration (sthiti karana ) in Asm. [3]Sustaining cause is a condition functioning as supporting ground or sustaining power for another thing, such as the inhabited world providing a supporting basis for the world of sentient beings. It is named as cause of support (dhrti karana ) in Asm. [4]Manifesting cause is a condition for manifesting other things, such as light can reveal invisible things. It is named as cause of manifestation (prakawa karana ) in Asm. [5]Transformation cause is a condition for transforming other things, such as fire can transform raw food into cooked food. It is named as cause of transformation (vikara karana ) in Asm. [6]Disjoining cause is a condition that can disjoin other things, such as the relation of a cutting instrument to that which is being cut. It is named as cause of
38

Stefan Anacker (1986): 225-227. MB: (T1600: p.467a) 39 Webb (2001): 60. Also, Asm (T1605: 671b) and Asmv (T1606: 713b) 229

separation (viyoga karana ) in Asm. [7]Evolving cause is a condition that can gradually evolve other things, such as the works of a goldsmith who can make bracelets out of masses of gold. It is named as cause of transmutation (parinati karana ) in Asm. [8]Cause of conviction40 is a condition for inducing the belief of other persons, such as the perception of smoke giving rise to the idea of fire, etc. It is named as cause of conviction (sampratyaya karana ) in Asm. [9]Cause of understanding41 is a condition inducing the understanding of other people, such as a justification does for a thesis. It is named as cause of understanding (sampratyayana karana ) in Asm. [10]Attaining cause is a condition leading to the attainment of the other, such as the Path leading to Nirvana, etc. It is named as cause of reaching (samprapana karana ) in Asm. It is evident that the ten causes of MB are equivalent to Asms first ten causes. From the eleventh to twentieth karana, these are exactly the same as YBWs ten causes. Since their implicit meanings have been elaborated in previous chapters, only the synonyms below are listed for easy reference. Asm [11] Cause of linguistic usage (vyavahara karana ) [12] Cause of regard (apeksa karana ) [13] Cause of projection (aksepa karana ) [14] Cause of production (abhinirvrtti karana ) [15] Cause of linkage (parigraha karana ) [16] Cause of introduction (avahaka karana ) [17] Cause of diverse regularity (pratiniyama karana ) [18] Cause of co-operation
40 41

YBW Conventional-Speech-Conforming cause (anuvyavahra-hetu ) Relative cause (apeksa-hetu ) Projecting cause (ksepa-hetu ) Origination cause (abhinirvrtti-hetu ) Favoring cause (parigraha-hetu ) Inducing cause (vahaka-hetu ) Determining cause (pratiniyama-hetu ) Assistant cause

Cause of conviction is translated by Anacker as cause causing the idea to arise. Cause of understanding is translated by Anacker as cause causing the idea to be formed in others. 230

(sahakari karana ) [19] Cause of adversity (virodhi karana ) [20] Cause of Non-adversity (avirodhi karana )

(sahakri-hetu ) Contradictory cause (virodha-hetu ) Non-contradictory cause (avirodha-hetu )

The definitions of MB and Asm are similar. For these ten causes, these can be divided into three classes:

(1) Utpatti karana (), sthiti karana () and dhrti karana () can be grouped into one class in terms of nourishment and sustainability of human lives. This is because utpatti is the condition for the rise of cognitive activities. Sthiti is the condition for four kinds of nourishment and dhrti is the condition for the supporting basis of inhabitation and actions.

(2) Prakawa karana (), vikara karana () , viyoga karana () and parinati karana () can be grouped into one class in terms of the knowledge dealing with the worldly skillful operation for all careers. This is because prakawa is the condition for apparent use. Vikara is the condition for destruction. Viyoga is the condition for disjunction and parinati is the condition for transmutation.

(3) Sampratyaya karana ( ), sampratyayana karana ( ) and samprapana karana () can be grouped into one class in terms of the knowledge dealing with theory establishment, inference and realizing intuition, etc. This is because sampratyaya is the condition for accumulation of knowledge relevant to wisdom obtained from hearing. Sampratyayana is the condition for accumulation of knowledge relevant to wisdom attained by intellectual discernment. Samprapana is the condition for accumulation of knowledge

231

relevant to correct wisdom attained through spiritual practice.

The classification of the first ten karana from MB is conforming to YBW emphasis on the combined efficacies of these conditions resulting in the uprising (), acquisition () establishment (), accomplishment () and activity () of

various dharma-s. It is obvious that these are the most important aspects of human living, such as reincarnation of life, liberation from various bondages, knowledge of theories establishment and career skills. All these require the assemblage of various causes and conditions for their proper function of efficacy. Their relationships can be illustrated as follows: utpatti karana uprising acquisition samprapana karana establishment sampratyaya karana, sampratyayana karana accomplishment sthiti karana, dhrti karana activity prakawa karana, vikara karana , viyoga karana, parinati karana As for the latter ten karana, it is same as the ten causes expressed in YBW with reference to the above illustration.

From the above analysis, we can find that on one hand Asavga reveals the logical defects of Sarvastivada six causes, on the other hand Asavga synthesizes Sarvastivada scheme of the six causes in preference to that of the ten causes. The objective of Asavgas reconstruction is to designate the term bija as the primary cause (i.e. the origination cause) only whilst the other causes just signify certain contributing forces to an arising of an existent. The account of Asavgas different attitude in different texts may be a transitional change of his philosophical views; the other possibility may be the problem of authorship of these Yogacara treatises.

8.3 The discrimination of Rational True Cause

232

Yogacara School follows Sarvastivadas groupings of all phenomena under five categories, i.e. consciousness, mental functions, matter, elements not concomitant with mind (or matter), which belongs to the conditioning dharma-s, and also the unconditioned dharma-s. In PSW, Asavga makes an approach for cause discrimination towards those sajskrta existents. In doing so, Asavga repudiates the illogical cause, with particular criticism against Sarvastivadas six causes theory. Afterward, he claims to have established what is rational true cause. Asavga says, We now should establish rational true cause, in brief, there are two kinds of rational true causes: 1. Sign of conjoined cause. 2. Sign of concourse cause. Sign of conjoined cause is latent or dormant condition of defilements and this is established in accordance with the capacity of inducing the rebirth. Sign of concourse cause is assemblage of various causes and conditions and this is established in accordance with the rise of such and such entities for the production of present existences.42 With regard to the two sign of causes advocated by Asavga, conjoined cause is the causal relation between past and future lives, such as seed of klewa (defilements), ignorance and karmic action. These are causes tied up with undesirable result of the becoming. Concourse cause is the combination of available conditions at present for the uprising of various phenomena. The implicit meaning of Asavga is coherent with Sajghabhadras quotation of scriptures concerning two kinds of causality, i.e. past conditions in terms of sequential cause-effect whilst co-existent conditions for simultaneous cause-effect.43

Asavga then systemizes the scattered teachings of sa-vitarka sa-vicara bhumi

42

43

(T1602: 570a) Ny, T 1562: 417a. 233

(the

stage

of

reasoning

and

investigation)

and

Bodhisattvabhumi

of

Yogacara-bhumi-Wastra. The establishment of cause and effect should be understood in terms of four aspects, i.e. characteristics of cause and effect, supporting basis of fifteen causes and four conditions, differences of causes, conditions and effects. In other word, this is the establishment of ten-causes, four-conditions and five-fruits. With this system, the meaning of YBW text can be explained, Having their own

seeds as preceding, having depended on the material and non-material basis other than that having excluded the seed basis and also karma, having come together with the companion(s) and objects, there comes to be the generated [of the dharma-s] conjoined with the sensual [sphere], conjoined with the [sphere] of form, conjoined with the [sphere of ] formlessness and the unconjoined, and that is accordingly as the case it may be.44

The implicit meaning on the text of YBW will be clear if we use Asavgas interpretation in Asm. Own seeds as own nature () and divisions (), the characteristic of karana () which is condition of dominance, and together with association () which is co-existent cause (), common attainment () which is conjoined cause (), increase () which is homogeneous cause ( ), obstruction () which is universal cause (), and lastly, grasping ( ) which is retributive cause (). Combined efficacies of these causes and conditions result in the arising ( ), acquisition ( ), establishment ( ), accomplishment () and activity () of various dharma-s45 Among these causes, an own seed of each individual entity is the most important constituent for its
44

sva-bja-prv bjrayam sthpayitv tad-anyam rayam pratirpinam arpinam * v karma ca pratisthya sahyam lambanam ca savgamya * kma-pratisamyuktnm rpa-pratisamyuktnm rpya-pratisamyuktnm apratisamyuktnm utpdit bhavati / tac ca yath-yogam // YBW [] [](T1579: 570b) 45 Asm:(T1605: 671b) 234

existence. However, this is neglected by the causal doctrine of Sarvastivada. With the synthesis of Sarvastivadas six-causes doctrine in preference to the Yogacaras seed theory and ten causes doctrines, Asavga is successfully establishes a comprehensive causal theory within the Yogacara system.

PSW deserves to be called the summary text for the essential doctrines of YBW. With the structural analysis, people are easy to comprehend the whole theory of Ten Causes. However, Asavga has not included the worldly, defiled and non-defiled ten causes in this system and therefore there is slight insufficiency. 8.4 The Significance of Simultaneity of Cause and Effect in the Mind-Only Doctrinal System 8.4.1 The Mutual Dependence of Alaya and Seeds of All Dharmas Among the Buddhist Schools, there is no dispute for the sequential cause-effect theory but not every School admits the simultaneous cause-effect relation. Just as Sajghabhadra, Asavga also takes great pains to set up the co-existence of cause and effect. This is because the simultaneous causal relation is crucial for reinforcing the doctrine of mind-only, such as the inseparability of alaya and bijas, the mutual perfuming effects of potentials and actualization, the interdependence of perceived objects and perceiving consciousness, the co-existent faculty (indriya) of contaminated manas (the seventh consciousness), etc. These all require the co-existent causes for their establishment. That is why Asavga puts great effort on the argumentation of co-existent cause-effect relation in his

Mahayana-sajgraha-wastra

(MSS, ).

In accordance with the stanzas of Mahayana-Abhidhama- sutra ( ), The dharmas and alaya, so as alaya with the dhamas, they are mutually

235

dependent as effect, and always as cause as well.46 That is why Asavga expounds its implication as: Since all defiled dharmas produced take this as a receptacle place for holding the perfumed seeds and therefore it is regarded as effect. For that very consciousness as a storehouse, it plays the active role for retaining those bijas and is regarded as cause, and this is the reason why it is called the alaya-vijbana.47 The operations of three mind-transformations are mainly relied on the function of

alaya-vijbana,

or

storehouse

consciousness,

which

is

called

the

alayavijbana-paravrtti through the evolution of the seeds and thus alaya is regarded
as cause. Bijas here signify the seeds of variance of defilements

(samklewikadharmabija ) which cause the continuity of sajsara.

Alaya-vijbana is passively perfumed by the defiled dharma-s and it is in this sense is

regarded as effect. Considered as a cause, alaya endows or furnishes with all the bijas. There are three ways to ascribe alaya, as effect, cause and self-nature. The bijas in relation to the alaya is the relation between the substance, cause and effect.

In the process of co-arising and co-extinction, seeds, actual dharma-s and alaya are inseparable with one and other. At the time when alaya receives the perfuming of actualized dharma-s, the potentialities of the dharma-s, is what to be retained ( ), the receptacle alaya is retainer () that actively holds the potencies without being lost. Under such circumstance, it is a relation of retainer and retained. In this regard, alaya and defiled dharma-s co-exist with each other from the perspective of cause and effect relation. It is like the interdependence of two bundles of straw, when holding with each other, can erect and does not fall. Therefore, the

46 47

MSS:(T1594: 135b). MSS: (T1594: 133b) 236

interdependent function signifies co-existed cause-effect which is a fundamental footing to support the seed-perfuming theory of Vijbanavada.

It should be understood that the mutual production applies to the bijas of defiled dharma-s. The seeds contained in the alaya, being perfumed by the other seven consciousnesses, are thus caused to grow, resulting in the appearance of phenomenal things or dharma-s. How can we understand the relation between arising and extinction of these two being altogether? The perfuming process is analogous to the odour of the sesame flower. The seven consciousnesses perfume the alaya just as the sesame flowers perfume the seeds when mixed together in the ground for oil. The sesame flower is the perfumer whilst seeds for oil are perfumable. Perfuming (vasana ) gives rise to the creation or nourishment of bijas. It is in intimate and harmonious relation with that which perfumes. That dharma is perfumable which is simultaneous with the perfumer capable of enveloping and planting habit energy, and which is neither identical with nor separate from the perfumer.48

The causal relation specified by MSS focuses on three dharma-s. The bijas that engender the consciousness, the engendered consciousness that perfumes and creates bijas, and the bijas created or caused to grow by the perfuming influence of the engendered consciousness. These three revolve in a cycle reciprocally and simultaneously function as cause and effect. Just like a candlewick engenders the flame and the flame engenders the incandescence of the wick supporting each other and function simultaneously.
49

The key point is to illustrate that only the current

instantaneous efficacy could represent the causal function of projecting the fruit. The
48

49

MSS: (T1594: 138c). See Wei Tat (1973): p. 133. 237

reality is the momentary efficiency. Vijbanavada maintains that everything in the phenomenal world is in a flux in a sense that it comes into existence at one moment and goes out of existence at the next moment. But Dharmakirti () advances the doctrine of momentariness by saying that a really existent thing (as opposed to an unreal thing) must have some causal efficacy. The characteristic mark of a real thing (vastu) is its capacity for arthakriya (causal efficiency).50 In other words, to exist means to do something or to have performance. To acquire instant causal efficacy, a thing must be momentary. For instance, a seed gradually produces its effect, i.e. the sprout, together with some other causal factors such as soil, water, etc. These causes initiate some changes in every moment and are really a convergence of the streams of seed-moments, soil-moments, water-moments and so forth. Such confluence in its turn brings about the effect sprout.51 The Vijbanavadins conceive the phenomena as a result of the manifestation of consciousness. Since the underlying principle held by Dharmakirti is that reality is an instantaneous being and cognitive process splitting in discrete moments is indeed a momentary event exercising certain causal efficacy to give rise to a phenomenon. Only when the conditioned existent comes into being, then the causal relation can be confirmed in that instant moment which should be admitted in conventional reality. The latency is cause whereas the manifested phenomenon is result. Because of the invariability of their concomitant appearance, they are one entity in a sense that they do not exist apart from one another but they are not conceptually indistinguishable. Nevertheless, there is no sense of inherent entity for the cause and effect whatsoever because these categories are designated under the law of dependent arising.

50

See Stephen H. Phillips, Dharmakirti on sensation and causal efficiency, Journal of Indian Philosophy 15 (1987), p.240. 51 See Rita Gupta, The Buddhist Doctrine of Momentariness and its Presuppositions, Journal of Indian Philosophy 8, (1980), p. 47-63. 238

In PSW, Asavga maintains that only the seed functions as a true cause, but not the other causes such as efficient cause, co-existent cause, conjoined cause, homogeneous cause, universal cause and retributive cause. Although they are named as causes, they are hypothetical designation only. The conclusion of PSW is the same as Asm since it says that the true meaning of causation is seeds whilst the other conditions are the supplementary apprehension of causes.

8.4.2

The Co-existent Cognitive Relation of Perceiving and Perceived

The philosophical view of the Mind-only school, in brief, is that the fundamental consciousness appears as naturally and spontaneously in the form of a apprehending act and a apprehended form. The duality of subjective and objective aspects appeared in the cognitive act gradually brings forth the relevant concepts of grasping and grasped, cognizing and cognized, perceiving and perceived, discriminating and discriminated, etc. In the end, these are finalized by correlated concepts of apprehending act () and apprehended form (). The evolving consciousness is dualistic in the sense that it naturally evolves into internal (cognition) and external realm (object of cognition). Under such mode of consciousness, the perceived object have no sense of objective reality.

What is the mode of activity and objects of perception? We can refer to the stanzas of Mahayana Sutralamkara (The Ornament of the Great Vehicle, ):

And again one sees in the mind all the artha as reflected image. Then one has abandoned the projection of the graspable. And then one rests only in the projection of one who grasps (knower), from

239

then on, one touches quickly the immediate order in the samadhi.

52

The implication of this stanza is that only the mind alone is reality and should be known. Without the consciousness of the mind, the dharma (existent) would not be aware of. In fact, the apparently real external world of things is nothing but internal images perceived by consciousness and being grasped as a source of attachment by thought. The treatise then states: Because the projection of grasper is abandoned immediately afterwards, one develops understanding of the state of brilliance etc., in its order. One obtains a knowledge which is separate from the grasp of the two, supra-mundane, unsurpassable, without differentiation, without stains.
53

This text illustrates that one who realizes everything is mind only since he sees that all the artha (objects) is actually a reflected image appearing to him. By realizing the artha of anything other than the mind only, he rejects the projection of the graspable and remains a grasper only. He then quickly immerses into a calm and peaceful state of samadhi (meditation).

From the above extracts, it may be noted that the origin of Mind-only theory was derived from an experience of meditation that cultivates a spiritual state of mind. Free from any discrimination, the true nature of the mind is luminous and non-dual awareness and that is why it is an understanding of the state of brilliance.

From the Vijbanavadas point of view, since both subjective and objective aspects are evolved from the mind and the fact that the cognitive object is also the very same mind, this gives an explanation of why the Buddha has said in The

52

53

Tr. by Surekha Vijay Limaye, Mahayana Sutralamkara by Asavga, (Delhi, Sri Satguru Publications, 1992), p. 268. Ibid, p. 269-270. 240

Samdhinirmocana Mahayana Sutra that the image of an object is not different from the mind because the image is simply cognition-only (vijbapti-matra). The following text explains how the mind observing the mind: Maitreya, although no phenomenon apprehends any other phenomenon, nevertheless, the mind that is generated in that way appears in that way. Maitreya, for instance, based on form, form itself is seen in a perfectly clear round mirror, but one thinks, I see an image. The form and the appearance of the image appear as different factualities. Likewise, the mind that is generated in that way and the focus of samadhi known as the image also appear to be separate factualitiesHowever, because childish beings with distorted understanding do not recognize these images as cognition-only, just as they are in reality, they misconstrue them. 54 This text explains how the object contemplated by the mind in a meditative state is cognition-only. Its implicit meaning can be expressed as the mind to see the very

same mind and this is why it says that no phenomenon [of mind] apprehends any other [physical] phenomenon. Just like the image on the mirror, they are inseparable as an entity but appear as different factualities. Originally this explanation is ascribed to an experience in meditation, but later on, the Vijbanavadins try to generate this phenomenon to our ordinary experience. If the condition qua causes for the arising of a single image in a perfectly clear round mirror are present, then just one image will arise. If the condition qua causes for the arising of two images or of many images are present, then multiple images will arise. However, that round mirror will not be transformed into the nature of the image; they will never be fully linked. Viwalamati, just as it is with the water and the mirror, if depending upon and abiding in the appropriating consciousness, the condition qua causes for the simultaneous
54

Tr. by John Power, Wisdom of Buddha, The Samdhinirmocana Mahayana Sutra, (USA: Dharma Publishing 1994, p.155. This English translation is based on Tibetan Tripitaka (Buddhist canon). The original Sanskrit text is not available. This sutra is authoritative to the Vijbanavadins since it forms the fundamental doctrine of vijbapti-matra. . (T0676: 692c) 241

arising of one eye consciousness are present, then just one eye consciousness will arise one time. If the condition qua causes for the single arising of up to the fivefold assemblage of consciousness are present, then up to that fivefold assemblage of consciousness will also arise one time.55 The image metaphor illustrates the objective realm in cognitive relations of perception, and is the source for the concept of nimittabhaga. When Maitreya asked the Buddha whether the image that is the object of samadhi different from the mind or not? The Buddha replied, I explain that consciousness is distinguished by [the fact that its] object of observation is cognition-only.56

The text points out the significance of the mind through which all appearance is manifested and therefore the objects outside the mind are illusion because they are mental images only. Based on the assertion of the mind to see the mind itself, one is aware of ones inner state only.

Since cognitive activity is an integral awareness of the dual aspects of object-form and the self-cognizant, the doctrine of self-cognition is closely related to the issues of awareness with form and the structure of mind. One of the important subjects for the Vijbanavada (Mind-only) doctrine is exploring the structure of cognition in deeper sense and the nature of the perceived object. The Vijbanavadins suggest several theories of mind structure. These include Sthiramatis onefold, Nandas twofold, Dignagas threefold and Dharmapalas fourfold divisions of consciousness. The twofold division theory suggests that the constituents of every

John Power (1994): 73-75. (T0676: 692c) 56 John Power (1998): 18. () (T0676: 6 9 8 a, b ) 242

55

consciousness should include a perceived object (prameya) and a perceiving act (pramana). The addition of the self-consciousness (svasajvedana) to the former two parts forms the threefold theory. Dignaga views the relation of self-consciousness with the two manifesting parts as a subtle one. Because of the invariability of their concomitant appearance, they are one entity in a sense that they do not exist apart from one another but they are not conceptually indistinguishable.

From the different illustrations of the Vijbanavada treatises, the co-existent cognitive relation of the perceiving and perceived is established to justify the Mind-only theory. The fundamental ground of vijbapti-matra is the inseparable and simultaneous subjective and objective mode of the mind structure. On this account, Vijbanavadins inevitably have to admit the co-existent cause suggested by the Sarvastivada. 8.4.3 Justification of the Existence of Defiled Manas Through Coexistent Faculty In addition to the six consciousnesses mentioned by traditional Buddhism,

Vijbanavada asserts that there should be two more subtle consciousnesses, i.e. the
seventh mano-vijbana and the eighth alaya-vijbana. Since mano-vijbana is subconscious and is not easy to be apprehended by the people, it is necessary for the

Vijbanavadins to prove the basis of such mental faculty. Vijbanavada argues that
sentient beings have some fundamental things that incessantly continue and serve as a ground for the sixth consciousness. This is the seventh mano-vijbana which is the defiled subconsciousness associated with the four defilements of self-delusion (), self-view ( ), egotism ( ), and self-love ( ), and is regarded as the

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fundamental locus for the creation of egoism for which defilements and delusive views are resulted .

Asavga tries to establish sahabhutawraya

(coexistent faculty ) in

Mahayana-sajgraha-wastra for proving the existence of the defiled manas:57

Moreover, how do we know that there exists the defiled manas? If it is not existed, the unique ignorance could not be established and fallacy would be resulted. Furthermore, the five sadharmya-drstanta (similar similes, ) could not be established and fallacy would be resulted. Why The [first] five consciousnesses necessarily have the eye faculties, etc. as their coexistent faculties (sahabhutawraya ). In this text, Asavga defines defiled manas with a characteristic of unique ignorance ( ). In terms of unique ignorance, there are two types according to Vijbanavada. One of them is the continuously-functioning unique ignorance ( ) and this type of ignorance is continuously functioning with the manas which is different with ignorance that functions with the sixth consciousness ( ) subjecting to interruption. From the perspective of continuation without interruption, this is why the name of unique ignorance is given for this kind of ignorance. Another type is the unique ignorance which functions by itself ( ). Although this ignorance functions with the sixth consciousness, it is still called unique because it arises by itself and does not conjoin with any of the other fundamental defilements such as craving, hate, etc. MSS identifies the first type continuously-functioning unique ignorance as the defiled manas. In MSS, Asavga proposes six reasons to establish the defiled manas. One of the reasons is that if the defiled manas is not admitted, the unique ignorance cannot be justified for its

57

MSS:[] (T1594: 133c) 244

existence. It is the ignorance that constantly functions with the seventh consciousness, particularly with those four defilements, i.e. self-delusion, self-view, egotism and self-love. These defilements form the ego-centered foundation that causes the six consciousnesses to be polluted. That is why the seventh consciousness is named as defiled manas and in this sense, it also proves the existence of unique ignorance.

Another kind of fallacy is the lack of five sadharmya-drstanta (similar similes, ). It is generally said in the sutra-s that, the visual organ and object must exist simultaneously as necessary conditions for the uprising of the visual perception, so as the other sensual perceptions. Sensory organ (indriya) is the faculty which serves as the base (awraya ) on which anything depends, particularly the vijbana. For example, the visual consciousness depends on the base (awraya ) of the eye organ and the object form (alambana ) for its existence. With the coexistence of sensory organ (indriya), a consciousness comes into function and in this regard, indriya is awraya of a vijbana. It is named as a coexistent faculty (sahabhutawraya ). The first five consciousnesses each has its corresponding sahabhutawraya and certainly the sixth consciousness should make no exception. There should be a dependent indriya for the functioning of the sixth consciousness. Defiled manas could suit the needs of this requirement by using the sahabhutawraya of five consciousnesses as similar similes. If the seventh consciousness does not exist, what should be the sahabhutawraya for the sixth consciousness? Sahabhutawraya is not only the necessary condition for the rise of consciousness but it is also an illustration of the co-existent cause and effect relation.

8.5 Summary

Concerning the Yogacaras Ten Causes theory, it is noteworthy that there are
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several transitional stages on the thought of Asavga and these are reflected on different compositions. It demonstrates the process of the synthesis and advancement of the doctrine too. Through systematic and structural analysis of the ten causes, PSW reaffirms various implicit meanings of causality after its criticism to Sarvastivada six causes. There is no criticism found in Asm and instead, Asavga preserves the basic definitions but deconstructs Sarvastivada six causes into seven characters of causation. After that, Asavga combines those ten causes of MB together with ten causes of YBW to make up a total of twenty karana. In doing so, he includes those six causes and four conditions in the Yogacaras system. This should be a result of re-examining and refining his works after thorough investigation. As far as the sahabhu-hetu () of six causes is concerned, Asavga affirms in MSS the perfuming function of the three dhama-s, the bijas, the engendered consciousness and the newly perfumed bija-s. They are all revolving in a cycle with reciprocal and simultaneous cause-effect relation.

Furthermore, the mode of perceiving and perceived structure of every consciousness acts as a justification for the vijbapti-matra since object does not independently exist outside the mind. Through simultaneous perceived object with regard to evolving consciousness and defiled manas as the sahabhutawraya of the sixth consciousness, both put forth the necessity of co-existent cause. In the end, Asavga has to affirm rather than repudiate the co-existent cause in the establishment of the Mind-only doctrine. We can be sure that Asavga has no intention to object sahabhu-hetu which indicates the simultaneity of cause and effect, and instead, he asserts the significance of co-existent cause and effect. Eventually, Asavga is successful in synthesizing Sarvastivada scheme of the six causes in preference to that of the ten causes.
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The study of Asavgas treatises reveals that he has gone through a process of transitional thoughts in different periods for the investigation of causation theories. This chapter tracks down his criticisms, justifications and how he finally synthesizes various views of the Buddhist causation theories. From the perspective of Yogacara School, no matter six causes four conditions, ten causes ten conditions, up to twenty causes, all are efforts of exhausting the possible scopes and applications of the direct and auxiliary causes. From the principal aspect, the objectives of these theories are to reaffirm the interdependent compounded co-arising of various causes and effects without adherence to substantiality.

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Chapter Nine
Conclusion

This dissertation has already provided the historical and philosophical reviews of Yogacaras doctrine of ten causes in details, with particular interest in its early stage of development. In the later stage, the Yogacararins put more weights on the explanatory annotation of Vijbaptimatrata-siddhi which is based on the six sutras and eleven treatises. It is generally believed that VMS gives a comprehensive expression of the issue and is praised to be the most explicit explanation. As said by V.8 of VMS, For those four conditions, due to the fifteen kinds of supporting bases, the establishment of the ten causes was justified.1 This means that the ten cause theory derived from the four conditions and the fifteen supporting bases are expressions of the four conditions. The analysis of ten-causes, four-conditions and five-fruits has included all the conditioned existents. Commentaries from disciples of Xuan Zang used to discern ten causes from the perspective of four conditions.

The subsumptive relationship between ten causes and four conditions is illustrated as follows:

VMS T1585: 41b. 248

15 supporting bases
1. Speech 2. Experience 3. Perfuming 4. Nourished seeds 5. Immediate Cessation 6. Object of field 7. Faculty 8.Activity 9.Efforts 10.Seeing of reality 11.Conformity 12.Manifoldness of force 13.Concourse 14.Hindrance 15. Non-hindrance Inducing

Ten Causes
Conventional-Speech-Conforming Relative Projecting Origination

Four Conditions
Dominance Equal-immediate, Object, Dominance Cause Cause Equal-immediate Object Dominance

Favoring

Dominance Dominance Dominance Cause Cause Cause, Equal-immediate, Object Dominance Cause, Equal-immediate, Object

Determining Assistant Contradictory Non-contradictory

My opinion is that if we only rely on VMS and its relevant commentaries to comprehend the meaning of ten causes, we can merely have a general or conclusive view. The profundity and the origin of the theory should be explored from the contextual meaning of the texts in the earlier sources. Concerning the mature stage of the ten causes theory, we can find some research studies that are mainly based on the exposition from VMS. There is still enough room to do further exploration. Material sources from Kuiji, Hui Zhao and Zhi Chou have various supplements which are useful for comprehending the implicit meanings of the ten causes doctrine. For the subsumptive relationship between ten causes and four conditions, either entirely or partially included, there are detailed analysis in these commentaries. In particular, V.5 of Kuijis The Syncretism of Mahayana Doctrines provides an analysis of ten causes through ten aspects which deserves further attention for those who are interested.
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The objective of this research is to explore various causation theories of Indian Buddhism, with particular interest on ten conditions and thirty-three causes of

Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastra, six causes of Sarvastivada, together with six cause,

ten causes and twenty causes of Yogacara. By tracing the origin and reciprocal influences among these theories, we should be able to have a full comprehension on the theoretical development of the causality in Buddhism. To uphold the Buddhist principle of non-substantiality (anatman), Nagarjunas arguments are to refute all possibilities for establishment that would involve presupposition of an inherently existent entity. In coherence with the standpoint of Madhyamika School, the causation theory of Yogacara also induces arguments for repudiating ontological substance of any kinds held by Sarvastivada. With its distinctive causal theory, the Yogacarins further justify the proposition that everything is consciousness only. The founder of Yogacara, such as Asavga, Vasubandhu and their competent adherents constantly put great efforts in distinguishing, redefining and clarifying the implications of relevant concepts in order to reveal their significances in the causal theories.

The review of the Buddhist philosophical development of various causation theories involves examination of issues related to ontological and epistemic principles, defiled and purified living situations, etc. The Buddhist teaching of dependent arising is originally based on concerns of vexation, fetter, evil, and sorrow for all living beings and the way of soteriology. Since sentient beings frequently addict to the worried circumstances, this is the existential state of lives explained by the twelve links of dependent origination. The experience of the conventional and sentimental attachment will lead to a retrospection of ones ignorance and conducts. With the inclination of spiritual progress and engagement in proper practice, one will
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gradually break through all kinds of psychological attachments and restrictions. By realizing the true nature of all phenomena, especially the dependent co-arising of various life situations, one can be liberated from the bondage and sajsara. This is the essence of Buddhist theories with the objective of life salvation.

Nikaya Buddhism is famous in its skillful expertise for distinguishing the specific feature, universal feature, subsumptive and causative aspects with systematic analysis. These characteristics of exposition can be clearly seen from the ten conditions and thirty-three causes of Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastra and six causes of Sarvastivada. Among the Buddhist sects, the tenets of Sarvastivada are the most prominent. From the impermanence of all compounded entities, this sect induces the theory of momentariness with an implicit meaning of discrete instantaneous efficacy from which the idea of svabhava is based. Seventy-five real entities (dravya ), each with a unique intrinsic nature, are listed and categorized. In accordance with the dynamic functions of the six causes and four conditions, this accounts for the phenomenal changes of compounded existents. The six causes are established from the ontological assertion of Sarvastivada: All dharma-s exist tri-temporarily, their svabhava are persistent. Such sophisticated system about six causes and four conditions has advanced the profundity of the Buddhist philosophical thoughts. The ten causes theory of Yogacara School was established from the foundation of Sarvastivadas causal theory but integrated with the ideas of vijbapti-matra.

Madhyamika School was founded after vigorous disputes of various Buddhist sects, and consciously reverted to the primitive spirit of dependent co-arising emphasizing on life liberation and non-abiding wisdom. Upholding the principle of emptiness of Prajbaparamita-sutra, Madhyamika emphasizes wisdom of emptiness
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by abandoning the attachment on the nominal expression. Facing the heavy vexation of our daily lives, we should renounce all kinds of irrational, conventional and sentimental cravings for attaining the aspiration of our wisdom, returning to non-substantiality and non-ideation, and abiding in the suchness reality of non-discrimination.

The objective of Madhyamika School is to eliminate the attachment to the inherent substances. The Buddhist philosophers of this school have deliberately not to give the notion of cause-effect with definitive essences to avoid any ontological presuppositions and to prevent peoples addiction to linguistic misconception. By taking an attitude of repudiation but not proposition, MMK completely denies any ontological assertion on cause and effect. This has the effect of removing erroneous views. However, with respect to the theoretical construction of Buddhism, they are not as actively expounding the meanings of causes and conditions as that of Sarvastivada. Although there are imperfections in the Sarvastivadas theories, we cannot obliterate their contributions of reinforcing the Buddhist principle of cause and effect.

Vijbanavadins differs from Madhyamika in that they provide constructive explanations after refutation of Sarvastivadas theories of sustained elements. Instead, Vijbanavada follows Sarvastivadas analytical methods and admits that there must be some real forces that can justify the functions of cause and effect in the empirical world. The device of three modes in mind-transformation through the interdependent activities of bija-s and alaya-vijbana provides an account of the different situations in life. Substantiality on these cause, condition and effect are deprived since all are conditioned manifestation from various consciousnesses. Therefore, Vijbanavada
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takes an attitude of renouncing the shortcomings and adopting the beneficences from the thoughts of Sarvastivada and Madhyamika. This is why they claim to be truly in middle path among all the Buddhist schools for not falling into either realism or nihilism.

In contrast with Madhyamika School, Vijbanavada concerns with explaining how the phenomena come into existence. There must be reasons for our binding to unwholesome karmic deeds in the three spheres of existence. To provide a comprehensive system in elucidating the origination of phenomenal existents, this school claims that the combined functions of alaya-arising, habitual energies, together with the other evolving consciousnesses, give rise to the appearance of the universe. It is evident that three natures of ten causes theory is another interpretation of twelve links dependent origination. The imperfection of our lives is a result of our misconduct and discrimination, but we are endowed with outflow-free wisdom. For anyone who sets forth on enlightenment with mental initiation and the endeavor to get rid of all sorts of obstacles, this will enable non-defiled potentialities to actualize from the dormant stage and gradually attain the purification of life. The views of Vijbanavada are coherent with Buddhist soteriological objective.

The Buddhist theory of causation has repeatedly gone through an evolution from simple to complex forms, then from complication to simplification, and so on. Four conditions in early Buddhism were developed to twenty four conditions of Pali tradition, and then these theories were simplified to six causes and four conditions or ten conditions and thirty three causes in Northern tradition. Later on, the Yogacara School had further extended them into ten causes four conditions and even twenty causes. Through these stages of development, we can get a glimpse of the
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inter-religious discourses, reciprocal influences and the ideological evolution of the Buddhist theories. It also reflects the changing process of human thinking, which is in the courses of moving from simplification to complication, and vice versa.

With respect to the doctrines of causation, the Buddhist philosophers had undergone works of exhaustive investigation, discrimination, rearrangement and annotation. In view of the Buddhist masters attempting to explore the issues in their philosophical discourses, the coherent and divergent viewpoints of different philosophers could contribute a great deal in the search for truth through different perspectives.

The contributions of this research study are mainly on the following aspects:

Firstly, this dissertation is an original work dealing with various Buddhist causation theories including Sarvastivadas six causes, WAWs ten causes, Lavkavatara sutras six causes, YBWs ten causes, MBs ten causes and Asms twenty causes. Their reciprocal relations and influences are examined. All these contribute to the understanding of the Yogacara theories of causality. Secondly, since the Yogacara theory of ten causes is dispersed into different sections from different texts, the definitions and intentions of its concepts are so far not expressed clearly. Moreover, three kinds of ten causes in relation to twelve links dependent origination are not dealt with in details. This thesis provides a comprehensive and systematic investigation in this respect, and it would help to purport the essences of causality explicitly and provide an overall view to the readers. This is a full-length monograph on the subject presented in English for the first time. Thirdly, current academic circles concentrate mainly on the later stage of
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Yogacaras ten causes, and therefore, the focal points and implication of the early stage still need to be explored. Wei Yuans commentary to Bodhisattvabhumi-sutra deserves our attention for comparative study. By contrasting the original Sanskrit and three different Chinese translations of YBW, as well as various commentaries, these will be helpful for comprehending the contextual meanings of these concepts. Fourthly, the investigation of the origin of Yogacaras ten causes proves that the causal doctrines of WAW and Sarvastivada should have great influences on Yogacaras theory of causality. An analysis of the Yogacaras ten causes comparing with six causes and ten causes of the Abhidharmikas are provided. Fifthly, the study of Asavgas treatises reveals that he has gone through a process of transitional thoughts in different periods. This paper carefully tracks down his criticism, justification and how he finally synthesizes various views of the Buddhist causation theories. The Yogacara criticism of the Sarvastivada scheme of the six causes in preference to that of the ten causes is highlighted. Sixthly, it is found that Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastras ten causes basically include Sarvastivadas six causes four conditions. Both of them demonstrate the logical thinking of Buddhist causation theory that is in compliance with relations of inclusion, exclusion and intersection. This reflects the standard of methodology and inference in the period of Nikaya Buddhism. Seventhly, through the exhaustive analysis of causation theories by various Buddhist scholars, their efforts reinforce the significance in the principle of causality from different aspects. This could help the Buddhist disciples to have full understanding of the major factors contributing to spiritual progress. Therefore, these theories reveal the essence of soteriological objective in Buddhism.

Finally, I would like to quote the words of Zhiyan ( 602-668) who was the
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second patriarch of the Huayan school () in his Kong mu zhang ( ):2 From the perspective of stages of cultivation, there are differences in profundity or simplicity, just like starting from non-retrogression (the first stage) to the highest position (the tenth stage) of bodhisattvahood. These ten stages of cultivation signify the differences in realizing the dharma-s nature and likewise, resulting in the broad or narrow apprehensions. From the perspective of truth, there is a difference in the profundity or simplicity. Just like starting from conventional truth, up to the ultimate truth of the dharma-realm and likewise resulting in the broad or narrow liberation and freedom. From the perspective of cause, there are differences in the profundity or simplicity, just like starting from conceptual designation of six causes and four conditions, and then the origination [cause] and projecting [cause] will come forth, up to twenty causes. These are the reciprocal and mutual dependence of causes for one and other eventually. From the perspective of doctrinal truth, there are differences in the profundity or simplicity, just like starting from attachment to the reality of elements, up to an advanced level of perceiving the lack of inherent nature of compounded existents, and thereafter the non-substantiality of six causes is realized. Likewise, these will result in the broad or narrow apprehensions. From the perspective of fruit, starting from uniform-emanation fruit, predominance fruit, manly fruit, disconnection fruit, retribution fruit, etc., both secular world and supra-mundane, up to the state of Buddhahood, and likewise resulting in the broad and narrow senses.

All Buddhas possess skillful means for penetration into dharma-realms. Their
2

[][][] [] [] T1870: p.536c. 256

supernatural powers of omnipresence and universality enable their free entry into the truth of all dharmas through wisdom. Not separating with the perceiving experience, those awakened Buddhas are able to realize subtle Indra's Net3 of Samantabhadra (). Up to this stage of Buddhas realization, it can be conceived as the ultimate enlightenment, in which all hindrances of ignorance and affliction are fully extinguished.

From this extract, different people have different deductive interpretations and comprehensions of cause-effect theory. Whether ten conditions thirty-three causes of

Wariputra-Abhidharma-wastra, six causes four conditions of Sarvastivada, six cause

of Lavkavatara sutra, seven characters of causes and twenty causes of Mahayanabhidharma-samuccaya, ten causes four conditions of YBW, all of them are mutually related under the conventional truth level. These theories basically exhaust the major categories of conditions from the perspective of nominal discrimination. However, linguistics is dichotomy with limitation in meanings. From the perspective of numerous causal conditions, or the unlimited mutual influence of every existent, the reality of interdependence of co-arising is not easy to apprehend holistically. Therefore; only through the Buddhas universality and supernatural powers of omnipresence, could it be possible to penetrate the true nature of all compounded entities. Just like the multi-meshed net of Indra, the profound reality of the relation of cause and effect is beyond human contemplation or conceptual discernment. Through understanding the interdependence of two truths and discerning ultimate reality without denial of the designated concepts, only then could it be possible to thoroughly realize or comprehend the true meaning of cause-effect.

The Indra's Net () is a vast net that hangs in Indra's palace in which the strands are joined together by jewels. When light reflects onto one of the jewels, the same light is reflected and re-reflected endlessly throughout the expanse of the net. This is a metaphor used in Huayan Buddhism to express the concept of mutual interpenetration. 257

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