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THE FIBRE-OPTICS EDUCATOR

MANUAL

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LLMAX

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FIBRE-OPTICS EDUCATOR
cohtains the following items:
FIBRE.OPTICS EDUCATOR TRANSMITTER UNIT FIBRE-OPTICS EDUCATOR RECEIVER UNIT
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LENGTH OF POLY^4ER OpItCAL CABLE LENGTH OF POLYMER OPTTCAL CABLE MRROR

TORCH MICROPHONE EARPIECE F.Tt4, RADIO :ARPIECEWITH DIAPHRAGM EXPoSED CMCALTHBOUGH CONNECTOR {AMP DNP)
OURABEAM

3.smm FREE CONNECTOR CABLE WITH.3.5mm AUDTO CONNECTORS CABLE W|TH 3.Smm CONNECTOR TO CBOC. CLPS
BATTERTES FOR TX, RX, RADIOANDTORCH

INSTRUCTION MANUAL {THIS EOOK) TELECoMMUNICATIONS EooK

CARRYING CASE

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Business Centre, Etloe Road, LeVton.

ELLMAX ELECTFONICS LTD. Londo E10 7BT, Enqiand.

Tel: 081 539 0136
Fr:031 539 i745

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;

THE FIBRE.OPTICS EDUCATOR

MANUAL

ELLMAX ELECTRONICS LTD. Unit 29, Leyton Business Centre, Etloe Road. Leyton, London E10 7BT, England. Te,: OB1 539 013
Fx: 081-539 774

ELLMAX ELECTRONTCS LTD 1983

FIRST PUELISHED 1983

All rights reser{ed. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced or transmi$ed, in any forr . br by any means, without permission ol the Copyright owner.
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SECI'ION A

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T[.IE FIBRE.OPTICS

EDUCATOR

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FIBR E-OPTICS EDUCATOR PATENT No. 2139398

7
TRANSMITTER

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. L
10.

Showsstateof powersuppiy. ON/OFFswilchforbatlery.Doesnotcontroloptionalextenalsupply8flpry holde. fo PP3-type baRery. Morse keyfor manually inpLrning digitaldala. Overrides allotherdigitaliputs. Controls the lrequency olrhe pseudo'random and square wave sign1Sneraro. {20H.ro 4.5kHz).
Seleclion switch fortype ofdigitalinput.

Swir.hes Ihe r.drsm:ner betwee'r digitalno analogua modes. contfols sain olanalogue anrplifier (28d8 ranse). Controls output intensityof high-radiance Le.d., intra-.ed l.e.d. and oulpur indictor. {Appro z0dB rge). High'radjance red l.e.d. socket. G ives a visibl ndication olthe output ofthe lransmitting diodes. lnlr.red I.e d. window. Terminalforoptiona externalsupply of+9Vto +15Vd.c.,lo be used with supplyg.ound terminal. 2-5m socket foroptionalexte.nal power supply ol +9Vto +15V d.c., which can be usd as an
lrernalive lo supplyle.mials.

1t.
12.
13.

15. 11. 18.

t9.
20.

TTLlogiclevelinput. cMOS logic levellnput. R5212 vollge evelinput. Also acts as outpur moniro lor s gnlgeneraror. Common cfound forall dliqitl inpurs. Anlosue:npJr,l. gh imoLdancp (?0kol, s.c. coupled.
Analogue inpu!, low impqdance {8O). Same phse as high impedance
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RECEIVER UNIT

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1,

Slaitches lhe buzzrin o.out ofcircuit.fhe buzzergives n audble ndication ofthe state olthe

diqilalsignal.

2, Controls he sensitivty ofhe digitBlcorpartor (32.4d8 rnge). 3. Gives a visible indication ofthe stat olthe digilalsignal. 4. Sw;tcheslhqreceiverbetweendigilalandanaioguemodes. 5. Contols the gai of aalogue arplifier (30d8 rnge). 6. Gives a vsible otpu! proponionllorhe amplitud6 ofthe analogue sign1. 7. Loudspakeroutputofanaloguecircuil, 8. Shows state ol powesupply. 9. ON/OFF lwltch for battery. Does not controlenernalsupplies. 10. Baltery holdertor PP3-lype banery. 11. ON/OFF switch for lolvimpedarce analogue oulpul and loudspeaker. 12. Receivediodsock1. 13. TTL log:c levPloLrput. . 1. CIVOS losic'evel oJtour. 15. RS232volgeleveloutp!t. 16. Commongroundforalldigiialoutputs. 17. AnalogueouipJl.h gh impedancc {l \Ol. 'l8. Analoguo ouput,low impedace (less thn 1n). Connecr on ro 'is !ocler autom(rclly 19.
disconnects the loudspeker. Optianalexrenlsupply of +3V to +15V d.c., to be sed with supply ground lerminal.

20.2.5mmsocketfofoplionalextrnalpowe.supplyof+gv10+15Vd.c.,cabeusedasanhernative 1o posjtive supplylerminals21. S!pply9round. 22. Negativesupplyvokageof-9Vlo-l5VforRS232voltagelevelourput,tobeusedwithsrrppy

ground le.min1.

CONNECTING POWER SUPPLIES TO EDUCATOR

{a)

Btteries

io.ted in the Bolh the trnsrnitter and receivel Units operate ofi a single PP3-type 9V batlery, on the front panel. iheEducator is supplied with batleries alreadv fitted' Uuitu.y "o.pu.r."nt the batlery ON/OFF To chage the bat1ery. push the front cover ol the battery holder towards and then pull out the ctch' the swiich (sihg a ail r coin in th sloi provided) to release in the base ol digrar to the sure the new battery is inserted correctly according drawerholder' An inlo the back firmly '\,4ak; ara*"r. Once the'battery is in place, push lhe drawer it," atte|.v Nickel rgeable life -Rech un"r ;t t"e prelIrred, because it hs a longer operaling is equiprnent of rhe portable use "iL"ii* - ai corilvenie ntlv be used lf prolonsed

;;;i;;-;;;'i". required.
In order

re switched lo preserve batrery life as much as possible, make sure thal lhe batteries off when the units are not Iniuse.
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External Power SuPPlies pnel for applicatios r'hichrequire pro_ Power supply sockets are provided on the front across th terminl posts (bet' ionga u.'u'oir" units. An;xternal supply maY be connected 2 5mmsocki The.supplyvoltage weJn the ground and the +Ye spply posts), or by !sing the THAT THE +15v MAxll\u M ls iMPoRTANT lr ls d.c. .h^,,r h;in rh rnoc +9v to +15v supply sockets {and also ixtrloE. iJdes aie connecred in series from each of the unsurins that rsverse polaritv will not dam6qe the' ^i ;;;;"'v ;;plvi tl" ;;;; sources' and "i."uit'v' ri'"." iioies a lso ensure rhat curreni cannot flow between po\^/er "^,'1"-.*if mof e voltase suppty current from the source with the maxirnum ,]" ii" 1o the connecton controls t-r"ol" i" *nnectbd up. The banery oN/OFF switch only i""_..""rtp_";i;;;s the battery, and not to the oxternal supply sockets'

InordertoUsetheRS232v|tageleveloutputinthereceiver,anegalivesLlppIymUslbecon' rang--gV to -15V n"iiuJ ut*""n tn _ve termin;l and ground. This suppty should be in the DoES Nor VoLTAGF NEGATIVE THls oF ".: n is rvrponrnr'T TIIAT THE MAGNITUDE EXCEED -15V.

FIBRE-OPTICS EDUCATOR

APPLICATIONS AND DEMONSTRATIONS

A.1.

OPTICAL CABLES AND CONNECTORS

he fibre-optic cable to a light source, such as room lighting or window light. Notice that the I ht passes though the cable and can be seen at the other end. The effect is heightened by ssing a finger repeatedly across the end of the fibre where the ight is enterin9, and viewin he interrupteci bem comng from the fibre.

Turn on the lorcll,i provided, nd place the bulb close 1o one end of the longer lenglh of ca ble. The light comingifrom lhe fibre is yellow. This is because the fibre absorbs some colours more than others, andthe yellow light is absorbed least out o all lhe colours present in the while to.ch lght. The {/ay the cable is coiled or wound has very little effect on the tfansmission of ght through itsllength. Usinq the through-connector provided, join togethe the two optical .cables by poshiqg the two ends iio this conneclor. Again shine ihe torch lighl into one fibre 'end, nd norice that this light, allhough slighily reduced ;n itensity by the conneror, sti psses through the onnected fibres.
lf the fibe ends become diny, they sho!ld be clea ned to mininise optici losses. This is eas ity dono by wipi'lg them lightly with damp cloth.

/.2

ANALOGUETRANSMISSION

When the Educalrr is Lrsed in the analogue mode,lhe output light intensity at the transmitler is directly proportipnlto the nput vollage signal {plus a d.c. bias).

'-4.2.1 FadoSignalOver'Free-Space'
Switch on both the transmittef and receiver, nd s\ritch both overlo analogue. {The transmitler's output nd$ator and high radiance red ciiode, and also the receiver's nalogue indicalor should now be qh). Turn on the FM radio, ad tune in to clear sig na | (th FM band normly gives the best recep" ton wthin a building). Using one ofthe eiectrical iads provided, connect the earphone output socket of the radio to the 'low Z' sockel of rhe transmitrer. Set hc transmi1er analogue gain ccntrol to minimum {by turning it fu,ly anticlockwise}. Put the lrnsmitter oulput power onto maximm by tuining the output power contro fully clockwisg,.Adjust the radio volume control uniil the trarlsmitter'5 output indicator begins.to flicker in inlensity, and then reduce this ,ofume conlrol to the point where this intensity just becomes constant. (This procedure ensures that the transmitter js giving out a signal wkh verv little dstortion).
Turn on the lo!dspeker/low Z switch. Place the receiver so that the receive diode socket s facing the emitring diode socket of the transmitter, and adjust the anlogue gain of the feceivef until an adequate output is heard from the loudspeaker. lf the sound is distorted, tiren turn down the radio'S volume control until the distortion disappeas. The receiver nd transmittef units may be sparated by a distance of a fe!,v metres while still maintaining transmrsson.
In this demonslralion. the signal being transmitted comes mainly frorn the infra-red light emitting diode. This can be shown by placing a finger over the high radiance red diode and noting that the level of the received signal s hardly affected. (The outpUt powef ofthe infra-red diode s higherth6nthat ofthe hgh radiace red diode).

To show that infra-red radiation behaves in a very similar way to visible light, place the tfansmitter and receiver at right-anglss, and position a mirror or ay reflecting material to reflect the radiation into the receiving diode when soud will gi be produced atthe lodspeaker.
It is possible to transmit the op'lical signal over many hundreds oimetres using a lens system. This is done by positioning a converging lens one focl length way lrom lhe trnsrn;tling dlode (ad thereby producng a parallel light bem), and accuftely positioning another converging les some distsnce along the light beam, and focussing the slgn6l down onto the ieceiving diode {which is similarly one iocal length awy frorn the lens ). Figue A.2.1.1 ilustrates tn ts arrngement.

The abcve demonstrations may be carried out usinq the output from the digital square wave genertor as the transmitted sgal.

f-

10

Fig

A.2.r.r

rnsmlssion over a lang distance usng tenses

fRANSMITTER

FECEIVER

D rnay be many hundreds of metres

wilh accurale

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A.2.2

Radio Signal Over Optical Fibre

Connect the radio to the transm;tter, ad set u p the sig na I levels as in the fist lwo prag rphs of Section A.2.1. Turn the loupspeaker on.Iake a length of oplicl cable, anC pushJit the con_ nectors into the sockets at bdrh ihe transmitter and receiver. Fleduce the output power of the tfansm;tter (by turning the otput power knob anti_clockwise) untilthe received sig na I sounds lear d undislorted. (This operation is carred out to ensure that the intensily ol the light coming oul ol the fibre is not high enough to overload the receiver). Then aiiiust he aalogue gain of the rec:elver for the mpst suilable loudspeaker sound level. A good demonstration ofthe*act that the audio sig n al is really passing down the fib16 is as fol' lows: using the set-up described in the above pargraph, turn both the transmitter output power and the recever nalogue gain to maximum (fully clockwise), connect the shorter opt_ calcble to the transmitter, and the longer c,ne lo the receiver, and position !he iree cabje e nds close to ch olher - the intnsity of ihe loudspeaker oLltput vares with the positionig of these two ends,

A.2.3

Using the Output Indicalor as the Tvansmittng Device

The output indicator diode at the transmitter emits lhe same signal s the main emitling diodes, although at lower intensity. This can be demonstraled by settinq up the transmitter and rece;ver for nalogue transrnission of the radio signal. Turn the transrnitter output power to maximum, and the receiver analogue gain to maximum. Conect the smaliei ieng!h of fibre to the receiver input soct(et, and positio the other end ofthis fbre close to the transmitter output indicator. The radio signal will be heard at the loudspeaker.

A.2.4

Voce Sgnal Over System

Demonstrations A.2.1 and A.2.2 can be carried out using the m;crophone connected into ihe 'high Z' socket of the transmitter, wilh the radio disconnected. l order to prevent the high' pitched whistle caused by feedback trom loudspeaker lo ic]'ophone, separate the loudspeaker and microphone by as much as the opticl ad eleclrical cables permit, and re_ duce the nalogue gain in the recever nd/or the transmitter's outpul power until the whistling stops. The transmitter analogue gan should be at maximum in these dernonstratons.

'tl

4.2.5

GeneralAnalogue Signats Over Sysrem Any analogue signal ln the bandwidth of Z5H to 25kHz may be passed through rne sysrern. The16 are choics of high and low impednce sockets at boih the trasmitter ;d recelver. Care must always be taken when tfansmifting analogue signals 1o ensure hat:

1.

The analogue gain in the transmifl er must be adjusted to ensure that the srgnat at the

emifting diodes s not high enough io distort the opticl output through ,clipping,. lf this signal is ioo high, the transittr indicator. diode \ /i ituclure j;inlensity.lhe highest suitbte gai of the antogue signat is ar a position just less than when rh s intensity fluctuaiion begis 1o occLlr, (,A more exit delerrnination rny e carrred out by calculating levels using th figufes given;n the trnsritter specificalio in Appendix B). Distortion of the optical sigal due to the l.e.d. response ror oerng exactly linear may b decreased by funher reducing the anatogue gain.

2-

The received optical power rnust or be hiqh enough to overtoad the recevel crcuitry. To set an acceptbJe leve l, carry o!t the lollowing procecture:

a. b.

power!o maxrmum (controlfully clockwise). " Switch the eceiver to djgital, and turn the threshold sensitivhy cotrol fully ant, clockwise owest sensitivity). lfthe digitat indicaror lighr is OFF, foltow nsrruction Ct, and jf ir is ON, foIow C2. lfthe receiver's digit I indicator tight is OFF: C1 Leave the trasrnitled power t irs maximum positio, and swtch ihe recetver to anlogue, The systean is now set up for lhe transmission of anatogue sjgnls, and ih receiver nalogue gain may be djusted to the required leve1. lfthe receiver's digitalindicator tght is ON: C2 Turn the trasmitler output power control anti,clockwise untillhe indicalor iust goes OFF, and switch the recever back to nalogue operation. The system ls ow set up for the trasmission of analcgue signars, and the recervef ana ogue gjn rnay be djLrsied to the fe{luired tevel. Throughout the above setling,up procedure,lhe buzzer may be svr'itched on and used s the indictor jnstead ofthe digital inCicatof light. (Specia deslgn features in the receiver circuilry 1o reduce ihe tihetihtC of 'signal overload do in fact permitthe d.c. component ofthe input signto be pt a higher levelthan tht allo!/ed for by the above setling-up pocedure),
ii

Connect up the optical route, set th trnsmitter to analogLe and turn the ouiput

_ 4.2.6 Using a Hllecting Diphragm

as a Trnsmitter

aonnect the er4hone with'.he rop reroved (this is provided with the Educatorl Inlo rhe ear_ phone socket ol the rdio. Tur rhe radio vo{ume control uo 10 a high level. Turn the rouospeaker on, bwtch the rceiver to analogue and turn;1s anaiogue gain up to rnximum. Connect lhe shoder opticat cable to the rec,ojver, nd position theiorc, ear;lece ao cabte enO as In frguie 4,2,6.1. Do not place the torch bulb nd the cabje end too close to the eafpiece, of the :ccerver may be overloaded by tie signal. AdjLrst the positions of the torch and cable !ntil a slrog souno s Droduced by the loudspeaker.
The effectis caused by the metal diaphrgm ofthe earpiece modulatig the reflecteo,trght, and so producing a ight beam at the fibre which varies in itensity !.r'ilh the original audio signal.

FigureA.2.6:1 Reflectng Daphragm Transmtter

BLE END

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i2

A.2.7

'Listen ing to Lisht'

With rhe rceiver set up as in A.2.6, point rhe opt;cBl ca bte th l is conecred o !he reoeiver rn the direction of an electric light. The 10OHz mins ,hum,wi be he rcj t the loudspeaker. This eflect shows th at the light from a light source lhat is run lronr the mins supply is ;n fact vrying in intnsity at 100H2, a frequency too fasi for the eye to detecr. (The freouency is 100H2 rath e r thn the mains frequency oi S0Hz, since the power ourp!1 of a mains so! rce is retated to the square of the volrge, whjch has the ellect of freqLrency doublig ).

A.2-8 Opticl

Fedback

Wih the receiver set up as in A.2.6, position the free end ol rhe optical cable close to the anlogue indicator diode of the receiver. A oise wil be heard at ihe loudsoeaker. and the frequency and intensity of ths sound my be cha ng ed by adjustinq ihe position of the cabte end or altering the receiver analogue gjn.
This eflect is due to opt;caJ feedback, since the an alog ue indiclor is drjven by voltage signl that is produced by the receiver ampiifier. Direcling the lighr ol ihis indicaror i1o ine rnpLrt fibre completes the loop. The effect is simitar to the ,whisrling,that cn.pccur in a microphone/ amplifier/loudspeaker system, where the leedback is from the loudspeakef 1o the microphone.
A similar positive feedback effect may be demonslrred by
co n n ecljng I he h;gh 2'input ofthe lransmrtter to the 'high Z' output of the receiver, wilh both unhs on analoque ano rne loJdsoea\er swirc]-ed on, nd ;ring up the lransm:ning and r-cpivinq d oJps.

4.2.9

Other Analogue Sgnals

o r

A varlety of demonstrations, applications or experimels involving rhe reception light signals may be devised by the user. Possibitities include:

narogue
a

1. 2. 3.

using a rotatig disc with pre,coded makings and a lighl soLrce modulated lignlsignalat rl- |ece ve-;

io

provroe

measuring the frequency of rotating disc or vibrating object using lig ht reflection orlransmtsston:

usingthefib.easn'opticalwand'todetectapre-prepared'bar-code.

It is possible to 'llsten'to a number of different l;ght sources by usin 9 the receiver/louclspeakei arrangement. Detecting the 100H2 hum of mains lighting hs lready bcen menroneo. Another exmple is the'hiss'that torch Iight or daylight produces {but be careful ot to overload the receiver by pointing the receive diode directly at a very bight light source). lf the torch is knocked, a hi-ah pitched sound is heard at the loudspeaker - this is caused by the torch bu lb's filament vibftng a1a high freq!ency.1t is possible to ,listen,to light inlensity variations caused ty ature, s uch as the high frequency produced by eflecting sunlighr off a fly's wings

Another effective demonstration of'listening to light'is lo use the va ria b e ffequency sque wave generatof ;n the trafsmitter as the source. changing lhe frequency alters the pitch o the sound heard r the receifer. The higher frequences cannot be detected by rhe et,e, alihough they are readily detectaqle by the ear. Turning the trasrifte ol'pseLtdo random signal, produces a sound with \,lhich players of complter games wil befamiliar. Demonstrations of the sence of infra-red rdiaiion may be convlcine ly carried o!t whh the Educator. For examp :, a diffraction patlern prod!ced by the lrnsrnitler's infra-red source together with a diffracti n grating may be detected usirg an audio transmissjon procedure simil r to those describeq inSecl;onsA.2. a-dA.2.2,wllhl-esq-a.ewaJas.hetra.sn-i.1pd

srgnal.

lf the HIGH Z output of the receiver is !sed, then the LOUDSpEAKERi LOW Z switch may bs turned off i oder to reduce power cos!mption as we I as to disconect lhe loudsoeaker,

13

A,3

DIGITALTRANSMISSION

yTi':ifo"l:::"J:'.1',.""'llt""?iii::T;,?ill",?1,liili,,o,,"',n"''.ans;itleris
4.3.1 MorseCommunications

erheroN

th transmer to digkal operatior posiljon, nd set rhe o,,;;p;;;;;;:,,<,1:lJl",ffrl"r?:llflJ ,he rrucoNrAcr,,MoRSE

Set

ffJ[:::lj ill;'#:":sirion,

Atlh_e receiver, set rhe anatogLre/digiti sw]l:lr io di.9ilt, puf the digitat threshotd sensitivjry and tu,n rhe buzer swiich on. conneci"" opii""ii"or"

0",*""n

Depressing the morse keywillcause lh(

Hq;!iii:"'"::;i".r,""Jr::.[1ti"r;t*H#:1ffit;]ta#::*:i] 'ft:: l:'J:x t"JL *r;J::n:::r,.T,[xlimt*ir;;,;xlimr" ;r::::

tishr"does not activate te re'ceiuei.-iJn",r," l:.::1.:',:fTn ln" ,irurno,o s|Irvly ts sel t marimum, lhe receiver ""n_ ruu"r r;u.t snw,-iiui;;;;;;;;:,;i,;',"J,.,.""il.:l"il1ij''u. aod wirr trsser orr an opticar

i:;,';i ""ilJl"",i"#;lill;:11il..,ilTfi i$:. i:,1i1,?::il::ili: iHJ::ll:."",,"j i J,,xxi:r*[ljru,n::l**iilu"_n"ru: ol.ksround

o. rr,"

The digirat rece;ver circuitry mav lso b(

i;,"

"onn".'"ii;

i^'"

;;;'"i;;

A morse signal may be commrnicte.i from transmitter to receiver over ,free_spce, rather than.rhrough an oplicat c ble. This demc
trnsmssion r.,"*" r"ll,"l,"oi"':i:fl?":"ffi;,Xr","""Tff, maximum 6nd with th dighalthresholc recever.way rrom an, unnr., that achievabl in the anlogue",._""lli,TiiJlrx'"i::i,T"l:ffi:l:,1:r"r:1i"#:lT# demonstrat;on described in A.2.1, Aru ioli" fr", ,nu, ,lru ,"_ cevei's digitalsensitivity is not as hgh as hs analogue sensilivity.

lu;s::;*i*i'l:;1,'#ift:ni:l'i]riI":'?:li"tT;i"?J?::J',?,'"'i""""'1ii;:i:ii :;"".;nTTjll'.-:j

4.3.2

Communidtions tjsing InternatDigital Sgnst Gnerator Instead ol transmitting rorse signa, t, (which may oe v,ewed as an .ruro-,,," n,'o,"n .oo" |"",,1J:fi1,i;""1.;",:l:;: "isnarsource

.o,.""-uyruinj'B""";;;r',;'iilil;,;,:;l"lti3;l;,],1i,lilli,:,:'":[ii"::i::i_Hi:]
4.3.3 ceneral
i

:"i:?"iy:,? ;ti:;:x::n:;ig il:t1" :11y::::,::I; i:l"jii"i"diil:hq ::,;:l scribed in the firs| two paragraphs of I
Digital Signals Ove System

Both the transmitter and receiver must be set to .digital, for digital operation. The digital bandwdth of the system is D.C. to 2OkBit/s. A number of digital interfaces TTL

are pro_

cMos
V

i I

RS232 Signii Vctrage

Conlct Switch

or""

"oJtet ;; i".." it"r,"""",. li'}""f[':::;J#:"Ji:il["J::#ffi ru.":;11i:::i::::

At the traosmt1er, nly one of the TTL, CMOS o RS232 can be used at any one time. Selection is crred out by mrbans of ihe multi_oos;tion otary slvtch together witir the corresponding inp,ur socket. {The slgnai is .onneded between t" releunt a^o if," !r"r"o. *r_i"uf 1.

t4
;

shortng the sockets.

A'conlacf interfce may be used ar rhe rrasrit1er. Ths is sctected by rurnig the rolary switch to TTL/CONTACT/MORSE, and conoecting wires ro the TTUCONTACT and ground ter minals. The rransminig Le_d.
is turned on by making contacr between tese

iwo wrres, rnus

is described i Secton A.3.1. The morse key may be presselr wen any other interface is being used, as the morse key overrides a other s;gnuL. fhi. ieurrre t. ,.", ful for checking the integity of the lik between the transmitter and the receivef. At the receiver, the digital idcator (and a lso the buzer, if switched on)goes ON if the signal is to tishr ar rhe input) and soes oFF if the sisat is a ,mark. :^.^1:::'_!:i':.rfg"!ins {corres_ ponorng lo no l9ht at the input).

Ihe morse inlerfce

,11".ecessa y sis1|characreri<rics r 1.e recFive-. rne ro cwins p.ocedL -e, vatues of ouiput power and threshold sensitivity, must be cafried out betore transmitting digtal data io order to minmise pulse width distortion: . Connect up the optical route, set th.contots io digital, and rurn the !ransmrttng diode to a conriuous ON stale. (This may be do Oy turning ii," ,ran._,rt"r" rotary switch lo CMOS, ad leavjng the CMOS terminaiuncqnn'ecteo,. b. Tur the tran sm tter,o utput power, contro I onto maxim u m (fu iy clockwise ). the receiver ,digital thfesholcl sensitivhy, controf to miimur sensltivity ", Irln {f ulty anti-clockwiseJ, lf the digita indicator tight is OFF, follow instuction d 1, ancl if it is ON, foIow d2. lfthe receiver's digital indicator light is OFF:

]:,::1"j ]: "b,:i" wlr,c sets up lhe best

dt

Increase the digitl threshold sensitivrty t the receiver (by !l.rrning the control cJockwse) unr I rhe indic1or tight jusr goes on. Note th rs position of the threshold control. Now t! rn lhe thcshold controt clockwise io rhe point mid-way between the noted position and the fu y ciockwise (i.e. maximum sensitivhy) position. (The indicator light sho;ld now tre ON). The system is now set up forthe lransmission.of digtl data. Instead of carrying out the above step the threshold sensitivlty may be set at maximm (fully clockwise). However, this results in up to typrc y 7.5psec. pulse width distortion (equivalent to 1S% at 2OkBiVs oata rte, with the percentage distortion reducing i proportion io the dta rte). Setling the threshold t rnaxirnum sensitivity enables 6 wde range of input power levels to be used if lhe 7.S/sec. distonion is not crttical to the application. ff the indicator light rmains off when the sensitivity is incfeased to its maximum position, and steps, a, b, c ancJ dt have been carfleo ou ,h: gplical sis n | at the receiver is roo weak for a disiral lin k :oll*"y ll:l ro be eslebtished. lf this is the case, check thal all the optical coneclrons are ooq, nd that the fibre ends are clean. The route attentuation may then beimeasured (See Section A.4) to ensure that it falls within the sysrem sfeor catron.

lf the receiver's diqitaJinclictor liqht is ON:

d2.

transmitters output power (turn control anti_clockwtse) until the indicbtor lighr just goes OFF (this ensures rhat the op; rnrensiry is not highlenough to oveload the receiver). Then follow instruct ons dl
RecjLrce tf,e

aDove.

the bove setting-up procedu re rhe bu?zer may be switched on nd Jhroughout used as the n, dicator nslead of the digital indicator liqht.

A.3.4 Other

Dgitat Signats
cji_

A large number.of applicatiohs, demonstrations, or experirnents involVing the receplion ol grtal-typB signals may be devised by the user_ Some examples are i

l. 2. 3.

detectionofverysma signallevesbythereceiver;
construction ofn alarm sysem based upon the presence ol a liht signat; useof theEductorastherransmittingandreceivingu;tsinanopticu,pu se counl ng system tor appliciions such s quality assurance, ancl scientific and eng neeng expeflments,

15

4,4

OPICAL.F

ATTENUATION MEASUREMENTS

4.4.1 Standa

The Fibre-Optics be used to rne

ducator, in conjunction with a digita voltreter set to read a,c. vollge, can

re the attenuation {see Section 82.1) of a fibre'optics route. The slandard proc measurrng ure is oivn i the res! of this Section, and it ls advisable for the user to familirise hims f wllh this first method befoe atlernptlng the others.

Steps a nd b mst be crried receiver.

a,

o1]1

inilia ly to esure hat there is no oplical overload at the

b.

Set.ihe receiver 1o digital operatio, and red!ce the lhreshold sen3ilivily ic, a minimum (co1rol fullyanti-clockwise). Set the trasmitterto digital operation, and set the emilling diode to a continuo!s ON by swilching oto C[4OS and leving the CMOS term]nal unconnected. Sel .t the oul!t powef oto maximum {control fllllY clockwise) Connecl a sho lenglh (about a melr)of optical cable between the transminer and receiver. This shori length of cable must have llat, clean ends in order io achieve a good rneasure' ment accuracy, Reduce the lransrnitted output power level lturn the contlolsn(i_ clocli.{ise) until the receiver's digital indicator light u5t goes OFF Do not slter lhe utput power levelthroughoutthe reainder of the measurement

. d.

furn the trasmitter onto Sqare Wave

controlto maximum (fully clockwse).

nd set the Signal Generator Frequency

Switch tl, e receiver onlo analogue, and tu rn lhe receiver's analogLre gain down to

the rNlNlMUN ilully anli-clockwise), and turn the loudspeker off. Connect a digi!alvoltrneter, which c measure .c va lu es down to a !enth of a ril i_Volt' to the 'high Z' socket oi the receiver' A 3'l2 digit DVM with a 200rV a.c scle is ideal forthis ourDose.

Take tho voltmeter reading {=Vnr), wilh the short cable legth connected beteen ihe transmitter and recever'

Con;ecl up the route 10 be measured between the lrans.rilier and rcceieet,:n place of the short lnglh, and ta ke the volirnete reding (=Vc). {Do NOT a lter any controls during SteP f). check the electr;cal noise level by switching off the transmtter and noting lhe volimeter reading {=VA}. Va will be zero ifthe DVM specified in Step d is(]sed

g.

The atteuation {or insertlon loss) of the route is calculated using the followng
forru l:

attenualon = 10loglo

Vner

dB,

Jv.,_v;t
which approxirates 1o 10logro

VFEF

dB

when VA is smallcomPared toVo

(Va s
e

ro for Stan dad Measurement 1 f a O,1mV sensitivity DV4 is usod)'

'

(SeL'AppendixClordervation of basic attenuation ormula)

For measurement of a number oi routes, only the final two steps f ano g need oe repeated' If the outpul powei level of the transrnitigr is altered, however, sleps a lo e r Llst be crrled out lo re-set a sutable level. Afier mesuring a number of roules, check that VEF is essentially the same as ihe originalvalue js The atlenuaiion rnge using the above procedure 25d8, nd the ccuracy ls within aldB' This accurary figure is predominntly deterined by the inconsislency of connector losses'

A.4.2 StndardMoasurernl2
f

carried out with the DVM connecled to the 'low Z loudspeaker/low Z swilch on), lhe anenuatio range s !ncreased

the complete meas!rement procedure (including Sleps d nd e)descrbed

1o

i Selon A'4-1 ;s ihe receiver socket of {nd wilh the

30d8. However' Va, the

.1
i

not su.ero and so lsvalue must be t ken into ccounl in if a relatively high loss route is b-eing measured. The accu' :s atten!ration formula o1 A.4.1.g. racv ls aqa;n within :!1d8,
.

o tge contribution

fro- !,oi.u, -"y

A.4.3 Hsh Loss Methods 1 and 2 l order to increase the atlenuation

range capabilily of the Educator, steps f and g of the procecure described in Seclion A.4.1 are replaced by the following (which may be used to measLr re osses of o realer lhn 15d B): Connect upthe routelo be measured between the lransmitter and recever, n . plce of the sbort reference length. Then. increase the receiver analogue gain to maximum by turnig the controlfully clockwse. Take the voltmeter reading

(=v,

).

Mesure the electrical noise levelby switching offthe transmitter, and noting the

voltrneter rebding (=Vs).

The attenuadion ol the roule is gven by the formula:

atrenudon = 10 lo9

roYt

+k

dB

,,'-v"')
where the aooroximate value of k = 15

from the ratio ofthe maximum lo minimum gain ol the receiver) Remember to turn the receiver aalogue gain back down to minimurn if re_measuremet of VREF is required.
{k is derlved

The range of lhe instrumht using this method (i.e. High Loss N4eihod 1) is 40d8, while the ccuracy is i2.5dB.
lf the above method (including Steps d and e) is c6ried out with the DVM connected to the'low Z' scckei land wilh the loudspeaker/low Z switch ON), the range is lncreased to 50d8, and the

meBsurement accuracy is

!3d8. This method is High Loss Method

'

In order to increase the dB accuracy of the High Loss Nethods, the onstnt k may be accu_ rately cjetermined by equating the measurement results of a route with a loss between 15 and 25d8, using the Standard and Higir Loss Methcds. A precise vlue of k leads to accuracies of :1.5d8 and 12dB for the High Loss Methods 1 nd 2 respectively.

444

M6asu rement

with non AMP DNP-terminated cable

The attenuation ol cable route with end connectors other th AMP DNP may aiso be mea' sured with the Fibre'Optics Educalor.ldentical methods to those described in Sectios 4.4 1to A.4.3 ae used, but whh shon {one metre or less} interlace cables connecting e Educlor units to the cble 1o be measured. Steos a to e of Section A.4.1 must be carried oul with a short length of cble terminated with the same type of cortneclors as in the route to be measured, nd this short relerence cable is also connected to the transmitter and receiver via the two in_ terface cables.

Although device/conector/cable mis'match is compensated to some exlent by the setting of the transmitied power levelin Steps a and b ol Section A.4 1, a large mis-match will result in a reduced Teasureinent rage ofthe equiprnent (although ihe accuracy will not be aflected)

15

11

trbre,opricsndgeneatopricstaborrory,productionfacitkyorataninsraitat."'.1i".""d""v""r"".

Test Equipment Applicatjons of the Educator The Educaror transmitter and receiver unjrs form usefut pieces of tesr equipment i

A-5

rro

ror mny orher lest apprictions bes ides the measurernen of fibre atlenuario as oescrbed r the previous sections.

Te transrnitler may be used as verstite o ptica I source for tesring out optical sib e te\l ^o-,:qJrl'o')s ir.lJoo:

l.

utiliSing the internatpseudo-radorn ancJ square wave generrofs .r9," '"ljsr:c di f o.mat, rhe sig.ai g"-F"ro- oL.n" r d Et lhe -a, oe _o, q52?2 S g. Ger. Vo-.lo socle l

2.

connecting an external signal genertor to the TTL ipu1lo produce oata rrls !p to a rale of 0.5 NBlVsj
g n natogue sig n | genertor in conjLrncrcn with rhe rransmitter rn anlogue mode, to produce optica signals th r correspond to those iormeo oy a dspersive medium, for testing dgirat receivers. This enalogue sel-u p rny rso be used to test aalogue optical receivers,

usil

ri
9-

ii-

in all.of-the aboie configurat;ons, the output powef control, which has a range or ppro\r, mately 20d8, provides a useful feature fOr receiver sensitivity tesiing.
Equipment terminated with connectors other than AN4p DNp ma\/ also be iesled Dy Ustn g n appropriate interface ca ble between th-" Educator nd the eq u ipl. ent udertesl, or try uti is ing the infra-red Le.d.
The Educator receiver may be used in the digital or aatogue mode to test out optictlransmrt_ le rs. Also, it ry b used in the atoque mode for giving an audib e indlcation of r rr presence or rnl-TeO raciation at locations such as lhe remoie ends of oplic links, cable bfeaks, bad roints and "iossy" opticar couprirg rfangemenrs, if the transmitled signar conrins audio frequency components. The eceiver's dighal circuitry with buzzer ouipul a lso provides a conve_ nent method lor detecting infra-red adiatio. A short tength of opticat cabl; rnay be ! sed s

probe for opticaf radiation detection purposes.

ll is also possible to rneasue the optica' absorption of reftection pfoper-ries of variCus materils at lhe wavelengths of the emittig devices by dtecling the level of raclition a! the re, ceivef (in analogue mode), wjth the transmitler set on ,squar; wave, acting as ihe source.. fhe material to be tested js inserted between the transmtter and receiver unlts iof betwee the ends of the cable attached to these) fof transrnission expeiments, and at suitble ngle lor reflection mesurements. A Dvlvl set to .c, may be used o accuately measure the stgna 1 . the'high Z'or'low Z'ralogue oulpUts.For ccL.ate 11edsl.erne,lrs o\ e- ra-c 'ilher 's i_rponant ^... to minirisc it-e cortr'bLl;on to the signa ol -ib:e. r liohr tror ;";;;q. Also, when very small signl levels are being measufed, the elfect of electricat -"t;; o ise ol re re_ cerver may be taken nto account by using the square root of the d iffe r nce of ihe sqr.lares tor_ mula, whch has been used in Stens f nd g o section A.4.1, i.e., Signat Vottage = Iitorut Vot_ tage)'?- lNoise Vottao)r] r/r.

19

PRINCIPLES

AND
APPLIGATIONS
OF FIBRE-OPTICS

20

8.1

INTRODUCTIONTO FIBRE.OPfICSCOMMUNICATIONS

A opticl fibre is a strand

of glass or plastic with s pecia I optical pfopedies (10 be described in Seclio 8.2.1) which enable light ro t.svel a farge distance down ils te ngth. By convcrling electrical sig na ls into light at a trnsmitter, sending this lighl down a le gth of opiicat flDre, ano reconstituting th electricalsignals in a receiver, a comrnunicarions tink is formed. The id ea fo. using giss as a tfnsmission medium, isread of etec!rica wi.e, ws pul forward in the U.K. in the early 1960's. Initially, the main practicl prob em of retisinq rhis idea was in prcducing g lass clear enough to let the light pass down it withoul suflelng from lr gc reuuction in intensity. I the middle of the 1970's, a maior breakthrough was achieved in prooucrng fibre with an aflenuation of 3dB per kilometre, th at is, the light ilensity is redLrced to half of i1s inilial value after passing down one kilometrg of fibre. To illustrate the magnitude of thls achieverent, normal window glss llows light to trvel onty one cenlir elre before lls Inren, sily lalls io half of its original value. Since the beginnig of th is d ecde, fibre-optics rechnotogy hs developdd 10 such n extent that many hundreds of ki ometres of optical inks have been nslalled in rhe U.K., pfimrlv in the British Telecom network.

ll:

Oplical fibre comrnunication systems have many dvntages over convenlionl electrical iks. The maln advanlage that is being utilsed in the British Telecol.n inslallarions is ihat of greater transmission distance - n electrical cable carrying 2,000 telephone conversaiios must have a signal boost every 2km, as compared to Bkm for lhe'irsl geertion' optical links carrying ihe srne traffc. The current state of the art allows transmissicn over t00km at this lraffic cpacily usig libre,optics.
The dvantages of libre-opticg, together with applications to utilise these, ar listed below:

Advantases
Long transrnisslo distnces H;gh information carryng (= hjgh dat rtes)

li f-

Applications
l

I l No electromgnetic nterferenbe I No eanh loops i Secure - no encrgy lekage Conrplete electrical isolation Light-weight No possibllity of spa rks along cable pth

capcity I

j rl

B.T. neiwork, Mercury network, cabled cities.

Compurer comrnunicatloris.
Links in electrical y'noisy' environmenls, e.g. railways, fctories.

Telephone exchange wlring.

/ililarycommunicatlons.
Links in high voitage electrical installaiions.

Inta-aircraft communications.

Linksinoilandgasinstllations,andmines.

Oplical fibre systems are beginning to ply a significant role in lelecornrnLinicatlons and lnformation Techology, and will bntinue to do so for rany yers to come. By the end of the decade, fibre-optics will probably become the dominant trsmission medlum ln the majorly of cable communications applictions.

8,2.

EUILDING BLOCKS OF A FIBRE-OPTICS SYSTEM

Fig!fe 8.2. gives the rnain component parts of a fibre-optics transmission system. fhe coder converts lhe original electricfsignal inlo a format suitable for lransmission over the svslem. Curret arnplification logether'with optical oulput control functions is performed by ihe Driver crcuilry, which leeds the eritling devire. This device cn be e rlrcr a light e..illing diode (l.e.d.) or laser. The light signal is then launched into the fibe, which is contained in a cble for proteciion purposes, and long the route there may be nurnber ofthrough-connectors nd Repealer Stalions. Through-connectors al ow separale cable engths io be joined to' gethr. Repealer (or'Regeneator') Sttions are required on long route in order to boost the optica signal at points before the light intensity in the fibre drops below a certain minrmum level. A repe1er contains a receiver that drives a light eri11ing devlce.
After the sig na I hs passed through the optical cable oute, it is delected by receving diode, and then amplified and decoded to regenerate the original sig n al. I/ny rsceivers a so conrain crcuitry which extracts tirning.information lrom the data, and then regeerates the pulses so that their shape conforms s closely as possible to th at o ig in lly irnsmined.
_r.he

follolvi! Sections describe the main fjbre-optics system componenls

;n more

era

s 1,' 't

2l

OO

fo
c.)

F< OZ

I
3

I
n

o<z t(Jz

o-P3

l
J

=o cc(,od:<oE
F-

j
f

t
J

a l
E

I
o
U

z
F
(9

o fz,,,
! t

F=U
Jr:

^?go
.9

c
o

o xf..,

6uz

<oo

.!

4 FA oz

ii

f
.: ' Cpt;calFibrs l_ i _-^jamental component in a fibre_optics lransmission
Xc

sYstem is the opticl fibre itself'

r : _;s a slightly f: r

IJl-i::s'ctypeoffibreiscalled'sieplndex',whichis!heformoffibrecontanedintheFibreThe , :: Trainer. . Step Index fibre consisls of a core surrouded bY a concentric cladding
:lernalreflection.Figures3.2.1.1 andB2.1.2showcross"sectionofthefibre,ndalight :. elling along it.

higher refractve index than the cldding. and so the light is able to trvel

r:-:rthecorebybeingrepeatedlyreflecledbacklromthecore/claddingboudarycluelo

8.2.1.1 Cross-secion of Step lndex

Fbre

cladding (refractive index

cob
i.

(retactive index:

Travellng Along

/ those .ays that have an angle O (see Figure 8 2.1 2) more tilan the'crhical ngle'will be :': ly internally reflected. Allbther raYs will ultimately be lost after travelling a shorl distance :: the fibre. --: cceptance angle is defined as the maximum agle with respecl to the fibre axis atwhich a :. enteiing the fibie {angle in Figure 8.2 1 2)will experence totl internal reflection in the :-: A corimonlY rsed rm n fibr;-oPtics, the Nu me rical AperlLr re {N A )is equalto the sine : ":te acceptance angle and is a function of n1 and n2
:

'

-:

:he light propagates ( e. travels) down the fibre, even those rys that are totally interally

:'ecteiwillsuffeisomeinthsityreduction,called'attenLJation'Themainresonforthisat_ r-Jationisthepresenceofimpuritiesinthefibremalerial,whichcausethelighttobeeither
-,:5 c

i_ optimum wavelength that is attenuted least, and which is therefore normally used to :rsmir signals. Glasi fibres have this optimum wavelength in the infra_red region of the ::::rrum. while olstic fib.es, such as those provided in the Educalor, show minimum atten_
::lo n for wavelengths in lhe visible speclrum.

rbed, or scattered at a random angIe' MUch research effort has bee devoted to redLclng - amount of these impurities, and maior advances have been made in this area over the past = :,., years. The fbre ttenotion varies with the wavelength of light, and so each rnaierial has

4
23

The followig tabte gives typacl atrenuarion figures fo. dfferent fibre materials at rhe specfied wavelengrhs (se Appendx C fo the definition of dBli
FbreMatLial
{n
gf

Typical Attenuation m}

{dB/km)
5 2

ass core/glass

cladding

900 900
1,300

silica corelsilica cladding silica core/silica cladding silica corelplastic cladciing plastic core/plastic cladding

900

20

250

Another impa;rrnet to the sgnat, bes;des aftenuton, is called dispers;on. fhis efiect timks lhe highesr frequencv rhar can be rransmitlea through a cerlain tei .ilil.", .." t. cuses (catted 'mod,a dspersion) resutts from rhe ""0 f;tthat rhere a r"'Jiff" ru iii ui "r iol. i, luns,. each ray - rhose rays with rarger varues ofo (see rigure o.z.t.5 t.ve r r"., ii.,5""u."" ao"" wirh srnalfer O vatues. S;nce the tioht in a iiu,e rays *itt, ;'ii rr," angle, the tme of arival at the rece-iver ot a short "ot"ins ""s1". transmt1ed pulse"li will be spread over "rti""l a time th at is determined by the path tenoths ovewh" ," narijrji"v"irur""i, u!' light is the sams in a djrections (See Fg. 8.2.1.4). "".o"oo "r,n"

Fil.8.2.1.3 Different Angles mean Difterent

Dstances

length of Ray 1 is less thn jength of R ay 2, sirce e1 >Az

Fi9.8.2.1,4 Effects of DspeBion on a Short Ttansmitted pulse

Lis ht

Intensity

Tra

sm ihed

tim

diifll'il'il.;$!ii,""l'"ry"ili{1liJ'ii!"rJr1?#:il,""'r.ri["r3,,.f;:::ifii""i,r,,j:x

T
lf two shon pu lses afe trnsriited one after the other i quick su ccession, then the spreading of each pu lse may caLrs6 the two to overlap at the receiver {s.e Fig. 8.2.1.5). This example illu s' trates how dispersion limits the ffequency at which puJses csn be detected. since the received slgnal in Figure 8.2.1.5, could not be easily identified as havlng been generated from two sepa' rate pu lses. The.e is a phenomeno clled 'mode rnixing', however, which reduces the effecls of mode dispersion. As the ame implies, mode rnixing is the interchanging of higher order modes (i.e. rays with smaller angles O in Figufe 8.2.1.2) and lower orde. modes (rays with larger agles ) at the core/cladding interfce due to the presece of fibre imperfections, thLrs redcing the time of arrival disparity. (ln figures 8.2.1,4 and 8.2.1.5, the shape of the received pulses has been exaggerated in oder to better illustrte the impairment effects of dispersion. A typical value of mode dispersion (D) for a step index fibre is 25ns/km, resulting in a 3dB e lectrical bandwidth {B) of 15MHz. km, as B = 0.375/D).
FiSUre

-i

B.2.1.5 Effects of Dispe6ion o Two Successve Short Transmitted Pulses

Lig ht

Transmifted
Pulses

freceived Pulses

tim e

The second main cause of dispersion is due to the fact that the refractive ndex of a material, and therefore the speed of lght in that matsrial, vries wth the wavelength of light. Since ll light sources emit a ;nge (however small) of wavelengths, then a short transrt1ed pulse will spread o!rt, as in the above example, when it travels down the fibe, becar.rse the different wavelength components of the light signal will travel at dflerent speeds. This type of dispersion, which is called mtefial dispersion, has a comparatively sma I effect in step index fibres in relatio to mode dispe.sion. {Material dispersion is propolonal to the device line-width, and is typically Bops;nm km for a silica libre at 900rn wavelcngth). For the type of fibre suppled wi!h the Fibre-Optics Educator (1.e. step index, plastic core/plastic claddlngi, dispersion effects re insionificani in re ation to ttenation. oder to substantially red!ce the effects of mode dispersion,'Graded Index'libre has been developed. ln th is type of flbre, the reffactive index grdLrally decreases away from the ce n! re (see Fig. 8.2.1.6). This causes the fibre io act as a continuous lens, and the lighi rays lravel in curves rather ihan slraight lines (See Fig. 8.2.1.7). Typical core diameter r of this fibre are srni ler than those for step index, and are in the region of 50 microns. {A micron is equallo a millionth of a relre, nd there are approximately 25 micros in a thousandth of an inch). fhe typical overall dlameter oi a oraded idex fibre is 125 microns.
1n

Fig.8.2.1.6 Cro -sectional Profles of Craded lndex and Steo lnCex Fibres
GFA
Refraciive

INDEX

STEP

IN DEX

11
Centre

position across olaaneiei

I ^'

oosition
across ormeteT

Ti

25

I
3

I
o
r9

,1vel lLe 3relesl Sincp lighl r'vels fsrer :1 rFgio'ls ofrower refraclive ir-ne\' the tvs t\d' t to equlize lends This effect the highest speed. gtaded iibre also travel at in a index distanc; the time o{tr6vel ofthe differet rays, and so reduce the amount of dispersion. (A tYpicalvalue of mode dispersion for a graded index silica fibre is 0 sns/km, resuking in a 3dB electrical bandwidth of 750MHz.kr). G raded index fibres are used in the 'firsi gneration long distance transmission systerns.

Fig.

8.2.1.7

Three Rays Travellng n a Graded lndex Fibre

'3

Reducing

Refractive Index

o
rt

!i
,
?
3

Reducing Refractive

Ray3 Length> Ray2 Length> Ry 1 Length

3
,.t
,i

A third type of fibre, called 'monomode', exhibils very low dispersion. Monomode fibre has a core diamele so small that only one 'ray', the central one' is llowed to travel down its 1egth

and therefore rode dispersion is elimina!ed Highdataratesand'therfore,Largeamounisof information. can be transmilled down this type of fibre, although its small dimeter (typically join' 1o microns) mans that lau nching light into the libre (for which a laser must be u sed ), and

ing fibre ends require highiy sophislicaled techniques. The wavelenglhs that have been used for the first generalion 1og-dstance systems are In lhe region of 90C;m (called the 'firstwindow', since this is the shortest wavelength that is used for tr;smission), due to the reTatively low loss of the fibre nd the ready availabilily of suilable trnsmitting and receiving devices at lhese wavelengths. For the second generatron systems, the 13oOnm region is also beng used, since the fibre exhibiis a very 1ow attenuaiion al this wavelength. Future systems will operale at even longer wavelegths, including 1600nm whee the rnaterial dispersion approches zero, thus allowing for extremely long un-repea_ tered hiah dta-rte routes when lasers re used in conjunction with monorode fibre'

)
5

,i

!
,'i

')
i]

8.2.2 Light Emtting

Devices

.J
_t

Two main types of emitting devices are used in fibre-optics syslems (l.e.d.sland lasers.

lighi emitling diodes

',
_s

8.2.2.'l

L.e.d

i,
,ri

The l.e.d,s use for fibre optics are similar to those used for specialproperiies: they do have

lighf indicating' appllcations, but

radiance {i.e., power output per solld angle per Llnit area) must be high in to lunch sn adequate light intensity into a fibre;

,3

2.

riiL and fall times must

be small if high data rates are to be

transmitted'

't
t

Figore8-2.2.1ihowsthepoweroutpulgainstcurrentinpLrtloratYpical leS Forsmallcurre-nts. the oower/current relationship is approximately lineat but the output eficiency red!ces s the current is increased bevond a certain val(]e ln digilal lransmission' the current throLrgh th Le.d. is pulsed, giving coresponding light pulses at the l.e.d. outpul

,.7
Figure

8.2.2.1 Power

Ag:ainst Current forTypicat L-e.d.

200

Outpul
(%, 100% at 50mA)

1oo

Current lnput
(m q)
I

roughly iearnaturofthepower/currentgraphatlowcurrentsenblesanaloguetfans_ -ission to be carried out by biasing the diode t a !ow curre1, and then adding a modulatig :.rrrent signal thal is proportional to the orjginal voltage, but the signal current rnLJst be kept :nall in order to minimise distortion resulting fror the fact th at the power/cu rrenl Curve s ot :raclly linea r. -o ensure m;nimum losses in lau nch in g light lrom an I e.d into a fibre, the emitling area ofthe
re

:vice should be less than the core area of the fibre (otherlvise the loss fclof due lo area mis^atch will be Dooortionl to the reltive areas). lt is also important to take into account the \umerical Aperture of the fbre (see Section 8.2.1) when estimating launched power, since propagate down the fL're fhe 'ght rays at;ngles oulside the angle of acceptance will not in contact wilh the fibre = a device fibre from index into a step ,ount of light launched 37 {N.A.)2a Watts, where:
F is the radiance of the device in Watts/Sleradin/cm2; N.A. is the Numericl Apertue of the fibre;

ihe device or the fibre, whichever is ihe smller. : factor of 0.5 appears in the above equatio when a graded index fibre is being considefed' :ypical optical power levels'{hat are launched into a libre at a 50mA I e d. drive cLrrreni are in : re order of 25 micro-Watts fii.e. 25 millionths of a Watt).
a is the rea in cm2 of

3.2,2,2

Lasers

.!

:emiconductor lser diodes produce a higher infensity oLltput than I e d.s' and can normally e modulled at higher freduencies. However, they are more expensive and rnore complr_ aated to drive than Le.d.s anij cn only be justified for high dta rate, long dislance cor rm! ni_ ;ations. Fig. 8.2.2.2 shows a fypical power/curfent curue for a laser diode Below certain cur 'ent, clled lhe threshold crrenl, the output power is reiatively small, snce the device is rperating principally as an l;,e.d. Above the threshojd cufrent" lsng begins to occur and lhe :ower output rises dramatically. A typical oplicl power level launched into a fibre by a laser s 1 the region of 1O mill-Walls (i.e., ten thoLrsandths of a Watt). ls the ooticl oower oulput for a lase r varies so sharply with current it is essential to provioe . ptical feedbck from the output of the der'ice in order 1o detect the value ofthe thrshold cu'' _:n!. This fact makes laser driver circuitry design relatively complex compered to I e d driver :slgn.

21

g.8.2.2.2

PowerAgainst Cuffent for a Typical Semconductor Lser

I
Output

100

150

Current Inpul {rnA) Th reshold Current

n of a ser isrypicay factor of a few hunded tess than that or an t.e.d., ]l: l]l,1yl* nd :i"jt]:l so mteriat dispersion effects (see Section 8.2.1)
Ja

are reducej, makig lase I devrces mofe sujtable than Le.d.s for most high frequency applicaiios. (A laser has aiypicai line_wtdfh of 0.1nm compared io b0ni for n Le.d.l.

8.2.3 Light

Receiving Devces

There re two mah types of devices in the detection of optical communications sig n ls _ p-i-n diodes and avaanche diodes. _used Phofo-transistors are also used in a lirnhed numbei of ap_ plications.

4.2.3.1

P--n dodes

_",".reverse bisvorlage ofrypicaly 5 to 1o vorts is appried to the deur"in oruno r. cpactance nd to ensLrre fast signal rise and fall times. As light '."ou"u strikes the altlve area, ec light photon releases an electron whch contributes to the eleitric c!rrent thr;uoh the diode. Therefore, the current is proportional to the tight intensity, and tipi"rf"o"r".jn *,," ,. O.S Amps per watl at 900nm wverength for a siricon device. The active area of the r-eceve oioe should be larger thn the core rea of the fibre to esure minjmal coupl"g l;.."..
ria l

P-i-n diodes (pronoUnced pin diodes) are so called because of the chemical make,p ot the de_ vices: an'lntrinsic'mater;l is sandwiched between ,poskively,ana,N"guti,r"ty;oop"o

8.2.3.2 AvalancheDodes
Avalanche dodes have a h;gher sensitivity than p-i,n devices, b!ri rhey are more comptex 1o drive. The term 'avatanche, derives {rom the fact that an incoming pnoion of fioi ."r"""". un electfon (as in the case of a p-i"n diode), but this elecrron is then aclcelerated to _high speed by a strong etectic field, and further electrons re retesed by collisios wilh the hrgh speed oes Avalnch-e diDdes therefore provide n internal curreni gain, and have a iypicat conver_ son factor of 100 Amps per Watl at 900nm wavelength. In orer to produce th htgh electric field, a vohage of rhe order of 1OO Votrs must be appl:ed to the devic". r" ali" tu., , nu, ,n" diode is a qickty chansing function of rhe apo["J"o1,"g", *"uu.k control must normily be incorporated into the high voltage " circuiirv.

:::,:l 1.1:lt:*h:

'nche-diode receivers are lypicattV fifiy times more senst;ve than their p,i_n diode coun_ Million Bits f,r.second).rray,have a sensidvity down to 1nW (i.e. oe thouiandrh of a millionh of a Wattl, ^lle ,similar p-i-n diode deslbn is oly able to oper6te down to a received optcal power level r {Jw. However, very sophlsticated p_i_n diode based recejvers involving specjal forms of
'f,P:a rts. As n evamp,e, n ai+fanche.diode receiver operaring at 10MB;ts li.e. t 0

r.

(Lrsing.thick-filmitechnology rther than discrete compnenis) have been de_ s_.reo wrrn sensrlrvrtres appqching those of avala nch e diode circults, and th ese find pa rticUtr pprcron rn tonger wavelength receivers since at these wavelengths su ita ble avatanane rer;ces are difficult to fabricte.

=Fslrucron

X23.:

Photo-transisrors I
;

r e photo-transistor, the current, whch js produced by the light photons falling on the sensi, .1!e mterial and relesg electrons, is amplifed by normal transistor acrion. -lhs anternai !-rlificr;on may resutl in simpter receiver cicuitry than with the p-i,n diode, bur rne photo_ _r?-srstor shbws n ifeio peformance to the p i,n diode lor the lo owinq reasoos:

t is

more'noisy'

ils freoue'lcy response is lower

:

-it gives a significnt output even if no light is falling on it (i.e. k has high ,dark cufrent'l
'cto-transistors are thereforij only used ;n applications involving low frequencies and high 'E:ived optical signal levels.l

l4

L.e.d. Drivers and Front-end Receivers

.

a4.1 L.e.d. Drivers r :rder to pulse the l.e.d. for digital

transmiss;on, a standard ITL peripheral driver (such as ? ?5452) or the collector of a discrete transistor may be used. Analogue transmission may be rrolemented by using tranistor in an ,emitterfollower,configuration with the Le.d, conj rFied at the collector. and prqvdjng a current bias to the device.

!-1.2 Front-end Receivrs 4 ,riety of front-end recever crcuit designs exist, and the two commonly
''cw-impedance' and 'tra nsimpedance, desg ns.

used types are the

fe

-re low-impedance circuit consists of a esistve load across which the diode currenr oener_ d1!s a vohage (see Figure 8.2.4.1). Ihis voltage is then amplified by standard methods.-A disrntage ofthe low-impedape cicuit is its limjted frequency response, which resutts trom
.ombination of the diode capacitance together with the resistance of the load.
Figure

a,

8,2.4.1 Low-impedance

Recever Desgn

To Further Ampliflction

Amplifier

}:

29

thB problem of low frequency respose, ancl also to achieve a relalively high senvrty' a.transirhpedance desig ;s used. This circuil is smirar ro rhe low,impedance crrcuil i n mplifier {se e FigLrre 4.2.4.2), and its ressiance for bandwidth considerlio1s is reduced by a facror q ral :1l4lrl: :nq 'ifle:rive Io rne open-roopi9an oflhe amprifier. The higher varue of,oad resislance that is possibre with lhe.lnsimpedafce design resutrs in a hgheisun"itiuity Ue"uu." it ei"r.i oi,f.r" lo"j res rslo r rs propohional rc the square root of ll, whereas the signal varies with"oi!" R, so the Sigal lo Noise Ratio {S:N.R.) increases with the sauare root of R.
s'|r

_I lo overcome

FigureB.2.4.2 Transmpedance ReceverDes;gn

Transimpedance Load

Receive

Diode

Arn

plilier

Amplification

A third type of ltont-end recejvei. is known as the ,high_mpednce,desjgn, nd thrs atso shows a high sen6itivty.Ihe front-end circuit is similar 1o th t in Figrrre B.Z.4.t,lhe row-tmpedance desjg, but the Ioad res;stor has a relatively high vlue and thirelore seriousty lmits the rrequency response. However, the required bandwidth js restored by a specia | ,equalising, fil ief following the mplifier.

8.2.5 Connectors,

Cables and passive Components

8.2.5.1 Connectors
The principle of allflbre-optc conne.tors is to tign Nvo fibres so rht. ma\i.num quantrty ot lighl is transmitted from one to lhe other. There is litlle problem jn connectrg ptstir

libres with relatively lrge diameters (for example the tmm climeier fibre as supiiieo w.ttt tte Educator), but the glass fibres used for lcng-distance telecomrnunicalions are t;ptca y 5O1nr {equal to one tlventeth of a mr) in dlameter and requre urtr"rnaly pr"air" methods",,gnrn"nt
Connectors may be broadly divded into two groups:

1, 2.

Demountable connectors which are designed to be connecteC nd ciisccl_ necledwhen required.

Permaent conectors, which are desjgned to be connected just once, no remain n position permanentiy.

Optical demounlable connectors for glass fibres contain highly ccurte argnment mechanisms, incorporating devices such as precision terrules, rliialure rods or lrail beaf, ings, Permanent connectors are normaiiy based on fusion joinls, or geometric rnechanrcal aiignment methods such as a 'V' groove. Fu-sion joinls involve a lig r ing ihe f;bre ends ro!ghly, and then applying an eiectric arc which liquifies the ends and brings them accuratety iog;ther using surface tenson forces. A 'V, groove joint is based on a blocl containing a ,V. groove o{ similar cross-sectional dinlensions to the fibre, and the connection is made-by brrngrng rne fibres together in the groove, and fxing the ends in positicn using special epoxy cemenr
Becuse of the diffjculties involved in producig precjsion demountab e conectors, rnerr optical losses {typicalry l dB) are cr an order of magnitude higher than lhc,se of stndarrl perma.ei connectors (typjclly 0. j dB),
F_-.'--'

7
8.2.5.2
Optcl Cabtes
of fibres togerher, sive them nechanrca prorec_ cases, copper wjreslor powering reperer equrp,
of cable is to sroup a number ]l: .: tron !:rjjo,s: nd strength, and to provide, n some

ment. An mportant consideration in cabre design s to ensure that the anenulion of the fibres s not significantry increased bv the pressure of ihe cabre waIs on rhe out"ie oi ie t0r"". rr" pressure may cuse small diFtonions to the libre, cllecj microbending, resulting in sore tght beino losl
l

-,i

Telecornmunicatons cablegitypically contain I fibres, nd use either sleeT or a specrt tough non-metallic material callediKevlar lor strength members.

of lhe optical lFsges ihat occu r in these passive cornponents. A la rge amout of research ani devetopmenr tvorl is be ng devoted lo procJucing more efficiet coLrplng r rangerenrs, and low ross j(rnctions shourd be avirabre n te not-too,distant future. fibw, e!er, Ihe presenl lck of suitabte pssive components does plc fibre,optics al a drsadvnIage In number of ppticarions, d the main use of fibre-optic systers is still rn pornr-io point communications.

8.2.5.3 PassiveOpticatCodrponents etecrr4c| .r'and ,Star,j!nctions do exist, but are nct currenrry widety 3l]:.11::.1I"1:i:' :t u-seo Decaqse

8,3

NON.TELECOMMUNICATIONS APPLICATIONS OF FIBRE.OPTICS

Fibre'optjcs technology canibe used for many lypes of applications oulside the fietd ol te tecommunicatios. These inclitde: 1. illuminalion, thi is, the carrying of light from a soLr rce to one or moTe roca!ons for the purposes of illumination;

2. 3.

'coherent'jmaqe transmssion, whereby through a {ibre Iiundle;

lens_produced rnage is transmjtted

detecrionofph\4sicalphenomenasuchasvjbrationsorelecrro magneticfietds, by using their effecls on the transmission of light through a fibre. These are described in rnore detail in the following sections.

8.3.1 llluminaton
Many examples exisl of the se of fibre-optics fof illumination purposes: 1. car panelight;ng, where fbre bundles are used to channel light from lioht source to vrjous points on the front panel;

cenral

2. 3.

crbrake lightsensors,whichincorporatefibrelinksfromthebraketignrsro poi1s on the driver,s pael. With this sysrem ihe driver can readity detect whether the car's brake lights are working;
lamps tat are designed to illuminte objects located in awkwrd positions. These lighiing systems contain a fjbre bundle enclosed within a ilexible arm, which a ows precise posjtioning ofrhe light beam.

Practlclly all the illmnation applicatios of fibre_optics use libre bundles, which are made up of many closely-packed optical-fibre strands that allow a relatively high light ntensrry ro be transmitled from one bundle ed to the other. The optical losses oi thJse fibres o. ,elatvefy high, since lypical bundle lengths are smalt lusua y less than B meffesl. "on

8.3.2'Cohrent'lmageTransmission
The main er amole of a 'coherent' ;mage transmission system is an endoscope, an instrument useci In the med'car fierd for obsFrvatiors of inre ial o'gar s rhr re .or;a,;y inaccessrbre. The_c.ldoscope u ses a special form of opticat.f:bre bundte: in whiLh art th;iib,;s maillain th eir rerarrve posrtrons throughout lhe whole buhdle lengih, hence the term ,cohere1,. An image is of rhe endosco-pe tighr,pipe; usins te ns syo"-. un ti" n]ugu *""p" l:il^""l1 "1,: :1" "id ,nroush.rhe bundte, and is viewed i the orher end rhroush n eye_prece. Ine enooscope so Lrses a fibre bLrndle ro carry light frorn sourcc at the vie;ing end, to pfo-

l: ]"]:::ll l:t:".

vide illLrmination for the objet.

3l

8.3.3 Derecton

of Physical Phenomena

Some excitations modify optical signals, and these excitations ry be detected by monirori;g the affected light emanating from a fib.e end. For exmple, vibrting a length of fibie cuses !he attenuation, 6d therefore the received light inlensity, to fl!ctuate at lhe vibfalion frequency. Also, subjecting special materials to stog electric orl.nagret;c field will ca use some rotation of the axis of polarisation of the transmined light, end if this light is la u ch ed into a monomode fibre, the changes may b detected at the receiver. These ef{ects can be uli ised in the designs of scientific instruments.

8.3.4 Other Non.telecommuncationsApplictions

New types of applications of fibre'optics are being introduced at a icreasingly high rate. Examples are:

1. 2. 3.

burglaralarmsysterns,wherethebreakingofafibfe inkactivatesanlrrn. Fibres have the advantage of being exrremeiy difficuli to 'by'pass', whereas (hrs can be done fairly readily with an eleclrical system; measurement of optcalq!antities, such as lrnsmisslon, reflection, inlensily
and phosphorescence;
the displacement ofthe imge on
a

VDU screen using

lrge'coherent'fibre

bundle.
1n

f!ture years, optical fibre products will become a cornmon

featue in nurerous applica-

tions, in both telecommunications and non-telecommuncations areas.

8,4

INFORMATIqN TECHNOLOGY _ AN INTRODUCTION

Information Techdlogy (1.T.) is the ew nme given 1o modern syslems that process, store and communicate bata. In the pst, the two main cornponents lh at came under th is dfinitio were large compters and the public telephone network. These corputers, mainly main_ frames and mini-cmputers, were used only by very lrge idustrial and Government organi_ sations for aprlicalions such as databases, accounting, and scientific processing.
Ovr the past decide, major innovations have tken place in the design and production of electronic devices, the fdamental building blocks of l.T. systems. These devices have be corre significantly smaller in size, operate at much highe speeds, cosume smller arnounts of electrical energy. and cost much less than the devices of a lew years ago. The results of these advances have been dramatic: smaller electroic syslerns such as micro-comp!lers, wod processors and calculators have bcome commonplace, and small computers are be_ ginning to appear in a wide variety of applications. The irrcorporation of electronic processing, especially micropqocessors, in a large number of products hs 1ed 1o a new concept -.ihe link_ ig of these products by telecommuicatios lo allow data between them lo be easily ex_ changed. This co|llbining of the two traditionally separate prodLJct areas of computers and telecommunicalios has given a new impetus ad meaning to the lerm Inforination Technology, ancl is leading to applications and services tha! could well have revolLrtlonary etfects on our lives.
LT. is now havlngra rnajor impact on indLrstry, governmenl and bki9, with applications such 6s:
1,

corp!1ef controlled production,

compter aided design distributed processing (1hat is the inlerconnection ol co,puling syslems)
on-lirib transaction processing (where the te rr in al inleacts direclly wilh lhe computer)for air travel reservations, banking terminals and stock conlol

sophilticated lelephone exchang

es

with

a lrge

n! rnber of lacililies.

32

Ue r,seO extens;uety and hoLrsehold accounts. The r61 benefit of LT. in the home wll only be realsed, howeve, when high data capacrty ca_ bles interconectinq homes will alow rhe transfer of large amount" oi lnio"r.-"iion. Crrr"",fy, the Prestel service enables information transfer to a limiied exient, rrln" *ruj_"llv which will ult;mately be based on a fibre,optics nelwork, will provde many more """""p,, facilities such

ieady' mcro-compters ror recreatorl purposes, ln th6 futur. these ,personal, computers witt for conlrolling domestic fnctions su"h u, en"rgy u""gu, tightjng

In futue the penelration of automtion Into industry r^T.ir'itt bsin atso 10 have an importanr erfe"r

;""y .rh;;;;;; i""rrci"i ii" r,"r.". erare becoming popura". for use in the home as educa;onar toors and

will continue to grow

t fst pace,

ad

as:

- j -

choice of a larg number ofT.V. cnannels video,phones, iftwo_way high bandwidth t|ansmission is ncorporated rnto the new system

shoppingfrorrlhome,withthecapbiliiyofviewingonascreentheitemstobe
ooug h

choiceofspecileducationalprogammes
access to cntraldatabases allowig almost lim itless rnounfs and types of iatorn ation to be exchanged.

I
1

l.T. wirr bri,ng about changes at both work ancl home that wi be fundamentsr. on the tactory I oor, machines w;ll contine to take over the more repetitive work, and increased efficiency will I.ead to shorter working hours, more leisure time a;d more interesting;Js ?or the person_ nel. ln theof{ice, lhe majoriry of paper wi be reptaced by elecrron ;",oi", un *., qr"ntities of information wi be avaitabte t he touih of a button o^ u v ili""1. ol'" more people will be able to wofk from home because of the fcj ities "n ofiered b; the ,wired_ cily , and cornputer. control of domestic functions together wirh the ."..ying oui, innr."ruble dy'to-dy act;vites, sorne of which hve been u ined above, ,.ig titr" nu* f.f. uqrip_ ment will become commonplace.
I erecr.rcar systems s the dominant rnethod of telecommu,r;calions.

jl::-..:1::-'.",11:,"gy wi

in furure years perform a central rote in i.r., and

wiI

soon reprace

'
1

f
I

33

APPENDICES

APPENOIX A

EDUCATOR TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER _

BRIEF TECHNTCAL DESCRIPTION

APP-A.1. Transmitter

! !

:i:?l"itt

A.i

shows a bock dasram of the transmirter cifcuirry of the Fjbre-Oprics

WhFn lLe trdns t1er is in the naJoou..n,ode, rectly proprorionat to the input votraJe s oJtput is Firhe, oN o oi. i""""Ji"x' jls,l"J AnlogL,e amptificalion is provided bv M prv vorraee. Borh anal"n,J,"o"i"

te tiohl intersily ol lhe en .ll;rg arodes is oi. l?ji; j,i;;?fi;i.1,,:#s.i'nlT"i". ,f," "0, .",

the put vor,ase.

The.f,e.d, dr,ver section produces a curre

"* "ilfj.'J,i"-l;;;J

","oiit'"'s,

powefed bv a sinsre s!p-

connected in series n the collector ""r,i""" of ln the dighalsection, each input has

rni" i"

,"r"i:'l:Tflll'iil:i:.i,ilnT::l.jiir,i:':[",jJ:
th; outp(i rnsrstor.
a S,

fr fr',.".,"#

an excrL,sive

#"lh"i1i#:j#",#'ij,:Fl{{ij.:i.T' ffi oR!ate.;;;;;;,,;;i;";;Jl,i

J"*?;, :#l;:""",:9:f
rp,s are

:ii;;;:i:1,.,1:X?:,,1 .A:

connecred ro

i
I
a.

: :,j,",i,t,,ni::::;[,j" ifJ;;?; i&t["f"#"j}Tl!i;#,J#:11""","tJ:1i rs nrgher than this threshold vgltage, the output becomes HlcH.
ri

I
I

ri

!l

I I

APP.A.2.

Recever

LY,l:.,_".."t:'

A block diagram of the Fibre-Obtics Educator Receiver appears in Exh ibit App.A.2. ,: rhe anatogL/e rrode, the anatogue oLtout signars .e d:eclry propor. 'n

:Ii:$i",'*il.i;ti,".i"ii'.?i;,1

Iii;l:Un:l:;ij* j: :;; *ll*

i;:::H:Tfr

;i"

*:
{. : : . I

fi'it+l*ftff ,ff fi T:'fi:"":;:it:.',;:f

:Ii;;H''"!;;li:l;:il

ffi':;:f,i:ffi:iI'*ilil:",:i:fJ::J::l;::.i;i".;ff::?,1"",f,:;mpednceourpul
:il'.":3|Jli:,i::i'esent'

i+:i#i.ir,i:iiqx,i,:TiJf.?;::',?31""",""i"":"J:i[".I?:,;Til""Jl3tf;.1":JTll?; thd vortase at te RS232

";"k;i;;l;;;;;;;;',o

"n

inu",r"

achieved bv a vortase rhreshordconrrol X;l;i::fi:i:'#';il,'l:.tif:5ffi:jji-"-:rluitry.is simirar ro lhe transmitter's threshold detec,or, *r' i""n i. u,.iurii Ju;;;i";#;Hi# ff.ve'ry

causes rimiting its

I[i*:][""J;i;,::T:"Tif:':i"tl?1':.(resurtins in a]ow rever hiss arrhe roudspeaker at li;:""..':: r;*t,i""r; ;#3,.fil"il* r",liilji :!i!, ff T:T^T!! jiiii:J

sen,';;ir;;;;;;;i:,i:;':"-X::i:l,Jli.".,""Jl:::::.,#J:i.":I;1;,

:il

8O
F

Ol
q\
I

Lrl

a.w7
x
a

-r

d=
^o

cr? g(9

ooI
l (,
o

>s
i

(,-=

o> +<
TE

t 0

= F

I'
g :

!uJ

<

)9 <,

o
(!CC

cr

=< r!Q 8E

A(,
e1=

<s zo
t

(9

:
,,,

,.,
o

3E
<I

<tul 9o<

=FE

:l2> -I tr!)

FC

-= o >!?

I
I

:)
,,

,
o o

:)
O

:) F l

o .lui
Zt

i
!J

N3 jc4

F :l ul

-UJ

otca

oo zt

!:

qH

>

:t

o"r _'j

>!!

sa

E-

) (9 o

>(,

L (,

(5

z
!r

<ar
UJ[_

>*' > z<

F

3J AppEND X B

EpUCATOF SpECtF|CAT|ONS

) Transmh/neceJveCobiario gdwidlhr l,

Antogue:. 2sHro2skHz{3dSpoiors) .d_c_(o2okBivs

Dighat:

lighlinlolmmplasricflbre),
A
St3drdlerhdt: StadrdMelhod2:
HighLos5Meihod
O pe

25dB ."zl" Anse.o'dio.,ai,,a.sr'sq:o.{bener1a"1i. r0q;;;;.";"t, tTh" bov tr;siss on rages a.e tor libe, nt , w.rh the h a d.,",

RanglorsntogJelra.smissiotbenerlhanOdBS.N,q.).

' r""-"'{<'qdr'ed "."

beinglse10u.ch

nualio measueent nse:

25d
3OdS 4OdA

HishLossrlerhod2:
rliO Terhperatu e na

1:

5odB

OpricatCoe.los: AMpOpTtMATE.DNp
Typicatpowertaunchdinolhmptsrclibefohighadiaceredt,e.d:
s"n:glst9Vsuppty,
Typicat oLjrput gowar trom infr6red
L

nge:

O.C ro 50"C

b) Transirer 2OpWpek{rmxium

e. d

vaiabtet.e.dd,iveconrrot: 2odBranse(a3dB),rorhish,.o
pekOutpurWdveteorn:

2mW

(a I

m.xim

m seni g) al .Jv suppty,

HihBadanc.red;.dr n{edt.e,d: 94onn,

Hiqh rad iance red t.e.d

"""",";t.".".

66onm

SchrinTh erholdLeve.s.

rype:

Honeywe ,SweetSpfr

FS232:

TTL: r.2V a.d i 6V cl\osr 2 8Vnd 3 8V

O3SVado.8V{opti.atoulp!rphseopposiretoTTLdCMOSl

tpul mpedaci

CMOS: 52\nroqro-nd FSZ32: 4kelo!rc!nd

phase otOiOirt Signal: l.put,na,t, Oivs no righr ar ourput

fTLr

47knro +3v

Inpul.roa.e, givestishr.lo,rput
|

Si9 n

_ 127 b'rjergrn DsLdo.rsndom gonerato.

ceneraror:

vr

brectockrar: 2rHzlo4.5kH(lorsquarewavendpseud_fandomsrgnar)
Trnsmined Dar Fle,of tessthat 1O% pulsewdrh disrortion:

M*imum

T_aL:

cMos:

0.5MAirs

85232:

100k8i/s

0.5^Bi/s

Opf ct qise d Ftr ties. High ndia.c ned .

Lesslhn1as Si9 nt c nearo. Monilo r: _ hveneds9nl

Infrajedt.e.dr

e.d:

Lessthan20Ons

_ Votlaqet evet of app,ox. 2OOmVpp 6ko. (Tho moito.myberefmr6dwith lnFcpacitceto mjimiseclocl( brcak.

- ouipunnpdce

AnatogueVottageCan:
H:9h

Lowiped6cei.put: 1to25 impeoaceipu(: 4lo tOO

Maxum Votlaqe sr t..d. for o clipping Inoulimpedacot ns'oque sockets:

Vpp

gnroground Low Z: HighZ: 20kO,c6Dar.vetycoupted

an aog!e Foqu ency Respo

High Zd LowZjnputs re arrhe s;me phase, d re iverled,ettivero op c!routpli_

nse:

5Hz ro 35kHz

OplicatSafery: rheopricro!rpu1ves

ar d".,,"":"^"d anached ribre revers ior marium perksibto exposure torcnrinuo6 viewing arJcm ","y qe*i.s ai",""", are berowrhe Bsr*andad BS403:

rl::allig

are.oviewinq disraceror loosecod,viowine rihe,

1s83. Ako, rhrtitourpur teveh_atlhe eminins d;v,ces e

"""",o,"9," b"l.ii,"L!li,-*-"oc;;;;;i;i;;;;;;;"",".

permissibre exposre

i
I
I ?

.O-pTtMATE is tade;ik otAMp Incorpoated

|Sweerspor

is

ad+k olHONEyWELL conrotSFrems Ud.

I

F+-.---

I c) aeceiver
Front'end lrsimpedace amplif irrespose {/pic);
1V 2V

pereWt660nm

perAW at940m
(Lrpper rare can be exrended to 100kBiVs t rhe expese

Pholodiodeype: Si icon p-in, DigilalBandwidrh: d.c. to 20kBits

Variable DiOital Threshol6

thesholddjuslmentsl Minimu powerlor berefrh 1i 1o'5erof

ofmore crilical

rlet

sOnWpeaka166Onm.

Vltgel

3OmV 10 1.25V

lcorspoding 10 3OnW ad 1.2aW respectively

a1

TTL
CMOS (Posiliv leveldelehined by s!ppjyvoltage) RS232 {Posillve and 1e9ativo levols del6rmihed by supplyvkaqes). Phse of RS232 is opposile lo TTL

ndcMOS. I Fanout: i TTL. Sou(4l.5nd,S:al5rA

CMOS: RS232:

So!rc6 0.54, Sjnk 5mA 4T0Ooutpurimpdace Phas6 olDigilal Signsll L ghlar noLrgivec'soa r oJrp-l No I ql rr inour gives'rk atoJlput A.alogue Freq!encyFesAonse:
High

Zourpur l5Hz lo 35lHz LowZ ourpur inlo greld.rhn 360: 25Hrro30kHz LowZourpr inlo 8fl: ,90Hz1o30kHz Minim!m Powerlor40dA Sig3lto Noise Rario; 50Wpp t660nm
25nWppai940n 0.2VlpW.non-inverredsigalrelativetotrnsminerinput 1.1V//1W,lnVredsiqnalrelatjvelotrasninerinpul A_logueVo t9 gair: 30dB'arSo Analogue Oulpur lmpednce:

Typicalanalose respnso a1660 wavele9th al iim gai: i

l-llghZr

LowZr

HighZi 1kO LowZ: lesslha1O

Phse olAnalog!e 5ig.l: High Zoutpur is inve1ed relarivero oplicalinpur LowZ outp!tis non-ive.ted reltiveo opl'cl inpur Maximum powi inro 8Q {nd al ioudspoa ke ) lrom LowZoutpur: 0.25W wir h 15v oower supply Maxiu signal aLowZoutputstzero load 2,5Vpp

curnr

N4aximumsigal6lHiqhZourpur: 400mVpp
Optical Ovenoad r660nm:

overlodondigiral: 1.5/rw .c,ovenoadonnaloge: 3pWpp

d.c.overloadonanalogue: 3orrwwilh9Vpowersupply
(a1

5SpWwilh l5Vpowe.supply overlod on analog!e mode,the nolselevel icreases signiflcanlly)

d) Powe.S!pply:
9VPP3ype banery Optional exrernal d,c,supply:

1) fransminer+9Vro +15V{cdrenr

2) Receivor +9V io +15V (curel is 25 mA r/pical 6t 9V) a.d -gV ro *15V (smA) for n S 232 Inlelace

is

25mAtypiclr 9V)

e)

Physlcai Charect;isrlcs

Diensio.s:

200 x

130x90m app.ox.lor ech unir

Trasminer: 7509msapprox. Beceiver: 9009msapprox,

I

Whilelheinlormariongivnisrea11etimeofpriting.smllprodociiochanOe3inrhecousofthecompny's poicyolimprovmentrhrughresearchanddesignmighrotbeindicaledinthespecillctions.

-', a-.
1,.

39

,.
I

APPENDIX C

FIBRE.OPTICS ATTENUATION CALCULAIONS

r'.
I

The optica power loss n any optical component such as a fibre-optics cable, connecror, or device hous;ng, is measured n deci-8els {dB's). Loss, called ,attenuaiion, for a length
of fibre, is defined as

follows:
P(out)

t.^
1'!
I

Loss

= 10loglo P(in)

dB

1l lr'E

wheret Plin) is the oplical power into the component P(out) is the power out of the component
The ratio P{int'P{out) is normally a constant lor a particular component, independent ol the absolute power levels. As an exrple, ifthe light intensity at the end of a length of optical cable is one tenih ofthe intensity at the launch end, p(i)/p(out) = 10, and this ratio is constant for allvalues of power launched. In this exampfe, the loss is t Ologj0 10, equar ro 10d8. The loss definition is an exlremely t,seful concept, since it altows the loss of a complete optical route 10 be easly clculated by addig the indivjduaf losses of the component pans of the route. Ths is demonstrated as follows:

'(-l
(J

Consider N lengths of cable which have been joined together (assume negligibte losses atthe connectors forhis example).

KZ
r-t

KN

P{out}

,-i

e i= Piin)y'P(out|. t Thel in) = (Kr x K, x K3 ..........x KN) P{out) 'Pf

,1

Tht ruq os Kj represent the loss fractions for each ofthe fibre lengths,

J
_t

B de Bvd EIIT ntion, the attenuation of the route = 0 lo( ) P(in) = 10 loglo(K1 x K2 x K3 x..........x Kn).
,

P{out)

5
_t

From the definition of ogs, this attenution = 10 og1o Kl + 10 logro K, + 10 loglo K3 +..........+ '10 ogro KN, which is the sum of the attenuations of the individual fengths of cable.
lf tfie atlenuation ot a length of cable is quoted ;n dB per metre, then it follows that the attenuation of x metes of the cable s obtained by multiplying the loss per metre by x.

:t
_t

Loss calculatibns are essential in determining whether a transmitter,/receiver pai will function prop!rly over a particular route. lf the transminer launches a power po. and the receiver needs a mnimum power of P1 to opbrate properly, then the maximum attenuation possible between transmitter and receiver is 10 logro {PolPl ) dB. For example, if the t.ansmitted pbwer is 10 micro"Watts, ad the rninimum receivea power is 1O n6no-Waits (a nano-Watt ls one thousaridth of a micro-Watt). then the maximum loss for transmrssion to be effctive is 10 loglo 1000 = 30d8. ln this example, if two optical routes were being consideted. each wth the following components nd losses:

Route'l

offibre at 1dB per metre. 4connectors at 3dB per connector, Totaloss

20 metrPs

= 20dB

=:Ze= 15dB

'.

t
t i

Route2 50 metrs offibre at 0.3d8 per metre, 4 connectors at 3dB per connector, Totalloss only route
2

=27d8

would result in a vible system.

In calculations of route losses, it is usual to add small amount (typically 3dB) for conlingency purposes to allow for eventualties such as device dertradaiion.

optical detection sYstem is used For an attenuation measurlng appararus where a Iinear lo the derector is directly proportional ,i"l-oiti"" .f the o"utiut vottage of rhe i;;;r ;;;;il;;;;;-") then rne toss or a ioute is clculated usins the followins equtron:

i.".;i

Loss

= lo tos ,ol/!!]-dB
V{outl

Since V{inl = Constant x P(in) V(out) = Constant x P{out}

a fclor of It is important to note that the atlove equation contains system does i" ua" in electrical power dB calculations A linear delection io, oiio

I O' rather thn lhe

fac'

*i" i"i""-oofv ,. ,f'" -"jority of optical mea"'-ring equipment' including

Educator.
'ossesolechot rhEr'ber

the Fibre-Optics

Nole:altho!shlhelollnnubrionolnbte_oor'ciroulmvnorlvbe'lcrlledbYddigrhon'1iv:dual etredwhhh mdres t ''s*' -

n"*.s,0'n" '"""' ""o;'-"-";'i' "i'o '' r'"W uo* '""*is '*hich sterYsolliqhltl'al th'scalcul6liorq:v.srighlttp...'-'tt"'"t""" '"-1""n"titO'"ro stte'evfleuared lnsieo'no"x o"cotns Uarote t,p"o'i"l t" on onlv travla shon d'st.co"p""o'ng ttomriFes clle-d clddinq lib'cs mio caLse ol Ieiv -"* '' t"" |'nt '""i 'it"-"i"Ji't" '"" p'"p"q"i" "l""ool'9 a rer:r:velv shor drMc i*u" t'-"*" -"J"iL" "v modes). rrh6t rr'6 i rhe f "'" "'" med;i;;ey:l;:::::,",,"11;;*,*lJi:::,Tii;"1'J':q'll",l; ,i,"i ",iiii"i""i",","+o,,o,,,ou,o lhE 6minig devicalln order lo mesure iowino or a rpwren' oe c;rried our usiq a reerene re'erh ili il iii",,l. esciue - secr:on A shourd -i'i"" bP usad:n rh" loss per I t""t -'" ''e t"" "'r" a.d rn difereng" o'el,es, '""* tJJ'-* '''""s'n ""'*""' unil length clculttion. t
;

ELLMAX
ELECTRONICS
FIBRE.OPTICS ANO OPf O.ELECIRONICS
EllmL,t

E[ectonics Litited,lJnir 29, Leyton Busi Tel: 0! I t'539

ess

0136

centre, Elloe Road, Letton, London, FjLY:0181-539 774

El0

7BT

3oth Augus(, 1995

C
(Eleclromagnetic compatibilitY) directive of the This fibre-optics equiprnent complres wth the EMc standards: fuip"un Co..unlty and meets or exceeds the following technical
EN

5oOB1-1

- Electro m

agnetic compatibilty generic emission standa'd Part residentiat, commercial and light industry"'

1:

EN

50082'1

-Electromagnetic compatibility generic immunitY standard Part 1: residential, commercial and light industrY "

-<*'%'
E. M. Goodkin,

Director.
tl