B.Sc.(Hons.), MBA ngcheekin@gmail.com mrcheekin@blogspot.com.

au
All Rights Reserved 2012 Ng Chee Kin

Ng Chee Kin

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The World through Our Senses

Fine hair Epidermis

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Taste bud

CHAPTER 1
1.1

2 The tongue:

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Bitter Sour Salty Sweet
2 Taste projections receive

Pr Re E SS EXp s
Pain receptor Heat receptor Pressure receptor Cold receptor Touch receptor

1 Humans have five senses. Table 1 shows the senses, sensory organs and stimulus detected. Sense Touch Smell Taste Hearing Sight Sensory organ Skin Nose Tongue Ear Eye
Table 1

Dermis

Fatty layer

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Stimulus Touch, pressure, cold, heat, pain Chemical substances in air Chemical substances in food Sound Light

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1 Chemical particles

2 The sensitivity of skin depends on: (a) the closeness of receptors (b) the depth of receptors

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dissolve in saliva on the surface of the tongue

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stimulus and send it to the taste receptors
3 Taste receptor

sets off impulse the brain to be interpreted as taste

1.3

Sense of Smell

1 The roof of the nasal cavity has many sensory cells to detect smells.

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4 Impulse is sent to

1.5

Sense of Hearing
Ossicles Semicircular canal Ear canal Auditory nerve Cochlea Eardrum Eustachian tube Oval window

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2 Each sensory organ has receptors to detect stimuli. 3 Pathway from stimulus to responses: Stimuli responses sensory organ effectors nerves nerves brain

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4 Impulses are sent to the brain 3 Nerve sends nerve impulse to

1 The human ear:

the brain to be interpreted Nerve impulse

2 Receptor cell detects smell and

generates nerve impulse

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4 Nerve impulses are electrical messages produced by receptors. 5 Effectors are organs which carry out responses. 6 Responses are reactions which occur after receiving a stimulus.

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Nasal cavity

1 Cilium contains mucus to

dissolve inhaled particles

Nostril

To the brain Into the lungs

2 The mechanism of hearing: Pinna auditory nerve ear canal cochlea brain eardrum ossicles oval window

1.4

Sense of Taste

1.2

Sense of Touch

1 The skin has five receptors.

1 The surface of the tongue has many taste buds to detect chemical substances.

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1.6 Sense of Sight
Vitreous humour Supportive ligament Iris Lens Cornea Pupil Aqueous humour Ciliary muscle Conjunctiva Blind spot

Retina Sclera Yellow spot Optic nerve

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Function

Choroid

Tropism

1 The human eye:

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4 Devices to overcome the limitations of sight: Microscope, telescope, magnifying glass, periscope, x-ray, binoculars and ultrasound scanning device 5 Stereoscopic vision helps predators to detect the location of their preys accurately. 6 Monocular vision helps prey to detect their enemies from all directions. 1.8 Sound and Hearing

1.9

Stimuli and Responses in Plants

1 Tropism is a growth response to external stimuli. Stimuli Water Example The roots grow towards a water source The roots grow in the direction of gravity The shoots grow towards sunlight The tendrils wrap around a solid structure

Hydrotropism

Geotropism

Gravity

2 The retina has photoreceptors to detect light. 3 Mechanism of sight: Cornea optic nerve aqueous humour retina lens

vitreous humour effectors nerves

brain optic 1.7 Light and Sight

2.1

Defects of vision Shortsightedness

Symptoms Can see near objects clearly Cannot focus on distant objects Can see distant objects clearly Cannot focus on near objects

Possible causes

Ways of correction

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1 Seven classes of food (nutrients): Nutrient Sources Sugar, starch, glucose Milk, fish, eggs, chicken Oil, ghee, margarine, butter Deficiency disease Body lacks energy, marasmus Stunted growth, kwashiorkor Body lacks energy

Longsightedness

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Lens is too Convex thin lenses Eyeball is too short

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Lens is too Concave thick lenses Eyeball is too long

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Carbohydrates Proteins Fats

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1 Reflection of light happens when it bounces off the surface on which it falls. 2 Refraction is the bending of light due to speed change as it travels through transparent medium of different densities. 3 Defects of vision:

CHAPTER 2

Nutrition

Classes of Food

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1 Properties of sounds: (a) they are produced by vibrations of objects. (b) they need a medium to travel, such as solids, liquids or gases. (c) they cannot travel through a vacuum. (d) they can be absorbed by soft and rough surfaces. (e) they can be reflected by hard and smooth surfaces as echoes. 2 Stereophonic hearing helps to detect the location of the source of sound.

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Phototropism

Light Touch (contact)

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vegetables,

Thigmotropism

2 Nastic movements are responses of plants to external stimuli which may come from any direction.

Supply energy to the body For growth Repair of body tissues Keep the body warm Transport vitamins A, D, E and K Supply a lot of energy

Astigmatism See distorted images

Irregular Cylindrical surface of lenses or the cornea through surgery

Fibre (roughage) Water

Fruits, vegetables, cereals Fruits, water

Helps peristalsis and removal of Constipation undigested food from the body Dehydration

drinking Dissolves chemicals in the body Controls body temperature

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Nutrient Vitamins Vitamin A Vitamin B Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K Minerals Calcium Sources Carrot, fish liver oil, green vegetables Milk, eggs, meat, cereals Citrus fruit, vegetables Made by our body in sunlight, also found in eggs, milk Nuts, vegetable oil, whole grains Function For night vision Healthy skin Healthy nervous system Formation of red blood cells Healing of wounds Resistance to diseases Strong bones and teeth For healthy reproduction system Fights against diseases Deficiency disease Night blindness Skin infections Beriberi Anaemia Scurvy Rickets Sterility 2.3 Human Digestive System

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Liver Gall bladder produces bile

Mouth

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1 Digestion is the breakdown of large food molecules into smaller molecules that can be easily absorbed by the body. 2 Digestion occurs in the alimentary canal (or gut):

oesophagus

stomach duodenum

optic nerve

small intestine anus

large intestine

Milk, cheese, green vegetables

Strong bones and teeth Healthy muscles and nerve Controls body fluid Proper functioning of nerves

Rickets Osteoporosis Muscle cramps

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Made in the human intestine, Helps blood clotting and stops also found in green vegetables bleeding

Prolonged bleeding

3 Peristalsis is the contraction and relaxation of the muscles along the gut wall. 4 Enzymes are substances which generally act as catalysts to speed up the chemical reactions in our body.
Oesophagus Produces a wave-like action called peristalsis Peristalsis helps to push bolus into the stomach

Sodium Iron Iodine Phosphorus Potassium 2 Food tests: Nutrient Starch (a type of carbohydrate) Glucose (a type of carbohydrate) Protein Fat 2.2

Table salt, cheese, meat Meat, green vegetables, eggs Seafood, iodised salt Meat, eggs, vegetables cheese,

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Muscular cramps
Mouth Physical digestion occurs Starch is broken down into maltose

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For the formation of haemoglobin Anaemia in the red blood cells For making hormones in the thyroid glands Goitre Rickets Fatigue Paralysis

milk, Strong bones and teeth Stores energy

Bananas, meat, nuts Test Iodine test Benedicts test Result

Proper functioning of nerves

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Stomach Produces gastric juices Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and protease Proteins are broken down into polypeptides or peptones Pancreas produces pancreatic juice Large intestine Rectum Anus

Blue-black colour

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Brick-red precipitate

2 The energy requirement depends on the age, body size, sex, occupation, physical activity, climate and state of health of an individual. 3 Calorific value (or energy value) is the amount of energy released from one gram of a particular type of food. Class of food Carbohydrates Proteins Fats Energy value (kJ/g) 17 18 39

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Millons test

Red precipitate Milky solution

The Importance of a Balanced Diet

1 A balanced diet contains seven classes of food in the right amount.

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Emulsion test

Duodenum Receives bile from the gall blader and pancreatic juice Starch is broken down into maltose Proteins are broken down into polypeptides Fats are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol

Lower part of small intestine Secretes intestinal juice Maltose is broken down into glucose Polypeptides are broken down into amino acids Fats are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol

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2.4 Absorption of Digested Food 5 Plant kingdom can be divided into: (a) flowering plants (b) non-flowering plants 6 Classification of flowering plants: Flowering plants 7 Classification of non-flowering plants:

Conifers

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Mosses Examples: Stags horn fern

1 Absorption is the diffusion of digested food from the gut into the bloodstream. 2 Absorption mainly happens in the small intestine. 3 Villi on the inner wall of small intestine help to speed up the absorption. 2.5 Reabsorption of Water and Defecation

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Examples: Pine tree Casuarina tree

Non-flowering plants

Ferns Examples: Cup moss

Algae Examples: Seeweed Phytoplankton

Monocotyledons

Dicotyledons

2.6

Healthy Eating Habits

A maize grain cut in half

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1 Reabsorption happens in the large intestine. 2 Water, with dissolved minerals and vitamins are reabsorbed into our body. 3 Defecation is the process of removing faeces from the body through the anus. 4 Difficulty in defecation is called constipation, which is caused by the lack of water and roughage in the diet.

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Two cotyledon

One cotyledon

CHAPTER 4

A green bean (split into two)

Interdependence among Living Organisms and the Environment

Biodiversity
Organisms and Their Classification

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CHAPTER 3
3.1

Parallel-veined leaf Stem

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1 We should practice healthy eating habits to prevent diet-related diseases. 2 We should eat a wide variety of foods according to the recommended amounts in the food pyramid.

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Fibrous root

4.1

Networkveined leaf

Key terms Species

Flower Stem Tap root

Population Community

Vertebrate Fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals

Characteristic Slimy scales and fins Exposed and moist skin Hard dry scales Feathers and wings Hair or fur

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1 Biodiversity (or biological diversity) refers to the wide variety of organisms on earth. 2 Organisms are classified into groups called kingdoms, such as animal and plant kingdoms. (a) vertebrates (animals with backbones) (b) invertebrates (animals without backbones) 4 Vertebrates are divided into five groups:

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Example: Maize plant Fibrous root system Parallel-veined leaves Non-woody and soft stems Other examples: Grass, orchid plant, sugar cane, paddy

Example: Balsam plant Tap root system Network-veined leaves Woody and hard stems Other examples: rubber tree, rose shrub, bougainvillea, sunflower plant

Habitat Ecosystem

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Ecology

1 A balanced ecosystem is created when there is interdependence among living organisms and the environment.

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4.2 Interaction between Living Organisms Type of interaction Prey-predator Description Examples 1 Biological control uses the relationship to control pests. 4.3 Food Web Description Green plants which can produce food through photosynthesis. prey-predator 4.5 Conservation and Preservation of Living Organisms

Competition Intra-specific competition

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Competition Wolves between the compete with same species of each other organisms for food and mate Competition Crows and fox between compete with organisms of each other for different species food

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Level 1 (producer)

A predator is Goat (prey) an animal that and tiger hunts other (predator) animals for food Frog (prey) A prey is an and snake animal hunted (predator) and killed by Rat (prey) and predators for owl (predator) food

Key terms Producer Consumer Decomposer

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1 Conservation is the wise use of natural resources with the least disturbance to the ecosystem. 2 Preservation refers to the actions taken to maintain ecosystem in its balanced state. 3 Some steps to conserve and preserve ecosystem:

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Steps

Animals which eat plants and other animals

Purpose To minimise destruction of habitats of animals and plants To protect animals and plants by the establishment of sanctuaries, forest and wetland reserves To restore destroyed habitats due to logging, mining and overfishing To minimise deforestation and illegal logging, and prevent forest fires To monitor commercial hunting, overfishing, and protect endangered species To increase public awareness on the importance of conservation and preservation of ecosystem

Organisms that break down dead animal and plant materials into simpler substances which can be used again by the producers.

Controlling pollution Managing natural resources Renewing natural resources Managing forest

Inter-specific competition

1 A pyramid of numbers shows the number of organisms at each stage of a food chain.

Symbiosis

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Commensalism Interaction Remora fish between two (commensal) organisms and shark The commensal (host) receives benefits from the host The host is not harmed nor received any benefit Mutualism An interaction Fungi (provide which benefits shelter both organisms to algae) and algae (produce food for fungi and itself) A parasite benefits by living in or on the host The host is harmed by the parasites

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Size of organisms increases Amount of energy decreases

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Number of organisms decreases,

Level 4 (tertiary consumer) Level 3 (secondary consumer) Level 2 (primary consumer)

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Passing of legislation of wildlife protection Educating the public

4.4

Photosynthesis

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Parasitism

Tapeworm (parasite) living in the human intestine (host)

1 Photosynthesis is a process of making food by green plants. 2 Requirements for photosynthesis: (a) Water (b) Carbon dioxide (c) Chlorophyll (d) Sunlight 3 Products of photosynthesis: (a) Oxygen (b) Glucose Chlorophyll Water + Carbon dioxide Oxygen + Glucose Sunlight

4 Technology which can help in the conservation and preservation of living organisms: Technology Tissue culture (cloning technology) Artificial insemination Satellite imaging Importance To increase the population of endangered species To prevent the extinction of the endangered species To detect fires in the ecosystem and prevent the destruction of natural habitats

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4.6 Role of Humans in Maintaining the Balance of Nature 2 A water molecule contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. 3 Electrolysis is a method of breaking down water using electricity. 4 During electrolysis, oxygen gas is released at the anode and hydrogen gas is released at the cathode. 5.3 Evaporation of Water 4 Similarities between evaporation and boiling: (a) both involve the change of state from liquid to gas (steam) (b) both processes absorb heat 5.4 Solution and Solubility Definition A product formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent A substance which dissolved in a liquid A liquid which dissolves a substance A solution which has very little solute in it A solution which has a lot of solute in it A solution which has maximum amount of solute in it Mixtures which contains insoluble substances between a solution and a

Factors Temperature of the surrounding Surface area of water Humidity Movement of air

Explanation

CHAPTER 5
5.1

Water and Solution

The higher the temperature of the surrounding, the higher the rate of evaporation of water The larger the surface area of water, the higher the rate of its evaporation The lower the humidity, the higher the rate of evaporation of water Air movement increases the rate of evaporation

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1 Impurities can change the physical characteristics of water. Boiling point = 100C

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Freezing point = 0

Expands upon freezing

3 Differences between evaporation and boiling: Evaporation Boiling A fast process Occurs throughout liquid Occurs at the boiling point of liquid Air bubbles observed Affected by air pressure, presence of impurities, rate of heating and volume of liquid

.b

t.c

1 Examples of human activities: (a) Deforestation (b) Land overuse due to intensive farming (c) Overfishing and overhunting (d) Industrialisation (e) Poor solid waste management 2 The effects of human activities: (a) Global warming (b) Destruction of habitats (c) Extinction of species (d) Soil erosion (e) Pollution of air, water and soil

1 Evaporation is the process by which a liquid changes into water vapour. 2 Factors affecting the rate of evaporation of water:

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Solution Solute Solvent Saturated solution Suspension

Key terms

Dilute solution Concentrated solution

1 Differences suspension:

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Solution Light can pass through it

Suspension Contains insoluble substances Non-homogeneous (opaque or cloudy appearance) Light cannot pass through it Residue is collected when filtered

Odourless, tasteless, colourless

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Physical characteristics of pure water

A slow process Occurs at the surface of liquid Occurs at all temperatures (below the boiling point of liquid) Nothing visible observed Affected by humidity, temperature of surrounding, surface area of water and air movement

Contains dissolved substances Homogeneous (uniform in colour and transparent appearance)

Density = 1 g/cm3 at 4C

Poor electrical conductor

Poor thermal conductor

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5.2

Composition of Water

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No residue is formed when filtered

1 Water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen elements.

2 Solubility is the maximum amount of a solute in grams that will dissolve in 100 g of solvent at a certain temperature.

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3 Factors affecting the solubility of a solute: Factors Nature of solute Temperature Explanation Different solutes have different solubility in the same solvent The solubility of a solute varies with temperature 5.6 3 In neutralisation, an acid reacts with an alkali to produce to produce a salt solution. Acid + Alkali Water Purification Purpose Salt + Water 5.8 Preservation of Water Quality

Silt (mud and sand)

.a

Causes

1 Causes and effects of water pollution: Effects

4 The rate of dissolving means the time taken by a solute to dissolve completely in a liquid. 5 Factors affecting the rate of dissolving: Factors Temperature Rate of stirring Size of solute particles Explanation The higher the temperature of the solvent, the higher the rate of dissolving The higher the rate of stirring, the higher the rate of dissolving The smaller the size of solute particles, the higher the rate of dissolving

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Prevention Monitoring

Water purification method Filtration Boiling Chlorination Distillation Ultraviolet (UV) treatment 5.7

Water becomes muddy and rivers become shallower Contains harmful microorganisms which can cause cholera and typhoid Causes rapid growth of algae and therefore reduces oxygen level in the water Kills aquatic life and seabirds Poisons aquatic life and cause skin cancer

To separate solid particles such as clay, sand and other insoluble particles To kill micro-organisms with heat energy To kill micro-organisms with chlorine

Domestic waste (garbage and untreated sewage from homes) Agricultural waste (pesticides and fertilisers)

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To remove dissolved substances, insoluble particles and to kill micro-organisms

To kill micro-organisms with ultraviolet rays

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6 Water is known as the universal solvent. It can dissolve most substances. 7 Organic solvents can also be used to dissolve some solutes. 8 Characteristics of organic solvents: (a) volatile (evaporate easily) (b) carcinogenic (likely to cause cancer) (c) toxic (poisonous to the living cells) (d) flammable (easy to catch on fire) 5.5 Acid and Alkali

Water Supply System

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1 Process of water treatment in a water treatment plant: Screening Aeration Coagulation

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Oil spillage (from tankers in the sea) Industrial waste (chemical and radioactive wastes from factories)

2 Ways to control water pollution: Ways of controlling water pollution Explanation Planning of proper sewage system in the new residential areas Treating wastewater before discharging into the public sewage system Avoid dumping rubbish or waste into the water Imposing fines and punishment for those who dump untreated water, garbage and chemical wastes into rivers Raw sewage should be treated and turned into safe effluent before discharging into the sewage system

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Filtration Process of water treatment Screening Aeration Coagulation

Sedimentation

Chlorination and fluoridation Purpose

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1 Properties of acid and alkali: Acid Corrosive Turns moist blue litmus paper red Has a pH less than 7 Tastes sour Reacts with most metals to product hydrogen gas Alkali

To remove large objects (fish, branches and rubbish) To dissolve oxygen and to remove unpleasant smell and taste Alum To make small particles stick together to form larger and heavier lumps Lime To reduce the acidity of water To settle out and remove large lumps To remove the remaining solid particles Chlorine To kill harmful micro-organisms Fluoride To prevent dental decay Enforcement

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Corrosive Turns moist red litmus paper blue Has pH greater than 7 Tastes bitter and feels soapy

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Sedimentation Filtration Chlorination and fluoridation

2 Both acid and alkali need water to show their properties.

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CHAPTER 6
6.1 Factor Volume Temperature Relationship Air pressure increases when volume decreases Air pressure increases temperature increases when Device Explanation (a) Air sucked from straw causes low pressure in the straw. (b) Air pressure pushes liquid into the straw and the mouth.

Air Pressure

6.2

Application of the Principle of Air Pressure Device Explanation

Cardboard

Piston pulled upwards

Nozzle Liquid

(b)
Steam Steam Hot water Heat Cover Cold water Steam condensed Atmospheric presure

Siphon
Atmospheric pressure pushes water into tube

3 The kinetic theory of gases can be used to explain the existence of air pressure. 4 According to the kinetic theory of gases, (a) a gas has many particles which are far apart from each other (b) these gas particles move freely and randomly, in all directions (c) these gas particles continuously collide with the walls of the container and bounce back (d) a force is exerted by the gas particles on the walls of the container (e) the force produces a pressure on the walls of the container 5 Factors affecting air pressure:

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in

When cold water is poured over a heated tin, the tin is crushed and collapses.

Tube filled with water

Spraying pump

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Reduced Air is compressed presure and pressure when air increases when comes out at Piston piston is pushed high speed

(a) When the piston is pushed, the air inside the barrel is compressed, pressure increases and pushes air out of nozzle at Fine droplets high speed. Push (b) The pressure reduces Liquid when air comes out Atmospheric pressure pushes at high speed. liquid up the tube (c) Air pressure pushes liquid up and out as fine droplets.

.b

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Reduced pressure when water flows out of tube

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Atmospheric pressure forces the liquid into the barrel

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When the hand is released, the water in the glass does not flow out because air pressure presses on the under surface of the cardboard.

(a) A lower pressure is developed in the tube. (b) The air pressure outside pushes water into the tube.

t.c

Water

Syringe

(a) When the piston is pulled up, a lower pressure is created inside the barrel of the syringe. (b) The air pressure outside forces liquid into the barrel of the syringe.

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Water

1 Air pressure exists when the air around us presses on the surfaces of the objects. 2 Activities to show that air exerts pressure: (a)

Atmospheric pressure pushes the water up the straw

Gas Under High Pressure 1 Gases can be compressed into liquid under high pressure, and stored in gas tanks. 2 Safety measures when using gas under high pressure: (a) Keep aerosol cans away from the sources of heat, such as open flames, sunlight and heaters. High temperature may cause an explosion. (b) Do not dispose aerosol cans into incinerators as they may explode. (c) Do not dent or puncture aerosol cans as they may explode. (d) Gas tanks must be kept in an open, cool and good ventilated place. (e) Always place the gas tank upright to prevent gas from leaking. (f) Turn off the valve each time after use. (g) Perform regular gas leakage checks to ensure there are no leakages.

CHAPTER 7
7.1 Force

Dynamics

1 A force is a push or a pull acting upon an object. 2 Effects of forces: (a) Can change shape (b) Can change position (c) Can change direction (d) Can change speed (increases or reduces speed)

.a
Drinking straw

Air Pressure

Drinking straw

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3 Different types of forces: Type Gravitational force Magnetic force Electrostatic force Frictional force Electromagnetic force 7.2 Description The force that causes objects to fall to the ground The force that acts on magnetic materials at a distance The force that is caused by charged materials The force that is caused by surfaces in contact The force that is produced by running electricity through a magnetic material 5 Methods to reduce friction: Method Roller or ball bearings Layer of air cushion Lubricants (grease, oil) Wheels Application In automobiles and machines Hovercrafts Moving gears, engine pistons, door hinges Roller blades, trolleys, sofas, pianos, wheelchairs

8.1

Support Systems in Animals Description Examples of animals Grasshoppers, cockroaches, prawns, crabs

7.4

Application of Work

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8.2 Prop roots

Support System

Exoskeleton An outer skeleton (in invertebrates) which is made of hard materials (such as chitin) Endoskeleton (in vertebrates)

Measurement of Force

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1 The SI unit for force is Newton (Symbol: N). 2 Spring balance (or Newton balance) can be used to measure force. 7.3 Application of Frictional Force

1 Work is done when a force is exerted to move an object in the same direction as the application of the force. Work (J) = Force (N) Distance (m)

Hydrostatic skeleton (in invertebrates)

.a

CHAPTER 8

Support and Movement

An internal Humans, elephants, skeleton which is horses, whales made of bones and muscle attachments Liquid (mainly water) which supports and maintains body shape and turgidity Earthworms, sea anemones, starfish

7.5

Application of Power

Type of surface Weight of object

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The rougher the two surfaces are, the greater the frictional force between them The heavier the object, the greater the frictional force

1 Power is the rate of doing work. Work done (J) Power (W) = Time taken (s)

.b

Factor

Description

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1 Frictional force has a magnitude and a direction. 2 The direction of the frictional force is parallel to the surface and in the opposite direction of motion. 3 Factors affecting magnitude of frictional force:

2 The unit for work is joule (J). 3 1 joule of work is done when 1 newton of force moves a distance of 1 metre, in the direction of the force.

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1 Aquatic vertebrates have smaller endoskeletons compared to land vertebrates. 2 Aquatic vertebrates gain support from buoyancy. 3 Buoyancy is the force from water that enables objects to float. Support Systems in Plants Description Examples of plants

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4 Advantages and disadvantages of friction: Advantages Provides a good grip and prevents objects from slipping Provides resistance to motion, so that moving objects can stop Produces heat, for example striking a matchstick Disadvantages

2 The unit for power is watt (W) or joule per second (J s1). Importance of Force in Life

Support system Buttress roots

Wears off surfaces in contact, such as shoe soles and tyres Produces unwanted heat that can damage surfaces Produces noise and causes noise pollution Wastes energy as more energy is needed to overcome friction

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7.6

Large roots which Rain tree, flame of form the base of the the forest stem to provide extra support Roots which grow from the branches or the nodes of the stem Roots which enable the plant to climb by growing around and gripping its support Banyan tree, maize

1 Our daily activities cannot function without force. 2 Importance of force: (a) frictional force enables us to hold all objects (b) magnetic force and electrical force make the machines work (c) gravitational force allows objects to stay on the ground

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Clasping roots

Orchids, plant, plant

money pepper

Page 10
Support system Tendrils Description Examples of plants 2 A stable object does not topple easily. 3 The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the whole weight of the object seems to concentrate at. 4 The centre of gravity of an object is also the point of equilibrium of the object. 5 The centre of gravity of objects can be determined using a plumb line. 6 Factors that affect the stability of an object: Factor Roses Position of the centre of gravity Base area Brown alga 9.2 Mangrove tree Importance of Stability Description Type of lever Secondclass lever Feature Use To produce a large force from a small force Examples Nutcracker Paper cutter Wheelbarrow Bottle opener

Thorns

Modified braches that cannot be removed easily from the stem The outgrowth of the epidermis which can be easily removed from the stem Provide buoyancy and help plants to stay afloat in water Roots which develop from the main stem of the trees

Bougainvillea

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Thirdclass lever 10.2

Coiled structures that Cucumber, garden develop from the stem pea, pumpkin or leaf. They wrap around the support and help the plants to climb

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F L E F

L between F and E
E

The larger the base area of an object, the more stable is the object

Stilt roots

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1 Physically disabled persons, aged people, injured persons use various ambulatory aids for additional support. 2 Examples of ambulatory aids are: (a) Cane (walking stick) (b) Crutches (c) Walking frame 3 Beached and stranded whales will die because their internal organs will be crushed by their own weight.

Simple Machine
Levers

.b

CHAPTER 10

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8.3

Appreciating the Support System in Living Organisms

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1 Stability is important to ensure that an object does not topple over. 2 Stability of an object can be increased by: (a) lowering its centre of gravity (b) increasing its base area

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Air sacs

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Prickles

The lower the centre of gravity of an object, the more stable is the object

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L

E between F and L

To produce a large movement from a small movement

Broom Ice tongs Fishing rod Human arm

4 The moment of a force refers to the turning effect of a force. Moment of a force (N m) = Force (N) Perpendicular distance from the pivot to the force (m) 5 Moments in a lever describe the opposing moments produced by the effort and the load in a lever. 6 When two opposing moments are balanced: Load (N) Distance of load from the fulcrum (m) = Effort (m) Distance of the effort from the fulcrum (m)

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CHAPTER 9
9.1

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Type of lever Firstclass lever

10.1

1 Levers are simple machines. 2 A lever consists of a rigid bar that turns freely about a fixed point (called fulcrum, F), when a force (called effort, E) is applied to overcome the resistance force (called load, L). 3 There are three classes of levers. Feature F between E and L
E F L

Use To produce a large force from a small force

Examples Pliers Scissors Crowbar Claw hammer Appreciating the Innovative Efforts in the Design of Machines to Simplify Work

Stability
Stability

1 The stability of an object refers to its ability to maintain its original position.

1 Levers can be used to design machines that help to simplify our work.