Inheritance

Heredity and Variation Heredity is the passing on of genetic information form parent offspring. Variation is the difference between organisms Terms and definitions 1. Chromosomes: these are thread-like structures found in the nucleus on, which genes are found. A normal human cell contains 46 chromosomes. 2. Gene: a section of a DNA molecule which; 3. (1) stores information and 4. (2) gives instructions for making any one kind of protein. Genes determine an organisms genotype and phenotype eg: height, hair type and eye colour and skin colour etc. Genes are arranged in order along the Chromosomes. 5. DNA De-oxy-ribo-nucleic acid: a substance that stores genic information/ Units of DNA in genes that is found on chromosomes, are responsible for passing on characteristics from parents to offspring 6. mRNA: Ribo-nucleic Acid: this is similar to DNA. mRNA also known as messenger RNA takes information and instructions from the DNA in the nucleus to the Ribosomes in the Cytoplasm to make protein. 7. Dominant Gene: the gene that dominates or controls or shows up. 8. Recessive Gene: the gene that is being dominated or is suppressed. 9. Allele: a pair of genes. Different types of the same gene e g: cars (Honda, Toyota, Nissan). 7a Ho-mo-zy-gous Genes: Similar pairs of genes e g: AA/ TT/HH, aa, tt, hh Carrier: A heterozygous person. Tt,Hh. This is a person who has a dominant and a recessive gene. Because the person has the capital letter, he or she is not affected by the disease of the condition, but because he or she has the common letter, he or she is carrying the gene. 7a Het-ero-zy-gous Genes: Dissimilar pairs of genes eg: Tt, Aa, Hh, Mm etc

*The capital letters is always dominant T t *The common letters is always recessive 10.Ge-no-type: the internal characteristics, the genes in our cells make up our genotype(we cannot see them) mm, MM, Mm 11.Phe-no-type: the external characteristics which can be seen (hair colour, type of hair, height, skin colour). 12.Chro-ma-tids: half of a chromosome. This is what is formed when a chromosome splits. 13.Ho-mo-lo-gous Chromosomes: when gametes fuse during fertilization, each nucleus contributes 23 chromosomes to restore 46 or diploid # of chromosomes in the zygote. Similar or identical chromosomes are said to be homologous. They look the same and have the same characteristics. Nucleus: This is a spherical body in a plant or animal cell which contains chromosomes, and it controls all the activities (growth and behavior) of the cell. . Di-ploid Number: the whole numbers of Chromosomes (46). 20.Ha-ploid Number: half the number of Chromosomes (23) occurs only in sex cells/gametes. Gametes/sex cells: these are the male and female reproductive cells. 14.Mei-o-sis: This is a process of cell division giving rises to sex cells in which the numbers of chromosomes are reduced to half , or the haploid number when the cells split into two. Meiosis: involves the two types of cell division. In the 1st one the diploid number is restored. In the 2nd one the number of chromosomes is halved for sexual reproduction. IMPORTANCE OF MEIOSIS 15.To hall the numbers of chromosomes first 16. Second to restore the diploid number of chromosomes at fertilization 17.To Introduces variation. 18.To ensure genetic continuity 19.To bring about new species.

20.Mi-to-sis: This is a process of cell division in which each daughter cell has a complete number of chromosomes or the diploid number of chromosomes similar to that of the parent cell. Each cell is identical clones.eg banana, ginger, onion, plum, chive. These cells reproduce asexually as only one parent is involved and the daughters cells produced are identical to the parent in every way. Mitosis caters for growth and development and repair. IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS 21.To pass on the diploid numbers of chromosomes 22.It ensures identical off spring 23.For growth, development and repair 24.Ensures genetic continuity 25.Reproduction takes place very rapidly. Eg banana plants for food. Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis
Occurs in normal body cells Passes on the diploid numbers of chromosomes Produce identical cells Does not determine sex Production for normal body cell for growth, repair and development Similarity: ensures genetic continuity

Meiosis
Occurs in gametes Passes on the haploid number of chromosomes Produce variation (the zygote has genes mixed from crossing over) Determine sex Production of sex cells Similarity: ensures genetic continuity

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Variation

This is the differences between organisms. There are two (2) types of variation. They are continuous variation and discontinuous variation. 1) Continuous Variation: is when there are very small differences between individuals. They can be arranged in order e g: height, weight, complexion, foot size. 2) Discontinuous Variation: is when there are distinct, clear differences between (organisms). e.g.: sex (male, female), race, blood type. There is no in between, you are either one or the other. 3) The importance of variation to an organism; 4) Variation is important in that it; 5) 1. makes it possible to identify organisms, which helps to make life easier. Think about if every person in the world looked identical (the same). What confusion! 6) 2. makes it possible for new species to be introduced into the world. If you cross a red hibiscus with a white hibiscus you get a pink hibiscus, red peas with green peas you get spotted ones (beauty betty) pet bull 7)

NB

Variation can be both continuous and discontinuous at the same time, in

that, while you can belong to the black race which is discontinuous, within that black race, you can have different straightness of hair, in that, some people hair can be curlier than others or straighter than others, so they can be arranged, hence this is continuous.

6 Genetics and Environmental Variation

Genetic Variation: is the difference between organisms based on the genes e.g. mutation, Downs syndrome, albinism. Environmental Variation: is the difference between organisms based on the environmental factors e.g.: climate, availability of food, living conditions etc.

*Environment (all external influences factors) *Genotype (all genes expressed) *Phenotype (all observable characteristics) Mutation: is a change in the part of or a whole organism, form the normal. A Gene Mutation: is a spontaneous change in a part of the DNA which may alter the characteristics it controls eg. Some gene mutations are sickle cell anaemia, Haemophillia, Downs syndrome and albinism

Chromosomal Syndrome
Downs syndrome Downs syndrome is an example of a hereditary disease and a mutation. This time instead of just one or a few genes being affected a whole chromosome is affected. In the case of Downs syndrome the zygote receives an extra chromosome. This is a result of unequal division of the chromosome when the ova are formed, two number 21 chromosomes pass into the ovum instead of 1# 21. The sperm provides one, so the zygote receives three. This extra chromosome causes the child to develop with downs syndrome Down syndrome children are mentally retarded. They have short arms and legs and sometimes internal defects.

7 Monohybrid Inheritance: this is the ability of certain persons being able to do things that others cannot do. In this case only one allele is involved. An allele is the alternative gene available to control one characteristic. eg tongue rolling, move the ear, open the tip of the nostrils.

Sickle cell Anaemia Sickle cell anaemia is a condition that is caused by a gene mutation. A mutation in a spontaneous change in a part of the DNA which may alter/change the characteristic it controls. An alteration/change of the DNA coding for haemoglobin produces sickle cell anaemia. One part of the DNA is called the base, is change so that the wrong amino acid is inserted into the haemoglobin molecule. The glutamic acid is carried to the ribosome instead of valinine. This causes the red blood cells to be deformed and out of shaped and therefore reduces their oxygen carrying capacity. This causes anaemia. In the Hh condition the only mild anaemia is experienced yet the plasmodium parasite causing malaria cannot live. So these people would survive malaria, but in the hh condition death occurs.

Albinisms
Albinisms: is where a mutation affects a single gene, the melanin pigment in the skin, hair and eye fails to develop. Albinism is found through the World. Albino individuals are very vulnerable to sun damage to their skin, so they have a greater chance of developing skin cancer and need to take care to protect themselves from sunlight. Their eyes are very sensitive to light and they often have problem with their vision, but apart from this, they can lead/live a completely normal life. Red Green colour blindness The gene for red green colour blindness is on the X sex chromosome. It is a recessive gene. Where there are two alleles, as in the female with two X chromosome, one paired gene is almost always the dominant non-colour blind gene. The recessive one has no chance to show it effects, although it can be passed on to her children. But in males with only one X chromosome, the colour blind gene, if it should occur, will make its effect felt. The male will be red-green colour blild.

Haemophilia Haemophilia; this is a disease in which the blood fails to clot. These persons can easily bleed to death. 8 The inheritance of sex is due to the passing on of different chromosomes form the male and female gametes. A male has an x and a y chromosomes in the gametes, while the female has x and x/ two x chromosomes in the gametes. These are in addition to the 22 other pairs of chromosomes. Sex/ gender are determined according to how these chromosomes are joined together at fertilization. Male X Y Female X X

X X Y

What is genetic engineering/genetic modification?

This process of changing the genetic material of an organism is called genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is use to give an organism new characteristics which we want to see. In genetic engineering, we take a piece of DNA, a gene from one organism and transfer it to the DNA of a completely different organism. The new DNA which contains genetic materials from two different organisms is now known as recombinant DNA. So genes form the cell of a human being can be cut out (using enzymes) and transfer to the cell of a bacterium. Your gene carries on coding for the same human protein as if it were still in a human being, even though it is now in a bacterium. eg the gene that makes insulin in human being, is now put into a bacterium. That gene, although now in the bacterium, will continue making the same insulin as if it were still in a human being.

If genetically engineered bacteria are cultured on a large scale they will make huge quantities of protein for other organisms. We now use them to make a number of drugs and hormones as medicine. One of the best examples is the production of human insulin using genetically engineered bacteria. People with diabetes need a supply of the hormone insulin. Before, insulin use to be extracted form the pancreas of pigs and cattle but it wasnt quite the same as human insulin and the supply was quite variable. Both of these problems have been solved by the introduction of genetically engineered human insulin. This piece of genetic engineering means people with diabetes are guaranteed a regular supply of pure, human insulin to keep them healthy. Transferring genes to animal and plant cells Scientists have found that genes form one organism can be transferred to the cells of other type of animals or plants at an early stage of their development. As the animal or plant grows it develops with the new desired characteristics. There are some exciting work producing bananas which contain human vaccines. This would make it easier to supply vaccines to people in many countries across the developing world. The advantages of genetic engineering Improve the growth rate of plants and animals. (Fowl for chicken) improve the food value of crops and to reduce the fat level in meat produce plants which make their own chemicals glowing genes from jelly fish have been used on crops which gives off a blue light when they are attacked by insects so the farmer knows when they need spraying. A number of sheep and other mammals have been engineered to produce life-saving human protein (protein that human need to survive) in their milk.
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The disadvantages of genetic engineering

no one is sure what the long term effects might be Insects might become pesticide resistant if they eat a consistent diet of plants that produce their own pesticides. Many people are concerned about the effects of eating genetically modified food on human health. Genes from genetically modified plants and animals may spread into the wildlife of the countryside. (What can happen here?) People might want to genetically engineer their embryos to make sure they have a child who is clever, good-looking, good at sports etd. Is this acceptable? There are many other issues for us to think about.