S.Y.B.A.

EDUCATION
PaperII

EducationalPsychology
(SupplementaryalongwithPsychologyofLearning)

RevisedSyllabusw.e.f.academicyear20042005 ForIDEStudentsapplicablefrom20052006


c:UNIVERSITYOFMUMBAI Dr.VijayKhole ViceChancellor Dr.DhaneswarHarichandan I/cProfessorCumDirector

Dr.ArunSawantInstituteofDistanceEducation

ProViceChancellor
CourseCordinator

Dr.DhaneswarHarichandan ReaderinEducation,IDE,UniversityofMumbai Dr.BeenaKhemnchandani,Principal SevaSadan'sCollegeofEducation,Ulhasnagar421003. Dr.SavitaSable,LecturerinEducation NationalCollegeofEducation,Ulhasnagar421004 Mrs.SharmilaMitra,LecturerinEducation, NationalCollegeofEducation,Ulhasnagar421004.

Dr.SwamalataHarichandan,
LecturerinEducation, NationalCollegeofEducation,Ulhasnagar421004.

 February,2006

Publishedby
DTPComposedby : PaceComputronics "Samridhi"Paranjpe'B'Scheme, VileParle(E),Mumbai400057. : TheProfessorcumDirectorof InstituteofDistanceEducation UniversityofMumbai,

Printedat

INDEX
No. Particulars No.

CONTENTS

Sr.No.

Title

Page No.

1. 2. 3 A. 3 B. 4. 5. 6 A. 6 B. 6 C. 7. 8.

AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT LEARNING MENTAL PROCESSES RELATED TO LEARNING: MEMORY FORGETTING MOTIVATION THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE MENTAL HYGIENE SELF-CONCEPT AND SELF-ESTEEM MALADJUSTMENTS GROUP DYNAMICS PRACTICALS (Experiments to be conducted)

1 19 31 40 43 53 63 67 75 86 97

Preface

The syllabus of SYBA Education paper II has been revised with effect from 2005 06. The revised syllabus is given in this study material. This study material is supplementary to the earlier one named Psychology of Learning. You are required to refer to the revised

syllabus and prepare for the examination accordingly. Some units in the old study material is to be ignored as per the revised syllabus. Units 1, 2 and 4 may be read from old study material.

Students having any difficulty in understanding the subject may contact the Reader in Education in Room No. 210 of IDE.

(Dr. D. Harichandan) Reader in Education and Course Co-ordinator)

UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI Revised Syllabus of SYBA (Education)

PAPER II EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Objectives :

1.

To develop an understanding of the meaning & scope of educational psychology.

2.

To understand the dimensions of growth & the causes of individual difference.

3.

To understand the problem of adolescents & the role of education in sloving them.

4.

To understand the structure & functions of higher mental process.

5.

To comprehend the process of learning & processes related to learning.

6.

To understand the various theories of learning.

7.

To develop the ability to analyze classroom teaching learning & the ability to observe classroom behavior & group dynamics.

8.

To understand the different aspects of personality.

Content:

1.

Nature, meaning, scope & functions of Educational Psychology.

2.

Methods of studying Educational Psychology (i) Introspection (ii) Observation (iii) Experimental method.

3.

A. Growth & Development Meaning, Principles of growth & development. B. Stages of growth & development Infancy, childhood. Adolescence. Areas of development Physical, social, emotional, intellectual & moral.

4.

Individual differences meaning, significance, causes of differences genetic & environmental.

5.

Learning concept, nature & process of learning. Maturation. Learning Curve A. Theories of learning Trial & Error, Classical & Operant Conditioning, Learning by Insight. B. Transfer of learning concept & types.

6.

Mental processes related to learning: A. Memory concept, type, factors affecting memory, artificial intelligence, techniques to develop memory. B. Forgetting Nature, causes, educational implications. C. Thinking Perceptual, Conceptual, Convergent & Divergent thinking, Inductive & Deductive reasoning. D. Problem solving.

7.

Motivation Concept, principles, types, factors affecting motivation, Maslows theory, motivational techniques.

8.

Intelligence A. Concept, nature & types of intellectual abilities. B. Intelligence tests types & uses. C. Creativity nature & process of creative thinking, characteristics of creative persons.

9.

A. Personality Concept, assessment of personality B. Maladjustments causes & prevention of maladjustment.

10.

Group Dynamics Characteristics of a group, types of groups, role & qualities of a leader.

Experiments to be conducted & recorded in the journal (any six):

a)

Memory rote & logical, preservation, recall & recognition b) Intelligence tests verbal & non-verbal c) Transfer of learning (Mirror drawing) d) Motivation

EDUCATION PAPER VI (Optional Paper) 80 marks Lectures/week

ELEMENTS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH APPLIED COMPONENT 3

Objective

1.

To understand the concept & principles of educational research.

2.

To acquaint with different methods of educational research.

3.

To understand the various stages of educational research.

4.

To understand the various data collection tools for educational research.

5.

To understand the different aspects of writing a research report.

Content

1.

Concept of educational research, significance, need & characteristics of educational research.

2.

Educational research in India different organizations which promote educational research. Major periodicals & journals of educational research.

3.

Methods of educational research

a) Historical Method b) Experimental method c) Descriptive method.

4.

Stages in educational research

a) Selection, formulation & definition of the problem. b) Background of the study review of related literature. c) Collection of data & tools of research questionnaire, rating scale, interview, observation. d) Quantitative Analysis & interpretation of data using measures of central tendency & variability.

5.

The Research report

a) Aspects of research the research question, the rationale, site description (where & who sample), methods of data collection, analysis & interpretation of data, reflection on results. b) List of references & bibliography. Practical Work

1.

Review of any one educational research from 2001 onwards.

2.

Identifying the research problem & reviewing its related literature.

Reference books

1.

Aggarwal J. C. Educational Research, an introduction. (Arya Book Depot)

2.

Lokesh Kaul Methodology of Educational Research (Vikas publishing house)

3.

Best J.W & Kahn J.V. Research in Education (Prentice Hall of India.)

4.

Sharma R. A Fundamentals of Educational Research (Loyal Book Depot, Meerut)

5.

Garrett H.E Statistics in Psychology & Education. (Vakils, Pepper & Simons Pvt Ltd.)

6.

Sukhia S P & Mehrotra Elements of Educational research (Allied Publishers Pvt Ltd)

7.

Rao Usha Conducting Ramchandra & Co. Pune)

Educational

Research

(Dashthane

8.

Khan Mohammed Sharif Educational Research

EDUCATION PAPERS VII

COMPARATIVE EDUCATION 100marks 4lectures/week

Objectives

1.

To understand the meaning of Comparative Education.

2.

To understand the scope of Comparative Education.

3.

To understand the educational system of different countries.

4.

To comprehend the different stages of education in different countries.

5.

To gain an insight into the various aspects of higher education in different countries.

6.

To compare the various aspects of education in the different countries studied with India.

Content

1.

Meaning, definition, scope & purpose of comparative education.

2.

Factors affecting educational system in different countries such as historical background, geography of the country, ideological framework & political system.

3.

Aims/objectives, philosophy & constitutional provisions for education in the U.K., U.S.A & Indonesia.

4.

Pre-primary, primary, secondary, higher secondary & higher education in the U.K. U.S.A. & Indonesia.

5.

Various aspects of higher education in the U.K., U.S.A & Indonesia including admission, finance, campus life, facilities, part-time employment opportunities, examinations, placement services.

Practical Work

To write a paper on any one of the following topics.

a) Student teacher relationship in the U. S. A & India.

b) The pattern of examinations in higher education in the U. S. A. & India

c) The medium of instruction at all levels in Indonesia & India.

d) Planning in education in Indonesia & India.

e) Unemployment of the educated in Indonesia & India.

f)

Planning in education in the U. K. & India.

Reference Books

1.

Chaube S. P.

Feautres of Comparative Education.

2. Hans Nicholas educational factors & taditions.

Comparative Education A Study of

3.

Borrowman Meries L

Teacher Education in America.

4.

Khanna S D & others

Comparative Education made easy.

5.

Sodhi T S

Comparative Education.

6.

Ashby Evic higher education in USA.

Any person, any sky an essay on

7.

Devance W C America

Higher Education in the 20th century

EDUCATION PAPER VIII

CHALLENGES IN INDIAN EDUCATION 100marks 4lectures/week

Objectives

1.

To understand the problems at different levels of education in India.

2.

To comprehend the difficulties faced by the weaker sections of India society.

3.

To gain insight into the various measures to tackle the problems in Indian education.
st

4.

To understand the need for value education in the 21 century.

5.

To understand the roles played by some agencies to wards value education.

6.

To understand the problems faced in inclusive education.

Content

A) The following topics should be viewed in the light of the Indian Constitution & role of the government wherever applicable: 1. Universalization of primary education.

2. Education of the marginalized population the backward class, scheduled cast/tribe, women.

3. Medium of instruction of primary, secondary & higher education levels.

B) 1. Student indiscipline & management of crises

2. Admissions to higher education.

3. Examinations need, defects, suggestions for improvement.

4. Value education need, role of family & school.

5. Environmental education concept, need, type water, air, noise.

6. Unemployment causes & steps to tackle the problem.

7. Inclusive education.

Practical To present a paper on any one of the following

1.

Medium of instruction & its impact.

2.

The need for continuous evaluation.

3.

The need for increasing awareness of the masses towards the environment.

4.

Problems faced by students during admission to professional courses

5.

The need for value education in the 21st century.

Reference books 1. Balan K 2. Rao D B volume set.

Education & Employment. Education for all achieving the goal 3

3.

Laxmi S

Challenges in Indian Education.

4.

Rao D B

Current Trends in Indian Education

5.

Veena D R prospects

Educational Systems problems &

6.

Mehta P L & others Execution of the

Free & Compulsory Education (Gensis &

constitutional philosophy)

7.

Sarangi R Implications

Moral Education in schools Basis &

8.

Kirk S A & Gallaghen J J

Education exceptional children.

9.

Godbole R D

Examination & Evaluation.

10. Khan Mohammad Sharif

Education. Religion & Modern Age.

11. Gore M S

Indian Education Structure & problems

12. Mohanty J

Modern trends in Indian Education.

EDUCATION PAPER IX (Optional Paper) 80 marks Lectures/week

EDUCATION FOR WOMEN APPLIED COMPONENT 3

Objectives

1.

To develop awareness of the issues related to womens eduation.

2.

To develop understanding of the cultural, social, economic, religious & political problems of womens education.

3.

To highlight the efforts made by the government & social reformers to promote womens education.

4.

To emphasis the role of the family, the school & the media in the empowerment of women.

5.

To develop attitudes of gender equality.

Content

1)

Development of Womens education in post-independent India a) b) c) d) e) f) Constitution. University Education Commission, 1948-49 Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53 Education Commission, 1964-66 National Education Policy, 1986 Womens Movement in India

2)

Current status of Womens Education

a) Statistical profile with reference to 2001 census data i) ii) iii) iv) Literacy rate Enrolment ratios at different levels of education Dropout rates Distribution in various professions.

b) Factors affecting Womens Education. i) Socio cultural ii) Rural / Urban iii) Political iv) Economic v)

c) Promoting Womens new image in democratic india i) Essential qualities: Self esteem, Role in democracy, Leadership. ii) Role of school & family. 3) Efforts for Womens empowerment. a) Central government policies N.C.W.E. b) State government policies for Women, Government of Maharashtra 1994. c) Important legal measures. d) Social Reformers Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Pandita Ramabai. e) Womens entrepreneurship skilled based training & education. 4) Role of formal & non-formal agencies for gender equality a) Formal agencies School b) Non-formal agencies. i)Open Universities ii) Mass media iii) Voluntary agencies Practical Work Profile of two renowned Women achievers in Independent India. Reference Books 1. Sharma B M 2. Dutt Suresh

Women & Education Women in Education (2 Volumes)

EDUCATION PAPER IX. (Optional Paper) 80 marks week

COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION APPLIED COMPONENT 3

Lectures

Objectives

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

To understand the importance of computer in the modern changing society. To understand the role of computers in the field of education. To understand the various components of hardware & their functions. To understand the skillful use of hardware through software. To understand need for an operating system software. To understand the use of word processing software using MS word. To Develop logic & skill, to write & structure simple programs, to manipulate data using basic programming To understand & learn the use of data based management & spreadsheet through MS Office program Excel. To create awareness on multi-tasking & graphics using Paintbrush of windows program & MS Office Power Point. To learn the use of Internet, its basics browser, search engine & e-mail. To create use of computers in networking

Content 1) Introduction & fundamentals of computers i. Concept of computer & computer systems & its characteristics & capabilities ii. Types of computers only knowledge of Main Frame, Mini Computer, Micro computer, PC/XT- 286,386,486, Pentium, Desktop, Laptop. iii. Computer peripherals Input devices keyboard, mouse, scanner Output devices monitor, printer.

Storage devices hard disk, floppy disk &

drives,memorystick&CDROMSwhicharemultimedia
Memories RAM, ROM, knowledge of types iv. System soft wares WINDOWS, application software MS OFFICE, MS WORLD, EXCEL & POWERPOINT.

2. WINDOWS i) ii) Introduction Windows concept & exploring windows features multitasking desktop environment, task bar, menu bar, tool bar, use of file manager or wind explorer, use of print manager, program groups. iii) Drawing through paint brush & use of calculator.

3. APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION Use of Computers in a) Teaching b) Learning c) Evalution & Testing.

4. MS-WORD, WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE. i) ii) iii) Introduction menus Open & save a new or existing document Create a document, editing a document moving the text, using drag & droptext, copying between documents, using autocorrect & thesaurus, margin setting, changing line setting, justifying commands, insert pictures or clipart print document & enhancements Mail merge document with examples

iv)

5. MS-EXCEL DATA BASE & SPREAD SHEET SOFTWARE i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) Introduction exploring features of spreadsheets & workbook, work sheet fundamentals & basics-data, its types. Entering data, adjusting column width, loading & saving files or database. Copying data using file handle & moving data in worksheet. Windowing, titling, sorting & querying. Creating, saving & printing graphs with options. Work sheet functions & formulae DATE, SUM, AVG, LEFT, RIGHT,REAPEAT, STR, INT, VAL using IF THEN statements for preparing result sheets, LOOKUP REFERENCE to convert marks into grades. Preparation of mark list using EXCEL.

vii)

6. MS PPOWERPOINT PRESENTATION SOFTWARE i) ii) iii) Introduction to making presentations preparation of slides & creating & editing a presentation. Exploring the power point menus & toolbars features, slide animation & multimedia features slide transition during slide show. Preparing slide presentation using features of multimedia (at least 10 slides on any one unit)

7. INTERNET & EMAIL Basics of Internet, genesis browser, search engines, software & hardware (MODEM), surfing, search methods/algorithms ii) Visiting educational websites, chat, bulletin boards & forums for exchange of ideas. iii) Uses of internet, net working, LAN, e-mail creating & sending. Note: The present syllabus should be subject to revision as per the hardware & software changes, on the condition that the Board of Studies should communicate the same to the concerned colleges at the beginning of the academic year. Practical Any one of the following to be done 1. Prepare a curriculum vitae with hyperlinks. 2. Prepare a power point presentation presenting MYSELF. i)

Reference Books: 1. Dan Gooking 2. DSouza Eric S. Published by SKW Enterprises 3. Merill Paul F., Hammons, Tolman, Christensen, Vincient 4. Raman Raja 5. Stevens A. I. : Fundamentals of Compuers : Teach yourself Windows : Windows Windows for Dummies : A textbook on Computer Literacy

: Computers in Education

6. Timothy, J. O. : Microsoft Office 2000 Published by C DAC Tata McGraw Hill series called The OLeary series.

PAPER II EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY per week

S.YB.A. 100 MARKS 3lectures

Objectives: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. To develop an understanding of the meaning & scope of educational psychology. To understand the dimensions of growth & the causes of individual differences. To understand the problem of adolescents & the role of education in solving them. To understand the structure & functions of higher mental process. To comprehend the process of learning & processes related to learning. To understand the various theories of learning. To develop the ability to analyze classroom teaching learning & the ability to observe classroom behavior & group dynamics. To understand the different aspects of personality.

Content: 1. Nature, meaning, scope & functions of Educational Psychology.

2.

Methods of studying Educational Psychology i) Introspection ii) Observation iii) Experimental method

3. A. Growth & Development Meaning, Principles of growth & development. B. Stages of growth & development Infancy, childhood, adolescence. Areas of development Physical, social, emotional, intellectual & moral. 4. Individual differences meaning, significance, causes of differences genetic & environmental

5. A. Learning concept, nature & process of learning, maturation, learning curve. B. Theories of learning Trial & Error, Classical & Operant Conditioning, Learning by insight, C. Thinking Perceptual, conceptual, convergent & Divergent thinking, Inductive & Deductive reasoning. D. Problem solving. 6. Mental processes related to learning: A. Memory concept, type: factors affecting memory, artificial intelligence, and techniques to develop memory. B. Forgetting Nature, causes, educational implications. C. Thinking Perceptual, conceptual, convergent & Divergent thinking, Inductive & Deductive reasoning, D. Problem solving. Motivation Concept, principles, types, factors affecting motivation, Maslows theory, motivational techniques.

7.

8.

IntelligenceA. Concept, nature & types of intellectual abilities. B. Intelligence tests types & uses. C. Creativity nature & process of creative thinking, characteristics of creative persons.

9.

A. Personality Concept, assessment of personality B. Maladjustments causes & prevention of maladjustment.

10. Group Dynamics Characteristics of a group, types of groups, role & qualities of a leader. Experiments to be conducted & recorded in the journal (any six): a) Memory rote & logical, perseveration, recall & recognition b) Intelligence tests verbal & non verbal c) Transfer of learning (Mirror drawing) d) Motivation Note: First term Units 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5 Second term Units 6, 7, 8, 9 & 10

1
AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT
UNIT STRUCTURE

1.1 Objectives

1.2 Introduction Physical developments Social developments Emotional developments Intellectual development Moral development 1.3 Piagets Theory 1.4 Kohlbergs Theory.

1.1 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to. Describe the different areas of development Understand the stages of development given in Piagets theory. Understand the theory of moral development given by Kohlberg.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, some of the changes that occur during the course of an individuals life are examined. The importance of understanding development lies in the fact that an individuals performance on school tasks is a direct function of

the level of development the individual has reached. Five major areas of development that are relevant to education are determined and examined:

1) Cognitive or Intellectual 2) Physical 3) Moral 4) Social 5) Emotional. The focus of interest is not merely age-related changes but the processes that underline such changes.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Physical development means the progressive development of various parts of the body and their capacity to function. Physical development implies an orderly series of changes in size, Proportion and functioning from cradle to the grave. It includes, growth in height, body proportions (head, skeleton, nose, trunk, etc.) nervous system and changes in internal organs. These changes are connected with respiration, circulation and digestion in glands and in reproductive areas.

Some of the detailed characteristic features of stage-wise, physical development are-

INFANCY

At the time of birth, the child is physically immature, By first month, eye fixation is possible, By third month, audition and taste develop and rapid growth takes place, By sixth month, glandular system develops, By first year, crawling, sitting, formation of teeth, standing with support, walking with support takes place, By second year, play activities like kicking a ball develop, By third year, motor-coordination begins, By fourth year, neuro-muscular co-ordination develops to a satisfactory extent. By fifth & sixth years, continuation of growth and consolidation of muscular abilities take place, and physical stability is ensured.

CHILDHOOD :- Late childhood Interest in varied physical and play activities increases, Improvement in neuro-muscular co-ordination takes place, Brain capacity also improves, Normal functioning of glandular systems and formation of new teeth, Sex interest begins and considerable physical stability is attained.

ADOLESCENCE

It is the period of rapid growth and development, Changes in face, head, body, limbs occurs, Development of secondary sex characters begins, Maturation of reproductive system also takes place,

Further physical maturity is induced by the gonads and pituitary glands, Bones get stronger and voice becomes rough, and Physical maturity is attained to the optimum level.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS I

Match the columns:A 1. Infancy attained. 2. Childhood attainedat optimum level. 3. Adolescence c. Motor & neuromuscular coordination begins. b. Physical maturity B a. considerable stability is

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SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Parents, educators and psychologists watch the physical development of children and marvel at their development. It is amazing to watch a young child grow, seeing changes from day to day. Parents know that they are acting as models for their children and as such their children reflect many of their behaviours, attitudes and ideas. Recognizing this,one type of development determines how well the child will interact with the world, and the nature of his interactions with the world determines how well he will get along with others.

In the same way that children grow in cognitive competence. They also develop socially. They learn how to get along with their peers and their understandings of social relationships increases. Social development involves development of social behaviour and social relationships. A child is neither social, unsocial nor anti-social by birth. He comes into an environment that is highly social. All his basic needs are satisfied by social interaction from the time of birth.

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT At the time of birth, the child is neither social, unsocial nor antisocial, By third month, the first social response is seen as smile, By the end of first month, recognition of family members take place, By the end of first year, social responses are directed towards members of the family. By the age of two, child comes in contact with world outside his home. By the third year, there will be increased awareness of society in the neighbourhood, egocentrism ensues. By the age of four, egocentricism diminishes and the child becomes sociocentric, and During fifth and sixth years, their will be development of social and moral self. During this period social values, attitudes and interests are developed, Social learning also takes place due to mimesis (sympathy, imitation and suggestion) Feeling of security and attention are regained due to increased association with the associates and teachers, Social experiences increases during the life in and outside the school.

3. ADOLESCENCE

During this period, the process of socialization continues, Interest in social activities, social gatherings and social services increases, Altruism will develop, Interest in opposite sex ensues and sex imbalances also begins, and Finally radical outlook and questioning the social norms is developed during the end of the period.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-2

Match the columns A B

1. Infancy the

a.

Radical outlook and questioning of social norms.

2. Childhood family

b.

Social response directed towards members.

3. Adolescence are

c.

Social values, attitudes and interests developed.

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EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Emotional development is closely related to physical development. It means development of normal emotional behaviour. Emotional development is very important for proper development of their treatment and methods of bringing up the children. The type of discipline imposed at home and in the school affect emotional growth, if parents and teachers are to help the child develop emotionally so that his emotions will be beneficial, they must know the normal pattern of emotional development.

The relationship of the pupils to the teacher, other to them, and of them to each other are all of an emotional character. Since the environment of the class and the amount that the children will learn depend in considerable measure upon these relation ships, it is necessary for a teacher to understand them.

Some characteristics features of emotional development are given below: -

1. INFANCY At birth only undifferentiated excitement is noticed, By third month distress and discontentment are discernible, By fifth month, smile is noticed, By sixth month, fear due to loss of support or sudden loud noise is witnessed, Before first year, angry reaction due to interference or restriction of freedom of movement are observed. By third year, the emotion of love takes its shape in the form of love for mother, father and other relatives, Third year is the age of ego. centralism and self love, temper, tantrums also ensue, By fourth year, extension of emotion of love from home to outside world begins with the admission of the child into the nursery school, and The age of five and six may be called the period of psychosexual development and development of joy and jealousy etc. are noticeable.

2. LATE CHILDHOOD Love of classmates and other associates of the same age group takes place,

It leads to formation of gangs and peer groups, School life plays important role in forming the emotional behaviour of the child, Other patterns of love and sympathy develop, Number of learned fears increase, school phobia may also develop, Angry reactions also increases due to threat to ones own status of prestige, and Considerable emotional stability, takes place during this period.

3. ADOLESCENCE: Slight emotional imbalance develops due to sexual maturity, Selfishness, greediness, peevishness and high sensitivity develop, Frequent emotional outbursts of excitement and depression ensue, Emotion of love dominates the thinking of adolescent, Number of learned fears like fear of examinations, fear of inadequacy of funds, etc. increase, and Sublimation of emotional impulses into aesthetic and cultural pursuits begin.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3

Match the columns.

A. 1. Infancy 2. Childhood depression 3. Adolescence ensue.

B. a. Formation of gangs and peer groups. b. Emotional outbursts of exitement and Ensues. c. Self-love, temper and tantrums

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INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT:

The growth and development of mental abilities and capacities which help an individual to adjust his behaviour to the ever-changing environmental conditions or to enable him to accomplish a task that needs complex cognitive abilities is referred to as mental or intellectual development.
Actually, the process of mental growth and development is responsible for the development of an individuals all cognitive, mental or intellectual abilities like sensation, perception, imagination, memory, reasoning, understanding, intelligence, generalization, interpretation, language ability, conceptual ability, problem solving ability and decision making ability, etc.

These abilites are inter-related and never develop in isolation. Therefore mental development of an individual at any stage of his development, includes the overall development of these abilities.

Here are some characteristic feature of intellectual development of children :

1. INFANCY

At the time of birth, the child is mentally immature. By the third month, bodily sensation forms a lot of mental experiences. By the sixth month, vocationalisation by means of imitation and duplication of sound begins. By the first year, the child will be learning the first use of words by imitation. By one and half years, the child will be learning more use of words, By the second year, there will be increase in the word power and sensory explorations. The age of three is the period of beginning of daydreaming and make-believe due to development of imagination.

During the fourth and sixth years learning of motor activates, increase of vocabulary, acquisition of tools of learning, development of span of memory and attention take place, and this is also known as period of questioning as the child develops inquisitiveness about the nature, and man due to development of urge of curiosity.

2. LATE CHILDHOOD During this period, there will be considerable increase in the vocabulary and span of attention and memory facilitating formal education. Interest in adventurous activities increases, Sensori-perceptual learning begins, Capacity for destructive reasoning develops, Desire for specific learning increases, Tools of thought are acquired, and Finally considerable mental stability is attained by the end of the period.

3. ADOLESCENCE During this period, there will be development of critical, independent and abstract thinking, Ability for creativity and productivity develops, Widening of interests and specific aptitudes take place Due to development of high imagination, intellectual pursuits, romantic themes and manoeuvres dominate the minds of adolescents. Conceptual learning takes place, Finally maximum mental maturity is attained by the age of 16.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4 Match the column :A. 1. Infancy 2. Childhood 3. Adolescence B. a. Conceptual learning takes place. b. Child develops inquisitiveness. c. Sensori-perceptual learning begins.

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MORAL DEVELOPMENT From childhood on, people develop new abilities to conceive of the world in realistic ways. At the same time they develop a set of values. Children, adolescents and adults make decisions about morality-about what is right or wrong, good or bad. Morality is a system of learned personal beliefs about right and wrong that people use to evaluate situations or behaviour. Attitudes about morality develop throughout life. From a very early age children learn from their parents the behaviours, attitudes and values that are considered appropriate and correct. As children mature these attitudes change to accomodate an increasingly complex need of the world and what constitutes reality. Moral development is one of the most important developmental dimensions of the human beings. It is often referred to as the character development. Moral behaviour or character is to be considered as an essential quality of the total personality of the individual. Characteristic features of moral developments are enumerated below stage wise: INFANCY At the time of birth, the child is born neither moral or immoral, He is born with the capacity for growth through maturation and experience. Attainment of requisite maturity is essential before the child can display certain types of conduct. Patterns of conduct are learnt at home, In the preschool stage, the teachers can help children develop desirable conduct through approval and disapproval of the behaviour.

LATE CHILDHOOD At this stage, the peer group plays a prominent role in developing the moral behaviour of children through disciplinary procedures, The rewards and punishments given by parents, teachers and other societal members help to strengthen the moral self further, They become aware of social & cultural norms, Honesty, truthfulness, trustworthiness, etc. become meaningful in due course.

ADOLESCENCE Due to development of critical attitude and independent thinking, the individual begins to question all ethical principles, values and ideals, which he had accepted earlier. He develops power to deliberate, to evaluate alternatives, to choose wisely and to reconstruct his behaviors accordingly and, Finally he becomes a person of good character, who is energetic in serving others.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5 Match the column : A 1. Infancy home 2. Childhood principles 3. Adolescence B a. Patterns of conduct learnt at b. Queries on all ethical

accepted earlier. c. Peer group develops moral behaviour.

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________
PIAGETS THEORY Piagets theories are very elaborate and cover a wide range of human activities; for our purposes, however a brief outline must suffice. Piaget divides the course of intellectual development into a series of stages, with each stage to be mastered before the next stage begins, as standing precedes walking so certain stages of development must precede others if the fulfillment of human potential is to be achieved. Piaget stresses that the kind of intellectual achievement possible is dependent upon the stage of the child. According to Piaget when a person is confronted with a new concept or experience, previously developed cognitive structures and behaviour must be modified in order for the person to adapt to the unfamiliar situation. Piaget calls this process accommodation

As the accommodation process is taking place the new concepts and experiences are absorbed and incorporated into existing cognitive structures and behavioures and can then be used in all similar situation. Piaget calls this process assimilation. Thus an individual accommodates to new information and assimilates it, only to be confronted with more new information requiring further accommodation and assimilation. The process of assimilation and accommodation are complementary in that they interact, mutually supporting the never ending growth of intellectual and behavioural patterns. CONSIDER THIS EXAMPLE A Child has learned to grasp an object, say a spoon. The child also grasped similar objects such as forks, crayons and sticks, demonstrating that he has assimilated the responses necessary for grasping long slim objects. When the child first tries to grasp a differently shaped object like a ball he must modify the response by widening his grasp in order to pick it up. Here the child must accommodate in order to grasp the spherical object. So, the child has assimilated the behavioural pattern of grasping slim objects. Keeping in mind the above principles let us examine each of the stages that Piaget has suggested (these four stages are summarized in Table). STAGE 1. SENSORIMOTOR APPROXIMATE AGE Birth to 2 yrs. DESCRIPTION Behaviour suggests child lacks language and does not use symbols or mental representations of objects in environment.. Simple responding to the environment (reflexes) ends, and intentional behaviour such as making interesting sights last-begins. Child learns to seek hidden objects and begins to acquire basic language. Child begins to represent world mentally, but thought in egocentric. Child does not focus on two aspects of situations at once (lack of conservation). Child shows animism, artificialism, immanent justice. Child shows conservation concepts, can adopt viewpoint of others, can classify objects in series (For example, from shortest to longest and shows comprehension of basic relational concepts (such as one object being larger or heavier than other) Mature, adult thought emerges, thinking seems characterized by deductive logic, consideration of various possibilities before attempting to solve a problem (mental trial and error). Abstract thought (for instance, philosophical and consideration of moral principles), and forming and testing of hypothesis.

2. PREOPERATIONAL

2 TO 7 yrs

3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL

7 TO 12 yrs.

4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL

12 Yrs. & above

STAGE 1 :

THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE.

The new born infant is only capable of assimilating stimulation to reflexes such as rooting and sucking. However by the time an infant has reached one month, it is already capable of repeating behaviour patterns that are pleasurable, such as sucking its hand, and within first few month of the infant begins to co-ordinate vision with grasping so that it looks at what it touches.

Between four and eight months of age the infant explores cause and effect relationships, such as, the way kicking the legs can cause a hanging toy to bounce around. Prior to eight months or so, out of sight is literally out of mind objects are not yet mentally represented, and thus an infant will make no effort to search for an object that has been removed from sight or simply placed behind a screen. But after nine months an infant will realize that objects removed from sight still exist and will attempt to seek them, the infant thus demonstrates what is known as OBJECT PERMANENCY By several months of age the infant is interested in acting upon the environment to make interesting results (such as noise of a rattle) last, Behavior becomes intentional, purposeful. During the second year of life the child begins to show interest in determining just how environmental objects are constructed. Towards the end of second year of life the child begins to engage in mental trial and error before it actually tries out behaviour, for example, when it looks for something you have taken away it will no longer go the last place it was seen but may follow you, assuming you have the object even though it cannot be seen. Since the first stage of cognitive development is determined by learning to co-ordinate perception of the self and the environment with muscular activity, Piaget termed it the SENSORIMOTOR STAGE. STAGE 2 : THE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE The PREOPERATIONAL STAGE is characterized by the childs early usage of words and symbols to represent objects. For one thing a child in this stage is decidedly egocentric It cannot understand that other people do not see things as it does and the child, it seems, often percieves the world as a stage that has been erected for its own amusement. The preoprational child also shows animism that is it tends to attribute life, and intentions to inanimate objects such as sun and the moon. And it shows artificialism the belief that environmental objects such as rain and thunder have been designed and constructed by human beings. Example of EGOCENTRICISM, ANIMISM AND ARTIFICIALISM are shown in Table. EXAMPLES OF PREOPERATIONAL THOUGHT SAMPLE QUESTIONS EGOCENTRICISM : Why does the sun shine? Why is there snow? Why is grass green? favorite Why are T. V. sets for? shows cartoons. TYPICAL ANSWERS

To keep me warm. For me to play in. Because thats

my

colour To watch my favorite &

ANIMISM : Why do trees have leaves? Why do stars twinkle? & Why does the sun move in the sky? hear Where do boats go at night?

To keep them warm. Because they are happy cheerful. To follow children & What they say. They sleep like we do.

ARTIFICIALISM :-

What causes rain? Why is sky blue? What is the wind? What causes thunder?

Someone emptying the watering can. It has been painted. A man blowing. A man grumbling.

The preoperational children are not yet fully logical; do not justify their reasoning. Although the logical thought processes of the children are developing and they have become more socialised. Social and intellectual changes will not become apparent until next stage of development. STAGE 3: THE STAGE OF CONCRETE OPERATIONS By about the age of seven the typical child is entering the stage of concrete operations. At this stage the child shows the beginning of the capacity for adult logical thinking that generally concerns tangible objects rather than abstract ideas. Children are involved in discovering constancy in the world-in discovering rules and understanding the reasons for them. The hallmark of this stage is CONSERVATION. The ability to recognize that something that has been changed in some way (such as the shape of liquid in container) is still the same thing with the same weight, substance or volume. Each of the conservation abilities seems to occur independently. A child who has mastered one type of conservation often cannot transfer that knowledge to other conservation tasks ( for example, of weight). The development of conservation is a necessity to final stage of intellectual development. STAGE 4 : THE STAGE OF FORMAL OPERATIONS The final stage of development starting at age twelve is the stage of FORMAL OPERATIONS. This stage is characterized by the ability to think in a formal, logical manner. They can concieve different ways to represent situations. They organize their world and try to deal it with in terms of the future. Formal operational children are developing the ability to consider all possible relations. The style of their logic is no longer concrete but one in which they form hypothesis and deduce reality. They not only design appropriate kinds of experiments, they are also accurate in their observation of the results. Thus individuals in the formal operations stage think much as adults do. The individual is now capable of thinking in the past, present and future and can deal with problems of a hypothetical nature. In essence, Piglets theory suggests that the nature of childrens thinking changes in four distinct ways as the child matures. In each successive stage the childs understanding of the world becomes more complete and sophisticated. IMPLICATIONS OF PIAGETS THEORY Knowing how cognitive abilities develop helps educators and psychologists suggest ways to facilitate childrens intellectual development. Piaget recognized that parental love and interaction are essential in first two years. He also stressed the importance of providing great amount of stimulation, both physical & intellectual. Piaget was concerned with how people think, not what they think, knowing the way children think, psychologists can learn how to facilitate thinking.

Piagets powerful insights into childrens behaviour have profoundly influenced developmental psychology.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6 I. Fill in the blanks : 1. Piaget divides the course of ________ development into series of stages. 2. To adapt to new concept, modified behaviour. This process is called _______ 3. The new concepts and experiences incorporated into existing cognitive structures and behaviour is called ________. State any two characterstics of each stage that Piaget has suggested. 1. Sensor motor 1. __________________________ 2. __________________________ 2. Preoperational 1. __________________________ 2. __________________________ 3. Concrete operational 1. __________________________ 2. __________________________ 4. Formal operational 1. __________________________ 2. ___________________________

II.

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________
KOHLBERGS THEORY Lawrence Kohlberg, a Howard psychologist, has extended and refined Piagets analysis of moral development. He suggests that there are six stages of development relating to moral development of a person. Although there is no direct relationship between age and stage level, the stages are assumed to

be in a fixed order. Many individuals do not reach the highest level of moral development according to kohl berg. Kohlbergs research shows that young children make decision about right and wrong based upon avoiding punishments and obtaining rewards, so a preschool five year old argues that people dont steal because they will be punished if they do so further he argues that good people are rewarded for good behaviour. School children are at a second level of moral development, and they adopt conventional ideas about morality. They conform to avoid disapproval by others and censure by authorities. Level two morality is governed by a thoughtful process which considers the implications of a persons behaviour and how it might affect others. The third level of morality is composed of two major parts, the first most people eventually reach as adults; the second is often not reached. Level three is the morality of contracts and laws, In this stage people make judgments of good or bad based upon the needs of society and maintaining community welfare and order. The second part of the level three is the morality of consicience where people make judgments based on their own internal values, rather than those of society. The six stages of development are divided into three levels of moral orientation. LEVEL 1 : PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY -- At this level, the concrete interests of the individuals are considered. STAGE 1 : Obedience and Punishment Orientation :In this stage people stick to rules in order to avoid punishment, and there is obedience for its sake. STAGE 2 : Naive and instrumental orientation :In this stage, the individual follows rules only for his or her benefit, obedience occurs because of rewards that are anticipated. LEVEL 2 : CONVENTIONAL MORALITY At this level, the individual approaches moral problems as a member of society. STAGE 3 : Good boy morality :Individuals in this stage show an interest in maintaining the respect of others and doing what is expected of them. STAGE 4 : Authority and social order morality :People at this stage conform to societys rules and consider that right is what the society defines as right. LEVEL 3 : POST CONVENTIONAL MORALITY At this level, moral principles are seen as broader than the percepts of any individual society. SATGE 5 : Morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically accepted law :People in this stage do what is right because of a sense of obligation to laws that are agreed upon within society. They perceive that laws, as part of an implicit social contract, can be

modified or changed. STAGE 6: Morality of individual principles and conscience :In this final stage an individual follows laws that are seen as they based on ethical principles. Laws that violate the principles are disobeyed. Stage 6 individuals feel that equality of human rights and respect for human beings as individuals are the most basic universal principles.

SUMMARY OF KOHLBERGS THEORY LEVEL 1. PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY Punishment STAGES 1. Obedience Orientation. Nave and

2. Instrumental 2. CONVENTIONAL MORALITY order 3. POST CONVENTIONAL MORALITY Rights

and

Orientation. 3. Good Boy Morality. 4. Authority and Social Morality. 5. Morality of Contract, and Laws. 6. Morality of Individual Principles and Conscience

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - 7 1. __________Has suggested stages of development related to moral development. 2. The three levels of moral orientation according to the Kohlberg are. i) ______________________________________________ ii) ______________________________________________ iii) ______________________________________________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

CONCLUSION Thus in this unit, we have studied in detail about Areas of development, physical, intellectual, social, emotional and moral. The characteristic of each is stated according to different stages, i.e. infancy, childhood and adolescence. Piagets theory suggests stages of development related to intellectual development. Kolhbergs theory suggests stages of development related to moral development. After you are thorough with the unit, solve the following exercise. EXERCISE 1. State the characteristic of emotional development. 2. What do you mean by physical development? Discuss its characterstic features, stage wise 3. Why is social development a matter of great concern to parents and teachers? 4. What is moral development ? Enumerate stage wise the characteristic features of moral development 5. Describe Piagets theory of Intellectual development. 6. Give the implications of Piagets theory. 7. Discuss levels & stages of Kohlbergs theory of moral development. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS KEY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1-C, 2-A, 3-C 1-B, 2-C, 3-A 1-C, 2-A, 3-B 1-B, 2-C, 3-A 1-A, 2-C, 3-B 1) Intellectual 2) Accomodation 3) Assimilation. 1) Kohl berg 2) i) reconventional morality. ii) Conventional morality. iii) Post conventional morality.

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________

__________________________________________________________ ____________
SUGGESTED READINGS Bhatia & Bhatia (1981), Textbook of Educational Psychology Doaba house, Delhi 1981. Mangal, S. K., Educational Psychology, Tandon Publications, Ludhiana. Agarwal J. C., Essentials of Educational Psychology Vikas Publishing House

2
LEARNING UNIT STRUCTURE

2.A.1 Objectives 2.A 2 Introduction 3 Concept of learning 4 Nature of learning 5 Process of learning 6 Maturation 7 Learning curve 8 Cognitive learning

2.A.1 Objectives

After going through this unit you will be able to: Explain the concept & nature of learning. Explain the steps involved in the process of learning. Describe the importance of maturation in learning Tell the meaning & importance of learning curve. Explain the different types of learning curve. Describe the different stages of learning curve.

2.A.2 INTRODUCTION

Dear students, what does the word learning bring to your mind? Learning to read, to ride a bicycle, to act, to use a computer, to play synthesizer etc. Each one of us learns something or the other intentionally or accidentally. Learning situations are most natural and common in our life. Every moment you learn something or the other because of the varied

experience you have in life. In the educational process the central idea is learning.

You are aware of a child learning right from his birth and goes on learning throughout his lifetime. An infant is quite helpless at birth, but slowly he learns to adopt himself to the environment around him. e.g: A child approaches a burning matchstick; the child gets burnt and withdraws. Another time when he comes to a burning matchstick, he takes no time to withdraw himself away. He learns to avoid not only the burning matchstick but also all burning things. When this happens we say that the child has learned that if you touch a flame, you get burnt up. In this way the behavior of an individual is changed through direct or indirect experiences. This change in behavior brought about by experience is commonly known as learning. This is a very simple explanation of the term learning.

Nowletusseesomeofthewellknowndefinitionsoflearning.

Gates and others. Learning is the modification of behavior through experience

Henry,Psmith
Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or strengthening or weakening of old behavior as a result of experience.

CrowandCrow
Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. It involves new ways of doing things, and it operates in an individuals attempt to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. 4. Skinner Learning is the process of progressive behavior adaptation. 5. Munn To learn is to modify behavior and experience. 6. M. L. Bigge Learning may be considered as change in insights, behavior, perception, motivation or a combination of these.

2.A.3

Types of Learning

Learning has been classified in many ways.

I. Informal, formal and non-formal learning

Depending on the way of acquiring it learning may be informal, formal or non-formal. Informal learning is incidental. It takes place throughout life. It is not planned. Formal learning is intentional and organized. It takes place in formal educational institution. Non-formal is also intentional & organized. It is flexible.

II. Individual or Group learning

Learning is called either individual or group learning depending upon the number of individuals involved in the learning process.

III. Another classification involves the types of activity involved

(a) Motor learning: - when learning involves primarily the use of muscles it is called as motor learning. e.g.: learning to walk, to operate a typewriter (b) Discrimination learning: - Learning which involves the act of discrimination is called discrimination learning. e.g.: infant discriminates between mother and aunt, milk and water. (c) Verbal learning: - when learning involves the use of words it is called as verbal learning. (d) Concept learning: - when learning involves the formation of concept it is called as concept learning. (e) Sensory learning: - when learning is concerned with perception and sense it is sensory learning.

Check your progress I

Define learning What do you mean my learning?

Writethedifferenttypesoflearning.

2.A.4. NATURE OF LEARNING

a. Learning is adaptation or adjustment.

Friends,weallcontinuouslyinteractwithourenvironment.Weoften

makeadjustmentandadapttooursocialenvironment.Throughaprocessof continuouslearningtheindividualprepareshimselffornecessaryadjustment oradaptation.Thatiswhylearningisalsodescribedasaprocessof progressiveadjustmenttoeverchangingconditionswhichoneencounters.

b. Learning is improvement. Learning is often considered as a process of improvement with practice or training. We learn many things, which help us to improve our performance.

c. Learning is organizing experience. Learning is not mere addition of knowledge. It is the reorganization of experience.

d. Learning brings behavioral changes. Whatever the direction of the changes may be, learning brings progressive changes in the behavior of an individual. That is why he is able to adjust to changing situations.

e. Learning is active. Learning does not take place without a purpose and self-activity. In any teaching learning process, the activity of the learner counts more than the activity of a teacher.

f. Learning is goal directed.

Whentheaimandpurposeoflearningisclearanindividuallearns

immediately.Itisthepurposeorgoal,whichdetermineswhat,thelearner seesinthelearningsituationsandhowheacts.
If there is no purpose or goal learning can hardly be seen.

g. Learning is universal and continuous. All living creatures learn. Every moment the individual engages himself to learn more and more. Right from the birth of a child till the death learning continues.

2.A.5 PROCESS OF LEARNING

Learningisaprocess.Itiscarriedoutthroughsteps.

Learning process involves (a) A motive or a drive. (b) An attractive goal. (c) A block to the attainment of the goal.

Let us see the steps one by one

(a) A motive or a drive

Motive is the dynamic force that energizes behavior and compels an individual to act. We do any activity because of our motives or our needs. When our need is strong enough we are compelled to strive for its satisfaction. Learning takes place as a result of response to some stimulation. As long as our present behavior, knowledge, skill and performance are adequate to satisfy

all our needs, use do not feel any necessity to change our behavior or acquire new knowledge and skills. It is this requirement, which initiates a learner to learn something. (b) Goal. Every individual has to set a definite goal for achievement. We should always have a definite goal for achieving anything. If a definite goal is set then learning becomes purposeful and interesting.

(c) Obstacle or block or barrier. The obstacle or block or the barrier is equally important in the process of learning. The obstacle or the barriers keep us away from attaining the goal. Now, you will think how the obstacle can be important in the process of learning. So let me tell you, if you face no difficulty of any kind in attaining the goal you will not bring any change in your present behavior or stock of knowledge or skills. Thus the block or the barrier is an essential step in the learning process. Let us clear the above views by taking an example. Suppose you wish to be included in your college hockey team. You want to have the esteem of your colleagues, your teachers. You are also motivated try the interesting experiences that you many enjoy. But you are blocked by your lack of skill in doging, tackling and handling the ball. The obstacles in the path of goal achievement will set you make up your deficiency and acquire essential skill through sufficient practice and coaching. 2.A.6 MATURATION. Our development takes place because of two basic process. Learning Maturation.

So students let us see about maturation. Maturation is an important factor that affects our learning is defined as growth that proceeds regularly within a wide range of environmental conditions. Maturation is growth that takes place regularly in an individual without special condition of stimulation such as training and practice. Learning is possible only when a certain stage of maturation is also reached. Exercise and training becomes fruitful only when a certain stage of maturation is attained. Maturation determines the readiness of the child for learning. Learning will be ineffective if the child has not attained the required level of maturity. There are individual differences in maturation. This means the rate of maturation varies with individuals. There are individual differences in the capacity to learn at the same age level. This is because of the difference of maturation level. Specific skills are learnt by children easily who mature earlier than others. The 3Rs i e reading, writing and reckoning can be learnt only after the maturation of muscular and brain capacities. Rate of learning ability is closely related to the maturation of the cerebral cortex. Deterioration of cortical tissues in old age brings about declination in the learning ability. So it can be said that learning is not

independent of maturation, but must be based upon a sufficient stage of growth. Learning is possible only when a certain stage of maturation is reached. However much we practice a six month old child with walking exercises, the infant cannot walk. The muscles have not matured enough for the infant to learn to walk. This particular learning is possible only when the nerves & the muscles have attained a particular stage of maturity & development. Practice is most productive when properly articulated with maturational level. It is very essential for the teachers to know the maturational level of the pupils. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Define maturation. Fill up the blanks. (a) Learning is possible only when a certain stage of _________ is reached. (b) Maturation determines the ________ of the child for learning. (c) Practice is most productive when properly articulated with ________.

2.A.7 LEARNING CURVE

Learning curve is a graphic representation of how learning take place in a particular situation. In all type of learning situations, the course of learning can be depicted and described graphically by drawing learning curves against x and y axis.

6 5 4 3 Speed of Typing b a c

20

Hours of Learning

The above figure shows a typical learning curve of many types of learning. The curve consists of a number of irregularities, as the progress is not constant. For the convenience the curve is divided into 5 stages a, b, c, d and e.

(a) Period of slow progress: Generally when a person has to start a learning of a given activity from a scratch, his early progress will be slow. e.g. An infants progress in learning to walk is very negligible in the beginning.

(b) Period of rapid progress:

Inthisstagethelearnersoutputraisesrapidly.

e.g. In typing once the learner has developed co ordination of the movement of fingers he shows rapid progress.

(c) Period of no apparent progress: Learning curves frequently display a period of no apparent progress. It is also known as plateau. A period of no visible learning progress, preceded and followed by improvement is called as plateaus.

Eg: In typing, a person may after having made rather consistent progress for sometime, reach a point where perhaps for weeks no further progress is made.

Causes of plateau (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) The learner may be reorganizing the previous learning into a new pattern before further progress is possible. The learner may have hit upon bad habits Lack of progress may be due to decrease in motivation. The task may not be of uniform difficulty. Loss of interest. The onset of fatigue is also one of the causes of a plateau.

(d) Period of sudden rise:

At the end of a plateau there is generally a spurt in achievement. While on the plateau the learner acquires better techniques, which help him later on to show rapid progress.

(e) Levelling: All learning will finally slow down to such an extent that it will ultimately reach a period of no improvement. No one can continue to improve indefinitely in any given situation. The learning curve will eventually reach a limit, where no further improvement is possible. This limit is known as physiological limit.

Important characteristics of learning curve. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) Slow initial progress. Spurt-like learning after some time. Declination in the rate of learning. Plateaus of learning. Sudden increase in learning. Gradual leveling at the end.

2.A.7.2 Types of learning curve.

We get different types of learning curves depending upon (a) (b) (c) (d)

The nature of the learner The nature of the task/learning material Time available. Conditions under which the learning takes place.
Itisdifficulttoclassifytheselearningcurves.Howeverthreecommontypesofcurvesarethere,

(i) Negatively accelerated or the convex curve. (ii) Positively accelerated learning curve or the concave curve.

(iii) Combination of convex-concave curve.

Convex curve
It depicts rapid initial improvement in learning that slows down with time. When the task is simple and the learner has previous practice on a similar task we get this type of learning curve.

A Amount Learned

O Practice Period

Concave curve There is slow initial improvement and learning increases with time. When the task is difficult we get such type of learning curve.

O Practice Period X Amount Learned Y

 Combinationofconvexconcavecurve
It looks like the capital letter S. the curve takes concave or convex shape in the beginning depending upon the nature of the task.

In actual practical situations such smooth curves are rarely found. Usually there are ups and downs (fluctuation) O Practice Period X Amount Learned Y

Educationalimportanceoflearningcurve
1. In acquiring the basic skills in various subjects, the learner at times appears to show no progress. At such moments the teacher can diagnose the reasons for the lack of progress. 2. A students progress may be arrested because the work is too complex for him. The teacher can observe the students work and detect the part that gives him trouble. The teacher should see if the student has developed any faulty study habits, which impede his progress. 3. The plateau may be due to the lack of motivation. The teacher should provide encouragement in order to maintain motivation at a high level. 4. The learning curves give a graphic evidence of ones progress, which is an effective motivational device for the learner. 5. Occurrence of plateaus can be minimized by using superior teaching methods.

CHECKYOURPROGRESS2
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. What is a learning curve? Describe a typical learning curve. What are the different types of learning curve? State any two causes of plateau. What do you mean by physiological limit? Explain the educational importance of a learning curve. State the important characteristics of a learning curve.

2A. 8 COGNITIVE LEARNING

The process of obtaining knowledge through thought, experience and the senses is known as cognitive learning. It is acquisition by the learner of facts, concepts and principles through intellectualization.

German Gestalt psychologist Kohler becomes convinced that some kinds of learning could not be explained by mechanical conditioning. But it is due to intelligence and insight. That is where the term cognitive learning is used.

InKohlersexperiments,achimpanzeeSultanhadlearnedtousea

sticktorakeinbananasthathadbeenplacedoutsidehiscage.Thenthe bananaswerekeptbeyondthereachofsinglestick,andhegaveSultan2 bamboosticksthatcouldbefittedtogethertomakeonelongsticklong enoughtoreceivethebanana.Sultanfirsttriedwithonestickandwhenhe couldnotreturnedtofiddlingaroundwithtwosticks.Sultanalignedthetwo sticksashewasfiddlingandthen,inwhatappearedtobeasuddenflashof inspiration,hefittedthemtogetherandpulledthebanana.Thenthesticksfell apart.Sultanthenregatheredthestickspushedthenfirmlytogetherand

actuallytestedthefitbeforeretreivinganotherbanana.SoitwasSultans rapidperceptionofrelationship.Kohlerusedtheterminsighttodescribeit. Kohlernotedthatsuchinsightswerenotlearnedgraduallythroughreinforced trailsbutseemedtooccurallatoncewhentheelementsofaproblemhad beenarrangedappropriately.

Modern cognitive theory suggests that meaningful learning and hence understanding is a constructive process. A teacher should begin the effort of achieving significant understanding by formulating objectives that focus on the transfer of learned information to other situations. In the solution of riddles, the play of insight would be noticed by one and all. Human learning certainly involves insightful learning, which should lead to productive thinking to be applicable to new and novel situations.

CHECKYOURPROGRESS:3 1. Whatdoyoumeanbycognitivelearning.?
2. Give two examples where you can see cognitive learning.

BOOKSFORFURTHERREADING
Chauhan. S. S. Advanced Educational Psychology Vikas publicity House Pvt. Ltd. Mangal S. K. Educational Psychology Tandon publication

3A
MENTAL PROCESSES RELATED TO LEARNING: MEMORY
Unit Structure

3A. 1. Objectives 3A 2. Introduction 3A. 3. Concept of memory 3A. 4. Types of memory 3A. 5. Factor affecting memory 3A. 6. Artificial intelligence 3A. 7. Techniques to develop memory

3A.1 Objectives

After going through this unit you will be able to :

Define memory List the factors involved in the process of memory. Describe the different types of memory Explain the factors affecting memory Describe the various techniques to develop memory Explain about artificial intelligence.

3A.2 Introduction

You must have heard people referring to a child or an adult that he possess a good memory or he is bad at remembering whatever he learns. What actually we mean by this phrase is worth consideration. In practical affairs of life, as well as in leisure moments, memory has much to contribute. So much depends on good memory in all kinds of work that many people become worried about their poor memories and take up some form of memory training in hope of

improvement. So students in this chapter we will see about the different aspects of memory.

3.A.3

Concept of memory

The man in the street usually defines memory as the power of reproduction, but physiologically it is a much more complex process.

Memory involves four factors (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Learning or registration Retention Recall Recognition

All these four activities are so much interrelated that they form one single activity. So let us know about them one by one. (i) learning or registration Before anything can be remembered it must he learnt or registered. Learning in this context means memorizing.

(ii) Retention. Retention is an inactive state of learned performance. Whatever is retained during the inactive state is something in the form of a structure. This modified structure is often called the memory trace. The ability to retain rests on the traces left in the cerebral cortex. The nature of these memory traces is not known because no direct observation of them is possible. Till these traces remain in the brain, we can recall the idea but as soon as they are lost, we forget. The evidence for retention is that when we are able to recall or recognize a previously learned list of words, it shows that the list learnt by us has been retained.

(iii) Recall : The third aspect in the process of remembering is recall. Recall is the mental revival of those experiences, which have been learned. It is dependent on retention. If a thing is learned well and retained properly, it will be recalled easily. Recall is of two kinds.

(a) Spontaneous recall: the recall which is without any effort is called as spontaneous recall. (b) Deliberate recall : The recall for which we have consciously to strive is know as deliberate recall. Recall is also dependent on association of ideas.

Association is defined as connection between a percect and an idea or between one idea and another by virtue of which one being given in consciousness tends to revive the other. There are various laws by which it can be explained.

Primary Laws : Law of contiguity Experience which occur together whether simultaneously or in close succession tend afterwords to revise one another. e.g. Platform revives the picture of station. Lighting is followed by thunder. Shakuntala reminds the author Kalidas

Law of Similarity Similar experience tend to revive one another. e.g. sound of word health may suggest the word wealth.

Law of contrast An idea tend to suggest its contrary e.g. peace-war, light dark.

Law of systematic relations Because of interest, associative bonds are established between the various constituent elements of the whole system. e.g. triangle- geometrical figure.

Secondary Laws of Association

Law of Primary: First impression and associations tend to persist longer and to be most easily revived. e.g. Our likes & dislikes are many times determined by the first impressions. Law of Regency: Recent impression and association recur most readily to mind. e.g. book-will recall to my mind the one I have recently read. Law of Frequency: The more frequency and impression is made or an association is formed the more easier the reproduction e.g. green recalls the word grass Law of vividness The more vivid an impression or an association, the more easily it is recalled. Law of mood An idea revived by individual who is in a happy mood is likely to differ from that revived by the same individual when he is in a distressed mood.

iv) Recognition : Recognition is discrimination between seen or unseen. Recognition is the process of accepting or rejecting the material in mind. Recognition is more passive behavior than an active process.

After getting some knowledge of the process of memorization it is worthwhile to be acquainted with the definition of the term memory. Some of the definitions areWoodworth and Marquis Memory consists in remembering what has previously been learned.

Stout The ideal revival, so for as field revival is merely reproductive in which the objects of past experience are reinstated as far as possible in the order and manner of their original occurence. In this way memory is regarded as a special ability of our mind to conserve or store what has been previously learned or experienced to recollect or reproduce it after sometime.

3A.4 Types of memory

Some of the important types of memory are as follows.

Immediate memory
Immediate memory is that which helps us to learn a thing immediately with speed and accuracy, remembering it for a short time and forgetting rapidly after use. e.g. seat number. of cinema hall.

Permanent memory
Permanent memory helps us to remember a thing permanently. e.g. remembering our name. Rote memory Under rote memory the things are learnt without understanding their meaning.

Logical memory
Logical memory is based on logical thinking. It takes into consideration purposeful and insightful learning.

Associated memory
The memory which helps to associate the previously learned things with so many related things and then establish multiple connections is known as associated memory.

Active memory
In active memory one has to remain active and make deliberate attempts for recollecting the past experience.

Passive memory
Here the past experiences are recalled spontaneously without any serious attempt.

Check your progress 1

Define memory State the factors involved in the process of memory.

Write two differences between recall and recognition. Explain the different types of memory.

3.5. Factors affecting memory.

Kind of material
One can learn or memories meaningful material more easily than non sense material. e.g. poetry is generally easy to learn than prose. Prose is easier than a list of disconnected words. Meaningful words are easier to learn than nonsense syllables. Students require less time to learn if the material is meaningful.

Age of the learner

You cant teach old dog new tricks Generally it is presumed that children can memories more easily than adult. A child can be easily motivated to learn while an adult may not. Interest in children are not specific while those of adult become more specific. Adults will therefore require more time to learn if they are not interested in a certain area. Since learning and memorization also depends upon maturation, an adult is likely to get an advantage over the child.

Sex: Girls show superiority over boys of the same age. But here too the factor like desire to learn, interest, environment of family, motivation has its influence.

Learners attitude : One who sees that learning of certain material is related to the attainment of his goals, has a more favorable attitude towards studying the material and memorizing it.

Knowledge of result. If the learner has immediate feedback he learns the material more rapidly and accurately which helps in better memorization.

Interest of the learner. Because of interest the learner learns with a proper attitude and remember the learnt matter.

Length of the series.

Longermatterisdifficulttolearn&memories.Ifthelengthofthematerial tobelearntisshorter,itiseasiertomemories.

3.6 Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the ability of an artificial mechanism to exhibit intelligent behavior. Artificial intelligence is also the name of the field in which artificial mechanism that exhibit intelligence are developed and studied . The term artificial intelligence was coined in 1956 when a group of interested scientists met for an initial summer workshop. Those attending included Allen Newell, Herbert Simon, Oliver Selfridgs and John Mccathy. AI has shown great promise in the area of EXPERT SYSTEMS, or knowledge based expert programs. Example of artificially intelligence system include computer programs that perform medical diagnoses, mineral prospecting, legal reasoning, speech understanding, vision interpretation, natural language processing, problem solving and learning.

A large number of problems in AI field have been associated with robotics. In addition to the mechanical problems of getting a machine to make very precise or delicate movements there is the problem of determining the sequence of moments. Much work in this area involves problem solving and planning. One of the most useful ideas that emerged from AI research is that facts and rules can be represented separately from decision making algorithms. Artificial intelligence researchers are seeking to build other systems that would be helpful in the work place and in the home.

Check your progress 2

1. What is artificial intelligence? 2. Give two examples of artificially intelligent systems?

________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______

3.7. Techniques to develop memory

Whether memory can be improved by training or not is a controvevsial. In this connection the advice given by Dr. Morgan and Gilliland seems to be quite valuable. They write that Memory training is not like muscle training. You can make a muscle develop by any kind of use. Memory is not helped by any kind of exercise. Therefore mere repetition of material for the sake of memorization in the form of mental exercise does not yield enduring and effective results. Now let us come to our basic question can it be possible by any means to have some improvement in our memory? If possible what are the specific points to achieve the best results in the task of memorization? As emphasized earlier, memory

consists of four factors-learning, retention, recall and recognition. Improvement in any one or more of the constituents is likely to improve the memory as a whole. For the retention it is said that it is, by all means, native and inherited and therefore, cannot he improved by training. In case of recognition also it is almost difficult to say whether it can be improved by training as it happens to be very prompt and spontaneous act. The remaining two constituents - learning and recall have been observed to he improved by training.

The following are some of the techniques to develop memory(i) Utilizing as many senses as possible Senses are said to be the gateways of knowledge. It has been found that the things are better learned and remembered when presented through more than one senses. Therefore attempts should be made to take the help of audiovisual aid material and receive impressions through as many senses as possible.

(ii)

Arranging better learning situations

Environment factors also affect the learning and memorizing process. Therefore due care should be taken to arrange better learning situation and environment . A calm and quite atmosphere and stimulating environment proves an effective aid to learning.

(iii)

Provision for change and proper rest Adequate provision for change of work, rest and sleep should be made as it helps in removing fatigues and monotony. A fresh mind is necessarily able to learn more and retain it for a long time than a tired and dull one.

(iv)

Repetition and Practice Repetition and continuous practice adds to the effective memorization. An intelligent repetition with dull understanding, always helps in making the learning effective and enduring. Things repeated and practiced frequently are remembered for a long time. Therefore due care should be taken for drill work, practice and review etc. in the process of memorization and learning.

(v)

To follow the principle of association It is always good to follow the principles of associations in learning. Attempt should be made to connect it with ones previous learning on the one hand and with so many related things on the other. Sometimes for associations of ideas special techniques and devices are used that facilitate learning and recall. e.g. the letter VIBGYOR has proved as an effective aid in remembering the colors of the spectrum.

In a similar way many associations may be formed and the material to be learned can be easily remembered.

(vi)

Grouping and rhythm

Grouping ad rhythm also facilitate learning and help in remembering e.g. A telephone no. 567345234 can be easily memorized and recalled if we try to group it as 567 345 234. Similarly rhythm also proves as an aid in learning and memorizing. Children learn effectively the multiplication tables in the sing song fashion.

(vii)

Meaningfulness and organization of subject matter

If the subject matter to be learnt is meaningful and well organized it is retained properly.

(v) Use of the principle of learning by doing The teacher should follow the principles of learning by doing. The learners should be encouraged to participate actively in the learning process and the learning experience acquired thus will be remembered for a longer period.

(vi) Formation of clear concept Another technique of training and improving memory which a teacher can use is to develop clear concepts with the help of various types of audio visual material.

(vii)

Adopting proper method of memorization There are many economical methods of memorization but all are not suitable on all occasions for all individual. Therefore a judicious selection should be made in choosing a particular method in a given situation.

(a) spaced versus massed learning Length and spacing of study sessions depends on the nature of the material and the maturity of the learner. Shorter study periods are more effective for younger pupils than for older pupils. It has been found that when the material is easy and of interest and motivation among the students are high, massed learning is more effective. Contrary to this, when there is no interest or motivation and the material is difficult, spaced learning is best. If however, student are relatively bright and depth of concentration is necessary longer periods are recommended. (b) whole versus part learning Whole method is probably more effective with brighter and more mature students specially when the material to be learned is not too long and has a natural unity or logical sequence. Younger students, slow learners and average students will probably find the part method more advantageous.

(c) Recitation method A student must always be encouraged to recite himself the material learnt. After reading a lesson few times, the student must try to review the whole thing without the help of a book. In this way the recitation method provides continuous self appraisal.

Check your progress 3

1. Explain the factors affecting memory. 2. What is artificial intelligence? 3. Describe any four techniques to develop memory.

________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______ Books for further reading Chauhan, S.S., Advanced Educational Psychology Vikas publishing House Pvt Ltd. Mangal, S.K. Educational psychology Tandon Publications Mathur, S.S. Educational Psychology

3B
FORGETTING
Unit Structure

3B 1 Objectives 3B. 2 Introduction 3B. 3 Nature of forgetting 3B. 4 Causes of forgetting 3B. 5 Educational Implications of forgetting

3B.1 Objectives

After going through this unit you will be able to define forgetting understand the nature of forgetting explain the causes of forgetting describe the educational implications of forgetting

3B.2 Introduction

Forgetting and remembering are the two facets of the same coin. Both have equal importance in ones life. Generally we are very much worried about remembering and give little importance to forgetting. But it is also an essential aspect of the learning process. Unessential, improper or irrelevant things should always be forgotten in order to make room for the learning of essential and relevant ones. We have hundreds of experience and different kinds of learning everyday in our life. To remember all these without forgetting will be a difficult task. Therefore forgetting is actually a boon to us. So students let us see what is forgetting.

3B.3 Nature of forgetting.

First of all let us see some of the definitions of forgetting. Munn Forgetting is the loss, permanent or temporary of the ability to recall or recognize something learned earlier. Drever Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an experience, when attempting to do so, or perform an action previously learned.

Bhatia Forgetting is the failure of the individual to revive in consciousness an idea or a group of ideas without the help of the original stimulus.

From these definitions it can be concluded that forgetting is just opposite side of remembering and essentially a failure in the ability of reproducing. Forgetting occurs only when some learning takes place. If there is no learning then there is no forgetting. It is a common view that forgetting is a process of fading with the passage of time. Forgetting is produced by time factor. In our daily life we have wealth of experience which fade away with the passage of time. e.g. We can hardly recall what we able in dinner two days back. The greatest amount of forgetting takes place just after the process of learning is completed. The rate of forgetting differs with the type of learning material. With meaningful material, forgetting is slow. Forgetting is rapid in case of meaningless material. Forgetting will be rapid after a lapse of time.

Causes of forgetting

Inadequate impression at the time of learning : Inadequate or improper learning is likely to be forgotten. Sometimes we do not care to learn a thing or pay least attention to it. This type of inadequate learning in most of the cases, can be a real cause of forgetting. Lapse of time : With the passage of time what we learn get weaker and finally fade away. Poor health and defective mental state : A sound body is said to have a sound mind. Deterioration in health makes an individual less confident. He remains under the state of tension and thus is unable to concentrate upon a thing. Neither he is able to learn it effectively nor he can recall it.

Repression : Repression is the active process of forgetting an experience because one wants to forget it. This kind of forgetfulness is wishful. Actually we forget the things which we dont want to remember. e.g. we forget to attend the marriage party which we dont want to attend.

Emotional Disturbance

Fear, anxiety, stage fright may paralyse recall.

Alteration of stimulus condition : Sometimes forgetting occurs when we have alteration of the stimulating conditions between the time of learning and the time of recall. e.g. a child who learns the meaning of words like cat, rat etc. with the help of pictures feel a great difficulty in naming them in the absence of such pictures. Forgetting due to interference of association: It means we forget something because what we have learned previously, interferes with the remembering of what we learn afterwords. The interfering effects of associations can work both ways, forward and backward. In retroactive inhibition later learning interferes with earlier learning. In proactive inhibition earlier learning interferes with later learning.

3B. 5 Educational Implications of forgetting

1.

The greater the acquaintance with the material the greater will be the remembrance. Hence over learning is a must. Comprehensive and thorough initial learning or teaching should be undertaken. Distributed practice should be encouraged rather than massed practice, because it enables the learner to learn without the on-set of fatigue. Hence either in learning of skills or memorization of material, distributed practice should be undertaken, taking as large wholes as possible. Association with previous knowledge and with pleasant atmosphere should be aimed at in teaching to lead a better acquisition of knowledge.

2.

3.

4.

Check your progress -1

1. Define forgetting. 2. Write the nature of forgetting. 3. Explain the causes of forgetting. 4. Describe the educational implications of forgetting.

Reference Mangal, S.K. Educational Psychology, Tandon publications Murty, S.K. Essential Foundations of Educational Psychology , publications Tandon

4
MOTIVATION
UnitStructure 4.0Objectives Afterreadingthisunityouwillbeableto Statetheconceptofmotivation Explainprinciplesandprocessofmotivation Discussthevariousfactorsaffectingmotivation. Explainthetheoryofmotivation Discussthetechniquesofmotivatingstudents. 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Objectives Introduction. Conceptanddefinitionofmotivation Principles&Processofmotivation Typesofmotivation Factorsaffectingmotivation Theoriesofmotivation 4.6.1 Needachievementtheory 4.6.2 MaslowsTheory Motivationtechniques. Letussumup

4.1Introduction


All living things possess a generalized and more or less an urge to live. This urge is a dynamic force that animates them but powers and propels them into action. A person would not be compelled to do any thing unless he has some need. These needs are deficiencies felt by an organism which disturb the home, mental state of balance and distress. If needs are not satisfied the organism enters in state of disequilibria characterised by discomfort. When one feels the need or inner or condition of imbalance the motivational force is activated which drives the organism to initiate and sustain some activity, which will restore it to its former balance.

Where there is maximum mental activity, effective learning takes place which is achieved through strong motivation. In short we can say that motivation is a golden rule of learning or it can be called as superhighway to learn. Various aspect of motivation are incentive, interest, drive and purpose or goal. Motivation is heart of learning process resulting into learning sustaining and drenchingit. 4.2CONCEPT&DEFINITION: The term motivation is derived from the word movere, or motum which means to move, motor or motion. It is a move towards set goals. It is a force that energizesbehaviourofindividuals. Directed Motivation Goals

Towards Someofthedefinitionsofmotivationaregivenbelow. Good:Motivationistheprocessofarousingsustainingandregulatingactivity. Berelson and Sterier: Motivation consists of all those striving conditions described as wishes, desires, drives, need, impulses etc. It is an inner state that activatesormoves.

Lowell:Motivationcanbedefinedaspsychologicalorinternalprocessinitiated bysomeneedwhichleadstoactivitywhichwillsatisfythatneed. Bernard: Motivation is to find those approaches that will make the child eager forthekindoflearningtheschoolendorses. Johnson: Motivation is the influence of general pattern of activities, indicating anddirectingthebehaviouroforganism. 4.3PRINCIPLES&PROCESSOFMOTIVATION: 7.3.1 Principles of Motivation : By analysing definitions by different psychologistswecandrawsomeprinciplesofmotivation. Motivation energizes behaviour or brings energy mobilization, leading to progress&successinanactivity. Motivation helps in concentrationofattentione.g.onegetsengrossedinany activityifoneismotivated. Motivationhelpsingeneratinginterestinanactivity. Helps in developing good character and social values by participating in social activities and also narrating some incidents and stories which helps in inculcatinggoodvalue. Motivation directs behaviour : Motivation is a psychological process (internal) which is by some need or want. This internal process is directing the behaviour ofanindividualtowardssomeactivity. Persistencyinworkuntilthegoalisachievedorproblemissolved. 4.3.2.ProcessofMotivation: Motivation is concerned with goal directed behaviour, which is initiated by unsatisfied need. A goal is established to satisfy that need, a course ofactionisdeterminedwhichisexpectedtoleadtowardsattainmentofgoal.

ProcessofMotivationisasfollows: 1.Motivationofindividualtowardsanactivityorsolvetheproblemtoreachthe goal. 2.Tension,Restlessnessanddisequilibrium. 3.Movementsareinitiatedtowardsgoals.

4. Continuous activity till one achieves goals.

5.Releaseoftensiononachievinggoal. 4.4TYPESOFMOTIVATION: 4.4.1 BROADCLASSIFICATIONOFMOTIVATION NaturalMotivation Motivation Artificial

(Intrinsicorprimary) Secondary) NaturalMotivation:normal

(External

or

Intrinsic or Primary motivation: Directly dependent or inherent or innate tendenciesandimpulsesofindividuals. ArtificialMotivation,ExternallyProvidedbysomeone.

4.4.2.1TypesofNatural a) Bodily motivation: It includes physical needs like hunger, thirst, sex etc. whichactasdrivestowardscertainaction. b) Instincts motivation: Instincts are saidtohave inbornpower,who turnto be prime movers of our behaviour. These results into inspiration to do certain acts or jobs. A person remains rustle, dissatisfied unless his instincts are satisfied. Proper congenial atmosphere must be provided by teachers to the studentsandtheseareveryimportantineducation. c) Emotional motivation: Includes affection, belongingness, security, achievement success adventures. These motivations inspire us for fulfilment of ouremotionalneedsandhenceareofimportanceineducation. d) Social motivation: Man is a social animal. Due to social interaction social motives originate. It includes tendency to seek social approval, mastery, motive orselfassertionadjustment. e)Individual / personal ego motivation: Help individuals or inspire one to satisfy ones personal needs or desires like competition, Hero worship, beauty, arts,values. f) Games & sport: Can be utilized for imparting education and have direct motivation,Itresultsintojoy&funinchildrenandtheyhavegames&sport. g) Initiation, direction, examples: It is a natural tendency of children to imitate. By giving suitable examples & directing them they can be lead on path ofprogress. h) Other natural motivations are desire for love, faith, self respect, comforts success. If children are provided proper opportunities by their teachers, it can resultintopositivelearningandcanbewellutilizedinthefieldoflearning.

4.4.3ArtificialMotivation Secondary or External motivation (Motivation in classroom situation). Natural motivationisbaseormeansofanartificialmotivationArtificialmotivationisnot present in individual but a part of environment or society. It is an important placeinlearning. 4.4.3.1Kindsofartificialmotivation a) Goal, Ideal and purposeful attempts Clear, definite and lively goal in any work makes motivation more forceful. The teacher should set various goals before students and also help the students to clarify their goals. Curriculum should be ability based, according to capabilities, interest, aptitudes of studentstostimulatethem. b) Knowledge of results or progress Students are to be made conscious about their progress to develop interest, enthusiasm, curiousity and intensify the motivation. Graphical representation of progress made by studentsisverydesirable. c) Reward It is positive and psychological motivation. Effective learning is a resultofproperresultatpropertime.Rewardsresultsingeneratinginterest andenthusiasm. d) Punishment It is negative motivation. It is used as fear of failure, fear of rejection, fear of losing prestige. It is also termed Preventoria Motivation. It results into good behaviour in some students. Whereas some students turn into technical toys, cramming facts. Hence judicious use has to be made by parentsandteachers. 1.Materialrewardlikebookssomearticleorvaluablethings. 2.Spiritual&sociallikepromotion,awardingcertificate

e) Active participation Students should be provided with multifarious opportunities and platforms and it becomes essential on part of teachers to motivateherstudentstoactivelyparticipate. f) Competition is nothing but desire to excel others. By organizing various competitions the spirit of competitiveness can be inculcated in students. It buildsmoraleofstudentsandsatisfiestheirinnerurges. g) Audio Visual Aids to make teaching interesting, reduce boredom and brings life in lesson. Teaching aids can be utilized as they help in clarifying abstractconcepts. h) Evaluation Proper evaluation techniques give direction to pupils work. It promoteslearningknowledgeofresultsandhelpsinfurtherlearning. g) Audio Visual Aids to make teaching interesting, reduce boredom and brings life in lesson. Teaching aids can be utilized as they help in clarifying abstractconcept. h) Evaluation Proper evaluation techniques gives direction to pupils work. It promoteslearningknowledgeofresultsandhelpsinfurtherlearning. I) Teacher pupil relationship Cordial, sympathetic, intimate relationship by teachers help in boosting morale of students. Respects of the childs personalityhelpsinmotivatingschoollearning. 4.5 Factors Affecting Motivation in Class There are various factors which affectmotivationinclass I) Reward & Punishment It is a very imp ortant factor which affects motivation.Ifproperrewardisgivenatpropertimeandpropermannerit leads to effective learning and enhances childs, interest in learning. On theotherhandpunishmentshouldnotdevelopinferioritycomplexamong studentsanditmaysometimesleadtodisliketowardslearning.

 ii.

Opportunity toparticipate:Whensuitableopportunitiesareprovidedto studentsindifferentactivitiesthentheyactivelyparticipateinthem.

iii. Competition Competition is a strong factor which affects motivation. If we inculcate spirit of competition among students it leads to self motivation.

iv. Evaluation: Knowledge regarding progress of child with help of various tools andtechniquescanleadtolearning.

v.

Using Teaching Aids: Use of appropriate teaching aids at proper time helps to explain and clarify difficult concepts in subject like Maths, Science, Geography. Teaching without use of teaching aids becomes dull, monotonousandleadsintopoorlearningaspupilsarenotmotivated.

vi. Teacher pupilrelationship:Goodrelationshipbetweenteacherpupilhelps in motivating pupils for learning. If no good intimate relationship is developedthenpupilsdonotshowinterestinlearning. vii. Classroom environment: Affects learning as it has direct relationship for motivating students. Good classroom environment leads to effective learning where as unpleasant environment does not lead to effective learning. viii. Use of effective methodology: New novel methods helps in creating interest and motivation leading to learning. Traditional methods i.e. Lecturemethodcreatesboredomanddisliketowardsthesubject. Apart from these emotional factors and need, aptitude, interest, habits arealsostrongfactorsaffectingmotivationinclass.

 4.6 TheoriesofMotivation Various behaviouristic theories of motivation were propounded by various psychologists like Thorndike, Freud, Jung. Rutherford, Zangwill Some of thetheoriesare 1. Stimulusresponsetheoriesofmotivation. 2. Physiologicaltheoryofmotivation. 3. Psychoanalytictheoryofmotivation. 4. Cognitivetheoriesofmotivation. Need achievement theory and Maslows theory of motivation are explained in detail. 4.6.1 Need Achievement Theory: Behavioral scientists have observed that different types of needs are predominant among individuals but some of the individualsdonotseemtobeconcernedaboutachievement.DavidC.Mclelland and his associates at Harvard University tried to detect changes in motivation. He detected that socially developed motives in different individuals i.e. affiliation power and achievement. Every man has an achievement motive to some extent but some people are constantly more oriented towards achievement than other. A person with high need for achievement is more self confident, enjoys taking carefully calculated risk, researches his environment activelyandismuchinterestedinconcretemeasuresofhowwellheisdoing. Achievement motivation can be developed through a well conceived and deliberate learning process. Research studies show that the people with strong needtoachieveshowfollowingbehaviouralcharacteristics. i. They formulate concrete goals in such a way that it is within their abilities andgoals. Theyselectmoderateriskgoalsinsteadofimpossibleortoodifficultgoals.

ii.

iii. Theyhavestronginternalcommitmentorinvolvementwithgoal. iv. Theyliketotakepersonalresponsibilityforoutcome.Alsotheydonotshift responsibilityorblamethecircumstance.

v. They explore their environment to create opportunities for achievement ratherthanwaitforchancestocometheirway. vi. Theyoftenexperimentwithnovelactivitiesinordertoreachgoal. vii.They try to anticipate possibilities of succeeding and possibilities of failure andtrytoovercomeobstaclesthatcausefailures. viii. Theyseekhelpfromothersi.e.expertsratherthantheirfriends. ix. They derive maximum satisfaction from achievement itself and less from otherfactorslikerecognition,moneyetc. x. When succeeded in achieving moderate challenging goal they experience positive feelings of joy, thrill and satisfaction. When they fail they experiencefeelingofdisappointmentandsadness. xi. Theyareeffectivelearnersfromfeedbackexperience.Successexperiences stimulate them to try for little higher standard and better performance. They show stamina & performance. They show stamina & perseverance in strivingfordoingbettereachtime. Macklelland found that achievement motivated people are more likely to bedevelopedinfamiliesinwhichparentsholddifferentexpectations fromtheir children than do other parents. There parents expect their children to start showing some independence between age of six to eight in making choices and doingthingswithouthelp. To conclude, achievement motivated people can be backbone of most organizations. They are too oriented to work to their capacity and tend to expect others to do the same. Thus in educational institution achievement motivation can be developed by proper training programmes and well conceivedanddeliberatelearningprocess. 4.6.2MASLOWSTHEORYOFNEEDHIERARCHY According to Maslow there seems to be hierarchy into which needs are arranged themselves Human motives can be put into five categories in form of pyramidasshowninfigure

SelfActualization SocialNeeds;Power, Prestige,EgoNeeds, Love and Belongingness Safety and Security Needs PhysiologicalNeedsBasic needs

IV III II I

MaslowsNeedHierarchy Maslowadvancedthreepropositionsabouthumanbehaviour. 1. Men are wanting beings. Their needs are unlimited. As soon as one need is satisfied,anotherappearsinitsplaceandthiscontinuesfrombirthtodeath. 2. A satisfied need is not a motivator of behaviour, only the needs which are notsatisfiedaremotivatingindividuals. 3. Needs of men develop in sequential order and are arranged in hierarchical order. Physiologicalneeds:Theytendtohavehigheststrengthastheyarebasicneeds to sustain life e.g. food, clothing, shelter. When physiological needs are potent otherneedsarepausedintobackground. Security Needs:oncephysiologicalneeds are gratified safetyor securityneeds becomepredominant.Theseneedsaretobefreeoffear,ofphysicaldangerand deprivationofbasicphysiologicalneeds.

Social Needs: whenfirsttwolevelofneedsofanindividualaresatisfied,social needs become motivator of behaviour. A person tries to strive for meaningful relationswithothers.Hestrivesforaffectionandbelongingness. Esteem Needs: After individuals begin to satisfy their need of belonging they generally want to be more than just member of group. The need of distinction, achievement of status, recognition from others, satisfaction of these esteem needsproducesafeelingofselfconfidence,prestige,powerandcontrol. Self actualization Needs: It means the need to maximize ones potential. It is neededforselfrealizationanditisontopofindividualsneedhierarchy. Itcanbeconcludedthatparentsandteachersplayimportantroleinmaking wise choices by satisfying theirphysiologicalneeds, safety needs, belongingness love needs, aesthetic needs and self act need. Children should be allowed to make wise choices and parents and teachers play a significant role in preparing them. Also various opportunities should be provided to children so that they explore things on their own. Thus we can say that teachers should help them to makeappropriatechoices. 4.7TECHNIQUESOFMOTIVATINGSTUDENTS i. Teaching by teacher should be child centred i.e. teach according to capacities, abilities, aptitudes and interest of child. Principle of correlation shouldbeused. ii. Teachers should help students to be clear about their goals and direct them towardsachievingit. iii. Knowledgeofprogressatsuitabletimee.g.progresscard iv. TeachershouldmakewiseandjudicioususeofRewardandpunishment v. Multifarious activities should be conducted and maximum participation shouldbeachieved. vi. Spirit of cooperation, and healthy competition should be developed throughvariousactivitiese.g.Picnics,Visitsetc.

vii.Opportunities should be provided to develop selfexpression among students. viii. Teacher should improve evaluation system and it should be objective, continuoussothatitmeasuresalldomainsofpersonality. ix. Teacher should adopt novel methods of teaching and effective use of teachingaidstogenerateandsustaininterestofthestudents. X. Teachershouldtakeadvantageofnaturalinterestofpupils&trytodevelop newinterestandencouragethemtoparticipateactivelyinteachinglearning process. Teachers role in motivating students is pivotal and crucial which will result ineffectivelearningCarefullyprovidedmotivationhelpsinbestachievementsof objectives. 4.6LETUSSUMUP: Motivationistheprocessofarousing,sustainingandregulatingactivity. Motivationisbroadlyclassifiedasnaturalandartificialmotivation. Maslowarrangedhumanmotivesintofivecategoriesintheformofapyramid. Usingvarioustechniquesateachercanmotivatethestudentstolearn.

References
MangalS.K.(2000)AnIntroductiontoPsychology.PrakashBrothers,Ludhiana Sharma,R.N.(1996)EducationalPsychologySurjeetPublications,Delhi.

5
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
5. UNIT STRUCTURE: 5.1 Objectives 5.2 Introduction 5.3 Theories of intelligence 5.4 Gardeners theory of intelligence 5.5 Multifactor theory 5.6 Guilfords Structure of intellect 5.7 Let us Sum up

5.1. Objectives

After reading this will you will be able to * State the different theories of intelligence. * Classify the theories of intelligence. * Explain Gardners theory of multiple intelligence. * Describe multifactor theory of intelligence * Explain Guilfords structure of intellect with model.

5.2. Introduction

When you know the meaning of intelligence, you understand it to be a mental capacity of an individual, which enables you to adjust with this environment. You also know that everyone has intelligence. But the degree of intelligence vary from individual to individual Sometimes question may arise in your mind why it varies from one another? Psychologists also have thought of this question. They propagated different theories of intelligence. According to different theories intelligence has some components or elements. The proportion of different elements of intelligence makes one different from another. We will discuss some theories of intelligence in this unit, which will make you more clear about the meaning, & nature of intelligence.

5.3. Theories of Intelligence

Theories are developed by different psychologists at different times regarding the intelligence. These theories can be grouped under two categories namely - Factor theories and - Cognitive theories. It can be diagrammatically represented as follows:

Theories of Intelligence

Factor Theories

Cognitive Theories

Unitary Multi- Two

Group Sampling Guilfords Cattell Jensons Sternbergs Gardners model Horns theory theory theory

factor factor factor

Under factor theories, different psychologists developed different theories. They are Unitary theory or monarchic theory Two factor theory Anarchic theory and Sampling theory a model of intellect

In cognitive theories the following theories are included They are Cattell & Horns theory of intelligence Jensons theory of mental functioning Campion and Browns theory of intelligence Sternbergs information processing theory of intelligence and Gardeners theory of multiple intelligence.

In thin unit we will discuss the Gardeners theory, which is an example of cognitive theory and multifactor theory & Guilfords structure of intellect, which is an example of factor theory.

5.4. GARDNERS THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

This theory was propounded by Howard Gardner of Harvard University. Through his theory he challenged the notion of general intelligence. According to him it is not possible to capture an individuals intellectual capacities in a single measure of intelligence. Therefore he tried to give a broad base to the concept of intelligence and its measurement by providing a multiple frame. He asserted that human intelligence or cognitive competence can be better described as a set of an individuals multiple abilities, talents and mental skills related to a multiple number of domains of knowledge in a particular cultural setting. He concluded that there are seven independent types of intelligence that grow and develop differently in different people depending upon their hereditary characteristics or environmental experiences. According to Gardner independent intelligence means each intelligene is a relatively autonomous intellectual potential, which is capable of functioning independently of others. These different types are Linguistic intelligence Logical-Mathematical intelligence Spatial intelligence Musical intelligence Bodily kinesthetic intelligence Intra-personal intelligence and Inter personal intelligence.

Let us discuss about the different types of intelligence & how it functions.

LinguisticIntelligence
This type of human intelligence is responsible for all kinds of linguistic competence abilities, talents and skills. The different components of this type of intelligence are - Syntax - Semantics and - Pragmatics. It also includes some school-oriented skills such as Written or oral expression and Understanding This type of intelligence is most visible in professionals like Lawyers, Lecturers,

Writers and lyricists

From this we can conclude that persons having linguistic intelligence can express well oraly or written. We can also infer that those are in the profession of lawyers & lecturers must have more linguistic intelligence.

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

This type of intelligence is responsible for all types of abilities, talents and skills in areas related to logic and mathematics. The different components of this type of intelligence are Deductive reasoning Inductive reasoning Scientific thinking and Solving logical puzzles etc.

This type of intelligence is found in the professionals like Mathematicians Philosophers Physicists etc.

Spatial Intelligence

Abilities, talents & skills involving the representation and manipulation of spatial configuration and relationship is the concern of this type of intelligence. We use this type of intelligence in the sphere of ones work. This is used by painter while applying pigments to a canvas. This intelligence is seen in the professionals like Surveyors Navigators Architects Engineers Sculptures and Chess players.

MusicalIntelligence
From the name you can say that this type of intelligence covers the abilities, talents and skills relating to the field of music. The different components are Pitch discrimination Sensitivity to rhythm Ability to hear themes in music. Texture and timber. Production of music through performance or composition.

It is visible in a quite large proportion in professionals like. Musicians and Composers.

Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence

You can now guess this type of intelligence includes the abilities, talents and skills in which areas? It involved in using ones body or its various parts to perform skillful and purposeful movements. You must have experienced the cricket match. The batting style of Sachin Tendulkar, the fielding of Jonty Rhodes are the example of their bodily kinesthetic intelligence. This type of intelligence is seen among professionals like Dancers Athletes and Surgeons

Intra Personal Intelligence

This type of intelligence enables one to know his self. It includes knowledge and understanding of ones own cognitive strengths, styles and mental functioning, as well as ones feelings, range of emotions and skills to utilize ones fund of knowledge in practical situations. Therefore it is called as private intelligence. On account of its secret and private nature, the access to this type of intelligence in an individual is available only through self-expression like i.e. language, music, visual, art and similar other forms of expression. In practical life this type of intelligence is demonstrated by

Yogis Saints and Masters of zea

Interpersonal Intelligence

This type of intelligence consists of the abilities to understand individuals other than ones self and ones relations to others. It includes the ability to act productively, based on the understanding of others. In practical life, this type of intelligence is most visible among

Psychotherapists Teachers Sales people Politicians and Religious leaders.

Thecontributionofthistheoryisitsbolddeclarationthattheconceptofa measurablegisatbestlimitedandatworsteducationallymisleading.Itis notatallessentialthatanindividualhighlyloadedwithlinguisticabilities willalsodisplayexceptionalabilityinalloranyremainingdomains.

CHECKYOURPROGRESSI
Note write your answer in the space provided below.

Q.1. Write what type of intelligence is visible in the following professions.

i) ii) iii) iv)

Lecturer Doctor Engineer Philosopher

Q.2. Match the following. A i) ii) iii) iv) v) Musicians Dancers Chess players intelligence Athletes Visual Art i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) B Linguistic intelligence Intra personal intelligence logical-mathematical Musical intelligence Bodily kinesthetic intelligence Spatial intelligence

vi)

Interpersonal intelligence

________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______

5.5. Multifactor Theory of Intelligence

The name of this theory gives us an idea that intelligence is based on numerous factors. The Indian propagator of this theory was E. L. Thorndike. This theory is also known as anarchic theory and atomistic theory. According to this theory, intelligence is considered as a combination of numerous separate elements or factors, each one being a minute element of one ability. For example 1) numerical reasoning 2) vocabulary and 3) classification etc. This theory believes that every task needs different abilities. Therefore, there is no such things as general intelligence, a single factor and there are only many highly independent specific abilities which go into the accomplishment of different tasks.

For example we cannot say that an individual who has good intelligence can succeed in all spheres of his life. At the same time we cannot also say that with certain specific types of abilities an individual would be entirely successful in a particular area and completely unsuccessful in other areas.

We have already studied Gardners theory. According to this theory a person having musical intelligence means he has the abilities, talents and skills in the field of music. According to Thorndike it does not mean that he will do well in music in all the spheres of this life. At the same time it also does not mean that he has no linguistic or other intelligence. In this context Murphy (1968) says there is a certain positive relationship between brightness in the field of brightness in another and so on.

You must have the experience of getting more marks in one subject & less marks in another. Why does it happen so? Because you may have more ability in one field whereas less in other field.

According to this theory we can not infer or predict anything about mans ability from one field to another. All tasks need the co-relation of different factors.

CHECKYOURPROGRESSII
Note Write your answer in the space given below.

Q.1. Fill in the blanks. i) ___________________ was the propagator of multifactor theory. ii) Multifactor theory is also known as ___________________. iii) Multifactor theory comes under __________________ theory of intelligence.

5.6. Guilfords Structure of intellect

This theory was developed by J. P. Guilford in 1961. With his associates he was working in the psychological laboratory at the University of Southern California. While working, he developed a model of intelligence on the basis of the factor analytical research studies. They conducted a number of intelligence tests. From the results they concluded that every mental process or intellectual activity can be described in terms of three different basic dimensions or parameters known as

Operations the act of thinking

Contents the term in which we think (Such as words or symbols)

Products the ideas we come up with.

Each of these parameters further subdivided into some specific factors or elements. They are shown in both tabular form & in the form of three-dimensional model.

Table1
Division of Intellectual Activity into parameters and specific factors.

Operations

Contents

Products

Evaluation (e) Convergent

Figural factor (f) (concrete material

Units (u) Classes(c)

Thinking (c) Divergent

perceived through senses) Symbolic (s) (Materials in the

Relations (k) systems (s)

Thinking (d)

form of signs & symbols)

Transformation (t) Implications (i)

Memory (m) Cognition (c) Semantic (m) (material in the Form of verbal meaning of ideas Behavioural (b)

In (1967) through his later research Guilford expanded his cube-shaped model of intellect to include 150 factors by dividing the figural factors of the content into two separate categories (visual and auditory).

You may be in confusion from where the 150 factors came. Lets make it clear. According to Guilford the structure of human intelligence can be viewed in terms of the three basic parameters along with their divisions into a specific number of factors. Therefore there could be 5X6X5=150 factors in all, which may constitute human intelligence. Each one of these factors has a trig ram symbol, i.e. at least one factor from each category at the three parameters has to be present in any specific intellectual activity on mental task.

For example a child is asked to determine the day of the week on a particular date with the help of a calendar. Here the task involves operations like convergent thinking, memory and cognition. In carrying out these operations, he will make use of semantics i.e. reading and understanding of the printed words and figures indicating dates and days of a particular month of a calendar. By carrying out mental operations with the help of the contents he will finally arrive at the products. The day of the week ot which the date in the question refers represents the factor known as relations. He may further transform and apply this knowledge to identify the days for contiguous dates or vice versa.

The model consisting of 150 factors diagrammatically is represented for your clarity & better understanding.

CHECKYOURPROGRESSIII
Note Answer the questions in the space provided below.

Q.1. Fill in the blanks. i) In _____________ year Guilford developed his cube shaped model. ii) In _____________ university he developed the model of intelligence. iii) Figural factor is divided into two separate categories named as ___________ and ____________. ________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______ ________________________________________________________________ ______

5.7. Let us sum up

Intelligence is an ability to learn, to cope with the environment in terms of adoption and dealing with new situations as effectively as possible. Number of theories are advocated regarding the meaning and nature of intelligence. All these theories are categorized under two main theories like Factor theory and Cognitive theory.

The factor theories of intelligence try to throw light on the structure of intelligence by pinting out the number of factors or constituents. The multifactor theory considers intelligence to be a combination of numerous separate elements or factors, each of which is a minute element of an ability. Guilfords theory lays down a model of the intellect involving three inter-related basic parameters - Operations - Content and - Products.

Cognitive theories of intelligence try to analyze and describe intelligence in terms of certain fundamental cognitive processes. Gardners theory of multiple intelligence challenges the notion of general intelligence. It defines intelligence as a set of abilities, talents or mental skills that permit an individual to solve problems. This theory while providing a comprehensive view of the human cognitive structure, believes that there are seven independent types of intelligence developing differently in different people.

Thus we get an idea about the meaning & nature of intelligence more clearly from its different theories. Unit End Exercises

Q.1.What are the different theories of intelligence?

Explain any one-factor theories of intelligence.

Q.2. Explain Guilfords theory of intelligence with example. Q.3. Describe Gardners theory of intelligence? Q.4. Write short note on the following questions. a) Multifactor theory of intelligence. b) Difference between intra personal & interpersonal intelligence. c) Linguistic intelligence. d) Spatial intelligence. References Mangal, S. K. (1997) Advanced Educational Psychology, Printice Hall of New Delhi. Mathur, S. S. (1996) Educational Psychology. Vinod Pustak Mandir, Agra. Boaz, G. D, (1984), General Psychology. Madras.

India

6A
MENTAL HYGIENE
6. Unit Structure 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Objectives Introduction Concept of Mental Hygiene Importance of Mental Hygiene Need of Mental hygiene Let us sum up

6.1.Objectives

After reading this unit you will be able to: Define mental hygiene. Describe the need of mental hygiene. Explain the importance of mental hygiene.

6.2. Introduction

You must be well known with physical hygiene. It is concerned with the physical health. In physical hygiene we study the causes of physical ailments or diseases the prevention & curative measures are also discussed in order to save the individual from the illness. Besides this, techniques & principles for maintaining proper health is also the concern of physical hygiene. In the similar way, mental hygiene deals with mental health. It also takes care of prevention & treatment of mental illness. It suggests how to maintain mental health & efficiency. In this chapter we will discuss in detail about the meaning need and importance of mental health.

6.3. Concept of Mental Hygiene

The concept of mental hygiene begins with Clifford Bears. He had tried to commit suicide because of his disturbed mood & mental conditions. He was admitted to various mental hospitals. Later on he wrote a book. A mind that found itself, In his book he described that how mentally disturbed children are ill treated. Adolph Meyer and many others were stimulated to work for these people and they used the mental hygiene term first time in history. A new movement of mental hygiene was now started to look after mental health or people. Different psychologists defined mental hygiene differently. We will get a clear idea about its concept through various definitions given by psychologists. Let us look at the following definition A mental hygiene consists of measures to reduce the incidence of mental illness through prevention and early treatment and to promote mental health. American Psychiatric Association A mental hygiene is a science that deals with human welfare and pervades all fields of human relationship. Crow & Crow A mental hygiene means investigation of the laws of mental health, and the taking or advocacy of measures for its preservation. Drever Mental hygiene is a science of the principles of mental health, derived mostly from our understanding of causation and pathology of mental illness. Dani

The aim of mental hygiene is to assist every individual in the attainment of fuller, happier, more harmonious and more effective existence. Shaffer

If we analyze the above definitions we with be able to know that mental hygiene is a science that attempts to develop and apply principles and techniques for the preservation and promotion of mental health as well as for presentation and treatment of mental disorders, diseases and other abnormalities leading to an adequate adjustment and balanced development of ones personality. From this we can guess why mental hygiene is necessary & how much it is important for our life.

6.4. Importance of Mental Hygiene

Menta hygiene is important because it not only limit itself to the prevention and treatment of mental disorders but also takes the care for the preservation and promotion of mental health of the organism. It has three important aspects or approaches like. Preventive Preservative & Curative. These aspects give the base to explain the need of mental hygiene.

6.5. Need of Mental Hygiene

The need of mental hygiene will be realized from the special massage to Congress in 1963 by president Kennedy. He said that mental disorders and retardation were the most critical health problems facing the country. They occur more frequently, affect more people, require more prolonged treatment, cause more suffering by the families of the afflicted, waste more of our human resources and constitute more financial drain upon both the public, treasury and the personal finances of the individual families than any other single condition. Since this address, there have been extensive national, state and local efforts to deal with mental disorders. Need of mental hygiene is highly essential because it emphasizes on three major purposes like: Prevention of mental disorder through an understanding of the relationship that exists between wholesome personality development and life experience. The prevention of the mental health of the individual and of the group. The discovery and utilization of therapeutic measures to cure mental illness. As mental hygiene makes our lives more useful and worthy, we can realize to what extent it is needed in our life. 6.6. Let Us Sum Up In this unit we have discussed the meaning needs importance of mental hygiene. I hope you must realize its importance in real sense of life especially in todays situation we are facing such type of problems like stress, mental imbalances, suicide cases due to intolerance etc. So mental hygiene is important in our day to day life. As we are visiting our family doctor in times of our physical ill health, so also we should keep contact with our counselor, adviser in times of problems relating to failure or taking decisions in our educational & vocational situation.

As mental hygiene is related with preventive preservative & curative aspects, so we should take the help of mental hygiene for more harmonious and more effective existence. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Q.1 What is mental hygiene? Q.2 Write two definitions of mental hygiene. Q.3 What is mental health? Q.4 What is the three important aspects of mental hygiene? Q.5 Explain the meaning & importance of mental hygiene. Q.6 What is mental hygiene? What role can a teacher play for the maintenance of proper mental health of a student Give your own opinion.

Reference
1. S. K. Mangal, S. K. (1994) 2. Norman L. Munn (1967) Educational Psychology. Introduction to psychology.

3. Patil, N. K and Vidya Nayak (1998) Advanced Educational psychology. M. Ed. Study Material of IDE, University of Mumbai

6B SELFCONCEPTANDSELFESTEEM
6.B. Unit Structure

6.B.1 6.B.2 6.B.3 6.B.4 6.B.5 6.B.6

Objectives Introduction Self Concept Self Esteem Relation between Self-Concept & Self-Esteem Let us sum up.

6.B.1. Objectives

After reading this unit you will be able to. Define self concept Explain self esteem Discuss the relation between self-concept & self-esteem.

6.B.1. Introduction

In the previous chapter you have learnt about personality mental health etc. After reading you might have understood the idea that ones personality depends upon his psychophysical systems to adjust with his environment. In this chapter we will discuss about self-concept & self esteem which also influences on the development of personality. There are various influences, which affect the development of personality. Among these main factors are:

Physique Chemique Environmental factors & Learning

Among these factors learning is very important in the influences of personality development. As we know personality is dynamic, so each & every experience of a person makes his slight different from what he was. Personality, therefore is closely affected by his learning, which is obtained by way of his various experiences. The behavior of an individual is to a very great extent dependent upon his view about himself. This is also known as self-concept,

which determines ones own behavior & personality. So we will discuss what is this self-concept & how it is developed.

6.B.3. Self-concept

The individuals perception or view of himself is known as his selfconcept. The part the environment in which he is involved is known as his Phenomenal self and the rest of the environment of which he is aware or to which he responds is called as his phenomenal environment or perceived environment. It can be represented diagrammatically as follows.

Phenomenal

Phenomenal

Self C t

Self

Environment

The self-concept is what the individual thinks of as his actual self. It is one.

The phenomenal or perceived self includes the self-concept and those aspects of the environment that an individual identifies with himself. For example my family, my school, my home etc. Both the self-concept and phenomenal self are included within the phenomenal environment. For example Personal field, behavioral field, psychological field or life space of an individual. To an individual his phenomenal field or private world is reality. so far as he is concerned. Thus he reacts to the world, which he perceives, not the world as perceived by others. This is also conditioned by ones psychological needs &

with his maturity. For example if you say a child to stay with another woman having more facilities instead of his mother, he will not agree to leave his mother. But why? Because his need is that much of love which he perceives in his mother. So also in case of maturity we cannot change the attitude or develop a concept forcibly in the mind of a child if he does not have attained the maturity for that.

A number of research studies conducted in this field have brought out some very significant conclusions like:

Students of different streams like arts, science & professionals have different self-concept. Praise & blame has its role in changing the self-concept. Various studies upon children of various age groups clearly emphasize the importance of self-concept.

6.B.3.1. Importance of Self Concept

Self concept is important in influencing ones goal. Persons with equally high levels of aspiration but quite different self concepts may set quite different goals. For example a person who considers himself intellectual and has succeeded in school may decide that he wants to become a college professor or a noted scientist and he perhaps maintains these personal goals. At the same time another person who considers himself intellectual may have experienced failures in school. But in keeping with his self-concept, however, he still may aspire to attain intellectual goals like writing popular magazine articles or becoming an authority on some topic for which formal schooling & certificate is not required. Therefore ones self concept plays an important role in his behavior, even in childhood, and influences not only the goals he sets for himself but also the ways in which he goes about achieving these goals. Conversely, ones achievement is an important factor in his self-concept. Many of the personal goals, which we have discussed, are concerned with ways in which the individual can enhance or protect his self-concept. In our culture, achievement is one of the most common ways of enhancing the self-concept, but persons also may strive to be charitable, social, creative or highly religious. T. S. Eliot expressed the importance of the self-concept in human motivation, describing people as absorbed in the endless struggle to think well of themselves. It has also been shown that among welfare clients, the length of time a person has been on welfare is inversely associated with his level of self-esteem. So self-concept also helps in achieving self-esteem.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Q.1. Match the group A Self-concept Phenomenal self Phenomenal environment B

life space my family I Me Q.2. There are some statements Categories them into self-concept & self esteem.

i) ii)

Praise has its role on changing ones attitude Science students have different thinking than arts students.

iii) Writing for popular magazines after failure in school. iv) Absorption of individual to useful work. v) The level of human motives below self-actualization.

6.B.4. Self Esteem

In the chapter motivation you have learnt the Maslows theory. In this theory you have also read the motivational hierarchy where the motivational needs are leveled from physiological needs to self-actualization, the desire to utilize the personal capacities. Self-esteem is the level above love and belonging & below selfactualization. When the love and belongingness needs are satisfied, self esteem motives become important. This motive involves the desire for: Respect Confidence and Admiration

At the esteem level, presumably the desire for affectionate relationships has been fulfilled and then achievement, superiority and prestige motives become important which also fulfilled in the highest-level Self-actualization desiring to utilize ones personal capacities. You have already known that this hierarchy can be used to motivate an individual to learn. But in this chapter you become aware that it also helps in the development of personality. When to motivate an individual to learn but in this chapter you became aware that it also helps in the development of personality. When ones self-esteem motives fulfilled, automatically his personality changes. Self-esteem is also a characteristic of normal or well-adjusted person. The well-adjusted person has some appreciation of his own self worth and feels accepted by those around him. He is comfortable with other people and is able to react spontaneously in social situations. At the same time, he does not always feel obligated to subjugate his opinions to those of the groups. Self-esteem therefore is important for mental health. To show the position of self-esteem you can also show the diagram of Maslows motivational hierarchy.

Self

Actualization

SelfEsteem

Loveandbelonging

Safetyneeds

Psychologicalneeds

6.B.5. Relation between Self-concept and Self-esteem

The single most important aspect of an individuals subjective world is the view he has of himself, often refereed to as his self-image or self-concept. The self-concept is what the person thinks he is regardless of his actual nature or his appearance to others.

Self-esteem means self-respect, self-confidence, feeling of strength & adequacy. Self-esteem includes the perceived self as well as ideal self. It gives worth to others thinking towards him. Self-concept is essential for self-esteem. But self-esteem is a universal desire. For example whatever may be your nature good or bad you always want you should be loved & respected by others. If you are good you will be loved & respected by other, if not you may not. But you want to be respected by others. So when there is mis-matching between ones perceived self and ideal self, there can be very disturbing. Our self-concept develops on the basis of information about the way we are and the way others see us. So self-concept is a broad term. It includes in it two distinct sets of meaning. One set has to do with peoples attitudes about themselves, their picture of the way they look and act, the impact they believe they have on others and their perceived traits, abilities and weaknesses. This collection constitutes what is known as the self-concept, or self image, attitudes, feelings, perceptions & evaluations of self as an object. The second set of meanings relates to the executive functions-processes by which the individual manages, copes, thinks, remembers, perceives and plans. Sometimes we may change our perception of our experiences in selfserving ways, because we need self-esteem.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-II

Note: Answer the questions in the space provided below.

Q.1. Fill in the blanks by choosing the correct answer. i) Self-esteem is _____________________ in nature. (Personal, social, universal, moral) ii) Self concept is _____________________ in nature. (Individual, personal, psychological, psychosocial) iii) Self-esteem lies in Maslows hierarchy above ________________ level. (Safety needs, self actualization, physiological needs) iv) Self-esteem related to self-_________________ (Love, respect, peace, attitude) Q.2. I) Wrote two uses of self-esteem in human life. ii) Wrote the two distinct sets of meaning of self. ________________________________________________________________ _____ ________________________________________________________________ _____ ________________________________________________________________ _____ ________________________________________________________________ _____ ________________________________________________________________ _____

6.B.6. Let us sum up

In this unit we have covered the following points: Self-concept as one of the factors of development of personality It is also called as the determinants of personality. Self-concept means:

The feelings of me Perception of himself Attitudes, feelings & evaluation of self. Experience of both phenomenal or perceived self and Phenomenal or Perceived environment. Self-concept is different from person to person, profession-to-profession, culture-to-culture & courses to courses etc. Praise & blame also has effect in changing the self-concept. Self-concept is important for learning, personality development & adjustment. It develops mental health of an individual. Self-esteem: It is also another factor of personality development. When an individual fulfills his esteem needs, his personality automatically changes. It also promotes good mental health & adjustment.

Self-concept is personal whereas selfe-esteem is universal. Everyone needs self-esteem. Self-esteem means: self respect self confidence & feelings of strength & adequacy. Self-esteem is important for the development of self-concept. If a persons self-concept & self-esteem matches, he becomes a wel adjusted person having a good personality. Therefore parents & teachers should be very careful in providing the phenomenal environment for the better development of self concept of the individual. An individual should be absorbed in useful work which will keep him in touch with reality and enhance self-esteem. The teachers task is all important in developing positive & healthy self-concept. The teacher should see that the children have learned to set goals which are realistic and are in keeping with their ability to attain them. Otherwise unrealistic over ambitious goals will tead to frustration which will again lead to negative, unhealthy and antisocial self-concept which ultimately does great harm to personality development & adjustment.

UNIT END EXERCISES

Q.1 Explain the meaning & importance of self-concept. Q.2 Explain how self-concept & self-esteem helps in personality development. Q.3 Write short notes on: i) Self-concept ii) Phenomenal environment iii) Self-esteem

References

Mathur, S.S. (1983) Educational Psychology Vinod Pustak Bhandar Agra Norman, etal. (1967) Introduction to Psychology Oxford & IBH Publishing co., New Delhi Hilgard ER etal (1975) Introduction to Psychology Oxford & IBH Publishing co., New Delhi

MorganC.Tetal.(1986)IntroductiontoPsychologyMcGrawHillBookCo., NewDelhi.

6C
MALADJUSTMENTS
6.C Unit Structure 6.C.1 6.C.2 6.C.3 6.C.4 6.C.5 Objectives Introduction Concept of Maladjustment Causes pf Maladjustment Conflicts 6.C.5.1 Types of Conflicts 6.C.5.2 Sources of Conflicts 6.C.6 Frustration 6.C.6.1 Causes of Frustration 6.C.6.2 Reactions to frustration 6.C.7 6.C.8 Prevention of Maladjustment Let us sum up

6.C.1

Objectives

After reading this unit you will able to :

Define maladjustment State the causes of maladjustment Explain different types of conflicts Discuss the causes & reactions of frustration Suggest measures to prevent maladjustment.

6.C.2

Introduction

According to Darwin life presents a continuous chain of struggle for existence and struggle. We realize this statement in our day to day life. Every one of us strives hard for the satisfaction of his needs. In struggling to achieve something if one finds that results are not satisfactory, one either changes ones goal or the procedure. For example if you want to join any course, but unable to get it, so you have to change your mind towards the course or accept any substitute for it. By doing so you can protect yourself from your failure. It is a sort of shifting to more defensive position. This is called as adjustment. But if you will not be able to change your mind and you will be in stress & tension for your failure, then it may lead to certain type of mental diseases or disorders. This is called as maladjustment.

6.C.3

Concept of Maladjustment

We have already discussed the adjustment process by which individuals try to maintain balance between the needs and circumstances, If there is no balance between the needs and circumstances, then person becomes maladjusted. According to Gupta and Maurya (1975) abnormal or ill mental health of a person implies the presence of neurosis or psychosis or personality disorder or maladjustment. According to W. White (1956) Adjustment is a failure to achieve a satisfactory compromise. The meaning of maladjustment will be made more clear from the following characteristics of a maladjusted person.

Characteristics of Maladjusted Person: Unawareness about his own strength & limitations Dislike for his own self & others High or low level of aspiration. Dis-satisfaction of his basic needs. Critical & fault finding attitude Very rigid in his behavior Easily overwhelmed with adverse circumstances. An unrealistic perception of the world. Feeling of uneasy with his surroundings. An imbalanced philosophy of life.

6.C.4

Causes of Maladjustment

There are many causes of maladjustment. Some of them are Poor home conditions Unfavorable and uncongenial atmosphere of school Poor or undesirable values in society.

Whenachildgetssuchanenvironmentheisunabletodecidewhatshould hedoandwhatheshouldnot.Thisisknownasconflict.Whenheisunable totakedecisionitleadstofrustration.Soconflictsandfrustrationleadsto maladjustment.Wewilldiscussindetailhowconflict&frustrationleadsto maladjustment.

6.C.5

Conflicts

In our day-to-day situations, we use the term conflicts in many ways. For example conflicts between two cultures, organizations, regions & ideologies. Conflicts may also be aroused between husband & wife, brothers & sisters, father & son, mother in-law & daughter in-law etc. Apart from this external conflict; there are internal conflicts, which are also known as psychological conflicts. It means conflicts within the individual. We will discuss here about this psychological conflicts.

Definition of Conflicts: Conflict means a painful emotional state which results from a tension between opposed and contradictory wishes. - Douglas & Holland -

Psychological conflict is a state of tension brought by the presence in the individual of two or more approaching desires. - Barney & Lehner -

Conflict may be defined as a state of affairs in which two or more incompatible behavior trends are evoked that can not be satisfied fully at the same time. - L. F. Shaffer -

These definitions give us the following idea about conflict. Conflict is a painful state or condition of an individual He feels intense emotional tension during this state. The tension is the result of the presence of two or more desires in the individual.

6.C.5.1. Types of Conflicts

There are different types of conflicting situations. According to the nature of the situations, conflicts are divided mainly into four types like: Approach - Approach Conflicts Avoidance - Avoidance Conflicts & Approach - Avoidance conflicts Multiple Approach - Avoidance conflicts.

Approach Approach Conflicts

In this type of conflicts, an individual is faced with the problem of making a choice between two or more positive goals almost equally motivating and important. You will get a number of examples of this type of conflicts. A child may be in conflicting situation when he has to choose a chocolate or vanilla. A young girl may be devoted to her family and all the same desire to have love marriage with a boy of another caste which is not acceptable to her parents. So she is in a conflicting situation which is called approach approach conflict. It may be represented as follows,

Person

Avoidance Avoidance conflict

In this type of conflict, the alternatives are equally un-attractive or repellent. The conflict is represented in the following,

Person

A student does not want to displease his parents by failing in the examination but he does not want to study is one such example of this type of conflicts. This type of situation is more serious.

Approach Avoidance Conflict Here, a child is faced with a problem of choice between approaching & avoidance tendency at the same time. For example a child starts to pat a dog but is afraid & pulls back his hand. To marry or not to marry is also an example of this type of conflict. The situation may be depicted as follows,

Person

This is the most serious types. This type of conflicts may give birth to many anxieties and complexes.

Multiple Approach Avoidance Conflicts

Sometimes we are confronted with several possibilities for action, each having several desirable and undesirable aspects. Consider the case of a man who came to one of the authors for advice. Whenever this man became interested in a woman as a possible wife, his widowed and wealthy mother, who had encouraged his dependence upon her, threatened to withdraw her financial support. Without such support marriage seemed impossible. Since the mother also experienced aggravation of a chronic, heart condition whenever her son talked of marriage, he feared that going ahead with marriage plans might result in her death. He was in his forties and crises of this nature had been occurring for years and each time he rejected the possibility of marriage. His desire to marry persisted, but so did the seemingly insurmountable maternal interference such situations can be presented graphically in the following manner.

Person

A conflict of this type, in which two alternatives both involve positive and negative features is referred to as a double approach avoidance conflict. Marriage would permit the man to live with a girl of his choosing, but it would leave him penniless and perhaps guilty as well. Remaining bachelor would resolve the guilt and financial problem, but then he could not have a wife, such type of conflicts are not unusual. In daily life there may be more than two alternatives, each of which has both positive and negative features and thus there is a multiple approach avoidance conflict.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS I

Note: Answer the questions in the space given below. Q.1 i) ii) Write any three characteristics of a maladjusted person. Write two main causes of maladjustment.

Q.2 Following are some situations, write what types of conflicting situation they are. i) ii) iii) iv) A man is thinking whether to buy cotton or wool? Choosing between a very dangerous surgical operation and the possibility of prolonged illness. A child has to select one from the two pizzas or Ice cream. A person picksup the receiver of a telephone and begins to dial the number of some one he wants to ask a favor, but he quickly puts the receiver fearing that he may insult the other person.

6.C.5.2 Sources of Conflict

We have seen that the conflicts are the creation of the dis-satisfaction felt by an individual due to the non-fulfilment of his two contradictory desires. So the situations are created in our environment. Let us discuss the different sources where conflicting situations are occurred. The environments are: -

Home Environment: Home is one of the sources of conflicting situation. Over protection, dominance and negligence on the part of the parents does not cope with the experiences during social contacts with other children. So the child may become a victim of the opposing desires in future.

School Environment: Uncongenial school atmosphere, submissive role of teachers, faulty methods of teaching, lack of opportunities for self expression, contradictory demands of teachers and classmates are some of the bases which may give rise to conflicts.

Social and cultural environment: The social environment, rules & cultural values of our society sometimes also prove a potential source of conflicts.

6.C.6 Frustration

In our life, so many situations arise in which we are not able to fulfill our desires in a satisfying manner. All sorts of difficulties crop up both from the outside environment & from our personal limitations. These difficulties can be called obstacles and barriers. These barriers will differ in the significance and in the strength of the force they have. We might be able to overcome some of these obstacles through indirect means but some may defeat us completely. When we are defeated, we become subject to what is technically called frustration. The frustration itself can be of various intensities. How we deal with frustrating situations is a very important study in the psychology of man. Otherwise it will lead to maladjustment. For making the term more clear let us learn some definitions of eminent writers. A frustration is a condition of being thwarted in the satisfaction of motive. - Carroll -

Frustration is the feeling of being blocked or thwarted in satisfying a need or attaining a goal that individual perceives as significant. - Good -

Frustration is the feeling of being blocked or thwarted in satisfying a need or attaining a goal that individual perceives as significant. - Kolesnic -

Frustration refers to failure to satisfy basic need because of either conditions in the individual or external variables. - Barney & Lehner

6.C.6.1. Causes of Frustration

The causes of frustration may be divided into two major heads: External factors Internal factors

External Factors External factors are also called environmental factors. Some external factors are:

Physical Factors: Physical factors include events like: Natural calamities Obstacles Social Customs Institutional conditions etc.

Social Factors: Social factors include the part in blocking the doors of the motivated individual. For example denying to go to a movie with friends. Besides some social conditions in service & society also do not fulfill the desire of a person.

Economic Factor: Economic & financial factors contribute much in frustrating many individuals. You might be aware of the events like suicide, killing the parents, jumping to well etc. This type of events happened due to severe economic deprivation Unemployment is also one of such causes.

Internal Factors: Internal factors are also called as personal factors. The main factors in this category are

Physical abnormality or defects: The physical structure like: Too small or big stature Ugly face Physically handicapped Backward or slow learners are some factors, which may constitute a source of thwarting, and thereby cause frustration. -

Conflicting desire: We have already discussed the different types of conflicts. In such cases also frustration occurs when decision cannot be taken.

Individuals Morality & high Ideals: The individuals moral standard and code of ethics may become a source of frustration. His ideas & morals become barriers in the way of his desires.

Level of aspiration: One may not aspire according to his level of capacities or abilities. High aspiration or low aspiration also causes frustration. For example you may aspire to get first class & you will fail in the examination. This type of situation gives frustration. So high aspiration & low achievement & low aspiration & highachievement is the cause of frustration.

6.C.6.2 Reactions To Frustration

Frustration results in various types of reactions according to intensity and nature of the individual experiencing frustration. Some have frustration / tolerance to the extent that they bear the consequence with a little injury to the self or society, while others become too violent & aggressive. In this way reactions to frustration can be classified into two categories: - Simple reaction & - Violent reaction.

Simple reaction:
Under simple reactions the person shows the following behaviour: Increasing trials or improving efforts Adopt compromising means Withdrawal & Submissiveness

Violent Reactions: Under violent reactions, aggression is of two types: the person becomes aggressive. This

External aggression Internal aggression In external aggression the person does the harm to others whereas in internal aggression he does the harm to his own self.

6.C.7 Prevention of Maladjustment

We have studied that maladjustments are the results of the failure of an individual to adjust himself properly by the removal of conflicts and the reduction of tensions. So to prevent maladjustment we have to resolve conflicts and reduce tensions. Let us discuss the methods to be adopted for it. It can be done in two ways: Direct Method and Indirect Method.

Direct Method
Direct method of tension reduction are those methods in which the individual consciously makes an effort to reduce the tension. They are: Destroying or removing the barrier Seeking another path Substitution of other goals Analysis and decision.

Indirect Method
Indirect methods of tension reduction are often known as mechanism. They are typically unconscious and are concerned with the immediate removal of distress. These methods may or may not serve to improve the long-term adjustment. But these methods are primarily meant for avoiding or reducing anxiety, pain and distress. There are some important mechamisms, which have great significance in the adjustment process. They are:

Sublimation Withdrawal Identification Rationalization Repression Projection Reversal formation Sympathism etc. All these methods are used for temporary relief. Therefore these mechanisms should not be used frequently. In these cases, a person has to tell lie, give fault to others for his own or suppress the desire within himself. So excess use of this type of methods should be avoided. As these mechanisms are used by one to defend his own self, it is also known as defense mechanism. -

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS II

Note: write the answers in the space given below.

Q.1 There are some causes of frustration. Identify them whether as external causes or internal causes. i) ii) iii) iv) Opposition of the community to the school mistress to marry. No increment in salary. Unable to attend the interview due to heavy rain. A person does not allow himself to have friendship with a girl to whom he likes.

Q.2 There is some reactions to frustration. Separate them as simple & violent. i) ii) iii) iv) Committing Suicide Grapes are sour Quarreling with officer for promotion. Surrendering himself after defeat.

6.C.8 Let Us Sum Up

Maladjustments are the result of stress, tension, conflicts & frustration. It refers to disharmony between the person & his environment. A person becomes maladjusted when there is no balance between the needs & circumstances. The important causes of maladjustment are: conflicts & frustration There are mainly four types of conflict which arises from different sources like home, school & society. They are: Approach approach conflict Approach avoidance conflict Avoidance avoidance conflict & Multiple approach avoidance conflict

When decisions are not taken during conflicting situation, it leads to frustration. A frustrated individual react to himself & also to the society, whereas a maladjusted individual is a liability to the society. Therefore prevention should be

taken to make a person well adjusted instead of being maladjusted. Maladjustment can be prevented by two ways: directly & indirectly

Indirectmethodofpreventingmaladjustmentisalsoknownasdefense mechanism.

UNIT END EXERCISES

Q.1 What is maladjustment? Explain its causes. Q.2 Explain the different types of conflicts with your own examples. Q.3 What is maladjustment? Explain the different methods of preventing maladjustment. Q.4 Write short note on the following (a) Reactions to frustration. (b) Defense Mechanisms. (c) Approach - avoidance conflict. (d) Sources of conflicts.

References 1) Hilgard, ER RC Atkinson & R. L. Atkinson (1975) Psychology." Introduction to

Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi 2) Mathur, S S (1983) Agra., 3) Mangal, S K (1994) Jalandhar. Educational Psychology Vinod Pustak Bhandar Educational Psychology Prakash Brothers,

4) Munn, N L, L Dodge Fernald Jr., Peter S. Fernald, (1967) Introduction to psychology, Oxford & IBH publishing Co., New Delhi.

7
GROUP DYNAMICS
Unit Structure.

7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8

Objectives Introduction. Characteristics of a group. Types of groups. Role and qualities of leader Types of leaders. Sociometry Educational implications. Let us sum up

7.0

OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to - State characteristics of a group. - Descrise types of groups. - Explain role and qualities of leader. - List types of leaders. - Discuss and use sociometry in class room situation. - Write educational implications.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Social psychology is a scientific field that seeks to investigate the manner in which behaviour, feelings or thoughts of one individual are influenced or determined by behaviour or characteristics of others. Educational psychology is concerned with reaction of individual learner with the class as a group and its impact on group and individual. Social system influences the behaviour to a great extent. Education is a social process. Effectiveness of educational programmes in school would depend on functioning of classroom as good learning group, teachers success in arousing and sustaining interest, in setting goals for

themselves and achieving them, developing initiative and sense of responsibility in pupils facilitate better understanding between teacher and pupils and adjusting with new ways of learning etc. In school programmes classroom group has special importance because success of instruction is influenced greatly by the way group functions. The teacher possessing position of leadership handles them effectively if they have enough necessary knowledge regarding functioning of groups. Modern psychology is psychology which deals with group behaviour. Psychologist Kurt Lewin popularized study of group behaviour as the term group dynamics. A group implies a psychological or perceived bond not merely an objective linkage between the members interests or goals.

7.1.1 DEFINITION OF GROUP :-

Various definitions given by different authors are mentioned below -

Kelley and Thibant :- A collection of individuals becomes a group. The members accept a common task become interdependent in its performance and interact with one another to promote its accomplishment.

Mills - defined group in terms of its goals and objectives. The group is a unit composed of two or more persons who come into contact for a specific purpose and consider the contact meaningful. Fielder defined a group as By a group we generally mean a set of individuals who share a common goal that is who are interdependent in the sense that an event which affects on member is likely to affect all. Sherif and Sherif :- A group is a social unit which consists of number of individuals who stand in more or less definite status and hold relationships to one another. Group possesses a set of values and norms of its own regulating behaviour to the group. Kimbal Young :- Groups is not a mere aggregate of individuals but it is an association of persons with some degree of give and take i.e. Inter stimulation and response among members.

7.1.2 MEANING OF GROUP DYNAMICS

Etymological meaning :- The word dynamics is derived from a Greek word which means force. Phrase group dynamics refers to forces operating in a group. Krech and Crutchfield :within group. Group dynamics implies changes that take place

Cart wright and zander :- Group dynamics is a field of inquiry dedicated to advancing knowledge about nature of groups, the laws of their development and their interrelation with individuals, other groups and larger institutions. Goods :- Group dynamics implies an interactive psychological relationship in which members of a group develop a common perception based on shared feelings and emotions. These inter stimulative relationships may be described by the term group dynamics. In a nutshell we accept group dynamics as study of the forces exerted by group on individuals and by individual on the group. If a change membership occurs in a group certain features of a group will change while others remain stable .Certain factors in a group will bring uniformity of thinking among its group member. Certain changes in a group may lighten or lower productivity. Also group brings influence on individual attitudes, beliefs, values, sentiments, character, personality & individual influences the group.

7.1.3

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF GROUP DYNAMICS.

1. Groups are inevitable and ubiquitous. Every individual forms certain groups. 2. Groups mobilize powerful forces which produce effects important to individuals. A persons position in a group may affect the way in which others behave towards him and such personal qualities like his level of aspiration and self esteem. 3. Group may produce good and bad consequences. 4. Desirable consequences from groups can be deliberately enhanced. Through knowledge of group dynamics groups can be made to serve better ends, modify human behaviour and social institution.

All working groups have following factors in common Goal Organised structure. Leadership. Relations to other groups & institutions. Motivation. But groups may differ on the basis of 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Group size Composition Group structure Group cohesiveness Task confronting the group and environment within group. Interaction modes & patterns between members. Group culture Role patterns tradition and customs Group effectiveness.

7.2

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GROUP :-

The characteristics of a group are as follows; Sense of oneness :- Group implies a sense of oneness. Members of group treat each other as their own. They develop sense of loyalty, sense of belonging, sense of sympathy, sense of devotion and sense of imitation. Common Goal :- Members of the group have common goals, interests and values. All their efforts are directed towards the achievement of these goals. Similarity of behaviour :- We observe similarity in the behaviour of individuals because the goals interests and values of the members of a group are common. Psychological Relationship :- The members of the group are interrelated. The behaviour of the members of the group influences and causes a change in the behaviour of others. Influence of group characteristics :- The characteristics of the group influence the members of the group. Control of the group :- The actions of the members are controlled by the group because the behaviour of group members is influenced by group norms and customs. Mutual obligation :- The ties of mutual obligation bind the members of the group with each other e.g., Parents love their children and children obey the orders of their parents. That means each member in the group treats their members as his own inspite of certain differences in their attitudes and tendencies. Feeling of unity :- There is feeling of unity within the group. By virtue of such feeling, the member of a group treat each other as their own. Mutual expectations :- The members are entitled to expect love, sympathy and co-operation from others in a group e.g. We expect love and care from our parents and parents expect fulfillment of their wishes from us.


7.3 TYPES OF GROUPS

There are different types of groups and they are ;

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROUPS :-

Primary Group

Secondary Group

Face to Face Strong and Co-operative operative Relations

No face to face, Strong and Co-

Relations

e.g., Family, Class, Science club.

e.g., Political Parties, Trade Unions.

IN-GROUPS AND OUT-GROUPS :- The members have common goal, common interest and a sense of we feeling. The members of in-groups treat others as outsiders. Ingroups may be either primary or secondary e.g., Family is an example of primary in-group. The nation towards which we feel love is an example of secondary in-group. The groups which are not in-groups are out-groups.

PURPOSIVE AND ACCIDENTAL GROUPS :-

PURPOSIVE GROUP :is to

Permanent and organized Main aim achieve definite goal e.g., Family, Church, School, Village Community.

ACCIDENTAL GROUP :Individuals

Short-lived and Unorganised gather by mere chance e.g., Railway compartments, Bus Stand.

PARTIALLY AND TOTALLY INCLUSIVE GROUPS :-

Partially Inclusive Group

Totally Inclusive Group

Involves partial interests of Individuals e.g., College. Community.

All interests of the member are Involved e.g., Village

OPEN AND CLOSED GROUPS :- Open groups are those groups in which everybody can become a member where as closed groups are secret societies where membership is not open to all. CROWD AS A GROUP :- Crowd is a collection of people on spur of moment. It has no permanent goals but only transitory aim. It is governed by emotions. Behaviour of the people is not normal in the crowd. They follow impulse of moment. They think less and accept readymade conclusions. CLUB AS GROUP :- A club is a collection of people who meet in a planned manner not like crowd. The goals of the club are clearly defined. The club has a common interest, ideal or goal e.g., Science Club. COMMUNITY AS GROUP :- Community is more permanent than crowd or club. Individuals behaviour is controlled and regulated by the community. A community has its culture, art, literature and common social, political and economic bonds. Members of the community are emotionally attached take keen interest in the activities of the community and obey its norms and traditions. 7.4 ROLE AND QUALITIES OF A LEADER :-

10.4.1 ROLE OF A LEADER :- The destiny of a nation, family or a class depends upon a wise and effective leader. In other words it can be said that, leader is like the captain of ship who directs the ship to reach its destination. It is in the hands of the leaders to raise the nation to a first rate nation under their worthy leadership or they may lead the nation to disaster. So we need good leaders in the family, good leaders in the school and good leaders in national and international field. The role and qualities of a leader are discussed here.

EXECUTIVE

REPRESENTATIVE

LEADER
PLANNER POLICYMAKER EXPERT MEDIATOR EXAMPLER FATHERFIGURE

In the words of Krech and Crutchfield, Whatever the nature of the group, all leaders must take part to some degree of the functions of executive, planner, policy maker, expert, controller of internal relationships and supervisor.

Leader as an executive :- Leader as an executive distributes the work among the members, supervises the general execution of the policies, organizes discussions for the execution of the plan and acts as guide during the discussion e.g. The head master distributes the work among teachers during annual function .Leader as planner :- The leader plans the ways and means to be adopted to accomplish the objectives. His planning may be for short term or for long range. The members are only told about some of segments of the plan with which they are concerned. E.g., Organising the visit. Leader as a policy-maker :- The leader has to establish group goals, objectives and policies. The leader has to plan the policies and has to execute the policies also e.g., Making policy at the time of admission. Leader as an expert :- The leader is a distinguished personality, best qualified and capable individual to over-come difficulties. Leader as a group representative :- The leader acts as a group representative of his group in external relationships. He is the official spokesman for the group. E.g., Headmaster represents the school in various conferences, meetings and committees. Leader as arbitrator and mediator :- Leader acts as an arbitrator if there are certain conflicts in the group. He acts as a judge and gives his judgment so that conflicts are resolved. The leader reduces tensions in the group and establishes harmony.

Leader as an exampler :- Leader should serve as a model of behaviour for the group membership in order to stimulate them to follow his lead in a desired activity e.g., Teacher can inculcate good manners among the students by his own example. Leader as a father figure :- Leader serves as a perfect focus for the positive emotional feelings of the individual. The members have the same feelings towards the leader as the child has towards his father.

7.4.2 QUALITIES OF A LEADER :- A good leader should have following qualities;

i. High Intellectual level :- A good leader must have an intellectual level higher than that of the people he is leading. High intelligence helps in thinking and reasoning, anticipating and solving difficulties and in taking quick and right decisions e.g., Intelligent teachers easily impress the pupils. ii. Love for people :- A leader must have true love for the people. The leader can win the confidence of the people by making all types of sacrifices for the common good. A leader who does not have true love for people will no longer be accepted by the group iii. .Ideal person :- A leader must be an ideal person to be imitated by the people in thinking, feeling and acting. iv. Active and enthusiastic :- A leader should be always active and ready to take any task related to his field. v. Good motivator :- The leader must motivate his group people to seek their co-operation in different activities. vi. Knowledge of group psychology :- The leader (teacher) should have thorough study and proper understanding of group psychology to lead others effectively. vii. Good orator :- The leader should be a good orator. It is an art through which we can convince people, can direct them and can make suggestions to them e.g., A cleverly delivered speech can win the students confidence. viii. Good Exampler :- The leader should behave in such a way so that he should be able to set an example in front of his group and to be followed by his group.

7.5 TYPES OF LEADERS :-

There are four different types of leaders and they are;

Institutional Leaders :- The head of the group can be termed as an institutional leader. His orders are obeyed and policies are executed to achieve the required goal. The nature and role of second and third type of leader can be very well understood in the form of difference (distinguish) so it is represented in the form of distinction between them

Authoritative (Dominant) Leader The leader has maximum dominance over his group.

Democratic (Persuasive) Leader The leader does not have maximum dominance over his group. A democratic leader is social, affectionate, patient and least dominant. All the policies are determined by the group. The leader is the agent of the group. The members are free to work within the group.

An authoritative leader is extrovert, aggressive and dominant.

The leader determines all the policies and directs the group. He is the director of the group. An authoritative leader usually dictates the particular work to each member. The authoritative leader is personal and subjective in his praise. This type of leader does not participate in group activities.

The democratic leader is objective and fact minded in his praise. This type of leader participates in all activities of the group. He behaves like a member of the group.

An authoritative leader never encourages and reinforces interpersonal contacts. This type of leader has more of I feeling. Constructiveness of work decreases sharply in his absence.

A democratic leader always encourages and reinforces interpersonal contacts. This type of leader has more of We feeling. Constructiveness of work decreases slightly in his absence.

Experts :- A expert is the best authority in his field. He is specialized person in his area. An expert advices in the field to which he is concerned.

7.4 SOCIOMETRY :-

Educational Psychology is the systematic study of implications of principle of psychology in education. It helps us to understand the behaviour of an individual as a whole. Sociometry is a technique in educational psychology to understand the behaviour of individual. It is based upon the study of behaviour of an individual within the group. It is necessary to see the individual the way he is seen by his fellow pupils to know his behaviour in detail. Sociometry technique was devised by Moreno and adapted by Jenning for study of students in class-room situation. It is also known as sociogram.

7.6-1

MEANING OF SOCIOMETRY :-

John W. Best :- Sociometry is a technique for describing social relationships that exist between individuals in a group.

Bronfen Brenner :- Sociometry is the method for discovering, describing and evaluating social status, structure and development by measuring the extent of acceptance or rejection between individuals in groups. The graphical representation of sociometry can be termed as sociogram. In the light of above definitions we can conclude that;

Sociometry is the measurement of inter personal relationship prevailing among the group members.

7.6-2

TECHNIQUES OF SOCIOMETRY :-

There are two types of techniques of sociometry.

GUESS WHO TECHNIQUE

NOMINATING TECHNIQUE.

The questions are asked to each pupils in Pupil in the group e.g., * with whom of the do you enjoy most in gathering. Whom would you like to sit next to group. you in the class.

The questions are asked to the

the group e.g., * Name the star

Class. * Name the group leader of your

First the sociometric technique is selected, test is administered, data is collected, data is tabulated and interpretation is drawn on analysing the collected data. We may represent the data in graphical from.

7.6.-3 ADVANTAGES OF SOCIOMETRY :-

1. Sociometry helps in discovering the patterns of choice, rejection, attraction, a repulsion among the individuals making up the group. 2. It facilitates the appraisal of the social adjustment of the individuals. 3. It helps in counselling in the area of social skills e.g., If the pupil is maladjusted in the group then counselling is done to improve adjustment. 4. It helps in identifying leaders, isolates, mutual-choice, representatives e.t.c. 5. It is useful to have an idea of group at a glance. 6. It helps us to form appropriate groups of students for carrying out various activities and projects. 7. Sociometry helps us to understand the characteristics of an individual who is liked or disliked by the group. It also assists us in knowing the qualities of leadership as being appreciated by a particular group.

7.7 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS :-

1. The teacher should try to develop group consciousness in the students. 2. School authorities should impart moral and religious teaching through collective instruction. e.g., Celebrating festivals and important days. 3. Education for patriotism and citizenship should be imparted in the collective gatherings of students. 4. Group techniques should be used to teach intellectual subjects i.e., discussions, seminars, group projects etc. 5. Aesthetic subjects such as art, music and poetry should be taught in higher classes. 6. National days, sports week, festivals etc., should be celebrated to develop social qualities among the students. 7. Competitions and tournaments should be organized to develop sportsmanship and leadership. 8. Training should be given to the students in social living. 9. Teacher should present himself / herself as an example to be followed. 10. Pupils should be motivated to participate in group activities.

To conclude a teacher must have knowledge of process of interaction among students coming from different socioeconomic backgrounds. A teacher well equipped with knowledge of group dynamics can provide better guidance for adjustment & improve emotional and social climate of the class. He can find out causes for conflict, rivalry, fear or anxiety in the group which leads to disturbance in learning process. Based on this he can take remedial measure to maintain conducive environment in the class. Thus intra group relation can be improved & mental health of individual members can be maintained.

7.8 Let us sum up: A group is a collection of people having common goal and sense of oneness and group dynamics refers to the study of forces exerted by group on the individuals and by individual on the group. A group is characterized by the following sense of oneness, common goal, similarity of behaviour, psychological relationship, influence of group characteristics, control of the group, mutual obligation, feeling of unity and mutual expectations. The different types of group are: Primary & Secondary group, In-group & out-group, Purposive &Accidental group, Partially &Totally inclusive group and Open & Closed group. Even Crowd, Club and Community are forms of groups. The destiny of nation, class or family depends upon a wise and effective leader. A leader plays the roles of an executive, planner, policy-maker, expert, representative, mediator, exampler and father-figure. A good leader must have a high intellectual level and love for people. He should be an ideal person, active and enthusiastic, good motivator, good orator and good exampler. He must have knowledge of group psychology. The types of leaders are Institutional leader who are head of the group, Authoritative leaders who are dominant & aggressive , Democratic leaders who are affectionate & least dominant and Experts who have the best authority in their field.

Sociometry is a technique for describing social relationships that exist between individuals in a group. The two techniques of sociometry are : Guess Who technique and Nominating technique. Sociometry helps us to know the group at a glance. Through a number of ways a teacher can foster and motivate the group feeling in his students.

Reference : Walia J. S. Educational Psychology, Paul Publishers, Jalandhar. Mathur S. S. 1997 Educational Psychology, Vinod Pustak Mandir, Agra. Sharma, R. N. & R. K. Sharma (1996) Advanced Educational Psychology , Surjeet Publications, Delhi. Mangal, S. K. (2004) Educational Psychology, Tandon Publications, Ludhiana,

8
PRACTICALS (Experiments to be conducted) Unit Structure
11.1 Objectives 11.2 Introduction 11.3 Association 11.4 Perception 11.5 Concept formation 11.6 Memory 11.7 Intelligence tests 11.8 Transfer of learning (Mirror drawing)

8.1 Objectives

After going through this unit you will be able to:

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Understand the significance and the educational implications of the experiments. Understand the importance of association Test the intelligence of students using intelligence test. Explain the difference between recall and recognition.

Introduction

The remarkable achievements made by the physical sciences are mainly due to observations made under controlled conditions. The experimental technique has come to form an essential part of every branch of science. Psychology is becoming more and more objective, following the footsteps of the physical sciences. There are many experiments related to experimental psychology. In this unit, we shall describe only a few common experiments conducted in psychological laboratories.

In describing the experiments in the following pages, letters, E and S will be used to denote the words experimenter and subject. In group experiments, the instructor will work as E and the group will work as S, while in individual experiments, the students will work in pairs. While performing experiments the experimenter and the subject should follow some rules.

General Rules to be observed in doing a Psychological Experiment.

The Experimenter
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Aim of the experiment should be clearly understood. Method once decided upon should be adhered to rigidly. E should not puzzle the S. E should not express surprise or disappointment at what subject does. Observations should be recorded as objectively as possible.

The Subject

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)

The individual who is acting as the subject should approach the investigation with a proper attitude. The experiment is useless if the subject comes prepared to expect certain results. The subject must be an active participant. The S should take interest in the experiment and should have concentration in the work. S should not look upon an experiment as a competition with other members in the class. S must clearly understand that the variations in ability, sensitivity, aptitude etc. are natural, and that they are discovered through psychological experiment.

What to record

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix)

Day, Date, Time, Serial No. of the experiment. Name of the subject and experimenter Aim of the experiment. Name of the apparatus/ material used. Procedure of the experiment. Introspection / Description of feeling of the subject. Observation table. Summary of conclusion drawn from the experiment / Result. Educational Implications.

(At the end of each experiment few questions are given. S should make use of these questions while writing down the Introspection and Co nclusion

Experiment .A Association (Individual Experiment)

(Word list method)

Aim :

To study the word responses of S to a list of stimulus words when he is left free to reply with the first word that comes to mind.

Material : 20 words selected from Kent Rosanoff list. A few words from the list are given below.

Material :- Kent Rosanoff list few words of the list are given below:

Stimulus Table Eating Fruit Smooth Chair Siow Girl Cabbage Eagle

First Response Chair Food Apple Rough Table Fort Boy Vege Bird Light

Second Response Furniture Drinking Vegetable Soft Sit Snail Women Head Next Shade Ache Vision Food Men Church Slow Sky

Third Response Desk Sleeping Orange Hard Seat Lazy Female Garden Fly Bright Body Neightmer Eat Youth God Speed Black

Stomach Dream Bread Boy Bible Swift Blue

Food Sleep Butter Girl Book Fast Color

Hungry Ocean Religion Hammer Lion Bed Tobacco Moon

Food Water Church Nact Animal Sleep Smoke Stars

Eat Sea God Tool Tiger Rert Pipe Light

Diner Waves Catholic Pound Roger Soft Cigar Weight

Procedure : The stimulus word will be read from the list. The subject S has to say the very first word that comes to his mind immediately. E will note down the time response. If S finds difficulty in replying to a word, E has to wait for 30 seconds and then note the failure. E and S should change functions.

Observation :

Sr.No. StimulusWordResponse Association

1 2 3 4 5 . .

Time in sec. Subject Explanation Law of

Result : (i) Find out the mean time association by applying this formula

Mean Association = Time

Time in Seconds No. of stimulus words.

(ii)

Discuss where there is a delayed response

Introspection : S should explain the causes if any in case of delayed response and also in case of failure.

Educational Implications : 1. Learning becomes effective when various percepts, ideas or images are linked together through associative bonds. 2. First impression last long. Attitude of students towards various subjects many times depends upon the first impression created by the teacher. 3. The strength of association depends upon vividness and interest. By using teaching aids the teacher should make the concept clear. (For Laws of associations refer the theory in the chapter memory.)

Experiment B. Perception

(Group Experiment )

(Reversible Perspectives) Problem : To study the change in perception due to changes in perspective.

Material : A figure in reversible perspective such as the vase-face figure shown below.

Procedure : E may prepare a number of figures in reversible perspective such as reversible cube figure, a shaded circle and expose them one by one.

The subject S has to look at the vase-face figure and note the way in which the vase pattern and the two face pattern alternate. For how long you can look at the vase pattern alone? When the vase became the figure what happens to the other pattern? What are the characteristics of this pattern that appear as the figure.? Look at the other reversible figures. How many patterns do you see? Which pattern is more prominent? Which pattern forms the ground?

Introspection : S should state whether he had difficulty in looking at one pattern only.

Observations: 1. A vase-face figure 2. A reversible circle 3. 4.

Figure

Ground

Remark

Conclusion : 1. 2. 3. 4. What are the characteristics of a figure? How does it differ from ground. ? When do figure and ground alternately change? Give example where shifting takes place between the figure and the ground.

Experiment C.

Concept formation (Group Experiment)

Problem : To find out the processes involved in the formation of concepts.

Material : Five different sets of picture post cards with 5 cards in each set. (each set has some characteristic feature common to all 5 pictures.)

Procedure : (A) Shuffle all the 25 cards. Let each S have one picture card before him. He has to observe each photograph carefully and also to read the nonsense syllable written on the back of the card. After 30 seconds E should give a signal to S for passing the card on to the next student so the cards remain circulating all round the class. This process has to be continued till all the cards have been seen by each student. (B) E then reads out the non sense syllables one by one and asks Ss to write down what each name means. (C) Again distribute the cards and keep them circulating, at the end ask them to complete a universal proposition regarding each name, Eg: Each balon has Each flotule consists ofEach clith showsEach dogru representsEach gowry has-

Results : Prepare a table showing the numbers of A correct answers in the concept formation test.

S r No. Correct 1 2 3

Subject

Set

Set

Set

Set

Set

Total

A B C

II

III

IV

Introspection : S should write the remark regarding the way in which the nonsense syllables acquired meaning.

Discussion of Results: (i) (ii) How did the non-sense syllables acquire meaning? What are the sources of error in the formation of concept.

Conclusion : How are concepts formed? Does the nature of material determine the ease with which concepts are formed?

Educational Implications (i) (ii) (iii) The most efficient way of building concepts is to have the learner experience the object directly. Rote memorization should be discouraged Enrichment of vocabulary is necessary for the formation of concepts.

Experiment D. (i)

Memory Rote and Logical Memory. (Group Experiment ) (Method of Recall)

Problem : To find out the effect of meaning on retention.

Material : A list of 20 nonsense syllables, 20 disconnected words, 20 connected words, a sentence containing 20 words, a stop watch.

A Non sense Syllables

B Disconnected Words

C Connected Words

D Words in a Sentence

Fet Guf Tek Riq Nof Fej Lav Gix Rel Fap .

Lid Not Gap Fig Cow Mat Law Top Mow And .

Hat Head Tie Neck Coat Body Mitt Hand Shoe Foot .

Interest Is Latent Attention While Attention Is Interest In Action .

. . .

. . .

. . .

. . .

Procedure : E starts reading the first list of nonsense syllables, at a uniform speed. He reads the same list thrice, with intervals of five seconds between two readings. After the third reading S is asked for a period of two minutes, to engage himself in some mental activity such as reciting the numbers from 1 to 100, so as to prevent him from thinking about the words. After the two minute period, S should reproduce the syllables he has listened to. The total number of syllables correctly reproduced is taken into account. E should follow the same procedure for the remaining three lists.

Observations : Indicate the number of words correctly reproduced from each list, by the various subjects in the group.

Sr. No.

Names of Subjects

No. of words Reproduced

Nonsense

Disconnected

Connected

Sentence

1 2

A B

Results : Find the average number of words correctly reproduced in each of the four list for the whole group.

Introspection : S should state if forming of association helped him in any way in memorizing.

Conclusion : How do associations help in memorizing a given material? What is the effect of meaning on retention

Educational Implications :

1. One can learn meaningful material more easily than nonsense material. 2. Things are better remembered when presented through more than one sense. 3. Rhythm is an aid to learning. 4. Period of rest helps retention. 5. Over learning helps retention.

(II) Perservation (Memory) (Group Experiment)

Problem : To study the phenomenon of perservation

Material : Stop Watch.

Procedure : S is asked to write the letter S continuously for one minute SSSSS etc. and then to write the same letter reversed for one minute 2222 After which the two forms are written alternately for 2 minutes, S2S2S2 etc. No interval of time elapses between any part of the experiment, the complete experiment as described above takes 4 minutes. To obtain a reliable result, the test should be repeated a number of times say 8 times. The result from the last 4 trials may be counted. This helps to eliminate the practice effect which is considerable. Count the number of letters written in each period.

Observation :

Score

Perservation Score

Average

Trial No. SSSS (A) 2222 (B) S2S2 (C) P = a + b-c 2

Treatment of Results: (i) (ii) Find the total number of letter written in the first two minutes and denote the score as (a) & (b) Count the number of letter written in the third part, where the letters are alternated deduct the number of errors and denote this score by the letter C Find the preservation score by the formula p = (a + b c) 2

(iii)

Introspection : S should state whether he had any difficulty in doing part iii of the expt.

Conclusions: The smaller the perservation score, the smaller is the tendency to perservation the higher the perservations score the higher the tendency to perservation. Note. This experiment can be conducted by using other tests as shown below. (a) (i) - - - (ii) / / / (iii) - / - / (b) (i) ABCDEFG, (ii) 1234567, (iii) A1B2C3 etc ABCEDFG 1234567

Educational Implications : (i) (ii) Subject with marked perservation tendency will score well, in test of immediate memory. Whenever there is a change in work as is seen in the school time table from one period to another, there should be a judicious pause in order to minimize the effect of preservation. A bad habit once formed may persevere, and a teacher should therefore watch in reading, writing and other fundamental skills.

(iii)

Experiment D Memory (iii) (Recall and Recognition)

Memory Group Experiment

Problem : To measure the amount of retention of a given material by (i) recalling, (ii) recognising

Material : i) Learning list of 20 words. ii) Recognition list of 80 words

Which includes in a random arrangement, all the words from the first list.

Learning List (A)

Absolute Light Force Auto Calorie

Bell Noise Mercury Solid Anode

Sunlight Cohesion Roller Music Where

Ballon Current Turbine Focus Weight

Recognition List (B)

Observation Follow Lens Ruler Anode Image Atom Expand District Learner Yak Pen Opera Equlibrium X-ray

Function Light Gram Acceleration Gram Jewel Cohesion Auto Crystal Bear Calorie Roller Air Latent Here

Fusion Motor Image Comics Far Bell Solid Hypnosis Cathode Current Water Grade Conduct Frequency Syringe

Field Turbine Cream Music Gravity Ear Mass Lock Bear Recall Absolute Sunlight Keep Corner First

Sensibility Force Lamp Flame Noise Conduct Foot Conduct Bell Balloon Weight Float Joke Piano Far

Procedure :

(i) Method of Recall : Experimenter should present the words of first list (A) three times. After that you should try to recall the word from the list the order of writing may be of any type. The number of correctly recalled words counted. (ii) Method of Recognition : The experimenter should expose entire words in next list (B). You should try to recognize the word of the first list (A) in the second list (B) This is called recognition. Record the correct number of words you correctly recognized.

Observation :-

1) Recall a) Total number of words from list A exposed = x b) Number of words correctly recalled = y c) Percentage of recall = Y x 100 x 2) a) b) c) d) Recognition Total number of words originally exposed from list A = x Number of words correctly recognized = p Number of words with faulty recognition = k Percentage of recognition score = 100 * p-K X

Result :a) Study the nature of words that are wrongly recognized. b) Compare recall and recognition scores.

Conclusion : (i) (ii) (iii) Which is easiest - recall or recognition ? Which method is good index of retention? What is the difference between recall and recognition?

Educational Implication :1. Logical learning is more efficient than rote-learning. 2. Proceeding from simple units to complex unit, develops the power of retention. 3. Review, Revision, period of rest etc. help in retention. 4. Rehearsay, recitation methods are useful in memorization.

Experiment E- Intelligence tests (Verbal and non verbal )

(Group Experiment)

Problem : To test an individuals intelligence by means of (i) a group verbal test and (ii) a group non-verbal test.

Material : A standardized group verbal test and a non verbal test.

Procedure : The test is to be administered to the whole group. Rigidly follow the instructions given by the author. It is desirable to give the two tests, namely the verbal and the non verbal on two days with a suitable interval.

Results : Check the answer sheet with the help of the scoring key and find the total score. This is the raw score.

Treatment of Results : Convert the raw scores into IQs or percentiles by referring to the table of norms. Find the average I.Q of the class. Find the standard deviation. Interpret these two measures. Find the coefficient of correlation by comparing the standing of each student on the two tests.

Conclusion : What does the coefficient of correlation between the two tests indicate? Is this a homogenous or a heterogenous class? (Nonverbal tests prepared by Dr Nafde and Vebal test pprepared by Dr Pathak (Mumbai) may be used in this experiment)

Educational Implications :

Intelligence tests are valuable instruments but their value is dependent upon competent use and interpretation When carefully selected, administered and interpreted, they provide the teacher with significant data.

(i)

(ii) (iii) (iv)

Homogenous grouping A class consisting of student with different abilities is difficult to handle. Such a class is not suitable for both bright and dull students. To remedy this situation homogenous grouping of pupils have been suggested. This can be done on the basis of intelligence test. Pupils difficulties can be diagnosed using the intelligence test. It helps in preparing a profile of the students. These tests are employed both in vocational guidance and selection.

Experiment F : Transfer of learning . ( Mirror drawing)

Problem : To discover the amount of transfer in a novel situation from one hand to another.

Material : Mirror drawing board with screen, copy of star pattern with double line, tracing paper, drawing pins, stop watch.

Procedure : (i) Place the star pattern in such a way that the star can be seen only through the mirror. Direct vision of the star pattern is not allowed. Cover the pattern with a sheet of tracing paper. S should begin tracing the figure from the arrow mark. Trace the figure in a clockwise direction as seen in the mirror. Be careful to see that you are in between the two lines. Crossing of the line is to be counted as an error. In the first trial the S has to trace the pattern with his left hand. Then for the next 8 trials the S has to trace with right hand. In the 10th trial again the S has to trace with his left hand Note the time and errors in each trial.

(ii)

Treatment of Results : (i) (ii) (iii) Draw the time and error curve for the 8 tracings of the right hand. Is the improvement regular? What is the percentage improvement with the left hand in the first and the last trial? Why has this improvement occurred?

Introspection : S should state whether he had made use of thinking while doing the tracing work. Are there any parts of the star pattern more difficult to trace than other? How did S try to get over the difficulty?

Conclusion : How is the progress affected by pleasure at success or annoyance at failure? Which laws of learning seem to operate in this experiment? What are the factors that help the transfer of skill from one situation to another.

Educational Implications :

(i)

(ii) (iii)

(iv)

Transfer takes place because of similarity of content, technique, method or because of generalization. If the student fails to detect the similarity in two situations, transfer will not take place. As much as possible learning experience should be made similar to life like situations. Bad habits of work may transfer from one situation to another and may have a detrimental effect on learning. Teacher should therefore pay attention in development of proper methods of study and habits of work. Emphasis should be given on development of ideals and attitudes.

Experiment - G Motivation (Achievement Motivation) Problem To measure the achievement motivation of the subject. Material : D. Gopal Raos Achievement motivation test, Pencil or Pen. Variables Independent : Items of the test Dependent : subjects response Control The environment should be made undue of noise. Instruction The following instruction should be given to the subjects. This is an attempt to explain and help you to do well whatever you do in life. There are some incomplete sentences with two possible alternatives which complete the sentence. There is nothing right or wrong, both the alternatives are correct but you will have to tick mark to only one of them. Procedure : 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Good rapport should be formed with the subject. The subject should be seated comfortably. Instruction should be made clear to the subject. Ask the subject to work out all the items freely without any hesitation. Take the answer sheet & do the scoring on the basis of the scoring key.

Discussion and Conclusion : 1) 2) 3) The subjects achievement motivation score is to be discussed on the basis of the interpretation of scores given on the manual. The subjects score is to be compared with that of others. The results are to be confirmed with that of related studies in the field.

Educational Implication : Achievement motivation differs from one another. It depends on the level of need of a person. Achievement motivation people have strong internal commitment with goal. Achievement motivation can be developed by proper training programs & deliberate learning process. Teacher should help students to be clear about their goal and direct them towards achieving it.

References Dandekar W.N. Fundamentals of Experimental Psychology Moghe Prakashan. Tiwari G Experimental Psychology, A dynamic approach.

NOTE