Physics

AS - Unit 2 - Mechanics,
Materials and Waves - Revision Notes
Mechanics
Scalar and Vector Quantities

Definition A Vector Quantity has magnitude as well as direction while a scalar

quantity only had magnitude
Scalar Distance, Speed, Mass
Vectors Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration

Resultant

b
a

a+b

Parallelogram Method
2
2
Pythagoras - a = b + c


Note: when you know the resultant and drawing the horizontal and vertical component draw
both of the components from the same point that the resultant starts from (resultant should be
in-between 2 components)

Resolution Of Vectors

Resolves vector into horizontal and vertical components.

a
y

x = a cos

y = asin

Balanced Forces

If an object is in equilibrium the two forces acting upon a point are equal and opposite to
each other and the sum of the anticlockwise moments = the sum of the clockwise
moments. No resultant force acting.
Equilibrium 3 forces 2 of the forces (resultant) are equal and opposite to the third
force, there is no resultant force acting. Can also be drawn in a closed triangle.

To calculate and unknown force or forces resolve each horizontally and vertically and solve,
if object is in equilibrium there is no resultant force!

Moments

Definition The moment of a force about a point is equal to the force multiplied by
the perpendicular distance between the line of action (of force) and the pivot
(place taking moment about)
The principle of moments states that for an object to be in equilibrium the sum of the
anticlockwise moments must equal the sum of the clockwise moments at any point.

Two Support Problems

If center of mass of beam is midway between both supports the force each support
exerts is equal.
If not:
o Take moments about S1 to calculate S2 to work out S1 or vice versa

Couples

Definition A couple is pair of equal and opposite parallel forces acting on a body
but not at the same point.
The turning effect of a couple of equal and opposite forces is equal to One of the forces
multiplied by the perpendicular distance between the two forces.

Motion Along a Straight Line

Displacement Time Graphs
Gradient = Velocity
Velocity Time Graphs
Gradient = Acceleration
Area Underneath = Displacement (if velocity is always +)
Constant Acceleration Formulas

1
S = ut + at 2
2
1
S = (u + v)t
2
v = u + at
v 2 = u 2 + 2as

Where V=final velocity, S=displacement, U=initial velocity, T=time

Remember Acceleration is ms-2
When calculating distance covered when something is accelerating and starting velocity
is not 0 use formulas!!
IF EVER ASKS FOR DECELERATION NEVER USE A MINUS SIGN IS IT IS SLOWING DOWN!

Projectile Motion
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81ms-2
Resolve horizontally and vertically
Gravity only effects the vertical component of motion

Newtons First Law Of Motion

Objects stay at rest or remain in uniform motion unless acted upon my an external
force
So basically if an object is moving and nothing is acting upon it (e.g air resistance) the
object will carry on going forever, this happens in space as no air resistance

Newtons Second Law of Motion

The force applies to an object is proportional to the mass and the acceleration of
the object as a result of the being applied

F = ma

If 2 forces are acting upon the object it is the resultant force that is used in this equation -
F1 F2 if F1 is bigger than F2

With a rocket that is travelling directly upwards the object has to overcome its own
weight ( mg ) in order to accelerate so F mg = ma

With a lift
o If moving at a constant speed upwards F
o
o
o
o

= mg
= mg + ma > mg
If lift moving up and decelerating F = mg + ma < mg
If moving upwards and accelerating F

If moving downwards and accelerating (going faster in downwards direction)

F = mg + ma > mg
If moving downwards and decelerating F

= mg + ma < mg

Terminal Speed
Drag force depends upon Velocity, viscosity of liquid moving through and shape of an
object
Drag operates in the opposite direction of travel so F = mg d therefor ma = mg d
so acceleration equals a = g

d

m

Remember when an object is falling the force acting downwards towards earth is its
weight! ( mg )

Stopping Distances

Thinking distance

Braking Distance using v

= u 2 + 2as gives us a =

v2

2s

So if speed reduced from 20mph to 10 mph the braking distance is reduced by

more than half
Limiting friction is the largest frictional force an object can experience due to the road
before skidding (measured in N)
o

Impact Forces

Impact force can be in g which is the declaration divides by g

Impact Time time from when 2 objects collide at 2 different velocities to the time
there are both travelling with the same velocity
Contact Time Time 2 objects are in contact with each other

As F = ma the force an object experiences can be minimized by reducing the

acceleration or declaration of an object this is done by increasing the time the object is
changing speed as a =

v
so increasing t decreases a which subsequently reduces F
t

This is why things like crumple zones and seat belts are used to increase time of
declaration to decrease average force applied to a person safer!

Work

Work = F d cos

Measured in Joules

Kinetic Energy

1
Ek = mv 2
2

Gravitational Potential Energy

Eg = mgh

As an object of mass m is released above the ground, it gravitational potential energy is

converted into kinetic energy as the height above ground decreases as Eg = mgh , in reality
this is not strictly true as some gravitational potential is converted into work against Air
resistance and some lost as heat and sound.
Pendulum Bob
if released from height hi then at any point where the height is hv the speed of the bob
is such that Kinetic energy at that point = loss in gravitational potential (ignoring all over
external forces)

1 2
mv = mg(hi h f )
2

Power

Power Rate of transfer of energy measured in Watts

W
E
p
=
p=
t
t

Where E = Energy, W= Work and t = time

Power = force x velocity as its the rate work is done per second as its force multiplied by
distance moved each second

Efficiency

p = fv

So basically efficiency is output power over input power

Materials
Density

p=

Density A materials mass per unit volume

m

v
Mass of alloy, m =

pa va + pb vb and the density of that alloy p =

m pa va + pb vb

=
v
m

Springs
Hookes Law
Hookes Law The extension of a spring is proportional to the force applied to it as long
as the limit of proportionality is not exceeded

F = kl

(where k is the spring constant)

Elastic Limit Maximum stress that can be applied to a material without elastic
behavior occurring deformation
Note : Elastic limit may be different to Limit of Proportionality
Yield Point A point is reached at which noticeably larger change in length due to force
Breaking Stress/Ultimate Tensile Stress most stress a material can withhold
without breaking
Brittleness Materials that cant extend without breaking are said to be brittle however
brittle materials are strong in compression and used in building where compression is
constant.
Springs in parallel - K = K1 + K 2 where k is the effective spring constant

Springs in series -

1 1
1

=
+
K K1 K 2

In order to compare 2 different materials elastic properties use youngs modulus

Youngs Modulus
Youngs Modulus Stiffness constant of material

f
measured in Nm-2
a
L
Tensile Strain = ratio of original length and extension =
NO UNITS
L
Tensile Stress = force per unit area

This is delta L as in change in L so final - initial

E=

Stress
Youngs modulus has units Nm-2 or Pascal (Pa)
=
Strain

E=

FL
AL

Experimental determination of Youngs Modulus Of a Material

Two identical wires are fixed in parallel
Both wires initially loaded to remove kinks/strengthen knots
Micrometer adjusted to make sprit level horizontal
Initial micrometer reading taken
Meter ruler measure original length of wire l (one under
test)
Second micrometer used to measure diameter of wire in
several places to improve accuracy

Calculate area by using r (half d to give r)

Test wire loaded with mass and micrometer adjusted to level
sprit level
Micrometer reading taken and extension calculated by final
micrometer initial
Further loads are added and repeated until range obtained
Unload second set
Graph of force against extension

Gradient calculated using big triangle

As gradient =

y2 y1

x2 x1

F
FL
and Y =
Y can be calculated by gradient multiplied by
L
AL
L
y = Gradient
A

Accuracy Improved
Long thin wire gives large extension per unit force therefor percentage uncertainty
decreases
Control wire used so temperature changes do not impact results
Measure diameter in several places to give average
Large triangle/range used to calculate gradient
Loading and Unloading
If elastic limit is reached the unloading curve will not have same value as loading curve
at F=0 it has been misshaped metal extended
=
As loading area = work done and unloading area = energy given back
Remember when counting squares to calculate work done that each square is worth
whatever the square represents vertically multiplied by whatever it represents
horizontally

Waves

Progressive Waves Waves whose oscillations travel and do not stay about a fixed
point, this type of waves transfers energy
Frequency Number of wave cycles that occur in one second measured in Hz
Amplitude- Maximum displacement of a vibrating particle from equilibrium
Wavelength Distance between 2 adjacent points/particles in phase in a wave
Period time for one complete wave to pass a fixed point in space

P=

1

f

Transverse Waves Waves whose oscillations/vibrations are perpendicular to the

direction of travel (light etc.)
Longitudinal Waves Waves whose oscillations/vibration are in the same direction of
travel (sound)
Note: Sound waves propagate as a a series of compressions and rarefactions
Wave Speed Speed of the waves is equal to distance traveled by wave in one cycle
divided by time taken for one cycle

C=

1
f

Therefor c =

Path/Phase Difference
2 points are in phase if they are a whole wavelength apart (max displacement at same
time)- there oscillations are in time with each other
2 Points are in Antiphase if they are half a wavelength apart
(one max displacement while other experiences min
displacement)

Phase Difference

"x x %
"x x %
= 2 $ 1 2 ' (in radians) OR = 360 $ 1 2 ' in degrees
# &
# &

note: x1-x2 is the distance between the two points

Path Difference

Between 2 different sources the phase difference between
the 2 waves then they converge is:

" S P S2 P %
= 360 $ 1
'
#
&

note: where S1P is the distance from source 1 to the point

where the 2 waves converge

Polarization

Polarization When oscillations of the electric field of an E.M wave are restricted to only
one plane/direction the wave is said to be polarized
Application Polaroid sunglasses reduce glare from water as the light is partially
polarized when reflected off water thus the intensity of the light can be reduced This
reduces glare

Reflection

Angle of incidence is the same as angle of reflection

i = r
Stationary Waves
Superposition
When 2 similar waves of similar frequency meet their resultant depends upon their
amplitude and their relative phase difference
o If no phase difference angle then constructive interference occurs
o If 180 degrees difference angle then destructive interference occurs and waves
cancel out at that point
Principle Of Superposition States that the resultant displacement caused by 2 waves
arriving at a point is the vector sum of the 2 displacements caused by each waves at that
instant
Stationary Waves Formation
Formed when 2 continuous waves travelling in
opposite directions of same frequency superimpose to
form no displacement (nodes - complete destructive)
and points of max displacement (antinodes complete
constructive interference)
Stationary Wave Fixed pattern of vibration where
no energy is transferred along the wave
Node particle/point with zero displacement no
amplitude
Antinode Point/particle with max
displacement/amplitude
The phase difference between 2 particles/points on
standing wave (that is the difference when one is at
max displacement and other one also is, in degrees) is
zero if the points/particles are between adjacent
nodes or separated by even number of nodes or 180
degrees if they are separated by an odd number of
nodes.

Fundamental Frequencies
Distance between 2 Adjacent Nodes =

node to node = half a wavelength of one of the

continuous waves that formed stationary wave seen
in diagram)
As seen in diagram the first fundamental that is when
there is one standing wave (1 anti-node 1 node) the
length is half of the wavelength
= 2L
Using c =
We find:

f0 =

c

2l

(where c is speed of propagation of waves)

Hence at the second harmonic or first overtone: = L
o

Hence:

c
f1 =
l

Furthermore at the third harmonic or second overtone:

o

Hence:

f2 =

c

2 l
3

(as from
2

2
L
3

Refraction

Refraction Change of direction of a wave when it propagates through a different

medium

Speed of light in air is 3.00 10 however when it enters more optically dense medium
it reduces speed
So when light enters a more optically dense medium its speed decreases and its
direction changes more towards the normal

As c = f and the speed of light is reduced in more optically dense medium the
wavelength of light changes (makes sense really the frequency cant suddenly change!)
Absolute Refractive index

=

note: as the speed of different frequency of light is not the same in a given medium (due to the fact the
propagation direction changes to a different degree for each frequency) to give absolute refractive index
Yellow light from a sodium bulb is used as a standard

Some typical R.Is

Diamond 2.4

Perspex 1.5

Air 1

Ice 1.31

Refractive Index between 2 materials

!

!
If light from one medium 1 to medium 2 is N then light from 2 to 1 is 1/N
=

Snells Law

n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
OR

sin 1 n2 c1 1
= = =
sin 2 n1 c2 2
Note where n is the absolute refractive index of a certain medium
and 1 is the angle of incidence and 2 is the angle of refraction
Total Internal Reflection
If angle of incidence is so large and the light is moving from a more dense to less dense
medium (hence propagation direction changing away from normal) the angle of
incidence will be larger than 90 and subsequently the light does not exit but is reflected
back into medium
The angle that this happens at that is the angle at which light is reflected at 90 to the
normal ( 2 = 90) is called the critical angle and usually
denoted by i

sini
n
= 1
sin 90 n2

sini =
and as sin 90 = 1:

n2
n1

This is how fiber optic cables work:

Cladding In Fiber Optic Cables
o Improve tensile strength of the cable as the core has to be very thin.
o Increase the critical angle needed for total internal reflection: hence reducing
the multipath dispersion (merging of signals of light down a cable)

Stops core being scratched as scratches cause light to be dispersed if it hits the
scratch
o Improves security as without cladding light would be able to travel between
fibers, as with cladding total internal reflection occurs and light cannot travel
between fibers however without cladding light would be free to travel between
medians of similar optical density (core to core)
Used in Internet broadband to deliver fast internet connection to households.
o

Interference

When 2 similar waves meet at a point, by the principle of superposition the combined
displacement is found by the vector sum of the 2 displacements of each wave at that
point, if they arrive exactly in phase the waves will constructively interfere to form a
double height wave, if exactly out of phase (180 degrees) they will add together
destructively and cancel
In order to view a steady interference pattern the wave sources have to be coherent
Coherent Constant phase relationship and same frequency
The pattern we see will depend upon the phase difference of the 2 sources when they hit
that point
A bright fringe When the waves constructively interfere, occurs when path difference
= n
A dark fringe When the waves destructively interfere, occurs when path difference

1
= (n + ) as the waves have to be 180 degrees out of phase
2
Two-Slit interference patterns (Youngs Slits)
Single slit diffraction spreads out one wave and causes
it to act as 2 coherent sources for 2 further slits.
Showed evidence for wave theory of light
Light bands occur whenever the path difference
between the light waves are a whole number of
wavelengths (and dark when half number)
The distance between two successive maxima w
depends upon:
o The distance between the 2 slits; increasing S
makes fringes closer together (or w smaller)
o The wavelength of light , W is smaller at smaller wavelengths
o Distance D between the slits and the screen, if D increase W increases.

w=

D
s

Also can use laser

o Laser light monochromatic
o Laser light Is coherent (constant phase relationship same Hz)
o Highly directional very little divergence
Pattern Maxima Similar intensity and same width as central fringe

Diffraction

When waves pass through a gap or around an obstacle the waves spread out this is
called Diffraction
When the slit width is the same as the wavelength perfect diffraction occurs
When slit is large than wavelength less diffraction occurs

Single Slit Diffraction Pattern

Central maximum is twice as wide as the others

Rest of the fringes decrease slightly in intensity

as way from the middle (same width)
Maxima occurs with constructive interference
and zero intensity with destructive interference
If gap gets smaller of distance between screen
and slit increases so does width of maxima
Central maxima gets larger if wavelength is
longer or the gap is smaller

Diffraction Grating
Series of uniform narrow slits in parallel

d sin = n

Where d= the distance from center to center of adjacent slits (N=1/d to work out d if you
only have number of slits in say a meter) is the angle of the order you are trying to
calculate, n is the order number trying to calculate 1 2 or 3 etc.
Fractions of a degree usually expressed in minutes
To find max number of order substitute for 90 (therefor sin = 1) and use equation
Application: Spectrometer
o Uses collimator to produce parallel light and then uses diffraction grating to
produce spectrum pattern
o Use sample light from exciting an atom to produce pattern and analysis can be
done on this12
o Always a white line at the Zero order as all wavelengths arrive in phase at this
point
o The shorter the wavelength the shorter the angle
o Hence patterns can be complicated first order red light line can be close to
second order blue