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Melodic Drumming in Contemporary Popular Music:

An Investigation into Melodic Drum-Kit
Performance Practices and Repertoire







A project submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Arts





Michael Jordan








School of Education
College of Design & Social Context
RMIT University
February 2009






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Declaration by the candidate
I certify that:
This thesis is entirely my own work
Due acknowledgement has been made where appropriate
The work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for any
other academic award
The content of the thesis is the result of work which has been carried out since the
official commencement date of the approved research program

Candidates signature:







Contents
Acknowledgements

Abstract

Artifacts

1.1 Introduction
3

1.2 Rationale
1.3 Melodic drumming
1.4 Key research question
1.5 Methodology

2 Autobiographical context
2.1 Early influences
2.2 Duo performance
2.3 Traditional Irish influences
2.4 Teaching experience

3 Historical context
3.1 Early developments
3.2 Drum-kit instruments

4 Significant contributors to melodic drumming in popular music
4.1 Warren Dodds
4.2 Art Blakey
4.3 Max Roach
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4.4 Tony Williams
4.5 Paul Motion
4.6 Jack De Johnette

5 Rudimental drumming
5.1 Educational context
5.2 Rudimental drumming
5.3 Buddy Rich and rudimental drumming
5.4 drum-kit examination repertoire

6 Time-feel
6.1 The nature of time-feel
6.2 Drum-kit player responses to time-feel
6.3 Time-feel and student drummers
6.4 The grid system
6.5 Drum-kit playing in schools
6.6 Beyond the grid

7 Voicing melody on the drum-kit
7.1 Voicing and tuning
7.2 Early tuning experience in performance
7.3 Tuning and the world music genre

8 Melodic drum-kit performance techniques.
8.1 Thinking melodically
8.2 Mirroring
8.3 Spatial relationships
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9 Harmonic-rhythm
9.1 Internalising melodic and harmonic ideas
9.2 Harmony and rhythmic time-play

10 The role of improvisation in melodic drum-kit performance
10.1 Space and openness
10.2 Being in the moment
10.3 Drum-kit improvisational techniques for melodic drumming
10.4 Cycles, patterns and ostinati
10.5 Punctuation, phrase and riff
10.6 Melody, lyricism and breath
10.7 Chords, intervals and harmonic structure
10.8 Movement, contours and lines
10.9 Textures, colours and complexity
10.10 Form and style
10.11 Style
10.12 World music
10.13 Electronicfication and digitalisation of musical rhythm

11 Compositions and transcription
11.1 Blue south
11.2 Celtic swing
11.3 Ode to New Orleans
11.4 Cohiba
11.5 Deep listening
11.6 The last ballad

12 Conclusion

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank:


Gary Costello: for his bass and improvisation performances on my project compositions
and for his constant source of encouragement and inspiration to. Tragically Gary passed
away during the recording of this project and I miss him deeply. The recording Blue
South is dedicated to him

Anthony (Tok) Norris: for his skilful mixing and mastering and his ongoing commitment
to the Melbourne music community

Bob Hillcott: for additional editorial advice

Dr Kipps Horn for his tireless supervision, understanding and guidance.

Stephen Magnusson: for his guitar performances on Blue South and his invaluable
assistance in the recording process.

John McAll: for his life long friendship and assistance with the Sibelius computer
software

Jim Colbert: for his assistance with the artwork for the CDs Blue South and Blue South
Solo Drum-kit

Greg Riddell: for his long time friendship, contribution to my musical development and
string improvisation parts on Deep listening (parts 1 2 and 3)

My Family Merriwyn, Liam and Caitlyn for their constant source of love an admiration

To my father Michael Jordan for giving me the gift of music, mother Barbara, brother
Andrew and sister Caroline

The RMIT University Koorie Research Cohort for welcoming me as a friend and musical
colleague







Abstract

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This project is an investigation of melodic drum-kit practices in popular and
contemporary music. The development of melodic drum-kit playing techniques has
helped create a more inclusive role for drum-kit players within ensembles and has
increased the potential for drum-kit players to present solo elements in performance.
The project artefacts of my research are six compositions presented on CD. They
demonstrate performance and compositional techniques that encourage a melodic
approach to drum-kit performance.

My research involved several methodological approaches these included: a) professional
practice-based research, b) music composition and transcription, c) interviews with
significant musicians familiar with drum-kit melodic practices and d) elements of
autoethnography.

I refer to particular drum-kit performance techniques and practices such as mirroring,
thinking melodically, spatial relationships between drum-kit instruments and ensemble
players, as well as, internalising melodic and harmonic ideas and being in the moment.
I have shown in my compositional project that melodic elements in drum-kit performance
and composition encourage a broader and more inclusive role for drummers in
improvised performance. This is evident in the ensemble versions of compositions
submitted as part of this study.

Artifacts

1. CD 1, recording of six project compositions featuring drum-kit
performance element only

2. CD 2, recording of six project compositions featuring drum-kit and
ensemble performance

3. Scored transcriptions of the six project compositions

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Introduction

1.1
The musical sounds and styles created by players of the drum-kit commonly used in Jazz
and popular music of the 20
th
and 21
st
centuries broadly relate to two performance roles.
The first involves drummers as the central rhythmic creators within musical ensembles.
The second role involves drummers as the keepers of tempi: that is, drummers whose
role is to maintain a metrical pulse.

Both roles are important to popular music-making in the western tradition. However,
during the 1940s and 1950s a style of drumming associated with the jazz style be-bop
allowed drummers much more musical scope. Be-bop involved drummers thinking
beyond the role of time-keeper and encouraged them to explore musical ideas on the
drum-kit more closely associated with melody. The melodies created by be-bop
musicians were highly rhythmical in nature and hence could be translated to the drum-kit.

For reasons I shall demonstrate in my exegesis this drumming performance style declined
from the peak of be-bops popularity in the latter half of 1940s to mid-1950s. Suffice it to
state here that the popularity of rock and roll, (a popular dance craze of the 1950s)
required drummers to simplify their musical vocabulary and return to the role of keeper
of the tempi. This, however, did not end the evolution of a melodic language for drum-
kit players.

In terms of world music genres the idea of pitched and melodic percussion is not new.
For example, Gamalan music of Bali or Tabla players of the North Indian musical
tradition both genres make use of fixed pitch tuning. However, my project focuses on
practices associated with jazz and popular music drum-kit performance and the creation
of melodic elements in composition, which have evolved during the last fifty years.

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Further advances in jazz such as the cool school pioneered by Miles Davis and later
freer directions pursued by jazz musicians, were a constant challenge for drummers.

The central focus of my project is a folio of musical compositions conceived to
encourage the exploration of melodic drumming by solo drummers as well as other
musicians. By melodic drumming I refer to drum-kit performance and related techniques,
which facilitate the creation of melodic elements in performance and composition for
drum-kit players. This folio of work will contribute to new repertoire for contemporary
drummers and will be supported by this exegesis.

1.2
Rationale
The rationale for my research involves exploring ways of broadening the role of drum-kit
players in contemporary ensembles and to expand the opportunity to play a more active
part in the compositional process. My focus has been to explore organic time, rather
than metronomic time. Organic time includes elements of pathos and emotion that often
require the time to emerge non-metrically, rather than the performance of strict
metronomic repetitions.

The role of the time-keeper involves the drummer supplying a constant rhythmical flow,
allowing other ensemble players to be layered on top of the drum part. This layering
approach is used extensively in modern commercial music-making.

The important point is that although the drummer is involved in a musical process, they
are mainly functioning as time-keepers. I maintain that the drum-kit is the last
contemporary instrument to evolve melodically. With this in mind I have explored
techniques and performance styles within my project work that facilitate a more inclusive
performance-compositional role for drummers. My folio of compositions show a
diversity of musical applications utilising a melodic approach to drum-kit composition
and performance.

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1.3
Melodic drumming
Melodic drumming, as mentioned above is a term I use to describe drum-kit performance
and related techniques, which facilitate the creation of melodic elements in performance
and composition for solo drum-kit performers. That is, melodic ideas become a more
central focus for compositional development and improvisation. This shifts the usual
emphasis on the role of drummers from the two rhythmic related roles described in the
introduction to that of creators of melody. For most drummers a sense of musical identity
relates to their role as creators of dynamic subtleties and rhythmical intensities to music.

However, I feel that the experimentation and inclusion of melodic devices in
contemporary drumming is in keeping with the musical compositional climate of our
time. That is, rather than viewing drumming solely as a time-keeping device, the role
traditionally played by drummers, I believe there are infinite possibilities for drummers to
expand their musical vocabulary. I am not advocating that the traditional role of
drummers, or their playing techniques be abandoned, rather I am seeking to expand it.

Thus, the focus of this project is to explore the melodic potential of drum-kit
performance, through improvisation and composition. The melodic and harmonic
structures presented in the compositions were composed from the drum-kit. Performing
the drum-kit part first, then adding the other instruments later ensured that the melodic-
harmonic content emanated from the drum-kit. As I shall show, tuning the drum-kit to
specific notes and exploiting tonal variations whilst in performance changes the
melodic/harmonic function of the drum-kit within the ensemble.

1.4
Key research question
My primary research question was: To what extent can drum-kit performance and
composition practices include melodic elements?
Secondary questions included:

1. How can melody be voiced on the drum-kit?
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2. What techniques are needed to realise melodic drumming?

3. To what extent can compositions involving melodic drumming be inclusive of

other instrumentalists?

1.5
Methodology
Methodological approaches included: a) professional practice-based research, b) music
composition and transcription, c) interviews with significant musicians familiar with
drum-kit melodic practices and d) elements of autoethnography.

My research methodology is informed fundamentally by my professional practice and
that of my peers. Participants involved in this study were contemporary drummers and
other performers involved in the creation of melodic elements for solo drum-kit
performance in solo or group composition.

a) Professional practice based research
I have been a professional drum-kit performer for over thirty years. Many of my
performances take place in studios and community venues. Through my professional
practice I have acquired a performance skill-base informed by compositional and
performance knowledge set in a broad Australian popular music context.

Discussing arts practice as research Sullivan comments on the importance of studio and
community spaces and describes these musical environments as robust sites of inquiry
he observes:

Artists studios and other such places used for the creation and critique of new
knowledge are theoretically powerful and methodologically robust sites of
inquiry. In practitioner research, the artist-theorist can be seen as both the
researcher and the researched Settings such as those opened up by digital
environments, cultural collaborations and community spaces are creating new
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places for creative and critical inquiry that offer opportunities for different forms
of research and scholarship Artists explore these places in ways, which disrupt
assumed boundaries. (Sullivan, 2005, p.111)

My research and project relate to changes in social awareness about assumed boundaries
in the Western cultural perception of drum-kit performance. Although Sullivan refers to
visual arts practice I agree with his view that sites of artistic action (including music
performance based action) are places and spaces that offer opportunities for different
forms of research and scholarly reflection. It is in these sites that much of my
professional research is conducted and developed.

b) Musical composition and transcription
The central aim of my work is to explore and extend the potential role of drum-kit
performance in a contemporary context. My project folio of compositions for drum-kit
explores drumming techniques that facilitate the creation of melodic elements in
contemporary drum-kit performance. A variety of stylistic genres in melodic drumming
practices are reflected in the compositions.

The compositions are accompanied by scored representations of the music.
As part of this study two CDs of the performed compositions are presented: 1) a complete
ensemble recording and drum-kit realisation. 2)

drum-kit tracks only. The two sound
recordings explore processes, which involve melodic drum-kit playing in a solo context
and in an ensemble setting.

I have realised scored transcriptions of each of the compositions to facilitate their
recreation by other performers. The capacity of notated transcription to accurately
represent all nuances contained in a composition is limited. However, as List (List, 1974,
p. 375) comments, The evidence indicates that transcriptions made by ear in notated
form are sufficiently accurate [for the recreation by others].

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I devised notation that represents the melodic nature of the compositions as accurately as
possible. The notation I adapted is similar to piano notation in that the drum-kit part is
split between the treble and bass clef. Drum-kit notation is traditionally scored in bass
clef. However, due to the melodic nature of my compositions I believe scoring the
melodic parts in treble clef and the non-fixed pitch drum-kit parts in the bass clef gives
the most accurate scored representation of the music. The drum-kit is not generally
scored with actual pitches, rather the instruments that make up the drum-kit are assigned
their own space within the staff. For example, the bass drum is usually notated on the first
space of the bass clef, the snare drum on the third space, hi-hats and cymbals on the top
of the staff and the toms within the second and fourth spaces.

I believe that maintaining this system facilitates ease of reading and is the most familiar
notation to drum-kit players. The melodies and fixed pitches are notated in the treble clef,
thus clearly representing the fixed and non-fixed pitch elements contained in the
compositions.

c) Interviews
I interviewed six key practitioners in the field of contemporary music-making. Criteria
for the selection of the interviewees included: 1), being still active in the contemporary
music performance scene, 2) being experienced improvisers and 3), having extensive
teaching experience in contemporary musical practises. Their contemporary practice is
important because their opinions reflect current trends of melodic elements in jazz and
improvised musical practises. The interviewees are still active in music performance, and
their insights are formed from lived experience in contemporary music-making. I shall
refer to these interviews throughout this exegesis.

Drummers interviewed include David Jones, Andrew Gander and Jim Black.
Ganders approach to drum-kit performance involves the study of significant drummers
and assimilating their sound and techniques into his own musical expression. Black
perceives the relationship between drums and cymbals as intervallic. In this way Black
perceives, his drum-kit performance style as melodic. In their teaching role they have
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contributed significantly to the exploration of contemporary performance drum-kit
techniques.

d) Autoethnography
Autoethnography is a qualitative social research method through which the researcher
documents her or his ethnic background and social history. Ellis describes
autoethnographic writing as writing which

conveys the meanings you attach to experience. Youd want to tell a story that
readers could enter and feel a part of. Youd write in a way to evoke readers to
feel and think about your life and their lives in relation to yours, youd want them
to experience your experience as if it was happening to them. (Ellis, 2004, p.24)

Russell (1999), discussing film making observes:

A common feature of Autoethnography is the first person voice-over that is
intently and unambiguously subjective. the multiple possible permutations of
[voices] generate the richness and diversity of autobiographical film making.
(Russell, 1999, p.9)

Following Russell, I acknowledge that elements of my texts are unambiguously
subjective but note that they are contextualised in evidenced and documented events.


Further, autoethnography is a genre of writing and research that connects the personal to
the cultural, placing the self within a social context (Reed-Danahay, 1997). Placing the
self within a social context is an important aspect of an improvising musicians life.
Acquiring a personal musical voice is a life-long process and connecting that personal
musical voice in a culturally relevant way is an important aspect of a contemporary
musicians work.

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The autobiographical discussion below relates to my own practice as a musician and how
life experience has lead me to conclusions formed in my research. As such the
autobiographical elements discussed below span years of my professional practice and
relate to autoethnographic processes.

2 Autobiographical context
2.1 Early influences
I became interested in music, and drumming in particular, from the age of six years. At
home I was surrounded with music. My father was a musician and bandleader. In 1966 I
began regular public performances as a member of his band after he purchased a hotel in
the city of Leeds in the north of England. Around this time I began drum lessons and
acquired a basic knowledge of drum-kit playing techniques with Jimmy Hanley the
drummer in my fathers band and had the opportunity to practice and experiment with
these techniques through regular performance.

My musical identity formed during this early period of my life. Lessons in musical
performance were learned on the bandstand. I was severely reprimanded for any musical
indiscretions made, such as losing my place in the music or not playing in time with the
rest of the ensemble. The most valuable lessons I learned during this period were that
each musical performance was unique and a strong performance technique was necessary
to maximise the feeling of the music. Looking back on this point of my musical
development helped me trace the evolution of my present-day performance techniques
and musical attitudes.

My family migrated to Australia from England in September of 1968 and up until my
mid-teens most of my music-making involved accompanying my father who played the
button accordion in Melbourne and other Australian states. We played usually as a duo
consisting of button accordion and drums. The repertoire my father and I performed in
those days was a combination of traditional Irish music and contemporary popular songs.


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2.2 Duo performance
It was due to the fact that there were only two of us that I became increasingly aware of
the melodic possibilities of drum-kit.

Green comments on the duo relationship by saying;
The simplest partnership in music exists between two people playing a duet
together. The duo ensemble is an ideal demonstration of the principle of
entrainment, which can then be applied to more complex ensembles. (Green,
2003, p. 27)

Playing as a duo demands special attention is given to dynamics and the spontaneity of
musical expression. For example, it is important when playing a gently delivered passage
to leave enough rhythmical space and yet support the other musician, thus maximising
the potential of the musical performance.

The use of rhythmical patterning in contemporary drumming is accepted as standard
practice. In a duo setting, much variation and flexibility of rhythmical patterning is
needed to maximise musical expression and spontaneity between the two performers. It is
important to respond to space and dynamics during a performance, as these become
essential elements in achieving a satisfactory balance between two instruments. I shall
return to notions of spatial and dynamic elements of melodic drumming.

2.3 Traditional Irish influences
My father and I performed a great deal of Irish traditional music. Traditional Irish music
has a quality that could be expressed as fire. It is best understood by the way Irish
musicians sometimes interpret time, particularly dance-time. The rhythm of the music
must be able to sustain the dancers movements. My father once referred to a drummer,
who had difficulty in maintaining a consistent time-feel, by saying that He had no air.
He meant that the drummer experienced difficulty in creating a sense of buoyancy in his
playing, an essential element in the performance of all Irish dance music. Jigs, Reels,
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Hornpipes all require musicians to play in such a way as not to stick the dancers feet to
the floor (Jordan, 2004, pers, comm).

Ballads are another important part of Irish culture and traditional music repertoire. Here,
the emphasis is on the lyric, rather than the tempo or intensity generated through the
time-feel, as is the case when performing Jigs and Reels. The ballad demands a very
different approach from a drummer in that it is important not to obscure the lyric or
instrumental melodic content by playing too loud or cluttering up the music with
unnecessary complexity. The challenge for drummers in playing ballads is to create a
mood for the song as well as rhythmically supporting other members of the ensemble.
This is best done using a minimalist approach. This is also true for the jazz ballad. That
is, focusing on the slow underlying rhythm of the song and leaving as much space as
possible whilst still maintaining a sense of stability and security in the time-feel. These
ideas are reflected in my project composition Last Ballad.

2.4 Teaching experience
As my interest in music deepened I sought a formal education at the Victorian College of
the Arts, Melbourne, in 1983. Here I later lectured in improvisation as well as principal
study drum-kit until the year 2000. I also contributed to the contemporary music scene
both locally and internationally.

During my time at the Victorian College of the Arts I was encouraged by my colleagues
to make musical decisions that related directly to my personal perspective of musical
performance, rather than follow any formula developed by other musicians. From these
experiences I developed practices in contemporary music-making and drum-kit
performance that focused on inclusive interplay within ensembles. Certainly during this
period my approach to improvising as a soloist and as an ensemble player involved a
melodic focus. Indeed the melodic content of my music- making has been central to the
evolution of my personal style of drum-kit performance, as was my on going experience
of differing music styles and how different musical instruments relate to each other
sonically, particularly to the drum-kit. The above outline of autobiographical events and
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experiences, which contributed to my musical development, are paralleled with my
experience of drum-kit performance repertoire and techniques. These techniques evolved
in the Western European jazz scene in the twentieth century. I shall now discuss the
evolution of drum-kit performance and refer to key contributors to the evolution of
melodic drumming.

3 Historical context
3.1 Early developments
The evolution of the drum-kit began in the music of street marches and the marching
bands of New Orleans, United States of America. Within the first few decades of the
twentieth century the drum-kit had become an integral part of popular music-making,
supplying colour and rhythmic spirit to the emerging theatre and jazz scene. The early
20
th
century was a significant period for the development of drumming and rhythmic
invention in popular music. Popular drum-kit developments can be traced to the mid-19
th

century. Mc Peek, observes

In 1838 the New Orleans Daily Picayune remarked that New Orleanss love of
brass bands amounted to a real mania. On Sundays parades began early, their
number and fervour increasing as the day wore on Many free blacks [freed
from slavery] were given a formal musical education and by 1840 they had
organised a philharmonic society and had a theatre of their own. Following the
Civil War black marching bands were popular, and their music constituted one of
the foundations for the growth of jazz. (Mc Peek, 1954, pp.67-68)

The American Civil War ended in 1865. The army disposed of large numbers of musical
instruments that had no further military use. The availability of brass band instruments to
improvising musicians of that period helped later define the musical blend that was to
become known as jazz. Mc Peek (1954) comments further:

Although elements of a jazz style developed in several urban centres of the USA,
the earliest consistent such style arose in New Orleans; hence the city is generally
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regarded as jazzs birthplace, with NEW ORLEANS JAZZ its first manifestation
as an independent genre. (Mc Peek, 1954, p.167)

In the early 1900s musicians (most of whom came from the outdoors marching band
tradition) began to perform music in-doors with increasing regularity, especially in the
brothels and bars of the red light district of Storyville New Orleans USA.

The marching band musicians introduced the basic instruments of the modern-day drum-
kit with their combination of field bass drum, snare drum (a double headed drum with
wire strands attached to the bottom head). Drummers were employed to play music
derived from the ragtime tradition (a jazz piano style) indoors. This change in venue
enabled the drummers to collect and play percussion instruments they no longer needed
to transport. In this way more exotic instruments were added to the drummers kit such as
tom-toms from China, cymbals from Turkey as well as wood blocks, cowbells and a
variety of other percussive sounds. This was a musically innovative time.

3.2 Drum-kit instruments
The invention of the bass drum pedal was an important development in the evolution of
the drum-kit in that for the first time a drummer could perform rhythms that would have
previously required several musicians to perform.

The bass drum added another melodic voice to the drum-kit and phrasing between bass
drum, snare and toms became common performance practice. By phrasing, I refer to the
creation of musical shapes in real performance time.

The introduction of the hi-hat component completes the make-up of the early drum-kit.
The first models, known as the Lowboy, comprised of two cymbals played by applying
downward pressure with the left foot. The later invention of the Hi-Hat stand in 1937 was
achieved by simply raising the height of the cymbals. This enabled a drummer to execute
rhythms with the use of both hands and feet rhythms that up until that point were
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impossible to be performed by one musician. The inclusion of the bass drum pedal and
the hi-hat cymbal completed the standard drum-kit as it is played today.

The basic drum-kit formula requires the drummer to play cymbals, snare drum and toms
with hand held sticks, brushes, or mallets. The feet are used to play the hi-hat cymbals
and bass drum. Thus I refer to a standard drum-kit as including a bass drum, a snare
drum, two or more toms, a hi-hat and at least one cymbal (see figure 1). These
configurations of sounds enable a drummer to play most common rhythms and timbres
associated with contemporary Western popular music-making. Below is a diagram of the
modern drum-kit.
Figure1



4 Significant contributors to melodic drumming in popular music
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There is not space in this exegesis to comment on all the drummers who played a
significant role in the development of drum-kit performance in western popular music
and especially melodic drumming techniques. However, special mention must be made of
the contribution of Warren Baby Dodds, Buddy Rich, Max Roach, Art Blakey, Paul
Motion, Tony Williams and Jack De Jonette. Below is a brief chronological description
of the contribution made by each of the drummers.


4.1 Warren BabyDodds
Dodds was one of the first professional drum-kit performers to emerge from the marching
bands in the 1900s in the USA. Before Dodds other available members of the ensemble
performed the percussion parts. If the ensemble had the desired front line instrumentation
then any additional musicians would play the traps. The traps are commonly
understood as a collection of percussion instruments, consisting of bells, whistles, and
assorted percussion instruments and was the precursor to the drum-kit.

It is understandable that frontline players (saxophone, trumpet, clarinet) would take a dim
view of being demoted to the rhythm section since it was commonly understood that a
theatrical element was also required from the percussionists. I believe the perception of
the drummer playing the role of the buffoon still exists today. Dodds was one of the first
drummers to make the transition from the marching band tradition to seated drum-kit
performance and I believe that he brought dignity to the professional drummers role.

Robinson (1980) comments on Dodds achievements

Dodds was the most important jazz drummers of the New Orleans style, and his
equipment and technique became standard. His basic style derived from the press-
roll, [the press role is performed by applying pressure to each stick in an
alternative continuous rhythm on the snare drum] which he used with remarkable
ingenuity and drive, but he was also noted for introducing colouristic effects on
the floor-tom, cymbals and other auxiliary pieces. His most important work was
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done in the 1920s with King Oliver (when Dodds occasionally played melody
parts on a slide whistle) and Louis Armstrong; his style can best be studied from
two recorded performances of 1946, Spooky Drums and Maryland, with his own
explanatory narration, and from a recorded account of his technique (Robinson,
1980, p.519).

Typically Dodds solos feature four beats to the bar on the bass drum, eighth notes played
on the rims as well as syncopated rhythms on the toms. Dodds solo techniques created
polyrhythms and strong melodic effects. Drumming techniques created by Dodds during
this early period of drum-kit evolution are still a central core of modern drumming
language.

Dodds describes his method of tuning his drums as tuning it up the way I think it should
be (Dodds, 1947). Further information will be given later on tuning in relation to
melodic drumming. Dodds was a major influence on the early drum-kit performers;
indeed, the use of the broken triplet feel, (see figure 2) and the fundamental time-feel of
jazz drumming, has been accredited to him.

Figure 2

In terms of innovations in instrumental timbre Dodds use of different textures derived
from playing on the rims of the drum, his use of cowbells, wood blocks and cymbals struck
with a stick made him one of the most innovative drummers of his time.

He was one of the first drummers to employ the use of short drum solos in an ensemble
setting. Other performance techniques developed by Dodds included finishing off solos
by adding climactic decorative flourishes and punctuating musical statements in response
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to other soloists. Most importantly to this exegesis, he developed a playing style that was
melodic even though his playing retained many elements from the marching band
tradition.

In summary, Dodds is recognised as a pioneer in the evolution of the musical application
of drum-kit performance techniques. As Dodds came from the marching band tradition it
is understandable that much of his musical vocabulary emanated from this genre. His use
of press-rolls and rhythmical accents that defined the marching band tradition were
fundamental to the development of his drum performance practices and the emerging
musical style known as jazz. Dodds was recognised as a musician who outlined shape and
form of early jazz composition and as a performer who shaped harmonic and melodic
events performed by his musical colleagues, thus significantly contributing to the
evolution of melodic drum-kit performance technique and style.

His influence on drum-kit performance has remained to the present day. Another early
performer, Art Blakey , did much to further the direction pioneered by Dodds.

4.2 Art Blakey
Blakey sought out, and included in his performances, musicians from other musical
cultures who introduced new melodic elements to the jazz repertoire. White Describes
Blakeys performance style as being

characterized by an even and predictable implication of pulse on the sock
cymbal, (hi-hat) providing a strong, flexible sense of metre while allowing him to
create polyrhythms and participate on an equal footing with the [other ensemble]
instrumentalists. Ironically, his implied rhythmic precision was perhaps the most
important factor leading to the exploration of melodic drumming, in which pulse
is less explicit, in the 1960s and 1970s. (White, Grove Dictionary of Musical
Instruments, 1980, p.776)

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Blakelys time-feel was precise and executed with great clarity. In common time he
stressed the second and fourth beat with the Hi-hat and expressed a sense of urgency
through this way of anticipating rhythmical placement. Blakeys drumming style included
a consistent Hi-hat pulse, as well and a use of long press-rolls that led in and out of
musical sections. This second feature of Blakeys performance style is recognition of
Dodds influence in that both musicians used the press-roll to great effect, as I do. The
press -roll is a drumming technique used to create a long note, an important element in
melodic drumming. I shall discuss this technique in more detail later.

It is Blakeys solo work, however, that made him an important figure in the development
of melodic drumming. He had the musical ability to communicate spontaneously with
other members of his groups. He did this by using a similar melodic language and
rhythmical placement to the other members of the ensemble. Indeed, Blakey displayed a
musical freedom that allowed him to create melodic elements in his drumming; often
using mallets [drum sticks with soft tips], which gave his soloing a distinct flavour.
Blakeys later work increasingly involved combining Cuban, African and South
American stylistic elements.

Finally it must be noted that Blakey was responsible for introducing younger musicians to
melodic drumming practices. Max Roach, another innovative contributor to the evolution
of melodic drumming was a contemporary of Blakey and a drummer widely noted for his
melodic approach to drum-kit performance.

4.3 Max Roach
Maxwell Lemuel Roach, (1924-2007) American jazz drummer, percussionist and
composer was a major contributor to the evolution of jazz music and a melodic
performance style for drummers. He started his musical career as a vibraphonist before
switching to drum-kit. Roach performed with many innovative musicians including Duke
Ellington, Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker, Charles Mingus and Sonny Rollins.

25
Roach was one of the pioneers of Be-bop drumming, recording the Savoy session (one of
the first be-bop studio recording sessions) in 1945 with Charlie Parker; Parkers first
recording under his own name. Roach took part in a series of recording sessions in 1948-
50 with Miles Davis, which were later issued with the title Birth of the Cool. (Davis,
1949) The Birth of the cool album was an important directional change from previous be-
bop jazz performance style. The Birth of the Cool featured instruments such as tuba (John
Bill Barber) and French horn (Junior Collins) and was orchestrated by arrangers Gill
Evans, Gerry Mulligan and John Lewis. The music was not an immediate commercial
success. However, it did herald a new softer and more melodic direction in jazz.

In 1952 Roach co-founded the record label Debut Records with bassist Charles Mingus.
This label released a recording of a concert called Jazz at Massey Hall, featuring Charlie
Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Bud Powell, Mingus and Roach. Roach expanded the be bop
formulae by exploring different time meters as demonstrated on the recording Jazz In
Time, (Roach, 1957) recorded in 1957. Solo playing on this recording is reminiscent of
Dodds in that Roach plays an ostinato bass figure with the feet whilst freely improvising
melodically with the hands. This formula of soloing freely with the hands over an
ostinato foot pattern is still widely used today. The foot pattern acts as an anchor, whilst
the hands are free to create melodic ideas on the toms, cymbals and snare.

In 1960 Roach composed the We Insist! - Freedom Now Suite (Roach, 1960,) followed in
1966 by Drums Unlimited (Roach, 1965), a recording of duo pieces with his then wife
Abbey Lincon. These recordings are significant to the evolution of melodic drumming
partly because the compositions feature the drum-kit so prominently.

Roachs performance style involved playing the drum-kit as a lead instrument and
creating melodic variations. Roach played melodies and melodic motifs rather than
conventional jazz time-keeping popular among other jazz drummers of that time.

Blakey and Roach continued the linage established by Dodds by playing solos comprised
of snare drum roles and accents interdispersed with melodic toms and bass drum figures.
26
This format is still in use today. Drummer Tony Williams also continued and developed
this tradition.

4.4 Tony Williams
Williams deserves a special mention as a significant contributor to the development of a
melodic language for drummers. His advanced concept of time-play (see later definition
of time-play) and unique use of space (space refers to silence within musical passages)
enabled him to perform melodic passages and musical shapes brilliantly. Williams would
often phrase in a melodic style similar to a horn player or other melodic instrument. He
was a technical virtuoso. The musical communication between the members of the Miles
Davis ensemble (of which Williams was a member) was intuitive. The musical trust that
existed between each member of the group enabled them to act spontaneously and
without adhering to conventional ensemble performance roles. This expanded
performance role enabled Williams to create more detailed and longer musical phrases
than other drummers of his time. His rhythmical innovations influenced many of todays
leading drummers.

Williams tuned his drums in a conventional manner. That is, usually with the interval of a
perfect 4
th
between the toms. Contemporary drummer Cindy Blackman noted that
Thanks to Max [Roach] and Tony [Williams], in terms of how they tuned their drums
they [the drum-kit] have become a much more melodic statement (Blackman, 2009).

During the late 1960s Williams became a member of the Miles Davis group. Members of
this ensemble included Wayne Shorter (saxophone) Ron Carter (bass) and Herbie
Hancock (piano). In this group Williams developed a performance style, which (in my
opinion) has not being surpassed. This style involved a combination of inventive time-
play and free melodic invention. His use of timbral colour, texture, rhythmical
articulation and dynamic control, set a new standard at this time.

27
Williams developed his performance style under the direction of Miles Davis and further
with his own band Lifetime. He was a major contributor to the fusion of jazz and rock
elements in popular music performance. Williams stated

Everybody talks about Lifetime as being the first fusion band. But it was really a
sort of a throwback to what was going on when I started out in Boston. Fusion, at
least in its old jazz-rock form, was never mentioned by anybody. (Williams, 1997,
p.2)

This statement illustrates that the musical development of ideas and playing techniques
(including melodic ideas) of Williams were a natural evolution for him rather than a
premeditated commercial consideration. Williams continued to perform and compose up
until his death in 1997. He was part of a period of great musical innovation that defined
future directions in improvised music, and developed a playing style that contributed
greatly to the development of a melodic language for drummers.

4.5 Paul Motion
Motion, like Williams, used instrumental texture and colour to voice melodic ideas on
the drum-kit but through a different means. Williams, a drum-kit virtuoso used his
formidable rudimental technical facility to express melodicism within exquisite time-
play. [I shall outline the nature of a rhythm pattern system known as rudiments in my
discussion on drum-kit education] Conversely Motion understated the rudimental aspect
of his playing and explored ways of implying pulse differently from those found in
rudimental drumming.

On a recent trip to New York (2005) I met Paul Motion and heard him perform as a
member of the audience at the Village Vanguard. The dynamic of the ensemble (the
volume of each individual instrument as well and their sonic relationship to one another)
was beautifully balanced throughout the performance. That is to say, the relationship of
sounds created by the ensemble and the flow of musical ideas from one musician to the
other was executed with fluency and spontaneity.
28

The performance began with Motion playing an introduction on solo drum-kit. Motion
improvised through the compositions. It must be noted that commencing the concert in
this fashion set the musical parameters for the rest of the performance. The interplay
between the ensemble members was spontaneously structured. By this interplay, I mean
that the ensemble performed in a natural unaffected manner, free from clichs and
responded to each other spontaneously. Motion has developed his melodic approach to
drum-kit performance for over 50 years.

Braman notes:
He [Motion] developed a style of drumming that was interactive as well as
melodic. Motion did not merely play time but rather exchanged musical ideas
spontaneously in an equal partnership with the other members of the trio. This trio
has had a lasting influenced on many musicians who perform in the trio format
today and Motion is an important figure in the development of melodic
drumming. (Braman, 1996, p.142)

Explaining how Motion avoids the time-keeper role preferring to perform
spontaneously within the trio, Braman continues:

By the time he was playing with Paul Bley (1963-4) and Keith Jarrett (1966-77).
Motion had nearly eliminated the ostinato time-keeping patterns typically played
on the ride cymbal and hi-hat and developed an unusually spontaneous approach
in which the use of clich figures was kept to a minimum. (Braman, 1996, p.142)


Drummers, especially melodic drummers, who take an active part in the compositional
process, have the opportunity to include elements of their own rhythmic work. Braman
supports this by saying

29
In the 1970s Motion began composing, first for the filmmakers Peter Watkins and
Stan Vanderbeek, and later for his own groups. His writing, like Jarretts, is
eclectic, but tends to be more abstract, favouring structures that are paradoxically
at once open and well organised like Motion himself in his drumming style.
Motions groups employ varied textures of sound and an unusual diversity of
musical concepts. (Braman, 1996, p.142)

Bramans comment on Motions ability to play time without resorting to clichs or
traditional use of ostinatos, illustrates two important features of Motions playing. Firstly,
Motion does not play patterns; rather he improvises in a continuous flow of musical ideas
in real time. And secondly, by not playing patterns he is free to respond melodically and
harmonically to the collective music-making.

Being an equal participant in the creation of collective music-making is central to my
practice, my project and this study. The final drummer I shall refer to is Jack De Johnette.

4.6 Jack De Johnette
Jack De Johnette (born in Chicago in 1942) studied the piano from the age of four. He
began playing drums in high school at age fourteen and continued piano lessons at the
Chicago conservatory of music. De Johnette collaborated with many leading figures in
Jazz, including, John Coltrain, Miles Davis, Ornette Coleman, Bill Evans, and Keith
Jarrett.

De Johnettes drumming is highly inventive and melodic. I suggest this is due to his
understanding of functional harmony as well as his natural melodic awareness. He has a
firm understanding of the functional aspects relating to time-keeping a drummer must
perform in an ensemble and yet he also explores melodic, harmonic and textural elements
so important to this study. In 1968 De Johnette performed with Miles Davis on the album
Bitches Brew (Davis, 1969) In the same year he recorded an album under his own name
called the The De Johnette Complex (De Johnette, 1968) and later recorded duets with
Lester Bowie and John Abercrombie (the album Pictures, (De Johnette, 1976, for
30
example) that featured the drum-kit as the central melodic instrument. This recording
demonstrates De Johnettes melodic/harmonic inventiveness on the drum-kit. He achieved
this using certain improvisation techniques, which I shall discuss later. They include open
tom melodies played with mallets, cymbal melodies and intervallic interplay between
bass drum, snare and hi-hat. Interestingly, for this recording De Johnette tuned his snare
and bass drum a minor 3
rd
apart (see later discussion on tuning).

In the 1980s De Johnette enjoyed major success with his collaboration with Keith Jarrett
and Gary Peacock producing the (Jarrett, K, Peacock, G, De Johnette, J, 1983, Standards,
ECM, New York.) Standards albums. Here, De Johnette performs in a standard jazz
setting spontaneously responding with the other members of the trio and soloing on the
drum-kit whilst observing forms and structures that occur within the standard jazz
repertoire. I shall discuss performance practice in relation to melodic drumming later.

De Johnette is still a major force in contemporary drumming, particularly in the world
music scene where melodic drumming is significant. His latest collaboration with
Gambian Kora player Foday Musa Suso produced the album Music from the hearts of the
masters (De Johnette, and Suso,. 2005, as well as a recording for of Om, audio relaxation
and meditation entitled Music in the key of Om (De johnette, 2004). De Johnette has
explored the boundaries of contemporary drum-kit musical performance.


In summary, the evolution of a melodic language for drummers can be found in the work
of Dodds, Roach and Motion through to contemporary drummers like Williams and De
Johnette. Dodds use of wood blocks and drum rims enabled him to play melodies
featuring pitches other than just the basic drum tones. Blakey and Roach continued the
development of a drumming style, which required four-way co-ordination using the feet,
and use of the bass drum as an added melodic voice. This suited be-bop music in that be-
bop melodies are usually highly rhythmical and can be played convincingly with the
limited pitches available on the drum-kit. Motion and De Johnette favoured a
performance style that expressed melody on the drum-kit through the use of textures and
31
colours. De Johnette balanced this textural approach with exquisite time-play. This
balance of texture, colour and time-play has become a feature of contemporary melodic
drumming.

5 Rudimental drumming
5.1 Educational context
Before discussing rudimental drumming in detail I shall contextualise the topic within my
musical educational experience. Apart from the brief period of formal tuition mentioned
previously in the autobiographical section, I am essentially a self-taught musician. I have,
however, sought advice and direction over the years from many musicians, drummers and
non-drummers whose willingness to share musical ideas and performance techniques
have been pivotal to my personal and musical development. I shall now comment on
current drum-kit education practices in Australia, their focus on rudimental techniques
and how they differ from my own experience and to melodic drumming practices.

As discussed, my music education was largely informal, taking place amongst family
musicians and as part of social and professional activity. Perhaps it is due to the fact that I
was unfamiliar with the formal music education processes found within schools that I
perceived it as so removed from the music-making that I was familiar with.

The main difference I observed between my learning experiences in family and social
music-making and of learning in more formal educational settings is the heavy focus
given to playing technique in the latter. Rather than the ability to hear, feel and respond
musically, the emphasis in much twentieth century and current drum-kit tuition is centred
in particular on those techniques fostered in the system known as the International
Rudiment System.

In fact this system includes mostly American practices and some created from snare-
drum techniques from Switzerland (see below). This is not to say that a good drum-kit
technique is not an important part of successful music-making. Indeed, I, like most
32
drummers, make use of rudimental techniques in the creation of melodic material.
However the ability to create and sustain a musical feeling (as well as appropriate
metronomic time) throughout a song or composition is central to successful music-
making and melodic drumming.

The heavy focus on the International rudiments system is still so pervasive I shall now
outline issues concerning the systems place in drum-kit education and performance
practice. I suggest that the rudiments system might be considered to be the antithesis of
melodic drumming.

5.2 Rudimental drumming
Rudimental drumming involves the study and musical application of the International
standard snare-drum rudiments. These rudiments are traditional standard performance
techniques applied to the snare drum but also the rest of the drum-kit. Rudimental
drumming emerged from the marching band tradition and includes the following
techniques. (See figure 3)











33

Figure 3







34



(Rothman, 1983, pp120-121).


35


As can be seen the system involves not only the mastering of prescribed rhythmical
patterns but also prescribed sticking techniques (the ordering of left and right hand
placement).

The rudiments are divided into roll (alternative hand strokes which create a sustained
sound)), diddle (a double stroke), flam (a note/s preceded by a crushed note) and drag
(also a flam but involving two preceding crushed notes) techniques

5.3 Buddy Rich and rudimental drumming
In the early part of the twentieth century drummers employed these rudiments to create
much of their musical vocabulary. Furthermore, snare drum rudiments formed the basis
for the development of drum-kit performance techniques in the first half of the Twentieth
century especially in a jazz setting. Buddy Rich, a child prodigy, was widely recognised
as a master of rudimental drumming. As Hosiasson observes:

Richs technical prowess on the drum-kit is legendary.
Richs playing is characterised by phenomenal speed and dexterity which made
him one of the outstanding drummers of the swing period. Favouring an
extroverted style, he performed complex patterns with metronomic clarity and
simpler lines with exquisite precision. (Hosiasson, 1980, p.838)

Richs technique can be equated with terms such as virtuosic, athletic, precise and
powerful. Whilst Richs performances did not exclude melodic content, it featured
complex rhythmical patterning to a great degree. He became a major role model for
aspiring drummers. Thus, the centrality of international rudiments became all pervasive
in drum-kit education in the second half of the twentieth century and remains so today.
36
Even in the current popular music scene power, endurance and speed are commonly
understood as prerequisites for a formidable drum technique. These attributes are more
commonly associated with sprinting athletes rather than musicians.

I believe the difference between a melodic approach to drum-kit performance and a
rudimental approach, is that the melodic approach is in consistent referral to melodic or
harmonic structures. This includes observing form and arrangement in live and recorded
performances. Rudimental drumming however, involves performing pre-prepared
rhythmical events that flow logically from one to another by varying rhythmical intensity.

5.4 Drum-kit examination repertoire
I believe that the majority of drum-kit examination pieces set in the Victorian Certificate
of Education (recognised as a comprehensive collection of examination pieces for drum-
kit performance in Australia) present limited opportunities for students to explore
melodic ideas on the drum-kit. Further, there are few pieces in the drum-kit syllabus that
specifically addresses the emotional aspect of the instrument. Rather the main body of
works are technical studies along with sight-reading and rudimental exercises.
If we compare this imbalance with the syllabus of other instruments I believe that the
drum-kit syllabus reflects an overly technical focus that distorts the role the drum-kit
plays in contemporary music and which isolates drummers engaging in-group
performance.

The pieces written for my project are not technical exercises. Whilst the compositions
contain elements common to drum-kit performance practises, my primary objective in
writing theses works was to compose music, not rhythmical exercises. Further, it is my
hope that theses pieces will be played by drummers who are looking for drum
compositions that have a musical context not merely a technical one.

37
6 Time-feel
6.1 The nature of time-feel
Time-feel refers to the durational nature of the tempo or pace of a composition and the
light and shade provided by musical dynamics. Time-feel also relates to the timbral
quality of sounds, as well as the intensity at which the time-feel is performed. Thus time-
feel involves tempo, pace, dynamic s and timbre.

Time-feel is in fact, both things (time and feel) performed spontaneously. The feel of
music refers to the spirit of the music; making meaning of the music, as well as the
communicative emotional qualities of musical interplay. That is, durational elements join
with all musical elements to create an emotional feel to a performance. Thus, the time or
pulse of a musical performance has to be established and maintained to allow the full
interpretation of a work to emerge.

Time-feel also represents a drummers emotional response to musical-performance
elements - not just measured metronomic repetitions. Spontaneous rhythmic variables (as
mentioned above) involved in a jazz performance, make the jazz time-feel particularly
challenging. Successive jazz styles and associated repertoire demand subtle variations of
time-feel.

6.2 Drum-kit player responses to time-feel
Duggan agrees with this latter point and maintains that the performance of appropriate
time-feel, and maintaining the beat are intertwined. He observed: It is absolutely vital
that the beat is kept and the interplay has to be there, but the beat has to be there with
intensity (Duggan 2006, pers. comm). By intensity Duggan implied that the beat has to
be interpreted with passion and concentration and time, rhythmical accuracy and note
placement are integral factors in the communal understanding of pulse throughout
ensemble performance.

38
Whilst providing stability and a sense of security, playing time, from a drummers
perspective, does not have to mean divorcing ones self from the ensemble musical
dialogue.

The art of time-feel is in responding spontaneously to musical events occurring within the
ensemble, whilst concurrently defining the form and shape of the composition. The
musical possibilities are great. It is, however, the responsibility of every individual
musician regardless of their chosen instrument to keep time and musical conversation
alive. In this way, whilst it is important to perform music in time, it is also important to
create the right feel. A well-executed time-feel will bring to a performance a sense of
authenticity and excitement. To participate actively in this communal process is one of
my main musical motivations.
Time-feel can account for many differing renditions of the same piece of music. Indeed,
different time-feels relate to different musical styles.
An example of the evolution of time-feel in popular music can be heard during a
performance Chuck Berrys performance at the Newport jazz festival in the late 1950s.
Berry, then an up and coming recording artist, was accompanied by some of the most
well known jazz players of the day including the drummer Joe Jones. Jones played a
traditional jazz time-feel to Berrys performance of his composition Sweet Little Sixteen
(Berry 1958, February 24). In this performance Berry played a straight eighth feel rather
than the swung eighth feel of the earlier jazz period, (see figure 2)

Figure 2

Jones played a swing jazz feel, a feature of mainstream jazz performance, whilst Berry
used a straight eighth feel, now commonly performed by rock musicians. On this
39
occasion both time-feels were performed simultaneously thus heralding a new time-feel
in popular music.

Another element of time-feel involves what Australian jazz drummer, Len Barnard, refers
to as internal pulse and external time Observing how internal pulse and external time
need to be combined Barnard commented:

. Exterior time is firm, somewhat automatic and obvious. What comes from
inside is more subtle. Interior time depends on instinct, particularly the capacity to
adjust to the difference among players, while creatively blending them and
pushing them.

A drummers positive inner time impulses make possible, performances that are
flexible, human and communicative. Drums are a musical instrument and if
theyre not musical theyre terrible. (Barnard, 2005)

Here, Barnard defines crucial elements of time-feel and melodic drumming. According to
Barnard, time-feel involves interior and exterior time. Barnard defines exterior time
as firm and obvious, referring to the collective interpretation of the time-play within the
ensemble. Interior time according to Barnard is more subtle as it comes from within. It
is an instinctive aspect of time-play involving responding intuitively to the spontaneous
developments of the time-play in musical performance.

Thus, time-feels are sculptured by the emotional, intellectual and conceptual needs of
musicians who respond to unique events and musical attitudes of their time. The
understanding of time-feel is important if a drummer wishes to play musical styles
authentically and, of importance to this study, time-feel is a significant element of
melodic drumming.

Focusing purely on the technical aspects of playing whilst in performance can remove
musicians from the musical dialogue process. Gander points out that adherence to a
40
ridged approach to stating the time as a drummer can inhibit musical interplay. He feels
that, because of the nature of our instrument it will dictate the rhythmic way in which
the music is played because we move so much more air (A Gander 2007, pers. comm).

Thus Gander believes it is important that drummers are extra sensitive and capable of
being malleable when playing with other people. He believes that insensitive drummers
contribute to why some musicians hate drummers who dictate to members of an
ensemble by a rigid patternistic approach to playing the drum-kit.

6.3 Time-feel and student drummers
The feeling and emotion evoked by music may go largely undiscovered by drum-kit
students unless they are fortunate enough to have this aspect of musical performance
encouraged and prioritised by their teachers. I shall illustrate this point by describing the
usual process (in my experience) a new drum-kit student is likely to encounter. Firstly the
correct way to hold the drumsticks will be explained, and then a rudiment will be
introduced, along with some reading exercises or music theory. Finally a groove or
pattern (usually a rock and roll pattern since these are the most basic) will be analysed
and performed. This is a basic outline of a typical first lesson plan. My experience tells
me that the student can be submitted to years of repetition of this process.

Working to achieve mastery of snare drum rudiments is an informative and essential
process in the development of a strong drum-kit technique, as is striving to improve ones
co-ordination and reading skills. However, focusing on slight patternistic variations, from
week to week can frustrate a student and distort their conception of good music-making.
By good music-making, I mean the feeling evoked by the music and the ability by the
student to maintain this feeling and be in the moment. For this reason I believe it is
essential for every music student to have the opportunity to perform with other
instrumentalists to explore their own musical creativity as often as possible.

Performing in group settings has two positive effects. First, students obtain immediate
feedback on how their playing is being perceived by the other members of the ensemble.
41
Secondly, the student has the opportunity to learn aurally, adjusting their sound and feel,
thus adapting to their musical environment. It is not my intention here to discourage the
investigation of any musical practice. However, increasing the complexity of rhythms in
a systematic way, along with focused development of complex co-ordination exercises
can musically distance drummers from other instrumentalists and distort the students
perception of the important elements that facilitate successful musical performance.

6.4 The grid system
The most common complaint directed at drummers by other instrumentalists is that they
play too loudly or play in an inappropriately complex manner. This is not surprising
considering the focus of their practice and their often limited ensemble experience. Jim
Black, during his visit to Australia in 2005, referred to the grid teaching philosophy
employed in some European countries particularly Switzerland. The grid is a system of
musical notation comprising of rhythmical and harmonic elements. This system is
prevalent in Australian drum-kit teaching methodology (Black 2005, pers, comm) but in
Europe the grid system is introduced at a later pedagogical stage.

The later introduction of the grid system encourages the student to enjoy an imaginative
discovery of their musical nature. The student is not confined at an early stage of their
musical development to focus primarily on playing in time or to perform in a patternistic
way. Rather, the student is encouraged to respond spontaneously to musical stimuli.

This European model of early musical education is, in my opinion a far more effective
teaching method in that it aligns the student with a good music-making principle,
involving listening. Once introduced to the grid the student has an opportunity to
develop a natural curiosity about music, how they sound, as well as, a real sense of their
musical ability.

6.5 Drum-kit playing in schools
Most children today do not experience music-making in their home. The depth of musical
experience I refer to is usually found only in the school system. The school system is, for
42
many students the only opportunity to be involved in music-making; hence it is
imperative that this experience be as meaningful and comprehensive as possible.

During the last six years I have been involved in teaching the drum-kit to primary and
secondary school children. This is very different from my earlier teaching experience at
the Victorian College of the Arts. Obviously primary students are beginners and not
accomplished musicians. I have used the European role extensively in my teaching
practise. The following anecdote illustrates how I approached a first drum-kit lesson with
a young boy with learning difficulties.

I walked into a class of prep students with an average age of about six years old and
asked to see a potential student. He looked nervous and unsure of what lay ahead. To
further complicate things, the student had some learning difficulties, which made the
situation more challenging. I engaged the student in series of activities that enabled him
to experience the joys of playing the drum-kit whilst having no musical skills. I asked the
student if he remembered what rain and thunder sounded like? He replied happily that he
did, so I asked him if he could play the rain and thunder? He chose thoughtfully cymbal
sounds to represent the rain and the toms and bass drum to play the thunder. This I
believe stimulated the students curiosity for further study. Requiring such a student to
immediately engage with the rudiment techniques would not have been appropriate.

Financial and logistical problems such, as time restraints and room availability in schools,
are great. Drum-kit tuition is usually conducted in a one on one format with little
opportunity for the student to experience performance with other instrumentalists. This
along with teachers focusing exclusively on a patternistic approach to drum-kit
performance can distort a students perception and how musical activities are
experienced. Lone drummers in schools are rarely involved in ensemble playing. The
feeling or intuitive nature of music is rarely explored, making it more difficult later in life
for these students to adjust to musical challenges they will encounter in ensemble
performance.

43
The situation is further complicated if the student is encouraged to study increasingly
more difficult technical skills material (more complex patterns within more complex
structures) without the necessary understanding or musicality to perform the material in
an musical ensemble context. This can result in students experiencing confusion, or
worse, disillusionment in their development.

6. 6 Beyond the grid
The performance of a simple rock drum pattern is not generally perceived as a difficult
task. This is the starting point for most drum-kit students. However, many hours of
practice is needed to perform a simple pattern and to realise successfully the subtle
dynamic potential of each individual instrument that make up the drum-kit and its
musical relationship to an overall drum-kit sound. Even more important is the ability to
achieve a consistent time feel and sustain that time-feel throughout a composition, as well
as interacting with other instrumentalists spontaneously. This is the essence of being an
effective ensemble member and not the simple task that at first it seems.

Dave Weckl, an American drummer and clinician, known for his flawless drum-kit
technique and mastery of the patternistic approach to drum-kit performance, sought
advice from a teacher resident in New York City, Freddie Gruber.
Weckl felt he needed to expand his already considerable musical vocabulary. Producers
would often ask him if he could loosen up a little, meaning rather than having a
metronomic focus, adopt a more organic approach to the music to be performed.

I believe this shift from metronomic perfection to an organic performance style results
from a need by musicians to expand and develop the communicative aspects of musical
performance. A graph was constructed displaying a feel analysis of various famous
drummers to glean some insight into what made these drummers swing the way it did.
Some of the drummers were found to play ahead of the beat, whereas others played on
the back (or behind) of the beat. Weckls graph revealed he had close to metronomicially
perfect time. So if metronomic perfection and mastery of co-ordination and independence
were the sole objectives of drum-kit performance why change. It is my understanding that
44
Weckl was searching for a more musically expressive performance style, involving both
how the music feels to play and how the listener perceives his playing.

Weckl commented:
I was always trying to make the time feel better, but I never understood the way to
go about it. For the biggest part of my career, I have been involved with playing
relatively complicated music. It takes a certain amount of effort and concentration
to play that music, and the idea for me was to try to get as close to perfect time as
possible. Thats the drummers gig: you want the time to be rock-solid. (Weckl,
1998.)

A change in focus was necessary for Weckl to reach his musical potential. Weckl
commented:
I called Freddie Gruber and I was practically yelling at him
I felt like everyone had been keeping something from me for all these years. But I
wasnt mad at Freddie, Weckl is quick to add, I was just angry and frustrated that
I hadnt studied with him sooner and found out that there is another way to play
the drums. (Mattingly, 1998, p.48)

I heard Dave Weckl live in performance with Mike Stern (Continental Hotel Melbourne
2002). Weckls playing was a display of rhythmical mastery amidst relaxed organic
composition; Weckls willingness to change his performance style at this stage of his
career indicates a creative flexibility.

In summary, formal drum-kit education involves regular lessons based on a teaching
method that facilitates independence, imagination, creativity, co-ordination and technical
proficiency. Unfortunately concepts that relate to feel, taste and imagination are often
overlooked. A commonly held belief is that when the technical aspects of music
performance are perfected then an individual mode of expression will emerge. This is
rarely the case, in my opinion the feeling of music should be continually expressed and a
balance maintained and developed between a drummers emotional feelings and their
45
technical ability. In short, it is important for drummers to have the ability to keep accurate
time, but it is also important for drummers to be flexible and creative and not just perform
measured repetitions.

7 Voicing melody on the drum-kit
7.1 Voicing and tuning
The idea of voicing melody on a drum-kit relates to choosing specific pitches for each
instrumental element of the kit. Voicing may also involve creating a scale for a
particular musical work or performance. In this way, voicing here, refers to tuning
decisions. Tuning the drum-kit for melodic drumming raises the following question, if a
fixed pitch tuning is used, what pitches are to be used and why? In the following
discussion I shall outline tuning practices I have found useful for the performance and
compositional practices of melodic drumming.

Melody can be voiced on the drum-kit using a range of techniques, some involving
measurable pitches, others implying melodicism in other ways. Grabowsky describes
pitch relationships in terms of melodic drumming thus:

Drums, although often lacking specific pitches, nevertheless have pitch
relationships one to another, and gradations of light and shade. When played with
full attention to the same characteristics which define any musical performance,
i.e.; nuance, gesture, dynamics, form etc, they can be understood as melodic, even
harmonic to the degree that actual harmonics are produced by the various
instruments that make up a drum-kit. (Grabowsky, 2006, pers. comm)

I shall discuss nuance, gesture, dynamics and form in relation to melodic drumming later
with reference to performance and compositional techniques. In the following
discussion I shall outline drum-kit pitching issues.

46
A drum can be tuned to a specific pitch. Hence, tuning a number of drums of various
sizes in a drum-kit creates melodic note-choice as well as intervallic relationships
between multiple drums. This helps a drummer to make musical choices that are melodic
as well as rhythmical. Figure 3 shows the tuning mechanisms of a drum.
Figure 3 tuning mechanisms of a drum.

example of a tuning lug



There are six tuning lugs (threaded rods that tension the drumhead (a) see figure 2).
These are used for tensioning the head to selected pitches by use of a key.

47
Unlike many other tuneable instruments there is no standard melodic tuning for the drum-
kit. For example, fixed pitched instruments (such as the piano) are played according to
their tuning and configuration. The usual practice for drum-kit players is to tension a
drum to a desirable pitch and feel that relates sonically to the music to be played, taking
into account stylistic considerations: that is, drum sounds usually associated with a
particular style of music. This is often a process of trial and error, much of which is
required before a drummer decides to adopt a preferred tuning. Drummers have to make a
choice as to what tuning they are going to use, and how their kits are to be assembled.
They are free to choose which instruments make up their kits and how to tune the drum-
kits. This presents drummers with many possibilities as to how drum-kits and their
sounds can be arranged.

If specific pitches are used, then they must be compatible with other pitched instruments
in the ensemble. Drum-kit pitches in popular music usually relate to concert pitch as well
as. The following story about one of my past performances illustrates the effect drum-kit
tuning can have on ensemble performance.

I was asked to sing three songs as part of a program put together by Bob Sedergreen (an
Australian jazz performer and music educator) entitled Six of the Best (Chapel off Chapel,
2004). My opening number was a Duke Ellington/Jaun Tizal composition entitled
Caravan. I had rehearsed the piece at home on my drum-kit and found the drum tuning
complimentary to my vocal range. Since I was not required to play drum-kit on any other
pieces I asked permission to use the drummers kit. The tuning of the kit was loose and
not accurately tuned to specific pitches. Because of loose pitching I found it extremely
difficult to hold the melody vocally whilst accompanying myself on the drum-kit.

As drummers only have a limited number of tones available to them some key centres
will be more compatible than others. It has been my experience that it is more important
to relate the pitches and melodic textures that make up the kit to its self. That is, the
48
drum-kit should sound united and balanced sonically and harmonically. I often tune to the
interval of an octave between two toms. This has two advantages one, it is harmonically
neutral and second it requires one tom to be tuned quite low while the other is high,
facilitating maximum timbral expression with the economy of only two toms.

When tuning a double-sided tom the bottom head greatly affects the pitch. The top or
batter head also affects the pitch, but has a greater affect on how the drum feels to play.
That is, a loosely tensioned head delivers more attack and feels flat when played
delivering a softer feel thus enabling more dynamic variation to be achieved by the
player. A tightly tuned drumhead will sound more pitched and is very responsive to
percussive touch when struck.
David Jones commenting on his current drumming practices, which are mostly performed
in a solo setting, and in particular the way he tunes his drums, said, in the last two years
particularly I have been pitching the drums to actual notes (Jones, 2007, pers. comm).

Jones tunes his drums with the top and bottom heads tuned to the same note, however, in
an attempt to get the note absolutely true, he believes that to get the tuning perfect it
might be only one lug [the tuning device that tensions the drum head] that needs adjusting
and that it is an intuition thing. Tuning both heads top and bottom to the same note
gives the drum a defined pitch as well as body and breadth of tone. This approach is
similar to the tuning used in tuning a twelve-string guitar. Pianos also have three strings
for every note in the higher register adding body to the sound.

Some drum manufactures mark the inside of the drum shell with the note that the
particular drum will resonate at, thus indicating to the player the maximum tone and
sustain available from the drum.

The bass drum and the snare drum are not generally tuned to a specific pitch. The bass
drum because of its function within an ensemble (defining or punctuating the bass
register of the music) is more commonly used for producing percussive effects. However
49
it is common practice in contemporary dance music to pitch the bass drum to a specific
tonal centre, creating a fundamental tonality that emanates from the bass drum part up.
Earlier jazz players such as Max Roach utilised this bass drum. He commonly tuned his
bass drum to the tonality of the piece he was performing. However, he was an exception
rather than the rule. It is important to note that the bass drum relates sonically to the
overall drum-kit sound and establishes a melodic relationship within the drum-kit that
encourages a four way co-ordinated melodic relationship. By four-way co-ordination I
refer to the practice of playing musical phrases and passages using the bass drum and hi-
hat independently and in combination with the hands.
The snare drum, because of its snare mechanism, rattles and vibrates when activated in
performance and this can obscure the tonality of the drum. More often, the snare drum
performs the important function of punctuating and elaborating the back-beat [beats 2 and
4 in a 4 beat measure] in contemporary popular music. A musical style determines what
the snare drum sonic characteristics will be. In this way the pitch and tension of the snare
drum are important factors in authentic performance of musical styles. The snare
mechanism, if turned off, essentially makes the snare drum into another tom. It is
interesting to note that with the snares released the relationship between the snare drum
and the other drums becomes more melodic.

Finally, cymbals have been used to great effect by drummers since they were included
into the drum-kit in the early 1900s. Cymbals are commonly used in contemporary
popular music to punctuate musical passages or add sibilance and colour to the musical
blend. Cymbals tend to have a pitch that is clearly audible. Played in combinations,
cymbals can outline melodic passages very effectively. The tonal colour and pitch can be
varied to great effect through the use of dynamics and the varying the position of stick
contact with the cymbal being struck. Hence collections of cymbals have the potential to
create varying melodic possibilities. In addition, each cymbal has a myriad of tonal
qualities that can be manipulated by the drummer. A cymbal struck with a stick flat
across the face will create many overtones and harmonics, voicing complex groups of
overtones and implied harmonic colouring
50

Cymbals are a fundamental component of a drum-kit. They add colour and texture to the
overall drum-kit sound and facilitate the creation of sustained notes on the drum-kit.
These are an important function in the realisation of melodic drumming.
In my view drum-kit tuning (and performance techniques) have largely evolved due to
drummers responding to melodic/harmonic material present in the music they performed.
Barry Duggan, a major contributor to the Australian jazz scene, and a former head of jazz
studies at the University of Adelaide, highlights the melodic nature of Max Roachs
playing, commenting:

The people who I have seen playing in that style [melodic drumming] are players
from Afro Cuban roots, Max Roach, I dont really know how that happened.
Because he was an American - whether it was the way he tuned his drums or
whether it was the innate musicality of that person. (Duggan, 2006, pers comm)

Jazz drummers, particularly Max Roach, used the interval of a perfect fourth

between
their toms [generally only two toms were used by the early jazz players]. This tuning has
a melodic and harmonic openness, or neutrality, due to the perfect interval (the interval of
a perfect 4ths is neither major nor minor).

The interval of a 4
th
also relates to functional harmony in popular music in that the chord
sequences in be-bop music (for example) generally move in a cycle of 4ths, as do most
popular songs from that period. The perfect fourth tuning enables drummers to solo
within a melodic and harmonic tonality: notably not always the same tonality performed
by other members of the ensemble.

As mentioned earlier, tuning the drum-kit can involves creating specific intervallic
relationships and scales. Duggan (2006) commented on a how he observed a drummer
whose kit was tuned to a major triad and was also not in concert pitch. This resulted in
51
the drum-kit being out of tune with the rest of the ensemble. After drum-kit solo passages
other members of the ensemble detected an obvious shift in tuning back to concert pitch
after they re-entered. Duggans comments highlight the importance of tuning the drum-
kit to pitches that are complimentary to other instrumentalists.

7.2 Early tuning experience in performance
My first experience playing a melodic role in a contemporary music ensemble setting was
in 1987 (whilst performing with the Brian Brown ensemble for a documentary film
entitled (Beyond Elrocco, 1990) involved creating my drum-kit to six open tones. The
piano part of the composition to be performed entitled (Woman in the Mirror, Brown,
1985) consisted of slow chordal movement. In the absence of a piano player I chose to
play the piano chords on the drums by using four mallets, a similar technique to that used
by vibraphone players. The piano part moved between two chords, two of the notes were
common to both chords; so six pitches in total were required to perform the piano part. I
simply tuned the toms to six open tones The result, in my opinion, was an ensemble
sound that added colour and drama to the piece as well as greatly expanding my role as
the drummer in the ensemble.

Drummers, despite possessing their own unique musical vocabulary, have had to adapt
their sounds in response to the western harmonic system most frequently used in popular
music. Indeed, the central issue in using fixed pitch tuning for the drum-kit for most
Western popular music, is how best to tune the drum-kit so that it relates to Western
functional harmony. This was certainly the case for the jazz drummers in the early part of
the 20
th
century.

7.3 Tuning and the world music genre
Whilst referring mainly to Western European practices above, I note that fixed pitch,
contemporary drumming styles can involve other tuning practices. These can be found in
music associated with World Music, a well known musical genre that makes use of time-
52
feels and tuning systems from worldwide musical cultures, especially non-Western
European cultures.

This is exampled by references in world music genres to drum-chime tuning practices
from parts of Africa and Asia. Wachsmann (1969) observes:
Drum-chime [is a] a generic term for a set of drums tuned to a musical scale. In
Africa, where drum ensembles are common, a line cannot easily be drawn
between true drum-chimes (often tuned and arranged scale wise to cover one of
more octaves) and sets of drums also carefully tuned to discrete pitches within the
particular tonal system, and used for accompanying songs and dances with a
variety of melodic and rhythmic patterns.
Drum-chimes occur in south and Southeast Asia and in east Africa. In north-
central Sumatra a set called Atanging Plays a central role in the ritual orchestras
of the Batak-speaking peoples, being accompanied by another drum, gongs and a
shawm. Multi-octave sets placed in circular frames are used in traditional Thai
and Burmese ensembles. In Burma the chime is called hsaing-waing or pat-waing.
A set of tabla tuned scale wise and known as tablatarang is sometimes featured in
concerts of north Indian classical music to accompaniment of ordinary tabla and
the tambura (classical drone lute). In east Africa drums-chimes are known at
Aksum (Ethiopia), in three places in Uganda (one being the former kingdom of
Buganda where the entenga chime was one of the instruments of the royal court),
and among the Sena and Manganja peoples of Mozambique, where the drum-
chime is called the likhuba of ntanda.

The entenga is a good illustration of a true drum-chime in that all but the largest
three drums are used for playing a repertory of vocally derived melodies (the three
largest provide a rhythmic accompaniment). The entengas limited distribution
and certain features (by no means common to all sets) have led scholars to
speculate on links between African sets and those of Asia. Such features include
53
the use of long curved beaters and an association with xylophone-playing
traditions. (Wachsmann, 1969 pp, 1-8)

These generic drum set-ups provide an example of how modern drummers assemble their
drum-kits. The entenga features three drums that are played as a rhythmical
accompaniment to the rest of the drum-chime. Other drums play melody material. This
parallels the function of the modern drum-kit, in that the bass drum, snare and hi-hat
serve as a rhythmical accompaniment to the toms and cymbals. Other than bass and snare
and hi-hat interplay, all other sounds can be perceived as melodic.
Tuning a drum-kit precedes performance. Once the tuning has been achieved the kit and
drummer are ready for the actual creation of melodic drumming ideas through
performance techniques. I shall now discuss these techniques.

8 Melodic Drum-kit performance techniques.

8.1 Thinking melodically
I believe that to play the drum-kit melodically first requires the drummer to think
melodically. That is, to respond to the melodic content of the piece being performed not
just its rhythmical elements. This can be achieved in numerous ways. A useful example
of this melodic thinking can be heard in Ari Hoenigs playing techniques. His
performance of slow blues (Hoenig, 2007) features melodic drum-kit practices through
manipulating the pitch of his drums with pressure from his elbow (pitch bending) whilst
striking the drum with the opposite hand. Not all melodic drummers approach their
playing in such a physical way. Simply by adhering to the form of a piece (the durational
structure of a composition) and outlining or highlighting any melodic events that take
place, or following and complimenting the melody by use of dynamic variations and
timbral changes, will help achieve melodic material.


54

8.2 Mirroring
Another technique used to assist in creating a successful performance of melody by a
drummer is to mirror the melody. This technique involves what I called implied
melody. That is, the drummer duplicates the exact rhythmic and dynamic note placement
thus playing, in effect, a rhythmical/dynamic skeleton of a melody without playing the
actual pitches themselves. By mirroring in this way a melody can be implied by the
drummer because the pitches created outline the melodic contour of the composition

The following anecdote about a rehearsal that took place at the Victorian College of the
Arts in 1989 describes two very different melodic approaches to the same piece of music.
I was a member of the Brian Brown ensemble along with Bob Sedergreen (piano) Geoff
Kluke (bass) Judy Jacques (voice). Brown, leader and composer of the group, had just
finished a new series of works that centred on the theme of the transportation of convicts
to Australia from England in the late 1700s. During the first rehearsal we had the
opportunity to play the music involving melodic lines played in complex rhythmical
groupings super-imposed over ostinato bass lines.

After studying the pieces I decided to play the melodies exactly as they were written. To
do this I designed a drum-kit consisting of nine small 6-inch toms tuned to a diminished
scale (the rationale being that a diminished scale would give me the most melodic
versatility in a variety of key centres). I then learned the melodies on the drum-kit
locating each note in relation to the last until I could perform the entire piece fluently.
Some notes were available as open tones whilst others had to be played by applying
pressure with one stick and striking the drum with other varying the pressure until the
note reached the desired pitch. I used this set up in a television series made by the ABC
entitled Jazz as now, (ABC television, documentary, 1990).
On the day of the rehearsal I set up my drum-kit in the rehearsal room and waited for the
music to begin. To my dismay the tempo of the piece was much faster than I had
55
anticipated making it impossible to use the technique I had practised. I had to adjust
spontaneously and find another technique that would enable me to successfully perform
the pieces. I used the technique mentioned above. That is, mirroring the melody on the
drum-kit gaining melodic expression through dynamic variation and timbral effect,
fortunately this change in technique resulted in a successful performance of the program.

As the above situation illustrates, depending on the musical context appropriate and
useful techniques may vary considerably. In the above situation the tempo of the
melodies to be played was too fast to be articulated successfully using only a pitch bend
technique. The technique of mirroring the melody enabled me far greater fluency and
ease of articulation at the faster tempo.

8.3 Spatial relationships
Finally, the arrangement of the drum-kit and the players spatial relationship to it in terms
of moving from left to right (or right to left as the case may be) contributes to the creation
of melodic ideas. The drum-kit is usually arranged placing higher sounds to the left, thus
descending in pitch towards the right. Performance of melodic ideas on the drum-kit
involves more complex mobility and coordination since melody both ascends and
descends.

An ascending melodic line common to melody players such as, singers and horn players,
is not usually played by drummers. It is conventional practise for drummers to mainly
descend when they play around the drum-kit, (high to low). This practice annoyed Jones
(2007) as a young man. He commented, They [other drum-kit players] were all doing
the same thing [play descending melodies] (Jones 2007, pers. comm).

Jones notes that he both ascends around the drum-kit as well as descends depending on
the musical situation. The practice of ascending as well as descending around the drum-
kit contributes greatly in making drummers sound more melodic. In relation to drum-kit
56
performance Jones and I agree that the modern drum-kit is the last of the ensemble
instruments to evolve melodically.

In terns of ascending and descending performance techniques when playing a drum
pattern it is important that the drummer be relaxed in order to be physically flexible or
fluid. Similarly when playing a melodic ideas a drummer must be relaxed and be able to
co-ordinate subtle changes between the hands and feet that are not common to drum-kit
performance. This is particularly so when links from one musical section to another are
made in the form of fills (improvised embellishments of time elements that lead an
ensemble from one part of a composition to another) played on the tom toms.

In summary, melodic drum-kit performance techniques involve tuning drums to specific
or relative pitches, manipulating pitches through pitch-bending, the use of rolls to create
long durational notes and fills, implying melodic contour through use of kit timbral
differences (from bass drum to hi-hat, for example), by mirroring techniques and
dynamic manipulation to imply pitch shift.

9 Harmonic-rhythm

9.1 Internalising melodic and harmonic ideas
Drummers who are aware of the melodic and harmonic movement in musical
composition benefit enormously. It is not essential that the chords themselves be able to
be named. A melodic approach to soloing on a jazz composition by a drummer involves
hearing or singing the melody internally. This internalisation greatly assists the drummer
in playing a melodic solo even though they may not have specific pitches at their
disposal. This internalisation of melody is another aspect of what I refer to as melodic
drumming. I extend this internalisation of sound by drum-kit players to the area of
harmonic progression. Indeed, hearing and responding to rhythmic and harmonic
progressions (and their relationships) relates closely to melodic drum-kit performance.
57


Harmonic rhythm refers to the relationship between harmonic progression and rhythmic
movement. Busoni (quoted in Craft, 1959) referring to the relationship between rhythm
and melody observed

Melody is a series of repeated rising and falling intervals, which are sub-
divided and given movement by rhythm; containing a latent harmony within itself
and giving out a mood-feeling; it can and does exist independently of words as an
expression and independently of accompanying parts as a form; in its performance
the choice of pitch and of the instrument makes no difference to its essence.
(Craft, 1959, p.122)

To hear and respond to harmonic progressions whilst playing non-fixed pitched
instruments such as the drum-kit opens-up the possibility for harmonic and melodic
performance perspectives for the drummer. Harmonic and melodic movement is used as a
guide to compositional form. Piston and Devoto (1978) observed:

Frequency of root change and rhythmic quality of the changes are, then, the two
main features of harmonic rhythm. When the harmony changes with much
frequency the effect is apt to be one of restlessness. Widely spaced changes of
harmony give the impression of breadth and relaxation. (Piston and Devoto, 1978,
p.204)

Here, Piston and Devoto suggest that different harmonic rates of change create sensations
of restlessness, relaxation and breadth. I argue that drummers who tune into the
harmonic pace of a composition can collaborate with other players to help create these
sensations.

In exploring further the relationship between harmony and rhythm Stephen Jay observed:
58

In an effort to understand the hidden design of the physical components of
music, I have focused on the basic elements of harmony and rhythm, and
their relationship to complex musical events. In doing this I have observed that
harmony and rhythm are really the same thing, happening at two radically
different speeds. They are aspects of each other. Each of them work as music.
They are translated analogously between their respective domains.
The two seemingly diverse elements are really the same physical
phenomenon, following identical mathematical rules of consonance, and
coincide in the effect of specific characteristics, across the range of their
musical activity. (Jay,1999)

9. 2 Harmony and rhythmic time-play
Piston suggests that as harmony changes with much frequency the effect is apt to be one
of restlessness; the same applies in rhythmic time-play. The absence of repetition in time-
play creates tension, whilst repetitive time play induces relative relaxation. The
extended harmony and rhythmical complexity require a proportional degree of intensity
to balance the musical ideas in real time.

Jays research explores the physical relationship between harmony and rhythm.
Commenting further on the relationship between harmony and rhythm Jay observes:

The consonance of a harmony or a rhythmic pattern is also related to the
duration of what is perceived by the listener to be one complete cycle.
Interestingly, the natural complications, which result from adding notes to
chords, multiply harmo-rhythmically in a dynamic range similar to the effect
of harmony on the listeners emotions. This also occurs in increasing
complexities as you move up the natural harmonic series by intervals.
Just as certain rhythmic patterns appear to have natural downbeats, harmonic
Intervals and chord combinations have root, or tonic notes. Harmony and
rhythm sympathises, sustain and mutually vitalise each other.(Jay, 1999)
59

Jays comment, that harmony and rhythm sympathises, sustains and mutually vitalises
each other, accurately describes the relationship between drummers and other ensemble
members in improvised performance.


10 The role of improvisation in melodic drum-kit performance
Improvisation is a vital element of my music-making and an important factor in melodic
drumming. This study is not the place to discuss in detail the nature of improvisation.
Suffice it to state here that by improvisation, I refer to spontaneous composition as
opposed to fully prescribed and scored musical compositions. My project, as can be
heard and seen, demonstrates both improvised and prescribed compositional elements.

10.1 Space and openness
A melodic approach to drumming can be applied to almost any musical situation. It is in
improvised music, however, that the greatest potential for the inclusion of melodic
elements in drum-kit performance exists. The non-predetermined aspect of improvised
performance allows the musician space to explore new ideas. Through creative time-play,
drummers can give an improvised performance a strong sense of composition, as well as
reacting spontaneously to the musical interplay within the ensemble. It is the drummers
relation to spatial elements of a musical performance (when musical sounds move in
space) that holds the most potential for melodic expression.

In open improvisation, that is when the drummer is not required to keep a tempo or play
repetitive patterns, the possibilities to find new ways of contributing to the ensemble
sound are great for drummers. A strong focus for improvisers is not to clutter the
ensemble blend with unnecessary complexity, and to play with a musical sensibility. To
illustrate this point I shall now describe my first professional encounter with free
improvisation, which occurred in a Melbourne jazz club in 1983.

60
I was invited to take part in a performance with contemporary composer, improviser
Brian Brown, who was at the time head of the improvisation department at the Victorian
College of the Arts, Melbourne. Other colleagues present included Bob Sedergreen, piano
and Geoff Kluke bass, both expert improvisers. Virgil Donarti, who has since received
worldwide recognition as a drumming virtuoso, was also part of the ensemble. I was
asked to join the performance session. As the improvisation began I became aware
immediately that there was no communal pulse, time signature or key centre. I found this
disconcerting and spent some time trying to find my musical bearings. This was for me
unfamiliar territory. I felt both excitement and fear. The space and breadth for
improvisation was vast.
My first task involved searching for a place to begin. Keith Jarrett described this feeling
of searching for a place to start as the point of entry (Toms, 1997, p.73). In an interview
with Michael Toms, Jarrett describes the start of a musical performance as a
jump(Toms, 1997, p.81).

This is an apt description of that moment. During the remainder of the improvisation my
main focus was on my own sound, playing whilst adjusting (where I could) to the other
musicians, as well as trying to stay in a relaxed state. I was focused on my own sound as
well as hearing the other members of the ensemble and in what could be described as an
aural overview. The idea of focusing on your own sound as other musicians create their
musical meaning around you is the reason I find improvisation of interest to melodic
drum-kit performance.

Sidney Bechet, a jazz saxophonist, describes his earliest memories of the New Orleans
brass band tradition:
Youd be standing there on Claiborne Avenue and the bands, theyd come closer
to each other, keep coming closer, and youd be hearing the two of them, first one
in way, then the next. And then theyd get closer and you couldnt make them out
61
any more. And then theyd be right in together, one line between another, and
then it was just noise, just everything all at once. (Bechet, 1997, p.138)

Here Bechet describes vividly spatial experience of music. He goes on to say the winner
of these musical competitions, was the band that could focus on their own tune whilst not
allowing the other band to distract them, since usually one of the bands would become
confused and lose their tune and the competition. This situation is similar to my
experience during the free improvised session mentioned earlier. Another significant
experience in my development as an improviser occurred in the late 1980s in a
Melbourne jazz club whilst accompanying Mike Nock, now head of the Jazz studies at
the Sydney Conservatorium. During the rehearsal Mike communicated to me that he did
not need the drummer to keep time for him and that I was free to express myself in any
way I felt appropriate and not to feel restricted by the need to keep time.

10.2 Being in the moment
I was released from the time-keeper role and able to enter the spontaneous moment. This
resulted in a creative performance that was not reliant on rhythmic clichs and the
performance developed into one full of imaginative musical interplay. For successful
improvisation the importance of listening and responding spontaneously during a musical
performance cannot be over-emphasised.

Grabowsky describes ways that drummers can contribute to a successful musical
performance, involving improvisation:

[Musicians] have to be in the moment and have an understanding of, and
ownership of their own creative process, and therefore understand the creative
processes of others. Elements that facilitate successful improvised performance
are elusive and transient. However, the ability to be spontaneous whilst expressing
ideas with a personal musical voice, is therefore an important element in
achieving a successful musical/improvised performance. Keith Jarrett world-
62
renowned improviser/pianist describes creativity as the awareness of the potential
of the moment. (Jarrett 1997, p.91) ( Grabowsky 2006, pers. comm)

Improvisation has been pivotal to my musical development; improvisation is an area of
musical expression that has afforded me the opportunity to explore my personal musical
voice. I shall now describe briefly concepts that relate to improvisation and their
application to melodic drumming and drum-kit performance.

10. 3 Drum-kit improvisational techniques for melodic drumming
The following improvisational techniques which faciliate melodic drumming are
demonstrated in my project.
They are:

1) Cycle, patterns and ostinati
2) Punctuation, phrase and riffs
3) Melody, lyricism and breath
4) Chords, intervals and harmonic structure
5) Movement, shapes, contours and line
6) Texture, colours and complexity
7) Form, style and culture

10. 4 Cycles, patterns and ostinati
Cyclic patterning is a common human experience in natural and constructed
environments. For example, cycles of the physical seasons and cycles of religious and
secular rituals. These are aspects of the measurement of time. Cycles of rhythmic patterns
are common in world musical practice. For example, in the Spanish flamenco compass
cycle of twelve beats or the tala system in classical Indian music. Drum-kit players in
Western popular music use cyclic drum patterning extensively.

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Musical patterns do much to characterise musical styles. Furthermore, through the
practice of drum patterning, drummers not only learn to co-ordinate the limbs of the
body, they also acquire a rhythmic understanding associated with cultural and social
identity.

A special mention must be made of ostinati - repeated rhythmic and/or melodic
sequences. Ostinati, with their repetitive nature, can ground changing elements
occurring around them.

Musical styles, such as the Brazilian samba and bossa-nova samba, salsa from Cuba,
Tango from Argentina as well as contemporary popular musical styles including jazz,
rock, hip-hop and rap, have important cultural significance, serving a variety of social
functions. Drum-kit players need to understand the cultural contexts of these patterns as
well as studying the performance techniques needed to execute them.

There is, however, a great danger in relying too heavily on a patternistic approach to
drum-kit performance. The interest in a musical dialogue can suffer if a patternistic
approach to music-making is over done. There is something lacking when a musician is
merely playing patterns rather than interacting spontaneously within the ensemble, and
further, what at first seems exciting will soon lose its appeal if a listener detects only a
patternistic approach.

Gander, Jones and I find it very difficult to listen to the drumnastic approach to drum-
kit performance. The obsession with short sounds repeated in rapid succession quickly
becomes monotonous and uninteresting and sometimes even disturbing. Jones finds
beauty in the harmonic framework of composition, in that a composition moves from
simple rhythmic placement to complex and back again, but still remains within the
melodic/harmonic framework.

Thus drum cycles and ostinati patterns embody elements of physical performance
technique, musical style and cultural identity.
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10.5 Punctuation, phrase and riff
By punctuation I refer to the practice by drummers and other instrumentalists of shaping
or outlining a musical event through cadential elements, dynamics, silences, pauses,
phrasing and timbral variations. All these puncutuations help create melodic lines on the
drum-kit. The external dynamic, that is the over-all volume of the drum-kit in relation
to the rest of the ensemble is of the utmost importance in terms of musical expression, as
is the internal dynamic variation within the drum-kit sound (the volume of the drum-kit
instruments in relation to one another). The manipulation of internal dynamics is
fundamental to melodic drumming.

Phrasing is essential to melodic drumming because it is the basic means for musical
contouring. Riffs (sequenced/repeated rhythm patterns) are a significant element of
phrasing for drummers. Thus, punctuation, phrasing and riffs are central to solo drum-kit
performance and melodic drumming.

10.6 Melody, lyricism and breath
Melodic drumming in a solo context involves hearing a melody and voicing that melody
on the drum-kit. Melodies take many forms, from rhapsodic themes to percussive
intervallic play. Some melodic invention is more easily expressed on the drum-kit than
others. Rhythmical melodies associated with jazz syncopation are well suited to the
drum-kit perhaps because of (what I refer to as) the percussive nature of the music.

The more lyrical the melodic content in drum-kit performance, the more the focus shifts
from that of a rhythmic study to melodic/vocal-type content. As Gander observed:

Lyricism in music and thus melodic drum-kit playing involves a form of musical
phrasing similar to that used by wind instrumentalists. That is, wind players use
breath and vocal-type inflection in creating phrasing and melodic lines. (Gander
2007, pers. comm)

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I maintain that melodic drum-kit performance also involves this lyrical approach to
phrasing on the drum-kit. Gander supports this idea above) and believes that to emulate
breath in phasing is related to being human: we all have to breathe. (Gander 2007, pers.
comm)

Whilst drum-kit performance obviously requires actual breathing to produce sound,
breath is not the means for producing sound from the kit. This means lines or melodies
can be much longer on the drum-kit, even continuous. There is, however, a practice of
emulating the breath qualities of a horn player or singer, by rhythm section players
(piano, guitar, and bass.) to facilitate a more melodic performance. This relates to
creating a time-feel.

A deep breath is required to sustain a melody on a wind instrument with a large dynamic
range or one that employs many complex intervals: the longer the phrase, the bigger the
breath: for the drummer, the longer the phrase the bigger the emulation of the breath. This
vocal style of breathing and phrasing adapted to the drum-kit is central to melodic
drumming as is silence - both silence within a phrase and silence between phrases. I find
it particularly helpful in shaping a melodic passage on the drum-kit to observe the silence
between phrases and to dynamically shape the phrase from the silence. That is, the
silence becomes the resting place or the tonic of the overall harmonic key centre of the
drum-kit. I demonstrate this concept by clapping hands, gradually increasing the volume
of the claps and thus imply melody through the sound of increasing and decreasing
volume. Increasing the volume suggests an ascending melodic line whereas, decreasing
the volume suggest a descending melody. This dynamic manipulation is fundamental in
shaping melodic phases on non-fixed pitch instruments like a drum.

10.7 Chords, intervals and harmonic structure
Chords are based on intervallic relationships within a melodic scale. As the underlying
element of harmonic structures they help give shape to a musical contour within a
composition: phrasing, cadential points, timbre etc. Drummers need to be in touch with
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chordal movement in order to perform cohesively within an ensemble and to relate the
movent to melodic-harmonic content.

The intervallic relationship between notes relates directly to dynamic and melodic
manipulation on the part of the drummer. For example, the closer an interval is in relation
to a tonal centre, the greater the intensity required to rhythmically balance the musical
event by (in my practice) anticipating a beat or pushing the rhythmic flow onwards.

Cadential points are important musical signposts for drummers wishing to play in a
cohesive ensemble context. They indicate melodic or harmonic resolutions within a
composition, which the drummer creates through a rhythmic counterpart. I have already
discussed harmonic rhythm above, however I repeat the interpretation of
melodic/harmonic events is crucial to what I refer to as melodic drumming

Asked about how he relates to harmony and melody in performance Gander replied:

Once you have internalised the form of a piece of music, if you have a musical
memory, you can hear what direction the music is going. Once you have a sense
of how one chord relates to the previous one and implies the next one, you can
then play through the music as opposed to just marking of points. (Gander 2007,
pers. comm)

Here Gander refers to a musical punctuation and talks about his relationship to form,
duration, harmonic and melodic shape in performance. He points out the importance of
memorising a musical contour in order to play through as opposed to merely marking
of points in a performance (being the time-keeper) - marking key points in the musical
shape.

Black also describes the melodic nature of his drumming as sequential and tonal. He
comments on the intervallic relationship of his drumming as:

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The instrument I play the most - the drum-kitWhen I hear [a snare or a bass
drum or a hi-hat] and they fall into a sequence I hear them as melodic, the up and
down of something, the tone of something. (Black 2005, pers, comm)

The up and down referred to by Black translate in performance for drummers to the
creation of soft low sounds which imply a downward feeling whereas high loud
sounds imply an upward motion.

The concept of soloing on the changes or chords, involves drummers creating rhythmical
interest whilst outlining the harmonic contour of the composition. By using rudiments
and other rhythmic devices, and whilst observing form and cadence points in the
harmonic movement, a drummer can outline the harmonic contour of a piece with great
accuracy. Further, the melody can be simply the focus of the improvisation.

10.8 Movement, contours and lines
One of the primary functions of the drummer in an ensemble is to supply movement and
energy to a music dialogue. Because the drum-kit plays almost continuously throughout
most popular musical forms, the drummer is usually relied upon to supply the desired
inertia to a musical event: that is, the amount of forward motion, or lack of momentum,
which create movement, shape and contour in a musical performance.

The creation of contours (through the manipulation of dynamics along with high and low
sounds, (bass drum and cymbals being at the opposite end of the spectrum), is a key
drum-kit melodic practice. By contour I refer to the linear direction of rhythm and pitch.
Again soft low sounds produce a downward feeling whereas high loud sounds imply
an upward motion. Variations of loud and soft, high and low sounds produce melodic
interest and a sense of movement.

10. 9 Textures, colours and complexity
The fact that drummers can assemble any instruments to make up their kit is unique, in
that most other instruments come already assembled and often (not always) employ fixed
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pitch tuning. As I have noted, the drum-kit although standardized, can be assembled and
made up of any instruments the player wishes. Thus the drum-kit has great potential to
supply much texture and colour to musical performances. Commenting on potential
developments of drum-kits, Grabowsky suggests

Drummers will see their instruments as individuals, each drum and cymbal having
its own special characteristics, and will design kits that express the musical
personalities of the player, with multiple snares, or no snare, more found objects
or hybrids, and a greater choice of cymbals, which might reflect East Asian
traditions, with small gongs, slit drums etc playing more of a role.
Hopefully the musical vocabulary of drummers will reflect more knowledge of
non-African-American drumming or rhythmic traditions, particularly South
Indian Balinese, Korean, Japanese, Pacific Islander and indigenous Australian.
(Grabowsky 2006, pers, comm)

I shall now refer to one of my recent performances and recording experiences involving
bass player (Gary Costello) and myself. We were working towards maximizing our
musical roles and compositional potential. The eventual outcome of this session was a
memorable event in my musical experience and one that illustrates the inherent
complexity present during an improvised performance. Complexity in performance
involves degrees of sonic detail created by performers. In preparation for a recording we
were concentrating on getting a sound balance and making sure the recording levels were
appropriate. Even after achieving a satisfactory instrumental blend the music we were
performing was uninteresting, restrictive, non-imaginative and basically not creative.
This was due to the fact that both Costello and I were role-playing. That is, we were
merely keeping time.

I noticed the record pause button was still on and asked Gary to continue soloing while I
re-checked the sound levels and released the pause button.
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We continued playing, and this time we both soloed together adapting and responding to
each others movements. The result was a complex interplay between bass and drums and
a successful improvisational performance. What changed in this successful musical
process? I believe it was our approach to playing the music. The second performance
involved a complex and dynamic interplay that involved a minimum reliance on mere
time-keeping.

10.10 Form
The form of a composition (durational and spatial structure in music) is a major
consideration for a melodic drummer. Internalising form relates to how drummers adhere
to prescribed durational and spatial compositional structure in order to bring a sense of
cohesions to a performance. This is a fundamental requirement for a drummer performing
in an ensemble setting. It is essential for drummers to know where they are within a
musical form in order to create and place melodic content.

10.11 Style
Specific performance techniques, instrumentation and form are attributed to musical
compositions to refer to particular musical styles. Some styles are more suitable to
melodic invention. For example, the openness (the time and space available for
spontaneous composition) of modern jazz or improvised music allows the drummer much
scope for a melodic and personalised approach to drum-kit performance. Pop music on
the other hand relies on the drummer performing the role of time-keeper to keep the beat
primarily for the purpose of dancing. This is not to say that pop or rock musicians are not
creative or melodic. However, the more a drummer has to perform the function of time-
keeping, the less space and time they tend to have for personal spontaneous expression.
Cindy Blackman, Jazz drummer and member of the Lenny Kravits band commenting on
the difference between performing in a jazz context, to that of a rock situation observes
[You need a]Totally different mindset, completely different. The headspace has
nothing to do with a creative situation, not the same at all. (Blackman, 2009)

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Interestingly, whereas I once maintained that popular dance forms provided less space for
melodic drumming because of the function of the music, I am finding increasingly that
recent composers and performers of popular dance music especially in rap, hip-hop and
house dance styles, are utilising more melodic drum-kit elements in their music. The
same can be said of aspects of world music.

10. 12 World music
Jazz Guitarist, John McLaughlin, played a significant role in the popularisation of
improvised elements of World music. In 1971 he formed the Mahavishnu Orchestra: an
ensemble that featured a strong Indian influence. Mc Laughlin observed:

I was so lucky to have some lessons from Ravi Shankar and other masters of
Indian music. I love India, its music and its spirituality, its religions. The
spirituality is the music. You cant separate the two like you can in the west.
(McLaughlin, 1997, p.138)

Here McLaughlin links improvisatory practices with spiritual practices. On a recent trip
to New York I witnessed many examples of integrated world music elements during
improvised musical performance. This integration of world music elements by
improvisers is broadening the role for drummers and extending the potential for melodic
drum-kit practices. Brian Eno, composer and musician integrates avant-garde and pop
elements in musical his composition. He commented:

This kind of improvisational flexibility entails a continuous questioning of
boundaries and categories, a refusal to accept that I want to see societies (and
people) who know how to improvise, who can throw together a social mode
(tuxedo and black Thai [sic] just for the evening, who can move fluently and
easily between different social and personal vocabularies as the situation changes,
who dont feel lost without the religious reassurance of thisism and thatism. I
see these people as hunter-gatherers in the great flux of the worlds cultures,
enjoying a rich diet of ideas and techniques and styles, creating their own special
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mixes. There is no snobbism in this picture- no material too common or too exotic
to be used. (Eno, 1997, p.167)


Enos comments support my own experience that the future inclusion of elements in
popular music-making from diverse cultures will extend the boundaries for improvising
musicians. This inclusion of diverse elements from other cultures will expand the musical
vocabulary available to drummers and encourage a more melodic, and thus a more
inclusive, voice in contemporary musical performance.

10.13 Electronicfication and digitalisation of musical rhythm
The increasing use of electronic instruments in the 1960s and up to the 1980s had a direct
influence on drum performance and sounds. At the same time a stylistic fusion between
jazz and rock styles (jazz-rock) brought about changes in performance practices for
drum-kit players including their use of melodic drumming techniques. It would be
reasonable to say major record companies such as EMI, Warner Brothers and Sony
influenced these changes to create and then access a popular music market rather than the
jazz market. Key figures in the musical movement included, Ginger Baker (in the band,
Cream) and Mitch Mitchell (in Jimi Hendrixs band) both mirrored the direction taken by
contemporary jazz drummers particularly by Tony Williams (Miles Davis drummer at
the time). The emergence of jazz- rock or jazz- fusion reflected a move away from the
jazz formulae and drum performance techniques associated with it.

That is, jazz ensemble players performed in a relatively stationary manner unlike rock
performers whose style reflected outlandish kinaesthetic performance styles and
contemporary clothing fashion. Musically, the most distinguishable features between jazz
and the jazz-rock idioms can be heard in their stylistic sounds. Jazz-rock music is heavier,
emulating the sonic practises preferred by rock musicians. Also the sounds were more
technically produced due to the frequent use of amplification and electronic instruments.
Electronic effects were used to enhance the instrumentation especially in the bass register
and to increase use of synthesised or synthetic sound.
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During this period, rather than the open natural sound of the drum-kit favoured by earlier
jazz drummers, rock musicians gravitated to a more-dampened tone, better suited to
being amplified. The time-feel associated with the jazz-rock musical style strongly relies
on the bass drum, snare drum, hi-hat combination of sounds rather than the ride cymbal
and a hi-hat favoured by jazz drummers. Rhythms used by jazz- rock drummers derived
from the rock musical repertoire. However, the nature of the music was improvisational,
borrowing much from earlier jazz performance techniques. The desire of jazz musicians
to access rock audiences did much to establish this jazz-rock style.

Following closely on this development came the introduction of the drum machine:
a machine capable of producing metronomically perfect drum sounds. Heavy use of
this machine significantly dampened the use of melodic drum-kit playing in the recording
studio especially for the creation of what came to be known as disco music, for the
contemporary club dancing.

Thus, popular music of the 1970s and 1980s (especially dance music), increasingly used
synthetically generated sound as well as mechanically generated rhythm. This period of
popular music has continued to develop to the present day with many off shoots of the
original musical form, including hip-hop, rap, trance, jungle, bass and drum, for example.

Interestingly, current directions in contemporary popular music favour more organic
time-feels with less emphasis on metronomically perfect time and more focus on
expressive interplay including melodic drumming.




11 Compositions and transcription
This section focuses on the musical compositions submitted as part of my project. I shall
describe the six works in terms of melodic performance and compositional techniques
discussed previously. I shall also suggest how these compositions contribute to drum-kit
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repertoire and create opportunities for other drummers to explore drum-kit melodic
practices.

The compositions are presented on two CDs and in score form. The first CD contains
drum-kit only versions of the pieces. The second CD presents ensemble realisations of
the drum-kit compositions. There are six tracks on each CD.

Before discussing the scored transcriptions later, I note that the transcription of the pieces
composed for this project help reveal the melodic nature of my music-making. To
transcribe the compositions, it was necessary to devise a notation that would accurately
represent the music in written form. I chose to write the melodic parts in treble clef and
the drum-kit (non-tuned) parts in bass clef. (drum-kit is usually written in bass clef.) This
notation proved the easiest to read and to convey the melodic nature of the compositions.

My ordering of the compositions aims to introduce firstly the listener to basic melodic
drum-kit music in Blue South and to conclude with a work Last Ballad linking the lyrical
notion of ballad form to drum-kit repertoire for the first time. The order also creates both
a flow and contrast of musical ideas.

The compositions are presented on both CDs and in score form in the following order:
1. Blue south
2. Celtic swing
3. Ode to New Orleans
4. Cohiba
5. Deep listening
6. Last ballad

11. 1 Blue south (Track 1)
Blue South was composed in response to the question how do you play the blues on a
drum-kit? This question is central to my project and set the parameters for the rest of the
compositional process. During my career as a professional musician I have performed the
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blues in many forms and styles including Delta blues, Be-bop blues, Swing blues and
Country blues. The question provoked me to explore how a drum-kit player might
express the blues musically in a solo context? With no other instruments playing the
melody or harmony, what techniques would be needed to accomplish this?

For Blue south I first decided on a fixed pitch tuning and number of drums. The drum-kit
used for this project consisted of eight drums. I tuned the lowest drum first (a 16 inch tom
tuned to Eb) seeking a full rich tone that sounded pitched and yet was tuned low enough
to minimise any audible harmonic overtones. I tuned the drum at the lower end of its
melodic range to maximise the depth of its timbral quality. I repeated the process with the
seven other drums focusing on the intervallic relationship between them: The sizes of the
drums used were 16 inch, 13inch, 12inch, 10inch, two 8 inch, and a 6inch tom. The
18inch bass drum was tuned to Bb whilst the 12inch snare drum was tuned to Eb.

Intervals were selected to invoke a feeling of the blues and suite the range of each drum. I
also ensured that the pitched drums were sonically balanced with one other, that is, tuned
to a similar tension. I created a pentatonic note scale comprising of the ascending notes
Eb, F, D, Eb, G, Ab, and Bb. This was my drum-chime selected and sequenced by the
hearing the intervals intuitively.

As an introduction to Blue south, I emulated two aspects of guitar blues style playing
popular in United States in the early part of the 20
th
century: one, a trilled melody
utilising minor intervals and two, non-adherence to a twelve-bar primary chord
progression. The first melodic motif made up of a series of long notes is realised by the
use of a press-roll technique on the toms. Cymbals add an accompanying texture. The
tonal characteristic of cymbals has long been a major part my musical expression. By
manipulating the way the cymbals were struck and varying different areas of the cymbals,
different pitches and varied tones were used to voice the melody. These tones and
textures answer and compliment the melodic theme played on the toms.

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It was my intention to mirror the musical landscape of the blues from the Southern United
States of America - the Mississippi delta. A sense of sparseness and an ease of pace was
an important reference to me in creating the right time-feel. I established a slow broken
triplet feel ostinato on the bass drum and hi-hat at letter B to create the necessary
movement and time-feel to support the melody. The melodic line is played over the bass
drum and hi-hat accompaniment using phrases common to early blues guitar repertoire.
This is first heard in bar12 and continues as the main melodic theme throughout the
composition.

Another technique used by blues guitarists is to syncopate rhythms across the bar to
create an asymmetrical phrase-feel, a technique I used at bar 17 and throughout the
composition. At letter C a 6/8 rhythm used by later blue players is introduced that is
reminiscent of the rhythmic patterning of composer Charles Mingus. This is achieved
using a duple feel played against a triplet rhythm. This duplet feel is re-introduced later at
bar 52 and fused with the asymmetrical phrasing played earlier, until the two time-feels
are sounded simultaneously. The piece comes to a close as the duplet rhythm is repeated
and faded.

The ensemble version of Blue south demonstrates how melodic drumming becomes an
integral part of an ensemble (in this case, drum-kit, bass and guitar) and how the
improvisation of other ensemble members resembles the melodic and dynamic subtleties
of the drum-kit part.

11. 2 Celtic swing (track 2)
This composition was inspired by an early musical memory involving an Irish pipe band
performance. As members of the band marched, they swished their kilts from side to side
in time with the music. This rhythmical swing generated by the band as they marched,
was very powerful and left a lasting impression on me.

The fixed pitch tuning used for Cetic swing was assembled in a similar way to Blue south.
However, I set about selecting a tuning that was versatile enough to be used in a variety
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of tonal centres. The tuning for Cetic swing (and the remainder of the compositions) was
Bb, bass drum, F snare drum, low toms to high, Eb, Ab, C, Eb, Ab and Bb.

The piece is introduced with a melody played on tuned toms. Short notes are either struck
on an open drum or the pitch is manipulated by applying pressure to the head with one
stick, whilst striking it simultaneously with the other, (up to 6 notes can be played
comfortably on a each drum using the pitch bend technique). I observed this technique for
the first time when used by visiting American drummer, Victor Lewis in the late 1980s at
the Prince of Wales Hotel, Melbourne. Melodies containing long notes are produced by
continuous press-rolls on the toms and shifting from one tom to another. The introductory
melody was inspired by Irish poet Brendan Behans ballad The patriot game: a poem
about Irish patriotism in the twentieth century.

The composition is in four parts A, B, C, A. The first half of the introductory melody is
played using press-rolls ascending and descending from drum to drum to create the
melody. The second half of the melody evoked in me a Celtic feeling, so I chose to slur
up to the notes (a kind of portameneto) to achieve what I call a more Celtic blues effect.
To be consistent in the performance of the melody, some open tones were played an
octave apart, since this was the only way to perform the entire melody using open tones.
Another important consideration in the performance of this introduction was to observe
the dynamic subtleties of this romantic theme.

The hi-hat plays an important role during the introduction of Celtic swing and throughout
the rest of these compositions. They are used the to add colour to the time-feel. The
splashing of the hi-hat serves two functions. Firstly, it supplies a sense of movement used
in response to the melody, and secondly it has a harmonic relationship to the melody as
well as adding colour.

The introduction to the melody resolves to a low Ab held with a press-roll. The time-feel
for the Celtic swing is then established. The piece moves to a marching band scene where
a tom is played to emulate the rhythm played by the Irish pipe band mentioned earlier
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(again the hi-hat plays an important role in setting up the time-play). I also punctuate the
time with the bass drum and hi-hat to create more motion in the feel, similar to a feel
created by the marching bands of New Orleans.

Once the swing feel had been established the main theme is introduced- an Irish reel.
The reel is based on a traditional Irish tune Sally gardens (traditional); a tune I used to
perform with my father as a child. The melody is played on the toms using the same
technique used in the introduction (a combination of pitch bend and open drum tones). To
voice the melody I played the actual notes, something that proved to be quite a challenge.
The result was worth the effort. The Celtic swing feel is allowed to settle and the melody
is repeated. The next section of the composition is again a march on the snare drum using
long syncopated rolls with accents on the bass drum and hi-hat. This two bar phrase is
played four times with an emphasis on the first beat like a bagpipe drone (incidentally
something that the guitar and bass portrayed beautifully in the ensemble version).

The piece then evolves into an open improvisation inspired by the Bodhran players of
traditional Irish music. The Bodhran is a traditional Irish frame drum. The head of the
drum is struck with a short double-ended stick held in one hand, whilst the frame of the
drum is held with other. I used rhythms associated with traditional Bodhran playing to
establish a Celtic feel in the improvisation and developed the intensity of the solo, by
using techniques more commonly associated with contemporary drum-kit performance.
The improvisation builds to a climax and then settles. Eventually the march rhythm is re-
established and is allowed to continue until the rallentando reintroduces the opening

The ensemble version of Celtic swing is introduced by trilled toms performing Behans
ballad patriot game. The rhythmical accompaniment performed in the drum-kit part,
through the use of the hi-hat and cymbals is minimalist although rhythmically adequate.
The use of synthesised bagpipes performed by the guitarist adds effective rhythmical
colour. The melody played the second time leads into a solo section. An adaptation of a
Celtic reel is used as the basis for a group improvisation. The improvisation is
approached in a contemporary context similar to improvised group performance in a
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modern jazz setting. The collective improvisation is linier and builds to a climax through
the use of dynamic intensity. The coda and closing melody is a re-introduction of the
opening theme featuring complex harmonic voicing based on overtones played on
cymbals as the very last note. The ensemble realisation is a complete ensemble
interpretation of the solo drum-kit composition.

11. 3 Ode to New Orleans (track 3)
This piece pays homage to the citizens and musicians of New Orleans. It was my
intention to signify the suffering experienced by the people of that city during recent
devastating floods. Melodic content in this piece has a melancholic feel.
The drum-kit explores the theme of the composition using bass drum, snare drum (with
snares turned off) and multiple cymbals

The introductory melody is played on multiple cymbals based on the melodic contour of
the main theme first heard at bar 7. The hi-hat part continues the cymbal colour through
letter A and accompanies the repeated motif played on the toms. The improvisation
section beginning at letter B examples implied melodic drumming rather than voicing
exact pitches.

I improvised on the melody focussing on non-pitched sounds similar to that used in a
contemporary jazz setting. In this recording/performance, however, I did not consider
turning on the snare mechanism and this resulted in the sounding of a clearly pitched F
note on the snare drum which related back to the pitched theme played at bar 7. The
melody that is played again, after the improvisation at letter C. Finally the melody is
played using the open tones and pitch bend techniques first heard at bar 7.

11. 4 Cohiba (track 4)
This composition was named after my favourite cigar, Cohiba and indicates a Cuban
inspiration.

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My aim was to sound like an entire Cuban percussion section playing at once, so the
introduction is high in energy and a complex blend of percussive sound. The introduction
letter A comes to a complete stop, at which point the main theme is introduced bar 2.
Played on the tuned toms. The theme is derived from the word Co-hi-ba based around
three notes C, E and Eb. These notes facilitate a major and minor third sound for the
theme. The melody is first played with a rubato feel and gradually moves into tempo. At
this point letter B a 7/4 rhythm is established.

A second melody is introduced at letter C with a Caribbean feel in 7/4 time. At the
conclusion of this cycle the drums play the 7/4 rhythm pattern first heard at letter B.
Finally the Cohiba theme is restated at letter D.

The next section of the composition is an open Latin-type solo at letter E in a loose 4/4
time similar to the introduction. This section is used as a base for a group improvisation
in the ensemble version and serves as a contrast to the 7/4 time-feel in the earlier sections.
Colours and textures indigenous to the Cuban musical culture are explored. A second
improvisation based loosely on a Mozambique rhythm played on the bell of a cymbal
enters at bar 51.

Cuban percussionist Frank Malabe pioneered this adaptation of the Mozambique rhythm
for the drum-kit during his collaboration with the drummers collective in New York City
circa early 1980s. The performance of the Mozambique involves imitating bell patterns,
cross stick (muted drum-head and rim sounds), bass drum and conga sounds. I moved the
conga part through a series of drum tones, thus creating implied chordal changes. The
composition then recapitulates to the 7/4 theme at bar 66 and fades out at bar 78.


11. 5 Deep Listening (track 5)
Part 1
This title of this composition refers to an Australian Indigenous term used to describe a
80
...quiet and respectful deep listening. It also involves a symbiotic joining of the sacred
and the secular, the metaphysical and the mundane, which coexist in everyday human
experience Dadirri (Atkinson, 2001, p1; Ungunmerr-Baumann, 1988 in Brundell [ed.],
2003).

In the same way that 19
th
century tone-poems directly referred to pictorial/visual ideas
and drama through sounds I have created a sound-picture outlining key events relating to
Australias Indigenous and Non-Indigenous encounters and relationhips. To this small
extent the music comments on social, political and cultural events between the 1800s
and present time.

Importantly, in creating this piece I acknowledge and pay respects to the Indigenous
people of Australia.

Part 1 bars1-90 evokes my interpretation of pre-colonised times for Australia Indigenous
people. Cymbal washes, complex harmonic overtones and long sustained sounds invoke
an Australian landscape. The cymbal wash at the beginning of the piece is pitched and
sets up a tonality of Ab. Other sounds and varied pitches against the cymbal wash
contribute to the timbre of the sound-scape. These harmonic colours were emphasised
and supported by the string part in the ensemble version. The drums struck with mallets
and the rattles and clicking sounds played on the rims of the toms represent an ancient
landscape. Due to the freedom inherent in the improvisational process, I enjoyed the
space and time to compose spontaneously.






Part 2
Part two bars 1-101 begins with the snare drum played in a military fashion. The snare
drum sound is meant to suggest something alien to indigenous Australian culture and is in
81
sharp contrast to the natural musical landscape featured in part 1. The snare part
becomes looser (more a dancing type march), reflecting the lifestyle of the early settlers
and military personnel. The whole of part 2 presents a darker, more menacing aspect
leading to an improvisation at bar 98. Intensity is sustained and built throughout the
second part. A time change from the duple feel to triplet feel increases the tension. The
cymbal drone continues and serves as a pad for the new time-feel at bar 96. Rapid-fire
rudimental outbursts featured in the improvisation express, in a sound-scape narrative, the
growing conflict between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people. The climax is realised
by the use of fast single stroke rolls, a feature of military rudimental drumming. The time
is allowed to settle into a closed press-roll at bar 99, and part 2 segues into part 3 with a
sustained cymbal sound.

Part 3
Part 3 is a musical representation of contemporary life in multi-cultural Australia. Here I
place all the musical elements that occurred in the first and second parts together to
suggest that Indigenous and Non-Indigenous people in Australia today share an
Australian heritage. To achieve this I based the improvisation around a modern funk
drum pattern common to contemporary popular music. The cymbal wash continues
throughout the final section of the piece to recall an indigenous presence. Also the snare
drum part, used to signify the military presence in part two, is included. The bass part
played on a low tuned tom was recorded and treated with digital effects to create a
contemporary bass sound. Finally, I overdubbed more toms and rims to create a collage
of sound utilising the sounds from in part one and two.

11. 6 The last ballad (track 6)

This composition is a ballad written for solo drum-kit. The ensemble realisation follows
the drum-kit melody in a heterophonic manner. The introduction is a sketch of the
melody, mirrored on the cymbals. To add to a sense of rhythmic fluidity rubato and
accelerando techniques are used extensively. The opening phases involve cymbal
harmonics achieved by striking cymbals on their edge with the stick vertical to the
82
cymbal. The melody is played on tuned toms using open pitches. Pitches are played with
continuous press-rolls to extenuate the legato effect. The undulating sound of the rolls
adds to a romantic feel. The bridge section end of bar 14 is played using pitch bend
techniques and bending the melody up a major 3
rd
. A percussive accompaniment is
supplied by the hi-hat splashed with the foot.

The improvisation on the tune is played using some of the non-pitched elements of
melodic drumming on the drum-kit. That is, the creation of melodic contours via means
of dynamic contrast, coupled with higher and lower cymbal and drum tones. The solo is
played over a binary A B compositional structure. The melody is played again after the
improvised solo section and concludes with a ritarando. This piece is dedicated to the late
Gary Costello who played bass on the recordings used for this project.


12 Conclusion
The focus of my research has been to investigate melodic drumming in contemporary
popular drum-kit performance and composition. The investigation reveals that drum-kit
melodic performance and composition practices have been part of an evolutionary
process. Further, development of melodic drum-kit playing techniques has helped create a
more inclusive role for drum-kit players within ensembles and increased the potential for
drum-kit players to present solo elements in performance.

The project artefacts of my research are six compositions. They demonstrate performance
and compositional techniques related to melodic drumming for the drum-kit. The
compositions are presented on two CDs. The first features the drum-kit part of the six
compositions. The second presents the compositions as ensemble performances and
demonstrate the extended role for drum-kit players within an ensemble setting. The
compositions are also presented in score form to facilitate their on-going performance.

The project is supported by an exegesis outlining my research-project methodologies. An
autobiographical section follows the autoethnographic and practice-based research
83
methods. In this section I noted how my professional practice, especially my melodic
drum-kit practice, has been rooted in social and professional music-making over a
number of decades. I made a special mention of duo performance experiences and
traditional Irish music-making as factors which presented time and space opportunities
enabling me to explore drum-kit performance ideas beyond the role of a time-keeper.

Informants interviewed for this study (drummers and other instrument players) revealed
that they do perceive their performance practices as melodic, though each express it
through different performance practices. In this way, their practices reflect different
melodic drumming practices of drum-kit players during the last one hundred years.

An outline of key developments in drum-kit performance practices and discussion on
contributions to the evolution of melodic drum-kit practices by key musicians provided a
context for references about my (and others) melodic-drum-kit developments.

Time-feel is discussed as time and feel performed spontaneously. The feel of music
refers to the spirit of the music; making meaning of the music, as well as the
communicative emotional qualities of musical interplay. That is, durational elements join
with all musical elements to create an emotional feel to a performance. I maintained that
understanding and entering into this area of drum-kit performance was a prerequisite for
developing melodic drum-kit practices.

Similarly, an understanding of potential tuning systems for the drum-kit and willingness
to explore their uses lay at the heart of melodic drum-kit practices.

I referred to particular drum-kit performance techniques and practices such as mirroring,
thinking melodically, spatial relationships between drum-kit instruments and ensemble
players, ascending and descending playing patterns, responding to harmonic and
rhythmic elements of performance, internalising melodic and harmonic ideas and being in
the moment as useful practices for the development of melodic drum-kit playing.

84
I described the importance of improvisation skills for melodic drumming and suggested
techniques from my own professional practice which can be referred to by others drum-
kit players. As an educator my project contributes to potential melodic drum-kit
repertoire for young emerging musicians.

I have shown in my compositional project that melodic elements in drum-kit performance
and composition encourage a broader and more inclusive role for drummers in
improvised performance. This is evident in the ensemble versions of compositions
submitted as part of this study.

The two CDs and the scored representations submitted illustrate the melodic nature of my
drum-kit performance style, and that of my musical colleagues Steve Magnusson, Gary
Costello and Greg Riddell.

Finally, my project compositions contribute new repertoire for drum-kit players who wish
to explore their performance practices beyond that of the rudimental virtuoso time-
keeper; especially for players wishing to explore melodic drum-kit techniques as a soloist
and as an equal member of a musical ensemble creating music from a broad palette of
sonic material.




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Jordan, M. (2004). M. Jordan. Melbourne


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61
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Ad Lib Hi-Hat
67
Ad Lib and fade

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Celtic Swing
Michael Jordan
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Slowly
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A

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Reel Entry
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To Coda

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Open Improvisation on Celtic Swing and Build

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61
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Play 16 bars of Celtic Swing

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Free intro Cuban Play freely

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Play 13 bars simile
21

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28
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Tempo 100
Ode to New Orleans
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