COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY Seeks solutions for social problems through research and action Studies effects of social and

environmental factors on behavior as behavior is expressed at the individual, group, community, organizational, institutional and societal levels Studies processes that create and maintain these problems Focuses on developing interventions to improve overall health of community by changing processes that create problems Integration of research and action to enhance quality of individual and community lives Participant Conceptualizer- community psychologist, actively involved in community process while attempting to explain it GUIDING PRINCIPLES Welfare of individual and family, community, diversity, justice, participation, collaboration, integrity and empirical grounding Must emphasize engagement with community itself, not merely observing it Values- clarify choices, question dominant views, identify incongruence between actions and current values, understanding community requires comprehension of values, values unify community Wellness- physical and psychology health and attainment of goals Collective Wellness- health of community defined by justice and empowerment Community- perception of belongingness, interdependence and mutual commitment Diversity- recognition of variety of social identities Justice- fair, equitable allocation of resources, opportunities, obligations and power Distributive Justice- allocation of resources Procedural Justice- representative in decision making Collaboration- working with, not upon, community members Empirical Evidence0 base action on tested evidence for effectiveness Prevention and Promotion0 reduce future likelihood of problems Consultation- promote satisfaction and effectiveness of services Alternative Settings- provide alternative treatment areas Community Development- help citizens organize to identify and solve issues Participatory Research0 researchers and citizens collaborate to solve issues Policy Research0 research to inform decision makers PARADIGM Assumptions, values, theoretical perspectives that define the questions to be asked and solutions to be considered Shifts occur when current assumptions and perspectives are challenged and alternative definitions of problems and corresponding solutions are considered Shift away from person-centered to ecological-centered, from interventions that change people to changing context, from remedying deficits to enhancing competence and empowerment HISTORY Social Movements- civil rights movement for justice, diversity and participation, advocating local action War on Poverty- provide safety from poverty through welfare, unemployment benefits, etc. Deinstitutionalization- Advances in psychotropic medication reduced dependence upon medication Hospitalization failed to prepare individuals for independent living Relocation of mentally ill to criminal justice system

Community Health Center Movements- community lodges developed to create mutually supportive communities Identify conditions that inhibit mental health and change them through social action

COMMUNITY Geographically defined interdependent relations Reference group of shared identity, ideology and experience Complex social system with defined hierarchical structure Service area of particular activity Membership- sense of personal investment and belonging Boundaries- what includes and excludes members Common Symbols- define boundaries and identify members Emotional Safety- sense of security and shared emotions Personal Investment- long-term commitment Identification- accepted by other members Integration- shared values and exchange of resources Neighboring- informal contacts and assistance among neighbors Place Attachment- emotional bonding attached to environment Citizen Participation- having influence in community decisions Social Support- help by others to promote coping with stress Social Capital- connections among individuals, social networks and norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness Bonding- maintaining social-emotional ties within groups of similar persons through support and mutual commitment Bridging- creating bonds between groups that have diverse experiences BIAS Cultural background, experience and bias shape assumptions and responses to problems Context Minimization Error- ignoring importance of context Context- environment within which an individual lives Fundamental Attribution Error- tendency of observers to overestimate individual characteristics Persons change contexts and contexts shape people Questionable if individuals without experience of social problems should attempt to solve them CHANGE First Order Change- alters, rearranges, or replaces individual members of a group Second Order Change- changing relationships between individuals Bottom-Up- originates among citizens, reflects attempts to assert control Top-Down- originates among professionals, reflects attempts to preserve power structure Progressive governments concerned with optimism and change, conservatives less so SOCIAL PROBLEM All problems occur in a social context and are to varying degrees social issues Individual variables determine who is affected by stress but society creates stress Social problem is bound by time, place and context Represents particular construction of reality Must be periodically redefined, underlying assumptions re-examined, thus expanding possible solutions

Current solutions ineffective despite time, money and effort Assumptions are flawed and requires paradigm shift Simplistic solutions perpetuation problems by false impressions and unintended consequences Single Standard Assumption- assumes individuals operate according to same standards but problems are difficult because people adapt to accept them Pragmatism- rely on simplest, most understandable and agreeable solution Also relies on assumptions of individualism, rationality, problemizing, over-extension, and generalization LEVELS OF ANALYSIS Individual-single person Group- Collection of individuals Community-large group with a shared identity Organization- communities with a purpose to activity Institution- abstract purposes of organizations Society- political and cultural organization of institutional services ERROR OF LOGICAL TYPING Solutions to social problems not targeted at appropriate level Error produces iatrogenic effects Divided into levels of individual, group, community, organization, institution, society IATROGENIC EFFECTS Government intervention may alienate community response resources Transfer of federal to local allows easier access to research Lack of trust in government has fostered communal resources Budget limitations may foster growth of alternative solutions Globalization- centralizing effects of market capitalism LAW OF AROUSAL (YERKES-DODSON) Relationship between efficiency and performance is an inverted U-shape with inefficient performance at extreme levels of arousal Optimal performance requires optimum arousal for specific task Level of arousal needed to garner support differs from level needed to develop solution Best way to control over-arousal is to simplify it into smaller issues Small issues are easier to solve and manage with greater flexibility Politically less threatening and easier to tolerate Small issues are more effective in the aggregate COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH (RAPPAPORT) Define problem as it is currently Identify and evaluate current assumptions Redefine problem and look for higher level contributions Conceptualize multiple possible solutions and target several levels or organization simultaneously Concepts match complexity of problem, avoids simplistic solutions Multiple simultaneous solutions, possibility of finding effective long-term solutions Too complex, challenges status quo, divisive, political change can result in loss of impetus for change SMALL WINS ALTERNATIVE (WEIK)

Better at diagnosing problems than solving Efforts to address social problems often hampered by high emotional arousal Magnitude of social problem scaled upward to mobilize action, occurs at expense of clear thought Limits risk of overwhelming, controls resistance, small success could build into larger aggregate change Solutions are achievable in short time with fewer resources Oversimplifies, compromise solutions risks iatrogenic effects Assumes small wins will aggregate Time, resources and attention tend to quickly shift once small changes are made INTEGRATION Integrate the concepts of Rappaport with the practice of Weik Divergent Reasoning- identify multiple truths in opposing perspectives through dialogue, not debate PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SETTINGS (KELLY) Interdependence- mutual influence of subsystems, interventions with wide effects Cycling- cycle resources according to values, differ not only in kind but use Interventions seek to not only provide additional resources but instruct for better use Adaptation-all settings make demands for adaptation, behavior in setting are partially products of adaptation Changes in setting can be understood as responses to demands for adaptations to changing political, economic and social pressures Succession- orderly, directional, predictable process of community change Results from the physical or emotional modification of the environment by the community or external forces Changes culminate in the establishment of new ecosystem BEHAVIOR SETTINGS (BARKER) Behavior settings are naturally occurring spatial and temporal features of environments that shape behavior independent of individual residents Behavior characterize settings , settings vary in the degree to which they exert these effects Behavior settings are discrete locations that impact behavior because of size, function, availability of roles and the rules that govern behavior Settings generate own maintenance forces upon individuals acting within them Manning- relationship between number of roles and level of role demands and availability of persons to meet demands and meet roles Undermanned- significant imbalance between role demand and responsibilities and people to fill the need, push inhabitants towards greater participation and to assume more responsibility Morale high, risk of burnout, greater tolerance Overmanned- people exceed availability of meaningful roles Setting more stable in long term but risks alienation Strong rules imposed to ensure respect for hierarchy Small cliques likely to form, tolerance is low Behavior setting is descriptive but fails to consider the person-environment fit Program Circuits- agenda for a meeting, guides the standing behavior pattern Goal Circuits- satisfy goals of individuals Deviation-Countering Circuits- training individuals for roles in the behavior setting and correcting their behavior to improve role performance Vetoing Circuits- occur when individuals are excluded from behavior setting

SOCIAL CLIMATE ANALYSIS (MOOS) Social Climate- product of residents subjective impressions or cognitive-affective map of the setting Impact of setting on behavior is mediated by social cognitions about the setting Physical- size, population density, resources Group- mix of people in setting Organizational Structure- size, complexity Reinforcement- consequences of behavior Organizational Climate- rules, decisions, pathways Social Climate- subjective impressions Relationship Dimension- degree of involvement, affiliation, support, cohesion Personal Growth Dimension- degree of autonomy, achievement System Change Dimension- structure, clarity or expectations, control Outcomes can be changed by changing setting aspects that contribute to their behavior Greater stress in competitive orientation, time pressure, restrictive organization and control, lack of personal choice, ambiguous rules ROLE THEORY (SARBIN) Useful in understanding problems of adaptation and in designing interventions other than those that are person-centered Environments or social settings and understandable as a series of differentiated ecologies or social niches within which people correctly locate them Roles help define who we are in relation to others Violations of roles result in conflict Social rules may prevent access to roles for individuals Improved access can be achieved by changing rules by changing laws, by conflict confrontation or by changing incentives to open up opportunities Behavior understood as function of role as well as individual attitudes Can be coercive on behavior as people try to fulfill social role Loss of meaningful roles is detrimental to well-being Conflicted roles constrain behavior or produce contradictory behavior How available are rules, who has access, what determines access Status- position in social structure Ascribed- biosocial based Achieved- effort based Value- positive or negative evaluation of performance of role Involvement- amount of time and energy in performing role Roles with high achieved status involve considerable status Minimum role performance is sufficient to garner benefits High ascribed status carry little or no benefit Minimum performance of these roles results in little status Can suffer from role stress, role conflict or role overload Can have degraded social identities, may function despite this Social relationships often limited to those of similar roles Interventions should include increasing variety of roles, positive self-esteem Critical factor is number of available roles compared to individuals