AN INTRODUCTION TO STIRLING-CYCLE MACHINES

David Haywood
Stirling-cycle Research Group
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Canterbury
Notation:
c
v
specific heat capacity T temperature (K)
at constant volume (J/kgK) U internal energy (J)
p pressure (Pa) V volume (m
3
)
Q heat (J) W work (J)
R specific gas constant (J/kgK) coefficient of performance
S entropy (J/K) efficiency (%)
sign convention: energy into a system is positive, energy out of a system is negative.
1. BACKGROUND
Machines operating on the Stirling Cycle are the most efficient practical heat engines
ever built. As an engine they can run on any heat source (including solar heating), and if
combustion-heated they produce very low levels of harmful emissions. When operated
as a refrigerator or heat-pump Stirling-cycle machines offer the possibility of using safe
refrigerants such as air, thus avoiding the environmental damage caused by all
refrigerants in current use (NOTE: even the so-called green refrigerant R134a is a potent
greenhouse gas).
2. THE STIRLING-CYCLE MACHINE
There are five main components in a Stirling-cycle machine, as shown in Figure 2.1.
(a) Working gas the Stirling Cycle is a closed cycle and the various thermodynamic
processes are carried out on a working gas that is trapped within the system.
(b) Heat-exchangers two heat exchangers are used to transfer heat across the system
boundary. A heat absorbing heat-exchanger transfers heat from outside the system
into the working gas, and a heat rejecting heat-exchanger transfers heat from the
working gas to outside the system. For example, on an engine the heat absorbing
heat-exchanger might transfer heat from a burner into the working gas, and the heat
rejecting heat-exchanger might transfer heat from the working gas to coolant in a
water-jacket.
(c) Displacer mechanism this moves (or displaces) the working gas between the hot
and cold ends of the machine (via the regenerator).
2.
(d) Regenerator this acts both as a thermal barrier between the hot and cold ends of the
machine, and also as a thermal store for the cycle. Physically a regenerator usually
consists of a mesh material (household pot scrubbers have even been used in some
engines), and heat is transferred as the working gas is blown through the
regenerator mesh. When the working gas is displaced from the hot end of the
machine (via the regenerator) to the cold end of the machine, heat is deposited in
the regenerator, and the temperature of the working gas is lowered. When the reverse
displacement occurs, heat is withdrawn from the regenerator again, and the
temperature of the working gas is raised.
Cold end
Hot end
N
E
T

W
O
R
K

O
U
T
HEAT IN
(from burner, solar heater, etc.)
HEAT OUT
(to coolant, ambient environment, etc.)
Heat absorption heat-exchanger
Heat rejection heat-exchanger
Displacer mechanism
Regenerator
TEMPORARY HEAT
STORAGE
Expansion/compression mechanism
E
N
G
I
N
E
(
c
l
o
s
e
d

c
y
c
l
e

c
o
n
t
a
i
n
i
n
g

a

w
o
r
k
i
n
g
g
a
s
)
[A]

Hot end
Cold end
N
E
T

W
O
R
K

I
N
HEAT IN
(from Cold Space)
HEAT OUT
(to Hot Space)
Heat absorption heat-exchanger
Heat rejection heat-exchanger
Displacer mechanism
Regenerator
TEMPORARY HEAT
STORAGE
Expansion/compression mechanism
R
E
F
R
I
G
E
R
A
T
O
R
/
H
E
A
T
-
P
U
M
P
(
c
l
o
s
e
d

c
y
c
l
e

c
o
n
t
a
i
n
i
n
g

a

w
o
r
k
i
n
g
g
a
s
)
[B]
Figure 2.1. Stirling-cycle machine block diagrams: (A) Engine (B) Refrigerator or heat-pump.
(e) Expansion/compression mechanism this expands and/or compresses the working
gas. In an engine this mechanism produces a net work output. In a refrigerator or
heat-pump a net work input is required to move the heat from a low to a high
temperature regime (in accordance with the Second Law of Thermodynamics).
A Stirling-cycle machine can be constructed in a variety of different configurations. For
example, the expansion/compression mechanisms can be embodied as turbo-machinery, a
piston-cylinder, or even using acoustic waves. Most commonly, Stirling-cycle machines
use a piston-cylinder, in either an or configuration. An -configuration machine uses
two pistons which displace and expand/compress the gas at the same time. A -
configuration machine has a separate displacer-piston and expansion/compression piston
(usually called a power-piston).
3.
3. THE STIRLING-CYCLE AS AN ENGINE
In an ideal Stirling-cycle engine the components of the machine interact to produce four
separate thermodynamic processes. These processes are illustrated using a simplified -
configuration machine in Figure 3.2., and are shown on pressure-volume and
temperature-entropy diagrams in Figure 3.1. It should be noted that for the ideal Stirling
Cycle the heat-exchangers, regenerator, and transfer passages are assumed to have zero
volume.
Volume (m
3
)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
P
a
)
[A]
1
2
3
4

Entropy (J/K)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
K
)
[B]
1 2
3 4
Figure 3.1. Thermodynamic processes in the ideal Stirling-cycle engine. (A) Pressure-volume diagram.
(B) Temperature-entropy diagram.
1 2
: Isothermal (constant temperature) expansion the high-pressure working gas
absorbs heat from the hot space (via the heat absorbing heat-exchanger) and
expands isothermally, thus doing work on the power-piston.
2 3
: Isochoric (constant volume) displacement the displacer-piston transfers all
the working gas isochorically through the regenerator to the cold end of the
machine. Heat is absorbed from the gas as it passes through the regenerator,
thus lowering the temperature of the gas to that of the cold space. As the
temperature reduces, the gas pressure drops significantly.
3 4
: Isothermal compression the power-piston does work on the gas and
compresses it isothermally at cold end temperature, hence rejecting heat to
the cold space (via the heat rejecting heat-exchanger). Because the gas is at
low pressure, less work is required for compression than was obtained from
the gas during expansion (in 12). The cycle therefore has a net work
output.
4 1
: Isochoric displacement the displacer-piston transfers all the working gas
isochorically through the regenerator to the hot end of the machine. Heat is
delivered to the gas as it passes through the regenerator, thus raising the
temperature of the gas to that of the hot space. As the temperature rises, the
gas pressure increases significantly, and the system returns to its initial
conditions.
4.
WORK
OUT
Heat rejecting
heat-exchanger
Heat rejecting
heat-exchanger
REGEN-
ERATOR
H
O
T

E
N
D
C
O
L
D

E
N
D
DISPLACER PISTON
POWER
PISTON
MOVES
HEAT IN
HEAT IN
REGEN-
ERATOR
Heat rejecting
heat-exchanger
Heat absorbing
heat-exchanger
Heat rejecting
heat-exchanger
H
O
T

E
N
D
Heat absorbing
heat-exchanger
DISPLACER
PISTON
MOVES
POWER
PISTON
C
O
L
D

E
N
D
gas flow gas flow
gas flow gas flow
Heat transfer
from gas to
regenerator
Heat transfer
from gas to
regenerator
1 2 : Isothermal expansion

2 3 : Isochoric displacement
HEAT OUT
WORK
IN
Heat absorbing
heat-exchanger
Heat absorbing
heat-exchanger
REGEN-
ERATOR
C
O
L
D

E
N
D
DISPLACER PISTON
POWER
PISTON
MOVES
HEAT OUT
REGEN-
ERATOR
Heat rejecting
heat-exchanger
Heat absorbing
heat-exchanger
Heat rejecting
heat-exchanger
H
O
T

E
N
D
Heat absorbing
heat-exchanger
DISPLACER
PISTON
MOVES
POWER
PISTON
C
O
L
D

E
N
D
gas flow gas flow
gas flow gas flow
Heat transfer
from regen-
erator to gas
Heat transfer
from regen-
erator to gas
3 4 : Isothermal compression

4 1 : Isochoric displacement
Figure 3.2. Thermodynamic processes in the ideal Stirling-cycle engine as shown on a simplified -
configuration machine.
4. ANALYSIS OF THE STIRLING-CYCLE ENGINE
4.1. Work done by an ideal Stirling-cycle engine
The net work output of a Stirling-cycle engine can be evaluated by considering the cyclic
integral of pressure with respect to volume:

= V p W d
This can be easily visualised as the area enclosed by the process curves on the pressure-
volume diagram in Figure 3.1.
To evaluate the integral we need only consider the work done during the isothermal
expansion and compression processes, since there is no work done during the isochoric
processes, i.e.
5.
1
1
]
1

+

4
3
2
1
d . d .
V
V
V
V
V p V p W (4.1.)
By considering the equation of state:
mRT pV
and noting that T is constant for an isothermal process, and m is constant for a closed
cycle, then an expression for work done during an isothermal process can be formulated:
[ ]

,
_

A
B
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
mRT V mRT V
V
mRT
V p
B
A
B
A
B
A
ln ln d d (4.2.)
so that by substitution of Equation 4.2. into Equation 4.1. we can evaluate the work
integral:
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

3
4
1
2
ln ln
V
V
mRT
V
V
mRT W
L H

where the subscripts H and L denote the high and low temperature isotherms respectively.
This equation can then be further simplified by noting that V
4
= V
1
and V
3
= V
2
so that a
final equation for work can be obtained:
( )
L H
T T
V
V
mR W

,
_

1
2
ln (4.3.)
The work done represents energy out of the system, and so has a negative value
according to the sign convention used here.
Inspection of Equation 4.3. therefore shows that the work output for a Stirling-cycle
machine can be increased by maximising the temperature difference between hot and
cold ends (T
H
-T
L
), the compression ratio (V
2
/V
1
), the gas mass (and hence either the total
volume of the machine and/or the mean operating pressure), or the specific gas constant.
Material strength/temperature considerations and practicalities such as the overall size of
the machine usually limit the amount that the temperature, volume, or pressure can be
increased. However, it is interesting to note that the specific work output (i.e. work
output per kilogram) can be dramatically enhanced in a Stirling-cycle machine simply by
selecting a working gas with a high specific gas constant.
Table 4.1. Specific gas constants for a variety of gases at 300 K. (Source: Van Wylen, et al., 1994)
Gas Specific gas constant, R (J/kgK)
Air 319.3
Ammonia 488.2
Carbon dioxide 188.9
Helium 2077.0
Hydrogen 4124.2
Nitrogen 296.8
Propane 188.6
Steam 461.5
6.
One of the reasons that hydrogen and helium are so often used as the working gas in large
Stirling-cycle machines can be deduced by inspection of the values for specific gas
constants given in Table 4.1. (another reason is the lower flow losses that occur with
smaller molecule gases).
4.2. Heat flow in an ideal Stirling-cycle engine
The heat flowing into and out of a Stirling-cycle engine can be evaluated by considering
the integral of temperature with respect to entropy:

= S T Q d
This can be visualised as the area beneath the process curves on the temperature-entropy
diagram in Figure 3.1.
Since the isochoric heat transfers within the regenerator are completely internal to the
cycle, i.e. -Q
23
= Q
41
, then to evaluate the heat flows into and out of the system we
need only consider the isothermal processes.
For the isothermal expansion process in a closed cycle (where T and m are constant, and
where the subscripts H and L denote the high and low temperature isotherms
respectively):

=
2
1
d
S
S
H H
S T Q
this integral can be most easily evaluated by considering the First Law of
Thermodynamics in the form:
W U Q = d
and since:
S T Q d = and V p W d =
then it can be said that:
( ) V p U S T d d d =
so that the heat flow during the isothermal expansion process can be expressed in terms
of a change in internal energy and volume:

+ =
2
1
2
1
d d
V
V
U
U
H
V p U Q
and by considering the equation of state:
mRT pV =
then the pressure term can be expressed in terms of volume and temperature, and (noting
that there is no change in internal energy during an isothermal process) the integral can
be easily solved:
[ ]
2
1
2
1
2
1
ln 0 d d
V
V H
V
V
H
U
U
H
V mRT V
V
mRT
U Q + = + =

giving:
7.

=
1
2
ln
V
V
mRT Q
H H
(4.4.)
which is a somewhat convoluted (but hopefully instructive) method of derivation. The
same expression can, of course, be obtained much more easily by simple inspection of
Equation 4.3., since the heat and work transfers for an isothermal expansion process are
equal but opposite.
The isothermal compression process can also be readily evaluated (noting that V
4
= V
1
and V
3
= V
2
, and where the subscripts H and L denote the high and low temperature
isotherms respectively), giving:

=
1
2
ln
V
V
mRT Q
L L
(4.5.)
4.3. Efficiency of an ideal Stirling-cycle engine
The efficiency of any heat engine is defined as the ratio of work output to heat input, i.e.
H
Q
W
=
hence an equation for the efficiency of an ideal Stirling-cycle engine can be developed by
considering Equations 4.3. and 4.4., giving:
( )

=
1
2
1
2
ln
ln
V
V
mRT
T T
V
V
mR
H
L H
STIRLING

which simplifies to:

H
L H
STIRLING
T
T T
= (4.6.)
this demonstrates the interesting fact that the efficiency of an ideal Stirling-cycle engine
is dependant only on temperature and no other parameter.
It is worth recalling that the Carnot efficiency for a heat engine is:
H
L H
CARNOT
T
T T
=
and so it will readily be observed that:
CARNOT STIRLING
=
or, in other words, that the Stirling-cycle engine has the maximum efficiency possible
under the Second Law of Thermodynamics. However, it should be noted that unlike the
Carnot Cycle, the Stirling-cycle engine is a practical machine that can actually be used to
produce useful quantities of work.
8.
5. THE STIRLING-CYCLE AS A REFRIGERATOR OR HEAT-PUMP
The ideal Stirling-cycle refrigerator or heat-pump is, in effect, identical to a Stirling-cycle
engine except that the heat absorbing end of the machine now becomes the cold region,
and the heat rejecting end of the machine becomes the hot region. The thermodynamic
processes for a refrigerator/heat-pump are illustrated using a simplified -configuration
machine in Figure 5.2., and are shown on pressure-volume and temperature-entropy
diagrams in Figure 5.1. Because refrigerator/heat-pumps tend to have a smaller
temperature difference between hot and cold regimes than an engine, the pressure-volume
and temperature-entropy diagrams appear somewhat squatter in comparison. It should be
noted that for the ideal Stirling Cycle the heat-exchangers, regenerator, and transfer
passages are assumed to have zero volume.
[A]
Volume (m
3
)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
P
a
)
4
1
3
2

[B]
Entropy (J/K)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
K
)
1 2
3 4
Figure 5.1. Thermodynamic processes in the ideal Stirling-cycle refrigerator or heat-pump. (A) Pressure-
volume diagram. (B) Temperature-entropy diagram.
1 2
: Isothermal expansion the low-pressure working gas expands isothermally at
cold end temperature, hence absorbing heat from the cold space (via the heat
absorbing heat-exchanger) and doing work to the power-piston.
2 3
: Isochoric displacement the displacer-piston transfers all the working gas
isochorically through the regenerator to the hot end of the machine. Heat is
delivered to the gas as it passes through the regenerator, thus raising the
temperature of the gas to that of the hot space. As the temperature rises, the
gas pressure increases significantly.
3 4
: Isothermal compression the power-piston does work to the gas and
compresses it isothermally at hot end temperature, hence rejecting heat to the
hot space (via the heat rejecting heat-exchanger). Because the gas is at high
pressure, more work is required for compression than was obtained from the
gas during expansion (in 12). The cycle therefore has a net work input.
4 1
: Isochoric displacement the displacer piston transfers all the working gas
isochorically through the regenerator to the cold end of the machine. Heat is
9.
absorbed from the gas as it passes through the regenerator, thus lowering the
temperature of the gas to that of the cold space. As the temperature reduces,
the gas pressure drops significantly, and the system returns to its initial
conditions.
WORK
OUT
Heat rejecting
heat-exchanger
Heat rejecting
heat-exchanger
REGEN-
ERATOR
C
O
L
D

E
N
D
H
O
T

E
N
D
DISPLACER PISTON
POWER
PISTON
MOVES
HEAT IN
HEAT IN
REGEN-
ERATOR
Heat rejecting
heat-exchanger
Heat absorbing
heat-exchanger
Heat rejecting
heat-exchanger
C
O
L
D

E
N
D
Heat absorbing
heat-exchanger
DISPLACER
PISTON
MOVES
POWER
PISTON
H
O
T

E
N
D
gas flow gas flow
gas flow gas flow
Heat transfer
from regen-
erator to gas
Heat transfer
from regen-
erator to gas
1 2 : Isothermal expansion

2 3 : Isochoric displacement
HEAT OUT
WORK
IN
Heat absorbing
heat-exchanger
Heat absorbing
heat-exchanger
REGEN-
ERATOR
H
O
T

E
N
D
DISPLACER PISTON
POWER
PISTON
MOVES
HEAT OUT
REGEN-
ERATOR
Heat rejecting
heat-exchanger
Heat absorbing
heat-exchanger
Heat rejecting
heat-exchanger
C
O
L
D

E
N
D
Heat absorbing
heat-exchanger
DISPLACER
PISTON
MOVES
POWER
PISTON
H
O
T

E
N
D
gas flow gas flow
gas flow gas flow
Heat transfer
from gas to
regenerator
Heat transfer
from gas to
regenerator
3 4 : Isothermal compression

4 1 : Isochoric displacement
Figure 5.2. Thermodynamic processes in the ideal Stirling-cycle refrigerator/heat-pump as shown on a
simplified -configuration machine.
6. ANALYSIS OF THE STIRLING-CYCLE REFRIGERATOR OR HEAT-
PUMP
6.1. Work input to an ideal Stirling-cycle refrigerator or heat-pump
An equation for net work input to an ideal Stirling-cycle refrigerator/heat-pump can be
derived in exactly the same way as work output for a Stirling-cycle engine (see Section
4.1.), giving:
( )
L H
T T
V
V
mR W

=
1
2
ln (6.1.)
10.
Note that, unlike the work output from an engine, the refrigerator/heat-pump work has a
positive value under the energy sign convention used here, since a net energy input is
required to move heat from a low to high temperature regime.
6.2. Heat flow in an ideal Stirling-cycle refrigerator or heat-pump
Equations for the heat flows into and out of an ideal Stirling-cycle refrigerator/heat-pump
can be derived in a similar way as heat flows in a Stirling-cycle engine (see Section 4.2.).
The main difference is that in a refrigerator/heat-pump the heat flows into the system at a
low temperature (T
L
) and out of the system at a high temperature (T
H
).
For a heat-pump, the heating effect is therefore:

=
1
2
ln
V
V
mRT Q
H H
(6.2.)
And for a refrigerator, the refrigeration effect is:

=
1
2
ln
V
V
mRT Q
L L
(6.3.)
6.3. Performance of an ideal Stirling-cycle refrigerator or heat-pump
The coefficient of performance for any refrigerator/heat-pump is defined as the ratio of
heating/cooling effect to work input, i.e.
for a heat-pump, the heating coefficient of performance is:
W
Q
H
H

=
for a refrigerator, the refrigeration coefficient of performance is:
W
Q
L
L
=
hence equations for coefficient of performance for ideal Stirling-cycle refrigerators and
heat-pumps can be developed by considering Equations 6.1., 6.2., and 6.3., giving:
( )
L H
H
STIRLING H
T T
V
V
mR
V
V
mRT

=
1
2
1
2
ln
ln
and
( )
L H
L
STIRLING L
T T
V
V
mR
V
V
mRT

=
1
2
1
2
ln
ln

which simplifies to:

L H
H
STIRLING H
T T
T

= (6.4.)
and

L H
L
STIRLING L
T T
T

= (6.5.)
11.
so that (as should be expected from the derivation of efficiency for the Stirling-cycle
engine):
CARNOT H STIRLING H
= and
CARNOT L STIRLING L
=
7. CONCLUSIONS
It should be noted that the Stirling-cycle machine has only been considered here in its
ideal form. Practical Stirling-cycle machines differ from the ideal cycle in several
important aspects:
(a) The regenerator and heat-exchangers in practical Stirling-cycle machines have non-
zero volume. This means that the working gas is never completely in either the hot or
cold end of the machine, and therefore never at a uniform temperature.
(b) The piston motion is usually semi-sinusoidal rather than discontinuous, leading to
non-optimal manipulation of the working gas.
(c) The expansion and compression processes in practical Stirling-cycle machines are
polytropic rather than isothermal. This causes pressure and temperature fluctuations
in the working gas and leads to adiabatic and transient heat transfer losses.
(d) Fluid friction losses occur during gas displacement, particularly due to flow through
the regenerator.
(e) Other factors such as heat conduction between the hot and cold ends of the machine,
seal leakage and friction, appendix gap effects, and friction in kinematic mechanisms
all cause real Stirling-cycle machines to differ from ideal behaviour.
Although Stirling-cycle machines theoretically have Carnot efficiency, the above factors
tend to reduce the performance of real machines to significantly less than this value.
Further information about the Stirling Cycle and its practical limitations can be found in
West [2] and Wurm, et al. [3].
8. REFERENCES
[1] Van Wylen, Sonntag, R.E., Borgnakke, C. Fundamentals of Classical
Thermodynamics. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1994.
[2] West, C.D. Principles and Applications of Stirling Engines. Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, New York, 1985.
[3] Wurm, J., Kinast, J.A., Roose, T.R., Staats, W.R. Stirling and Vuilleumier Heat
Pumps. McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, 1991.