Hollow Sections
Hollow Sections
Hollow Sections
by J. Wardenier
42
9F
39073,9
43,
54:7
F;0
45502039
09
9:/0
/0
43897:.9
43
%:-:
70
3 ., 422 88 43
$
!:- 8 07
Professor Jeffrey A. Packer Chair, International Institute of Welding Subcommission XV-E on Tubular Structures Mr. Noel F. Yeomans Chair, CIDECT Technical Commission December 2001.
- iii -
Acknowledgement
This book serves as a background for students in Structural and Civil Engineering. Since the available hours for teaching Steel Structures and particularly Tubular Structures vary from country to country, this book has been written in a modular form. To cover the needs in the various countries, a committee was established to review the material. Although the material is mainly based on the Eurocodes, the setup makes it easy to change the lectures and relate them to other (national) codes. I wish to thank the review committee for their constructive comments during the preparation of this book. In particular I would like to thank my colleagues Prof. Packer, Prof. Puthli and Mr. Yeomans for their very detailed checks and suggestions. I am very grateful that Prof. Packer was willing to check the language in detail. Appreciation is further extended to the authors of the various CIDECT Design Guides and to CIDECT itself for making parts of these design guides or background information for this book available. Grateful acknowledgement is made to the contributions of Delft University of Technology in particular for the typing by Mrs van der Wouden and the excellent preparation of the figures and the layout by Dr. Liu. Finally, I wish to thank CIDECT for the initiative in sponsoring the writing of this book and producing the CD-ROM.
Contents
Acknowledgement Contents Symbols
page iv v viii
1.
1.1 1.2 1.3
Introduction
History and developments Designation Manufacturing of hollow sections
2.
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7
3.
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 4. 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5. 5.1 5.2 5.3
Applications
Buildings, halls, etc. Bridges Barriers Offshore structures Towers and masts Special applications Composite construction Introduction Design methods Simplified design method for axially loaded columns Resistance of a section to bending Resistance of a section to bending and compression Influence of shear forces Resistance of a member to bending and compression Determination of bending moments Load Introduction Fire resistance of hollow section columns Introduction Fire resistance Designing unfilled SHS columns for fire resistance
5.4 5.5 5.6 6. 7. 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 8. 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 9. 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9
Designing concrete filled SHS columns for fire resistance Designing water filled SHS columns for fire resistance Connections and fire resistance Hollow section trusses Behaviour of connections General introduction General failure criteria General failure modes Joint parameters Welded connections between circular hollow sections Introduction Modes of failure Analytical models Experimental and numerical verification Basic joint strength formulae Evaluation to design rules Other types of joints Design charts Concluding remarks Welded connections between rectangular hollow sections Introduction Modes of failure Analytical models Experimental and numerical verification Basic joint strength formulae Evaluation to design rules Other types of joints or other load conditions Design charts Concluding remarks
10. Welded connections between hollow sections and open sections 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Modes of failure 10.3 Analytical models 10.4 Experimental verification 10.5 Evaluation to design criteria 10.6 Joints predominantly loaded by bending moments
11.
11.1
Modes of failure Models Experimental and numerical verification Basic joint strength formulae Concluding remarks
12. Bolted connections 12.1 Flange plate connections 12.2 End connections 12.3 Gusset plate connections 12.4 Splice connections 12.5 Bolted subassemblies 12.6 Beam to column connections 12.7 Bracket connections 12.8 Purlin connections 12.9 Blind bolting systems 12.10 Nailed connections
13.
13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8
14.
14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 15. 16.
Design examples
Uniplanar truss in circular hollow sections Uniplanar truss in square hollow sections Multiplanar truss (triangular girder) Multiplanar truss in square hollow sections Joint check using formulae Concrete-filled column with reinforcement References CIDECT
Please Note : Care has been taken to ensure that the contents of this publication are accurate, but CIDECT and the author do not accept responsibility for errors or for information which is found to be misleading
Symbols
A Aa Ac Am Am Anet As Av Be CK CT CX CTOD E Ea Ed Ecm Es I Ia Ib Ic Is It JAA Lb Lco Lo M Mb Mc,Rd Me Mf Mfi Mj Mj,Rd Mj,Sd Mp # Mp#,f Mp#,Rd Mt,Rd My N N Nb,Rd Ncr, Ncr Neq Nfi cross sectional area cross sectional area of the structural steel in a composite column cross sectional area of concrete in a composite column surface area of a steel member/unit length cross section parameter for torsion net cross sectional area cross sectional area of the reinforcement in a composite column shear area effective chord length in ring model efficiency parameter for K-joints efficiency parameter for T-joints efficiency parameter for X-joints Crack Tip Opening Displacement modulus of elasticity modulus of elasticity for the steel section in a composite column energy dissipation modulus of elasticity for concrete in a composite column molulus of elasticity for the reinforcement in a composite column moment of inertia moment of inertia for the steel section in a composite column moment of inertia for a beam moment of inertia for the concrete in a composite column moment of inertia for the reinforcement in a composite column torsional moment of inertia load ratio for multiplanar joint length of beam buckling length under fire condition measured length of a tensile test specimen moment beam bending moment design bending moment capacity of a member elastic moment capacity moment in flange maximum applied end moment in the fire situation joint bending moment joint moment capacity joint moment loading plastic moment capacity plastic moment capacity of a flange beam plastic moment capacity design torsional moment capacity of a member elastic yield moment capacity axial load number of cycles design buckling capacity of a member buckling resistance under fire conditions elastic Euler buckling load equivalent axial load joint design resistance, expressed as an axial force in member i axial force in the fire situation
NG.Sd Ni Ni Nnc Np# Np#,Rd NSd No No,gap Nop Nt, Rd N1 (JAA = 0) N1 (JAA) N1u Ov R RAZ Rd R(t) S SCF Sd Sj,ini So V Vf Vp# Vp#,f Vp#,Rd VSd W Wo W eff W e# W p# Wt a b b be bep be,ov bi bj bo bm bm bw c c, co, c1 d
permanent part of the acting design force in a composite column applied axial force in member i (i = 0, 1, 2, 3) number of cycles to failure compression resistance of gross cross section at room temperature axial load capacity of a member design yield capacity of a member (acting) design normal force chord load reduced axial load resistance, due to shear, in the cross section of the chord at the gap chord "preload" (additional axial force in the chord member at a connection which is not necessary to resist the horizontal components of the brace member forces) design tensile capacity of a member axial load capacity for JAA = 0 axial load capacity for a particular JAA axial ultimate load capacity based on the load in member 1 overlap, Ov = q/p x 100% stress or load ratio reduction of area design resistance at room temperature capacity under fire condition static moment to neutral axis stress concentration factor design action initial rotational stiffness of a joint cross sectional area of a standard tensile test specimen (in mm2) volume of a steel member/unit length shear load on flange plastic shear load capacity plastic shear capacity of a flange design plastic shear capacity factored design shear load section modulus chord elastic section modulus effective section modulus elastic section modulus plastic section modulus section modulus for torsion throat thickness of a weld width of a plate external side length of a rectangular hollow section effective width of brace member effective punching shear width effective width for overlapping brace member connected to overlapped brace member external width of a brace i (i = 1, 2 or 3) width of overlapped brace j external width of a chord effective width of a web of an I section chord average width of an RHS (b-t) effective width of a web a correction factor used for columns to obtain the effective degree of utilization coefficients external diameter of a hollow section
external diameter of a brace i (i = 1, 2 or 3) external diameter of a chord concrete cover to reinforcement eccentricity design buckling stress design strength of the concrete in a composite column characteristic concrete cylinder strength in N/mm2 buckling stress for chord side wall (general) buckling stress function which incorporates the chord prestress in the joint strength equation design strength of the reinforcement in a composite column characteristic strength of the reinforcement in a composite column specified ultimate tensile strength ultimate tensile stress of the chord specified design yield strength average design yield strength of a cold formed section yield strength of the basic material of a hollow section design yield strength design yield strength of a brace i (i = 1, 2 or 3) design yield strength of a chord strength at room temperature strength in the fire condition gap between the braces of a K-, N- or KT joint at the connection face of the chord
m mp n n' ni p p ps q q q, q1, q2 r r
external depth of a brace i (i = 1, 2 or 3) external depth of a chord average depth of an RHS (h-t) moment arm depth of plate or depth of an I or RHS section brace a moment modification factor length circumferential parameter for torsion length of yield line i buckling length slope of -N curve plastic moment per unit length
applied number of cycles internal pressure length of projected contact between overlapping brace and chord without the presence of the overlapping brace amount of reinforcement projected length of overlap between braces of a K- or N-joint at the chord face uniform distributed loading loadings radius of gyration inside corner radius of rectangular or square hollow sections
r rj ro t t ti tj to
ratio of the smaller to the larger end moment (-1r+1) load bearing capacity in fire of a single component of a composite cross-section radius of a chord member (I, U or RHS) time thickness; wall thickness wall thickness of a brace i (i = 1, 2 or 3) thickness of overlapped brace j wall thickness of a chord or through member (e.g. column) non-dimensional factor for the effectiveness of the chord flange in shear diameter or width ratio between braces and chord:
a c s m
geom nom
half diameter or width to thickness ratio of the chord, = do/2to or bo/2to partial safety factor for the steel section in a composite column partial safety factor for concrete in a composite column partial safety factor for the reinforcement in a composite column material or joint partial safety factor deformation section parameter (steel contribution ratio) stress range geometrical stress range nominal stress range coefficient for local buckling brace member depth to chord width ratio = hi/b0 temperature steel temperature acute angle between brace member i (i = 1, 2, 3) and the chord slenderness of a member under compression Euler slenderness relative slenderness ratio degree of utilization related bending capacity related bending capacity about y axis related bending capacity about z axis stress stress in steel member of a composite column stress in concrete part of a composite column stress in chord prestress in chord stress in the reinforcement of a composite column minimum stress maximum stress geometrical stress at the joint nominal stress in a member brace to chord thickness ratio shear stress design bond stress
s i
Rd
d n min
reduction factor for buckling ratio between design force and plastic moment capacity of a composite section corrected factor for effect of end moment ratio buckling coefficient according to curve "c" of EC3 Part 1 or any equivalent national buckling curve rotation in a yield line
1.
INTRODUCTION
Design is an interactive process between the functional and architectural requirements and the strength and fabrication aspects. In a good design, all these aspects have to be considered in a balanced way. Due to the special features of hollow sections and their connections it is even here of more importance than for steel structures of open sections. The designer should therefore be aware of the various aspects of hollow sections. Many examples in nature show the excellent properties of the tubular shape with regard to loading in compression, torsion and bending in all directions, see Figs. 1.1 and 1.2. These excellent properties are combined with an attractive shape for architectural applications (Figs. 1.3 and 1.4). Furthermore, the closed shape without sharp corners reduces the area to be protected and extends the corrosion protection life (Fig. 1.5). Another aspect which is especially favourable for circular hollow sections is the lower drag coefficients if exposed to wind or water forces. The internal void can be used in various ways, e.g. to increase the bearing resistance by filling with concrete or to provide fire protection. In addition, the heating or ventilation system sometimes makes use of the hollow section columns. Although the manufacturing costs of hollow sections are higher than for other sections, leading to higher unit material cost, economical applications are achieved in many fields. The application field covers all areas, e.g. architectural, civil, offshore, mechanical, chemical, aeronautical, transport, agriculture and other special fields. Although this book will be mainly focused on the background to design and application, in a good design not only does the strength have to be considered, but also many other aspects, such as material selection, fabrication including welding and inspection, protection, erection, in service inspection and maintenance. One of the constraints initially hampering the application of hollow sections was the design of the joints. However, nowadays design recommendations exist for all basic types of joints, and further research evidence is available for many special types of joints. Based on the research programmes carried out, CIDECT (Comit International pour le Dveloppement et l'Etude de la Construction Tubulaire) has published
design guides [1 to 8] for use by designers in practice. Since these design guides are all together too voluminous for education purposes and do not provide the theoretical background, it was decided to write this special book as a background for students in structural and civil engineering.
1.1
The excellent properties of the tubular shape have been recognised for a long time; i.e. from ancient time nice examples are known. An outstanding example of bridge design is the Firth of Forth Bridge in Scotland (1890) with a free span of 521 m, shown in Fig. 1.6. This bridge has been built up from tubular members made of rolled plates which have been riveted together, because other fabrication methods were at that time not available for these sizes. In that century the first production methods for seamless and welded circular hollow sections were developed. In 1886, the Mannesmann brothers developed the skew roll piercing process (Schrgwalzverfahren), shown in Fig. 1.7, which made it possible to roll short thick walled tubulars. This process, in combination with the Pilger Process (Pilgerschrittverfahren, Fig. 1.8), developed some years later, made it possible to manufacture longer thinner walled seamless hollow sections. In the first part of the previous century, the Englishman Whitehouse developed the fire welding of circular hollow sections. However, the production of welded circular hollow sections became more important after the development of the continuous weld process in 1930 by the American Fretz Moon (Fig. 1.9). Especially after the Second World War, welding processes have been perfected, which made it possible for hollow sections to be easily welded together. The end cutting required for fitting two circular hollow sections together was simplified considerably by the development by Mller of a special end preparation machine (Fig. 1.10). For manufacturers who did not have such end cutting machines, the end preparation of circular hollow sections remained a handicap. A possibility to avoid the connection problems was the use of prefabricated connectors, e.g. in 1937
1.1
"Copy free of charge - for educational purposes only"
Mengeringhausen developed the Mero system. This system made it possible to fabricate large space structures in an industrialized way (Fig. 1.11). In 1952 the rectangular hollow section was developed by Stewarts and Lloyds (now Corus Tubes). This section, with nearly the same properties as the circular hollow section, enables the connections to be made by straight end cuttings. In the fifties, the problems of manufacturing, end preparation and welding were solved and from this point of view the way to a successful story was open. The remaining problem was the determination of the strength of unstiffened joints. The first preliminary design recommendations for truss connections between circular hollow sections were given by Jamm [45] in 1951. This study was followed by several investigations in Japan [46,47], the USA [48,49,50] and Europe [30,32,33,35,38,39,40,42,44]. The research on connections between rectangular hollow sections started in Europe in the sixties, followed by many other experimental and theoretical investigations. Many of these were sponsored by CIDECT. Besides these investigations on the static behaviour, in the last 25 years much research was carried out on the fatigue behaviour and other aspects, such as concrete filling of hollow sections, fire resistance, corrosion resistance and behaviour under wind loading.
Besides the Mannesmann process, other processes are used, most of them based on the same principle [31,32]. Nowadays, welded hollow sections with a longitudinal weld are mainly made with electrical resistance welding processes or with an induction welding process, shown in Fig. 1.12. A strip or plate is shaped by rollers into a cylindrical shape and welded longitudinally. The edges are heated e.g. by electrical resistance. The rollers push the edges together, resulting in a pressure weld. The outer part of the weld is trimmed immediately after welding. Rectangular hollow sections are made by deforming circular hollow sections through forming rollers, as shown in Fig. 1.13. This can be done hot or cold and seamless or longitudinally welded circular hollow sections can be used. It is common practice to use longitudinally welded hollow sections. For the very thick sections, seamless sections may be used. Square or rectangular hollow sections are sometimes made by using channel sections, which are welded together or by shaping a single strip to the required shape and closing it by a single weld, preferably in the middle of a face. Large circular hollow sections are also made by rolling plates through a so-called U-O press process shown in Fig. 1.14. After forming the plates to the required shape, the longitudinal weld is made by a submerged arc welding process. Another process for large tubulars is to use a continuous wide strip, which is fed into a forming machine at an angle to form a spirally formed circular, see Fig. 1.15. The edges of the strip are welded together by a submerged arc welding process resulting in a so-called spirally welded tube. More detailed information about the manufacturing processes and the limitations in sizes can be obtained from [31,32].
1.2
DESIGNATION
The preferred designations for structural applications are: - structural hollow sections - circular hollow sections - rectangular hollow sections (SHS) (CHS) (RHS)
In Canada and the USA it is common to speak about Hollow Structural Sections (HSS) instead of (SHS).
1.3
As mentioned, hollow sections can be produced seamless or welded. Seamless hollow sections are made in two phases, i.e. the first phase consists of piercing an ingot and the second one consists of the elongation of this hollow bloom into a finished circular hollow section. After this process, the tube can go through a sizing mill to give it the required diameter. 1.2
"Copy free of charge - for educational purposes only"
Fig. 1.2
Bamboo
Fig. 1.4
1.3
"Copy free of charge - for educational purposes only"
Steel
Paint
Steel
1.5
"Copy free of charge - for educational purposes only"
2.
2.1
Nowadays, more refined characterisation methods also exist to characterise the ductility of cracked bodies, e.g. the CTOD (Crack Tip Opening Displacement) method. These characterisation methods are generally used for pressure vessels, transport line pipes and offshore applications, which are beyond the scope of this book. Another characterisation is sometimes required for thick walled sections which are loaded in the thickness direction. In this case, the strength and ductility in the thickness direction should be sufficient to avoid cracking, called lamellar tearing, see Fig. 2.1. This type of cracking is caused by non metallic manganese-sulphide inclusions. Thus, if the sulphur content is very low or the sulphur is joined with other elements such as calcium (Ca), such a failure can be avoided. Indirectly this is obtained by requiring a certain reduction of area RAZ in the tensile test. For example, RAZ = 35 means that in the tensile test the cross sectional area at failure has been reduced by 35% compared to the original cross sectional area. In most structural steel specifications the yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, elongation and in some specifications also the Charpy V values are specified. Design standards or specifications give further limitations for the fu/f y ratio, whereas depending on the application more restrictive requirements may be given related to CTOD values or the properties in the thickness direction (Z quality). Another aspect is the effect of cold forming on the mechanical properties of the parent steel. In the case of cold forming of hollow sections, the yield strength and to a lesser extent the ultimate tensile strength are increased, especially in the corners, as shown in Fig. 2.2. Further, the yield to ultimate tensile ratio is increased and the elongation somewhat decreased. If the specifications specify the properties based on the finished product, these properties have been already taken into account. However, some specifications specify the material properties of the parent material. In this case, the increased yield strength can be taken into account for design. The method for the determination of the increased yield strength given in Eurocode 3 is based on the work of Lind and Schroff [51]. Here it is assumed that the product of the cold formed area times the increase of yield strength is nearly constant. Thus, a small corner radius produces a small cold formed area with a large cold forming effect and consequently a large increase in yield strength, and a large corner radius does just the
Hollow sections are made of similar steel as used for other steel sections, thus in principle there is no difference, and the mechanical properties are given in standards [26 to 29]. Tables 2.1a and 2.2a show, as an example, the mechanical properties according to the European standard EN 10210-1 for hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain structural steels. The cold formed sections are given in EN 10219-1: Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of nonalloy and fine grain structural steels (see tables 2.1b and 2.2b). As shown, the requirements of EN 10210-1 and EN 10219-1 are almost identical. Hollow sections can also be produced in special steels, e.g. high strength steel with yield strengths up to 690 N/mm2 or higher, weathering steels and steel with improved or special chemical compositions, etc. Generally, the design of members is based on yield, since the deformation under loads becomes excessive. In statically indeterminate structures, yielding of members or yielding at particular locations provides redistribution of loads. In this case, sufficient deformation capacity or rotation capacity is required. E.g. a tensile member made of ductile steel can be brittle if a particular cross section is weakened, e.g. by holes in such a way that this cross section fails before the whole member yields. It is therefore required that yielding occurs first. This shows that the yield to ultimate tensile strength ratio is also important, especially for structures with very non uniform stress distributions, which is a situation that occurs in tubular joints. Some codes, such as Eurocode 3 [12], require the following condition for the specified minimum values:
1.2
(2.1)
This is only one aspect for ductility. In the case of impact loading, the steel and members should also behave in a ductile manner. That is why a requirement based on the standard Charpy test is also given in tables 2.1.a and 2.2.a.
opposite. Based on research work [51] it can be assumed that in every corner of 90 the yield strength f yb is increased over a length of 7t to the ultimate tensile strength of the parent material. The total increase over the section 4(7t)t(fu-f y) can be averaged over the section, resulting in an average yield strength f ya, as shown in table 2.3 and Fig. 2.2. In those cases where the RHS sections are made from a CHS section a considerable increase in yield strength of the flat sides may also occur. If the yield stress of the finished product is used this increase is automatically included. It is noted that the cold formed sections should satisfy the requirements for minimum inside corner radius to guarantee sufficient ductility, see table 2.4 for fully aluminium killed steel. Sometimes cold formed hollow sections are annealed or stress relieved immediately after cold forming. EN 10210-1 states that "the standard EN 10210-1 applies to hot finished hollow sections formed hot with or without subsequent heat treatment or formed cold with subsequent heat treatment to obtain equivalent metallurgical conditions to those obtained in the hot formed product."
applicable standards are EN 10210-2 'Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain structural steels - tolerances, dimensions and sectional properties' and EN 10219-2 'Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain structural steels - tolerances, dimensions and sectional properties'. The majority of manufacturers of structural hollow sections do not produce all the sizes shown in these standards. It should also be noted that other sizes, not included in these standards, may be produced by some manufacturers. The tolerances on dimensions and shape are given in ISO 657-14 and ISO 4019 for circular and rectangular (including square) sections respectively. Again, various national standards are also applicable and these may or may not contain the same tolerances. In Europe the tolerances are contained within EN 10210-2 and EN 10219-2 respectively for hot finished and cold formed sections, see Tables 2.5a and 2.5b. The majority of the tolerances given in EN 10219-2 are the same as those in EN 10210-2. Where differences do occur, these are indicated in table 2.5b. Due to additional mass and length tolerances, considerable variations may occur between the various national standards [52]. Although circular, square and rectangular hollow sections are the generally-used shapes; other shapes are sometimes available. For example, some tube manufacturers deliver the shapes given in Table 2.6. However, these shapes are not dealt with further in this book.
2.2
2.3
GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES
2.3.1 Tension
The design capacity Nt,Rd of a member under a tensile loading depends on the cross-sectional area and the design yield strength, and is independent of the sectional shape. In principle, there is no advantage or disadvantage in using hollow sections from the point of view of the amount of material required. The design capacity is given by:
The dimensions and sectional properties of structural hollow sections have been standardised in ISO standards ISO 657-14 [20] and ISO 4019 [21] for hot formed and cold formed structural hollow sections respectively. Various national standards are available which may contain these and other sizes. In Europe the two
(2.2) where M is the partial safety factor. If the cross section is weakened by bolt holes, the net cross section should also be checked in a similar way as for other sections, e.g. acc. to [12]: (2.3) The factor 0.9 may vary from country to country depending on the partial factor M used. Where ductile behaviour is required (e.g. under seismic loading), the plastic resistance shall be less than the ultimate resistance at the net section of fastener holes, i.e.: 0.9 Anet f u > A f y
The reduction factor shown in Fig. 2.3 is the ratio of the design buckling capacity to the axial plastic capacity. (2.5)
2.3.2 Compression
For centrally loaded members in compression, the critical buckling load depends on the slenderness and the section shape. The slenderness is given by the ratio of the buckling length # and the radius of gyration r. (2.4) The radius of gyration of a hollow section (in relation to the member mass) is generally much higher than that for the weak axis of an open section. For a given length, this difference results in a lower slenderness for hollow sections and thus a lower mass when compared with open sections. The buckling behaviour is influenced by initial eccentricities, straightness and geometrical tolerances as well as residual stresses, nonhomogeneity of the steel and the stress-strain relationship. Based on an extensive investigation by the European Convention for Constructional Steelwork and CIDECT, "European buckling curves" (Fig. 2.3 and table 2.7) have been established for various steel sections including hollow sections. They are incorporated in Eurocode 3.
where
(Euler slenderness)
(2.9)
The buckling curves for the hollow sections are classified according to table 2.7. Most open sections fall under curves "b" and "c". Consequently, for the case of buckling, the use of hotformed hollow sections generally provides a considerable saving in material. Fig. 2.4 shows for a buckling length of 3 m a comparison between the required mass of open and hollow sections for a given load. It shows that in those cases in which loads are small, leading to relatively slender sections, hollow sections provide a great advantage (considerably lower use of material). However, if loads are higher, resulting in low slendernesses, the advantage (in %) will be lower. The overall buckling behaviour of hollow sections improves with increasing diameter or width to wall thickness ratio. However, this improvement is limited by local buckling. To prevent local buckling, d/t or b/t limits are given e.g. in Eurocode 3, see table 2.8. In the case of thin walled sections, interaction between global and local buckling should be considered. In addition to the improved buckling behaviour due to the high radius of gyration and the enhanced design
buckling curve, hollow sections can offer other advantages in lattice girders. Due to the torsional and bending stiffness of the members in combination with joint stiffness, the effective buckling length of compression members in lattice girders with K-gap joints can be reduced (Fig. 2.5). Eurocode 3 recommends an effective buckling length for hollow section brace members in welded lattice girders equal to or less than 0.75#, see [2,12], in which # represents the system length. Other codes, e.g. API [15] give a buckling length of 0.8#. For lattice girders with overlap joints no test results are available and for the time being the buckling length is assumed to be the system length. For chords 0.9 times the system length for in-plane buckling or 0.9 times the length between the supports is taken as the buckling length. Laterally unsupported chords of lattice girders (see Fig. 2.6) have a reduced buckling length due to the improved torsional and bending stiffness of the tubular members [53,54]. These factors make the use of hollow sections in girders even more favourable.
member loaded by bending moments. The moment-rotation curve "1" shows a moment exceeding the plastic moment and a considerable rotation capacity. Moment-rotation curve "2" shows a moment exceeding the plastic moment capacity; but after the maximum, the moment drops immediately, so that little moment-rotation capacity exists. Momentrotation curve "3" represents a capacity lower than the plastic moment capacity, which, however, exceeds the elastic yield moment capacity. In the moment-rotation curve "4" the capacity is even lower than the elastic yield moment capacity. The effect of the momentrotation behaviour is reflected in the classification of cross sections as shown in table 2.8. The cross section classification is given in limits for the diameter or width to thickness ratio, i.e. d/t, b/t or h/t. The limits are based on experiments and given as: for CHS (2.10)
for RHS
(2.11)
2.3.3 Bending
In general, I and H sections are more economical under bending about the major axis (Imax larger than for hollow sections). Only in those cases in which the design stress in open sections is largely reduced by lateral buckling do hollow sections offer an advantage. It can be shown by calculations that lateral instability is not critical for circular hollow sections and for rectangular hollow sections with b/h >0.25 (with bending about the strong axis), which are normally used. It is apparent that hollow sections are especially favourable compared to other sections if bending about both axes is present. Hollow sections used for elements subjected to bending can be more economically calculated using plastic design. However, then the sections have to satisfy more restricted conditions to avoid premature local buckling. Like other steel sections loaded in bending, different moment-rotation behaviours can be observed. Fig. 2.7 shows various moment-rotation diagrams for a with f y in N/mm2 and c depending on the section class, the cross section and the loading. The cross section classes 1 and 2 can develop the plastic moment capacity up to the given b/t or d/t limits with bi-linear stress blocks, whereas the moment capacity of the cross section classes 3 and 4 is based on an elastic stress distribution (see Fig. 2.8). The difference between the cross section classes 1 and 2 is reflected in the rotation capacity. After reaching the plastic moment capacity, the cross section class 1 can keep this capacity after further rotation, whereas the capacity of the cross section class 2 drops after reaching this capacity. As a consequence, the moment distribution in the structure or structural component should be determined in an elastic way for structures made of sections with cross section classes 2, 3 or 4. For structures made of sections with cross sections in class 1, a plastic moment distribution can be adopted, but an elastic moment distribution is still permissible (and in some countries more common). Detailed information about the classification is given in [2].
cross sectional
Recent research by Wilkinson and Hancock [56] has shown that especially the limits for the web slenderness have to be reduced considerably and that the limits of Eurocode 3 for the h/t ratio are unsafe.
For a beam fully clamped at both ends and subjected to a uniformly distributed loading q, it means that after reaching the plastic moment capacity at the ends, the beam can be loaded until a further plastic hinge occurs at mid span (see Fig. 2.9). For the class 4 cross section the maximum stress is determined by local buckling and the stress in the outer fibre is lower than the yield strength f y. Alternatively, an effective cross sectional area based on the yield strength may be determined. In the absence of shear forces or if the shear forces do not exceed 50% of the shear capacity Vp#,Rd, the effect of shear may be neglected and the bending moment capacity about one axis is given by:
criterion by assuming the shear yield strength in those parts active for shear. Vp#,Rd = with Av = A for rectangular sections (2.16)
2.3.5 Torsion
Hollow sections, especially CHS, have the most effective cross-section for resisting torsional moments, because the material is uniformly distributed about the polar axis. A comparison of open and hollow sections of nearly identical mass in table 2.9 shows that the torsional constant of hollow sections is about 200 times that of open sections. The design capacity is given by: Mt,Rd = W t (2.17)
for cross section classes 1 or 2 (2.12) for cross section class 3 (2.13)
(d-t)3 t
(2.18)
When the shear force exceeds 50% of the shear capacity, combined loading has to be considered, see e.g. Eurocode 3.
with W t =
(2.19)
2.3.4 Shear
It = The elastic shear stress can be determined with simple mechanics by: (2.20)
with:
#A
(2. 15)
(2.21) (2.22)
Am = bm hm Fig. 2.10 shows the elastic stress distribution. The design capacity based on plastic design can be easily determined based on the Huber-Hencky-Von Mises
with W t =
(2.20a)
For thin walled rectangular hollow sections eq. 2.20a can be approximated by: W t = 2 hm bm t (2.23) The first term in eq. 2.20 is generally only used for open sections however, research [57] has shown that the given formula fits the test results best.
For transport pipelines, the M value may be considerably larger than for other cases, depending on the hazard of the product, the effect of failure on the environment and the inspectability. The design capacities for RHS sections subjected to internal pressure are much more complicated; reference can be made to [58].
the hollow section can be filled with concrete. For example, it may be preferable in buildings to have the same external dimensions for the columns on every floor. At the top floor, the smallest wall thickness can be chosen, and the wall thickness can be increased with increasing load for lower floors. If the hollow section with the largest available wall thickness is not sufficient for the ground floor, the hollow section can be filled with concrete to increase the load bearing resistance. A very important reason for using concrete-filled hollow sections is that the columns can be relatively slender. Design rules are given in e.g. Eurocode 4 [13]. Concrete filling of hollow sections contributes not only to an increase in load bearing resistance, but it also improves the fire resistance duration. The extensive test projects carried out by CIDECT and ECSC have shown that reinforced concrete-filled hollow section columns without any external fire protection like plaster, vermiculite panels or intumescent paint, can attain a fire life of even 2 hours depending on the cross-section ratio of the steel and concrete, reinforcement percentage of the concrete and the applied load, see Fig. 2.14 [4].
heating or ventilation system. This system offers maximization of floor area through elimination of heat exchangers, a uniform provision of warmth and a combined protection against fire.
2.7 AESTHETICS
A rational use of hollow sections leads in general to structures which are cleaner and more spacious. Hollow sections can provide slender aesthetic columns, with variable section properties but flush external dimensions. Due to their torsional rigidity, hollow sections have specific advantages in folded structures, V-type girders, etc.. Lattice construction, which is often made of hollow sections directly connected to one another without any stiffener or gusset plate, is often preferred by architects for structures with visible steel elements. However, it is difficult to express aesthetic features in economic comparisons. Sometimes hollow sections are used only because of aesthetic appeal, whilst at other times appearance is less important, see e.g. Fig. 2.16a and Fig. 2.16b.
Table 2.1a EN 10210-1 Hot Finished Structural Hollow Sections Non-Alloy Steel Properties
Minimum tensile strength N/mm 2 Min. elong.% on gauge Lo = 5.65 t Charpy Impact strength (10x10 mm) Temp. J
Steel designation
40 mm*
Trans.
t<3mm
3 t 65 mm
Long.
C
26 22 24 20 20 0 -20 27 27 27 27 27
360-510 430-580
340-470 410-560
345
335
510-680
490-630
22
20
0 -20
Table 2.1b EN 10219-1 Cold Formed Welded Structural Hollow Sections Non-Alloy Steel - Steel Property different from EN 10210-1
Steel designation Min. longitudinal elongation, % all thicknesses, tmax = 40 mm 24 20
20
Table 2.2a EN 10210-1 Hot Finished Structural Hollow Sections - Fine Grain Steel Properties
Minimum tensile strength N/mm 2 Min. elong.% on gauge Lo = 5.65 t Charpy Impact strength (10x10 mm) Temp. C -20 -50 -20 -50 J 40 27 40 27
Steel designation
65 mm*
Trans.
16<t 40 mm 265
40<t 65 mm 255
t 65mm 370-540
Long.
24
22
355
345
335
470-630
22
20
Table 2.2b EN 10219-1 Cold Formed Welded structural Hollow Section Fine Grain Steel - Steel Property different from EN 10210-1
Feed stock condition* M Steel designation Min. Tensile strength S275MH S275MLH S355MH S355MLH S460MH S460MLH 360 - 510 Min. longitudinal elongation 24
450 - 610
22
530 - 720
17
For sections 60 x 60 mm and equivalent round and rectangular sections, the minimum elongation is 17% for all steel grades and section thicknesses.
Table 2.3 Increase in yield strength due to cold-forming of RHS sections [12] Average yield strength: The average yield strength fya may be determined from full size section tests or as follows:
specified tensile yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of the basic material (N/mm2) material thickness (mm) gross cross-sectional area (mm2) coefficient depending on the type of forming (k = 7 for cold forming) number of 90 bends in the section with an internal radius < 5 t (fractions of 90 bends should be counted as fractions of n) f ya should not exceed fu or 1.2 fyb The increase in yield strength due to cold working should not be utilised for members which are annealed* or subject to heating over a long length with a high heat input after forming, which may produce softening. Basic material: Basic material is the flat hot rolled sheet material out of which sections are made by cold mechanical forming. * Stress relief annealing at more than 580 C or for over one hour may lead to deterioration of the mechanical properties,
thus hot dip galvanizing at about 460 C gives no reduction of the increased stresses.
where f yb, f u = t = A = k = n =
Table 2.4 Minimum inner corner radii of full aluminium ( 0.02%) killed cold finished RHS [12] Steel grade Acc. to EN 10219 [29] Previous designation 24 12 10 6 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0
Table 2.5a EN 10210-2 Hot Finished Structural Hollow Sections - Tolerances Section type Square/rectangular Outside dimension Thickness Mass Straightness Length (exact) Out of roundness Squareness of sides Corner radii Twist Outside Concavity/convexity 90, 1 3.0 t max. 1% of the side 2 mm + 0.5 mm/m Welded Seamless Welded Seamless -10% -10% and -12.5% at max. 25% cross section 6% on individual lengths -6%; +8% 0.2% of the total length
Circular
+10 mm, -0 mm, but only for exact lengths of 2000 to 6000 mm 2% for d/t 100 -
Table 2.5b EN 10219-2 Cold Formed welded structural Hollow Sections - Tolerance Variations from EN 10210-2 Section type Square/rectangular Circular Outside dimension Concavity/convexity Outside corner radii
b < 100 mm: the greater of 0.5mm and 1% 100 mm h, b 200 mm: 0.8%, b > 200 mm: 0.6%
max. 0.8% with min. of 0.5 mm t 6 mm 1.6 to 2.4t 6 mm < t 10 mm 2.0 to 3.0t t > 10 mm 2.4 to 3.6t
t 5 mm: 10% t > 5 mm: 0.5 mm
For d 406.4 mm, For d > 406.4 mm, 10%, max. 2 mm t 5 mm: 10% t > 5 mm: 0.5mm
Thickness Mass
Welded
Straightness
Table 2.6 Special shapes available triangular shape hexagonal octagonal flat - oval elliptical half-elliptical
Table 2.7 European buckling curves according to manufacturing processes Cross section Manufacturing process Buckling curves
ao
Hot finished
Cold formed (f ya** used) f yb = yield strength of the basic material ** f ya = yield strength of the material after cold forming
Table 2.8 b/t, h/t and d/t limits for the cross section classes 1, 2 and 3 (for r0 = 1.5t)
class
cross section load type considered element fy(N/mm2) 235 275
1
355 460 235 275
2
355 460 235 275
3
355 460
RHS
compression*
compression
45
41.6
36.6
32.2
45
41.6
36.6
32.2
45
41.6
36.6
32.2
RHS bending compression 36 33.3 29.3 25.7 41 37.9 33.4 29.3 45 41.6 36.6 32.2
RHS
bending
1)
bending
1)
1)
1)
1)
1)
1)
1)
1)
1)
1)
1)
1)
CHS
50
42.7
33.1
25.5
70.0
59.8
46.3
35.8
90.0
76.9
59.6
46
There is no difference between b/t and h/t limits for the classes 1, 2 and 3, when the whole cross section is
only under compression. * Class 3 limits appear when whole section is in compression. 1) Recent research [56] has shown that the Eurocode limits for the web slenderness should be reduced (h 2 t 2 ri ) 5 (b 2 t 2 ri ) considerably, e.g. for class 1 to : 70 t 6t
"Copy free of charge - for educational purposes only"
Table 2.9 Torsional strength of various sections Section Mass (kg/m) 25.3 26.2 26.7 24.7 24.9 24.0 Torsion constant It (104 mm4) 11.9 13.5 13.8 8.1 1475 2017
UPN 200 INP 200 HEB 120 HEA 140 140x140x6 168.3x6
Table 2.10 Drag coefficients for I-profiles and hollow sections depending on Reynold's number Section
d0
Drag coefficient
b0
b0
2.0
3 2 1 4
Perimeter Fig. 2.2 Influence of cold forming on the yield strength for a square hollow section of 100x100x4 mm
1.00
Euler
0.75
ao a b c
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
240 200
CHS HEA
RHS
fy / M (N/mm2)
160 120 80 40 0 0
IPE 1000 kN 800 kN L 600 kN (Angle) 400 kN 200 kN
L Double
angle
20
Fig. 2.4 Comparison of the masses of hollow and open sections under compression in relation to the loading
Fig. 2.6 Bottom chord laterally spring supported by the stiffness of the members, joints and purlins
Buckling length 3m
40 60 Mass (kg/m)
80
Mpl My 3 Me 4 2 1
4 / p
fy
fy
Class 1 and 2
Class 3
Class 4
l M = 1 ql2 12 Moment distribution for beams under "elastic" loading M = 1 ql2 16 Moment distribution for beams of class 1 at the plastic limit
M=
1 2 ql 24
M=
1 2 ql 16
Y
Fig. 2.10 Elastic shear stress distribution
t fy
d - 2t
t fy
Fig. 2.12 Wind flow for open and circular hollow sections
Fig. 2.15 Rain water down pipe through a hollow section column
3. APPLICATIONS
The applications of structural hollow sections nearly cover all fields. Sometimes hollow sections are used because of the beauty of their shape, to express a lightness or in other cases their geometrical properties determine their use. In this chapter, some examples will be given for the various fields and to show the possibilities [63,64,65].
in Stuttgart, Germany. For the connections, streamlined steel castings are used. Nowadays, many examples of tubular structures are found in railway stations (Figs. 3.6 and 3.7) and (retractable) roofs of stadia and halls (Figs. 3.8 and 3.9). Indeed, as stated by one of the former CIDECT vice presidents at the Tubular Structures Symposium in Delft (1977) "The sky is the limit", whilst he showed beautiful applications of structural hollow sections. Figs. 3.10 - 3.12 show some more nice application examples.
3.2 BRIDGES
As mentioned in the introduction, the Firth of Forth Bridge is an excellent example of using the hollow section shape for structural applications in bridges. Nowadays, many examples exist. Figs. 3.13 to 3.16 show various examples of pedestrian bridges; the last two are movable bridges. Fig. 3.17 shows a railway bridge near Rotterdam with a circular hollow section arch. A very nice example of a road-pedestrian bridge is shown in Fig. 3.18, being a composite steel-concrete bridge with hollow sections for the arch and braces and a concrete deck. Circular hollow sections are sometimes also used for the flanges of plate girders, as shown in Fig. 3.13 for a triangular box girder.
3.3 BARRIERS
There are a few aspects which make hollow sections increasingly used for hydraulic structures, such as barriers. Due to environmental restrictions, the maintenance of hydraulic structures requires such precautions that it is expensive; therefore the durability is important. Structures of hollow sections are less susceptible to corrosion due to the rounded corners. Furthermore, especially circular hollow sections have lower drag coefficients, leading to lower forces due to wave loading. Fig. 3.19 shows a barrier with a support structure of circular hollow sections. Fig. 3.20 shows the storm surge barrier near Hook of Holland with triangular arms of circular hollow sections (length 250 m).
Fig. 3.8 Retractable roof for the Ajax stadium in Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Fig. 3.12 Barrel dome grid for the Trade Fair building in Leipzig, Germany
Fig. 3.14 Pedestrian bridge in Toronto, Canada Fig. 3.13 Pedestrian bridge in Houdan, France
Fig. 3.15 Movable pedestrian bridge in RHS near Delft, The Netherlands
Fig. 3.20 Storm surge barrier near Hook of Holland, The Netherlands
4. COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete filled hollow sections (Fig. 4.1) are mainly used for columns. The concrete filling gives a higher load bearing capacity without increasing the outer dimensions. The fire resistance can be considerably increased by concrete filling, in particular if proper reinforcement is used. Due to the fact that the steel structure is visible, it allows a slender, architecturally-appealing design. The hollow section acts not only as the formwork for the concrete, but ensures that the assembly and erection in the building process is not delayed by the hardening process of the concrete. CIDECT research on composite columns started already in the sixties, resulting in monographs and design rules, adopted by Eurocode 4 [13]. CIDECT design guide No. 5 [5] gives detailed information for the static design of concrete filled columns. To a large extent, this chapter is based on this Design Guide No. 5.
interaction curves as shown in Fig. 4.2, can be calculated. Based on these calculated capacities, simplified design methods have been developed.
where Aa, Ac and As are the cross sectional areas of the structural steel, the concrete and the reinforcement f yd, f cd and f sd are the design strengths of the materials, i.e. f yd = f y / f cd = f ck / f sd = f sk / for structural steel for concrete for reinforcement (4.3) (4.4) (4.5)
The safety factors in Eurocode 4 are boxed values, i.e. these values are recommended values which could be changed by national application documents (table 4.1). The safety factors for the actions have to be chosen
according to Eurocode 1 [10] or national codes respectively. Table 4.2 shows the strength classes of concrete. Classes higher than C50/60 should not be used without
further investigation. Classes lower than C20/25 are not allowed for composite construction. In concrete filled hollow sections, the concrete is confined by the hollow section. Therefore, the normal concrete strength reduction factor of 0.85 for long term acting loads does not have to be used. The reduction factor has to be determined for the relative slenderness :
developed with an effective stiffness modulus of the concrete of 600 f ck. In order to have a similar basis like Eurocode 2, the secant modulus of concrete Ecm was chosen as a reference value. The transformation factor 0.6 in eq. 4.8 is incorporated to consider the effect of cracking of concrete under moment action due to the second order effects.
4.3.1 Limitations
The reinforcement to be included in the design calculations is limited to 4% of the concrete area. There is no minimum requirement. However, if the reinforcement is considered for the load bearing capacity, a minimum reinforcement of 0.3% of the concrete area is required. The composite column is considered as "composite" if: 0.2 with = (4.10)
(4.6)
where Npl.R is the resistance of the section to axial loads Npl.Rd acc. to (4.2) to (4.5). However, with = = = 1.0 and Ncr is the elastic buckling load of the member (Euler critical load) (4.7)
0.9
(4.9)
Ncr =
where
EI
is the buckling length of the column and is the effective stiffness of the composite section.
If the parameter is less than 0.2, the column shall be designed as a concrete column following Eurocode 2 [11]. On the other hand, when exceeds 0.9, the column shall be designed as a steel column according to Eurocode 3 [12]. To avoid local buckling, the following limits should be observed for bending and compression loading: - for concrete filled rectangular hollow sections (h being the greater overall dimension of the section) (4.11) h/t 52 - for concrete filled circular hollow sections (4.12) d/t 90 The factor = with f y in N/mm2. The values given in Table 4.3 are based on a class 2 classification, thus for the analysis of the internal forces in a structure an elastic analysis should be used, but the plastic resistance of the section can be used. accounts for different yield limits. (4.13)
The buckling (effective) length of the column can be determined by using the methods shown in literature or following the rules of Eurocode 3. For columns in nonsway systems, as a safe approximation, the column length may be taken as the buckling length. EI = Ea Ia + 0.6 Ecm Ic + Es Is where Ia, Ic and Is (4.8)
are the moments of inertia of the cross sectional areas of the structural steel, the concrete (with the area in tension assumed to be uncracked) and the reinforcement, respectively. moduli of elasticity of the structural steel and the reinforcement and is the effective stiffness of the concrete section with Ecm being the modulus of elasticity of concrete according to Table 4.2.
Ec = 0.6 Ecm where NSd is the acting design normal force NG.Sd is the permanent part of it
(4.14)
- This method leads to a redistribution of the stresses into the steel part, which is a good simulation of the reality. - For short columns and/or high eccentricities of loads, creep and shrinkage do not need to be considered. - If the eccentricity of the axial load exceeds twice the diameter or depth of the hollow section, the influence of the long-term effects may be neglected compared to the actual bending moments. - Furthermore, the influence of creep and shrinkage is significant only for slender columns, i.e. the influence of long-term effects does not need to be taken into account if:
with
for braced and non-sway systems (4.15) for unbraced and sway systems according to eq. (4.10) (4.16)
resulting from the actual design normal = NSd/Npl.Rd) gives the moment capacity
factor d for the capacity of the section. This factor d is reduced by the relevant part of the imperfection moment to the value . The influence of the imperfection on different bending moment distributions can be considered by means of the value . The value depends on the moment distribution in the columns. For end moments, be taken as: may
(4.20) where r is the ratio of the smaller to larger end moment, see Fig. 4.13, (-1 r +1). The capacity for the combined compression and bending of the member can now be checked by: MSd 0.9
red Av = Av
(4.17)
Mpl.Rd
(4.21)
Vpl.Rd = Av
(4.18)
The influence of the shear stresses on the normal stresses does not need to be considered if: VSd 0.5 Vpl.Rd (4.19)
where MSd is the design bending moment of the column. The additional reduction by the factor 0.9 covers the assumptions of this simplified design method: - The interaction curve of the section is determined assuming full plastic behaviour of the materials with no strain limitation. - The calculation of the design bending moment MSd is carried out with the effective stiffness, where the influence of cracking of the concrete on the stiffness is not covered for high bending moments. Note: Interaction curves of the composite sections always show an increase in the bending capacity higher than Mpl.Rd. The bending resistance increases with an increasing normal force, because former regions in tension are compressed by the normal force. This positive effect may only be taken into account if it is ensured that the bending moment and the axial force always act together. If this is not ensured and the bending moment and the axial force result from different loading situations, the related moment capacity has to be limited to 1.0.
The maximum bond stress based on friction is: = 0.4 N/mm2 The shear load transfer can be increased considerably by shear connectors or steel components, see Fig. 4.14. For concentrated loads, a load distribution according to Fig. 4.15 can be assumed
The values
and
with c = 0.66 + 0.44r but c 0.44. For more detailed information, ref. [5] can be used.
Table 4.1 Partial safety factors for resistances and material properties for fundamental combinations [13] structural steel = 1.1 concrete = 1.5 reinforcement = 1.15
Table 4.2 Strength classes of concrete, characteristic cylinder strength and modulus of elasticity for normal weight concrete strength class of concrete f ck.cyl/f ck.cub cylinder strength f ck [N/mm2] modulus of elasticity Ecm [N/mm2] C20/25 C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
29000
30500
32000
33500
35000
36000
37000
Table 4.3 Limit ratios of wall thickness for which local buckling is prevented under axial compression steel grade circular hollow sections rectangular hollow sections d/t h/t S235 90 52 S275 77 48 S355 60 42 S460 46 37
a)
b t r t h
b)
d t
N/Npl 1.00
S 235 / C 45 d = 500 mm t = 10 mm
0.75
/d = 10
0.50
/d = 20 /d = 30
Ne
N e/Mpl
r
t
fcd
fyd
fsd
parameter : =
0.8
0.35
0.3
0.6 h 0.4 b 0.2 t 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
0.0
MRd / Mpl.Rd
Fig. 4.5 Interaction curve for rectangular sections with bending over weak axis; b/h = 0.5
parameter : =
0.8
0.35
0.6 b 0.4 t h 0.2 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
0.2
MRd / Mpl.Rd
Fig. 4.6 Interaction curve for square sections with h/b = 1.0
parameter : =
0.8
0.3
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 MRd / Mpl.Rd
Fig. 4.7 Interaction curve for rectangular sections with h/b = 2.0
parameter : =
0.8
0.35
0.3
0.6 t d 0.2
0.4
0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 MRd / Mpl.Rd
ND.Rd
NB.Rd MA.Rd
fcd
hn hn
D hn
+ fcd f yd
hn hE hE +
Fig. 4.10 Stress distributions of selected positions of the neutral axis (points A through E)
fcd -
N Rd N pl.Rd 1.0
k d 1.0 M Rd M pl.Rd
MSd
rMSd
loaded plate
concrete infill
5.
trusses); - heat radiation shielding (thin steel panels used for external structures) In some countries, intumescent coatings are restricted to a fire resistance of 30 or 60 min., but this technology is rapidly developing.
5.1
This chapter is a reduced version of the CIDECT Design Guide No 4 [4]. Unprotected structural hollow sections (SHS) have an inherent fire resistance of some 15 to 30 minutes. Traditionally, it has been assumed that unprotected steel members fail when they reach temperatures of about 450 to 550C. However, the temperature at which a steel member reaches its ultimate limit state depends on the massivity of the section and the actual load level. If the service load level of a column is less than 50% of its resistance, the critical temperature rises to over 650C, which, for bare steel, means an increase in failure time of more than 20%. When hollow steel sections are required to withstand extended amounts of time in fire, additional measures have to be considered to delay the rise in steel temperature.
and on the shape of the heated structure. In systems where the water is constantly renewed, the fire resistance is unlimited. Water cooling by natural flow is mainly used for vertical or inclined elements in order to ensure the circulation of the water.
performance criteria: - stability - insulation - integrity For details on the performance criteria, see [4]. For building components such as columns, with a load bearing function, the only relevant performance criterion is "stability". As far as the determination of the fire resistance is concerned, there are basically two possibilities: an experimental approach and an analytical or fire engineering approach. The experimental approach, i.e. the determination of the fire resistance of columns on the basis of standard fire tests, is the traditional approach. Although based on different national testing procedures, the concept of fire testing is by and large the same in the various countries. The fire engineering approach is a relatively new development that has become possible by the recent development of computer technology. On an international level, calculation rules for the fire resistance of both steel and composite steel concrete columns, including concrete filled SHS columns, are available. There are significant advantages to the analytical approach, when compared with the experimental one. Important factors influencing the fire resistance of columns are: - load level - shape and size of the cross section - buckling length Bare steel columns (i.e. SHS columns without external protection or concrete filling) possess only a limited fire resistance. Depending on the load level and the shape factor (massivity), a fire resistance of 15 to 20 minutes is usually attainable. A 30 min. fire resistance can only be achieved in more exceptional cases. This situation may be dramatically improved by applying thermal insulation to the column. Depending on the type and thickness of the insulation material, fire resistances of many hours can be achieved, although most requirements today are limited to 120 minutes. SHS columns filled with concrete have a much higher load bearing capacity and a higher fire resistance than unprotected empty SHS columns. Provided the concrete is of good quality (over, say, a crushing strength of 20 N/mm2 ) and the cross sectional dimensions are not too small (not less than 150x150 mm), a fire resistance of at least 30 minutes will be achieved. Sections with larger dimensions will have a
5.2
FIRE RESISTANCE
5.2.1 Concept
Fire safety precautions are specified with the intent of avoiding any casualties and reducing economic fire damage to an acceptable level. As far as building construction is concerned, it is important that the construction elements can withstand a fire for a specified amount of time. In this respect, one should bear in mind that the strength and deformation properties of the commonly used building materials deteriorate significantly at the temperatures that may be expected under fire conditions. Moreover, the thermal expansion of most of the building materials appears to be considerable. As a result, the structural elements and assemblies may deform or even collapse when exposed to fire conditions. The amount of time that a construction element can resist a fire depends largely on the anticipated temperature development of the fire itself. This temperature development depends, among other things, on the type and amount of combustible materials present, expressed in terms of kg of wood per m2 floor surface and called the fire load density, and on the fire ventilation conditions, see Fig. 5.1. In practical fire safety design, however, it is conventional to use a so-called "standard fire curve", defined in ISO 834 [22], which is more or less representative for post flash-over fires in buildings with relatively small compartments, such as apartment buildings and offices. Alternative standard fire curves, with differences from the ISO-curve, are in use in the USA and for maritime applications. The amount of time a building component is able to withstand heat exposure according to the standard fire curve, is called the "fire resistance". In order to be able to determine the fire resistance of a building component, proper performance criteria have to be determined. These criteria are defined in relation to the anticipated function of the respective building element during fire. In general, there are three such
higher fire resistance and by adding additional reinforcement to the concrete the fire resistance may be increased to over 120 minutes. Infinite fire resistance can be achieved by water filling, provided an adequate water supply is available. Improved fire performance of SHS columns can also be achieved by placing the columns outside the building envelope - an expedient often used for architectural purposes. By preventing direct flame impingement on the member, the need for additional fire protection measures can be significantly reduced or even become unnecessary. Since fire safety requirements for columns are normally expressed solely in terms of the fire resistance to be attained, this emphasizes the need to consider the fire resistance requirements from the beginning in a structural design project.
elsewhere. The standard fire test is not intended to reflect the temperatures and stresses that would be experienced in real fires, but provides a measure of the relative performance of elements of structures and materials within the capabilities and dimensions of the standard furnaces. In general, uncertainties about structural behaviour in real fires are taken into account by making conservative fire resistance requirements. Required safety levels are specified in National Codes and normally depend on factors like: - type of occupancy - height and size of the building - effectiveness of fire brigade action - active measures, such as vents and sprinklers (but not in all countries) An overview of fire resistance requirements as a function of the number of storeys and representative for many European countries is given in Table 5.1. The following general features may be identified: - no specified fire resistance requirements for buildings with limited fire load density (say: 15-20 kg/m2) or where the consequences of collapse of the structure are acceptable - fire resistance for a specified but limited amount of time, where the time requirement is mainly intended to allow for safe evacuation of the occupants and intervention by rescue teams - extended fire resistance of the main structure to ensure that the structure can sustain a full burn out of combustible materials in the buildings or a specified part of it. Sometimes unprotected steel may be sufficient, for example for situations where safety is satisfied by other means (e.g. sprinklers) and/or if requirements with respect to fire resistance are low (i.e. not over, say, 30 minutes). A full fire engineering approach (Natural Fire Concept), in which compartment and steel temperature are calculated from a consideration of the combustible material present, compartment geometry and ventilation, is becoming more accepted and has shown considerable savings in fire protection costs in specific cases.
5.2.2 Requirements
Fire safety in buildings is based on achieving two fundamental objectives: - reducing the loss of life - reducing the property or financial loss in or in the neighbourhood of a building fire. In most countries, the responsibility for achieving these objectives is divided between the government or civic authorities who have the responsibility for life safety via building regulations, and the insurance companies dealing with property loss through their fire insurance policies. The objectives of fire safety may be achieved in various ways. For example: - by eliminating or protecting possible ignition sources (fire prevention) - by installing an automatic extinguishing device, in order to prevent the fire from growing into a severe fire (operational or active measures, e.g. sprinklers). - by providing adequate fire resistance to the building components using passive or structural measures to prevent fire spreading from one fire compartment to adjacent compartments. Often a combination of the above measures is applied. Requirements with regard to fire resistance clearly belong to the structural measures. To date, the use of a conventional fire scenario based on the ISO standard fire curve, is common practice in Europe and
therefore lead to more realistic failure times and, consequently, to the most competitive design. However, the handling of the necessary computer programs is quite time consuming and requires expert knowledge. For practising engineers and architects not accustomed to handling specialised computer programs, "Simple Calculation Methods" have been developed, which lead to a comprehensive design, but are limited in application range. They use conventional calculation procedures and normally provide adequate accuracy. "Design Tables and Diagrams", which provide solutions on the safe side and allow fast design for restricted application ranges, form the lowest level of assessment. In the following chapters, emphasis is put on the simple calculation procedures.
5.3
temperature of 350C is to be used. The critical temperature of an axially loaded steel column depends on the ratio between the load which is present during a fire and the column minimum collapse load at room temperature. This ratio is called the degree of utilisation ( ). For an axially loaded column:
M p :
N fi m in N n c
(5.1)
In effect, for the same degree of utilisation the combined effect of a normal force and a moment on the critical temperature of an eccentrically loaded steel column is equal to that of an equivalent axial force (Neq):
with: Nfi : axial force in the fire situation Nnc : compression resistance of gross cross section at room temperature : minimum buckling coefficient min According to Eurocodes, in the fire situation generally the unfactored loads (being only about 60% of the design load for normal conditions of use) need to be taken into account. Also the partial safety factors, both for material properties and actions, are taken equal to unity. The collapse load at room temperature is based on the column dimensions using the buckling curve "c" from Eurocode 3, irrespective of the type of SHS or its material. The relation between the critical steel temperature and the modified degree of utilisation (c ) is represented by Fig. 5.5, where c is an adaptation factor used to correct model simplifications. Eurocode 3, Part 1.2 states that for columns under both axial and eccentric loading, c = 1.2. In theory, the modified degree of utilisation (c ) can vary between 1 and 0 and a high degree of utilisation corresponds to a low critical temperature. (Theoretically, c = 1 implies that the column is about to fail under room temperature conditions.) In the case of an eccentrically loaded column it is also possible to define an equivalent "degree of utilisation" using an interaction curve which describes the critical combinations of normal force and applied moment:
N eq = N fi + m in N nc
k M fi Mp
(5.3)
Provided that a column has been designed to satisfy the room temperature requirements of Eurocode 4, Part 1 [13], a minimum default value of 510C can be taken as the critical temperature of a steel column without any further analysis.
This is the same as the exposed steel perimeter/steel cross section The curves presented in Fig. 5.6 illustrate the effect of the shape factor on the temperature development of an unprotected steel section when exposed to standard fire conditions. For commonly used I-sections, shape factors are within a range of, say, 50 to 400 m-1. For SHS profiles exposed to heat from all sides, the shape factor may be approximated by: Am/V = Perimeter/(Perimeter x thickness) = 1/t m-1 with: t = thickness of the steel hollow section. For a practical range of the SHS thickness of 20 to 2.5 mm, this also leads to shape factors varying between 50 and 400 m-1. However, for equivalent cross sections hollow sections have a Am/V ratio which is about 60%
=
with: Mfi : k :
N fi k M fi + 1 Mp m in N n c
(5.2)
the maximum applied end-moment in the fire situation a reduction factor according to Eurocode 3,
of that of comparable open sections. For any given critical steel temperature s, the fire resistance of an unprotected steel element - assuming standard fire conditions - depends only on its shape factor as illustrated in Fig. 5.7. In many practical situations, the critical temperature of a steel member will be approximately 550C, so the time to reach 550C may be taken as a reasonable approximation of its fire resistance. This figure shows that an unprotected steel member with a shape factor smaller than approximately 40 m-1 may have a fire resistance of 30 minutes or beyond. If external fire insulation is provided, the steel temperature development depends not only on the shape factor, but also on the type and thickness of the insulation material. It is possible to construct charts which show how steel temperature varies with insulation thickness (di ), shape factor (Am/V) and time for a given insulation material. For more detailed information, see [4].
components rj. Under fire conditions, all component capacities are dependent on the fire endurance time t. R(t) = rj(t) (5.4)
5.4
In room temperature design, the steel shell is likely to be the dominant load bearing component because of the high strength of the steel and the location of the profile. However, after a fire time t1, only a small percentage of the original load bearing capacity of the steel shell can still be activated. This means that in case of fire the main part of the load carried by the steel section will be redistributed to the concrete core, which loses strength and stiffness more slowly than the steel section. Therefore: - the load bearing capacity of the steel shell should be minimised, which means thin shell thickness and low steel grade; - the load bearing capacity of the concrete core should be optimised, which means higher concrete strength and reinforcement. Since the strength reduction of the components is directly affected by the relative heating characteristic of the cross section, a minimum column cross sectional dimension is often necessary to fulfil a required fire resistance. With increasing temperature, strength and Young's modulus decrease. Thus, load bearing capacity of a structural member decreases with time, while its deformation increases. In practical fire design, the influence of the column slenderness also has to be taken into account.
- the minimum axis distance of the reinforcement bars (dr) The degree of utilisation 5.3.2) = Nfi /Nd with: Nfi = axial force in the fire situation Nd = the design resistance at room temperature Nd is calculated according to the room temperature procedures of EC4, part 1. However, the following additional limitations apply: - Irrespective of the actual steel grade, the yield strength of the SHS for calculations is limited to a maximum of 235 N/mm2 - The wall thickness of the steel; is limited to a maximum of 1/25 of the main cross sectional dimension - Reinforcement ratios higher than 3% are not taken into account. Level 2: simple calculation methods A level 2 modified computer program has been developed and verified by CIDECT to model the fire performance of concrete filled SHS columns [70,71,72]. This forms the basis of the Eurocode buckling curves for concrete filled SHS columns at elevated temperatures: design charts have been developed in which, for a standard fire exposure of 30, 60, 90 and 120 minutes, the collapse load Ncr, of concrete filled SHS columns is given as a function of the buckling length Lcr. A typical chart is illustrated in Fig. 5.9 from which any combination of applied load and buckling length the relevant fire resistance class can be easily determined. For a given buckling length and loading, the fire resistance of concrete filled SHS columns depends mainly on the cross sectional dimensions, the concrete quality and the reinforcement, if any. By a proper choice of these parameters, practically any fire resistance can be achieved. If no reinforcement is used and the column is under its maximum unfactored load at room temperature conditions, a fire resistance of 30 minutes can normally be achieved; 60 minutes, however, is not attainable unless the load level is significantly decreased. This is why the design charts focus on fire resistances of 60 minutes and more and only reinforced SHS columns are taken into account. is given by: (see section
Small drain holes (10 to 15 mm dia.) are required in the walls of the SHS, usually in pairs. Such holes must be provided for each storey length at each floor level, with a maximum distance of 5.0 m. between pairs. They must be placed between 100 and 120 mm from each column end. Those holes are intended to prevent the bursting of the column under steam pressure from the heating of entrapped water in the enclosed concrete. Besides the standard SHS cross sections, a variety of different cross section designs has also been developed in the past and successfully used for building projects. They are all based either on combinations of hollow sections (tube inside tube) or on combinations of hollow sections with other steel profiles. The advantages of such special cross section types are an increased load bearing capacity without the need to increase the outer cross sectional dimensions, or reduced dimensions for a given load capacity. To fulfil architectural requirements, special steels, such as weathering steel, can also be used for the SHS of the columns. Careful design of the top and bottom of a single column or at the joints of a continuous column is necessary to ensure that the loading is introduced into the composite cross section in a proper way.
5.5
that activate the natural circulation. The effect will be intensified when localised boiling commences and steam is formed. As the fire develops, the rate of steam production will also increase, thus forcing the cooling effect obtained by naturally-activated circulation. The following methods of permanent water filling are available:
Mixed systems The above mentioned systems can be mixed within a building and they can be connected to act as a mixed integrated system. This can be advantageous for structures containing not only columns, but also water filled diagonals for bracing, etc.
In the naturally circulating systems described above, a minimum declination of about 45is recommended. It is not recommendable to use any electro-mechanical installation, such as pumps, acting against the naturally produced circulation. This may lead to a failure of the cooling system and thus to collapse of the water filled structure.
Unreplenished columns Simply filling a column with water, with no provision for replacing any water lost through steam production, will lead to an increased, but limited fire resistance compared to that of the empty column. In multi-storey columns, the fire resistance may be increased by externally protecting the top storey length and using it as a reservoir for the lower storeys. Heavy steam production may lead to an additional critical loss of water. Therefore, this column type should be used only for lower fire resistance requirements, up to, say, 60 minutes. Columns with external pipe This system has a connecting down pipe between the bottom and top of the columns. The lighter, upward flowing water-steam mixture must be separated at the top, so that the water can return down through the pipe to the bottom. In this manner, an external naturally forced circulation will be activated. In addition, the pipe can be connected with a water storage tank at the top of the building to replace the water lost from steam production and possibly act as a common water/steam separating chamber. A group of individual columns can be connected at their bottom to a shared connecting pipe as well as with a connecting pipe at the top. For such a group of columns, only one down pipe is necessary, connecting top and bottom of the whole group, see Fig. 5.10a. Columns with internal pipe In this system, an internal down tube is used within each column to provide a supply of cool water to the bottom of each column. This promotes the internal, naturally activated circulation of the upward flowing water-steam mixture and the down flowing water after steam separation. Thus, each column acts as an individual member without any connection to the other columns.
To minimise the number of water storage tanks, the tops of several columns can be connected by a common pipe leading to one storage tank for the whole group, see Fig. 5.10b.
5.6
Table 5.1 Variations in required fire resistance Type of building One storey 2 or 3 storeys More than 3 storeys Tall buildings Requirements None or low None up to medium Medium High Fire class Possibly up to R30 Possibly up to R30 R60 to R120 R90 and more
Table 5.2 Minimum cross-sectional dimensions, reinforcement ratios and axis distances of the re-bars for fire resistance classification for various degrees of utilisation .
Ar Ac dr t t b dr d dr h
1.5
3.0
6.0
6.0
3.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
1000
ISO-curve
0.0 0.0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Time (min)
1.0 0.8
Concrete
f() / f(20)
200
400
600
800
o
1000
Gas temperature ( c)
Fig. 5.2 Schematic material strength reduction for structural steel and concrete according to [11,12,13]
Rigid core
M ode of deformation
k k
0.7 0.5
Temperature (oc)
Steel temperature
Fire resistance
Time (min)
Fig. 5.4 Calculation scheme for the fire resistance of steel elements
1200
Critical steel temperature crit. (oc)
400 200 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fig. 5.5 Critical steel temperature as a function of the modified degree of utilisation (c )
1000
Standard Fire curve
800
600 400
200 100 Am / V = 50
200
0.0 0.0
20
40
60
80
Time (min)
Fig. 5.6 Calculated temperature development in an unprotected steel section as a function of the shape factor
50 40
30
20 10
s (oc)
600 550 500 450
43.1
0 0 50
94.3
100 150
200
Fig. 5.7 Amount of time for an unprotected steel section to reach a given mean temperature under standard conditions as a function of the shape factor
100
rj (%)
Concrete
Hollow section
t1
t
Fig. 5.8 Typical strength reduction characteristics of the various components of a concrete filled SHS column
Fig. 5.9 Buckling curves for different fire resistance classes (qualitative)
a)
b)
A A-A
AB B B-B
C C-C
Fig. 5.10 Options for columns with external and internal pipes (CEP versus CIP)
1200
ISO - fire
1000
Temperature (oc)
90
t (min)
Fig. 5.11 Typical temperature development in a water filled SHS column, exposed to standard fire conditions
A A A
Fig. 5.12 Beam to column connection with a cleat passed through the column.
Since the design is always a compromise between various requirements, such as static strength, stability, economy in fabrication and maintenance, which are sometimes in conflict with each other, the designer should be aware of the implications of a particular choice. The following guidance is given to arrive at optimum design: - Lattice structures can usually be designed assuming pin jointed members. Secondary bending moments due to the actual joint stiffness can be neglected for static design if the joints have sufficient rotation capacity. This can be achieved by limiting the wall slenderness of certain members, particularly the compression members, which is the basis for some of the geometric limits of validity. This will be the case if the joint parameters are within the range recommended in the IIW/CIDECT recommendations (which have also been adopted for Eurocode 3 [12]). - It is common practice to design the members with the centre lines noding. However,for ease of fabrication it is sometimes required to have a certain noding eccentricity. If this eccentricity is kept within the limits indicated in Fig. 6.4, the resulting bending moments can be neglected for joint design and for chord members loaded in tension. Chord members loaded in compression, however, should always be checked for the bending effects of noding eccentricity (i.e. designed as beam-columns, with all of the moment due to noding eccentricity distributed to the chord sections). - Gap joints (Fig. 6.5) are preferred to partial overlap joints, since the fabrication is easier with regard to end cutting, fitting and welding. However, fully overlapped joints (Fig. 6.4d) generally provide better joint strength than gap joints with similar fabrication. The gap g is defined as the distance measured along the length of the connecting face of the chord, between the toes of the adjacent brace members (ignoring welds). The percentage overlap Ov, defined in Fig. 6.5, is such that the dimension p pertains to the overlapping brace. In good designs a minimum gap should be provided such that g t1 + t2, so that the welds do not overlap each other. On the other
In designing hollow section trusses it is important that the designer considers the joint behaviour right from the beginning. Designing members of a truss based on member loads only may result in undesirable stiffening of joints afterwards. This does not mean that the joints have to be designed in detail in the conceptual design phase. It only means that chord and brace members have to be chosen in such a way that the main governing joint parameters provide an adequate joint strength and an economical fabrication.
hand, in overlap joints the overlap should be at least Ov 25%. - In common lattice structures (e.g. trusses), about 50% of the material weight is used for the chords in compression, roughly 30% for the chord in tension and about 20% for the web members or braces. This means that with respect to material weight, the chords in compression should likely be optimised to result in thin walled sections. However, for corrosion protection (painting), the outer surface area should be minimised. Furthermore, joint strength increases with decreasing chord diameter or width to thickness ratio. As a result, the final diameter- (or width-) tothickness ratio for the chord in compression will be a compromise between joint strength and buckling strength of the member and relatively stocky sections will usually be chosen. For the chord in tension, the diameter- or width-to-thickness ratio should be chosen to be as small as possible. - Since the joint strength efficiency (i.e. joint strength divided by the brace yield load Aif y) increases with increasing chord to brace thickness to/ti this ratio should be chosen to be as high as possible, preferably above 2. Furthermore, the weld volume required for a thin walled brace is smaller than that for a thick walled brace with the same cross section, if the welds are to develop the wall capacity of the connected member. -Since the joint strength also depends on the yield stress ratio between chord and brace, the use of higher strength steel for chords (if available and practical) may offer economical possibilities. In principle, multiplanar trusses can be approached in a similar way as uniplanar trusses, although the depth can usually be smaller, between 1/15 and 1/18 #.
a. Warren truss
b. Pratt truss
c. Vierendeel truss
X
90
o
T and Y
N and K
1= 90
o
KT
1 2
b1
h1
d1
e =0
e >0
-0.55
e h 0 or
e d0
0.25
e <0
e <0
e <0
definition overlap
7. BEHAVIOUR OF CONNECTIONS
For a proper understanding of the behaviour of tubular joints or welded connections between hollow sections it is important to consider the load path, the internal stiffness distribution in a connection and the material properties.
determined by the stiffness of the hollow section side wall for axial stresses. Now consider a unit load q2 at the centre of the hollow section face (Fig.7.2c). The load has to be transmitted to the side walls by bending. Thus, the deformation is determined by the bending stiffness of the top face of the hollow section and the axial stiffness of the hollow section side walls. Consequently, the stiffness for a q2 load is considerably smaller than for a q1 load. This is graphically shown in Fig. 7.3. For loads on the top face at locations between q1 and q2 the behaviour is in between that for q1 and q2. The resulting elastic stress pattern in the plate can now be determined in two ways. 1. Consider the deformations under a uniform stress: For a uniform stress, the plate and hollow section faces do not have the same deformed shape. To ensure that the plate and the hollow section face have the same deformation, the stresses at the centre should be lower and at the sides higher. Thus, additional stresses have to be added, as shown in Fig. 7.4b, which increase the stresses at the sides and reduce the stresses at the plate centre. Thus the highest stresses occur at the stiff parts. As shown in Fig. 7.4b, the plate remains almost straight due to the much higher axial stiffness of the plate than the bending stiffness of the top face, thus the plate could have been assumed as being nearly rigid compared with the stiffness of the hollow section top face. 2. Assume rigid plate If the plate is assumed to be rigid, the stress pattern can be directly determined with Fig. 7.3. For a deformation 1, the stress for q1 is much higher than for q2, resulting in the stress pattern of Fig. 7.4c. From this evaluation it is clear that the non-uniformity largely depends on the bo/to ratio. If bo/to is very small, approaching a solid profile, the stress distribution is uniform if contraction is not considered. If bo/to is large, it may even be that the stress at the centre has the opposite sign of that at the sides.
Thus, in principle failures can occur in these parts. If the width of the plate b1 is small compared to bo, several types of failure can occur in the chord face. This will be discussed later.
certain moment due to the combination of axial loading and the (secondary) bending moments. If the deformation capacity is sufficient, the axial forces in the members will increase with a decrease of the (secondary) bending moments due to plastic rotation of the connection. In the failure stage, the secondary bending moments may have totally disappeared.
If b1 < bo, other failure modes can be obtained for the chord, i.e.: top face plastification or chord punching shear. For the connection with b1 = bo the top face is held in position by the plate and the stiff connection to the side wall. Therefore, top face yielding with a yield line pattern can only occur after excessive yielding of the plate at the sides and/or excessive yielding of the hollow section side walls under the plate. Punching shear of the hollow section face can only occur if the plate width b1 is smaller than bo-2to (see Fig. 7.6d). 4. Chord side wall All the stresses have to be transmitted through the side walls over a limited width, thus this may be a critical failure mode (chord side wall yielding shown in Fig. 7.6e). If the loading is compression instead of tension, the stability of the side wall may be critical.
For serviceability an arbitrary limit of 0.01 do or 0.01 bo is used. This 1% limit is the same as the out-ofroundness limit and has shown to give not unacceptable deformations. However, it must be mentioned that most formulae in the codes have been developed based on ultimate load or end of test data and later on checked for the 1% d0 or b0 rule for serviceability.
b1
t1 b0 t0 l1 a A 1 = b1 * t1 h0
q1
q1
q2
q
(a) Plate
q1
q1
q2
(c) RHS section loaded at face centre
q1
q2 1
deformation
deformation
+
+
f u,b b fu fy
yield strain hardening
Fig. 7.5
-
diagram
be 2
be 2 fu fy
plate
t1
2.5 : 1
elastic
t0
plastic ultimate
fy fu bw
max. N a
3% d0
Fig. 7.7 Deformation limit
b.
a.
c.
d.
e.
f.
= = = = = = g =
for T-,Y-,and X-joints for T-, Y- and X-joints for K- and N-joints for KT-joints
d1 + d 2 2 do
d1 + d 2 + d 3 3 do d 2to ti to g to
o
or =
d1 + d 2 + d3 3b o
or
b 2to
N1
t1
1
N1
N2
1 2
t0
n= f
n =
Nop
yo
op f yo
8.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Circular hollow sections can be connected in various ways, i e.: - with special prefabricated connectors (Fig. 8.1) - with end pieces which allow a bolted connection (Fig. 8.2) - welded to a plate (Fig. 8.3) - welded directly to the through member (chord) For transport or erection it may be that bolted connections are preferred or required, whereas for space structures prefabricated connectors are generally used. However, the simplest solution is to profile the ends of the members which have to be connected to the through member (chord) and weld the members directly to each other. Nowadays, end profiling does not give any problem and the end profiling can be combined with the required bevelling for the welds. Although the direct welded connection (Fig. 8.4) is the simplest and cleanest solution, the load transfer is rather complex due to the non-linear stiffness distribution along the perimeter of the connected braces. The design rules have been based on simplified analytical models in combination with experimental evidence, resulting in semi-empirical design formulae.
As indicated in chapter 7, to avoid weld failure it is recommended to design the welds to be stronger than the connected members, i.e. according to Eurocode 3 the throat thickness "a" of a fillet weld should satisfy the following requirements: a 0.84 t for S 235 a 0.91 t for S 275 a 1.05 t for S 355 Only for very lightly loaded structures smaller welds are allowed provided care has been taken of the effective perimeter [37,74]. Prequalified full penetration welds can be considered to be always stronger than the connected members. The material should not be susceptible to lamellar tearing, i.e. for the larger thicknesses the sulphur content should be low (TTP quality). Furthermore, in the current design recommendations, the d/t ratios have been limited to avoid local buckling. Limiting the d/t ratio also has the effect that the effective width criterion for the brace is not a governing failure criterion anymore. Furthermore, within the range of validity of the design recommendations, it has been shown that the chord shear criterion can be covered by the formula for chord plastification. As a result, the governing modes of failure to be considered have been reduced to: - chord plastification - chord punching shear.
8.2
MODES OF FAILURE
8.3
ANALYTICAL MODELS
In chapter 7 it was already indicated that the ultimate load capacity is based on the maximum in the load deformation diagram (if the chord deformation is smaller than 0.03 do) or the load at a chord deformation of 0.03 do. Following the procedure described in chapter 7, i.e. following the loads, various possible failure modes (Fig. 8.5) can be expected, i.e. - brace failure (yielding, local buckling) - weld failure - lamellar tearing - chord plastification (face/wall, or cross section) - chord punching shear failure - chord local buckling - chord shear failure
For the determination of the influencing joint parameters, three models are used, i.e.: - ring model (for chord plastification) - punching shear model (for chord punching shear) - chord shear model
distribution in Fig. 8.6. Consequently, the load N1 in the brace can be divided into two loads of 0.5 N1sin1 perpendicular to the chord at a distance c1d1 at the saddles of the brace (c1 < 1.0). These loads will be transferred by an effective length Be of the chord. In the model, the load 0.5 N1sin1 is now considered as a line load over the length Be, see Fig. 8.7. At failure, the plastic yield capacity will be reached at the locations A and B (in Fig. 8.8). Neglecting the influence of axial and shear stresses on the plastic moment per unit length mp results in: mp = Assuming do-to do gives for the equilibrium: = (8.2) (8.1)
(8.5)
N1 =
(8.3)
For angles < 90 the component perpendicular to the chord has to be considered and the joint perimeter will increase. Projecting the connection perimeter to a flat surface through the chord crown gives an ellipse and the ratio between the perimeter of this ellipse and the circle for = 90 is given by , resulting in:
Initially, the effective width Be was determined experimentally and depends on the ratio, e.g. for = 1.0 the width Be is smaller than for = 0.5 due to the direct load transfer through the chord. An average value is: Be = 2.5 do to 3.0do. This ring model only considers the chord plastification which is caused by the brace load components perpendicular to the chord. It may be clear that the loads in the chord also have an influence on the load capacity of the connection and this is given by a function f(n), which is determined experimentally. As a result, the strength equation has the form:
N1 = 0.58 d1 to f yo
(8.6)
Since it is expected that the chord stresses have a small effect, the chord prestress function f(n) has not been included, which has been confirmed by tests. Note: In modern codes, criteria for failure modes with fracture are related to the ultimate stress with additional partial strength factors. Thus, for consistency, the yield stress f yo could have been replaced by the ultimate stress f uo, divided by an additional partial safety factor M.
N1 =
f(n)
(8.4)
where co, c1 and f(n) are based on experiments; see 8.4. For X-joints, this model gives an excellent agreement with the test results, but the formula needs more modifications for the more complicated joints, such as K- and N-joints.
axial loading of the chord. This has been worked out in detail by van der Vegte [76]. K-joints with a large value may fail by a shear failure in the gap location, Fig. 8.10. The failure mode is a chord cross section plastification due to shear load, axial load and, if present, bending. For compact chords it can be shown with plastic analysis (see section 2.3.5) that the chord shear capacity is given by:
set-ups (Fig. 8.12), on mainly isolated joints. Only a few tests have been carried out on joints in complete frames. For the experimental tests it is important to consider the support and loading conditions to avoid constraint effects [78]. For numerical results it is important that the models used have been calibrated with experimental data. The elements and the mesh should be considered properly (see Fig. 8.13); details are given in [76].
V p = Av 2 A o (0.58 f y o ) =
The axial load capacity is given by: (8.7)
(8.8)
If the bending moments are small, only the interaction between axial load and shear load has to be considered, i.e.:
N i sin i N o ,g ap + 1 .0 Np Vp
or No,gap Aof yo - Aof yo
(8.9)
f(n)
(8.11)
(8.10)
If the chord is only loaded by the brace load components, i.e. Nop = 0, the value of No,gap = Ni cos i, which is shown in Fig. 8.11.
In the comparison of the test results with the resulting formulae it was shown that within the range of validity given the results can be described by a basic joint strength function for chord plastification with a check for punching shear. The chord shear criterion did not have to be checked separately. The chord prestress function f(n) has been investigated separately [1,34,42,47]. Initially, separate functions existed for X and K joints. In the evaluation to design rules by the international committees of IIW-XV-E and the CIDECT Projects Group, this has been simplified to one function based on the chord stress op caused by the prestressing load Nop. Since this function is still based on the prestress which is in contradiction with the function for joints with square hollow sections, which is based on the maximum chord stress, this item is still under investigation.
(8.14)
geometrical effect on the joint capacity will be minor for small values and high for larger values. Note that for equal braces the maximum = 0.7 if no overlapping braces are used. The deformation capacity will decrease for high ratios since the deformation is concentrated at the gap locations between the braces. For the load effects in XX joints it will be clear that loads in the brace planes in the opposite sense will decrease the joint capacity, whereas loads in the same sense will increase the joint capacity. Although the effects depend on the joint parameters [76 ] the influence function in table 8.4 for XX joints can be considered to be an approximate measure of the effect. For KK-joints the effect especially depends on the out of plane gap parameter. In [86] Yamada et al. give detailed recommendations in relation to the out of plane gap and the loading, including asymmetric loading in the braces for which the loading influence is larger.
eff =
f yo t o f (n' ) N i* =Ce A i f yi f y i t i s in i
(8.15)
The efficiency parameter Ce (CT for T-joints, CX for Xjoints and CK for K-joints), see Figs 8.17 to 8.20, gives the efficiency for a joint with:
i = 90
f yo to = f yi ti, (identical thickness and yield stress for brace and chord). f(n) = 1.0, i.e. chord in tension. As an example using Fig. 8.19 shows that for a K-joint with g = 2to, 2 25, 0.5 gives a value Ck 0.4. Thus, for an angle obtained if
Thus, for a 100% efficiency, f yoto should always be considerably larger than f yiti. The chord prestress function f(n) is given as a function of the parameter n = . For simply supported lattice
girders the influence of the prestressing function near the supports is small (small chord loads), whereas it has a large influence at the centre of the girder where the chord loads are high, but generally the brace loads are small. The prestressing function is especially important in the case of continuous or cantilevered lattice girders.
Table 8.1 Design resistance of welded joints between circular hollow sections
d1
t1
N1
t0
d0
N0
d1 t1
N1
N0 N1
1 t0 d 0
d2
d1
N2
2
t2 g
t1
N1
1 t0
d0
N0
punching shear check for T,Y,X and K,N,KT joints with gap
di 2ti
25 g > t1 + t2
Table 8.1a d1/t1 limits for the compression brace or limits for efficiency [1] to avoid local buckling of the compression brace d1/t1 limits for which the joint efficiencies derived from Figs. 8.17 to 8.20 can always be used yield stress f y = 235 N/mm2 f y = 275 N/mm2 f y = 355 N/mm2 *
* i
efficiency limit * for compression brace d1/t1 f y1 30 235 275 355 1 1 1 35 1 1 0.9 40 1 1 0.9 45 1 0.9 0.8 50 0.9 0.9 0.8
Considering member buckling the above mentioned limitations will not frequently be critical.
Table 8.2
1 N1
1 N1 N3
N2 2 3 1
N1
N2 2 1
N1
N1 N2 2 1
N2 N1
check cross section 1-1 for plastic shear capacity; see chapter 8.3 (gap joints only)
N1 N2
Table 8.3
Design resistance of welded CHS joints with gusset plates or open sections
f()
Note : These formulae may also be used for connections with a plate at one side i.e. the TP connections although the formulae may give in most cases a somewhat conservative strength, see [1,82].
Table 8.4 Correction factors for the design resistance of multiplanar joints
a)
b)
Fig. 8.3 Welded gusset plated connections (expensive and old fashioned)
T-joint
d1
Y-joint
d1
N1
t1
1
t0 d0 t1
N1
t0
d0
N0
X-joint
d1
N1
t1
N2
d0
t2 g
t1
N1
1 t0
1 t 0
N0
d0
N0
N1
N2 t 2
2
N1
t1
1
N3
t1 g1
d1
N2 t 2
d0
N1
1 t0
N0
t0
d0
N0
e
Lamellar tearing
or
Fig. 8.5 Failure modes for joints between circular hollow sections
N1
N1
d1 - t1 N1
2
sin1
N1 sin1 2Be mp
N1 2
sin1
mp N1 2 sin1
d0 - t0 d0
Be
3(d0 - t0)
A B A
A B A
N1
Vp N0
N2
2
N1 A
1
A V N0 gap
N2
2
N1 A
1
N0
20
N1
15
N1 / f yo* t 0 2
10
N1
= 0.60 2 = 40.0
Four noded thick shell elements Eight noded thick shell elements Eight noded thin shell elements
10
1 [mm]
20
30
7 6
f(Nu) Kurobane
5 4 3 2 1 0 0 0.2 0.4
1 1 - 0.812
0.6
0.8
1.0
Fig. 8.14 Comparison of experiments with the mean joint resistance function (X-joints)
n' =
fyo
0.6
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
-0.0
n'
Fig. 8.15 Chord prestressing function f(n)
d0 t0
2 =
Overlap
-12 -8 -4
0.5
Gap
g g' = t 0
0.0
0.0 12
f(,g')
1.0 0.8
EFFICIENCY CT
N1* A1 * fy1
= CT
f(n')
do/to
10
0.6 0.4
15 20 30
40 50
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Fig. 8.17 Design charts for T- and Y-joints of circular hollow sections
1.0 0.8
EFFICIENCY CX
N1* A1 * fy1
= CX
f(n')
do/to
10
0.6 0.4
15 20 30
40
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.0 0.8
N1* A1 * fy1
= Ck
1.0
f(n')
N1* A1 * fy1
= Ck
f(n')
EFFICIENCY CK
do/to 0.6
10 15
EFFICIENCY CK
gap g' = 2
0.8
gap g' = 6
0.6
do/to
10 15 20 30 40 50
0.4
20 30 40 50
0.4
0.2
0.8
1.0
0.2
0.8
1.0
1.0 0.8
N1* A1 * fy1
= Ck
f(n')
EFFICIENCY CK
gap g' = 10
0.6 0.4
do/to
10 15 20
30 40 50
0.2
0.8
1.0
Fig. 8.19 Design charts for circular hollow section K-joints with gap
1.0 0.8
EFFICIENCY CK
do/to 0.6
10 15
0.4
20 30 40 50
N1* A1 * fy1
= Ck
f(n')
0.2
0.8
1.0
Fig. 8.20 Design charts for circular hollow section K-joints with overlap
9.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The most economical and common way to connect rectangular hollow sections is by direct connection without any intersecting plates or gussets, as shown in Fig. 9.1. This also gives the most efficient way for protection and maintenance. The connections between rectangular hollow sections can be easily made, since the connecting members have to be provided with straight end cuts only. Although the fabrication is simple, the load transfer is more complex due to the non-uniform stiffness distribution in the connections. Due to the flat sides, the difference in stiffness at a corner and at the centre of a face is even greater than for circular hollow sections. The general philosophy to identify the various failure modes and to observe the load transfer has been described in chapter 7, but will be described here in more detail for the connections between rectangular and square hollow sections. Most failure modes can be related to analytical models to study the impact of the various influencing parameters. Based on the analytical models and the tests carried out, design rules have been established.
Similar to connections between circular hollow sections to avoid weld failure, the welds should be stronger than the connected members and the throat thickness should satisfy the same requirements as given in 8.2. Prequalified full penetration welds can always be considered to be stronger than the connected members. Also here, for very thick walled members (t > 25 mm), a TTP quality with a low sulphur content should be used for the chords to avoid lamellar tearing. Similar to connections for circular hollow sections, the width to wall thickness ratios b/t have been limited in the current design recommendations to avoid local buckling and/or to limit the deformations. As a result, the following failure modes still have to be considered in design: - brace failure (effective width) - chord face plastification - chord punching shear - chord side wall failure - chord shear failure Due to the fact that rectangular hollow sections can be connected with various orientations and in various combinations, several failure modes have to be considered, which makes the checking procedure more complicated. In case of connections between square hollow sections and within a smaller validity range, the modes to be checked can be limited to one or two. Brace (effective width) failure generally occurs for joints with relatively thin walled braces and is a general failure mode for overlap joints. Chord face plastification is the most common type of failure for T, Y, X and K and N gap joints with width ratios < 0.85. Chord punching shear may occur for joints with relatively low or high ratios, however, bi < bo - 2 to - 2(1.4a) to allow shear of the chord face, where a is the weld throat thickness. Chord side wall failure is a common failure mode for T, Y and X-joints with a ratio close or equal to 1.0. Chord shear may occur for K-gap joints with a high ratio or K gap joints with chords with a low ho/bo ratio.
9.2
MODES OF FAILURE
Similar to circular hollow section joints, the ultimate load capacity is based on the maximum in the load deformation diagram (if the chord deformation is less than 0.03 bo) or the load at a deformation of 0.03 bo of the chord. As already indicated in chapter 7 and shown in Fig. 9.2, the following modes of failure can occur: - brace failure (brace effective width: partial failure or buckling) - weld failure - lamellar tearing - chord face plastification - chord punching shear failure - chord side wall yielding or buckling - chord local buckling - chord shear failure
9.3
ANALYTICAL MODELS
Similar to circular hollow section joints, the analytical models are used to describe the joint behaviour and to determine the governing parameters for the joint strength. Sometimes the joint behaviour will be too complicated to cover all influencing parameters and in combination with the test results semi-empirical formulae have been developed to describe the joint strength.
N1 =
(1 )
2 4 1 sin1
1 sin1
(9.6)
In this model some simplifications have been incorporated, i.e. the thickness of the sections has been neglected (bo-2to bo). The same applies to the weld sizes, which have not been incorporated. For K-joints, also yield line models can be used. However, the load transfer becomes more complicated since in the gap area the stress situation in the yield hinge is largely influenced by membrane stresses, shear stresses and work hardening. These effects complicate the models in such a way that semiempirical formulae are used for design.
3 m p
(9.1) (9.2)
The energy dissipated in the various yield lines is also indicated in Fig. 9.3. Equating the sum to the external work gives: N1sin = 2fyoto 1
2
N1 =
to
2h1
(9.7)
tan
(1 ) tan sin1
(9.3)
It will be clear that bep will be a function of bo/to. The smaller bo/to, the larger bep. The value for bep is determined experimentally.
For K-gap joints the gap size is extremely important for the effective punching shear length. For example, if the gap size is close to zero and the value is low to medium (Fig. 9.5a), the gap part is relatively too stiff compared to the other perimeter parts, resulting in N2sin2= fyo 3
For a T, Y and X joint, the effective width criterion can thus be given by: N1 = fy1 t1 (2h1 + 2 be - 4t1) (9.12)
to b22c
h2 sin2
with c<<1
(9.8)
The term 4t1 has to be included to avoid the corners being counted twice. Similar to the punching shear criterion, the effective width be is determined experimentally and becomes larger if bo/to decreases. For K-joints with gap the same applies as for the punching shear criterion, i.e. the gap size should satisfy eq. (9.11) for having a full effective cross wall of the brace at the gap, i.e.: N2 = fy2 t2 (2h2 + b2 + be - 4t1) (9.13)
For a large gap (Fig. 9.5c) a similar situation occurs as for T, Y and X-joints, thus N2sin = fyo 3
to
2h2 sin2
2bep
(9.9)
For a gap where the stiffness is about the same as at the sides of the braces (Fig. 9.5b), the punching shear criterion becomes: N2 sin2 = fyo 3
This criterion is also directly applicable to overlap joints for the overlapping brace, see Fig. 9.7.
to
2h2 sin2
b2bep
(9.10)
Neglecting the thickness and the weld sizes, the gap value here has to satisfy [42]: b b g o i or g 1 2 2 bo Due to the deformation capacity of the material, which has been proved experimentally, the limit can be extended to g 0.5 (1-) (9.11) 1.5 (1-) bo For larger values these limits are impractical and a minimum gap g = t1 + t2 for welding is required.
h1
(9.14)
For slender walls the yield stress fyo is replaced by a buckling stress fk which depends on the chord web slenderness ho/to. A model which is in better agreement with the test results is based on the "4 hinge yield line" mechanism, shown in Fig. 9.9 and further elaborated by Yu [94]. In case of compression, Yu also used a buckling stress, but for a buckling length (ho-2to)/2.
Vp# =
fyo 3
Av
(9.15)
In principle, the webs are effective for shear, but if the gap is small, a part of the top flange may also be effective, thus: A v = (2 ho + bo) to (9.16)
For K gap joints, a semi-empirical formula [42] based on chord face plastification is used as the basic criterion. Depending on the joint parameters, various other criteria may become critical, e.g. brace effective width, chord punching shear or chord shear. Due to the fact that in joints of rectangular hollow sections the sections can have different orientations and depth to width ratios, many configurations are possible, resulting in many failure modes and thus many strength formulae. For K-joints with overlap, the basic joint strength criterion is based on brace effective width. If the b/t values are restricted, other failure modes will not be critical.
The coefficient depends on the g/to ratio and can be easily determined based on plastic analysis [42]. The remaining cross section has to transmit the axial force. Based on the Huber Hencky-Von Mises criterion, the following interaction formula can be determined: VSd Vp#
2
(9.17)
This formula is comparable with that for circular hollow section joints, eq. (8.10).
9.6
9.4
In principle, the evaluation to design rules, e.g. for Kjoints with gap, is similar as described for joints between circular hollow sections. Since for T, Y and X joints for chord face plastification a lower bound yield line criterion is used, no statistical evaluation has been carried out. In more recent analyses based on numerical results, also a deformation limit is used for the ultimate strength [75] and a full statistical treatment of the results has been carried out. Table 9.1 shows the design resistance formulae for rectangular hollow section joints with the range of validity given in table 9.2. It is shown that many criteria exist. However, with a smaller range of validity, the design formulae for joints between square hollow sections can be reduced such that only one check has to be carried out, see tables 9.3 and 9.4.
Initially, based on the models and test evidence, either analytical or semi-empirical formulae were developed. For example, for T, Y and X joints, the yield line model is used as a lower bound for the test results and also incorporated in the recommendations [3,13,18,37,42], whereas for K joints with gap a semi-empirical formula is used. Fig. 9.11 shows a comparison between the formula for the strength of K-gap joints and the experiments [42]. In the last 10 years, the results of many numerical investigations became available [94], which may result in a reanalysis of all data and the presentation of a revision of the recommendations.
9.5
For T, Y and X joints up to = 0.85, the yield line model for chord face plastification is used as a basic lower bound formula for the joint resistance (Fig. 9.12). Above = 0.85, the joint resistance is governed either by side wall failure, brace effective width or for b1 < bo - 2 to -2(1.4a) by punching shear.
9.7
strength of a joint with a circular hollow section brace with diameter di is about 4 times that of a joint with a
chord preload in a multiplanar joint may be twice that of a uniplanar joint, resulting in a larger chord loading reduction effect.
square hollow section brace with a width bi = di, see Fig. 9.13. This means that the same formulae can be used as for square hollow section joints, but they have to be multiplied by 4 [42].
This also means that the joints have the same efficiency, i.e.: the joint strength divided by the squash load of the brace.
9.8
DESIGN CHARTS
In a similar way as for circular hollow section joints, in Figs 9.17 and 9.18 the joint resistances have been expressed as an efficiency, i.e the joint resistance is given as a fraction of the yield capacity Aifyi of the connected brace. This resulted in the following efficiency formula: Ni Aifyi = Ce fyoto fyiti
eff =
f(n) sini
(9.18)
For detailed explanation, see chapter 8.8. Using the charts of Fig. 9.19 shows that e.g. a K-gap joint with 2 25 and b1 = b2 gives a Ck 0.33. Thus, for an angle = 45 a 100% efficiency can be obtained if: fyoto fyiti
Fig. 9.18 shows the chord load function. It is noted that in contradiction to joints between circular hollow sections, the function f(n) is given as a function of the parameter n = o/fyo, thus the maximum compression stress in the chord is used.
9.9
CONCLUDING REMARKS
For more detailed information about joints loaded by bending moments, interaction between axial loads and bending moments as well as special types of joints, reference is made to the appropriate literature, see [3,33,37,41,42,95,96,99,100].
Table 9.1: Design resistance of welded joints between rectangular hollow sections
type of joints
h1
t1
N1
b1
t0
b0 h0
N0
N1
h2 b2
h1
N2
2
t2
t1
N1
1
b1
(V/Vp )2]0.5
b0 h0
N0
t0
tension: fk = fy0
fkn = buckling stress, using a column slenderness ratio of 3.46(h 0/t0 -2)(1/sin1) 0.5
For square and rectangular braces, A v = (2h0 + b0) t 0 For circular braces, A v = 2h0 t0
Table 9.2 Range of validity for welded joints between rectangular hollow sections type of joint parameters (i = 1 or 2, j = overlapped brace) joints
g>>the the larger of 1.5(1) b and (t 1 + t2 ), treat as a Torpunching Y-joint shear acc.to table 9.1, as for a T- or Y-joint if g larger of 1.5(1and (t the effective width and ) bo 01+t 2), treat
Table 9.3 Design resistance of welded joints between square hollow sections
type of joints
T-, Y- and X-joints
h1 t1
N1
b1
N0
t0
b0 h0
N1
h2 b2
h1
N2
2
t2
t1
N1
1
b1
N0
t0
b0 h0
h2 b2
h1
N2
2
t2
t1
N1
1
b1
N0
t0
b0 h0
circular braces
Effective width computations need only be done for the overlapping brace member. However the efficiency (the joint resistance divided by the full yield capacity of the brace member), of the overlapped brace member is not to be taken higher than that of the overlapping brace member.
Table 9.4 Range of validity for welded joints between square hollow sections
a) a)
bi b0 b0 t0 35
a) 35 0.6 a) b1 + b2 1.3 2bi
b2 t2 35 b0 t0 i = 1 or 2 bi b0 0.35 but
T-joint
h1 b1
Y-joint
h1 t1
N1
N1
t1
1
t0 b0 h0
b1
N0
t0
b0 h0
X-joint
h1 t1
N1
b1
h2 b2
h1
N2
2
t2
t1
N1
1
b1 b0 h0
t0
b0 h0
N0
N0
t0
N1
N1 N2
2
t2 t1
1
N2
t2
N3
t3 g2 g1 t1
h1
N1
1
b1 b0 h0
N0
t0
b0
N0
h0 e
t0
h1 N1 N1 sin1
h1 sin1
b1
1
t0 h0 b0
model b C
2 i
B The total energy dissipated in the yield lines 1 to 5 is as follows: yield lines 1 : 2b 0 2 (b0 - b1)cot 2 (b0 - b1)cot mp = 4tan mp 1- 4tan mp 1-
yield lines 2 : 2b 1
mp
yield lines 3 : 2(
mp
={
4 + 4cot} m p (1-)sin1
yield lines 4 : 2
2 mp b 0 - b1 + tan ) mp cot
4 mp (1-)sin1
= 4(tan + cot) mp
Total energy Ed
8 mp
(1-)
{ tan +
N1u h1
t0
a) Longitudinal section
0.5bep
h1 sin1 c) Plan
0.5bep
a) g 0 0.5bep
b) g = b0 - b2
h2 sin 2
0.5bep
Fig. 9.5 Chord punching shear model for a K-gap joint (chord face)
h1
0.5be 0.5be
0.5be 0.5be
h2
N1
N2
b2
N1u h1 b1
2.5t0 t0
1
2.5t0 fy0
t1
b0
b) Cross-section
N1
A B C
h1 D
t0 h0
lx A B
h1
lx D C fy0t0
g
b0
2
AV t0
v
M M
v
Fig. 9.10 Chord shear failure model
500
400
test load (kN)
300
200
100
250
200
test load (kN)
150
100
50
d2
d1
b0
d1 = d2 = di
b2
b1
b0
b1 = b2 = di 4
Fig. 9.13 Comparison of a K-joint with a circular brace and an equivalent joint with a square brace (chord face)
1.8 1.6 1.4 N1 (JAA = 0) / N1 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
N1
N2
N2
2 = 15 2 = 24 2 = 35
N1 JAA = N2/N1
Fig. 9.14 Multiplanar geometry effect for an XX joint of square hollow sections [94]
1.5
2 = 15 2 = 24 2 = 35 For = 1.0
1.0
1.0
0.5 -1.0
0.0
1.0
0.5 -1.0
0.0
1.0
JAA
Fig. 9.15 Multiplanar loading effect for an XX joint of square hollow sections [94]
JAA
KK joint
Fig. 9.16 Multiplanar K joint of square hollow sections
1.0
N1* A1 * fy1
= CT,t
fyo * t0
fy1 * t1 sin1
f(n)
bo/to
10
0.8
0.6
FUNCTION f(n)
15 20 30 40 50
1.0
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0 -1.0
0.4
0. 35
0.
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
-0.0
Fig. 9.18 Chord load function for square hollow section joints
fyj * tj
yi * i 2.00 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.00
1.0 0.8
N1* A1 * fy1
Ai * fyi
= CK,g
1.0
f(n)
Ni *
EFFICIENCY C K, gap
0.8
0.6
TOTAL EFFICIENCY (
b1 + b2 2bi
1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6
0.6 0.4
0.4
0.2 0.0 10
0.2 0.0 10
15
20 25 b0 / t0
30
35
15
20 25 bj / tj
30
35
Fig. 9.19 Efficiency for K-gap joints between square hollow sections
Fig. 9.20 Efficiency for K-overlap joints (100% overlap) between square hollow sections
As a result, the governing failure modes to be considered are: - brace failure (effective width) - chord web failure - chord shear failure For connections between hollow section braces and channel section chords it can be easily shown that with the same limitations as discussed above, the failure modes (Fig. 10.4) to be considered in more detail are: - brace effective width - chord face plastification - chord punching shear failure - chord side wall failure - chord shear failure Since hot rolled channel sections (UNP) have thick flanges, which act as walls here, chord side wall failure will not be critical for these particular sections. In principle, the other failure modes can be approached in a similar way as for connections between rectangular hollow sections [42,102,103]. If chords of cold formed channel sections are used, the situation will be different, since the side walls will deform when the top face deforms, resulting in lower strengths. For detailed information about connections with channel section chords, reference can be made to [42]. The connections of Fig. 10.2 with welded angles or channels at the sides of a rectangular hollow section are not different from other connections in open sections. Besides weld failure, chord side wall failure (generally not critical) and chord shear failure have to be considered.
10.2
MODES OF FAILURE
Following the same procedure as described in chapter 7, the following failure modes (Fig. 10.3) can be expected and observed for connections between hollow section braces and I-section chords: - brace failure (yielding, local buckling) - weld failure - lamellar tearing - chord web failure (yielding, local buckling) - chord shear failure - chord local buckling Chord face plastification will not occur, since this can only take place after excessive yielding of the chord web. As indicated before, the welds should be stronger than the connected members, assuming the latter are loaded to their limit, thus the welds should satisfy certain requirements, see 8.2. Similar to the other connections, lamellar tearing should be avoided by choosing proper material. Local buckling of the members can be avoided by choosing proper diameter, width and depth-to-thickness ratios, thus by limiting the range of validity.
10.3
ANALYTICAL MODELS
If be > b1, it is conservatively proposed to use the approach shown in Fig. 10.5, which has been verified with experiments.
Similar to joints of rectangular hollow sections, the effective width criterion is also used for overlap joints.
(10.11)
Thus, for a specified section the active part of the flange can be specified as:
b t
with
o o
(10.11)
=
(10.12)
For beam-to-column connections c = 5 is used, which was shown to be also valid for these connections [42]. For high sections the effectiveness of the bottom flange will be considerably lower than that for the top flange and the following effective shear area is proposed for connections with RHS braces: Av = (Ao-2 boto) + boto + (tw+2ro)to (10.13)
If circular hollow section braces are used, the chord flange is less stiffened at the gap location; consequently, is lower. Based on tests, here = 0 is proposed. For the interaction between the axial load and the shear load at the gap location, based on the Huber-HenckyVon Mises criterion, the following formula now applies (see 9.3.5): No = (Ao-Av) f yo+Avf yo with (10.14)
The interaction formula for a rectangular cross section, assuming the web yields, is:
(10.7)
Mp#,f =
fyo
Vp# = Av (10.8)
(10.15)
Vp#,f = boto
(10.9)
10.4
EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION
The formulae developed in 10.3 for joints with an Isection chord have been verified by experiments [42,102], see e.g. Fig. 10.8. Later on, some small modifications to the original equation have been adopted for brace effective width to make it more in line with the flange effective width equation used for beam- to-column connections. Generally, chord web failure and chord shear failures show more deformation capacity than brace effective width failures. The experiments further showed that within certain parameter limits the brace effective width criterion does not have to be checked, since the other criteria are governing. The design criteria for joints with a hot formed channel chord section have also been checked by tests. It was shown that for medium to high width ratios, , chord shear failure was the most common failure mode for the K-gap joints and chord punching shear or chord face plastification was governing for low values. For 100% overlap joints only the brace effective width has to be checked.
effective width failure with formulae based on eqs. 10.1 and 10.2 (see Fig. 10.9) and column web failure based on eqs. 10.3 to 10.5 (see Fig. 10.10).
10.5
In principle, the same approach has been used as for the connections discussed in chapters 8 and 9. However, due to the limited number of tests, no thorough statistical analysis was carried out. Due to the lower deformation capacity, a higher M factor (1.25) or a higher margin between test results and design formulae was taken for the brace effective width criterion compared to the analytical yield criteria, e.g. for chord shear failure.
10.6
Here, only the beam-to-column connections with a hollow section brace and an I-section column are of practical interest. The design strength here is governed by the beam
T-joint
h1
t1
X-joint
h1 b1
t1
b1
t1
t1
d1
d1
b0
t0 h0 r0 b0 tw
t0 h0 r0 tw
K-joint d2 b1 t2
t1 h1
b2 h2
d1
N2
2
N1
1 t0 h0 r0 b0 tw
h1
b2 h2 t2
t1
b1
h1
b2 t2 h2
b1 g = 0.1b0
t1
N1 N2
N2
g = 0.1b0
2=45
o
N1
1=45
o
t0 tw r0 b0 h0
2=45o
1=90o
N0
Warren - type joint with RHS braces (K-type)
N0
Pratt - type joint with RHS braces (N-type)
Fig. 10.1 Welded truss joints between hollow section braces and open section chords
(a)
Section A A
(b)
Section B - B
Fig. 10.2 Welded truss connections between open sections and hollow sections [37]
N2
Crack
N1
N2
N1
N2
The same as (a) but in the weld
N1
N2 N1
Fig. 10.3 Governing failure modes of joints between hollow section braces and I-section chords
N2 Crack
N1
N2
N1 N2 N1
N2
N1
Fig. 10.4 Governing failure modes of joints between hollow section braces and a channel section chord
be be
be be be
h1 t1 1 bm 2 bm 2 t0
N1 t1
1 : 2.5 h1 t1 1 bm t0 N1
1 : 2.5 t0 r0
t 1 + 5(t0 + r0 )
b0 t0 tW h0
b0 t0 tW h0
Av Vf Vf Mf g Mf
Av
(w e b )
700
RI-joints
600 500
N1usin1(test)
400
300
Member yielding IPe 120 IPe 160 HE 100A HE 120A HE 200A
200
600
700
800
N1sin1(calculated)
600
CI-joints
500
N1usin1(test)
(g = 0)
400
300
Member yielding IPe 120 IPe 160 HE 100A HE 120A HE 200A
200
600
700
800
N1sin1(calculated)
Fig. 10.8 Comparison between test results and eq. 10.14 for joints between hollow section braces and an I-section chord [42]
I or H RHS be
hZ
h1
be
Fig. 10.9 Effective width criterion for moment loading of RHS beam to I-column connection
r0 t0 I or H RHS bm M
t1
h1 - t1
to-thickness and/or the diameter-to-thickness ratio. As a result, the following modes of failure have to be considered for design: - beam failure (effective width) - column plastification (face, wall or cross section) - column punching shear - column shear failure
11.3 MODELS
11.3.1 Effective width
The effective width for the beam shown in Fig. 11.4 can be determined from the plate-to-CHS and/or the plateto-RHS connections (see 8.7.2 and 9.7.2 with more detailed information in 9.3) because the flange connections are governing. The moment capacity can be given by: M1 = N1 (h1 - t1) (11.1)
where N1 is the flange capacity for axial loading based on the effective width criterion similarly determined as for the joints between hollow sections. For plate-to-CHS column connections tests have shown that within the range of validity of the formulae the effective width was not critical compared to the other criteria. For plate-to-RHS column connections the capacity according to the effective width criterion is given by: M1 = f y1 t1 be (h1 - t1) (11.2)
with be similar to that for joints between rectangular hollow sections, see table 9.1.
M1
(11.3)
If the influence of the web is incorporated, the equation becomes considerably more complicated and reference can be made to [106]. For the chord side wall plastification criterion, similar rules can be used as for beam-to-column connections between I-sections and those used for RHS connections with , i.e.: M1 = 2 f yo to bm (h1- t1) with bm = t1 + 5 to (11.4) (11.5)
If the beam-to-column connections only have a moment loaded beam on one side, or alternatively the beam moments on either side of the connection do not balance each other, shear forces will act in the column, which may cause a shear failure of the column. Here the cross section of the column has to be checked for the combined actions of axial load, shear load and bending moment. For class 1 and class 2 sections, the interaction can be based on the Huber-Hencky-Von Mises criterion [42] or a suitable possible stress distribution can be assumed as e.g. shown in Fig. 11.7.b. Based on the Huber-Hencky-Von Mises criterion the following can be derived for a side wall of an RHS column: = 2 + 3 or 1= (11.7a)
2
(11.7)
For I-beam to CHS column connections the strength for the flange plate connection can be based on the ring model (see chapter 8). However, for moment loading with the beam web included, the formulae become rather complicated and have to be calibrated with test results, resulting in semi-empirical formulae [105].
or (11.7.b)
(11.7.c)
M = Mp
(11.8)
N = Np
(11.9)
Adding the flanges and assuming that the effective shear area is 2 hmto results in: Mp,Q = bmhmto f yo + 0.5 hm2 tof yo (11.10) Np,Q = 2bmto f yo + 2hmtof yo (11.11)
For plate-to-CHS column connections it was shown that, within the range of application given in table 8.1, bep can be taken as b1. For plate-to-RHS column connections the same bep can be taken as given in tables 9.1 and 9.3.
The formulae 11.10 and 11.11 show the plastic capacities for axial loading and moment, reduced by the effect of shear. In a similar way, the interaction between axial load and bending moment can be determined [42]. By introducing Np,Q and Mp,Q instead of Np and Mp, the full interaction can be obtained. In the standards [12 ], these formulae have been approximated by simpler formulae. Also the effect of small shear loads has been neglected, e.g. for V 0.5 Vp.
uniplanar and multiplanar joints and no formulae are available for the stiffness, although the stiffness is extremely important for the determination of the moment distribution in unbraced frames. However, many moment rotation diagrams are available for many parameter variations. From these moment rotation diagrams indications can be obtained for the stiffness. The effect of the connection stiffness on the elastic moment distribution is represented in Figs. 11.8 and 11.9. It is shown that with semi-rigid connections the elastic moment distribution can be influenced considerably. If a rigid-plastic analysis is used, the moment resistance of the connections is of primary importance. Furthermore, the rotation capacity is important. For example, if the stiffness of the connections of the beam in Fig. 11.8 is very low, the plastic moment capacity of the beam at mid-span Mp#,Rd will be reached first. The moment capacity of the end connections Mj,Rd can only be reached if the beam has sufficient rotation capacity at the location of the plastic moment. In the case of connections with a very low stiffness this might not be the case, e.g. see "e" in Fig. 11.10. If the stiffness of the connection is high, the (partial) strength capacity of the end connections (e.g. "b" in Fig. 11.10) may be reached first. Now these connections should have sufficient deformation capacity to develop the plastic moment capacity of the beam at mid-span. Thus, for a proper analysis of frames with semi-rigid connections, a description of the moment-rotation behaviour is required. Therefore, evidence is required regarding: - stiffness (serviceability and at the ultimate limit state) - strength (ultimate limit state) - rotation capacity However, all this information is not yet generally available for beam-to-tubular column connections. Other options are that the stiffness is such that the connections can be classified as (nearly) rigid or (nearly) pinned. For both cases, limits can be given. However, the deflections can only be determined properly if the joint stiffnesses are available (Fig. 11.11).
In Eurocode 3 Annex J stiffness classifications are given, see Fig. 11.12. A possible joint modelling approach is given in Fig. 11.13. For I-beam-to-tubular column connections the factors c1 and c2 still have to be defined. Another complication is that the axial loads and moments in the column do not only influence the strength, but also the stiffness, as shown by the dashed line in Fig. 11.13.
tp
tp
to bo do
to
bf b 1 Bf b1 Bf
crack in flange
crack in weld
b. weld failure Column wall lamellar tearing beam flange Connection configuration c. lamellar tearing
fu
bep / 2 t1
M=
q L2 b 12
M=
q L2 b 12 a. Simply supported
M=
q L2 b 8 q L2b 12
M=
b. Fixed
M= Mj Mb q L2 b 8
Mb
Mj L b 2EIb
M q L2 b 8
-Mb + Mj =
q L2 b 8
2 3 Kb = 2EIb/Lb
Sj/Kb
a M pl,Rd b
/EIb /384q L4 b
Mj
rigid, if Sj,ini
8EIb/Lb
Mj
rigid, if Sj,ini
25EIb/Lb
semi-rigid
semi-rigid
Fig. 11.12 Boundaries for stiffness classification of beam-to-column joints according to Eurocode 3
Sj,ini
Fig. 11.13 M-
modelling
12.3. Further, many analytical failure mechanisms have been evaluated. However, up to now, the models do not sufficiently fit the test results and further research is still going on.
Furthermore, since the RHS member tends to yield adjacent to the plastic hinge, it participates in the failure mechanism. Detailed formulae are given in [37,110]. Many tests have been carried out on RHS flange plate connections with bolts on 4 sides, as shown in Fig.
the direction of the load (as in Fig. 12.6 (b), along the corners of the RHS), the shear lag factor is a function of the weld lengths and the distance between them. The distance between such welds would be bi. The shear lag factor to be applied is [3] : 1.00 when the weld lengths (L) along the RHS corners are 2bi 0.87 when the weld lengths (L) along the RHS corners are 1.5 bi L < 2bi 0.75 when the weld lengths (L) along the RHS corners are bi L < 1.5 bi. The minimum length of welds (L) is the distance between them. A failure mode of the gusset plate which must be checked is yielding across an effective dispersion width of the plate, which can be calculated using the Whitmore [37] effective width concept illustrated in Fig. 12.8. For this failure mode (for two gusset plates) the strength is given by: (12.2) If the member is in compression, buckling of the gusset plate must also be prevented. The term p represents the sum of the bolt pitches in a bolted connection or the length of the weld in a welded connection.
- punching shear of the fastener through the column face - yielding of the column face (yield line pattern around the bolts) - bolt failure in shear, tension or a combination of both.
fatigue loading. Simple design formulae, derived from bolted and riveted connections, have been verified for both these load cases.
12.9.1 Flowdrill
The flowdrill system is a special patented method for extruded holes [114]. CIDECT has carried out extensive tests to prove the load bearing capacity of this type of joint using this method in structural hollow sections [114], see Fig. 12.20. Flowdrilling is a thermal drilling process (Fig. 12.21) to make a hole through the wall of a hollow section by bringing a tungsten carbide bit into contact with the hollow section wall and generating sufficient heat by friction to soften the steel. As the bit moves through the wall, the metal flows to form an internal bush. In the subsequent step, the bush is threaded using a roll tap. At the present stage of investigation, the bolting of hollow sections with wall thicknesses up to 12.5 mm can be recommended by using the flowdrill method. Recommendations are given in [114].
tf tf ti
N di
e1 e2
Yield lines
A-A
mp
mp
Bolt failure
Fig. 12.2 Failure modes for bolted CHS flange plate connections
Four and eight bolt configurations Fig. 12.3 Bolted RHS flange plate connections
b'
bi 2 ti
Fig. 12.4 RHS flange plate connection with bolts at two sides
g 2 g1 g 2
Effective net area for critical section A-A is the sum of the individual segments : for tension segment : (g1 - d'/2)t for shear segments : 0.6(L - 2.5d')t s2 ) }t for each inclined segment : (g2 - d')t + {( 4g2
Ni
30
30
g p 15 1.
f yp
g +
t2
Plate
IPE
IPE or HE offcut
1/2 IPE
IPE
Fig. 12.14 Moment connections between open section beams and CHS or RHS columns
L plate
b
welded stud
Fig. 12.20 Flow drill connection for joining double angle web cleats or flexible end plates to RHS
first stage
Fig. 12.21 Flowdrill process
second stage
Fatigue life
The number of cycles N to a defined failure is known as the endurance or fatigue life.
Fatigue limit
The stress range below which it is assumed that no fatigue failure occurs for a constant amplitude loading, is known as the fatigue limit. For Eurocode 3 [12] and the IIW recommendations [19], for example, this occurs at N = 5 x 106 cycles.
Geometric stress
The geometric stress, also called hot spot stress, is defined as the extrapolated principal stress at a specified location at the weld toe. The extrapolation must be carried out from the region outside the influence of the effects of the weld geometry and discontinuities at the weld toe, but close enough to fall inside the zone of the stress gradient caused by the global geometrical effects of the joint. The extrapolation is to be carried out on the brace side and the chord side of each weld (see Fig. 13.7). Generally the geometric stress (or the hot spot stress) can be determined by considering the stress normal to the weld toe since the orientation of the maximum principal stress is normal or almost normal to the weld toe.
13.1
DEFINITIONS
Stress range
The stress range (shown in Fig. 13.3) is the difference between the maximum and minimum stress in a constant amplitude loading regime.
Stress ratio R
The stress ratio R is defined as the ratio between the minimum stress and the maximum stress in a stress cycle of constant amplitude loading (Fig. 13.3).
13.2
INFLUENCING FACTORS
Fatigue Strength
The fatigue strength of a welded component is defined as a stress range , which causes failure of the component after a specified number of cycles N.
The fatigue behaviour can be determined either by N methods or with a fracture mechanics approach. The various -N methods are based on experiments resulting in -N graphs (Fig. 13.4) with a defined stress range on the vertical axis and the number of cycles N to a specified failure criterion on the horizontal axis.
The relation between the number of cycles fo failure N and the stress range can be given by: N = C m (13.1) or lo g N = lo g C m log( ) (13.2) On a log - log scale this gives a straight line with a slope (-m), see Fig. 13.4. The fracture mechanics approach is based on a fatigue crack growth model and will not be further discussed in the context of this book. Due to the appearance of residual stresses, the stress ratio R = min /max (see Fig. 13.3) is not taken into account in modern fatigue design. Only if the structure is fully stress relieved, might it be advantageous to take the stress ratio into account. The influence of residual stresses is shown in the example in Fig. 13.5 for f y = 240 N/mm2. A nominal nom = 120 N/mm2 is applied on the plate, resulting in a nominal average
lines can be determined. These -N lines (Figs. 13.4 and 13.6) already take the effect of the welds and the geometry of the connection into account. For more complicated geometries, such as the directlywelded connections between hollow sections, the peak stresses and thus the peak stress ranges depend on the geometrical parameters. This means that for every connection a separate -N line exists. This is why in modern design the fatigue behaviour of hollow section connections is related to basic -N curves, in which represents a geometrical or hot spot stress range taking into account the effect of the geometry of the connection. This geometrical stress range can also be calculated by multiplying the nominal stress range with a relevant stress concentration factor (SCF). As a consequence of this method, stress concentration factors should be available for connections with various geometries. The effect of the weld is included in the basic -N lines. As will be shown later, the thickness of the sections is also an influencing parameter. The fatigue loading is seldom critical for the members compared to the connections.
nom
=160
N/mm2 at the nett cross section at the hole. With a geometric stress concentration factor SCF = 3, this results in a theoretical geometric geom = SCF. nom = 3 x 160 = 480 N/mm2. However, at 240 N/mm2 the material is yielding, resulting in the stress pattern "b". Unloading to zero means that the elastic stress pattern "a" has to be subtracted from "b" resulting in the residual stress pattern "c". The next cycle will thus fluctuate between the pattern "c" and "b", thus starting from a residual stress equal to the yield stress. In welded structures, residual stresses and discontinuities exist at welds too. That is why it is assumed that locally the stress will fluctuate between the yield stress and a lower limit f y - geom. The example in Fig. 13.5 with a tensile loading resulted in a compressive residual stress at the hole, which is favourable. However, it also shows that a compressive loading would have resulted in a tensile residual stress at the hole, which is unfavourable. In this latter case, it would result in fatigue failure under an external compression stress range . In practical situations, various stress ranges occur and the residual stress ranges are not known. That is why generally no difference is made between tensile and compressive loading. For general details, e.g. butt-welded, end-to-end connections, cover plates, attachments, etc., -N
13.3
LOADING EFFECTS
As stated before, the stress range is a governing parameter for fatigue. For constant amplitude loading, the -N line is generally cut off between N = 2 x 106 to 107 cycles depending on the code. Eurocode 3 [12] and IIW [19] use 5 x 106 (see Figs. 13.4 and 13.6). For random loading, also called spectrum loading, the smaller cycles also have an effect and the cut off is taken at 108 to 2 x 108, depending on the code. EC3 uses a cut off at N = 108. Between 5 x 106 to 108 a -N line is used with a shallower slope of m = -5. Although the sequence of the stress ranges affects the damage, the simplest and best rule available up to now to determine the cumulative damage is the PalmgrenMiner linear damage rule, i.e. (13.3) in which ni is the number of cycles of a particular stress range i and Ni is the number of cycles to failure for that particular stress range. If vibration of the members occurs, the nominal stress ranges may be considerably increased. This will be the case if the natural frequency of a structural element is close to the frequency of the loading. It is therefore essential to avoid this. For very high stress ranges and consequently a low
number of cycles, low cycle fatigue may occur. In this case, no -N curves are given in the codes, since the fatigue is mainly governed by the strains. In [120], it is shown that the various -N curves can be used if translated into strain, i.e. -N curves. In this case the loading should be evaluated based on the resulting strain range . However, such high strain ranges may finally result in brittle fracture after a fatigue crack is initiated.
13.6
13.4
FATIGUE STRENGTH
The fatigue strength for members with butt welded or fillet welded end-to-end connections, with plates or members with attachments, etc. is given as the stress range at 2 x 106 cycles in EC3. This classification is in line with the classifications given for other members such as I-sections, etc. Some classifications according to EC3 are given in Table 13.1. It is shown that the classification of 160 or 140 N/mm2 in Table 13.1 for a plain section without attachments or connections is much higher than the classification for details. It is also clear that a butt welded end-to-end connection shows a better fatigue behaviour than a fillet welded end-to-end connection with an intersecting plate. The classification is independent of the steel grade. Higher strength steels are more sensitive to notches, which reduces the favourable effect of higher strength. However, recent investigations have shown that, especially for thin walled sections and in particular if improved welding methods are used or post weld improvements (grinding, TIG or plasma dressing, etc.) are carried out to give a smooth transition from parent material to weld, higher fatigue strengths can be obtained for high strength steels (e.g. for S 460).
In 13.4 the basic parameters influencing the strength of members with attachments or with end-to-end connections are discussed. It has already been stated that in welded connections between hollow sections the stiffness around the intersection is not uniform, resulting in a geometrical non-uniform stress distribution as shown in Fig. 13.2 for an X-joint of circular hollow sections. This non-uniform stress distribution depends on the type of loading (axial, bending in plane, bending out of plane), the connection types and geometry. This is the reason why the fatigue behaviour of hollow section joints is generally treated in a different way than, for example, that for welded connections between plates.
13.5
In using the fatigue strengths it should be noted that the stress ranges produced by the (unfactored) loading have to be multiplied, according to EC3, by a partial safety factor which depends on the type of structure (fail safe or non fail safe) and the possibility for inspection and maintenance. The partial safety factors according to Eurocode 3 are given in Table 13.2. For example a M=1.25 for a slope of m = -3 results in a factor (1.25)-3 0.5 on fatigue life (i.e. half the value of N).
with: i = chord or brace j = location, e.g. crown, saddle or in between for CHS joints k = type of loading Thus, several SCFs have to be determined for various locations which are the likely critical positions (Fig. 13.7). The maximum SCF and the location depend on
the geometry and loading. This is particularly important for combined loadings. Thus, for determining the fatigue life the geometrical (peak) stress range has to be calculated for the various locations: ( ) (13.5)
ratios - SCF decreases with decreasing value - SCF decreases with decreasing 2 value
For the brace
- Generally the same applies as for the chord; however, a decrease in value gives an increase in SCF at the crown position (in some cases the graphs are only given here for 1.0). - SCF in the brace may become critical compared to that in the chord for small values; however, the brace thickness is then smaller than the chord thickness. Considering the thickness effect, this still results mostly in a critical chord location. For X-joints of square hollow sections the SCFs are given for various locations in Fig. 13.10. As mentioned before, similar observations can be made as for circular hollow section X-joints: - For = 1 the highest SCFs generally occur in the chord at locations B and C - The highest SCFs are found for medium ratios - The lower the 2g ratio, the lower is the SCF - The lower the ratio, the lower is the SCF in the chord, whereas it has less influence for the brace. Fig. 13.11 shows the SCFs for an axially loaded K-gap joint of circular hollow sections with g = 0.1 d0. Here the same observations are valid as for X-joints, but the SCFs are considerably lower due to the stiffening effect of the opposite loadings on the chord face. Here only maximum SCF values for chord and brace are given (i.e. no differentiation is made between the saddle and crown positions). The effect of the brace angle is not included in the figures, but a decrease in the angle between brace and chord results in a considerable decrease in SCF. If the chord is loaded, the geometrical or hot spot stress range at the chord locations at the crown (CHS) or at the locations C and D (RHS) (see Fig. 13.7) has to be increased by the chord nominal stress range multiplied by the stress concentration factor produced by the chord stresses. As shown in Fig. 13.12, this SCF varies between 1 and 3, for RHS T- and X-joints depending on the loading, type of joint and geometrical parameters [122]. Another aspect to be considered is multiplanar loading. For the same type of joint and the same geometry, different SCFs can be obtained for different loading conditions (see Fig. 13.13). All the SCFs are based on measurements taken at the
The -N line to be considered is also based on the geometrical stress range. Recent research has shown that the -N curves can be higher than those given in EC3 since at the time of drafting EC3 not all results were available. However, EC3 allows higher values than given if proven by appropriate tests. For 16 mm wall thickness, the fatigue class 114 (at 2 x 106 cycles) can be adopted for hollow section joints using the geometric stress approach. This deviates somewhat from the classifications given previously in [6]. The reanalysis in [123] showed that one set of curves with one general thickness correction factor is possible for connections of CHS and RHS. The curves with the thickness correction included in the -N curves are given in Fig. 13.8. It has been shown that the stress or strain gradient influences the fatigue life. Since this influence is not incorporated in the geometrical stress range, joints with relatively high stress concentration factors show a larger thickness effect, i.e. the fatigue performance is better for thin walled connections than for those with thick walls. It should be noted that no further thickness effect should be used for thicknesses below 4 mm, since the weld performance may overrule the geometrical influence, which may sometimes result in lower fatigue strengths [42]. For the designer it is important to have an insight into the parameters which determine the stress concentration factors. Optimal design requires the stress concentration factors to be as low as possible. As an indication, the stress concentration factors are given for some joint configurations. Fig. 13.9 shows the stress concentration factors for axially loaded X-joints of circular hollow sections at four locations, i.e. for the chord and brace, at the crown and saddle. The following conclusions can be made:
toe of the weld, since this location is generally critical. However, for very low SCFs, crack initiation can start at the weld root. Therefore a minimum SCF = 2.0 is recommended. Further, the SCF values have been determined for butt welded joints. Fillet welds cause somewhat lower SCFs in the chord, but due to local wall bending effects considerably higher SCFs in the braces. It is therefore recommended to increase the SCFs in RHS braces of T- and X-joints by a factor of 1.4 [122] when fillet welds are used.. Considering all these aspects, it can be concluded that optimal design can be achieved if the SCFs are as low as possible. Thus the following guidelines can be given: - Avoid medium ratios. ratios close to 1.0 give the lowest SCFs. - Make the wall thickness of the brace as low as possible (low ) - Take relatively thick walled chords (low 2g ratio). In this way, SCFs of about 2 to 4 are possible resulting in an economic design. Note : If the bending moments in girders have not been accurately determined by finite element analyses or other methods, the effect of bending moment can be in corporated in a simplified manner as discussed in 13.6.2.
allows a calculation based on the assumption that braces are pin connected to a continuous chord. However, the stress ranges in chord and braces caused by the axial loading in the braces have to be multiplied by the factors given in Tables 13.4 and 13.5 to account for the secondary bending moments. These values are based on measurements in actual girders.
under fatigue load. This change in stresses due to fatigue loading can be neglected, when the external bolt load Ft is smaller than the bolt preload Fv. Should the load transmitting parts not be located on the same plane, the connections must then be designed in such a manner that the load transmission is mainly effected through the reduction of contact loads. The arrangements shown in Fig. 13.15 are recommended for bolted ring flange connections between hollow sections. These proposed flange connections require expensive machining and finishing. However, the same level of load transmission can be achieved simply with the help of packing plates (shims). It is further recommended that high strength bolts be located as closely as possible to the load carrying structural parts. Snug tight bolted connections without prestressing should be avoided, since the fatigue behaviour is bad.
she has first to determine the geometry, e.g. for a truss. Here, several steps have to be followed: Step A: For the determination of the geometry, use has to be made of the knowledge obtained in the previous sections. For a good performance of joints, the following points have to be considered to obtain the best fatigue behaviour: - Select joints with high or low values, avoid intermediate values. Considering fabrication, = 0.8 is preferred to = 1.0. - Choose the chord diameter or chord width-tothickness ratio 2g.to be as low as possible; e.g. for tension chords about 20 or lower and for compression chords about 25 or lower. - Design the braces to be as thin as possible to achieve preferably brace to chord thickness ratios 0.5 and to minimise welding. - Design girders in such a way that the angles between braces and chord are preferably about 40. Considering the above, joints with relatively low stress concentration factors can be achieved: e.g. for a K-joint of circular hollow sections (Fig. 13.11) with = 0.8 2g = 20 = 0.5 = 40 SCF chord 2.1
Step B: Based on the required lifetime the number of cycles N has to be determined. Step C: For the number of cycles N (from B) the geometric stress range geom. can be determined from the -N line assuming a certain thickness, see Fig. 13.8. Step D: Depending on the inspection frequency and the type of structure ("failsafe" or "non failsafe") the partial load factor Mf can be determined (Table 13.2). Step E: Determine the factors C to account for secondary bending moments (Tables 13.4 and 13.5).
Step F: Based on steps A, C, D and E, the allowable nominal stress range for the braces can be determined:
If this meets or exceeds the required fatigue life, the design will satisfy the requirements. Otherwise modifications have to be made. If a spectrum (variable amplitude) loading is acting, the spectrum can be divided into stress blocks and for each stress range the number of cycles to failure can be determined. Using the Palmgren-Miner rule (eq. 13.1) will give the cumulative damage which should not exceed 1.0.
nom.brace
max.
can be determined as
=
Thus:
max
- min
1 R
max.nom.brace
= C (1 R)
With this maximum brace stress the cross section of the braces can be determined and, with the parameters selected under step A, the chord dimensions and the joint. If the chord has large chord loads, a larger cross section should be taken to account for this. Step G: The configuration now determined should be checked for ease of fabrication, inspection and the validity range for joints. If the design satisfies the requirements, the final calculation can be carried out, however, now starting from the loading and the known geometry. The procedure is now as follows: 1. Determine loads and moments in members and from these the stresses in braces and chord, e.g. assuming continuous chords and pin ended connections to rigid stiff members if the members are not noding, see Fig. 13.17. 2. Determine from (1) the nominal stress range nom.brace in the brace and the nom chord in the chord. 3. Multiply the nominal stress ranges by the partial safety factor .gMf, the factors to account for secondary bending moments (step E) and the SCFs to obtain the maximum geometric stress ranges for chord and braces. 4. Determine the number of cycles to failure in the N curve for geometric stress for the relevant thickness and thus the fatigue life.
Table 13.1 Detail category EC3: Hollow sections and simple connections
140
71
56
71
50
Welded connections (load carrying welds) Circular hollow sections, end-to-end butt welded with an intermediate plate. Requirements: - Welds proven free of detectable discontinuities - Details with wall thicknesses greater than 8 mm may be classified one Detail category higher ( 56) Welded connections (load carrying welds) Rectangular hollow sections, end-to-end butt welded with an intermediate plate. Requirements: - Welds proven free of detectable discontinuities - Details with wall thicknesses greater than 8 mm may be classified one Detail category higher ( 50) Welded connections (load-carrying welds) Circular hollow sections, end-to-end fillet welded with an intermediate plate. Requirements: - Wall thickness less than 8 mm. Welded connections (load-carrying welds) Rectangular hollow sections, end-to-end fillet welded with an intermediate plate Requirements: - Wall thickness less than 8 mm
45
40
36
13.8
Table 13.2 Partial safety factors M according to Eurocode 3 Inspection and access Periodic inspection and maintenance Accessible joint detail Periodic inspection and maintenance Poor accessibility "Fail safe" structures Non "fail safe" structures
M = 1.00 M = 1.15
M = 1.25 M = 1.35
Table 13.4 Coefficients to account for secondary bending moments in joints of lattice girders made from circular hollow sections
Table 13.5 Coefficients to account for secondary moments in joints of lattice girders made from rectangular hollow sections
Table 13.6 - Recommended fatigue class for bolted connections according to Eurocode 3 Detail Bolts loaded in tension based on tensile stress area Double-sided, slip-resistant connections, e.g. splices or cover plates (based on stress in gross section) Class 36 112 Slope m -5 -3
13.9
Table 13.3 Detailed category EC3: Classes for classification method Detail categories for lattice girder joints based on nominal stresses Detail m = -5 90 to/ti 2.0 Construction Details Description
45
to/ti = 1.0
71
to/ti 2.0
36
to/ti = 1.0
Joints with gap Rectangular hollow sections, K and N Joints Requirements -0.5 (bo-bi) g 1.1 (bo-bi) g 2 to
d1
71
b1
to/ti 1.4
2
t1 h 1 1 t 0 h0 b0 d0
56
to/ti = 1.0
71
to/ti 1.4
50
to/ti = 1.0
General Requirements do 300 mm 0.25 di/do 1.0 do/to 25* -0.5do e 0.25do bo 200 mm 0.4 bi/b0 1.0 bo/to 25* -0.5ho e 0.25ho 0 0 35 50 to, ti 12.5mm* Out of plane eccentricity : 0.02bo or 0.02do Fillet welds are permitted in braces with wall thickness 8 mm - For intermediate to/ti values, use linear interpolation between nearest Detail Categories - Note that the detail class is based on the stress range in the braces * Regarding general requirements, it is recommended to use the limits of the tests: 4 (to and t1) 8 mm instead of 12.5 mm bo/to to/t1 or do/to to/t1 25 instead of bo/to or do/to 25
13.10
Brace wall
Stress increase due to weld toe effects Stress increase due to weld geometry Geometrical stress weld notch
a
b Chord wall
Fig. 13.2 Geometrical stress distribution in an axially loaded X-joint of circular hollow sections
Stress
R>0
R=0 R = -1
Fig. 13.3 Stress range and stress ratio R
13.11
80
100 50
63 50 40
m = -3
Fig. 13.4
f y = 240 N/mm2 a 30 20 A 30 B average = 160 N/mm2 480 theoretical stress at max actual stress at max residual stress at = 0 A B A b B c
-240
240
= 120 /mm2
Fig. 13.5 Plate with a hole
80
Cut-off limit
100 50
63 50 40
90 71 56 45 36
m = -3
Fig. 13.6
Brace
Brace
t1 t1
Crown Chord
Saddle
E D
A B C t1
Chord
t1
450
For 103 < Nf < 5 x 106 log(geom.) = 1/3 [(12.476 - log(Nf)] + 0.06 log(N f) log(16/t) For 5 x 106 < Nf < 108 log(geom.) = 1/5 [(16.327 - log(N f)] + 0.402 log(16/t)
0.402
100
t = 4 mm t = 8 mm
50
t = 12.5 mm t = 16 mm t = 25 mm
10 104
105
106
109
- Nf design curve for the geometrical stress method for hollow section joints
13.13
24 Brace saddle 20 16
SCF
2 = 15 = 0.5 = 1.0
2 = 30
2 = 50
0.8
1.0
5 4 3 2 Brace crown
40 36 32 28 24
SCF
Chord saddle
1 0 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
1
0.8
1.0
8 7
20 16
SCF
Chord crown
12 8
0.8
1.0
Fig. 13.9 SCFs for axially loaded circular hollow sections X-joints [122 ]
13.14
32 Brace E A D Chord C B 30 28 26 24 22
2 = 25.0
2 = 16.0
2 = 12.5
SCF/0.75
20 18 16 14 12
= 0.25 to 1.0
Symbol size ~
20 18 16 14
SCF
12 10 8 6 4
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
2 0 0 Line A, E
0.6
0.8
1.0
26 24 22
20
SCF/0.75
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 Line C
18 16 14
SCF/0.75
12 10 8 6 4
2 0 0 Line D
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Fig. 13.10 SCFs for butt-welded, T- and X-joints of square hollow sections, loaded by an axial force on the brace (parametric formulae compared with FE calculations) [122]. Notes: 1) The effect of bending in the chord for a T-joint due to the axial force on the brace should be separately included in the analysis 2) For fillet welded connections: multiply SCFs for the brace by 1.4 3) A minimum SCF= 2.0 is recommended to avoid crack initiation from the root.
13.15
2 = 15 = 0.5 = 1.0
8 7
2 = 30
2 = 50
Chord saddle/crown
8 7
Brace saddle/crown
6
SCF
6
SCF
0.8
1.0
1 (=2)
Fig. 13.11 Maximum SCFs for axially loaded K-joints of circular hollow sections with a gap g = 0.1 d0
SCF/0.19
SCF/0.24
0.2
1 0 0
1 0 0
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Line C
Line D
Fig. 13.12 SCFs for T- and X-joints (chord locations C and D of fig. 13.7 only), loaded by an in-plane bending moment or axial force on the chord [122]
= 0.5
2 = 24
= 0.5
max. SCF
4.7
7.0
10.6
13.16
F a1 GOOD
F b1 c1
F BAD
a2
b2
c2
Fig. 13.15 Recommended bolted ring flange connection for fatigue loading
13.17
a. No preload
b. Preloaded
Pin
13.18
not available from stock (only deliverable from factory). These dimensions can only be used if a large quantity is required, which is assumed in this example.
Bottom chord For the connection capacity it is best to keep the tension chord as compact and stocky as possible. However, to allow gap joints and to keep the eccentricity within the limits, a larger diameter may be needed. Possible section sizes are given in table 14.2. Diagonals Try to select members which satisfy
2.0; i.e.
chapter 8.
For the braces loaded in compression, use an initial effective length of 0.75# = 0.75 2. = 2.88 m [1, 3], see chapter
The possible sizes for the compression diagonals are given in table 14.3 and for the tension diagonals in table 14.4.
Member selection The number of sectional dimensions depends on the total tonnage to be ordered. In this example, for the braces only two different dimensions will be selected. Comparison of the members suitable for the tension members and those suitable for the compression members shows that the following sections are most convenient:
139.7 - 4.5 88.9 - 3.6 219.1 - 7.1 - top chord: - bottom chord: 193.7 - 6.3 (These chord sizes allow gap joints; no eccentricity is required.) - braces: It is recognized that the do/to ratios of the chords selected are high. This may give joint strength problems in joints 2 and 5. The check for joint resistance is given in table 14.5.
Commentary and revision Joint 1 In joint 1 between plate and brace a gap g = 2to is
chosen, see Fig. 14.4. This joint will be checked as a K (N) joint. Attention should be paid to the top chord shear capacity, i.e. cross section A should be able to resist the shear of 2.5 P=2.5x108=270 kN. Since joint 1 is rather heavily loaded, it is recommended to use the elastic shear capacity of the top chord conservatively, i.e.: 0.5 Ao
classification and moment diagram (in this case triangular). k 1.5. = 0.74 + 0.07 k < 1.0 (regardless of the code used, this will not be critical).
Purlin connections Depending on the type of purlins, various purlin connections are possible. If corrosion will not occur, a cut out of a channel section welded on top of the chord at the purlin support location and provided with bolt stubs provides an easy support.
If single beam purlins are used, a plate as shown in Fig. 12.18 (b) can be used.
Joint 2 The strength of joint 2 is not sufficient. The easiest way to obtain sufficient joint strength will be to decrease the gap from 12.8 to to 3 to (Fig. 14.5) resulting in a joint efficiency of 0.86 > 0.82. However, this means that a (negative) eccentricity of e = 28 mm is introduced resulting in a moment due to eccentricities of: M = (878 - 338) 28 10-3 = 15.1 kNm. Since the length and the stiffness EI of the top chord members between joints 1 - 2 and 2 - 3 are the same (see Fig. 14.3), this moment can be equally distributed over both members, i.e. both members have to be designed additionally for Mo = 7.6 kNm. The chord members between joints 1 - 2 and 2 - 3 now have to be checked as beam-columns. Of these, the chord member 2 - 3 is most critical. This check depends on the national code to be used.
M M= M 1 2 3 15.12 = 7.6 kNm 2
Site-bolted flange connections These lecture notes do not give complete design procedures for bolted flange connections. However, in ref. [1] this example is worked out further, e.g. resulting in a connection according to Fig. 12.1 with 10 bolts 24 Grade 10.9 with an end plate thickness of 22 mm (f y = 355 N/mm2) for the bottom tensile chord connection. To avoid displacements in the connection it is recommended to pretension the bolts. For fatigue loaded connections the bolts have to be pretensioned.
No M + k o 1.0 M p ,o A o f yo
where: Mp#,o = plastic resistance (W p#,o f yo) of the chord (class 1 or 2 sections); for class 3, use the elastic moment resistance (W eof yo) k = factor including second order effects depending on slenderness, section
The member loads can be determined in a similar way as for the uniplanar truss, assuming pin ended members. The load in the bottom chord follows by
Member loads
dividing the relevant moment by the girder depth. Since two top chords are used, the load at the top has to be divided by 2. The loads in the braces follow from the shear forces V in the girder (Fig. 14.9). The top chords should be connected in the top plane for equilibrium of loading, see Fig. 14.10. This can be achieved by a bracing system which connects the loading points. Connection of the loading points only results in a triangular truss which has no torsional rigidity. A combination with diagonals gives torsional resistance. It is also possible to use the purlins or the roof structure as the connecting parts between the loading points. Now the loads in one plane are known and the design can be treated in a similar way as for uniplanar trusses.
The braces between the top chords are determined by the horizontal loads of 54 kN at each purlin support or by loads resulting from non-equally distributed loading on the roof. Since transport is simpler for V-trusses than for triangular trusses, it is also possible to use the purlins as connection between the top chords. A simple bolted connection as given in Fig. 14.6 can easily transfer the shear load of 54 kN. However, in this way, the truss has no torsional rigidity and cannot act as horizontal wind bracing for the roof. If this is required, braces between the top chords have to be used.
Joints
The joints can also be treated in a similar way as for uniplanar joints, however, taking account of the reduction factor of 0.9 for the joints. From a fabrication point of view it is better to avoid overlaps of the intersecting braces from both planes. Sometimes this may result in an offset. The offset (if e 0.25do) does not need to be incorporated in the joint design. For chords loaded in tension, this offset moment can also be neglected in the member design. For compression-loaded chords, the moments due to this offset have to be distributed into the chord members and taken into account in the member design.
In table 14.6 the joints have been checked in a similar way as for the uniplanar truss in 14.1. However, the multiplanar correction factor 0.9 has been included for the strength of joints 5, 6 and 7. A connection without any eccentricity would result in an overlap of the braces in the two planes (Fig. 14.14a). To allow welding, an out-of-plane gap of 22.5 mm is chosen, which results in an eccentricity of 50 mm (inplane 43 mm). As a consequence, the in-plane gap increases, resulting in lower Ck values, which are given between brackets in table 14.6.
Assume P = 187 kN factored load. This means that the loads acting in the side planes of the triangular truss (Fig. 14.12) are:
Design calculation
This is equal to the purlin loads used in the design example for the uniplanar truss in 14.1. As a consequence, the top chord and the diagonals can be the same as those for the uniplanar truss, provided the same steel grades are used. Only for the bottom chord the required cross section should be twice that required for the uniplanar truss, i.e. 219.1x 11.0 with Ao = 7191 mm2. (This section may have a longer delivery time.) The resulting sections are shown in Fig. 14.13.
(O.K.)
Comparison with the efficiency method: A1f y1 = 1911 x 0.275 = 525.5 kN (O.K.) Thus efficiency
Check for chord plastification: f( , g') f(n') 0 .0 24 1. 2 1 + . 3) + 1 e xp ( 0.5 g 13 In the simplified method with graphs 0.86 was given, which is about 9% too conservative. acting efficiency In case the gap g would have been 12.8 to: f( , g') = f(n') = 1 + 0.3 n' - 0.3 n'2 1.0 15.50.2
N1* =
with: f( , g') =
0.2
= 385 kN
(<432 kN)
which results in an efficiency: = 0.73, which is slightly higher than the 0.7 (see table 14.5) used in the efficiency method.
1.0
= = 15.5
25 30 t1 + t2
(O.K.)
= 38.7
g = 3to
(O.K.) (O.K.)
These comparisons show that due to simplifications the efficiency method is somewhat conservative compared to the method with formulae.
d2 is the smallest diagonal, but the other (larger) member has the larger force. N2* =
259 kN
(O.K.) (O.K.)
= 496.5 kN
= 22.5
15 22.5 35
(O.K.)
= 0.83
(O.K.)
f(n)
g=
(O.K.)
= 0.56
n=
= -0.46
If rectangular sections would have been used, the joint resistance check would have been considerably more complicated, which is evident if table 9.1 is compared to table 9.3. The extra checks are: - chord shear - brace effective width - punching shear
f(n) = 1.3 +
n
= 0.97
Thus these figures are about the same as those obtained with the efficiency graphs (see ref. 3, table 8). Check of validity range:
0.440.1+0.01
=0.325 (O.K.)
301.25
= 30.4
(O.K.)
^ 6.6% > 4%
The ratio of reinforcement has to be limited to 4% for the calculation (see 4.3.1). This may be achieved by considering only reinforcing bars which lie in the most favourable position of the section so that 4%. Here the outer and the next following two layers of reinforcement are considered: As = 10 x 491 = 4910 mm2 Ac = x 406.42/4 - 11000 - 4910 = 113807 mm2 = 4910 / ( x 406.42/4 - 11000) 4.1% 4% Npl,Rd = 11000 x 250 + 4910 x 435 + 113807 x 20 = 7162 x 103 N = 7162 kN 0.2 < = 11000 x 0.25/7162 = 0.38 < 0.9
d 4 0 6 .4 = = 4 6 .2 < 7 7 t 8 .8
An increase in the bearing capacity caused by confinement effects is neglected. Note: The partial factors are still different for various countries. Here a = 1.1 is taken although in the other examples a = 1.0 is assumed.
Table 14.1 - Possible section sizes for top (compression) chord fy N/mm2 355 No (kN) 1148
#e
(m) 5.400
possible sections (mm) 193.7 - 10.0 219.1 - 7.1 219.1 - 8.0 244.5 - 5.6 244.5 - 6.3
1)
1)
f Ao (kN)
yo
Table 14.2 - Possible section sizes for bottom (tension) chord fy N/mm2 355 No (kN) 1215 possible sections (mm) 168.3 - 7.1 177.8 - 7.1 193.7 - 6.3 Ao (mm2) 3595 3807 3709 do/to f yoAo (kN) 1276 1351 1317
Table 14.3 - Possible section sizes for compression diagonals fy N/mm2 275 Ni (kN) 432
#e
(m) 2.88
possible sections (mm) 168.3 - 3.6 139.7 - 4.5 114.6 - 3.6 101.6 - 4.0 88.9 - 2.0* 76.1 - 2.6
1)
1)
f A1 (kN)
y1
275
259
2.88
275
86
2.88
1) Eurocode 3 buckling curve "a" * the wall thickness is rather small for welding Table 14.4 - Possible section sizes for tension diagonals fy N/mm2 275 275 275 Ni (kN) 432 259 86 possible sections (mm) 133.3 - 4.0 88.9 - 3.6 48.3 - 2.3 A2 (mm2) 1621 964 332
Table 14.5: Check joint resistance for a uniplanar truss joint parameter actual efficiency joint strength efficiency (see Fig. 8.19) remarks
joint
braces (mm)
d1/do
do/to
n' =
Ck
f ( n) sin 1
Ni
plate 139.7 - 4.5 139.7 - 4.5 88.9 - 3.6 139.7 - 4.5 88.9 - 3.6 88.9 - 3.6 88.9 - 3.6 139.7 - 4.5 139.7 - 4.5 88.9 - 3.6 139.7 - 4.5 88.9 - 3.6 88.9 - 3.6
0.64
30.9 2.0
not appl. 0.82 - 0.20 0.82 0.98 0.49 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.82 0.82 0.98 0.49 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.23 2.04 2.04 2.55 2.04 2.55 2.55 2.55 1.81 1.81 2.26 1.81 2.26 2.26 1.60 1.49 >1.00 0.70 >1.00 0.58 >1.00 0.70 0.70 0.85 0.85 >1.00 0.67 0.91 0.91 yes* no* yes yes yes yes* yes* yes yes yes yes yes yes
219.1 - 7.1
0.64
30.9
12.8*
219.1 - 7.1
0.64
30.9
12.8
- 0.52
0.23
1.22
219.1 -7.1
0.41
30.9
18.5
- 0.68
0.26
1.05
193.7 - 6.3
0.29
1.60
193.7 - 6.3
0.23
1.60
193.7 - 6.3
0.25
1.60
*See commentary and revision: Here, joint 4 is treated as a K-joint because the plates stiffen the joint, although the loading is similar to an X-joint.
Table 14.6: Check joint resistance for multiplanar truss joint parameter actual efficiency joint strength efficiency (see Fig. 8.19) multi-planar remarks factor
joint
chord (mm)
braces (mm)
d1/do
do/to
n' =
Ck
f ( n ) sin 1
Ni
1-4 5
The checks for joints 1 to 4 are given in table 14.5 219.1 - 11.0 139.7 - 4.5 139.7 - 4.5 19.9 0.64 4.5 (9.4) 19.9 0.64 8.2 (17.7) 19.9 0.41 11.9 (21.4) + + + 0.82 0.82 3.16 3.16 >1.00 >1.00 (>1.00) >1.00 >1.00 (>1.00) >1.00 >1.00 (>1.00) yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes
0.38 (0.33)
1.60
0.9
219.1 - 11.0
0.98 0.49
3.94 3.16
1.60
0.9
219.1 - 11.0
0.32 0.32
3.94 3.94
1.60
0.9
Notes: - An eccentricity e 38 mm has to be introduced to satisfy the condition g t1 + t2. However, for welding, a gap of 22.5 mm is chosen between the diagonals of both planes, which results in an eccentricity of 50 mm ( 0.23do). - The figures between brackets ( ) show the estimated g' = g/to values for an in-plane eccentricity of 50cos(30) = 43 mm.
P
2400
bolted connection
L = 6 x 6000 = 36000 mm
tan =
Fig. 14.1 Truss layout
2.4 = 0.8 8
= 38.7 o
108 338
43 2
108
2 43
25 9
9 25
(in kN)
86
86
1215
675
1080
219.1 x 7.1 1 2
88.9 x 3.6 3 4
6 139.7 x 4.5
7 193.7 x 6.3
to
2to
to 338 kN e 878 kN
180x180x8.0 1 2
80x80x3.2 3 4
5 120x120x4.0
Fig. 14.7 Member dimensions and connection numbers for RHS truss (fy0 = fyi = 355 N/mm2 )
P/2
P/2
shear Vi
L = 6 x 6000 = 36000 mm
2400
shear
moment
Ni
Vi Ni = 2 cos( ) sin i 2
P 2
P 2
Vi
Fig. 14.9
Fig. 14.10
2ti
ti
ti
ti
ti offset 0.25do
24 00
P/2
P/2
2078
60
30 93.5 kN
108 kN
54 kN
Fig. 14.12 Cross section of the triangular truss in circular hollow sections
219.1 x 7.1 1 2
88.9 x 3.6 3 4
7 219.1 x 11
d 60
o
22.5
30
50 43 50
e = 0 mm a)
e = 50 mm b)
406.4 8.8
15. REFERENCES
CIDECT Design Guides
1. Wardenier, J., Kurobane, Y., Packer, J.A., Dutta, D. and Yeomans, N.: Design guide for circular hollow section (CHS) joints under predominantly static loading (1). CIDECT (Ed.) and Verlag TV Rheinland, Cologne, Germany, 1991. ISBN3-88585-975-0. Rondal, J., Wrker, K.G., Wardenier, J., Dutta, D. and Yeomans, N.: Structural stability of hollow sections (2). CIDECT (Ed.) and Verlag TV Rheinland, Cologne, Germany, 1991. ISBN 3-8249-0075-0. Packer, J.A., Wardenier, J., Kurobane Y., Dutta, D. and Yeomans, N.: Design guide for rectangular hollow section (RHS) joints under predominantly static loading (3). CIDECT (Ed.) and Verlag TV Rheinland, Cologne, Germany, 1992. ISBN 3-8249-0089-0. Twilt, L., Hass, R., Klingsch, W., Edwards, M. and Dutta, D.: Design guide for structural hollow section columns exposed to fire (4). CIDECT (Ed.) and Verlag TV Rheinland, Cologne, Germany, 1994. ISBN 3-8249-0171-4. Bergmann, R., Dutta, D., Matsui, C. and Meinsma, C.: Design guide for concrete-filled hollow section columns (5). CIDECT (Ed.) and Verlag TV Rheinland, Cologne, Germany, 1995. ISBN 3-8249-0298-2. Wardenier, J., Dutta, D., Yeomans, N., Packer, J.A. and Bucak, .: Design guide for structural hollow sections in mechanical applications (6). CIDECT (Ed.) and Verlag TV Rheinland, Cologne, Germany, 1995. ISBN 3-8249-0302-4. Dutta, D., Wardenier, J., Yeomans, N., Sakae, K., Bucak, . and Packer, J.A.: Design Guide for Fabrication, Assembly and Erection of Hollow Section Structures (7). CIDECT (Ed.) and TV Verlag, Cologne, Germany, 1998. ISBN 3-8249-0443-8. Zhao, X-L., Herion, S., Packer, J A., Puthli, R.S., Sedlacek, G., Wardenier, J., Weynand, K., Wingerde, A.M. van. and Yeomans, N.F.: Design Guide for Circular and Rectangular Hollow Section Welded Joints under Fatigue Loading (8). CIDECT (Ed.) and TV Verlag, Cologne, Germany, 2000. ISBN 3-8249-0565-5. Eekhout, M.: Tubular structures in architecture. CIDECT, 1996. ISBN 90-75095-26-0.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
12.
13.
14.
15.
A.P.I. Recommended practice for planning, designing and constructing fixed offshore Platforms RP-2A. American Petroleum Institute, U.S.A., 1997. A.W.S.: Structural Welding Code - Steel. ANSI/AWS D1.1-2000, 17th Edition, American Welding Society, Miami, Florida, U.S.A., 2000. Det Norske Veritas: Rules for classification, fixed offshore installations. Part 3, Chapter 1: Structural Design, General. DNV, H vik, Norway, 1989. Internal Institute of Welding, Subcommission XV-E: Design recommendations for hollow section joints predominantly statically loaded, 2nd ed., IIW Doc. XV-701-89, International Institute of Welding Annual Assembly, Helsinki, Finland, 1989. International Institute of Welding, Subcommission XV-E: Recommended Fatigue Design Procedure for Welded Hollow Section Joints, Part 1: Recommendations and Part 2: Commentary. Docs XV-1035-99/XIII1804-99. ISO 657/14: Hot rolled steel sections, Part 14: Hot formed structural hollow sections - Dimensions and sectional properties. International Organization for Standardization. ISO 4019: Cold finished steel structural hollow sections - Dimensions and sectional properties. International Organization for Standardization. ISO 834: "Fire resistance tests - Elements of building construction", International Organization for Standardization, first edition, 1975. ISO TC67/SC7/WG3/P3: Draft Code Provisions for Section E. Revision R6, International Organization for Standardization, 1997. HSE: Offshore Installations: Guidance on design, construction and certification. Health and Safety Executive, U.K., 1990. UEG: Design of Tubular Joints for Offshore Structures, Underwater Engineering Group UEG, London, U.K., 1985. EN 10210-1: Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain structural steels - part 1: Technical delivery conditions, 1998. EN 10210-2: Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain structural steels - Part 2: Tolerances, dimensions and sectional properties, 1998. EN 10219-1: Cold formed structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain structural steels - part 1: Technical delivery conditions, 1998. EN 10219-2: Cold formed structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain structural steels - Part 2: Tolerances, dimensions and sectional properties, 1998.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
Books
30. Brodka, J.: Stahlrohrkonstruktionen. Verlagsgesellschaft Rdolf Mller, Kln-Braunsfeld, Germany, 1968.
31.
CIDECT: Construction with hollow steel sections. British Steel plc, Corby, Northants, U.K., 1984. ISBN 09510062-0-7. Dutta, D., Wrker, K.G.: Handbuch Hohlprofile in Stahlkonstruktionen, Verlag TV Rheinland GmbH, Kln, Germany, 1988. ISBN 3-88585-528-3. Dutta, D.: Hohlprofilkonstruktionen. Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, Germany, 1999. ISBN 3-433-01310-1. Kurobane, Y.: New Developments and Practices in Tubular Joint Design (+ Addendum), International Institute of Welding, Annual Assembly, Oporto, Portugal, 1981, Doc. XV-488-81. Mang, F., Bucak, .: Hohlprofilkonstruktionen, Stahlbau-Handbuch, Bd. I, Stahlbau-Verlag, Kln, Germany, 1983. Marshall, P.W.: Design of welded tubular connections. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1992. Packer, J.A. and Henderson, J.E.: Hollow Structural Section Connections and Trusses - A Design Guide. Canadian Institute of Steel Construction, Toronto, Canada, 1997. ISBN 0-88811-086-3. Puthli, R.S.: Hohlprofilkonstruktionen aus Stahl nach DIN V ENV 1993 (EC3) und DIN 18 800 (11.90), Werner Verlag GmbH & Co. K.G., Dsseldorf, Germany, 1998. ISBN 3-8041-2975-7. Rautaruukki: Design Handbook for Rautaruukki Structural Hollow Sections. Hmeenlinna, Finland, 1998. ISBN 952-5010-22-8. Stahlrohr-Handbuch: 9. Aufl. Vulkan-Verlag, Essen, Germany, 1982. Syam, A.A. and Chapman, B.G.: Design of structural steel hollow section connections. 1st Edition, Australian Institute of Steel Construction, Sydney, Australia, 1996. ISBN 0 9099 45 58 6. Wardenier, J.: Hollow Section Joints, Delft University Press, Delft, The Netherlands, 1982. ISBN 90.6275.084.2. Wardenier, J. and Packer, J.A.: Connections between hollow sections, Chapter 3.5 in "Constructional Steel Design - An International Guide", Elsevier, London, U.K., 1992. Wanke, J.: Stahlrohrkonstruktionen. Springer Verlag, Vienna, Austria, 1966.
32.
33. 34.
35.
36. 37.
38.
39.
40. 41.
42.
43.
44.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
Marshall, P.W. and Toprac, A.A.: Basis for tubular design. ASCE preprint 2008, April 1973, also Welding Journal, U.S.A., 1974. Lind, N.C. and Schroff, D.K.: Utilization of cold work in light gauge steel. Packer, J.A.: Overview of Current International Design Guidance on Hollow Structural Section Connections. Proceedings of the Third International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Singapore, 1993. Baar, S.: Etude thorique et exprimentale du dversement des poutres membrures tubulaires. Collection des publications de la Facult des Sciences Appliques de Universit de Lige, No. 10, Lige, Belgium, 1968. Mouty, J.: Effective lengths of lattice girder members. CIDECT Monograph No. 4, 1991. Korol, R.M. and Hudoba, J.: Plastic Behaviour of Hollow Structural Sections. Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, 98(5), U.S.A., 1972. Wilkinson, T. and Hancock, G.: Compact or class 1 limits for rectangular hollow sections in bending. Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Singapore, 1998. Marshall, J.: Torsional behaviour of structural rectangular hollow sections. The Structural Engineer, No. 8, Vol. 49, 1971. Deutscher Dampfkesselausschu: Glatte Vierkantrohre und Teilkammern unter innerem berdruck, Technische Regeln fr Dampfkessel (TRD 320), Vereinigung der Technischen berwachungsvereine e.V., Essen, Germany, 1975. Brockenbrough, R.L.: Strength of square tube connections under combined loads. Proceedings of ASCE, Journal of Structural Division, St. 12, U.S.A., 1972. Roik, K. and Wagenknecht, G.: Traglastdiagramme zur Bemessung von Druckstben mit doppelsymmetrischem Querschnitt aus Baustahl. Mitteilungen des Instituts fr konstruktiven Ingenieurbau, Universitt Bochum, Heft 27, Germany, 1977. Schulz, G.: Der Windwiderstand von Fachwerken aus zylindrischen Stben und seine Berechnung. Internationaler Normenvergleich fr die Windlasten auf Fachwerken. Monograph No. 3, CIDECT, 1970. Tissier, P.: Resistance to corrosion of the interior of hollow steel sections. Acier, Stahl, Steel 2/1978. British Steel: Tubular Structures (various numbers), The Tubemasters, Welded Tubes Business BSC, Corby, U.K. Mannesmanrhren Werke A.G.: Mannesmann Stahlbauhohlprofile (MSH) Anwendungsbeispiele, Technical Documentation, Dsseldorf, Germany, 1991. IISI: Innovation in steel - Bridges around the world. International Iron and Steel Institute (1997).
51. 52.
53.
54. 55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62. 63.
64.
65.
66.
Guiaux, P. and Janss, J.: Comportement au flambement de colonnes constitues de tubes en acier remplis de bton. Centre de Recherches Scientifiques et Techniques de l'Industrie des Fabrications Mtalliques, MT 65, Brussels, Belgium, 1970.
67.
Virdi, K.S. and Dowling, P.J.: A unified design method for composite columns. International Association for Bridge and Structrural Engineering. Mmoires Vol. 36-II, Zurich, Switzerland, 1976. Roik, K., Bergmann, R., Bode H. and Wagenknecht, G.: Tragfhigkeit von ausbetonierten Hohlprofilen aus Baustahl, Ruhr-Universitt Bochum, Institut fr konstruktiven Ingenieurbau, TWM-Heft Nr. 75-4, Germany, 1975. Twilt, L. and Both, C.: Technical Notes on the realistic behaviour and design of fire exposed steel and composite structures. Final report ECSC 7210-SA/112, Activity D: "Basis for Technical Notes", TNO Building and Construction Research, BI-91-069, The Netherlands, 1991. Grandjean, G., Grimault, J.-P. and Petit, L.: Dtermination de la Dure au Feu des Profiles Creux Remplis de Bton. Cometube, Paris, France, 1980 (also published as ECSC-report No. 7210-SA/302). Twilt, L. and Haar, P.W. v.d.: Harmonization of the Calculation Rules for the Fire Resistance of Concrete Filled SHS-columns, CIDECT project 15F-86/7-0; IBBC-TNO report B-86-461, The Netherlands, 1986. Draft users manual POTFIRE, developed for CIDECT by CTICM and TNO, CIDECT progr. 15N - 21/98. Hnig, O., Klingsch, W. and Witte, H.: Baulicher Brandschutz durch wassergefllte Sttzen in Rahmentragwerken (Fire resistance of water filled columns). Research Report, Studiengesellschaft fr Stahlanwendung e.V., Forschungsbericht p. 86/4.5, Dsseldorf, Germany, 1985. Packer, J.A. and Wardenier, J.: Design rules for welds in RHS, K, T, Y and X connections, Proceedings IIW International Conference on Engineering Design in Welded Constructions, Madrid, Spain, 1992. Lu, L.H., De Winkel, G.D., Yu, Y. and Wardenier, J.: Deformation limit for the ultimate strength of hollow section joints. Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Melbourne, Australia, 1994. Vegte, G.J. van der: The static strength of uniplanar and multiplanar tubular T- and X-joints, PhD thesis, Delft University Press, Delft, The Netherlands, 1995. Makino, Y., Kurobane, Y., Ochi, K., Vegte, G.J. van der and Wilmhurst, S.R.: Database of test and numerical analysis results for unstiffened tubular joints. IIW Doc. XV-E-96-220, Dept. of Architecture, Kumamoto University, Japan, 1996. Liu D.K. and Wardenier, J.: Effect of boundary conditions and chord preloads on the strength of RHS multiplanar K-joints. Proceedings 8th Int. Symposium on Tubular Structures, Singapore, 1998. Marshall, P.W.: Connections for Welded Tubular Structures. Houdremont lecture. Proceedings 2nd International IIW Conference, Boston. U.S.A., 1984. Yura, J.A., Zettlemoyer, N. and Edwards, I.F.: Ultimate capacity equations for tubular joints, OTC 3690, U.S.A., 1980. Kurobane, Y. and Makino, Y.: Analysis of existing and forthcoming data for multiplanar KK-joints with circular hollow sections. CIDECT final report 5BF-10/98. Makino, Y., Kurobane, Y., Paul, J.C., Orita, Y., Hiraishi, K.: Ultimate capacity of gusset plate-to-tube joints under axial and in-plane bending loads. Proceedings of 4th International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Delft, The Netherlands, 1991.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72. 73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
Akiyama, N., Yayima, M., Akiyama, H. and Otake, F.: Experimental study on strength of joints in steel tubular structures. JSSC Vol. 10, No. 102, Japan, 1974 (in Japanese). Lee, M.S. and Cheng, M.P.: Plastic consideration on punching shear strength of tubular joints. OTC 2641, U.S.A., 1976. Hoadley, P.W. and Yura, J.A.: Ultimate strength of tubular joints subjected to combined loads. PMFSEL, Report No. 8303, University of Texas, Austin, U.S.A., 1983. Yamada, Y., Morita, M., Makino, Y. and Wilmshurst, S.R.: A new ultimate capacity formula for unstiffened CHS T-, TT-, X-, K- and KK-joints under axial brace loads. Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Singapore, 1998. Paul, J.C.: The ultimate behaviour of multiplanar TT- and KK-joints made of circular hollow sections. PhD thesis, Kumamoto University, Japan, 1992. Zettlemoyer, N.: ISO Harmonisation of offshore guidance on strength of tubular joints. Proceedings of the Sixth ISOPE Conference, Los Angeles, U.S.A., 1996. Lalani, M.: Developments in tubular joint technology for offshore structures. Proceedings of the Second ISOPE Conference, San Francisco, U.S.A., 1992. Thiensiripipat, N.: Statical behaviour of cropped web joints in tubular trusses. PhD thesis, University of Manitoba, Canada, 1979. Rondal, J.: Study of maximum permissible Weld Gaps in Connections with Plane End Cuttings (5AH2); Simplification of Circular Hollow Section Welded Joints (5AP), CIDECT Report 5AH2/4AP-90/20. Packer, J.A.: Theoretical behaviour and analysis of welded steel joints with RHS chord sections. PhD thesis, University of Nottingham, U.K., 1978. Zhao, X.L.: The behaviour of cold formed RHS beams under combined actions. PhD thesis, The University of Sydney, Australia, 1992. Yu, Y.: The static strength of uniplanar and multiplanar connections in rectangular hollow sections, PhD thesis, Delft University Press, Delft, The Netherlands, 1997. Wardenier, J. and Giddings, T.W.: The strength and behaviour of statically loaded welded connections in structural hollow sections. Monograph No. 6, CIDECT, Corby, U.K., 1986. Davies, G. and Crocket, P.: Effect of the hidden weld on RHS partial overlap K-joint capacity. Proceedings International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Melbourne, Australia, 1994. Frater, G.: Performance of welded rectangular hollow structural section trusses. PhD thesis, University of Toronto, Canada, 1991. Bauer, D. and Redwood, R.G.: Triangular truss joints using rectangular tubes. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 114(2), U.S.A., 1988. Korol, R.M., El-Zanaty, M. and Brady, F.J.: Unequal width connections of square hollow sections in Vierendeel trusses. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 4, No.2, Canada, 1977.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
Ono, T., Iwata, M. and Ishida, K.: An experimental study on joints of new truss system using rectangular hollow sections. Proceedings 4th Internatonal Symposium on Tubular Structures, Delft, The Netherlands, 1991. Szlendak, J.: Ultimate load of welded beam-column connections in rectangular hollow sections. PhD thesis, Technical University of Warsaw, Poland, 1982 (in Polish). Wardenier, J. and Mouty, J.: Design rules for predominantly statically loaded welded joints with hollow sections as bracings and an I- or H-section as chord. Welding in the World, Vol. 17, No. 9/10, 1979. Aribert, J.M., Ammari, F. and Lachal, A.: Influence du mode d'application d'une charge de compression locale sur la rsistance plastique de l'me d'un profil cas des assemblages tubulaires. Construction Mtallique No. 2, France, 1988. Kamba, T. and Tabuchi, M.: Database for tubular column to beam connections in moment resisting frames. IIW Doc. XV-E-94-208, Dept. of Architecture, Kobe University, Japan, 1994. De Winkel, G.D.: The Static strength of I-beam to circular hollow section column connections, PhD thesis, Delft University Press, Delft, The Netherlands, 1998. Lu, L.H.: The static strength of I-beam to rectangular hollow section column connections, PhD thesis, Delft University Press, Delft, The Netherlands, 1997. Shanmugan N.E., Ting, L.C. and Lee, S.L.: Static behaviour of I-beam to box column connections with external stiffeners. The Structural Engineer 71(15), London, U.K., 1993. Kato, B. and Hirose, A.: Bolted tension flanges joining circular hollow section members. CIDECT report 8C-84/24-E. Igarashi, S., Wakiyama, K., Inoue, K., Matsumoto, T. and Murase, Y.: Limit design of high strength bolted tube flange joint, Parts 1 and 2. Journal of Structural and Construction Engineering Transactions of AIJ, Department of Architecture reports, Osaka University, Japan, 1985. Packer, J.A., Bruno, L. and Birkemoe, P.C.: Limit analysis of bolted RHS flange plate joints, Journal of Structural Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineering, Vol. 115, No. 9, U.S.A., 1989. Struik, J.H.A. and De Back, J.: Tests on bolted T-stubs with respect to a bolted beam-to-column connection. Stevin Laboratory report 6-69-13, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, 1969. Fisher, J.W. and Struik, J.H.A.: Guide to design criteria for bolted and riveted joints. John Wiley & Sons. New York, London, Sydney, 1973. Yeomans, N.F.: Rectangular hollow section connections using the Lindapter Hollo-Bolt. Proceedings International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Singapore, 1998. Yeomans, N.F.: I-Beam/rectangular hollow section column connections using the Flowdrill system. Proceedings Sixth International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Melbourne, Australia, 1994.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
Packer, J.A. . and Krutzler, R.T.: Nailing of steel tubes. Proceedings Sixth International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Melbourne, Australia, 1994.
116.
Packer, J.A. .: Nailed tubular connections under axial loading. Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 122, No. 8, U.S.A., 1996. Kosteski, N., Packer, J.A. and Wingerde, A.M. van: Fatigue behaviour of nailed tubular connections. Proceedings of the Ninth International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Brest, France, 1999. Zirn, R.: Schwingfestigkeitsverhalten geschweiter Rohrknotenpunkte und Rohrlasschenverbindungen. Techn. Wiss. Bericht MPA Stuttgart, Heft 75-01, Germany, 1975. De Back, J.: Testing tubular joints. Session developer's report, International Conference on Steel in Marine Structures, Paris, France, 1981. Vegte, G.J. van der, Back, J. de, and Wardenier, J.: Low cycle fatigue of welded structures. Delft University of Technology, Stevin report 25.6.89.10/A1, Delft, The Netherlands, 1989. Thorpe, T.W. and Sharp, J.V.: The fatigue performance of tubular joints in air and sea water. MaTSU Report, Harwell Laboratory, Oxfordshire, U.K., 1989. Wingerde, A.M. van: The fatigue behaviour of T- and X-joints made of square hollow sections, Heron, Vol. 37, No. 2, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands, 1992. Wingerde, A.M. van, Wardenier, J. and Packer, J.A.: Commentary on the draft specification for fatigue design of hollow section joints. Proceedings 8th International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Singapore, 1998. Romeijn, A.: Stress and strain concentration factors of welded multiplanar tubular joints, Heron, Vol. 39, No. 3, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands, 1994. Herion, S.: Rumliche K-Knoten aus Rechteck-Hohlprofilen, PhD thesis, University of Karlsruhe, Germany, 1994. Panjeh Shahi, E.: Stress and strain concentration factors of welded multiplanar joints between square hollow sections, PhD thesis, Delft University Press, Delft, The Netherlands, 1995. Niemi, E.J.: Fatigue resistance predictions for RHS K-joints, using two alternative methods. Proceedings Seventh International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Miskolc, Hungary, 1996. Bouwman, L.P.: Bolted connections dynamically loaded in tension, ASCE, Journal of the Structural Division, Vol. 108, No. ST, U.S.A., 1982. Packer, J.A. and Fear, C.E.: Concrete-filled rectangular hollow section X and T connections. Proceedings 4th International Symposium on Tubular Structures, Delft, The Netherlands, 1991. ESDEP: European Steel Design Education Programme, Lectures Working Group 13: Hollow Section Structures and Working Group 12: Fatigue, The Steel Construction Institute, U,K., 1994. Proceedings International Symposia on Tubular Structures (general), 1984, 1986, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1998.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
Technical activities
The technical activities of CIDECT have centred on the following research aspects of hollow steel section design: Buckling behaviour of empty and concrete filled columns Effective buckling ths of members in trusses Fire resistance of concrete filled columns Static strength of welded and bolted joints Fatigue resistance of welded joints Aerodynamic properties Bending strength of hollow steel section beams Corrosion resistance Workshop fabrication, including section bending
The results of CIDECT research form the basis of many national and international design requirements for hollow steel sections.
CIDECT Publications
The current situation relating to CIDECT publications reflects the ever increasing emphasis on the dissemination of research results. The list of CIDECT Design Guides, in the series Construction with Hollow Steel Sections, already published, or in preparation, is given below. These design guides are available in English, French, German and Spanish. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Design guide for circular hollow section (CHS) joints under predominantly static loading (1991) Structural stability of hollow sections (1992, reprinted 1996) Design guide for rectangular hollow section (RHS) joints under predominantly static loading (1992) Design guide for structural hollow section columns in fire (1995, reprinted 1996) Design guide for concrete filled hollow section columns under static and seismic loading (1995) Design guide for structural hollow sections in mechanical applications (1995) Design guide for fabrication, assembly and erection of hollow section structures (1998) Design guide for circular and rectangular hollow section joints under fatigue loading (to be published 2001)
In addition, taking into account the ever increasing place of steel hollow sections in internationally acclaimed "high tech" structures a book "Tubular Structures in Architecture" has been published with the sponsorship of the European Community. Copies of the Design Guides, the architectural book and research papers may be obtained from: The Steel Construction Institute Attn. Dr. Farooq Awan Silwood Park Ascot Berkshire SL5 7QN England Tel: +44-(0)1344-23345 Fax: +44-(0)1344-22944 E-mail: publications@steel-sci.com Web site: http://www.steel-sci.org