The Bacteria, 1880

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ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY

AT
CORNELL UNIVERSITY
Cornell University Library
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41.M192
The
Bacteria.
3 1924 003 200 288
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original of this
book
is in
the Cornell University Library.
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the United States on the use of the
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THE BACTERIA.
BY
DR.
ANTOINE MAGNIN,
LICENCIATE OF NATURAL SCIENCES, CHIEF OF THE PKACTICAL LABORS IN NATURAL HISTORY TO THE FACULTY OF MEDICINE OF LTON8, LAUREATE OF THE FACULTY OF MEDICINE OF PARIS (SILVER MEDAL, 18T6), GENERAL SECRETARY OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF LYONS, MEMBER OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF FRANCE, ETC.
TRANSLATED BY
GEOEGE
M.
STERNBEEG,
U. a.
M.D.,
SURGEON
ARMY.
BOSTON:
LITTLE, BROWN,
AND COMPANY.
1880.
Copyright, 1880,
By George
SI.
Sternberg.
University Press:
John Wilson and Son, Cambridge.
PREFACE BY TRANSLATOR.
edge of the bacteria, by Dr. Magnin, of great assistance
which I have been engaged during the past year under the auspices
of the National
to me, in pursuing the investigations in
Board
of Health,
it
has seemed to
me
that a translation of the

cation in this
work into English and its publicountry would be productive of good in

one,
it
more ways than
and of the advancement of

cannot
fail to
science.
To
the naturalist,
be of value, as the
most approved
with a
classification, that of
Cohn,
is
given,
full description of species.
To
give additional
value to this portion of the work, figures of
many
of the
best-known forms, drawn from various foreign sources,
and reproductions
of
some of
my own
photo-mico-
graphs (by permission of the National Board of Health),
have been introduced.

If
we
are to judge from the scanty literature of the
subject in this country, the
amount
of interest
which
of
has been aroused by the revelation of a
new world
is
micro-organisms, and by the momentous questions which
have been raised in connection with them,

that
is
far
below
awakened
in
Germany, France, and England. This

;
not, however, really the case

in
for,
while
we have but
few active workers
the difficult fields of inquiry
attractive, especially for the
which have proved so man and the French

1
Ger-
savants, there
is
nevertheless a
wide-spread interest in these investigations, and a desire

to
know
their results.
a difficulty
met with which has no doubt discouraged many, and

But, just here,
are
results
we
perhaps caused some to drop the whole subject in disgust.
The
have been so contradictory, and so

impossible
many would-be
to arrive at
savants have uttered opinions entirely

it
opposed the one to the other, that we find any

definite opinion,
not knowing
affairs, it
whom
to
believe.
This being the condition of

it is
seems to
me
that
necessary for us to
first
commence
investigating
for ourselves,
making
ourselves familiar with
what
the
has been done abroad, and then avoiding,
if possible,
quicksands into which unfortunate science has too often
been dragged by
her votaries.
One
great trouble
is
which we have experienced

ferent
in this country
in judg-
ing of the comparative value of the observations of dif-
men who
article
;
are equally
unknown
to us.
A very
careless
plausible
may be
written
by a very
observer
or a very cautious observer
may
fail to
give
confidence in his results, because of a certain degree of
confusion in his language.

devised, carefully executed,
sion, as is
When
experiments are well
and described with precidone by such men as Pasteur and Tyndall, we

to attach great
cannot
fail
weight to the conclusions
reached.
And when
Koch
so accomplished a microscopist as
thing, or has
such and such a made such and such measurements, we cannot doubt the reliability of the observation. But sometimes we are deceived by giving credence to a man
or
Cohn
asserts that he has seen
who
has achieved reputation in one line of study, but of
whose skill and training in the use of the microscope we have no means of judging. Such a man may be a great
surgeon, or a great clinician, or a great chemist, and yet
be a mere tyro with the microscope.

see
it
When,
then,
we
announced that Dr. So-and-so

in blood, or
failed to discover
any micrococci in pus,

a certain source,
what
not, taken
from
we
are justified in asking,
first,
what
power did the learned doctor use ? second, is he capable of distinguishing micrococci in fluids which contain them beyond question ? Or, if he does discover them, we may ask if he is accustomed to making a differential diagnosis between micrococci and inorganic granular
material,
or
unorganized granules of organic origin.
This
is
a decision which the most accomplished microis
scopist
sometimes unable to make, except by the aid
of chemical tests and culture experiments.
To
avoid this want of confidence in results, which has
naturally
grown out
of carelessly
it
made
all
observations and
contradictory statements,
is
desirable that full
and
minute
details should be
given of
observations and
experiments made, and, whenever possible, that photo-
micographs should
to contain any
be
made
of
all
micro-organisms
described, or of a thin stratum of a liquid asserted not

;
as,
when
a sufficiently high
power
is
used,
this settles
the question of their presence
or
absence, beyond dispute, and enables other students to
make comparisons and measurements which cannot

to
fail
promote the interests of true science.
The National Board

has the credit of
first
of Health of the United States
adopting this method of recording
the results of scientific investigation, in this direction,

as a constant
and unimpeachable record of what has
been seen by the investigator.
The commission sent
to
Havana
fever,
last
summer
for the investigation of yellow-
was instructed to pursue this method, and was accompanied by a photographer and supplied with all
the necessary appliances for carrying these instructions
into effect.
the
The superficial reader may find much to criticise in work of Dr. Magnin, but I am convinced that those who read it carefully cannot fail to be pleased
scientific
with the truly
spirit in
which
it is
written
the fairness with which conflicting opinions are stated
the caution manifested as to the drawing of definite

conclusions where questions are
and, above
all,
still
under discussion
the extent of his literary researches and
the systematic
sults.
way
in
which he has arranged the
re-
For the
naturalist, for the physician, or for the
non-
professional
man
of general culture,
who
up
desires to
have
re-
accessible in a condensed form the
most important
sults achieved in this line of inquiry
to the present
;
day, this volume cannot
fail to
be of value
while for
the student and the investigator in search of fuller

information, the
summary given
of the labors of nubibliog-
merous individuals, together with the copious

be of service.
pleasure for
raphy, which I have brought up to date, will doubtless

Believing this to be true,
to devote a portion of
it
has been a
me
my summer vacaG. M.
S.
tion to the translation of this little volume.
Salem, Mass., August
1,
1880.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
Introduction Historical
11
13
PART
CHAPTER
1.
FIRST.
MORPHOLOGY OF THE BACTERIA.

I.
Organization.
28 28 29
31
Of
the Bacteria in General Forms

Dimensions
Colors
Movements
Structure
32
35
35
36 39
Cell-Membrane Protoplasm
Cilia
2.
Different
Form Form Form
of
Modes of Association
43
of Little Chain (Torula)

of Zooglcea
43 44 45
Mycoderma, &c
II.
CHAPTER
1.
Classification
and Description.
48
53
Place of the Bacteria
Among
2.
Organized Beings
In the Vegetable Kingdom
55
59
60
Classification
Characters Generic and Specific
Classification of
Cohn
65
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
3.
Description of
Micrococcus
Genera and Species
....
PAGE 65
71
Spherobacteria
72 78
80 80
'
Monads
Microbacteria
Bacterium
Desmobacteria
Bacillus
86 87 90 91 92
Leptothrix
Spirobacteria
Vibrio
'
Spirillum
94
PART SECOND.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BACTERIA.
CHAPTER
1.
I.
Development
in General.
Origin of Bacteria
Heterogenesis
101 102 103 103

106
Dissemination
In Air
In Water In the Human. Organism

2.
107
Ill
Ill
Nutrition and Respiration Aliments Water

:
Nitrogen
112 113
115
Carbon
Oxygen
Temperature Other Agents
3.
118 121
123 123 126 130
133
Reproduction
Fission
Spores
Sporangia
Polymorphism

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
9
CHAPTER
1.
II.
Development
in
Different Media.
R6le
op Bacteria in Fermentations
....
paoe 137
139 142
Acetic Fermentation
Ammoniacal Fermentation Lactic and Butyric Fermentation

2.
144
.
R6le
in
Putrefaction and Nitrification
148 152 152
3.
Role in Virulent Affections

Septicemia
Charbon
Variola
Scarlatina
158
167
169 169
Measles
Diphtheria
170
171 171
Typhoid Fever Glanders, Farcy

Endocarditis
4.
173 175 176 178 185 188

191
Role
in Surgical Lesions Exposed to the Air

Closed
Therapeutic Deductions
Conclusions Bibliography
Index
223
LIST OF PLATES.
PLATE
I.
OPPOSITE PAGE
The
Cilia of B. termo
and S.
voluntatis.
(Drysdale
and Dallinger)
II.
40
Different
Modes
of
Grouping of the Bacteria
...
. .
47
58
III.
Saccharomycetes and Schizomyce'tes

Disease Ferments of
Different
Different
IV.
Wort and
Beer.
(Pasteur)
84
95
V.
VI.
Forms
of Bacteria. of
(Cohn)
Forms
Bacteria.
(From Photo-micro98
graphs by Dr. Sternberg)

VII.
Dissemination of the Bacteria.
(From
PhotOTinicro-
graphs by Dr. Sternberg)

VIII.
100
(Photo127
Reproduction of Bacillus Ulna, by Spores.
micrographs by Dr. Sternberg)
IX.
Formation of Spores in Bacillus, &c.

Spirillum Obermineri
(Koch)
153
X.
and
Bacillus Anthracis.
(Koch).
268
THE BACTERIA.
INTRODUCTION.
" Corruptio unius
est generatio alterius."
Luceetics,
De Serum Natura.
Of all the studies which have for their object the inferior organisms, those which relate to the bacteria offer, without contradiction, the greatest
interest, as
they touch the most divers problems,

true, are
which,
least
it
is
the most difficult and the
known
in biology.
The
history of these mi-
nute organisms is, in truth, related to that of spontaneous generation, to that of the fermentations, to the pathogeny and therapeutics of a great number of virulent and contagious affections, and, in a more general manner, to all the unknown which, notwithstanding the efforts of modern science, still surrounds the origin of life and its preservation.
If
the relation of these inferior organisms to

is
the origin of living beings
yet obscure, their

is
rdle in the preservation of life

It is
better known.
known
that organic matter, once produced

solid, so to
and become
speak, cannot again enter

it
into the general current until
has undergone
12
THE BACTERIA.
new
transformations, metamorphoses produced, according to some savants, favored, according to
without contradiction, accompanied by the development of bacteria; 1 and, without wishing to attribute to these organisms a finality which is repugnant to our monistic conception of the universe, it may be said that it is thanks to
others,
but,
them
that the continuation of
life is
possible
on
the surface of the globe.
But,
field is
if
these studies are full of interest, their
so vast
that
we cannot
flatter
ourselves
it
that
we have
passed over the whole of
with
equal care.
The
little
time that has been ac-
corded us for the composition of this thesis will be our excuse for the inevitable imperfections
which
will doubtless
be found in our work.
1 The bacteria : such is the subject which has been imposed upon us but it is certainly useless to give the reasons which have caused us to study not only the bacteria properly so called, taking the word in its most restricted sense, but all the organisms which are comprised under the names o bacteria, vibrios, schizomycetes, schizophytes, etc.
HISTORICAL.
The
bacteria are the lowest organisms, situated

limit of the
upon the
two kingdoms, animal and
vegetable, and are thus defined by the botanists
who have most

them
:
recently occupied themselves with
" Cells deprived of chlorophyll, of globular, oblong, or cylindrical form, sometimes sinuous and twisted, reproducing themselves exclusively by
transverse division,
families,
1
living isolated or in cellular
and having affinities which approach them to the algas and especially to the oscillatoriae."
But, before arriving at this degree of relative
precision, the history of the bacteria has passed
At one through the most diverse vicissitudes. time considered as animals, at another taken for vegetables, transported from the algae to the fungi, one author has even gone so far as to refuse to
them
This diversity minuteness of their dimensions and the difficulties with which their observation is surrounded.
of opinions
is
2 the nature of living beings.
due
to the
Reproduction by spores has been proved to occur in Bacillus subtilis, seems altogether probable that other species are reproduced in the same way. G. M. S. 2 Polotebnow.
1
and
it
14
THE BACTERIA.
Although an historical statement of the progress of our knowledge of these minute organisms has been given in several publications, we think it best to make here a new historical summary, which will be completed by an indication of the principal papers relating to them which have been published
recently.
The
first
observer
who
perceived bacteria was
Leeuwenhoeck.
As
early as 1675, while examin-
ing by chance with his magnifying glasses a drop of putrid water, the father of microscopy remarked with profound astonishment that it contained a multitude of little globules, which moved
with
agility.
The following year he recognized

;
the presence of bacteria in faeces and in tartar
from the teeth

it
is
and, if he has not named them, easy to assure one's self by the description
which he has giyen of their form and of their movements, and by the figures which accompany
these descriptions, 1 that the organisms observed by him are truly Bacteria, Vibrios, and perhaps
even Leptothrix. In 1773 0. F. Muller endeavored to classify these organisms. He made of them a group of infusoria, under the name of Infusoria crassiuscula, and established two genera, the g. Monas and Vibrio ; the first characterized as follows "vermis inconspicuus, simplicissimus, pellucidus,
punctiformis," comprising the following species: Monas termo, atomus, punctum, ocellus, lens, mica,
1
Leeuwenhoeck. Opera omnia, Lugd. Batav., 1722,
11, p. 40, fig.
A to G.
HISTORICAL.
tranquilla,
is
15
uva, which
it
lamellula, pulvisculus,
impossible to identify with the species at pres-
ent recognized.
The genus Vibrio

specific
" vermis incon-
spicuus, simplicissimus, teres, elongatus" enclosing
names, with the true bacteria, some organisms belonging to other classes of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. In the classification of the infusoria given byBory de Saint-Vincent in the " Encyclopedic MeHhodique" (1824) and afterwards in the "Dicthirty-five
under
tionaire Classique d'Histoire Naturelle " (1830) the
bacteria are distributed in two different families

of the microscopic
gymnodae, the monadaires and
the vibrionides.
called, of
Besides the monads, properly so
which the Monas termo has been pre-
served by the greater part of the bacterologists, the monadaires include some veritable infusoria,
which have no relation with the monads. It was the same with the vibrionides, of which the genera Vibrio and Mellanella included some beings very
different in
their
organization.
bacteria,
Indeedj beside
some
veritable
vibrios,
constituting
the genus Mellanella,

as
and spirilla, Bory placed

Anguillida
some nematoid worms, such

of vinegar.
the
With Ehrenberg (1838) and Dujardin (1841) the family of the vibrioniens was established upon more homogeneous, and their species upon distinctions truly scientific. But these two observers, followed in this by M. Davaine, deny
characters
completely the
affinities of
the elongated bacteria
16
(Bacterium,
THE BACTERIA.
Vibrio,
;
with the punctiform is necessary to come to the time of MM. Hallier, Hoffmann, Cohn, and the greater number of recent botanists, in order to see these two forms brought together anew.
etc.)
bacteria
(Monas)
and
it
In he
fact,
Ehrenberg defines his vibrioniens, which arranges between the volvocineae and the
filiform,
closteria " animals,
distinctly
or appar-
no mucous membrane, naked, without external organs, with the body (like monads) uniform and united in chains or filiform seently polygastric,
ries,
as
a result of
incomplete
division."
He
included in this
class* all
filiform
bodies gifted
of
articles,
with proper
dividing
1.
movement and formed them into four genera

:
Bacterium: filaments linear and inflexible; three

Vibrio
:
species.
2.
filaments linear, snakelike, flexible

filaments spiral, inflexible
nine
species.
3.
Spirillum
three spe
cies.
4.
Spirochete
filaments spiral, flexible; one species.
the Spirodiscus fulvus, with filaments in a helix, inflexible, disposed in contiguous layers, has not been seen since Ehrenberg. Let us add that
fifth
genus, including
but
one
species,
Ehrenberg often attributed to them a complex structure, stomachs more or less numerous, a proboscis,
all
cilia
characters
to
serving as organs of locomotion, that more recent observers have

Nevertheless,
failed
find.
we must make an
HISTORICAL.
17
cilia, of which the exbeen recently verified in the case of several of the bacteria by divers botanists, among others by MM. Cohn and Eug. Warming.
exception in favor of the

istence has
Dujardin (1841), in his " Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes," preserved the family of the vibrioniens of Ehrenberg ing
among
:
them
as follows
the infusoria, characteriz" fiiliform animals, extremely
slender, without appreciable organization, without
He made but few which the principal consisted in uniting Spirochcela with Spirillum, Dujardin. Rejecting the character that Ehrenberg drew from
visible
locomotive organs."
modifications, of
the rigidity of the

tilis,
spirilla,
the Spiroehceta plica-
Ehrb. became the Spirillum plicatile, Duj. but, as will be seen later, this change has not been maintained. Dujardin, then, classed the bacteria in
1.
Bacterium
Vibrio
:
filaments rigid, with a vacillating
movement.
2.
filaments flexible, with an undulatory

filaments spiral,
movement.
3.
Spirillum
movement
rotary.
Until this time the bacteria had been considered

as animals placed at the foot of the series.
Subin
sequently the
tendency to place
them
the
vegetable kingdom became more and more pronounced.
Already, since 1853, M. Ch. Robin had pointed out the relationship of the bacteria and of the
2
18
vibrios
THE BACTERIA.
This opinion, which with Leptothrix. was not favorably received by the authors who adopted nearly all of the generic groups of Ehrenberg and Dujardin, is to-day accepted by many botanists, above all since the labors of Cohn. (See
below:
classification.)
At
all
events,
it
is
to
M.
Davaine (1859) that we are indebted for clearly

pointing out that the vibrioniens are vegetables, nearly allied to the algae, and especially to the
confervae.
This same author, having observed some motionless bacteria, thought it necessary to give
this character great
lish
consideration,
and to estab-
a fourth group, the genus Bacteridium, which he added to the three others admitted by Dujardin ; but in this creation he was less happy than
in
his placing the vibrioniens
;
among
the vege-
tables
for
acter of mobility or of immobility
and that it or upon certain conditions relating to the medium in which it is placed. The most recent complete exposition of the classification and of the ideas of M. Davaine is found in the " Dictionnaire Encyclop. des Sciences Me"dieales," art. BacteVies (1868).
on that this charis not absolute, depends upon the age of the bacterium
shall see further
we
be
summed up
\
as follows
It
may
Filaments straight
or bent, but not
in a spiral
.
Moving
sponta- ) Kigid.
. .
Bacterium.
Vibrio.
V
)
neously
Motionless
Flexible
Bacteridium.
Spirillum.
Filaments spiral
HISTORICAL.
19
six species,
The genus Bacterium comprises

B. termo,
din,
catenula,
punctum,
triloculare, or ariicula-
tum, already described by Ehrenberg and Dujar-
and B. putredinis and capitatum, new species of M. Davaine, established, the first for a bacterium producing rot in plants, the second for a species,
swollen at the extremity, observed in some

includes
macerations.
The genus Vibrio

V.
lineola,
twelve species,
tremulans, rugula, prolifer,
serpens,
bacillus,
synxanthus, and syncyanus of previous

the V.
lactic,
authors and
fermentations.
butyric,
and
tartaric
right, discovered
by M. Pasteur
in these different
In the genus Bacteridium, M. Davaine places

five
new
species,
the " Bacteridies charbonneuse,

the
intestinale,
du
levain, glair euse, et des infusions."
He
M.
includes also the ferment which, according to
Pasteur,
occasions
" sickness of
turned
wine."
Finally, the genus Spirillum includes the species S. undula, tenue, volutans of
rufum and leucomcenum

Duj.
of Perty,
Ehrenberg, 8. and S. plieatile,
From
enters
this
moment
the history of the bacteria
upon a new phase. The labors of M. Pasteur upon the inferior organisms and their role in fermentation, the researches of MM. Davaine and Hallier upon the bacterium of charbon, and the
micrococci of contagious maladies,
tion of chemists
call
the atten-
and
of pathologists to these or-
20
THE BACTERIA.
Their
ganisms and especially to the bacteria.

origin, their
arities
evolution, the
physiological peculi-
of
their
the object of
and reproduction, are numerous labors, and give rise to

nutrition
to
passionate discussions relating
the subject of
spontaneous generation, polymorphism of fungi, theories of fermentation, and the pathology of For this reason virulent and infectious maladies. an exposition of these researches, often contradictory,
is
extremely
difficult.
We will make
upon the
it
suc-
cinctly, insisting especially
labors relating
to the classification of the bacteria,
and reserving
their
to ourselves the privilege of returning to the his-
tory of several points,
when we approach
study in the special chapters of this thesis. The first important memoir published
that of
after
M. Davaine upon the bacteria is that of M. Hoffmann, in 1869. He demonstrates First,

:
that the bacteria are plants, having a very distinct

cellular organization
;
second, that they can only

linear bacteria,
form and and the latter into microbacteria, mesobacteria, and megabacteria (M. Hoffmann includes with the linear bacteria, Vibrio, Bacterium, and Leptothrix, which are bacteria united in a chapletj) third,
be
classified
in accordance with their
size,
at
first
into
monads and
that mobility or immobility

acter,
not a specific charthe same species under the influence of changes of temperature, of
is
but
may
present
itself in
density of medium, etc.

also
M. Hoffmann
shidies
the origin of the bacteria, and rejects the hypothesis of a spontaneous generation. As to
HISTORICAL.
their role in the
of organic bodies
21
phenomena
of the decomposition
and in fermentations, M. Hoffmann confesses " that, with the exception of yeast, and of the acetic and butyric ferments, all the rest is still enveloped in obscurity." M. Cohn is the naturalist who, in our days, has occupied himself the most with the bacteria. In 1853, he published his first researches upon this subject. The genera Zoogloea, which he established at this time for the bacteria arranged in ge-
more or less crowded was not a happy creation. It was adopted at first by M. Eabenhorst who, in his work on the fresh-water algse of Europe, places them after the palmellaceas, while he classes the other bacteria, Vibrio and Spirillum, in the family of the oscillatorige. The Zooglcea are later abandoned by their author as a generic group, and are preserved
latinous masses, diffused or
together,
only as the
stages
name of one of the diverse transitory through which the bacteria pass in the
of
course
their
evolution (Zoogloea, Leptothrix,
Torula).
Twenty years
the
later the same savant commenced publication of a series of " Memoirs " upon
these organisms (in his " Beitrage zur Biologie der
Pflanzen").
In the
first
paper the author gives an
exposition of his researches upon the organization,

classification of the bacteria, and upon their action as ferments. M. Cohn considers them as a well-defined group,
development, and
the
schizospores, belonging to the algae, at the

of the series of the
commencement
phycochroma-

22
cese,
THE BACTERIA,
with several families with which the different genera of bacteria have many affinities. He recognized, however, that the absence of chlorophyll approaches them, at least from a functional point
of view, to the fungi.
Upon
this point
we may
say that for other botanists this character is decisive, and the bacteria are classed as fungi. M. N'ageli, who takes this view, describes them
under the name

the
bacteria
:
of Schizomycetes.
Cohn
divides
six
into
four
tribes,
comprising
genera
1.
2.
3.
4.
The Sphcerobacteria or globular B. The Microhaeteria or rod B. The Desmobacteria or filamentous B. The Spirobacteria or Spiral B.
We
will return to this classification.
In 1874, M. Th. Billroth, in his researches upon the Coceobacteria septica, expressed opinions entirely different
from those
bacteria
of
Cohn.
According
to
Billroth,
the
differ
considerably in
form according to the medium in which they are placed and divers circumstances. He claims that they constitute but a single species, the CoceobacThis vegetable organism can preunder the form of globular articles (coccos) or under that of rods (bacterie). These two forms may reproduce themselves by becoming elongated and dividing transversely, or may pass Billroth claims to have the one into the other. found both forms united in a single filament, a
teria septica.
sent
itself
HISTORICAL.
fact
23
which in
his
opinion demonstrates conclu-
their relationship. Each of these two forms can also present variations of size, in accordance with which he establishes the following
sively
divisions
Micrococcos Mesococcos Megacoccos
Microbacteria.
Mesobacteria.
Megabacteria.
And
varieties of association
:
following names
which give
rise to the
Monococcos
Diplocoecos Strep tococcos Gliacoecos
Petalococcos
Monobacteria.
Diplobacteria.
Strep tobacteria.
Gliabacteria.
Petalobacteria.
Ascoecos.
The following year (1875), Cohn, in the second part of his " Researches " upon the bacteria, criticised the opinions expressed
by Billroth
in the pre-
ceding memoir. Cohn believes that we should regard as distinct genera and species all the bacteria having a particular form and acting differently as ferments, so long as the proof of their
identity has not been demonstrated in an evident
manner.
Coming back
also to the affinities
and
classification of these
organisms, he insists
to
anew
upon
teria
their near relationship
the Phycochro-
maceae;
as
and, no longer distinguishing the bac-
special
family,
different genera in a group,
he distributes his which he calls Schi-
zophytes, which includes the greater part of the
24
THE BACTERIA.
Chrococcece and of the Osdllarice.
We
will re-
turn to this subject
when we speak
of the clas-
sification of the bacteria.
In 1876, appeared in the same number of Cohn's " Beitr'age " two important papers. The first, by Cohn, treats of. the influence of temperature upon the bacteria, of their origin, of the formation of spores in the Bacillus of hay infusion,
and
of
charbon.
gives the result of his
by Koch, researches upon the bacsecond,
The
teria of charbon, the Bacillus anthracis.
Koch has been
able
by
skilful
cultivation
to
follow the complete development of this Bacillus, and to witness the formation of spores, of which the vitality is very great, and which are the principal agents of
the transmission of this terrible
malady.
I
must
still
indicate, in addition to these special
works, a quantity of notes and of memoirs scattered through the reviews and periodical publications.
be found in the bibliography appended to this work. I must also cite the recent work of M. Nageli upon "The Inferior Fungi
list will
The
and
their
Bole in Infectious Maladies."
The
learned professor of Munich has studied the di-
produce decompositions. He the Mucorini, Saccharomycetes, and the the Schyzomicetes, which correspond to the bacteria. According to Nageli,
verse fungi which
divides
them
into three groups,
HISTORICAL.
25
the bacteria are fungi which produce putrefaction.
In presence of these opinions, so diverse, as to the nature of the bacteria and their classification, we will finish by saying with Conn " So long as the makers of microscopes do not place at our disposal much higher powers, and, as far as possible, without immersion, we will find
:
ourselves, in the
situation of
domain
of the bacteria, in the
a traveller
who wanders
in an un-
known country at the hour of twilight, at the moment when the light of day no longer suffices to enable him clearly to distinguish objects, and when he is conscious that, notwithstanding all his
precautions, he
is
liable to lose his
way."
PART
FIRST.
CHAPTER
I.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BACTERIA.
When
eye.
bacteria
develop in a liquid in a
suffi-
cient quantity, they
become
either
visible to the
naked
They appear
little
its
as
a slight cloud, or
liquid, or
gathered in
masses in the
forming
a pellicle upon
in the liquid.
surface, or as a deposit
upon the
walls of the vessel and
upon the objects contained However, we must hasten to say
with M. Cohn, that the fact of the absence of all turbidity in a liquid does not exclude the possibility of the presence of bacteria. In liquids more dense than water (serum, lymph, etc.), when the
refractive
power
of these corpuscles
is
the same as
that of the liquid, their presence
may
will
revealed by the naked eye.
We
to
not be add that

their
is
sometimes
their
color
serves
indicate
presence in a liquid, although this color
often
very feeble, and can only be perceived when a considerable thickness of the liquid is examined. If we examine these clouds, these accumulations, these deposits, with the microscope, we see that
28

little
they are formed of a myriad of

with motion, sometimes colored.
bodies iso-
lated or grouped, globular or linear, gifted or not
These variations constitute so many characters which require to be studied with some detail.
1.
Bacteria in General.
bacteria, as understood to-day
Form.
most
ies,
The
by
botanists,
when
considered in their separate
state, are of
two principal forms, or monads, and bodies more or
globular bodless filiform, or
bacteria properly so called.
The globular
bacteria comprise organisms round-
ed, ovoid, sometimes elongating themselves into a The Monas crepusculum of tube (Warming). Ehrenberg may be taken as a type. This form includes also the Micrococcus of Hallier, the Microsporon of Klebs, the round forms of the Amylobacter of M. Trecul, and perhaps the Microzyma of M. Be"champ. We will see farther on that
these are very probably phases of development of
the spores of bacteria, properly so called.
The
bacteria, not
globular, present a greater
diversity of
form
they
may
be straight, unduin
lating, or twisted in a spiral.
The
rectilinear
bacteria are
cylindrical throughout their

this case
some exactly whole extent and in

;
they form very short cylinders, as in the Bacterium, Cohn, or cylinders of which the length
is
several times as great as the thickness, as in

;
the Bacteridies {Bacillus ulna Cohn)
others are

29
swollen in the middle, with their extremities rounded) such as certain forms of Vibrio serpens ("Warming) ; others again are fusiform, swollen in the middle and attenuated at the extremities,
Bacterium fusiforme (Warming) rectilinear bacteria swollen at the two extremities are met during the life of certain species, B. lineola and B. termo, for example, above all when they are
;
transported to a more
ly,
favorable
medium
;
this
final-
modification usually precedes segmentation
one meets sometimes bacteria swollen at one extremity only; the swollen part presents often a clear point and sometimes an evident spore we
:
shall see later the signification of this peculiarity.
"With these claviform bacteria
we may
include the
Bacterium capitatum Dav., the Eelobacteria of Billroth, and certain Amylobacter, with heads of the Ficus carica, etc. (Ch. Eobin).
The undulating
bacteria constitute the Vibrios

etc.).
properly so called (V. rugula, serpens,
The
or less
spiral bacteria of
which the turns are more
elongated
are
named
Spirillum, Spiro-
chceta, etc.
Dimensions.
oscillate
The
it
dimensions of the bacteria

limits, but in' be said that they are the
between the most variable
a general
smallest of
way
all
may
microscopic beings.
Some
of
them
are situated at the extreme limit of our highest
magnifying powers j and their proportions, as to
30

comprised within the
length and thickness, are
limits of errors of observation.
The globular bacteria are the smallest, and the dimensions of some species are so minute that
they cannot be measured directly.
The largest are the Spirillum, which attain a length of T2j of a millimetre. Between these two extremes, there are all intermediary sizes possible. The dimensions of some of the bacteria are given
below:
Monas
to
vinosa, 0.5 to 1
/i,
in diameter; length 3
4 p. Bacterium termo, breadth 0.6 to 0.8

Vibrio lineola, breadth 0.5 to 1
/a
;
\l\
length 2
to 3 p.
Bacillus ulna,
B.
anthracis,
0.7 to 1
p
fi
length 3 to 8 p. 5 to 8" fi.
to 2
/j, ;
,,10
Spirillumvolutans,
to 50 10 to 40
fi.
fi.
Several
authors,
considering
to
exclusively
their size.
this
character of dimensions, have divided the monera
and the bacteria according
Thus
Hoffmann recognizes
macrobacteria.
fies
in addition to the monera,
only the microbacteria, the mesobacteria, and the
In the same way Billroth classimonads according to their dimensions into micro, meso, mega coccos, and the bacteria into
the
micro, meso,
mega
differ
bacteria.
Finally, Klebs sep-
arates the Micrococcos
which do not
from the Microsporines, from them except by their smaller dimensions, both forms being able to pass
to the state, of bacteria (rods).

Cdlor.
31
The phenomena
relating to the color
of bacteria have only recently been pointed out.
" But little attention has been given tq the color of the bacteria, regarded generally as colorless," said M. de Seynes in 1874 ; and recently M. de Lanessan, " The bacteria are ordinarily quite color-
However, M. Cohn had already insisted upon the globular bacteria chromogenes, or of pigmentary fermentation, and upon the colors produced by different monads, which have long since been studied by microscopists.
less."
Upon
teria
this subject, let us
observe that the bac-
to two very diforganisms always known as such, but which were not formerly included with the bacteria, as the different monads, which have become the Micrococcus prodigiosus,
which are colored belong

First,
ferent groups.
colored
cyaneus, aurantiacus, Cohn, etc.; the second group includes
the bacteria properly so called, which
absorb the coloring matter of vegetables upon
which they are fixed as parasites, or of the media in which they live. This is the case with the bacteria observed by M. de Seynes upon the Penicillum glaucum, and perhaps with the Vibrio synxanthus and syncyanus^hreub., which give to milk
We
a yellow or blue color according to the species. will return to this subject when we speak of
the nutrition of the bacteria.
As
to
the
purple-colored monads, they have
been especially studied as early as 1838 by Dunal, then by Morren and Ehrenberg, and in our own day by Eay-Lankester, Cohn, Klein, and finally
32
MORPHOLOGY OF THE BACTERIA.'
by Warming and
rious
in sea-water, in hot sulphur springs, water containing animal or vegetable matThey appear someter in a state of putrefaction. times upon bread, meats, and in general upon
media
Giard.
They
are found in va-
in fresh
cooked food placed in a humid atmosphere. The different colors which they present are red, yelIt is probably to anallow, orange, and blue. ogous organisms that we must attribute the blue color presented by pus under certain circumstances, the green and blue color studied by M. Chalvet, and the orange-yellow, bright red, and blue colors observed by C. Eberth in perspiration.
In Norway, red bacteria appear in summer in such masses that the borders of the sea are sometimes colored of an intense red (Warming).
Movement.
ferent states.
it is
The bacteria
They
are
met
in
two
;
dif-
are active or motionless
but
that
now
well settled for the greater
number
the same species
may
present
itself
sometimes in
a state of repose, sometimes in a state of move-
ment.
a movement
two kinds, and a movement of translation. The first is sometimes nothing more than a molecular or brownien movement, which occurs in the smallest forms. But at other times it is more extended, and consists in a movement of rotation round the axis, or a bending of the body. This flexibility is, above all,
bacteria are of
of the corpuscle
The movements of the
upon
itself
33
observed in the long forms, the Bacillus, the Vibrions, etc.

it is
As
to
;
the
at
movement
of translation,
very variable
it
is
rapid,
one time slow, at another in relation with the length and form
of the bacterium.
the modifications of
lines
:
M. Cohn has well described all movement in the following
" Almost
all
the bacteria possess two different

characterized
modes of life, movement.

" In
certain
by repose and by
they are excessively mobile ; and when they swarm in a drop of water, they present an attractive spectacle, similar to that of a swarm of gnats, or an ant-hill. The bacteria advance, swimming, then retreat without turning about, or even describe circular lines. At one time they advance with the rapidity of an arrow, at another, they turn upon themselves like a top; sometimes they remain motionless for a long time, and then dart off The long rod-bacteria twist their like a flash. swimming, sometimes slowly, sometimes bodies in with address and agility, as if they tried to force It for themselves a passage through obstacles. is thus that the fish seeks its way through aquatic They remain sometimes quiet, as if to replants.
conditions,
pose an instant: suddenly the

to oscillate,
little
rod commences
and then to swim briskly backwards, to again throw itself forward some instants after. All of these movements are accompanied by a second movement analogous to that of a screw which moves in a nut. When the vibrios in the
3
34
shape of a gimlet turn rapidly round their axis, they produce a singular illusion one would believe that they twisted like an eel, although they are extremely rigid." The causes of these movements have been sought,
:
supposed animal nature of the bacand the movements assimilated, consequently, to voluntary movements but this opinion can no longer be sustained, as similar movements are to be seen in a great number of vegetable organisms, such as the diatoms, the oscillatoriaa, the spores of They have also been algae and some fungi, etc. attributed to the existence of locomotor appendices (Ehrenberg); but, although the cilia, denied at first by most microscopists, have been seen since in nearly all the bacteria, the botanists who have best studied them, M. Warming, for example, recat first, in the
teria,
;
it is scarcely probable that these organs are the cause of their movements, for " one meets some examples in which the body remains motionless while the cilia are in violent agitation, and others in which the body moves while the cilia remain inert, or dragging behind." The movements appear to depend rather upon
ognize that
the nutrition, or respiration, and especially upon the presence of oxygen (Cohn) ; indeed when this
wanting the bacteria become motionless. Immobility may also be produced by want of
gas
is
nutriment, poisoning by different toxic substances,

(chloroform, iodine,
ters derived
etc.),
dessication, etc.
The attempt has been made
to use the charac-
from the existence or absence of
35
motion, and the form of the bacteria, in order to

classify
them
clearly that these transitory
but what has just been said shows phenomena cannot be

specific characters.
taken for generic or

Structure.
It was for a long time believed that the bacteria were constituted of amorphous masses
of protoplasm, or of solid rods.
The researches
of
Hoffmann have shown

lar
that they have a true celludescribe, then, succescilia,
structure.
We
shall
sively, their
membrane, the contents, and the
which
may
be considered as belonging to the pro-
toplasm.
Cell-membrane.
The
extreme minuteness of
the bacteria usually prevents a direct demonstration of the cell-membrane, and the existence of
envelope has not, heretofore, beên clearly demonstrated except by indirect proofs chemical reactions, for example.
this
;
Thus Hoffmann
lar envelope
verifies the existence of a cellu-
when
" the contents, which
is
a trans-
parent plasma, are partly coagulated, as sometimes
happens, or disappear, and are then replaced by air which shows precisely the form of the normal Warming, also, has not been able bacterian cell." to see the membrane, " which only appears distinctly
when
a vacuole has formed just against the
periphery."
On
the other hand, the action of chemical agents
upon bacteria proves that they have an envelope of cellulose, which is colored by tincture of iodine
36
is
not destroyed by caustic potash, ammonia, or even acids and resists putrefaction for an ex;
ceedingly long time.

bles the
In this respect,
it
resem-
membrane
of cellulose of vegetable cells
(Cohn).
We should add that Cohn claims to have succeeded with high powers in seeing directly the cell-membrane. On the other hand, Warming has never succeeded in so doing. The last observer remarks also that the resistence of bacteria to acids, to alkalis, etc., does not seem to prove the existence of a membrane, " inasmuch as this may
be the result of a particular condition of the plasma, which in all the bacteria is of a more consistent nature than in other plants."
Finally, the
teria,
membrane may
flexible
be, in certain bac-
tender,
of
ments
torsion.
and susceptible of moveIn others, it is rigid and
incapable of bending.
Cohn
thinks also that
it
may
swell and dissolve into mucilage, a fact
which
would explain the origin

Zooglcea.
of this substance in the
Protoplasm.
The
contents of the
cell is
nitrogenous substance, generally colorless,

highly refractive than water.
more
In the smallest species, this protoplasm appears homogeneous but in the bacteria of medium size, and above all in the large species, the contents of the cell encloses portions more highly refractive, vacuoles, special granules, and sometimes diverse
;
coloring matters.
37
Cohn has first pointed out the movements of the protoplasm, in which currents occur, above all in
the central portion, the peripheral portion remain-
ing homogeneous and motionless. The vacuoles are also found in the central portion Warming,
;
however, who has observed them in Monas Okenii, Vibrio rugula, V. serpens and Spirillum undula var. littoreum, has sometimes seen them in the middle of the plasma, at another near the exterior wall. The granules which are seen in the protoplasm were considered by Ehrenberg as stomachal vesicles or ovules. They are of two sorts the one, highly refractive and not bordered by a dark circle, are considered by Warming as nothing more than mere compact- masses of protoplasm; the second, also highly refractive, but surrounded by a dark circle, resemble drops of oil, and have been taken for fat granules but the recent researches of Cramer, Cohn, and Warming have proved that some of them, at least, are formed of crystalline sulphur. They are not soluble either in hydrochloric acid or in water, but they are dissolved in absolute alcohol, in hot caustic potash and sulphite of soda, in nitric acid and chlorate of potash at ordinary temperatures, and in bisulphide of carbon, when the membrane, which is permeable with difficulty, has been previously destroyed by sulphuric acid. Although their small dimensions and great refractive power prevent them from being distinguished with certainty as crystals of sulphur, as they are doubly refractive to polarized light their crystalline nature cannot be doubted.
;
38
These globules of sulphur have been observed in Monas Okenii, Bacterium sulphuratum, Ophidomonas, and the different species of Beggiatoa, both in fresh water, in putrid sea-water, and in thermal sulphur waters. It will be seen when we speak of the physiology of these organisms what their role is in the elimination of sulphur and the formation of sulphuretted hydrogen. We have said, in speaking of the colored bacteria, that some borrow their color from the surrounding medium, and that others, on the contrary, have a color of their own. The protoplasm of the latter contains a granular coloring matter, which
is
ordinarily yellow, blue, or red.
The red
color-
is most common, and this has been best and appears to be the best known. One of these colors which gives a pink tint (peach color) to Bacterium rubescens, Ray-Lank. Clathrocystis roseopersicina, Cohn) 3Ionas vinosa, (
ing matter
studied,
Cohn; M. gracilis, Warming; Rhabdomonas rosea, Cohn; M. Warmingii, Cohn; Ophidomonas sanguinea, Ehrb. ; Merismopedia littoralis, Rabenh. etc., has been studied by RayEhrb.,
M.
Okenii,
Lankaster,
in
who has given

ether,
to
it
the
name
of bac-
terio-purpurine.
alcohol,
oils,
It is insoluble in water, soluble
fatty
carbolic
acid,
glycerine,
it
and
characteristics
which make
resemble
spectrum. Other red coloring matters which appear to be different have been found in Monas prodigiosa, Ehrb.; Bacillus ruber, Cohn; and Micrococcus fulThese should not be confounded with vus, Cohn.
chlorophyll.
It has also a characteristic

39
the purple coloring matter of other algae, as that of the Porphyridium cruentum, which comes from a mixture of chlorophyll and of phycoerythrine.
The
In
bacteria never contain chlorophyll.

this connection, it is interesting to recall the
protoplasmic constitution of the Amylobacter of Tre'cul. These organisms are, according to Van
Tieghem, bacteria, to which he has given the name of Bacillus Amylobacter, and which does not differ from B. subtilis, except by a specific character, extremely transitory, the presence of amorphous starch, formed and stored in reserve during the period of growth, to be again used later, and con-
sumed during the process

Cilia.
of reproduction.
These appendages which were described

in the Bacterium
trilocular
by Ehrenberg
permit
vis
have
not been seen since.
To-day, recent researches
doubt in Bacillus, Bacterium, Spiall the true bacteria, rillum. They have been perceived in a great
to say that cilia exist without
number
Vibrio
of forms,
Spirillum volutans, Sp. undula,

Cohnii,
rugula, Spiromonas
pens, and several species of Bacillus.

in the smallest of the bacteria that
it
Vibrio serIt is only has hitherto
been impossible to demonstrate their presence. They have, however, been recently seen by Dallinger and Drysdale in Bacterium termo.
Warm-
ing has perceived as
many
as
two or three on one
extremity in Ophidomonas sanguinea Spirillum

volutans var. robusium, and Vibrio rugula.
PLATE
I.
Taken from " Monthly Microscopical Journal" of
Sept. 1st, 1875.
B. termo magnified with the same power as which diameters). B. termo, seen with flagellum at one end, the light comFig. ing in the direction of the arrow. The same object when moved at right angles to Fig.
Fig
1.
a.
6,
is
a specimen of Spirillum volutans, showing flagella at each end. Fig. 2. B. termo, as seen with a power of about 600 diameters. Fig. 3. The same as seen with $ and second eye-piece (3,700
4.
5.
it
its
former position, the light coming from the same direction, causing the sight of the flagellum to be lost. Fig. 6 represents one B. termo which was in a still condition, but one flagellum moving. The light came in the direction of the arrow. When the end marked 2 b was in focus, a flagellum was seen, but none at the end c. When the end marked 1 a was focused carefully, the flagellum at that end was seen, and lost at the
end
d.
Fig. 7. The true form of B. termo. Fig. 8. The form as shown by the " supplementary stage " illumination before flagella were found, showing the pointed termination of the body at a, b.
The Monthly Microscopical Journal Sep 1 1.1875
Plate
:v_
-7*"""
<xxz>
"V
a<
FtAGELLA ON
By W.
H.Dallinger,
FRM.S
BACTERIUM TERMO and J.J. Drysdale, M D.ER.M.S
ORGANIZATION OF THE BACTEBIA.
41
EXTRACT FROM PAPER "ON THE EXISTENCE OF FLAGELLA IN BACTERIUM TERMO," BY W. H. DALLINGER, F.R.M.S., AND J. J. DRYSDALE, M.D.,
F.R.M.S.
" In the summer of 1872, some very fine specimens of S. volutans came under our notice, and were carefully examined. We were enabled fully to confirm Cohn's discovery, and demonstrated repeatedly the presence of a pair of swiftly lashing flagella. The drawing at b, Fig. 1, was made from a specimen magnified 1,300 diameters (diminished by |). " Having closed for the present our Monad researches, we have been stimulated by the hope that the experience gained by these might enable us to prosecute similar investigations into the true life history of bacWe have commenced the work this summer, and, guided by the teria. analogy of 5. volutans, we have been led to make several continuous efforts to find whether or not there existed a flagellum or flagella in B. termo. The task, of course, under the best circumstances, must be a a difficult one, from the extreme minuteness of the object. We tried each of Powell and Lealand's powers successively, from the i\ to the -^, but with no definite result. Repeatedly we both saw vortical action at both the distal and proximal end of the termo, but could not absolutely see the organ causing it. But in the process of our investigations we made very close and careful observations on the fission of this form we do not purpose now to describe the process, but merely to point out a. phenomenon that further confirmed our suspicion of the presence of an invisible filament. In separating into two, the jointed rod of sarcode which is in process of division shakes to and fro at the constriction, as if the constricted part were a hinge and at length a clear separation takes place to quite the length of the original termo (sometimes longer), and there is no visible connection between them ; nevertheless they act as one crea:
ture, so that if one moves in any direction, the other goes with it, just as the two parts did before separation; showing that, although we cannot see the con-
nection, there
filament, such as
must be one; and the presumption was that it was a fine we detected in the fission of some monads. 1 We could
;
make no
was
'
called to the
further progress in the question apparently but our attention new Jth objective prepared by Messrs. Powell and
We used it at first with Lealand, with which we were soon supplied. the supplementary stage ' for very oblique illumination, supplied by the same makers, and this has the advantage of throwing the light in only from one direction. We were soon convinced of the exquisite performance of the glass when used as an immersion. Amphipleura pellucida was not merely seen to be striated clearly and sharply, but the stria}
" M. M.
J., vol. *., p. 55;
and
vol. xi., p. 8."
42
were resolved into beads with the third and fourth eye-pieces. In like manner the fine striae in Surirella gemma were instantly shown to be beaded, with perfect and brilliant definition, with the second eye-piece. Navicula rhomboides and an extremely delicate specimen of Pleurosigma attenuatum which had resisted everything below a ^th immersion, showed beaded striae perfectly. We were therefore encouraged to try again to
discover flagella in the termo. Some of our specimens, nourished in Cohn's nutritive fluid, were placed in a drop of distilled water, and put upon the supplementary stage on an ordinary slide covered with the thinnest cover. The utmost delicacy and tact in manipulation of the
light
is
the great desideratum
but, with this,
enough may be secured
to
be made to enter the objective at almost every angle, but it is always projected in a direction at right angles to the stage ; and the first thing we observed when the objects were sufficiently slow in their movements, and at right angles to the light, was that the ends of the termo, which we (and all other observers, as far as we know) had taken for round, proved themselves to be conical, terminating in a sharp point. The usual appearance of B. termo, as seen with a magnification of about 600 diameters, is seen in Fig. 2 whilst the same seen with a magnifying power of 3,700 diameters [Jtrth and second eye-piece) is seen in Fig. 3, where a globular granule is seen in the end of each half. But with the method above referred to, the best conditions being secured, the two ends of the bacterium were distinctly pointed, as seen at a b, Fig. 8, and after nearly five hours of incessant endeavor a flagellum was distinctly seen at one end of each of two termos which were moving slowly across the field. The discovery was not sudden and transient, but lasted for at least twenty minutes. The exquisitely delicate flagellum was lashing rapidly the whole time and one of its frequent conditions is shown in Fig. 4, the arrow indicating the direction of the light but if the termo turned round at right angles, as in Fig. 5, all trace of the flagellum was gone, showing that its discovery depended entirely, all things being equal, upon its position in regard to the light. " But this observation was made only by one of us, the other not being present and in pursuance of our plan we determined to see it again, convincing ourselves separately, and then together. After many hours of labor, this was accomplished and Fig. 6 shows one of two instances which we both saw together at the same time and in the same instrument. It was lying still, obliquely across the field, the light coming in the direction of the arrow. Both ends were not perfectly in focus at the same time, but in focusing the end marked 2 b (Fig. 6) the flagellum was distinctly seen, and was seen also to coil and lash but no flagellum was then seen at the end c of the same object ; but by bringing it into delicate focus it presented the aspect seen at 1 a (Fig. 6), which really represents the same object at the same time, only with the other end in the focus, while the end marked d corresponding to 2 b of Fig. 6 was in its turn slightly out of focus, and the flagellum lost to view. This observation, made together, was as satisfactory as could be desired and it
work with the fourth
eye-piece.
The
light
may

was thus demonstrated that there was a flagellum
dinary B. termo.
" It will of course be understood that
;
43
at both ends of the or-
it is by no means an easy matter and whenever we repeat it, it must always be with nearly the same amount of trouble and patience, although we
to secure the demonstration
front and (occasionally) behind the termo, as
can now with the ordinary condenser detect the vortical action, both in we never did before. But the demonstration of the ultimate structure of a fixed object as for must be looked upon as a matter of instance Amphipleura pellucida great ease in comparison and that for many reasons, the foremost being the motion and the minuteness of the object, the swift play of the flagella, their similarity in optical properties to the fluid in which bacteria live, the difficulty of retaining them in focus, and of getting them in such a position in relation to the light as to make demonstration possible. Of course, all this would be removed if dead bacteria would answer, but they very rarely (indeed only once) have done so with us. The flagellum needs to be in slow motion to properly show itself for even with the more delicate and minute monads it is a difficult thing to show the flagella in dead forms, since in the majority of cases they appear to be attracted round the body of the creature."
2.
Of
states,
the Different Modes of Grouping of the Bacteria.
The
two
bacteria are found in different media
in
free, isolated (unicellular bacteria),
or united several together, either in chains, in

filaments, or in masses of greater or less extent,
and sometimes by the aid of a mucous substance which they are imbedded. The free unicellular bacteria are found in the When they are Spirillum, Bacillus, Monas, etc. united, they are grouped in the following modes
in
:
The usual method

bacteria
is
].
Form
of a
little
chain:
Torula, Leptothrix.
of multiplication
among
;
the
by fission
(" scissiparite")
each cor-
puscle divides transversely, and gives birth to two
44

individuals,
which sometimes become separated completely the one from the other, to form unicellular bacteria, sometimes remain united; and
new
segmentation again occurring in each portion, a chain is formed of articles more or less numerous.
When
teria,
these chains are formed of spherical bac-
they have been called torulce; if they are formed of filiform bacteria, they correspond to The morphological difference leptothrix (Robin).
between the torula and the

the fact that in the
first
leptothrix consists in
the articles are separated

is
by
constrictions, while this

It is also to
not the case in the
be remarked, according to Cohn, that the microbacteria never take either Warming states, however, that of these forms. he has met the torula form in Bacterium lineola, B. catenula, and B. termo (?). Billroth has called these two forms of bacteria He has even sireplococcos and streptobacteria. considered it necessary to create the words diplococcos and diplobacteria for organisms constituted only of two articles.
second.
2.
Form
of Zooglaza.
Generally, when bacte-
ria are
rapidly multiplying, they remain grouped
in masses, swarms, or Zooglcea.

dition,
In the latter conthey are closely pressed against each other in the midst of a viscous substance, hyaline, homogeneous, colorless, and constituting masses
more
or
less
diffused
or
definite,
in
irregular
globes, bunches, or tubes,
swimming
in the water
or near
its
surface.
cells
When
the bacteria multiply
abundantly, the
become removed from each

other, so as to leave
vals.
45
inter-
between them greater
The masses sometimes
attain a diameter of
several centimetres.
The
gelatinous substance in which the bacteria
are included seems to be produced
by
a thicken-
ing and jellification of this cell-membrane, or by a secretion from their protoplasm, but the latter
view seems more plausible than the former (De

Lanessan).
It is
commonly the
spherical bacteria (Micro-
coccus) and the microbacteria (Bacterium) which are found in this state.
spirilla are never found in gelatinous masses (Cohn). Ray-Lankester, however, claims to have met the Spirillum tenue, in the form of zoogloea, and Klein the Spirillum undula and rosaceum (Warming). The form of Zoogloea, properly so called, gelatinous and thick, has never been found by Warm-
The
filiform bacteria
and the
ing in infusions of sea-water.
According to the terminology of Billroth the are called gliacoccos and glidbacteria (from y\la, mucus substance). 3. Form of Mycoderma. In certain cases, the bacteria unite on the surface of the water, or of the liquid in which they are developed, to form a
zoogloea
membrane. This production mycoderma by Pasteur is a sort of zooglcea, but differs from it by the absence of the intermediary mucus substance. The bacteria are, however, motionless, although living, since they come
thick layer, a sort of
called
to the surface to be in contact with oxygen,

is
which
necessary to them.
,46
The petalococcos and
petalobacteria of Billroth
correspond with the mycoderma of Pasteur. 4. Swarms. We have seen that the filiform and spiral bacteria do not, usually, form zooglcea.
These microphytes are either disseminated and free, or united in swarms. This formation may be seen, for that matter, in all the bacteria, when, thanks to abundant nourishment, they multiply rapidly and gather together in considerable masses. They are very active in these swarms, whilst in the zooglcea the corpuscles are motionless, because of
the intermediary glairy substance.
Pulverulent precipitate. When the nutritive elements are exhausted in a liquid, the bacteria
cease to multiply, fall to the bottom of the receptacle,
deposit formed in this
ness
teria
becomes clear. The manner may acquire a thickvery appreciable to the naked eye. The bac-
and the
liquid gradually
in a state of
which form this precipitate are not dead, but temporary repose and if a new supply of nutritive material is added to the liquid, they are seen to multiply anew, until this has been exhausted (Cohn).
;
Plate
II.
'.-.iwj y
3Hf
*
% ^
v"
Fig.
Fig
^p
-,>
mm
3.
Fig.
Fig. 4.
PLATE
II.
DIFFERENT MODES OF GROUPING.
From photo-micographs made
in
Havana and New Orleans ;
copied by
permission of the National Board of Health.
Fig. 1. Torula form of spherical bacteria (Micoderma aceti Pasteur) from rotten banana, New Orleans, April, 1880. 1500 diameters by Zeiss's -^ in. objective.
cell
Fig. 2. Zoogloza form of spherical bacteria developed in culturecontaining blood of leper. 600 diameters.
Mycoderma, from surface of foul gutter-water. New Fig. 3. Orleans, April, 1880. 400 diameters by Becks, in. objective. Fig. 4. Leptothrix form of desmobacteria developed in yellow-
fever urine, exposed in laboratory, Havana, July, 1879.
400
diameters by Becks, \ in. objective.
CHAPTER
IT.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE BACTERIA.
1.
Position
of the Bacteria.
The
for
place of the bacteria in the scale of beings,
demands to be not only for the naturalists, who only view the question from a systematic point of view, but above all for the biologists who study the role of these organisms in the chema long time undetermined,
;
established with precision
phenomena with which they According to Ch. Robin, not to define the animal or vegetable nature of these organisms, " is for them as grave as it would be for a chemist to leave undecided the question as to whether it was nitrogen or hydrogen, urea or stearine, which he had obtained from a tissue, or of which he is following the combinations in certain
ical
or pathological
are associated.
operations."
This determination
there are
still
is,
to-day, possible
and,
if
some
differences of opinion
naturalists as to the place of the bacteria
among among
the cryptogams, there

their vegetable nature.
is
but one opinion as to
It is surprising to see a savant like M. Pasteur " not to pronounce positively upon the vegetable
49
or animal nature of several of the ferments which
he has studied," and of which some belong to the

bacteria.
We
shall
first
indicate rapidly the characters
which permit
if
us, at first, to recognize certain spe-
cies of bacteria as organized beings, to
determine
finally to
they are animal or vegetable, and
classify
them
either
among
the algae or
among
the
fungi.
Distinction
stances.
The question
of Bacteria
from Inorganic Subwhether bacteria are
as to
organized beings can only be raised in relation to the smallest species, those Micrococci which are scarcely perceptible with the highest powers the
;
organized nature of the other organisms of the
same group has never been questioned, even by

the earliest observers,
who
all,
since
Leeunhoeck,
have, without exception, taken them for animals But the smallest forms of bacteria or vegetables.
may
be confounded with various matters, with organic particles, molecular granules, fat globules, " These productions, which are found in conetc.
siderable quantity in the liquids or in the tissues
of animal or vegetable origin, often resemble so
closely, in form, size,
and grouping, the spherical
bacteria, that
it
is
absolutely impossible to guard
one's self against confusion, unless the most mi-
nute precautions are taken in making the observations " (Cohn).
The
detritus, the
amorphous powder
of precipi-
tated molecules of inorganic substances, even
when
50
they exhibit the brownien movement, are t easilyenough distinguished from Micrococci by optical
their angular form, their less refractive power, and finally by their reaction with certain chemical agents above all if they are mineral
signs,
;
substances, crystalline bodies, etc.

It will
not be the same with molecular granules
of organic nature.
ters, their
They have
as
common
charac-
power, movements.
less regular,
rounded form, their notable refractive Nevertheless, their form is
more angular, their color variable, their power always less. In doubtful cases, Tiegel has given a method which enables us to distinguish them from Micrococci. It consists in warming the glass slide which supports the correfractive
they are " Coccos," they are seen to move in a manifest manner. This does not occur in the case of molecular granpuscles under examination,
if
ules.
It is
difficult
these
productions which render
it
very
phenomena which occur during the coagulation of milk. The caseine septo observe the
arates in the form of extremely minute globules having a very rapid molecular movement. But we may distinguish these from bacteria by the use of liquor potassae, which dissolves the former without attacking the latter. As another example of pseudobacteria, I will mention, after Cohn, the form which fibrine assumes when it separates from the plasma of the blood. It disposes itself in very slender filaments, closely resembling filamentous bacteria.
51
Fat globules, which are found of all sizes, are often of the same dimensions as Micrococcus, and are very difficult to distinguish from the latter. The difference in refractive power is slight, and the action of re-agents, such as ether, is not certain in
mucilaginous solutions.
Hiller,
who
has
paid especial attention to the means of recognizing

bacteria, divides
them
into
:
two groups
1.
A. The optical signs

teristic
comprising
The
charac-
vegetable form, rods, leptothrix, this he

little
recognizes as of
use, as in this case there
is
no doubt; 2. The characteristic movements of the monads; 3. The mode of growth and of multiplication 4. The mode of junction of the granules. B. The chemical signs 1. False zoogloea become softened and diffluent under the action of liq. potassae, and are coagulated by the direct applica; :
tion of alcohol
2.
In sections of tissues, after an

liq.
hour of maceration in
the
potassae, diluted y^th,
monads
are colored
brown by
iodine, while fat
granules are not.
But, in truth, the method of cultivation, extolled by Cohn and Wollf, is the best means of " The distinction of distinguishing the bacteria.
pseudobacteria," says the first of these authors, " from veritable globular bacteria is a problem
which our microscopists cannot

a study of their
distinction can be
resolve, in every
It is only
case, with the desirable certainty.
by
mode
made.
of
development that this The globules which di-
vide
and develop in form of chains are organized beings ; when this does not occur, we are dealing
with pseudobacteria."
52
This
Nageli,
is

not, however, exactly the to consider
opinion of
as the
who seems
movement
surest distinctive characteristic. " There are," he says, " but three
distinctive
signs which enable us to recognize with some certainty that granules under observation are organisms, spontaneous movement, multiplication, and equality of dimensions, united with regularity
of form.
"The most certain character is movement in a straight or curved line, a movement which inorganic granules never present. One should take care not to be deceived by movements which are caused by currents in the liquid under observation. Nor should one allow himself to be deceived by the tremulous motion, called molecular movement, in which the granules do not really change their position. These movements are seen in most cells, and even in those of the Schizomycetes, and inorganic bodies themselves present it.
" Multiplication
is
character less important
than movement.
are
found united in
When among granules some pairs, it may be supposed
with probability that division and multiplication are taking place. When rods are bent at an angle,
one may predict
their
division in
two
parts.
dif-
" Finally, as to size and form.

ferent size and of a
Granules of
more or less irregular form ought not to be considered as belonging to the group of segmented fungi; if, on the contrary,
is
the granules offer dimensions perfectly equal, and
a spherical or oval form, the distinction
more
53
uncertain
they
may
belong to the schizomycetes
or be of inorganic nature."
Place of the bacteria among organized beings. Distinction between animals and vegetables. The
characters which serve to distinguish the inferior
animal organisms from the inferior vegetable organisms are of two orders, optical and chemical. A. The optical characters are drawn from the general form, the movements, and the mode of
reproduction.
The morphological
characters have
no value
except among the larger species of bacteria. If we bring together a Spirillum and a Spirulina, Kiitz., their affinities will be apparent to every
one.
It is
not the same for the large species of
Bacillus, of which the relations with the Oscilla-
The rod form seems very spenecessarily imply the vegenot does cial, but table nature of the organisms which possess it.
toria are evident.
it
Finally, the spherical bacteria,
crococcus,
resemble
Monas
their
entirely
by
and Miform some

It
infusorial animals.
is
Movement is not a more special now well proved that it does not
and that
it is
character.
sively to animals,
belong exclumet with in a ceral-
tain
number
fact,
of the inferior vegetables.
In
the anatomical characters are not

reliable
first,
;
ways absolutely alone that Cohn
but it is from these then Davaine, have recog-
nized the bacteria as vegetables.

B. Chemical characters.
Robin depends upon
54
MOEPHOLOGY OF THE BACTERIA.
these characters to demonstrate the vegetable nature of the bacteria. He takes for point of de-
parture the notions of general physiology as given by De Blainville in the following points
:
1.
We
find in animals various elementary sub-
stances of
ciprocally.
2.
the same kind
as
in plants,
and
re-
The ternary compounds predominate, how;
and the quarternary, nitrogenized, are more abundant, on the contrary, in animals. 3. In both, the fundamental cellular structure at least originally for the greater is the same number, and always in the most simple of organever, in plants
;
ized beings, etc.
" It results from this, then," continues M. Robin, " that so long as there is no digestive tube one can only distinguish plants from animals by the study of their elementary principles, and of the chemical reactions which these exhibit in general
by the
study, in particular, of the reactions which
the predominance of ternary cellulose principles
over all others gives to plants, and that of nitrogenized principles in animals, at all periods of
their existence."
Starting from this basis, Robin
made numerous
attempts to find in liquor ammonia, concentrated,

as prepared for use in laboratories, a reagent for
corpuscles of a vegetable nature.
In
effect,
am-
monia
mals,
dissolves the eggs, the embryos, of all ani-
the
bodies
of
all
the
etc.,
inferior
infusoria,
attacks the spermatozoa,
whilst
it
leaves ab-
solutely intact all the varieties of
cellulose
and

the anatomical reproductive
55
elements of plants,
whether As to
it is
used cold or boiling.

other
the
chemical characters praised
during recent years,
we will content ourselves with mentioning concentrated acetic acid, which causes all animal tissues to become pale, whilst it is without action on bacteria (Luckonvsky) iodine, and sulphuric acid (Letzerich), etc. Hematoxyline (Luckonvsky) and fuschine (Hoff;
mann)
color the bacteria deeply.

to give
One ought,
microscopic
etc.,
then,
no longer
malcules,
error.
to
the
bacteria, as
do some
ani-
recent authors, the
names
of
infusoria,
microzoa,
and
other
expressions without precision, or consecrating an
Let us add that some naturalists of high
re-
pute, Hackel for example, have created for these
minute beings, monera, protoplasts, flagellata, diatoms, etc., an intermediary kingdom between the animal and vegetable, the Protista. Place of the Bacteria in the Vegetable Series. The vegetable nature of the bacteria once established, it remains now to determine to what class of vegetables they belong. Are they, algae or are they fungi ? This is the question which divides the naturalists. It is true that it is to-day very difficult to find a characteristic of these two classes of vegetables, both having, in a general manner, identical forms,
similar reproductive apparatus, etc.
and,
if
it
is
impossible to confound a Basidiomycete with a

Floridese, for example,
it
is
not the same
when
56

Species.
is
one studies the inferior

acter
The 'only
char-
which appears general chlorophyll in the algae and

fungi.
its
the presence of absence in the

are obliged to
But,
it
if
we adopt
all
its
this distinctive character^
and apply
separate
in
rigor,
we
in
the inferior algae some forms very
nearly related, and which do not differ from their relations except in this particular. And this is ex-
what happens in the case of the bacteria. In truth, the bacteria, although entirely without chlorophyll, have numerous affinities as to form, movement, etc., with the oscillatoriacece^ and, according as one or the other of these characters have appeared to predominate, the bacteria
actly
have been classed

It
is
as algae or as fungi.
thus that Davaine, Rabenhorst, then Cohn,

all
Struck above
of grouping,
by the resemblance
of
of form,
mode
and
multiplication,
the bacteria
all,
among
the algae.
have placed Cohn insists, above

;
upon the
and
affinities of
the filiform bacteria with

of the micrococ-
the beggiatoa and the leptothrix

cus,
of the bacterium^ with the chroocoocacece.
He
at first placed
;
them
at the
commencement
of
this last series
but
we
shall see further
on that
in his last publications he has disseminated
them
insist
among
the oscillatoriaceae and the chroococcaceae.
Eobin and Nageli, on the other hand,
rather upon the affinities of the bacteria with the
yeast plants, which are incontestably fungi, and
they include them in this class. Robin says expressly " All the corpuscles deScribed under the name of Bacterium termo> B,
:
57
punctum,
etc.,
Zoogloea, Micrococcus, and
many
others, are vegetable cells, spores of fungi, of several distinct species certainly
;
spores, or repro-
ductive bodies of the

another, either
first
order, derived one

fission,
from
by germination,
or from a
mycelium
the
reproductive bodies, in a word, of the
order of those which Tulasne has arranged under
name
of conidia, etc."
Nageli establishes in the inferior fungi which produce decompositions three very natural groups.
1.
2.
Saccharomycetes, or budding fungi, which produce the fermentation of wine, beer, etc.
3.
The The
The
Mucorini, or mould fungi;
Schizomycetes, or fission fungi,
which pro-
duce putrefactive^processes. This last group is formed of our bacteria (Micrococcus, Bacterium), etc.
Sachs solves the question by uniting the algae and fungi in a single group, the thallophytes, in
which he establishes two series exactly parallel, one comprising the forms with chlorophyll; the other, the forms which are deprived of it, and preserving in a transverse direction the morphological affinities of these organisms.
As
think
this classification is
it
yet but
little
known, we
:
best to give
it
in the following table
THALLOPHYTES.
Forms
with chlorophyll.
Forms
without chlorophyll.
Cl.
1.
Peotophytes.
A'. Schizomycetes (Bacteria).
B'.
A. Cyanophyceae
B. Palmellacese.
(Oscil-
latoriacese, etc.).
Saccharomycetes
(Ferments).
PLATE
III.
Saccharomycetes and Schizomycetes (Nageli), developed in urine (of yellow-fever patient) exposed in laboratory of the Yellow-fever
Commission, Havana,
the
My,
1879.
Reproduced by permission of
National Board of Health.

1.
Fig.
and
Tolles's amplifier.
Fig. 2.
objective.
Photo-micrograph made with Beck's objective 400 diameters. Photo-micrograph made with Zeiss's ^g-in. horn. im.
-in.
1,450 diameters.
Plate
III.
Q
i
'
f--
m
'
<
^L.
Fi<;
HcliotyiM' Printing
<-'u.,
BhfIii
classification of the bacteria.

Cl.
59
2.
Zygospores.
A'. Myxomycetes.
B'.
A. Volvocineee.
B. Conjugueee and Diatoms.
Zygomycetes,
Cl.
3.
Oospores.
Saprolegnise.
A. Sphseroplese.
B. Coeloplastese.
C. GEdogonise.
Peronosporese.
4.
Cl.
B. Floridese.
C. Characese.
Carpospores.
A'. Ascomycetes.
B'. CEcidiomycetes.
A. Coleochaetese.
C.
Basidiomycetes.
Our preferences are

fication,
for this last
mode
of classi-
to follow the classification of Cohn, the
but obliged, in the description of species, most comhas been given hitherto,
for the present.
plete which
we must
abandon
it
2.
Classification
Generic and Specific Characters.

;
classifications of the bacteria of given an abstract in the historical which we have part of this work, show how variable have been the ideas of the microscopists as to the nature of
The numerous
these organisms.
Before giving the most recent, those among will have to choose, it is best to study the characters upon which authors have depended for grouping the bacteria in genera and species,
which we
and
to estimate the value of these characters.
60
These have 1. Generic and specific characters. been drawn from the dimensions, form, movement and evolution of the bacteria. The size, which, according to Cohn, is the dominating distinctive character,
nable,
is
often indetermi-
even in employing the highest powers. Besides, for a great number of neighboring forms, the differences of measurement given as distinctive are so slight that they cannot serve in practice. Thus, according to Dujardin, the Bacterium termo has a length of 1, 7 /*, and the B.punctum of 1, 7 to 0.6 Another difficulty presents itself when we examine bacteria formed of several articles. Shall
/jl.
we
consider the length of a single article or of the
chain, which consists of a
number
of articles, a
number ordinarily variable ? The form of the bacteria and

colonies, also
offer differences,
their union in
which have been utilized; but do they depend upon differences truly specific, or do they come from foreign influences, from phases of development of the same organism? Even when one uses these as distinctive specific characters, the form is sometimes of little assistance since if one refers to the descriptions of Dujardin, the Bacterium termo will be found to have a cylindrical body swollen in the middle, and the B. punctum an elongated ovoid body. As to movement, we have seen that the phenomena of mobility or of immobility sometimes present themselves in the same species, according to age or changes in the medium. We have left, the mode of development, the
;
CLASSIFICATION OF THE BACTEEIA.
61
or
phenomena
of
reproduction
by
fission
by
to
spores, as the only character
which can serve
establish our natural genera; but, unfortunately,

this has
only been ascertained for a small number

of bacteria cannot
of bacteria, the Bacillus anthracis, for example.
The genera
significance as
tables
;
have the same
among animals and superior vegethey can only be established in accordance with the most prominent characters, reserving the feeble modifications of these generic forms as
specific characters.
Are
The
there distinct, well-defined, species
among
the Bacteria ?
microscopists have given the most diverse

Miiller,
opinions upon this subject.

tinction of the
Ehrenberg,
dis-
Dujardin, Davaine, have admitted the specific
numerous vibrioniens which they have described. Davaine, however, raises some
doubts as to the absolute value of the species " Those which are deestablished in his time. classifiers," the he says, " ought scribed to-day by to be considered as the expression of types under
which are hidden a certain number

species."
of
distinct
Cohn
in
dwells
still
more upon the
impossibility,
which we are to-day, of distinguishing with certainty genera and species among the bacteria. However, he is convinced that the bacteria are divided into species as distinctly as the other plants and inferior organisms. It is only the imperfection of our means of observation which makes it impossible to recognize these differences.
This
is
above
62
all true,

he says, of the
spirilla,
which are not only
distinguished from the rod bacteria, properly so

called; but
differences as constant as
of alga or of infusoria.
which present in their species some any well-defined species

Billroth, Robin, Nageli, etc.,
Hallier,
Hoffmann,
consider the different forms of bacteria in a very
According to them they are not autonomous species, but phases of development of one or of several species. According to Hallier, we may see, a propos of the polymorphism of the bacteria, the singular transformations which he has obtained by their
different fashion.
cultivation.
According to Billroth, the bacteria belong to a

single species of plants, the Coccobacteria septica,
with the exception of the Spirillum and Spirochceta, in regard to which Billroth is not willing to give
an opinion.
certain
This view has been adopted

of microscopists,
number
and above
all
by a by
the pathologists, such as Frisch, Tiegel, etc.
Micrococcus, Vibrio, Bacterium and Leptoihrix, but considers them the distinct and successive phases in
also admits the genetic relation of
Robin
the evolution of several species

described under the
1st.
Corpuscles
name
of
;
Bacterium termo,
2d.
punctum,
etc.,
Micrococcus
;
Mycelial
fila-
ments, Vibrio,
bacteria, etc.
;
etc.
3.
Bacteria, Bacteridies, Micro-
4th. Leptoihrix
and forms more
advanced. The opinion of Nageli corresponds very nearly with the preceding. " As much as I am con-
63
vineed," he says, " that the schizomycetes cannot
be grouped in accordance with their action as ferments and their exterior forms, and that altogether too many species have been distinguished so, on the other hand, it seems to me very improbable that all the schizomycetes constitute a single natu;
ral species.
"I
am rather inclined to
suppose that there exists
a small number of species, which have little in common with the genera and species admitted to-day, and of which each runs through a cycle of determined forms sufficiently numerous.
of the veritable species of schizomycetes is not limited to presenting itself under the different forms of Micrococcus, Bacterium, Vibrio, and Spirillum, but can also show itself as the agent of
acidification of milk, of putrefaction, and as the agent producing several maladies.'However, Nageli recognizes that it is necessary to distinguish these forms, notably those of Micrococcus, Vibrio, Bacterium, and Spirillum, without, however, losing from view the fact that the organisms
among them
Each
thus classified have a very inconstant constitution, and pass continually from one form to another.
Finally, other savants such as
less
M. Pasteur, take
account of the structural characters than of the physiological functions, regarding as a particular species every form of bacterium which is born
determined medium, or which causes a special kind of fermentation. Nageli opposes to this view the following
constantly in a
objections.
First,
he has verified the presence,
in
64
MOBPHOLGGY OF THE BACTERIA.
the same decomposition, of several different forms

of schizomycetes.
On
the other hand, in decom-
positions quite different,
we may
observe schizo-
mycetes entirely similar as to their exterior form. Finally, we may change the mode of action of a
schizomycete in subjecting it to a certain treatment. One sees that it is truly difficult to form
an opinion
as to the value of these species purely
physiological.
in order to establish genera
may be used and species in the group of the bacteria are of small number and of very unequal value. Some, characters of form, of dimension, of movement, etc., are often difficult to determine, or have only a relative value others, characters drawn from development and reproduction, are only known in so few species that they
To sum
up, the characters which
;
cannot be made to serve as a basis of

tion.
classifica-
One
there
one.
will
is
not be surprised, then, to find that

classification
no natural
it is
of the bacteria,
and that
impossible for the naturalists to give
All those that can be established are pro-
visory, being only based
upon the morphology of
these organisms.
Following the example of all the botanists, we will use an analogous classification, but without wishing to prejudge in any particular
the genealogical relationship of the different organisms, which
era and species.
we
shall consider as distinct
gen-
CLASSIFICATION OF THE BACTEEIA.
65
3.
Classification
and Description of the Genera and Species of the Bacteria.
have seen in the historical portion of this work, a propos of the classifications which have been given of the bacteria, that, in 1872, M. Cohn, recognizing the numerous relations, absence of chlorophyll, mode of nutrition, etc., which make these organisms a natural family, divided them
into four tribes
1.
:
We
2.
3.
4.
The The The The
Spherobacteria, or spherical bacteria.

Microbacteria, or B. in short rods. Desmobaeteria, or B. in straight filaments.
Spirobacteria, or B. in spiral filaments.
In the spherobacteria, Cohn has only adopted one genus, the g. Micrococcus, of which the species are divided into three series, the pigmentary M., or chromogenes, the M. of fermentations, or zymogenes, and the M. of contagious affections,
or pathogenes.
The microbacteria
terium, with
include only the genus Bac-
B.
two species, B. termo, Dujardin, and Cohn. The desmobaeteria comprehend the g. Bacillus
lineola,
;
and Vibrio
the
first
established
by Cohn
of the
for the
B. subiilis, Cohn (with B. anthracis as a variety) and the B. the second, characterized by unduulna, Cohn lating filaments, is reduced to V. rugula and serrectilinear filaments is
;
composed
pens, Auct.
66

Finally, the spiral filaments of the spirobacte-
Spirillum and Spirochasla, which might be united in a single genus comprising Sp. plicatile, tenue, undula, and volutans.
ria characterize the gr.
Since then, Cohn, struck with the affinities which each of the preceding genera presents with several genera of oscillatoriaceae and of chroococcese, from which the bacteria only differ by the
absence of chlorophyll, has established a class of Schizophytes, which includes all the inferior vegetable organisms, provided or not with chlorophyll,
multiplying by fission. We give below the complete table
2. Classification
of
1.
the Schizophytes, Cohn.
TRIBE
GLtEOGENES.
an
intercellular substance.
Cells free or united in glairy families hy
A.
Cells free or united
by 2
.
or
.
by 4
Cells spherical
Cells cylindrical
Chroococcxjs, Nag. Synechococcus, Nag.
B. Cells united in glairy families,
amorphous in
repose
a.
:
state
of
Cellular
membrane, con-
founded with the intercellular substance

1.
Cells without phycochrome, very small
Cells spherical
Micrococcus,
Hallier.
::

Cells cylindrical
2.
.
67
Bacterium, Duj.
Cells with phyco-
chrome, larger
Cells spherical
. .
Cells cylindrical
t.
Aphanocapsa, Nag. Aphanothece, Nag.
Intercellular
substance
formed of several membranes enclosed one within the other

Cells spherical
.
Cells cylindrical
Glceocapsa, Kg. Glceothbce, Nag.
C. Cells united in glairy families
of definite form
a.
Families of a single layer

of cells disposed in plates
1.
2.
Cells in fours formMerismopedia, Meyen. ing a plane surface Cells without regular arrangement, forming
.
a curved surface
Cells spherical, families
with reticu.
.
lated rupture
Clathrocystis, Henfr.
Cells cylindrical, cu-
neiform, families
divided
striction
b.
by con. . .
CcELOSPHJSRnJM, Nag.
Families with several layers of cells, united in spherical corpuscles

1.
Number
termined
of cells de:
Cells spherical, colorless,
arranged
.
. .
in fours
Sarcina, Goods.
68

Cells cylindrical, cu-
neiform, with phy-
cochrome, without regular ar-
rangement
2.
GOMPHOSPILERIA, Kg.
Number
nate
:
of cells very
great and indetermiCells colorless, very
small
Cells
....
by
. .
Ascococcus,
Billr.
colored
phycochrome and larger
>
)
Polycystis, Kg. Coccochloris, Spr. Polycocctjs, Kg.
TRIBE
2.
NEMATOGENES.
Cells disposed in filaments.
A. Filaments not branched

a.
Filaments free
laced.
1.
or
inter-
Filaments cylindrical,
colorless, articulations
not very distinct Filaments very slender, short

. . .
Bacillus, Cohn.
2.
Filaments very fine, long Leptothrix, Kg. Filaments larger, long Beggiatoa, Trev. Filaments cylindrical, \ with phycochrome, I TT
....
articles well defined, (
Hwheothrix, Kg.
without cellular reproduction

.
^laria,
Bosc.
: :

3.
69
Filaments cylindrical,
articulated, with
co-
nidia
Filaments colorless Crenothrix, Cohn. Filaments with phy-
cochrome
4.
Cham.esiphoN'.
Filaments spiral without phycochrome

Filaments, short,
light,
sinuous
Vibrio, Ehr.
Filaments, short, spiral, rigid

. .
.
Spirillum, Ehr.
Filaments, long, spiral, flexible

.
Spirochete, Ehr.
with phycochrome Filaments long, spiral, flexible

. .
Spirulina, Link.
5.
Filaments in chaplet Filaments, without
phycochrome
. .
Streptococcus,
Billr.
6.
Filaments with phy- Anabena, Bory. cochrome f Spermosika, Kg. Filament flagelliform,
)
.
slender
Mastigothrix,
etc.
Filaments united into glairy families by an intercellular substance 1. Filaments cylindrical,

colorless
2.
Myconostoc, Cohn.
) I
,
Filaments cylindriJ , ... cal, with phyco-
Chthonoblastus.
Limnoclide, Kg.
etc.
>
\ ;
.
Tr
chrome
3.
4.
Filaments in chaplet Nostoc, Filaments flagelliform,

slender
Rxvularia,
etc.

70
B. Filaments with false ramification

1.
:
Filaments
cal, colorless
cylindri. .
Cladothrix, Cohn. Streptothrix, Cohn.

Calothrix, As. _ SCYTONEMA, Ag.
.
2.
cal,
,
Filaments cylindri, vi pnyco-u with

. . . .
) f
}
\ ;
.
chrome
3. Filament in chaplets 4 Filaments flagellitorm, slender towards
Merizomyria, Kg.
Schizosiphon, ScHIZ0SIPH0N5
i
l
K g.
Geocyclus, Kg.
the extremity
An
inspection of this table shows that each of
the genera of the ancient group of the bacteria
has been placed beside some genus of oscillatoriacese, which it resembles by its organization, Micrococcus and Bacterium, beside Aphanothece
and Aphanocapsa ; Bacillus, beside Leptothrix and Beggiatoa ; Vibrio and Spirillum, beside Spirulina.
These
a
affinities are
undeniable, and the advan;
tages of such a classification are manifest
but, in
it.
work
like this,
we cannot
think of employing
We
preserve, then, in a distinct group the schizo-
phytes deprived of chlorophyll, which may be arranged in the four primary divisions of Cohn with the exception of Sarcina, Ascococcus, Crenoihrix, etc., and the other genera created recently
by
this botanist.
Thus we
1.
will describe successively
The
Spherobacteria of
Cohn
and beside them
the different
Monas recently
studied,
the Microcoe-

cms described
adies.
2. 3.
71
by
Hallier in several infectious mal-
The The
The
Microlaceria.
Desmobacteria, including Bacillus, Lepto-
ihrix, Beggiatoa,
4.
and Crenothrix.
Spirobacteria, including the three genera,
Vibrio, Spirillum,
5.
and
Spirochceta.
Finally,
we
will give
some account of the Mer-
ismopedia, Sarcina, Ascococcus, Streptococcus, Myconostoc, Cladothrix,
and
Streptothrix.
1.
Sphekobacteria, Cohn.
The
spherical bacteria are characterized
by their
rounded or oval form, their small size, often less than 1 /i. They are ordinarily isolated, often in pairs (diplococcus), sometimes in a chain of several torula of Cohn), the myarticles (streptococcus cothrix of Hallier and Itzigsohn, or in the form of zooglma when they are young and actively multiplying, and that of mycoderma, when they are gathered upon the surface of liquids. They have no spontaneous movement, but a simple molecular
trepidation.
" The spherical bacteria are ferFunctions ments, not producing putrefaction, but substitutions of another kind " (Cohn). Obs. According to the facts observed by Koch, Cohn, Pasteur, Toussaint, upon the development of certain bacteria, it is very probable that some
:
at least of the spherobacteria are spores of Bacillus or of other bacteria

;
at least, the micrococci
and these spores are
identical in
form and
aspect.

72
The spherobacteria include only the genus Micrococcus.
g.
Micrococcus, Cohn
sphceria,
(Hallier emend.
Microdivision
Cohn, ante).
Cells colorless, or scarcely colored,
very small,
globular or oval, forming

filaments of
by transverse
two or several articles, in form of chaplet, or united in numerous cellular families, or in gelatinous masses, all deprived of movement.
The
logical
species are divided
into
three physio-
groups
a.
b.
o.
M. Chromogenes. M. Zymogenes. M. Pathogenes.

Micrococcus Chromogenes.
Section
(a)
The pigmentary bacteria grow in the state upon the surface of the substances which furnish them with nutriment. They are always alkaline all are avid of oxygen their
of Zooglcea
; ;
morphological characters are identical, and one
can only distinguish them by their different

coloring properties.
cies
According to Cohn, they are veritable spefor 1. Their pigments offer the greatest diversity as to chemical action and by spectro;
scopic analysis, etc. in the
2.
Each
species cultivated
most diverse media produces always the
same coloring matter.
73
They
are divided into two categories, accordis
ing as the pigment

1.
soluble or not in water.
Coloring matter insoluble.
M. Prodigiosus, Cohn (Monas prodigiosa, Ehrb.
Palmella
A
in
prodigiosa, Mont.
Bacteridium
prodigiosum, Schroeter).
red gelatinous mass, pink carmine, developing upon cooked alimentary substances placed
air, never before cooking. has also been observed in red milk, attributed incorrectly to lesions of the teats, etc. (Cohn).
damp
It
M.
luteus,
Cohn {Bacteridium
luteum, Schroeter).
A yellow gelatinous mass

and Cohn upon potatoes.
2.
studied
by Schroeter
Coloring matter, soluble.
M. aurantiacus, Cohn {Bacteridium auriantiacum,

Schroeter).
more or less extended, by Schroeter, upon golden yellow, slices of cooked potato; by Cohn, upon hard
Little drops, or stains,
cultivated
white of egg.
M. chlorinus, Cohn.
A glairy yellowish-green pigment found upon hard white of egg, not reddened by acids, but
loses its color.
M. cyaneus, Cohn (Bacteridium cyaneum, Schroeter).
Pigment deep
blue, observed
by
Schroeter
74

and cultivated by Cohn in solutions. This coloring matter is reddened by acids, and restored to blue by alkalies, just as that which forms when lichens are macerated in presence of ammonia.
upon cooked
potato,
nutritious
M. violaceus, Cohn (Bacteridium violaceum, Schrceter).
Violet-blue masses or glairy stains

elliptical corpuscles larger
formed of
digiosus, observed first
than those of M. proby Dr. Schneider, then
by Schroeter on cooked
Later,
potato.
Cohn has described the two following

which should be included in
new
this
species (1876),
group
M. Candidus, Cohn. Stains and points white as snow, observed upon slices of cooked potato. M.
fulvus,
Cohn.
Little rust-colored drops, consisting of cells,
globular or united in pairs, in a tenacious intercellular substance, diameter 1.5 /*, observed by Eidam, then by Kirchner, upon horse dung. It is also to the genus Micrococcus that we
rmist refer the little
globular bacteria, gifted
with movement, found by Eberth in white, yellow, and red perspiration, and by Chalvet in the pus on the edges of certain wounds, but which should not be confounded with the blue color produced by a Bacterium.
75
Section
(b):
Micrococcus Ztmogenes.
Globular bacteria producing fermentations of

diverse nature.
M. crepusculum, Cohn (Monas crepusculum,

Globular
cells, colorless,
Ehrb.).
all
developing in
in-
fusions of animal and vegetable matter under-
going decomposition.
M.
urese,
Cohn.
cells, isolated,
/a
Oval
1.2 to 2
diameter 1.5 (Cohn) or united by 2,

In urine of which
/*.
(Pasteur),
{to-
4, to 8
rula), in a line, straight, curved, zigzag, or
even
in cross form.
it
transforms
the urea into carbonate of
ammonia
(Pasteur).
Torula which appears identical with the preceding Micrococcus, produces the decomposition of hippuric acid into benzoic acid and gly-
collamine (Van Tieghem).
M. of stringy wine,
Globular
cells
etc.
of 2
/*
diameter, in chaplets,
found in stringy wine, perhaps identical with

the preceding (Pasteur).
Torulaceas quite similar
is
found in certain
fermentations of tartrate of ammonia and of
beer yeast, with or without the addition of car-
bonate of potash (Pasteur).

Section (c)
:
Micrococcus Pathogenes.
Spherical bacteria found in affections of a contagious nature.
76
M. vaccinae, Cohn (Microsphcera Vaccince, Cohn).
Very small
and
micrococci,
0.5
/4
scarcely, iso-
lated or united in pairs in recent vaccine virus

in the pus of variola pustules.
By
cultiva-
from two to eight cells may be obtained, then masses containing sixteen to thirty-two cells of 10 /4 and more diameter. The M. of vaccine virus and of variola are identical, and Cohn regards them as different races of the same species.
tion, chaplets of
M. diphtheriticus, Cohn. Granular cells, ovoid, measuring from 0.35 to to 1.1/x., isolated or more often united in twos or in a chaplet of four to six cells sometimes multiplying in colonies and extending themselves in all the diseased tissues, decomposing and destroying them (GErtel).
;
M. septicus, Cohn (Microsporon septicus, Klebs). Little rounded cells, of 0.5 /t, motionless and crowded in masses or united in chaplets, in the
secretion
of
wounds
in
cases
of
septicemia
(Klebs), in zooglcea in callous ulcers, in isolated

cells,
united in pairs, or in chaplets in the seof epidemic puerperal fever (Waldyer), in

etc.,
rum
all
the tissues, vessels,
in cases of
pyemia
and septicemia.
M. bombycis, Cohn (Mycrozyma hombycis, champ).
Cells with a diameter of 1
/4,
Be"-
ordinarily united
in chaplets of two, three, four, five, or more, in

77
the intestine of silkworms sick with " la flacherie" (Pebrine).
p.
In a more recent work, Cohn (Beitrage, 1875, 201) gives them an oval form and a diameter
fi,
of 0.5
at the outside.
Hallier has described
many
other Micrococci in
diverse contagious or virulent affections.
We
: '
will
only refer to them in a summary manner
M. of
of animals, Hallier. Small M. endowed with active movement, furnished with a very delicate caudal appendage, sometimes united in the form of little elongated rods, found in pustules, spontaneous or inoculated, in the lymphatic canals and the ganglia of animals attacked with variola.
the variola
M. of
rugeola, Hallier.
colorless M.,
Very small
having often a caudal
prolongation, in the sputa and blood of the sick.
M. of
scarlatina, Hallier.
M., free or in colonies, on the surface or in the interior of the blood corpuscles, or in
chains.
M. of
epidemic diarrhoea, Hallier.

vibrios,
cells,
M. in intestinal matters with and monads. (?)

1
"It
is
quite probable that Hallier comprises, in part, under the
same organisms that I call spherical bacteria but the doctrine of Hallier concerning Micrococcus, as has already been pointed out by Hoffmann and de Barry, is so covered by inexact assertions and improbable hypotheses, that it is impossible to draw any conCohn, Beit. II, p. 148. clusions from the facts he has observed."
name
of Micrococcus the
78
M. of exantkematous typhus, Hallier. M. relatively large, brown having a rapid

1
movement, sometimes in chains (Mycothrix), in

the blood.
M. of
intestinal typhus, Hallier.

;
M. very small, in repose in the blood larger,, endowed with active motions, and furnished
with contractile appendices in the dejections.
M. of
glanders, Ziirn.
Cells free or attached to the blood globules, or
even penetrating into their interior, sometimes M. in in chains (Mycothrix) in the blood. chains, very numerous, and endowed with rapid movements, in the lymphatic ganglia, the mucus of the frontal sinuses, and in the chancroid
ulcers.
M. of
syphilis, Hallier.
colorless, free or in globules, in
M. numerous,
gonorrhoea, the primitive ulcer, and the blood of
persons suffering from constitutional syphilis.
Monads.
Beside the Spherobacteria are placed the Monads, not the organisms described
under
this
name
micro-
by the
phytes,
older
spores,
microscopists,
comprising
animals,
and
infusorial
but the
Monas
day.
sides
as understood
by
botanists of the present
Thus limited, the Monads include also, besome microphytes related to the Spherobacteria, and differing from them by their greater dimensions, some organisms of doubtful affinities.
79
As in the case of the Micrococci it is very probable that the Monads are only the spores, or
lower forms of bacteria higher in the
places the
scale.
Cohn
ru-
Monas vinosa
of
Ehrenberg with the
Clathrocystis roseopersicina,
Cohn (Bacterium
it
bescens, Ray-Lank.), considering

latter.
a spore of the
Monas
vinosa, Ehrb.
/x,
Cells spherical, oval, regular, of 2.5
often united
in pairs, formed of a pink substance with granules of
a deeper color, having spontaneous movements. Hab., waters containing decomposing vegetable matters (Ehrb. 1838, Ch. Morren 1841, Perty 1852, Cohn
1875).
M.
Okenii, Ehrb.
Cells cylindrical; average length 7 to 15 fi (Cohn), (Warming), 10 fM (Ehrb.), sometimes from 60 to 80 red color, having beautiful a rapid of a diameter 5 /x gyratory movement, with a cilium at the posterior extremity or two cilia at the two extremities. Hab., stagnant water (Ehrb. 1836, Eichwald, Weiss, Cohn,
//.
;
etc.).
M. Warmingii, Cohn.
extremities some
Cell cylindrical, pink, containing at deep-red granules
fi,
its
;
two rounded
length 15 to
20
of
width 8
cilium.
fi
movement
uncertain, having a vi-
bratile
Hab., brackish water on the coast
Norway (Warming).
M.
gracilis,
Warming.
cylindrical, pink,
;
Cells straight,
two extremities length 60 /z, thickness 2 ment slow. Hab., fresh water.
rounded at the movefi

;
80

rosea, Cohn.
;
Rhabdomonas
Cells pale pink, isolated, fusiform
eight times as
long as broad, having a length of 20 to 30 /a, and a width of 3.8 to 5 fi; having a slow oscillatory movement, the pink substance containing numerous granSab., stagnant ules of darker color and vacuoles.
water.
Ophidomonas sanguinea, Ehrb.

Cells pale
pink, spiral, rigid,
movement
active
thickness 3
/a,
length of one turn of the spiral, 9 to
12
fj,.
Sab., brackenish waters of
Denmark (Warm-
ing).
Spiromonas Cohnii, Wanning.

Cells spiral, flattened
to 3.5
fi,
;
1 turn of
spiral,
diam. 1.2
width 1.2 to 4
jj,.
Sab'., coast of
Denmark.
2.
MlCROBACTERIA, Cohn.
Rod-bacteria, cells cylindrical, short, having spon-
taneous movement.
A single
g.
genus,
Bacterium.
or elliptical, free or united
Bacterium,
Duj. emend.
Cells cylindrical
in pairs during their division, rarely in fours,
never in chains (leptothrix or torula), sometimes in zooglaia (differing from the Z. of spherical B. by a more abundant and firmer intercellular substance), having spontaneous movements, oscillatory and very active, especially in media rich in alimentary material and in presence of oxygen.
;;
81
We
might, as in the Spherobacteria, divide

:
the rod -bacteria into three groups

teria of putrefaction,
1.
the bac-
B. termo, B.
;
lineola,
and
their varieties
2.
the Bacteria of the lactic and

3.
acetic fermentations, etc. of colored milk
Chromogenes, B.
and pus.
(
B. termo, Ehrb. 1830, Duj.

ex. p. 1838;
Vibrio lineola, Ehrb.
Monas
termo, Miiller).
Cells cylindrical, slightly swollen in the middle,

isolated,
sometimes united in
;
pairs,
/j.,
two
to five times
as long as wide
1.8
fi
;
length 2 to 3
oscillatory.
thickness 0.6 to
movements
Appears at the end of a very short time in infusions of animal and vegetable substances multiplies with rapidity in numerous zoogloza ; then disappears as other species, to which it According serves as nutriment, are developed.
all
to recent observations, this bacterium has cilia
(Dallinger, Drysdale, Warming).

also
Warming
has
found it in the state of torula. B. termo is the veritable agent, the first cause, of putrefaction, it is the true ferment saprogene
(Cohn).
M. "Warming
has recently described two allied forms

cells larger,
/*,
B. griseum,
B. littoreum,
length 2 to 6
more rounded
length 2.5 to 4
thickness 1.8 to 2.5 p.
In infusions of fresh and
salt water.
cells elliptical or elongated, slightly
rounded
^,
thickness 1.2 to 2.4 p.
Coasts of Denmark.
B. lineola,
Cohn
Duj., Miiller,
ex p., V. tremulans, Ehrb., Bacterium

(
Vibrio
lineola,
Ehrb.
triloculare, Ehrb).
82

Cells cylindrical, straight, rarely a little twisted, larger than the cells of B. termo, isolated or united
in pairs, sometimes in
3.8 to 5.25
/a,
fours,
never more
/j, ;
length
thickness attains 1.25
movements
like those of B. termo,
but a
little
more
active.
Is
found in various vegetable and animal
in-
fusions of fresh or salt water, often takes the
form
their
in the
of zooglcea containing motionless rods in
mucus
form
substance.
Warming has met

is
it
of chains
Its
composed
of eight to ten
cells (torula).
protoplasm
dotted with re-
fractive granules.
It is not known whether B. lineola constitutes a specific ferment (Cohn).
The B. fusiform, Warming,

the form of
ities
;
differs
from the preceding by

plasma not punc-
its
body, which
ft,
is
attenuated at the two extrem;
length 2 to 5
width 0.5 to 0.8 ^
tated.
Beside these species, which have been well studied, may be placed the following, which
demand new
investigations
B. punctum, Ehrb.
Elongated rods, oval,
colorless,
having slow
movements,
length 5.2
/a,
oscillating, often
united in pairs;
thickness 1.7
/a.
Diverse infusions
of animal substances.
B. catenula, Duj.
Body
filiform,
cylindrical,
;
often
united
/x,,
in
three, four, or five

0.4 to 0.5
/jl.
length 3 to 4
thickness
fe-
In fetid infusions, in typhoid
ver (Coze and Feltz).

Vibrio
lactic,
83
Pasteur.
almost globular, very short, a little swollen at the extremities; length of an article,
1.6
/u,,
"Articles
of a series, 50
//,."
This vibrio seems to resemble B. catenula or B. termo. It is developed, according to Pasteur, in sweetened liquids, where it causes the formation of lactic acid and the coagulation of the casein of milk. According to other researches, coagulation of casein results from the influence of a soluble ferment (zymase), and not from an organized ferment.
Acetic ferment {Mycoderma

aceti, Ktg.).
aceti, Pasteur,
Ulvina
" Articles short, constricted, two to three times as long as broad length 1.5 /u,, often united in long chains, forming pellicles on the surface of a liquid."
;
very similar to the preIt must not be confounded with the ceding. Mycoderma vini, which may develop in the same media, but which is a fungus of the group
This species
is
also
of Saccharomycetes.
The acid fermentation of

due
to a
beer seems to be form of Bacterium resembling B. termo

little
(Cohn), but a
larger than the type.
Cohn
has found
teria,
it
in beer undergoing acid fermenta-
tion, beside oval
saccharomyces, elliptical bachaving movement, often united in pairs,
rarely in fours, etc.
Vibrio tartaric right (Pasteur).

Bacteria similar to those of the lactic fermentation,
PLATE
From
IV.
Macmillan
Sf Co.,
" Pasteur's Studies on Fermentation."
London, 1879.
"The engraving represents the different diseased ferments, together with some cells of alcoholic yeast, to show the relative size of these organisms."
Fig. 1 represents the ferments of turned beer, as it is called. These are filaments, simple or articulated into chains of different size, and having a diameter of about the thousandth part of a millimetre (about ^ i o oo inch). Under a very high power they are seen to be composed of many series of shorter filaments, immovable in their articulations, which are scarcely visible. In No. 2 are given the lactic ferments of wort and beer. These are and contracted in their middle. They are generally detached, but sometimes occur in chains of two or three. Their diameter is a little greater than that of No. 1.
small, fine,
In No. 3 are given the ferments of putrid wort or beer. These are mobile filaments, whose movements are more or less rapid, according to the temperature. Their diameter varies, but is for the most part greater than that of the filaments of Nos. 1 and 2. They generally appear at the commencement of fermentation, when it is slow, and are almost invariably the results of very defective working.
In No. 4 are given the ferments of viscous wort, and those of ropy beer, which the French csdl Jilante. They form chaplets of nearly spherical grains. These ferments rarely occur in wort, still less frequently in beer.
No. 5 represents the ferments of pungent, sour beer, which possesses an acetic odor. These ferments occur in the shape of chaplets, and consist of the mi/coderma aceti, which bears a close resemblance to lactic ferments (No. 2), especially in the early stages of development. Their physiological functions are widely different, in spite of this similarity.
The ferments given in No. 7 characterize beer of a peculiar acidity, which reminds one more or less of unripe, acid fruit, with an odor sui generis. These ferments occur in the form of grains which resemble little spherical points, placed two together or forming squares. They are generally found with the filaments of No. 1, and are more to be feared than the latter, which cause no very great deterioration in the quality of beer, when alone. When No. 7 is present, by itself or with No. 1, the beer acquires a sour taste and smell that render it detestable. We have met with this ferment existing in beer unaccompanied by other ferments, and have been convinced of its fatal effects.
No. 6 represents one of the deposits belonging to wort. not be confounded with the deposits of diseased ferments.
This must
The
latter
are always visibly organized, whilst the former is shapeless, although it would not always be easy to decide between the two characters, if several samples of both descriptions were not present. This shapeless deposit
from
it.
Among the shapeless granules of No. 6 may be discerned little spheres of different sizes and perfect regularity. These are balls of resinous and coloring matter that are frequently found in old beer at the bottom of bottles and casks. They resemble organized products, but are nothing of the kind.
interferes with wort during its cooling. It is generally absent beer, because it remains in the backs or on the coolers, or it may get entangled in the yeast during fermentation, and disappear with
Plate
IV.
Beliotypc Printing Co.. Bostor

with globular articles, short chains of 50 fi.
;
85
united in
diameter 1
/x,
Decomposes racemic
tartaric acid.
acid, causing
the right
tartaric acid to disappear,
and
setting free left
MlCROBACTEEIA ChROMOGENES.
B. xanthinum, Schrceter ( Vibrio synxanthus, Ehrb.).

" Bodies cylindrical, slightly flexible, formed of corpuscles rarely exceeding five in
an
it
article, 0.7 to 1 p.
number length of In tainted cow's milk, to which

;
gives a yellow color."
B. syncyanum, Schrceter ( Vibrio syncyanus, Ehrb.). This Bacterium, which has the same characters as the preceding, has been observed in sour milk, to which it gives a blue color. B. oeruginosum, Schrceter. In greenish blue pus. These B. chromogenes resemble entirely the According lactic vibrios, B. termo or catenula. to Robin, colored milk contains colorless vibrios, and the coloration is due to an alga similar to
Leptomitus.
B. brunneum, Schrceter.
Rods
in a
brown coloring matter
in infusions
of rotten corn.
Following the colored Microbacteria, I place
two species of Bacterium recently described by Ray-Lankester and Warming.

B. rubescens, Ray-Lank., 1873. Under this name Ray-Lankester has
described

86
some phases of development of Clathrocystis roseopersicina of Cohn. Now Cohn is inclined to regard the Monas vinosa, Ehrb. as the wandering cells of On the other hand Warming has deClathrocystis.
scribed his
:
B. sulfuratum, Warming, 1876, giving
it
for synonymes,
Monas vinosa, Ehrb.; M. erubescens, Ehrb.; M. WarmIt follows, ingii, Cohn; RTiabdomonas rosea, Cohn. then, that the Monas which we have described with
the Spherobaeteria should be referred to a Bacterium
called sulphuratum
identical with
by Warming, but which B. rubescens of Ray-Lankester.

3.
is
also
Desmobacteria.
Filiform bacteria, composed of elongated cylindrical articles, isolated, or in
chains
more
or less
extended, resulting from transverse division.
Un-
der this form they correspond to leptothrix, Auct. (differing from torula in that the filaments are not
constricted at the point of junction of the articulations) filaments sometimes united in swarms, Movements and state of renever in zooglma. pose alternating and depending upon the presence or absence of oxygen, the reaction of the medium, and other conditions unknown. Some forms never exhibit movement. Bacteridie of Davaine (Cohn). We will only preserve in the Desmobacteria the genus Bacillus, Cohn. The vibrios are rather allied to Spirillum because of their undulating filaments.
;
However,
after the
exposition of the different

will
species of Bacillus,
we
say something of three
genera of colorless
oscillatoriaceae,
which are nearly

related to them,
87
the
Leptothrix, Beggiatoa, and
Crenothrix.
1.
Fil.
with indistinct articulations
Fil.
very slender, short

very slender, long
Fil.
Fil. thick,
2.
broad
Fil. articulated distinctly
.... .... ....
Bacillus. Leptothrix.
Beggiatoa. Crenothrix.
g. Bacillus, Cohn.
The
bacilli are characterized
by slender
fila-
ments, straight, short or of moderate length, rigid or flexible, endowed or not with motion.
chromogene, the B. ruber of to this genus that we should refer the Amylobacter of Trecul.
species
is
One
Cohn.
Finally it
is
B. subtilis,
Cohn {Vibrio
subtilis,
Ehrb.; Ferment
butyrique, Pasteur).
Filaments very slender and elongated, formed of a

single cell having usually a length of 6
articles of
/x,
or of
fi,
two
which the
/a),
total length is then' 12
or of
three (length 16
or of a greater
number (some-
with a total length of 40 to 60 and 130 /x) thickness not measurable, well-defined movements of flexion, active or passive, and of transreproduction by fission lation forward or backward and by globular or oval spores developing themselves in the interior of the articles (Cohn). Is found in
times as
as twenty,
; ;
many
stagnant water.
Plays a great role in the butyric fermentation

(Pasteur).
This B. exists in rennet, can support
a temperature of 105, and live in a medium deprived of free oxygen, in which case it takes
a form cephalee, containing persistent spores,
88
which,
when
set free, give birth to other rods
of Bacillus (Cohn).
B. anthracis,
vaine).
Cohn (Bacteridie charbonneuse, Da-
Species very similiar to the preceding, generally
longer and always motionless length 4 to 12 and even 50 p, thickness, scarcely appreciable, 0.8 to
;
14
jx
(Bollinger).
The
B.
anthracis
is
developed in charbon
(malignant pustule of man, sang de rate of sheep, maladie de sang of cattle, fievre charbonneuse of horses), and in the rabbit, the rat,
etc.
;
never in the dog, the cat, the birds, and coldblooded animals. It is found above all in the Cultivated in suitable media, capillary vessels. such as the aqueous humor of the eye of the ox, the Bacillus of anthrax develops spores in the interior of its filaments, which may germinate and reproduce rods (Koch). According to recent observations not yet published, by cultivating the B. Anthracis in the blood of the dog, a development of veritable sporangia may be obtained, containing from
three to six spores (Toussaint).
B. amylobacter,
Van Tieghem (Amylobacter,

Tre"cul).
TJro-
cephalum and Clostridium

forms,
B. occurring, like the preceding, under various in pointed cylindrical filaments of 6.6 to
26 /a in length and 1.1 //, in thickness, or in form of tadpole, with a spore in the terminal swelling, or of a spindle, with a spore in the middle. In fact, it
does not differ from B.
subtilis,
except by the appear-

ance of starch in
its
89
period of multiplication.
protoplasm at the end of the These B. are sometimes endowed with movement (Nylander).
It
develops in vegetable tissues, which

putrefaction,
fall
into
spontaneously according to
Tre'cul, or
anism
of
introduced from without by a mechunknown. This is the essential agent vegetable putrefaction (Van Tieghem).
still
(
B. ulna, Cohn
one,
Vibrio bacillus, Ehrb.).

rigid,
Filaments articulated, thick, and
two
to four articles, straight or
formed of broken in zig-
length of an article 10 fi, length of a filament of four articles 42 fi ; slow movements of rotation and
zag
of progression.
Develops in various infusions of fresh or salt In certain cultivations, Cohn has seen large globules (spores ?) form in the protoplasm. Warming believes that he has seen cilia.
water.
B. ruber, Cohn.
Long rods, isolated or movement very active
united in two or four,

in a red
stance, vermillion, developed
mucous subupon grains of rice.
Observed by Franck and Cohn.

Bacteridies,
Davaine has described five additional species of which appear to be bacilli. They are
:
La
Bacteridie intestinal.
Filaments straight, thick from 10 to 40 fi in length. In the intestines of birds.
La
B.
du
levain.
fi,
Filaments slender and short, of 10 to 20
divided
90

into two, sometimes three to four articles, identical
with the B. of charbon (Davaine).
La
B. glaireuse.
Filaments extremely slender, straight or elbowed
in length.
attaining 10
/*
La
B. du vin towmi.
Filaments very slender, of variable length,
flexible,
indistinctly articulated.
La B.
des infusions.
/*.
Filaments of 10 to 20
g.
In various infusions.
Leptothrix, Ktz.
The Leptothrip
der,
differ
from Bacilli by their
filaments being very long, adherent, very slen-
and
indistinctly articulated.
Their forms are numerous.

are the principal
:
The
following
L. rigidula, Ktz.
Length 100 to 150 /*, diameter 1.3 to 1.9/*. stagnant water, adherent to other vegetables.
L. crcespitosa, Ktz.
In
Length 100 humid rocks.
to 200
/*,
diameter 2.4 to 2.8
/*.
Upon
L. brevissima, Ktz.
Length 75 to 100 nant water.

L. pusilla, Rabh.
/*,
diameter 2.7 to 3.5
/*.
In stag-
Length 60
to 70
/*,
diameter 0.5 to 0.6
/*.
L. parasitica, Ktz.
Length 90
to
150
ji,
diameter 1
/*.
L. radians Ktz., and L. spissa, Rabh.

Parasites
upon marine
algse.

g.
91
Beggiatoa, Trev.
ter, rigid,
Filaments very slender, surrounded by mucous mathaving oscillatory movements. Protoplasm
white, enclosing numerous granules, which recent

observations have demonstrated to be crystalline sul-
phur (Cramer, Cohn).
The Beggiatoa are found most abundantly in thermal sulphur waters,. where they constitute flocculi, which have been named Glairine, Baregine. They often live in water not containing free oxygen. They play a great role in the elimination of sulphur and the disengagement of sulphuretted hydrogen in thermal waters. Their principal species are
:
B.
alba,
Trev.
A whitish mucous mass enclosing colorless filaments,

having a diameter of 3.5 to 4 stagnant waters.
B. arachnoidea, Rabh.
Flocculi very minute,
as broad,
fi.
In most thermal and
snow
5.4 to 7
//,.
white, filaments as long In the thermal waters of
Europe.
B.
nivea,
species, living in the
Rabh. B. leptomitiformis, Trev., nearly related same conditions.

;
Cohn and Warming have

B. mirabilis, Cohn,
to
also described
measuring 20
articles scarcely flexible,
40
p.
B. minima, Warming, a very small

length 40
/*,
species,
very flexible
thickness 1.8 to 2 p.
4.
Spirobacteria.
This tribe includes the bacteria with undulating

filaments, or filaments in spirals,
more or
less de-
92
veloped, from the Vibrio rugula, which only presents a single curve in
of Spirillum
its
centre, to certain species
which have numerous turns of the spiral. In several species, cilia, or a flagellum, have recently been observed. We divide them into three genera
:
Fil. short, slightly sinuous

Fil. short, spiral, rigid
Fil. long, spiral, flexible
.... ....
Vibrio. Spirillum.
Spirochete.
g. Vibrio, Auct. emend.
Body
lated,
filiform,
more
or less distinctly articu-
having serpentine movements. This genus forms the transition between the Desmobacteria and Spirillum "from which it cannot be separated " (Warming).
always
undulating,
Fil. thick, with a single
Fil. slender,
curve
...
.
with several undulations
V. rugula. V. serpens.
V. rugula, Miiller (V.

ture, feeble
lineola, Duj. ex parte).
Filament presenting in its centre a single curvabut distinct length 8 to 16 /u.. The shortest are slightly curved (= 6 Warming), the larger, which may attain 17.6 fi (Cohn), 35 /a (Warm.), are about to divide. Movements of rotation more or of progression less rapid around their longer axis forward, giving then the idea of a serpentine movement: having a cilium (Warming).
; fx,
;
V. rugula
is
infusions, in deposits
tinal
commonly found in swarms, in upon the teeth, in intesdis-
matters (Leewenhoeck), in choleraic
charges (Pouchet).
93
V. serpens,
Miiller.
less in
Filament one half
ceding, rigid, annulate, having
diameter than the pretwo or three regular

;
undulations, at least two in the shortest height of one turn of the undulations 8 to 12 /j,, diameter 1 to
3
fj,,
total length
11 to 25
/m,
thickness 0.7
fi
move-
ments analogous ium (Warm.).
to those of B. subtilis ; having a cil-
In numerous swarms in infusions, river water,

etc.
g. Spirochaete, Ehrb.
S. plicatilis,
Ehrb.
Filament not extensible, twisted in a long helix,

flexible,
the turns of the spiral near together
suscep-
tible of twisting
upon
its
axis
and
of
p.
an undulatory
movement
total length
;
130 to 200
Rare species
sea-water, etc.
S. Obermeieri,
in infusions, stagnant water,
Cohn.
Does not differ from the preceding, either in size, conformation, or in its movements, but by its habitat and physiological peculiarities.
In the blood of persons attacked by recurrent

fever (Obermeier, 1872, Weigert, Bisch-Hirschfeld, etc.)
during the period of access, never
during the remission.

S. gigantea,
Warming.
Found upon
the coasts of
Den-
mark
thickness of body, 3 p, height of spiral 25 p, diam-
eter 7 to 9 p.
; ;
94
g.

Spirillum, Ehrb.
Filament spiral, rigid; turns of and regular.

S. tenue,
spiral
short
Ehrb.
Filament slightly tortuous, three to four turns of the spiral length and diameter of a single turn, 2 to 3 fi. When the filament has a turn and a half, it resembles an fl the filaments of two to five turns have a length of 4 to 15 /a spiral movement very rapid.
;
;
In infusions,
S. undula,
etc.
Ehrb. (Vibrio prolifer, Ehrb.)
Filament larger, turns of the spiral wider apart (from 3 to 5 /a) having usually one half a turn to one full turn, rarely one and a half, two, or three length 8 to 10 fi, breadth 5 /x, thickness of filament 1.3 fi having a very rapid spiral movement.
; ;
Fetid animal and vegetable infusions and running water.
The
color.
S. rufum, Pertz only differs from this
by
its
reddish
S. volutans,
Ehrb.
Filament large and thick, turns of spiral regular,

well separated, and 13
in height
number
of turns
two, three, and three and a half, rarely six and seven total length 25 to 30 ft, thickness 1.5 fi, breadth 6.6 fi;
movement sometimes
(Cohn, Warming).
rapid, sometimes motionless a well-defined ciliurn, already seen by Ehrenberg
found in vegetable and animal infusions, in sea-water, and in

This giant of the bacteria
is
fresh water.
FromMicr.Jourrr.Vol.XlH.lfS
P1V
A-MeiseUitli..
PLATE
From
Fig.
1.
V.
" Microscopical Journal."
Micrococcus
prodigiosus
(Monas
prodigiosa, Ehr.).
;
Spherical
the other
this
bacteria of the red pigment, aggregated in pairs and in fours

one.
pigment bacteria are not distinguishable with the microscope from
Micrococcus vaccinal. Fig. 2. Spherical bacteria, from pock-lymph in a state of growth, aggregated in short four to eight-jointed straight or bent chains, and forming also irregular cell-masses. Fig. 3. Zoogloea-form of micrococcus, pellicles or mucous strata characterized by granule-like closely set spherules. Fig. 4. Rosary chain (Torula-form) of Micrococcus urece, from the
urine. Rosary-chain and yeast-like cell-masses from the white deFig. posit of a solution of sugar of milk which had become sour. Saccharomyces (Cryptococcus Fersen.), a pulluFig.
5. 6.
glutinis
glutinis,
lating yeast potatoes.
which forms beautiful rose-colored patches on cooked
Bacterium-pellicle, formed by rod-shaped bacteria arranged Fig. one against the other in a linear fashion, from the surface of sour beer. Bacterium free motile form. Fig. Zoogloea-form of B. Fig. Motile filamentous Bacteria, with a spherical, or Fig. highly refringent " head," perhaps developed from gonidia. Bacillus short cylinders and longer, very Fig. motile filaments, some of which are in process of Bacillus single segments and longer threads, some Fig.
10.
Sarcina spec * from the blood of a healthy man,** from the Fig. 7. surface of a hen's egg grown over with Micrococcus luteus, forming yellow patches. Bacterium termo, free motile form. Fig. 8. Zoogloea-form of Bacterium termo. Fig. 9.
11. 12.
lineola,
lineola.
13.
elliptical
14.
subtilis,
flexible
division.
15.
ulna,
breaking up into segments.

Fig. 16. Fig.
bits,
Vibrio rugula, single or in process of division.
17.
Vibrio serpens, longer or shorter threads,
some dividing
into
at* two threads entwined.

tenue,
Fig. 18. Fig. 19. Fig. 20. Fig. 21. Fig. 22.
" Swarm " of the threads Spirillum single and felted into " swarms.'' Spirillum undula. Spirillum volutans* two twisted around one another. Spirochmte
V. serpens,
felted.
spirals
plicatilis.
lens No. IX. of
All the figures were drawn by Dr. Ferdinand Cohn with the immersion Hartnack Ocular III., representing a magnifying power
of 650 diameters.
96

M. Warming
has recently described three
:
found upon the coast of Denmark

Sp. violaceum, height 8 to 10
;
new
species
p,
diameter 1 to 1.5
p, thick-
ness 3 to 4 p a cilium at each extremity. Sp. Rosenlergii, height of helix 6 to 7.5 p, thickness 1.5 to
2.6 p.
<S^>.
attenuation,
body very attenuated
at the
two extrem-
ities,
without a cilium.
We
g.
give below some details concerning the

:
other colorless Schizophytes

Sarcina, Goods.
The Sarcina, which

here, can be
it
is
useless to describe
considered as bacteria in which
the division occurs by two perpendicular partitions
in
such a manner that multiplication

is
takes place in two directions.
Sarcina
very nearly
it
allied to
Merismopedia,
of
from which
chlorophyll
;
only differs by the absence

siliceous skeleton allies it
its
with
the diatoms.
g. Ascococcus, Billr.
Cells
hyaline, small,
globular, closely united
in
globular or oval families, irregularly lobed and lobulated,
surrounded by a thick gelatinous envelope,
cartilaginous, forming a soft
membrane,
flaky, easily
separating.
A.
Billrothi,
Cohn.
Families in masses of 20 to 160 p, surrounded by a thick membrane of 15 p.
In a solution of tartaric acid exposed to the

g. Myconostoc,
air.
Cohn.
Filaments very slender, colorless, folded, rolled up in a mucous substance, united in very small globules.
97
M.
gregarium, Cohn.
Unique
infusion.
species
found on the surface of
putrefying
g. Cladothrix,
Cohn.
Filaments in form of leptothrix, very slender, colorless, not articulated, rigid or a little undulating, falsely diehotomous.
Gl. dichotoma,
Cohn.
In foul water.
g. Streptothrix,
Cohn.
Filaments in form of leptothrix, very slender, colorless, not articulated, straight or slightly spiral, a little branched.
Sir. Farsteri,
Cohn.
In concretions in the lachrymal canal of man.
PLATE
From photo-micrographs made
produced by permission of
Fig.
1.
VI.
Re-
in
the
Havana and New Orleans. National Board of Health.
ana, Sept. 1879.

2.
Spirochmte From foul bilge-water, Havobjective. X 1,450 by Zeiss's Vibrios from water of harbor, Havana, near discharge Fig. of sewer, Aug., 1879. X 1,450 diameters by Zeiss's ^ objective. Sarcina From standing water in flower-vase, Fig.
(plicatile?).
-fa
in.
in.
3.
(sp. ?).
Lafayette cemetery,
1880. 400 diameters by Beck's \ in. objective. From foul gutter-water, New Fig. 4. Spirillum (volutans ?). Orleans, May, 1880. 600 diameters.
New Orleans, April,
Plate
VI.
Fig.
4.
PART SECOND.
CHAPTER
I.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE BACTERIA.

The
bacteria are
now known
:
to us
from a mor-
proceed to study the life of these microscopic beings ; first, from a general point of view, that is to say, by studying their functions of nutrition and reproduction,
let us
phological point of view
independently of the special characters impressed upon these functions by certain media; then by
considering the relations which are established between the bacteria and the particular media in which they may be developed. The bacteria are of all beings the most widely diffused. We meet them everywhere, in the air, in water, upon the surface of solid bodies, in the interior of plants and animals. If we expose
a transparent liquid containing traces of organic substances, we find after a short time that it has
become clouded, and the microscope shows us that

it
contains myriads of these beings.
What
is
the source of these organisms so widely
disseminated, and which develop so rapidly?
This
PLATE
VII.
Dissemination of the Bactekia.
in New Orleans. Copied by permission of the National Board of Health. salt
Spirillum (Sp.?) from water of marsh., near Salem, 400 diameters by Beck's \ objective. Bacteria water (see note on page 107). X 1,000 diameters by Zeiss's fa objective. Fig. Leptothrix buccalis, from human mouth. X 1,000 diameters by Zeiss's fa objective. Bacteria from human Fig. X 1,500 diameters by
Fig. Mass. Fig.
1.
in.
2.
in distilled
in.
3.
epithelial- cell, etc.,

in.
4.
fceces.
Zeiss's fa in. objective.
Plate
VII.
7 f-4-*?&? &.
'
DEVELOPMENT OF THE BACTEKIA.

is
101
the
first
question which presents
itself,
a ques-
tion which has given rise to long discussions, in
the examination of which
we
shall only enter in
order to give a short historical statement.
1.
Origin
is
of the Bacteria.
The
origin of the bacteria, as of all the other
inferior organisms,
:
manners 1. For some, these organisms are produced by heterogenesis ; that is to say, by creation outright from mineral or organic substances (spontaneous
generation).
2.
conceived in three different
individuals like themselves,
According to others, they come directly from by one of the known

of generation,
it
is
modes
3.
fission, spores, etc.
Finally
believed that they are derived

existing,
from organisms already
and are nothing

of developlife
more than different states or phases ment of known species, of which the
not yet discovered.
cycle
is
examine the latter hypothesis, which is called polymorphism, when we what constitutes speak of the phenomena of reproduction. As to the two first, we will content ourselves with indicating the late works which have appeared for and against each; insisting above all upon the facts which relate to the proof of the presence of bacteria or their germs in the air, water, and
will
We
liquids or tissues of the
human
organism,
blood,
urine, etc.
102
Pougiven chet and of his pupils, and the arguments by MM. Tre'cul and Fremy, the last facts invoked in favor of heterogenesis are due to MM. Onimus,
Heterogenesis.
of
Since the experiments
Servel, Bastian, etc.
M. Onimus contends that the " proto-organisms
may be
born in media, protected against the air, which contain albuminoid substances." M. Martin sustains an analogous idea. According to him, the bacteria are derived from protein granules. According to Neusch, bacteria are produced in the interior of animal or vegetable cells without any lesion and without coming from the air. To demonstrate this he plunges divers fruits under water, in saline or acid liquids (phosphates, sulphates, carbonate of potassa, etc.), and he finds
there bacteria;
but, according to him, these are
not living organisms, properly so called, but ab-
normal cellular vegetations. M. Servel, decapitating some guinea-pigs, caused the heads, the livers, and the kidneys to fall into At the end a solution of chromic acid, 1 to 100. of several days, the superficial parts were hard : ened but the centre was softened, and filled with
;
bacteria.
The presence
of
bacteria in eggs has several
times been verified, and the favor of their theory.
heterogenists have
hastened to draw an argument from this fact in
M. Gayon explains the appearance of these organisms in the eggs of birds by their presence in the normal state in the
oviducts.
103
Finally, Bastian, having succeeded in obtaining
bacteria in liquids which he believes deprived of
every germ, believes in their spontaneous generation. The following is a resume of his experiment Normal acid urine is brought to the boilingpoint, then a solution of potash (in sufficient quantity to neutralize the volume of urine employed) is also brought to the boiling-point after cooling, the two liquids are mixed, and the whole placed in an oven at 50. At the end of two or three
;
days, bacteria are developed.
Pasteur points out three causes of error in the
experiment of Bastian 1. The germs may come from the urine 2. The germs may come from the
:
solution
of
potash
3.
The germs may be
fur-
nished by the vessels employed in the experiment.
In support of this criticism, Pasteur has made some similar experiments, guarding against these causes
of error,
and has not obtained
bacteria.
Dissemination op Bacteria in Air and Water.

Air. The experiment of Pasteur for gathering He fixes a atmospheric germs is well known. window-blind. glass tube in an aperture made in a
The extremity
with the open
of
the tube, which communicates

closed with a plug of cotton,
is
air, is
to the other extremity
attached an aspirator.
When
filled
the air has filtered through the cotton for

this is
some hours,
examined, and
is
found to be
with germs.
104
Before Pasteur, Ehrenberg and G. de Claubry had already announced the presence in the air of the eggs of infusoria. Robin had also recognized that the atmosphere contains, in addition to all
sorts of
insects,
debris, .spores, pollen-grains, portions of
and rarely the eggs of, infusoria. More recently Maddox and Cunningham, by the aid of an aeroscope invented by the former, gathered
numerous microbes, as well as bacteroid particles. Tyndall, by causing a ray of light to enter a darkened chamber, has rendered visible all these minute corpuscles. His researches show that the optical examination of air enables us to determine in an exact manner the presence or absence of germs. Let us also mention the experiments recently made by Miquel in the park of Montsouris. This observer has found in the atmosphere a considerable number of germs. For the forms of which the diameter exceeds 2 fi, he has ascertained that " the average number of microbes in the air is feeble in winter and augments rapidly in spring,
etc.
;
2.
of these microbes;
That rain always diminishes the number 3. That rain-water introduced
with the greatest precautions, into flasks with slender curved necks, first heated to destroy germs, rarely contains rotifers, etc., but always contains
bacteria."
En
tion.
resume, the existence of germs can be dem1,
onstrated,
by
direct research
and
2,
by
cultiva-
Direct research
may
be made by the optical

of Tyndall), the
examination of the
air
(method
105
microscopic examination of dust (method followed
by Marie-Davy,
particles obtained
Tissandier), the examination
of
by filtration, by gathering germs with an aeroscope, by condensation of atmospheric moisture upon refrigerating vases., etc. The cultivations consist in exposing to the air which
is
to
be examined some liquids in which all pre-existing germs have been destroyed (Pasteur, Tyndall, etc.). This method has shown that liquids exposed in an atmosphere deprived of all germs does not undergo putrefaction, but this occurs as soon as the access of air not deprived of germs is permitted (Tyndall). All of these methods give concordant results; deposits containing germs of various kinds are always obtained. But this objection presents itself
to the
mind
Do
the bacteria obtained

?
by
cultiva-
tion exist in the atmosphere
or do they
come
from germs which have developed rapidly upon

finding a favorable
medium ?
Prom
the experi-
Cohn, Miquel, etc., it is known that the atmosphere contains very few adult bacteria. Miquel in a recent communication says, in effect, that bacteria are rarely found in the air in a complete state, but rather under the form of shining points, difficult to distinguish directly one species from
ments
of
another.
Are not these
brilliant points
Micrococci?
spores,
speaking of the reproduction of the bacteria, develop at a certain

shall see in
In other terms, the organisms which, as
air contains
permanent
we
period of the existence of the adult forms, in their

interior,
which escape from the sporogenous
fila-
106
ment, are drawn into the air by the evaporation of the liquid containing them, or, after dessication, by the winds. These spores are the point of departure of epidemic foci, and their extreme lightness explains how readily they are" disseminated by the
winds.
Water.
Water contains considerable quantities

and especially of germs.
is
of bacteria
Their pres-
ence in atmospheric water
established
experiments of Lemaire and Gratiolet^
them by more recent

densers
filled
observers,
by means
and
by the
after
of con-
with
ice,
and placed in the
fields
and
for comparison in closed apartments.
Rindfleisch
has since expressed the opinion that the vapor of water does not contain spores or bacteria, and that telluric waters alone contain them but Billroth, Cohn, and others have proved that Rindfleisch was
;
too positive in his statement.

It is
not surprising that telluric waters contain
such a quantity of bacteria that their existence is admitted by all. The dust gathered upon the surface of stones, of leaves, of fruits, etc., shows
upon
microscopic examination an abundance of germs (Marie"-Davy, Tissander) ; the washing of these

objects and of the soil
by the
rain transports
rivers to
them
into the rivers
and from the
the sea,
which contains considerable quantities of them. Thus, a drop of water from the Seine, according to Pasteur and Joubert, is always fecund, and may
give birth to several species of bacteria.
tilled
The
dis-
water of laboratories also contains germs, and
DEVELOPMENT OE THE BACTERIA.
107
these of so small a diameter that they pass through

all filters.
arrested
Cohn has proved by a super position of

1
that
some are not

filters.
sixteen
The
only waters which do not contain them are those drawn from the very source of a spring.
Dissemination op Bacteria in the Organism.
Human
If bacteria are so generally disseminated in the
great external media,
it is
not surprising that they
are found on the surface of -the
human body and
in the interior of the organs in communication
with the exterior. But to account for their presence in the interior of organs we find ourselves in presence of two hypotheses one admitting the spontaneous production of these organisms in the interior of the tissues, the second explaining it by the introduction through the membranes of the
:
germs
of bacteria
from without.
1 Having been directed by the National Board of Health' to make some experiments with a view to confirming or disproving the results of Klebs and Crudelli, who claim to have found the germ of malarial fevers
in the atmosphere of the Pontine marshes near

larias), I
aspirated ten gallons of air on the edge of a
Rome (their Bacillus maswamp in the vicin-
New Orleans, through 4 c.c. of distilled water. Upon examining water with the microscope on the following morning, I was surprised to find a large number of actively moving bacteria and monads [Monan
ity of
this
lens).
To make
sure that these really
came from
the air, I
examined
my
distilled water,
which had been standing
in the laboratory for several
but occasionally opened as distilled water was in considerable numbers, not so numerous, however, as in the water through which swamp air had been drawn. As the germs were present in the distilled water, I presume that the passing of air through it for several hours, and the organic
weeks
(in a bottle, corked,
required) and found the
same forms present
these micro-organisms.
favored the development and multiplication of Subsequent experiments with freshly distilled water gave very different results as to the number of organisms found.
matter contained
in
it,
See
fig. 2,
plate
vii.
G. M.
S.
108
In truth, the cutaneous surfaces are penetrated with difficulty by germs, although the hairs upon the surface of the body serve to collect them.
The
short hairs in the nares prevent, to
some ex-
tent, the atmospheric
germs from penetrating into

is
the bronchi, but this protection
not sufficient
in the al-
and, notwithstanding the

veoli of the lungs,
mucus
of the nasal fossae
and of the pharynx, they may be found

if
we may
believe Rindfleisch
and Eberth. Do the bacteria pass into the blood ? They may be transported in food and drink into the alimentary canal, where an elevated temperature, the
presence of saliva,
etc.,
favor their dejuice
velopment.
moderate,
if
On
the other hand, the acid secretions
of the stomach, the bile,
and the pancreatic
they do not prevent, the multiplicabacteria in normal blood and
tion of these organisms.
The presence of
urine, or their occasional entrance into these fluids,
are important questions, which have induced

1
many
contradictory researches, but which are not yet

definitely settled.
is any organism in the blood of yellow-fever demonby the highest powers of the microscope as at present perfected, the photo-micrographs taken in Havana should show it. No such organism is shown in any preparation photographed immediately after collection. But in certain specimens kept under observation in culture cells, hyphomycetous fungi and spherical bacteria made their appearance after an interval of from one to seven days. The appearance of these organisms was, however, exceptional and in several specimens taken from the same individual at the same time, it occurred that in one or two a certain fungus made its appearance, and in others it did not. This fact shows that the method employed cannot be depended upon for the exclusion of atmos1
"If there
strable
pheric germs, but does not affect the value of the result in the considerable
number
of instances in which no development of organisms occurred
109
Two
blood.
ination,
kinds of researches have been undertaken
for the purpose of discovering
germs
in
The
direct method, or microscopic
normal exam-
has given results very
much
is
disputed.
The blood
and which
coccus.
contains, indeed, a considerable
number
of little granules, of
which the nature
doubtful,
to distinguish from MicroThus, while Liiders asserts that normal blood contains germs, or spores, which only await a favorable alteration in the fluid in order to deit is difficult
velop themselves, Rindfleisch formally denies their

existence.
The
indirect method,
which
consists in cultivat-
which blood, in a moist state was kept under daily observation for a week or more. " The method employed seemed the only one practicable for obtaining blood from a large number of individuals without inflicting unwarrantin culture cells in
able pain and disturbance upon the sick.

patient's fingers
with
back from
glass
It was as follows One of the was carefully washed with a wet towel (wet sometimes alcohol and at others with water), and a puncture was made just of the matrix of the nail with a small triangular-pointed trocar hypodermic syringe case. As quickly as possible a number of thin covers were applied to the drop of blood which flowed. And these
:
were then inverted over shallow cells in clean glass slips, being attached usually by a circle of white zinc cement. In dry preparations, which are most suitable for photography, the small drop of blood was spread upon the thin glass cover by means of the end of a glass slip. " The thin glass covers were taken from a bottle of alcohol, and cleaned immediately before using; and usually the glass slips were heated shortly before applying the covers, for the purpose of destroying any atmospheric germs which might have lodged upon them. These precautions were not, however, sufficient to prevent the inoculation of certain specimens by germs floating in the atmosphere (Penicillium and micrococci) and in nearly every specimen the presence of epithelial cells, and occasionally a fibre of cotton or linen, gave evidence that under the circumstances such contamination was unavoidable. It is therefore believed that any organism developing in the blood of yellow-fever, or of other diseases collected by the method described, or by any similar method, can have no great significance, unless it is found to develop as a rule (not occasionally) in the blood of patients suffering from the dis;
110
ing normal blood in flasks perfectly closed, has also given some favorable results, such as those of
Nedvedsky, and and " conPasteur. According to Nedvedsky, the blood tains germs capable of undergoing in it, under certain circumstances, an ulterior development: these are the Hemococcos." If these germs do not
Hensen,
Tiegel,
Billroth,
and
some unfavorable
results, as those of Liiders
give birth, normally, to bacteria,
it is
because the
blood
is
as injurious to
them
as the
most advanced
If this
stages of putrefaction (Billroth).

esis is true, it
hypoth-
explains several embarrassing facts,
such as the existence of micrococci in the pus of

ease in question, and
is
proved by comparative
tests
not to develop in
the blood of healthy individuals, obtained at the
same time and by the
same method. " Tried by this test, it must be admitted that certain fungi and groups of micrococci, shown in photographs taken from specimens of yellowfever blood collected at the military hospital and preserved in culture cells, cannot reasonably be supposed to be peculiar to or to have any Preliminary Report of Havana Commiscausal relation to this disease." sion to National Board of Health. In subsequent observations upon the blood of malarial fever, of syphilis, and of leprosy, I have sometimes obtained a development of micrococci in culture cells where all possible precautions as to the exclusion of atmospheric germs had been taken, and in one case have seen
the development of Penicillium in another of Sarcina.

tion
is,
The
last observa-
so far as I
know
unique, and I have
still
in
my possession
the
containing numerous masses of Sarcina, presenting the This slide was put up characteristic arrangement of the cells in fours.
culture-slide
from intermittent fever in the CharEvery precaution was taken to exclude atmospheric germs. The patient's finger was washed with absolute alcohol just before making the puncture from which the little drop of blood was obtained. The question as to whether in this and similar cases the germs of the organism which develops come from the atmosphere or pre-existed in the blood is one to which I propose to give special attenat the bedside of a patient suffering
ity Hospital,
New
Orleans.
and, after further experiment, I shall discuss G. M. S. National Board of Health.

tion
;
it
in
my report to
the

closed abcesses, in cysts, in urine bladder, etc.
Ill
drawn from the
2.
Nutrition
,
and Eespiration of the Bacteria.
cell
The bacteria, being organisms composed of a membrane of cellulose, and of protoplasmic

of
contents, deprived
chlorophyll,
nutriment and respire in the colorless vegetables and all the inferior animals deprived of special apparatus, that is to say, by endosmotic absorption. Although the media in which the bacteria develop are various, yet, from the point of view of the nutritive function, they act everywhere according to the same laws. No matter in what medium they live, they must have water, nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen, as well as certain mineral salts which enter, but in quantities exceedingly minute, into the chemical constitution of all organ-
must receive the same manner as all
ized bodies.
element is indispensable to the active life and development of the bacteria. Dessication arrests completely the movements of those which are mobile, and the functions of all the bacteria in general; but it does not kill them, at least if it be not prolonged beyond a certain time. The Micrococci of different kinds of virus are examples of the continued vitality of these organisms after dessication for a considerable time.
Water.
This
112

bacteria present in this respect
The
numerous va-
and the period of development which they have attained. In the state of permanent spores, they are extremely tenacious of vitality. They resist for a long time not only dessication, but a considerable elevation
riations according to the species
of temperature.
Among
uids,
the
the bacteria, some are developed in
greater number,
others upon
A
liq-
damp
surfaces.
The former can
live in fresh water, sea-
water, thermal waters, and the liquids of animal

or
is,
vegetable organisms, etc.
surprising fact
that the composition, so different, of fresh and
sea water appears to have no influence

bacteria.
We
find in both all the species,
upon the from
Bacterium termo to Spirillum volutans.

Nitrogen. Pasteur has demonstrated that it is not necessary that the nitrogen which is to serve as
nutriment to the bacteria should be in the form of albumen, but that these organisms can take possession of
it
in the
form
of
ammonia.
fol-
In
lows
:
fact, in
Pasteur's solution, composed as
Distilled water
100.
10.
Sugar candy
Tartrate of
Ashes of
ammonia one gramme
....
of yeast
.
1.
0.075.
the bacteria increase sometimes with such rapidity

that they interfere with the development of the
alcoholic ferment.
113
Cohn, in order to better observe the phenomena and to get rid of the moulds, which the cane-sugar caused to develop too rapidly, employed the following culture-fluid
:
Distilled water
....
.
100.
1.
,
Tartrate of
ammonia
. .
Ashes of yeast
1.
Bacteria develop in this fluid wonderfully, which proves that sugar is not indispensable to them. One other solution often employed is that of Mayer. It has the advantage of not requiring the
employment
of ashes of yeast
Phosphate of potash Sulphate of magnesia Tribasic phosphate of lime Distilled water
... ...
0.1 0.1
gramme.

c.c.
0.1
20
Cohn adds
to this 0.2 gr. tartrate of
ammonia.
En
resume, the bacteria can take nitrogen, which
they need in order to form their protoplasm, either from albuminous compounds, which they decompose, as in putrefaction, or in the form of ammonia, or, perhaps, by borrowing it from nitric acid, but this last source is not well established
(Cohn).
Carbon. In addition to the sources common to other organisms, the bacteria can take this important element of their composition, under certain circumstances,
from the organic

8
acids.
Thus,
when we
cultivate bacteria in a solution containing
114
only tartrate of ammonia with a small quantity of

mineral
salts
(phosphoric acid, potash, sulphuric
and magnesia), they develop rapidly, taking their carbon from the tartaric acid. Cohn has endeavored to ascertain if other organic acids could be assimilated by the bacteria. By making use of succinate of ammonia, or neutral acetate of ammonia, he has been able to cultivate these microphytes. Besides, as Pasteur had already experimented with solutions containing lactates, and in which bacteria had developed until the salt had completely disappeared, we may admit that the
acid, lime,
bacteria can assimilate the organic acids,

succinic, acetic,
tartaric,
but tartaric acid seems to furnish the best alimentary solution. Other substances containing carbon are also aslactic
;
and
similated
by the
bacteria,
cane-sugar, milk-sugar,
glycerjne, and even cellulose (according to Mitscherlich).
Cohn
find
concludes, " that the bacteria multiply quite
normally, and in great quantity, whenever they
elements in solution which constitute ashes, and that they can take the carbon which
the
they need from any organic substance containing and their nitrogen from ammonia, urea, and probably from nitric acid. The bacteria, then, resemble green plants, in that they assimilate nitrogen contained in their cells by taking it from
it,
ammonia compounds, which animals cannot do. They differ from green plants in that they cannot draw their carbon from carbonic acid, and only
assimilate organic
substances containing carbon,

above
atives
all
;
115
the hydrates of carbon and their derivin this respect they resemble animals."
and
Absorption.
How are these various substances

observations of
absorbed
The
etc.,
Grimm, Hoffmann,
de Seynes,
stances
these organisms absorb
permit us to assure ourselves that by endosmosis the sub-
upon which they are nourished. Grimm, upon examining with the microscope some particles of lemon containing bacteria and spores of algse, saw a certain number of the former
gather aro\md a spore, and
fix
themselves to
it
by one
trate
it
of their extremities.
;
They
did not pene-
but when they abandoned it, the spore had diminished in volume, and lost a portion of its contents, while the bacteria had taken a greenish
color.
Hoffmann has seen
that these
of
little
organisms,
carmine or of fuwhen schine, after a time are colored an intense red, while the mucus surrounding them remains colorplaced in a solution
less.
De
Seynes,
also,
from
his
observations
upon
the vibrios which accompanied some colored filaments of Penicillium glaucum, believes that bacteria are susceptible of absorbing coloring matters
from vegetables and from animals with which they

are in contact.
Oxygen.
First, it
The
role of
bacteria has given rise to
oxygen in the life of the numerous controversies.
seems a priori that the bacteria ought
116
to act like all other living beings,

like the other inferior
and to respire
organisms deprived of chlorophyll that is to say by absorbing oxygen and This is, indeed, the eliminating carbonic acid. But, opinion of a great number of botanists. bacteria. according to Pasteur, it is not so with the
When we
we
examine what occurs in putrefaction,

developed
find that at first certain species are
(Monas crepusculum, Bacterium termo, etc.), which absorb all the oxygen dissolved in the liquid, and come to the surface where they form a thick veil
after
this,
other species of vibrioniens
appear,
which are developed in a medium entirely deprived of free oxygen, by borrowing this gas from the fermentable matters contained in the liquid. These chemical decompositions constitute
putrefaction.
The
first of
these organisms, regarding the na-
ture of which Pasteur has long been uncertain,

: they live in contact with the air, and have need of oxygen. The second, anaerobies, not only have no need of oxygen, but are killed by it. These differences in the respiration of organisms belonging to the same group are not admitted
are aerobics
by a great number of recent observers. Hoffmann, among others, says expressly " These little
:
beings cannot live without
air,
I should say with-
out oxygen
if
this gas is
move and do not
multiply at
is
liquid full of bacteria
wanting, they cease to all. If a drop of placed upon a glass slip,
then covered by a piece of thin glass, the active

bacteria will
of the cover
all
117
approach gradually to the margins it is there that at the end of several days, after the successive death of the greater number, some are still found endowed with
;
and
life
and movement. If a similar preparation is at the same time protected by an impermeable cement against dessication and against the introduction of atmospheric air,
all
movement among
the
bacteria will cease at the end of two minutes, provided, however, that no air bubble has been im-
prisoned with the liquid."
and development of bacteria is also very manifest in an experiment recently made, and not yet published, by Toussaint, who has been kind enough to communicate it to me. In studying the development of the spores of Bacillus anthracis in the moist chamber of
influence of
life
The
oxygen upon the
Ranvier,
those
Toussaint
has
observed
the
following
curious facts, which offer a striking analogy to
from Hoffwhich occupy the central portion of the moist chamber and which by reason of their situation receive very little oxygen from the groove, are soon arrested in their development while those which occupy the borders are long and heaped up in immense numbers, those in the centre remain small, formed of two, four, or five articles, which are easily separated from each other; they soon cease to grow and are not transformed into spores." Cohn is also as explicit. " There is no doubt,"
above
"
mentioned, borrowed
bacteria,
mann.
The
118
he says, " that the complete development of Bacillus, and above all reproduction by means of spores, is only made under the influence of free access
of air."
We might explain the contradictory facts of Pasteur by admitting, with Cohn, that the appearance of different roles played by the aerobies
(Bacterium) and the anaerobies (Bacillus) is simply due to a veritable struggle for existence which
takes place between the microbacteria and the
desmobacteria.
Action op Various Agents upon the Bacteria.

In
this
paragraph I
shall pass in
review the
of va-
action of temperature, of
rious antiseptics.
movement, and
It is very important to study which bacteria comport themselves under extreme variations of temperature. It is, indeed, upon the results furnished by these researches that a great part of the arguments opposed to the panspermatists by the heterogenists
Temperature.
the
manner
in
are based.
We
of
shall consider the
influence
upon bacteria
moderate temperatures and of extremes above and below zero. Moderate temperatures that is to say those which are comprised between 25 and 40 (77 to 104 Fah.) are generally favorable. The most favorable has been found to be 35 (95 Fah.)
(Onimus).
119
of resistance to extreme temperavery variable, according to the species. Thus, according to Frisch, a temperature of 45 to 50 (113 to 122 Fall.) is sufficient to kill B. termo, u Barteriwhilst 80 (176 Fah.) does not kill the
The degree
is
tures
dies " (Bacillus).
The permanent spores are especially remarkable by the tolerance which they possess for high temperatures. They have been subjected to 100
(212 Fah.) (Schwann), 110 (Pasteur) and even 130 (Schrader) without losing their power of
germinating.
We
must, however, recognize that the results
of the experimenters offer the greatest diversity,
the result, according to Cohn, of the difficulty of

obtaining an equable distribution of the heat in
the media, which are generally bad conductors.
Cohn has
arrived at the following conclusions as
the result of numerous experiments

the Bacillus of
1.
hay infusions At a temperature of 45

the
made upon
to 50 (113 to 122
Fah.) other
Bacillus
still
multiplies
rapidly,
and
of
forms as usual membranes and spores, while .the

schizophytes
existing
in
the
infusion
hay are
plication.
2.
at this temperature incapable of
multi-
At a temperature
all
Fah.)
ceases.
50 to 55 (122 to 131 reproduction and development of Bacillus It neither forms pellicles or spores; the
of
filaments are killed, the spores,
on the contrary,
preserve, for a longer time (for at least seventeen
hours) the property of germinating.
120
3.
While infusions
of
hay are generally
sterilized
by a temperature
of 60 (140 Fah.) or more, pro-
longed during twenty-four hours, certain spores of Bacillus seem able to endure a temperature of 70 to 80 (158 to 176 Fah.) during three or four days without losing the power of germinating. By some experiments made with refrigerating
mixtures,
are not killed
Cohn has ascertained that the bacteria by very low temperatures, acting
18 for example during several hours, (0 Fah.). But they are benumbed at a temperature of 0 (32 Fah.) and probably at a temperature
even
little
higher, losing the
of reproduction,
ferments.
to
power of movement and and consequently their action as They preserve, however, their capacity
activity at a
resume their
more elevated tem-
perature.
Frisch has pushed the experiment still further than Cohn. By the evaporation of carbonic acid, 87 he has produced as low a temperature as a 123 Fah.) in liquids containing bacteria, with( out destroying the vitality of these organisms,
cos
development having subsequently occurred of cocand of bacteria. Congelation, then, cannot
serve to destroy the organized ferments.
Let us add, however, that if the passage to extreme temperatures is too sudden, there is then an
alteration (destruction ?) of these organisms (Schu-
macher).
Movement. We would not have consecrated a paragraph to the action of movement upon

bacteria,
if
121
Crova had not recently asserted that
liquid containing completely arrests their development. This is an assertion in complete opposition to all that we know of the physiology of these organ-
movements impressed upon a

bacteria
isms,
and which
it
is difficult
fact that bacteria
may
to reconcile with the develop even in the torrent
of the circulation.
fluence of
bacteria.
Compressed Air. We have just seen the inair, and especially of oxygen, upon the
When
this
agent
is
in a certain state of
it acts in a different manner. M. Paul Bert has proved that under a tension of twentythree to twenty-four atmospheres all the putrefactive processes depending upon the development of
tension,
vibrios cease to occur. Since, the same savant has found that the anatomical elements and even the red blood globules are killed by oxygen.
These researches agree well enough with those Grossmann and Mayerhauser upon the life
bacteria
in
gas.
of of
From
their
numerous experi-
ments
it
appears that, under the influence of oxyis
gen, there
the bacteria; but
an exaggeration of the activity of if the oxygen is under a presdie,
sure of five to seven atmospheres, the bacteria live
from
six to
twenty hours, then
and cannot be
resuscitated
by atmospheric
definite
air.
Ozone causes a
arrest of
and almost instantaneous
movement.
122
Other gases studied by the same savants have given the following results Hydrogen at first causes an acceleration of movement, which is maintained for several days
:
then movement becomes

ceases altogether.
less active,
and
finally it
by
Contrary to the facts stated Carbonic Acid. Pasteur, this agent was found to paralyze the bacteria, and reduced them to complete immobility. If the carbonic acid is displaced by oxygen, the
bacteria resume their activity.
Chloroform.
This substance, according
to the
researches of Miintz, arrests the vital

of organized ferments.
phenomena
upon
Miintz uses this charac-
ter in order to recognize the soluble ferments,
which
it
has no action.
Since the labors of Dumas, Boracic Acid. which have demonstrated that boracic acid kills the inferior organisms by depriving them of their oxygen, this substance has been employed in various circumstances as an antiseptic.
Sulphate of Quinine.
is
The
action of quinine,
either in the state of chlorhydrate or of sulphate,
not yet well established.
The experiments
of
Binz, Manassein, Kroevitsch, Bochefontaine, etc.,
have, in truth, given contradictory results.
Carbolic Acid.
sei'n
The
have demonstrated
.that
experiments of Manas^th. per cent of car-

bolic acid is sufficient to prevent all
123
development It is employed with success in anthrax, in the treatment of wounds, etc.

of living beings.
3.
Keproduction
fission,
of the Bacteria.
It
tiply
is
well established that the bacteria can mulalso
and reproduce themselves the formation of endogenous spores. Fission. The multiplication by fission
by
by
consists
a bac-
in a transverse division of the
cell.
When
its
terium has attained nearly double

length,
ordinary
we
see, in the larger species, that the proto-
plasm becomes clearer in the central portion, and a partition forms in the median line separating the contained protoplasm into two portions. The partition, at first very delicate, becomes thicker, divides into two, and the two articles separate. This phenomenon is produced more or less
quickly according to the nature of the medium,
its
richness in nutritive material, the temperature,
etc.
When
the growth
is
rapid, the
new
cells
form
more quickly than they separate, and are arranged Very often we only find them in in chaplets. this form, in strings of two to four cells coupled In some forms the transverse division together. is preceded by constriction near the middle of the Before the two new cells are separated, the cell.
bacterium in this case presents the appearance of
a figure 8, and seems to be a simple cell swollen
at the
two extremities.
124
Under other circumstances, and probably in consequence of a mucus transformation of the walls
mother oped by a mass
of the
ogloea.
cells,
the
new
bacteria are envel-
of glutinous substance.
We
of
described these masses under the
name
have Zo-
The
fission
conditions which favor multiplication

are, a certain
by
degree of temperature and
a sufficient quantity of nutritive material. The more rapid higher the temperature, the is the segmentation of the bacteria, the more rapid their
multiplication,
limit, variable
that
is
to
say,
up
to a certain
with the species and beyond which
the bacteria are destroyed.
The
ture
is
multiplication decreases
when
the tempera-
lower, and ceases entirely in the vicinity

influence of richness of nutriment
artificial cultivation.
of 0 (32 Fah.).
The
seen in
to
is
well
So long as the bacte-
ria find the necessary aliment, in sufficient quantity,
form new protoplasm, they multiply with acbut as soon as the organic matter is devoured, they cease to divide, fall to the bottom of the vessel, where they accumulate, motionless, and form a deposit more or less abundant.
tivity
;
The
multiplication of the bacteria

if
sion has for result,
by binary fisnothing occurs to interfere
with the most favorable conditions, the invasion of the medium by an incredible number of these little beings, of which we can only form an idea
by
calculation.
" Let us suppose," says Cohn, " that a bacterium

divides into
125
two
in the space of an hour, then in
four at the end of a second hour, then in eight

at the
end
of three hours, in twenty-four hours

will already
the number
amount
to
more than
six-
teen millions and a half (16,777,220); at the end of two days this bacterium will have multiplied
to the incredible
number
it
the end of three days
281,500,000,000; at will have furnished fortyof
seven
trillions
at the
end
of
about a week, a
number which can only be represented by fifty-one

figures.
" In order to render these numbers more comprehensible, let us seek the volume and the weight
from the multiplication of a The individuals of the most single bacterium. common species of rod-bacteria present the form of a short cylinder having a diameter of a thousandth of a millimeter, and in the vicinity of one five hundredth of a millimetre in length. Let us represent to ourselves a cubic measure of a millimetre. This measure would contain, according to what we have just said, 633,000,000 of rod-bacteria without leaving any empty space. Now, at the end of twenty-four hours the bacteria coming from a single rod would occupy the fortieth part of a cubic millimeter; but at the end of the following day they would fill a space equal to 442,570 Let us of these cubes, or about a half a litre. admit that the space occupied by the sea is equal to two-thirds of the terrestrial surface, and that its mean depth is a mile, the capacity of the ocean
which
may
result
will be 928,000,000 of cubic miles.
The
multipli-
126
cation being continued with the
the bacteria issuing from a single

the ocean in five days."
same conditions, germ would fill
Reproduction by Spores.
The
mode
multiplication
of propagation
by
fission,
known
to the earliest microscopists, has
been
until recently the only
admitted by the authors.

in the excellent article
Thus M. de Lanessan, which he has devoted to
the bacteria, says that the marvellous resources of
modern
science have not yet permitted us to rec-
ognize any other organisms.
mode
of propagation for these
However, M. Ch. Robin had already, in 1853,

indicated the presence in Leptothrix buccalis of
little
round bodies, " which are perhaps spores."
Pasteur has since, in 1865, recognized that " the vibrios of putrefaction and of butyric fermentation present a sort of ovule, or ovoid corpuscle, which
refracts
light
strongly, either
in
the extremity
Later, the same
or in the body of the articles."

savant,
more
explicitly, says clearly that these or-
ganisms have two modes of reproduction,

fission
by
and by interior spores (" noyaux "). Towards the same epoch, Hoffmann also pointed out a reproduction by free cellular formation in some bacteria. But we must come to the labors of Cohn, Billroth, and Koch, in order to find precise observations in this regard.
The formation
in Bacillus
of
spores
has
been
observed
subtilis
by Koch, and
Tieghem.
in
by Cohn, Bacillus anthracis Bacillus Amylobdcter by Van
Plate
VIII.
Fig.
Pig.
^m
PLATE
VIII.
Formation op Spores in Bacillus.

in
Havana and
in
New
Orleans.
Re-
produced by permission of the National Board of Health.

Figs. 1 and
eters
2.
Bacillus (ulna
in.
?)
patient (post-mortem) five days after collection.
by
2.
Zeiss's
Fig. Fig.
1.
Fig. 3. Orleans, April, 1880.

large cells are
^ objective. Rods joined in leptothrix chain. A single rod showing spore at one extremity. Spores of Bacillus developed rotten potato,
in
found in blood of yellow- fever X 3,000 diam-
New
The
1,500
by
Zeiss's
in. objective.
some species of Saccharomycete, which was also present in the same specimen. Development of bacilli from spores, from culture exFig. 4. periment with fish gelatine solution. X 1,500 diameters by Zeiss's
in. objective.
128
Cohn,
who had
in his first publications refused
to the bacteria the property of reproduction

spores, thinking that the facts observed
by
by Hoff-
mann
related to different beings, has verified the
experiments of Koch upon the development of B. anthracis, and has himself demonstrated similar phenomena in B. subtilis. In culture experiments made with infusion of
hay,
we
see, at a
certain
of
moment,
in the
homo-
geneous filaments
the Bacilli very refractive
Each of corpuscles making their appearance. them becomes a spore, oblong or in the form
of
a short filament, highly refractive, and with

outlines.
well-defined
We
find
the
spores ar-
ranged in a simple series in the filaments. As soon as the formation of spores has terminated, the filaments can generally no longer be distinguished, and one would say that the spores were completely free in the mucus but their linear arrangement shows always that they are produced Little by little these in the interior of filaments. and the dissolve, being reduced to a fine powder spores fall to the bottom of the liquid, where they The germination of the are found in abundance. spore does not seem to occur in the same medium but if we take a spore from the deposit formed in an infusion of boiled hay, and transport it into a new infusion, we see the spore swell up, and a short tube form itself at one of its extremities at this moment it resembles a bacterium with a head. Soon the very refractive body disappears, the tube
;
stretches out into a short rod of Bacillus,
com-

mences to move, and becomes jointed by
verse division.
129
trans-
Koch, in cultivating the bacteria of charbon in aqueous humor from the eye of the ox, has observed some facts exactly similar, both as to production of spores in linear series in the filaments
of Bacillus anthracis
and
as to the germination of
the spore and the birth of a

of
new
:
rod.
According to Amylobacter
first,
Van Tieghem,
is
as follows
the development " The development
of a Bacillus includes four successive periods.
In
the
the body, cylindrical
and slender, recently
developed from a spore, stretches out rapidly, the articles soon separate and is partitioned united in long filaments or remain subtilis), (B. This is the stage of growth and (B. anthracis).
;
multiplication,
two things which at bottom are

articles previously
but one. "Secondly, the
formed, having
ceased to elongate and divide, increase sensibly in magnitude, becoming the seat of interior chemical and this increase in size operates transformations
;
according to circumstances, in three different manSometimes ners, with some intermediate forms.
it
occurs uniformly throughout the length of the

;
which remains cylindrical sometimes it is localized, either at one extremity, which is swollen
article,
a tadpole, or in the middle of the article, which swells to a spindle shape. This is the stage
like
of enlargement, or of
nutrition, solitary
and
si-
multaneous, which prepares the following state. "In the third period or phase of reproduction
130
there
is
nourished a spherical or ovoid spore, homogeneous, highly refractive, having a dark outline. At the same time, the protoplasm which occupies the rest of
formed in each
article
so
the cavity disappears

spore from the
little
by
little,
and
is
re-
placed by a hyaline liquid, which separates the
membrane
this dissolves
in its
If the
turn, and finally the spore
is
set at liberty.
article is swollen in tadpole shape, it is in the ter-
minal swelling that the spore has birth ; if it is spindle-shaped, it is near the middle if it is cylin;
drical,
it
may
be at any point whatever, but
is
usually near one extremity.

free
The spore when
set
under favorable circumstances. At a point where its circumference becomes pale,

germinates
it
gives out a little tube slightly more slender than itself, which elongates rapidly and divides. This fourth period of development or germinative
phase brings us back to our point of departure." only do the bacteria develop spores in the interior of their filaments,
Sporangia.
Finally, not
we may also observe formation veritable the of a sporangium containslightly modified in form, but
ing
of
many spores. The unpublished observations M. Touissant, Professor of Physiology in the

result,
Veterinary School of Toulouse, give this which he has kindly communicated to me.
in
In cultivating spores of the bacteria of charbon the serum of the blood of the dog, under the
microscope, in
the warm chamber of Ranvier, Toussaint has seen the filaments take a transverse
131
diameter almost double the ordinary diameter, then the protoplasm of the filament to gather together at certain points, a fact clearly made out, as in the parts where the protoplasm was wanting the bacteria had lost all refractive power.
Finally, at a later period the points occupied
by augment considerably in volume, and form some ovoid organs- more or less
the condensed protoplasm
elongated, or swollen into a ball, or in the form
gourd at one extremity. In the interior of these sporangia, from three to six spores afterward form, clearly defined and highly refractive then, finally, by breaking up of the membranous enveof a
;
lope the spores
become
free.
Toussaint has also followed in the same apparatus
moist and warm chamber

spores are at
first
of
Ranvier
the
mode
of germination of the spores. ing are the most important facts

:
The
follow-
and animated by brownien movements; at the end of half an hour to an hour, at a temperature of 37 to 40, in urine, aqueous humor, or serum, the spores lose their refractive power, and their brownthen the ien movements cease almost entirely spore assumes an aspect slightly granular, it becomes elongated in the direction of its greatest diameter (they are oval). After two hours of cultivation, the bacterium has two or three times the dimensions of the primitive spore the elongation makes rapid progress, and four to six hours from the commencement of the cultivation, some may
highly refractive
;
The
132
be found to occupy the entire field of the microscope. From this moment the phenomena which occur differ according to the conditions in which the bacteria are placed. Upon the edge of the
air-groove in the moist chamber, the bacteria de-
velop very rapidly, forming an interlaced mass and in sixteen to eighteen hours, spores may be
seen to appear in their interior,
above
all, if
the
preparation has been exposed to light.
Often, in
this case, the transverse partitions of the filament
cannot be seen. If, on the contrary, the bacterium has not been exposed to light, the spores are a longer time in showing themselves (ten or twelve hours more), and almost always division of the
filament precedes their formation.
In that case,
a spore usually appears at each end of the seg-
ment
to
in such a
manner
that the spores belonging

to each
two successive segments are nearer
other than those in the same segment.

also,
Often,
a spore aborts in a segment (Toussaint).
have seen above, in speaking of the ressame observer has noted in the course of his experiments some phenomena proving the evident influence of oxygen upon the development of Bacillus. It is the same
piration of bacteria, that the
for the formation of spores.
We
And upon
this point
Toussaint makes the very just remark that the phenomena occur in a different manner in culture
experiments and in the
human
organism.
In char-
bon, the bacteria never form spores.
They remain
always relatively short, even in the points where they form extra- vascular masses, and where conse-

quently
liquid
133
we cannot invoke
order to
tissues
the movements of the

their
division.
little
in
explain
bacteria of charbon, then, take but
The oxygen
from the
in the
they do not vegetate luxuriantly organism; and certainly, if we judge by a

:
calculation necessarily approximative, their devel-
opment
is
seven or eight times
less rapid
than in
the strongly oxygenated serum of culture experi-
ments (Toussaint).
Polymorphism.
The spores
of
which we have
traced the genesis constitute those germs of which
the origin has for a long time been misunderstood,
those permanent spores or durable spores
(Dauersporen), thus called because of their re-
markable degree of resistance to temperature, desiccation, and all the agents which kill adult
bacteria or arrest their development. These " organs " are disseminated in great
numlittle
bers in various media under
the
form
of
rounded corpuscles absolutely similar to the micrococci
from which
them.
it
is
absolutely impossible
is,
to
differentiate
It
if
indeed, very probable

all
that the greater part,
not
of these organisms,
are the spores of filiform bacteria.
In the impossibility of recognizing these forms nearly related, of referring them to such or such a determined organism, the attempt has been made to cultivate them, in order to follow their development. We have just seen the results of this cultivation for the Bacillus ; but, in the hands
so of the greater
number
of experimenters, the
re-
134
suits
of such culture experiments are far from being so certain. Not having succeeded in re-
moving them completely from the invasion of foreign germs, the greater number have seen the most diverse forms develop themselves, and from
this
have inferred the most remarkable transfor-
mations.
Thus, Hallier pretends to have observed the

transformation of Micrococcus into various fungi,
such as Mucors, Ustilago, etc. The M. of vaccinia comes from Torula rufescens, which is itself a phase of development of Ustilago carbo ; the M.
of
human
variola
is
derived from a fungus having
sporangia and pycnidia, related to Sternphylium sporidesmium ; that of the variola of animals from Cladosporium (Pleospora) herbarum; the M. of the blood of scarlatina belongs to the those of glanders and of syphilis g. Tilletia from a Coniothecium, etc. In the same way Letzerich has referred the M. of diphtheria to another
;
Tilletia,
the T. diphtkerica.
" of bacteria into " levures
The transformation
(yeast fungi), and these into Penicillium, has been
admitted by Hallier, Tre"cul, and others. But the researches of Brefeld and de Seynes have shown
is far from being demonstrated innumerous cultivations, de Seynes has never been able to verify such an affiliation and Nageli in his turn has never been able to obtain a transformation of schizomycetes into budding
us that this
deed, in his
fungi.
It is the
same as regards the transformation
of

bacteria into moulds and mildews.
cultivations of moulds,
135
In some recent
care, Nageli has
made with
never observed the formation of schizomycetes, and reciprocally. Are we not permitted to believe,
now
sporangia
scopists
that we know of the formation of among the bacteria, that the microwho sustain a polymorphism so extended,
have taken these organs, of which they have not been able to follow exactly the development, for This explanation is the sporangia of Mucorini?
the more admissible as Tre'cul has seen the bacteria " swell up, and transform themselves separately," a
phenomenon
quite identical to that ob-
served by Toussaint.
form well demonstrated in the present state of science, and the only one which can be compared to natural polymorphism, such as it exists in a great number
resume". of of fungi, consists in the transformation of spores
En
The only change
into Bacteria, Bacteridia, Vibrios, etc., and in the
teria take in
modes of grouping that the cells of bacbecoming zooglcea, mycoderma, leptothrix, etc. To go further would be to lack* prudence and scientific criticism.
different
136
CHAPTEE
II.
DEVELOPMENT OE THE BACTEEIA IN

DIFFERENT MEDIA.
In studying the conditions
of life
and of develop-
ment
and
of bacteria in
the different media, natural
which they are met, we will consider the actions which they determine (or that they accompany) as particular cases of their nutrition and of their reproduction. We will constantly take, then, their normal physiology as our point of departure and we will try to explain in this way the phenomena, so diverse, with which they
artificial,
in
are associated,
fermentations,
putrefactions, con-
tagion of infectious maladies, etc.

It is especially interesting to
study the role of
bacteria in non-nitrogenized chemical media,
where
they accompany the phenomena called fermentation, properly so called in nitrogenized media, vegetable or animal, which they transform, as a result of special fermentations, which constitute putrefaction in the human organism, where they accompany frequently, if not always, the development of certain affections having special characThis will be the object of so many paraters.
; ;
graphs.
THE BACTERIA
IN
DIFFERENT MEDIA.
137
1.
Hole
of Bacteria in Fermentations.
is
We
Two
say that a liquid

its
fermenting whenever
modifications occur in
chemical constitution, as
a result of the nutrition of organized beings.
kinds of fermentation are commonly distin-
guished.
In the
first
group
(false
fermentations)
are arranged those which are produced by soluble
quarternary substances (diastase, soluble ferments)

secreted
by
living cells,
from which they may be

is
separated in order to study their action upon fer-
mentable
liquids.
This action
comparable to that
of certain mineral acids, which operate in the same manner, either by the breaking up of molecules with addition of water or by the phenomena of
hydration.
Veritable
chemical
reagents,
when
these substances are once precipitated from their

solutions, purified
and
dried, they preserve their
properties indefinitely.
A sufficient elevation of tem-
perature seems to destroy the edifice of their molecule ; for they lose all their specific power after having been subjected to a temperature more or less elevated, but always inferior to 100 (212 Fah.). In the second group (true fermentations) are
joined
tion
all
the
phenomena
of chemical
modificaor fungi
kill-
which appear intimately united

of inferior
opment
organisms,
to the devel-
algae
(figured ferments).
Compressed oxygen by
ing these ferments, and chloroform by suspending their vital functions, arrest the progress of these
fermentations, while the same agents do not mod-
138

Accord-
ify at all the action of soluble ferments.
ing to Dumas, borax has, on the contrary, the
property of entirely destroying the activity of soluble ferments without absolutely preventing certain true fermentations, for example, the al-
coholic fermentation of glucose.
We
will see fur-
ther on that this property of borax has been

utilized in the
treatment of catarrh of the bladfirst
der and of certain virulent affections.
view these two groups of phedifferent, they may, however, be compared the one with the other. Without speaking of the ammoniacal fermentation of urine, which, as we shall shortly see, may be arranged in either of these groups, we may admit that the only difference between these two series of chemical modifications consists in the fact that in one case the true fermentations being the last term in the interior nutrition of the cell have their seat in
Although at
nomena seem very
the interior of the
cell itself
while in the other
the
lar
first
terms of nutrition are always extra-cellufor effect, as CI.
phenomena, having
Bernard
has shown, to render assimilable or diffusible in the interior of the organism the aliment necessary to
the development of every organized being (transformation of starch into glucose, of sugar into glucose, emulsion of fats, liquefaction of albuminoid substances).
these
The study, from a chemical point of view, of phenomena of nutrition, of these fermentasuch
is
tions, since
their
it
much
progress, and
rational classification
name, has not yet made would be difficult to make a of them in the present state
THE BACTERIA
of our knowledge.
sify
IN
DIFFERENT MEDIA.
139
I will not then seek to clas-
them, but will content myself with describI shall only speak of the fermentations
ing them successively, commencing with the best
known.
caused by tbe development of bacteria, leaving, consequently, the fermentation which has been
best studied,
ing order
1. 2. 3.
the
alcoholic.
I adopt the follow-
Acetic fermentation of alcohol. Ammoniacal fermentation of urine. Lactic, viscous, and butyric fermentations of sugar.
Putrefaction, or nitrification.
4.
Acetic fermentation.
The
transformation
of
wine into vinegar is a phenomenon long known and utilized. From a chemical point of view, this transformation is due to oxydation of the alcohol.
The following formula represents

C 2H 6
this reaction
+ O2
C 2 H*0 2 +
0.
called
The agent of this oxydation is a micro-organism Mycoderma aceti. It belongs to the group
and we have already given
it
of the microbacteria,
the botanical description of
(page 83)
but
its
development presents some interesting peculiarities which we think it proper to indicate in the language of M. Duclaux " These little beings reproduce themselves with such rapidity that by placing an imperceptible germ
:
upon the surface
of a liquid contained in a vat
having a surface of one square metre, we may see it covered, in from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, with a uniform velvety veil. If we suppose
140
that there are three thousand cells in a square mil-
below the truth, this will give for the vat three hundred milliards of cells produced in a very short time." " The Mycodermi aceti is not always the same. Usually it forms upon the surface of a liquid a soft-looking veil, smooth at first, then wrinkled, which is with difficulty submerged and moistened. If a glass rod is plunged into the liquid, it pierces this veil and when it is withdrawn, a portion remains attached to the rod ; and the opening made immediately disappears, being occupied by the veil which seems never to have room enough in which to extend itself. In some unpublished experiments I have frequently observed another form of veil, dryer, finer, and sometimes showing prismatic colors. This veil does not wrinkle, but is covered with crossed undulations, having sharp edges, which recall the surface of a honeycomb. Sowed
limetre,
which
is
upon the
surface of various liquids,
it
reproduces
and it is difficult not to consider it a different form of the preceding. Finally, I have also met a species of mycoderma producing well-developed veils, but having scarcely any acetifying power, and reproducing itself with this
itself identically,
character."
to distinguish these forms the one from the other, by the microscope, because of their minuteness. We may, however, say that the second which I have described is sensibly smaller than the first, and the third more attenuated than either of the others. However, the differences are feeble." This veil is called the mother of vinegar. The
is difficult
" It
THE BACTERIA IN DIFFERENT MEDIA.

liquid in
141
which
this
mycoderma is
cultivated should
be a
the
little
acid, containing
one-half per cent of

conditions
acetic acid, for example.
Under these
Mycoderma
vini (a species of Saccharomycete),
the formation of which should be avoided, finds

conditions unfavorable to
this
its
existence.
Indeed,
second organism, commonly called flowers of wine, has an action quite different from that of
consumes the alcohol and carbonic We must acid it also consumes the acetic acid. sow the M. aceti, if we do not wish to see the M. vini develop in its place, as the germs of the latter seem more widely diffused in the air. In order that the acetification may occur, the oxygen of the air is necessary. Once submerged, the M. aceti develops, but no longer produces It is even probable that it consumes acetic acid.
the
aceti.
Mycoderma
:
It
entirely, transforming it into water
the acetic acid already formed, reducing

state of
it
to the
water and carbonic acid. It is the same when, developing upon the surface, it has transformed all the alcohol. " In effect, it is not then arrested in its work ; and without changing form
or
mode
it
of action,
it
carries the
it
oxygen
of the air
to the acetic acid which
has produced, transformIf we add some phenomena change the

:
ing
into carbonic acid
and water.
alcohol to the liquid, the
'acid is respected, and the alcohol anew into acetic acid " (Duclaux).
is
transformed
According to
of aceti-
the experiments of Mayer, the
maximum
fying power
to 86 Fah.),
is
obtained between 20 and 30 (68
and this power is lost below 10 (50 Fah.) and above 35 (95 Fah.).
142

Urine.
Ammoniacal Fermentation of
urine
is
When
:
freely exposed to the air,

it
we
perceive at
the end of a short time that
ammoniacal.
ate of
The urea is ammonia by the addition
has become strongly transformed into carbonof
water
CO(NH
Miiller urine, of
+H
i=
CO 2 + 2NH 3
suspected that the
deposit of altered
which Jacquemart had already recognized the particular activity, was an organized ferment, but this was only an induction drawn from the analogy with beer yeast. Pasteur showed that this sediment is formed of a mass of spherical globules, united in chaplets, which he considers the agent of ammoniacal fermentation. These globules are Micrococcus urece, Cohn, which we have
already described (page 75). This bacterium lives in the interior of the liquid,
and not on the surface like the Mycoderma aceti. alkalinis an obstacle to its development ity, on the contrary, favors it within certain limits. Van Tieghem has even seen the fermentation conAcidity
;
tinue until the liquid contained thirteen per cent
ammonia. mechanism of this fermentation ? M. Musculus has shown that we may obtain from altered urine a soluble ferment upon adding
of carbonate of
What
is
the
to
it
highly-concentrated alcohol
a precipitate
dried.
is
formed, which
into
may
be
filtered
and
This
precipitate, not at all organized, transforms urea
carbonate of ammonia.
it.
temperature of
80 (176 Pah.) destroys
This diastase appears,
THE BACTERIA
IN
DIFFERENT MEDIA.
143
then, to be a secretion of the Micrococcus urece;
and perhaps the role of the bacteria is limited, in the phenomena of fermentation, to the formation of this secretion alone. The ammoniacal transformawould consequently enter into the group of fermentations by the varieties of diastase. According to Arnold Hiller, if carbolic acid be added to urine, it does not become alkaline on the contrary, the acidity is even augmented, and
tion of urine
;
that notwithstanding
a considerable
it.
bacteria which develop in

free
number of Has the carbolic
acid killed the Micrococcus urece, leaving the field
an producing other transformations of the constituents of the urine ? In the memoir which we here cite, the author, resuscitating the ancient opinion of Liebig, wishes to demonstrate that the decomposition of dead organic matters, and putrefaction in general, are phenomena purely chemical, these decompositions being determined by the presence of organic substances, themselves undergoing transformations. We will not stop to consider these views, long since refuted the experiments upon which they
to other organisms capable of living in
of
acid
medium, and
are founded are easily criticised.

for
It is
sufficient
me
to say that they are in formal opposition
with
all
the
observations
contained in modern
works upon
It is
this question.
ammoniacal fermentation that the question of spontaneous generation has been discussed. We have already seen the results arrived at, and will not return to
especially in relation to
144
this

subject.
Let us, however, mention before an interesting work by MM. Cazeneuve and Livon, in which are reported some experiments which prove that urine never ferments in a healthy
closing
bladder.
Lactic, Butyric,
Sugars.
Saccharine
and Viscous Fermentations of

liquids, left
to
themselves,
are susceptible of divers fermentations, which
may
occur separately or simultaneously.

butyric,
have been best studied are three, the lactic, the and the viscous fermentations. We will
describe
1.
Those which
them
successively.
Lactic Fermentation.
Under
the probable
influence of a bacterium {ferment lactique of Pas-
teur) glucose
and the substances susceptible

such as mannite, malic acid,
etc.,
of
furnishing
it,
are
transformed into lactic acid. From a chemical point of view, there is in this nothing more than a molecular change, lactic acid
having the same composition as glucose. Taken in mass, the lactic ferment resembles beer-yeast ; its consistence is, however, a little more viscous, and its color more gray. But under the microscope, the aspect is very different, as we have seen in describing Bacterium lineola. An interesting point concerning this fermentation is the action of acids upon the bacteria which produce it (presumably). As soon as the medium becomes acid, even by the lactic acid produced, the transformation is arrested. It resumes its course, if chalk or carbonate of soda is added to the
liquid.
THE BACTERIA IN DIFFERENT MEDIA.
145
The most
(95 Pah.).
suitable temperature
seems to be 35
little about this fermentation. however, to be better studied. It is this which causes the spontaneous coagulation of milk: sugar of milk is transformed into lactic acid, which coagulates the caseine. We often see it occur in beef juice or in sour starch water; it must play a part in the formation of sour krout, and intervenes very certainly, and perhaps more than
We
know but
" It
merits,
the alcoholic fermentation, in the preparation of

bread.
of
its
Finally, it very easily invades beer, which our domestic drinks is most exposed, because of
slight acidity, to
become the
it is
seat of this ferit
mentation.
ing, so
All of these facts render
interest-
much
the more as
is
rarely
exempt from
complication, and
frequently accompanied, for
tion, far
example, by a commencement of butyric fermentamore disagreeable in its products " (Du2.
claux).
This is, in fact, alButyric Fermentation. ways preceded by a lactic transformation, and it is
by an
ulterior modification that the
lactic
acid
produces the butyric acid. The organism which accompanies it is a bacterium very nearly allied
to Bacillus subtilis,
Cohn.
The
reaction
represented
by the phenomena,
is
from a chemical point of view,
the
follow-
ing:
2C 3H6
lactic ac.
3
C4H8
2C02
+H
4
.
butyric ac.
146
According to Pasteur the butyric ferment belongs to his class of anaerobies.
great
This fermentation resembles putrefaction in a many particulars. Indeed some authors init
clude
3.
under the same head.
change so that they contain a mucilaginous substance and mannite. This viscous matter has the same com10 position as gum or dextrine (C 6 O5 ) at the
Viscous Fermentation.
Wines often
H
;
same time
it
disengages carbonic acid.
In the fermenting liquid, we find an organism which is not yet sufficiently studied. " There are chaplets of little spherical bodies, of which the diameter varies sensibly, according to the kind of wine attacked by this malady (Pasteur).
Pasteur has proposed the following formula
:
25(C 12 H 22 O n )
+ 25H
12(C 12 H20 O 10)

gum.
2
2
24(C 6 H"0 6 )
mannite.
+ 12C0 + 12H 0.
which represents the phenomena well enough as it usually occurs. There is produced in the vicinity of 51.09 of mannite and 45.5 of gum for one hundred parts of sugar. But sometimes the gum exIn this case, ceeds the mannite in quantity.
according to Pasteur,
ent nature
results
we can always
verify in the
differ-
liquid the presence of a larger

;
ferment of a
and the same author adds

of this
that, per-
haps, in this case the increased production of
gum
from the presence
second ferment,
which transforms the sugar only into gum, without
THE BACTERIA
IN DIFFERENT MEDIA.
147
any
correlative formation of mannite.

isolated.
ferment has never been

in another
But this M. Monoyer has
explained the variation in the proportion of
gum
manner
(see his thesis for the doctorate
in medicine, Strasburg, 1862).
White wines are more subject than red wines

this fermentation, called graisse des vins.
to
Accord-
ing to M. Francois, the absence of tannin in the
white wines is the cause of this disease, and it may be prevented by adding this substance. This remedy is even very highly appreciated in champagne, according to Pasteur. What is the exact action of the tannin upon the gummy ferment? The only means of knowing is by cultivating this ferment in a state of purity and treating it with
this agent.
We
water,
have united together the

all
viscous ferments, because

selves in the
etc.
;
beer, sweetened and because they have for effect the We ought to say a transformation of glucose.
liquids,
same
wines,
and three manifest themlactic, butyric,
word here
of
some other
inferior organisms, per-
haps bacteria, observed also in the same liquids, Not but which have not been as well studied. but we only are they not known systematically,
do not know precisely what is their chemical action upon the elements of the medium which nourishes them. I shall only enumerate them. "These 1. Ferment of Turned Beer (Pasteur).
are rods or filaments, simple or articulated into chains of variable length, of about 1 /i, diameter.
148
A high
power shows them divided
into a series of
shorter rods, scarcely born, not yet mobile at the
which are scarcely indicated." 2. Micrococcus of a beer, having a particular acidity, distinct from that of beer pique, having an acetic odor. " It consists of grains resembling
articulations,
little
spherical points jointed square " (Pasteur), etc.
by
pairs or in fours
2.
Role
of the Bacteria in Putrefaction
and Nitrification.
which we have just passed rapidly in review, we have always been
While
in the fermentations
able to study, at least summarily, the chemical

action of
the
different
organisms,
we
are
now
about to find ourselves in presence of phenomena

far
great
its
more complex. We will have to consider a number of these vegetables at work, without
being possible to assign to each its role, or to say what is its function. The agent of the nitric
fermentation has not as yet even been seen, and
is
it
only by analogy that

tlje
is
we
class this nitrification
with
It
still
true fermentations.
not only because of the obscurity which exists in regard to a great number of peculiarthese two phenomena, that
ities of
we have
united
them
of
in the
of the circulation
same study. Prom the point of view upon the surface of our globe
constitution of
the elements essential to the
organisms, they play an analogous rSle, although opposite the one to the other.
THE BACTERIA
IN DIFFERENT MEDIA.
149
Let us consider, for example, nitrogen in plants. This element, of which the atmosphere is the reservoir, does not enter directly into combination, as
does oxygen, with the other elements which with
it
are to constitute the immediate principles of the
The chemical properties of nitrogen may be characterized in two words, great resistance to entering into combination when it is free, and great facility, on the contrary, in passing from one combination to another when once it has associated itself with other elements. The circulation of nitrogen in a state of combination upon the surface of the globe is also an
tissues.
interesting question of general physics, as well as
the circulation of carbonic acid, of water, and of

the
air.
Let us seek to sketch the march of

culation.
this cir-
Whence comes
torial regions, in
the
ammonia which
?
is
found in
the sea, in the clouds which come to us from equathe dust of the air
The only
It is
known
source
is
the fermentation of organic mat-
ters out of reach of the
oxygen
of the air.
to this sort of fermentation that
we owe
the for-
mation
all
and the immense masses of combustible minerals which have formed during nearly
of peat
the geological periods.

itself
air,
We
see this sort of feror-
mentation develop
ganic liquid to the
when we expose an
is
but only in the inferior

dissolved
part of the liquid, the oxygen which
near the surface being arrested in the superficial zone, where a very different fermentation occurs.
150
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BACTEEIA.

latter is essentially oxidizing
;
The
the material
is
almost completely burnt, forming water and carbonic acid at the inferior part, on the contrary, a
;
reduction
is
is
produced so energetic that hydrogen
disengaged.
The
metallic sulphates are there
transformed into sulphites, and even crystals of sulphur are sometimes found (see the history of the Beggiatoa, page 91). We see then the source of the ammonia, which, distributed upon the soil by the winds and the rains, becomes a powerful fertilizer. Now, vegetables do not absorb nitrogen under the form of ammonia, but
under the form

ation of
of nitric acid.
How is this transform-
ammonia into nitric acid effected ? The Erdmann, Mensel, and T. Phipson show that in the phenomena of destructive putreobservations of
faction, nitric acid, far
from being produced,
is
on
the contrary reduced to the state of nitrous acid
on the other hand, Th. Schlcesing and A. Miintz conclude from their experiments that in the putrefactions essentially oxidizing produced by Penicillum glaucum, Aspergillus niger, Mucor mucedo, etc., there is no formation of nitric acid. But,
according to these authors, nitrification
cial
is
a spe-
phenomenon which takes place
in every soil
permit a free circulation of air, and of which the agent is a micro-organism. This organism has not yet been perceived, it is true;
sufficiently loose to
and it is evident that it would be difficult to seek and observe, because of its peculiar situation.
But the action
of chloroform
upon
nitrification
is
tends to prove that the agent of this process

THE .BACTEKIA
IN
DIFFERENT MEDIA.
151
truly an organized ferment.

this
Indeed, chloroform,
anaesthetic, suspends nitrification,

kill
and seems
even to
the ferment.
then, this phenomenon, but little known, we may distinguish in the agents of putrefaction, or more generally of fermentation, two
Leaving,
groups of micro-organisms,
other reducing.
one
oxidizing,
the
observed upon the surface of liquids undergoing putrefaction. "We may distinguish a great number of forms, Bacterium termo,
first
The
are
Monas
also to
crepusculum, Spirillum,
include
etc.
We
ought
Mycoderma
aceti,
which, like the
others, vegetates on
the surface
a great
number
of organisms of
of liquids, and which we cannot
speak here. The second are met, on the contrary, in the interior of liquids or of fermentable bodies they are analogous to the butyric and lactic ferments, and perhaps to the other agents of diseases of wine and beer previously enumerated.
;
En
resume, the
little
beings which
we have been
:
considering have an important role
they cause
the return of dead organic matter to the atmos-
phere and to water.

" Without them, organic matter, even exposed
would not be destroyed or would be transformed with extreme slowness, in consequence

to the air,
of a slow
combustion produced by oxygen.
With
them, on the contrary, its destruction takes a rapid march and becomes complete. If, then, the
equilibrium
is
maintained between living nature
152

if
and dead nature,

composition,
tilizing, it is
the air has always the same
if the waters are always equally ferthanks to the infinitely minute agents of fermentation and putrefaction" (Duclaux). But the rftle of bacteria is not limited to this. " They invade also the living organism," says Duclaux, " and bring in their attack this double char-
acter of infinite smallness in the apparent
means
and powerful destructive energy in the results. From this source come diseases of which medicine, not long since, did not know the cause, and which she only commences to refer to their veritable origin. For those who are au courant with the first steps which she has made in this new line of
research, with the fecundity of her
first
glimpses,
with the richness of her first results, it is not doubtful that she will soon succeed in demonstrating the parasitic nature of the gravest epidemic
maladies."
3.
bole
in
of the bacteria in contagious Maladies and Virulent Affections.

shall first pass in
We
review the different
af-
fections
which the presence of bacteria has been indicated, whether they have been given as the cause of the malady or considered as simple epiphenomena.
Septicemia.
According
to
the
hypothesis of
upon the nature of septic blood, Sedillot demonstrated by some very conclusive experiments that the infective power is due to formed elements (des eUments figures).
Borsieri and of Gaspard
Plate IX.
$<&>
r-
\r*,
^>r"
-V
i
?fM
/ ~^
iv
vr-'
iU
W3*
s ;-
<
PLATE
IX.
Copied from photographs by Koch in Cohn's " Beitrdge zur Biohgie der Pjlanzen," Bd. II., Heft 3.
X500. Spirochete from human mouth, resembling the SpirochFig. X 500. ete Obermeieri of relapsing Fig. with spores from rotten onion. X 500. Fig. with spores from surface of rotten potato.
Fig
1. Zooglosa ramigera from fluid containing rotting algae. 200 by Seibert's immersion objective No. 7. Spirillum undula. Fig. 2. X 500. Bacillus (subtilisf), from hay infusion, showing flagella. Fig. 3.
1
4.
fever.
5.
Bacilli,
Bacilli,
6.
X
1
500.
A higher power (500) shows that these branches are made up of oval bacteria
154

first
experiments of Davaine brought him " The effects of putrefying substances do not go beyond the animal
The
to the following conclusions
into
toxic
which these substances are injected. The agent of putrid matters does not regenitself.
erate
Putrefaction acts
upon the animal

opinion should
economy
have for
as a poison."
it
The
first
the authority of Robin.
Already in
1864, Leplat and Jaillart, after a series of inoculations made with septic blood, arrived at deductions analogous to those
of
Robin.
At
the
same epoch,
Billroth
and Weber, having injected
the gases of putrefaction, expressed the opinion

that the septic agent was of a molecular nature
(particulate).
Bergmann,
alcohol
of Dorpat, admitted as
contagious agent an azotized substance, not organ-
and ether at a temperature of 100, and passing through filters. This theory was identical with that of Panum. It is to Pasteur that the honor belongs of having first
ized, resisting
affirmed the parasitic nature of septicemia.
This
communication was followed by confirmatory ex-' periments by Coze and Feltz. These experimenters also proved that the bacteria of putrid blood do not possess the property of traversing the epithelium, and that " the infectious element gains in passing through similar organisms." In 1868, changing his first Davaine, opinion, admitted the presence of bacteria in the blood of animals which Hallier of Jena and Be'champ die of septicemia.
micro-organism, Micrococcus
of Montpelier also believe in the
presence of a
for Hallier, Micro-
zyma
for Be'champ.
THE BACTERIA
IN CONTAGIOUS MALADIES.
155
Coze and Feltz, in their work, have demonstrated the constant presence of bacteria in the
blood of animals dead from septicemia.

relation has driven
is
This cor-
them
to
admit that " there

the infections acci-
a direct relation between

little
dents and the
foreign organisms which play,

researches confirmatory of the
in the blood, the role of ferments, and reproduce
themselves."
first
New
have been communicated to the Academy by the same authors. Opposed to these conclusions upon the bacterial origin of septicemia, some experiments have recently appeared in England, then in Berlin, which weaken them. Zuelzer, struck by the analogy which exists between septicemia and
intoxication
testinal
by atropine
(dilatation of pupils, inof
paralysis, acceleration
heart's action),
has sought for the presence of an alkaloid by the
method
teria
of
Stas.
In collaboration with Sonnenit.
schein, he has succeeded in discovering
Bac-
and introduced in considerable quantity into the mouth, under the skin, and into the vessels of various animals, have never seemed to him to produce septic accidents. But the scene changes as soon as an addition is made to the injected matters of two to five centigr.
cultivated
artificially,
of neutral sulphate of atropia.
The period
of in-
cubation always lasted from nine to twelve days.
The same
year, Riemschneider deduced from his
observations the same result, and confirmed thus
the similarity between atropine and sepsine.
The
bacterial origin of septicemia received, however, a
new
support from the experiments of Vulpian.
156
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BACTEEIA.
Having injected into a rabbit two drops of blood from a man who died of pulmonary gangrene, the Nuanimal died at the end of twenty hours. merous bacteria were found in its vessels. The
liquid extract of these, injected into other rabbits
produced death in
twenty-four hours,
and the
were observed in their blood. Henrot the bacteria penetrate by the pulmonary mucus membrane, and only act in contact with blood rendered " phlogogene " by pus. There is then a necessity for two producing
same
parasites
According
to
In support of his opinion the author cites experiment. He injects into the jugular of two rabbits a mixture of distilled water and pus, for the purpose of rendering the blood "phlogogene;" in two others he injects pulverized
causes.
the
following
coral suspended in water.
One
of the first rabbits
and one
of the second, placed in a
pure
air, resist
perfectly.
The two others are subjected
to
ema-
nations from putrefying " anatomical " fragments.
The
of a
rabbit into which pus
in three days, the second
had been injected died was still living at the end
month. Cavafy admits the presence of bacteria in septic liquids, but does not regard them as the efficient cause of the thromboses following inoculations. According to Moritz Traube and Gschleiden, living organisms into which one injects
blood containing a great quantity of the
bacteria of putrefaction, do not suffer able

1
any dur-
harm from the

and
injections.
At
the end of
I have injected various liquids containing bacteria into the circulainto the cellular tissue of rabbits,
tion of dogs
any
serious results follow such injections.
G. M.
but have never seen

S.
THE BACTERIA
IS CONTAGIOUS MALADIES.
157
twenty-four hours, the arterial blood drawn from a rabbit into which one and one half centimeters
.
of
liquid containing
bacteria had been injected,
can be preserved (by protecting it from exterior germs) during several months, without presenting traces of putrefaction. The bacteria then are dead in the living organism. Nevertheless, the living blood is powerless to resist beyond a cerThese results seem difficult to rectain point. oncile with those which Feltz has reached as the result of new researches with the toxic principle Compressed air passed through a of putrid blood. septic liquid has no influence upon its toxic properties or upon the minute beings contained in
it:
there
is
the vibrios.
simply a diminished movement of In a vacuum the toxic power is

the Cocco-bacteria and bacteria be-
diminished
lose
vibrios and spiral bacteria but the smallest forms are not killed. W. Moxon and J. F. Goodhart have recognized the presence of bacteria in the blood
come motionless, the

their
activity,
and
in
the
inflamed
tissues
of
septicemic pa-
According to Virchow, also, the active agent is a bacterium which, injected, with or without putrid liquid, produces death by septic
tients.
intoxication.
Livon and Zuelzer have never observed any
symptom
of putrid infection to follow injections
of these micro-organisms into the blood.
In presence of so many divergent opinions, each supported by scientific authorities, we do not feel justified in adopting any definite conclusion.
158

of Coze and Feltz, however, as which confirm them, lead us to
The experiments
well
as
those
consider the constant presence of bacteria in putrid
blood as a great probability in favor of the

is
parasitic genesis of septicemia.
There
just
a variety of septicemia which presents
we have spoken namely, puerperal septicemia. The preceding researches, with their consequences, are all applicable to this form of septicemia, and exthe closest resemblance to that of which
;
plain
to
us
its
nature.
This manner of seeing
seems to us justified by the labors of Orth of Bonn, according to which the lymph and the blood contain Micrococci in considerable numbers. Klebs has verified the presence of the same
parasites
in
the
putrid
infection
consecutive
to
Like the preceding authors, in the liquids of septicemia the presence of Micrococci, and does not admit any other parasites.
Birsch-Hirschfeld
recognizes
gun-shot wounds.
Charbon.
charbon.
A malady
inferior organisms has
in which the influence been especially sought
of
is
We
will
examine successively the
results
fur-
nished by experimental pathology and by clinical

observation, and will finish
of the nature of charbon.
by
a general discussion
Although
scribed
this
affection
has been
known and
de-
studied from the highest antiquity, and was
by Chabert (1782),
Gilbert (1795), and
many
others, its parasitic nature has not long
been
THE BACTERIA
159
known.
ell,
Let us note, however, that Fuchs, Brau-
Pollender, and Delafond, had remarked

Prof. Delafond
some
corpuscles in the blood of animals attacked with
made, twenty years ago, some researches, which he communicated to the

charbon.
Central Society of Veterinary Medicine, upon the

rods of sang du rate.
Davaine,
who had
observed,
with Eoger, the presence of rods in the blood of charbon as early as 1850, did not attach any importance to the fact. After the work of Pasteur
resumed his researches and the results which he obtained were communicated to the Academy of Sciences the 27th of July and the 10th of August, 1863, then the 22d of August, 1864. His
in 1861, he
experiments established the fact that the blood of animals attacked with charbon contains organisms (elements figures), and that, injected into a healthy animal, it kills it by reproducing the same symptoms. There remained a step to make, to prove
that
the
bacteria
alone
possessed
cases.
the
infective
power, even in epidemic

discoveries,
Notwithstandto find
ing the labors of Signol (1864) corroborating his
Davaine did not
fail
oppo-
nents.
sults
Leplat and Jaillard made

of
known
to
the re-
their
experiments, according
which
the bacteria were not the cause of sang de rate.
In 1867, Bouley and Sanson, and in 1870, Bailstudied the nature of the malady known under the name of mal de montagne. Klebs, in Switzerland, having, with Tiegel of the Pathological Institute of Berne, made some
let,
negative injections with filtered blood
(of
char-
160
bon) demonstrated thus that the disease was truly due to the solid particles ; but he could not, as he did, affirm that the bacteria alone were endowed with virulent power, for he included at the same time all the other solid elements (fibrine, globules), and could not therefore eliminate the granulations Klebs does not of a virus other than the bacteria. believe that the bacteria cause death by asphyxia. This view is also sustained by Recklinghausen and
Waldeyer, who believe that death results from embolism according to Burdon-Sanderson, on the
:
contrary, this
is
not the case.
The
observations and experiments up to this

disease.
time demonstrated that the blood of charbon would

transmit the
the
Davaine had said that the
bacteria constituted the condition sine qua non of
development of these diseases, but he had him the experiments of Leplat and Jaillard. Besides, as he injected at the same time other corpuscles figurees, it was difficult to prove that they went for nothing in the production of
against
Finally, this theory could not explain endemics (pastures in Auvergne). One could truly say, with Burden-Sanderson, that the virulent element can exist in two forms, one fugitive (bacteria), one permanent, unknown. The point was to demonstrate it. This is what Koch has done. Having taken some bacteria, he cultivated them in urine, or the aqueous humor of the eye of a horse, and remarked that they underwent a certain elongation, then presented brilliant points of condensation which became free; injected
charbon.
certain
THE BACTERIA
IN
CONTAGIOUS MALADIES.
161
into the blood of sheep
and of
rabbits, these cor-
puscles produced
death with the
symptoms
of
charbon, and the blood of the animals presented
numerous
bacteria.
The appearance
of spores in
the liquid under cultivation, containing bacteria, occurs in twenty-four hours at 35 (95 Fah.), in three days at 18 above 45 and below 12 it is
;
no longer
possible.
Once produced these spores
and alternation of humidity and dryness, during several years. On the contrary, the adult form of the Bacillus anthracis dies under the influence of putrefaction and of oscillations of temperature. It has not seemed to develop itself in the dog, the cat, birds, and cold-blooded animals. The immunity which these enjoy has recently been the object of a study by Pasteur, Joubert, and Chamberlain. Believing that it might be attributed to their temperature, incompatible with the life of the bacteria, they have refrigerated a fowl, and have ascertained that Besides, by placing the it lost this immunity. infected animal in an oven at 30 (86 Fah.) they have seen the temperature come back rapidly to the normal and the symptoms of charbon to reresist putrefaction, desiccation,
cede.
The
labors,
then, of
Koch add an
additional
element of probability in favor of the parasitic They show us the existence of an organtheory. ism which we would be able to invoke as the cause
of spontaneous epizootics.
All these results
Cohn
11
of Breslau has obtained
upon repeating the experiments of his compatriot.
162
In France, Toussaint commenced, March 21, 3875, a series of successful inoculations upon rabbits, with blood obtained from the spleen and an abdominal tumor of a sheep which had died of the
rate. These specimens had been sent to Chauveau by Joly, veterinary surgeon at Gien. Having preserved some blood in the air, Toussaint remarked, as Davaine had done and as Koch had observed, that putrefaction kills the Bacillus enclosed in a close vessel, it succumbs as soon as oxygen is wanting, which occurs sooner when the
mal du
temperature
It
is
elevated.
of
was upon the presentation
these results
to the
Academy
of Sciences that
is
Cohn expressed
the opinion that charbon
but not
to a special virus.
act, it is
If the filtered
filter,,
not due to a bacterium, blood does

at the
because the
same time,
retains the, virus.
Pasteur, in his letter of Aug. 18, 1877, replies
that a virus would be impotent to resist the numer-
ous cultivations endured by the liquids in his experiments, and that the bacteria alone remaining,
it
tious
was very logical to attribute to them the infecpower possessed by the liquid of the last
Paul Bert had at
first
cultivation.
believed, with Cohn, in
the existence of a virulent agent other than the
Indeed, after having treated blood of charbon with compressed air and alcohol, which kill bacteria, he had been able to transmit charbon. But, abandoning this first idea, he expressed himbacteria.
self as of
the same opinion as Pasteur and Joubert
THE BACTERIA
IN
163
(July 30 of the same year), recognizing that the

persistence of the virulence
is
due to spores (corthe causes of de-
puscles germes) which resist

struction.
all
Quite recently, finally, Toussaint, while studying

the mechanism by which the bacteria cause the
death of rabbits, horses, and sheep, arrives at the conclusion that it is because of asphyxia of mechanical origin,
pillaries.
embolism
of the
pulmonary
is
ca-
The phlogogene
action of the vibrionien
some-
is a rupture of the capillaries, and even lesions graver

still.
times such that, in addition to embolism, there
The phlogogene material is more active, according to the subjects from which the bacteria are
obtained.
"
The animals which

:
I have studied
may
be arranged as follows the rabbit, guinea-pig, sheep, ass, horse, dog." As to the hog, it is not
at all susceptible.
In the
last place,
Toussaint has presented, through
Bouley, a note upon a form of charbon caused by a Vibrion aerobie. This affection was already recognized as contagious, but the agent of contagion was not known.
is
Toussaint has found that
it
caused by a Bacterium, differing in certain char-
from Bacillus ; he has cultivated this microbe, and has seen it reproduce itself under the microscope, in an apparatus invented by Ranvier. The malady has been transmitted to rabbits in the same burrow without inoculation.
acters
By
taking the excrement, reduced to powder, of
164
an infected animal, and sowing it upon the food given to an animal in good health, the latter has
contracted the disease.
Besides Malignant Pustule without Bacteria. the numerous facts concerning charbon, in which the presence of a bacterium has been verified, it is proper to cite those cases in which none has been discovered. Some authorities, such as Toussaint, Mannoury, and Salmon, who have given
these instances, consider this absence of bacteria
a favorable prognostic sign.
The following
:
marked example has recently been observed Louis Donin, a tanner, aged forty, was admitted to the Hotel-Dieu of Lyons, June 15th, 1876, service of Fochier. On the morning of June 13, he had noticed three large flies, eagerly attacking the skins upon which he was working. One of bit him in them the face. The same day his cheek
during the night a large vesicle formed, surrounded by an areola of other smaller vesicles; the skin having become pruriginous, Donin rubbed
swelled
;
well-
the central vesicle.
Upon
his arrival his general
condition was satisfactory.
Upon
his
left
cheek
was seen an areola

meter.
of little vesicles surrounding
a slough having a diameter of less than a centiThe periphery was oedematous and hard,
trembling and extended downwards as far as the xiphoid appendix. The eyelids and the oedematous lips were opened with difficulty.
In order to
verify the diagnosis, Toussaint inoculated a rabbit
with the debris of a pustule; a second, with blood;
THE BACTERIA
IN
165
and a
third,
with serum.
The
result of these three
inoculations
was completely negative. The microscopic examination by Charpy and Colrat did not reveal the presence of any vibrionien. On the
16th of July, the patient
left the
hospital cured.
Let us add that the interne of the service, having punctured his finger with a syringe employed in making injections of carbolic acid (twenty per
cent), did not experience
any
ill
effects.
Darreau, veterinarian at Courtalain, attributes to bad food this variety of charbon, in animals,
without the presence

scribed an epidemic
of
bacteria.
He
has de-
on a farm where the forage quality. bad Charbon is then due, acwas of cording to him, to impoverishment of the blood. Decroix, veterinarian in the army, has examined
with the microscope the blood of horses submitted to his observation, from the jugular vein, and also the tumors. He has never found any bacteria. The These experimental and horses have recovered. permitted Bouley to estabclinical results have lish the unity of the charbonneuse malady, contrary to the opinion of Prof. Bouillaud, who renews
the hypothesis of a multiplicity of charbonneuse
affections.
In effect we see the same bacterium everywhere producing the same disorders. In the very rare and generally favorable cases of charbon which do
not seem to be of bacterial origin, we may say with Pasteur, " When the parasite has not been perceived, it is probably because sufficiently high
powers have not been used.
The phlogogene
ac-
166
tion of the bacteria, brought to light

is
by Toussaint,
necessary in order to explain the production of
the tumors of charbon."
Davaine, in consideration of the immobility of the Bacillus anthracis, admits that every tumor
results
from a
local inoculation.
We
have called
attention to the fact that the virulent agents of

variola
and of rugeola, although motionless, proIn the duce nevertheless local manifestations. second place, the charbon of the horse is often accompanied by internal tumors of which the orFiigin evidently cannot be an external cause. nally we have pointed out by Bouley some horses of La Plata in which the local manifestations did not appear until after the general symptoms. This view had already been sustained by Chabert. However, notwithstanding all the proofs furnished turn about by experimental pathology and clinical study, one desideratum still remains. It is necessary to verify the presence of the spores of Bacillus anthracis in the lands where charbon prevails as an epizootic and to discover its means of
transportation.
we think it proper to examine the efficacy of antiseptic treatment. Carbolic acid, studied by Koch, has been employed with success boracic acid, which acts
Before abandoning this question,
;
upon the
bacteria
by depriving them
of oxygen,
has been utilized by Decroix, veterinarian of the
army
acid,
rise
by
to
tincture of iodine, employed, like carbolic
subcutaneous injections, has given grave accidents. Beside these general
THE BACTERIA
IN
167
proceedings based upon the idea of an infection of the entire organism, are placed the local treatment
destined
of entry
:
to
destroy the bacteria at their point
thesfe are, caustic potash, sublimate,
the
paste of Canqouin, the hot iron.
These two categories of means employed sometimes alone, sometimes simultaneously, show that the idea of the clinicians has always been the destruction of an
infectious organism.
Variola.
The
partisans
of
the
parasitic
na-
ture of variola
1.
may
be divided into two groups
Those who, with Coze
and
Peltz,
attribute
the virulence to a Bacterium; 2. Those who, with Luginbiihl and Weigert, attribute it to a Coze and Feltz have indeed disMicrococcus. covered Bacteria in the blood Of variola, and this
blood injected into the veins of a rabbit has given

it
a mortal malady, which these observers consider
variola.
But Chauveau has shown
that the af-
fection which proved fatal to the subjects of the
experiment was not and could not be variola. Another objection is that Bacteria are not found in all those who suffer from variola. However, Coze and Feltz and Baudouin affirm that there are in variolous blood numerous rods, of which the appearance is similar to that of Bacterium bacillus and Bacterium iermo of Miiller. These elements do not at all resemble those found in other infections, and when inoculated possess the power of
reproducing variola.
As
to
the Micrococcus of variola, they have
PLATE
X.
Copied from photographs by Koch in Cohn's " Beitrage zur Biologie der Pfianzen," Bd. II., Heft 3.
Fig.
1.
Bacilli of Miltzbrand from the substance of the spleen.

col-
X700.
Fig.
lected
2. Bacilli of Miltzbrand in blood of basilar artery two days after death. X 700.
Fig. 3. Fig. 4.
Spirillum Obermeieri.
Bacilli
X
x
700.
of Miltzbrand cultivated in aqueous
humor,
showing development of spores,
700.
1 The lithographer has not succeeded in making a satisfactory copy of Koch's photo-micrograph, in this figure.
THE BACTERIA
IN
169
been studied by Luginbiihl, Weigert, Hallier, These micro-organisms possess the and Cohn. characters of all the spherical bacteria, and are
found in the variolous pustules, the
rete
Malphiyii,
the liver, the spleen, the kidneys, and the lymphatic ganglia. "We can only insist upon the fact
of the concomitance of the variola
and the pres-
ence of Micrococcus, since experiment cannot be resorted to in this disease, of which the complete
evolution only occurs in man.
We
also in
find
in
vaccine
point of view, to those of variola.
lymph analogous Micrococci, Cohn

species,
every
considers
them
both, not as distinct species, but as two races
of the
same
the Micrococcus
vaccinae.
and Feltz have found in the blood of scarlet-fever, taken from patients, living or recently dead, some rods as well as moScarlatina.
bile points.
Coze
This blood injected into the cellular

death,
tissue
of
rabbits has sometimes produced
and the blood of the animals experimented upon

has presented the same bacteria as
of scarlatina
:
human
blood
they are simply a little larger and longer. As to the mobile points, they appear to correspond to the Micrococcus of scarlatina
described
by
Hallier.
Rugeola.
sles
The examination
of the blood of
mea-
has shown to the same experimenters, bac-
extreme minuteness and great mobility. The inoculation of this blood has not produced the death of rabbits ; however, these animals have
teria of
170

sick for
two or three days and have presented in their blood very slender and active rods. In the period of invasion the nasal mucus already
been
contains small bacteriform elements.
Diphtheria.
Tigri,
All
the labors undertaken since

CErtel, Letzerich,
by Trendelenburg, masi, and Hueter, from a

Micrococcus.
Tom-
parasitic point of view,
have attributed diphtheria to the presence of a There is however a single exception, Eberth of Zurich, in a work published in 1872, regards a Bacterium as the agent of the diphtheritic contagion.
According to new researches, which appeared in 1873, the pus of pyaemia, or of purulent peritonitis, inoculated, produces diphtheria because of the
presence in
it
of bacteria.
Laboulbene had already pointed out the presence of Bacterium, accompanied by Vibrios and Micrococcus in pseudo-membranous affections. Some
researches
made
in
collaboration with
Robin had
but these savants did not admit a relation of cause to effect between the micro-organisms observed and diphtheria. According to Duchamp, as shown by experiments
result,
given the same
cited in his inaugural thesis (1875), there are in

false
membranes
Bacteria,
Vibrios,
and
granu-
lations.
Taken alone, these micro-organisms appear to possess a very injurious action, but their inoculation does not produce diphtheria. The demonstration of a causal relation
between the Micrococcus
THE BACTEBIA and diphtheria

last
is
IN
171
not, then, yet established
by these
experiments.
found bacteria in the blood of a man dead with typhoid fever. These organisms were also found by Signol (1863) and Megnin (1866) in the blood of horses attacked by a disease called by the veterinarians
Typhoid Fever.
Tigri
first
typhoid fever. This blood, by inoculation, produced the death of some rabbits, with the same
alterations in the blood.
rabbits
Coze and Feltz (1866), having inoculated some with the blood of typhoid fever, have produced results which they consider analogous and as accompanied by the same pathological localizations in the glands of Peyer.
The blood of be used upon a second rabbit, with positive results, as in variola and scaran injected rabbit
may
latina.
The
species of
Bacterium which
is
case recalls the Bacterium catenula, but

sions are less.
found in this its dimen-
Glanders and Farcy.

tion of the contagious
The
power
universal recogniof a liquid
coming
from an animal with glanders had, a priori, led to the supposition of an element of special contagion. The first indication was given by ChrisThese experimenters tot and Kiener (1868). discovered in the secretions and vascular glands of animals attacked with glanders, bacteria of two sorts 1. Rods, sometimes having a vibratory motion without changing place, sometimes having
:
172
a rectilinear or eccentric motion of translation 2. Some spherical granules of variable diameter,
homogeneous, animated by a rapid gyratory movement and a movement of translation in various

directions.
The
in
latter are
certainly Micrococci.
an experiment designed to demonstrate that the organisms alone are active, took ten grammes of pus from a pulmonary abscess of a horse attacked with acute glanders the virulent elements were so numerous that the water became opalescent. This pus was washed four or five times in five hundred grammes of distilled water, was then collected and dried, and finally was inoculated, and the inoculated animal perished with glanders. Another, on the contrary, into which the filtered liquid was injected presented nothing abnormal. The particulate elements are, then,
Chauveau,
:
alone active.
tagion
is
But
in glanders, as in charbon, con-
not always demonstrated. There are which spontaneous origin appears incontestable (case of M. Boulay d'Avesnes, three cases
cases in
cited in the " Eecueil de Mtjdecine Ve'te'rinaire,"
June
15, 1877).
Finally, this opinion has recently
been supported
by Delamotte,
who
accords in this with Tabourin,
might perhaps see minute germ, playing, in regard to the bacterium of glanders, the same role as the germ of charbon does with regard to the Bacillus anihracis. This is an hypothesis which no researches have yet confirmed. As proof of the functional analogy which may
in these cases the action of a
Bonnaud, and Chenier.
We
THE BACTEEIA
exist
of
173
of
between the bacteria
'
glanders and
charbon,
the
we
recall
the fact that Bedoin, having
mixed some powdered borax (two grammes) with

blood of a glandered horse, has found the
two hours. These results correspond with those which Decroix, veterinarian of the army, has obtained by treating horses attacked with charbon with
bacteria completely motionless at the end of
boracic acid.
Ulcerative Endocarditis.
In
this affection,
it is
well
settled
all,
to-day that the

that the
cardiac walls
and,
above
masses.
the valves are covered with
parasitic
Some think
;
malady
is
due to the
introduction of these
parasites into the interior
on the contrary, like Hiller, deny that the bacteria bear any causal relation with the lesions of ulcerative endocarditis. Gerber and Birsch-Hirschfeld have recently made an observation which is a complete refutation of the ideas supported by Hiller. They have found at the autopsy some hemorrhagic foci disseminated in various organs, the greater number of which
of the tissues
others,
contained some particular corpuscles belonging to

the class of the bacteria.
Belapsing Fever.
In
1868,
Otto Obermeier
discovered in the blood of the sick attacked with
recurrent fever certain bacteria, called by
Cohn
Spirochete Obermeieri.
These organisms are only
found during the

cess of fever
febrile
paroxysm
after the ac-
they disappear, but often they are
174
again found a few hours before the new access. They are no longer found when convalescence is
established.
feld,
Heidenreich, Weigert, Birsch-Hirsch-
and Cohn have confirmed these observations.
Intermittent Fever.
In
all
the analyses of air
made
found.
in
the vicinity of lands
where
this
fever
prevails,
numerous
1
inferior organisms
have been
I refer to a previous
work
to
for additional
information,
and limit myself
pointing out
the observations of Griffini,
who
has found in the

etc.
2
dew
of places
lineola,
subject to this fever, Vibrio bacil-
lus, V.
1
Bacterium termo, B. catenula,
Ant. Magnin, Rech. Geol., Bot. et Stat, sur lTmpaludisme dans les
et le
Dombes,
2
Miasme
Palude"en.
Paris, 1876.
who have recently spent with the intention of investigating the cause of malarial fevers, have published an account of their researches. Eroni an abstract of their report, published in a recent
" Professors Klebs and Tommassi-Crudelli,
in the
some time
neighborhood of
Rome
number
task.
.
.
of the
'
tigators followed a very deliberate plan in the

.
Medical Times and Gazette,' we learn that the invesperformance of their
"Professors Klebs and Tommassi-Crudelli first succeeded in producing the symptoms of malarial poisoning in animals by injection of watery extracts from the marshy soil. They then proceeded, by the process called fractional cultivation,' to isolate the active material, that is, the true generator of the disease, supposed to be a living organism. Lastly,
'
they isolated the organisms by filtration and, comparing the results obtained in injections of the filtrate with those produced by the residue containing the organisms, they proved that the poison of malaria resides
;
The fungi obtained appeared as small rods of 0.002 to 0.007 millimeter in length, growing into long, twisted threads. The fungus is
in these.
markedly
rise to
etc.
aerobiotic.
these fungi
true
If air is excluded, it dies out.
bacilli
malaria.
into' healthy
The
injection of
animals always gives
symptoms
of intermittent fever, with enlargement of the spleen,
Rome, was able to demonstrate spores and bacilli in the spleen, the marrow, and the blood of three persons who had died of pernicious fever, showing the same characters as those observed by Klebs and Crudelli. In summarizing the results of their investigations, the authors consider the following facts as proved 1. That
Later, Dr. Marchiafava, at
:
THE BACTERIA
IN SURGICAL LESIONS.
175
4.
Of
the Role of the Bacteria in

Surgical Lesions.
Existence of Bacteria in
Since the day when theraby Surgical Lesions. peutics has entered upon a road truly scientific,
the study of the liquids secreted upon the surface
of divided tissues has occupied in
the
Liquids Secreted
an important place
the observations and researches of surgeons.
Little
by
little
the discussion of operative methods

societies,
has fallen to the second place, so that to-day, both

in the press
is
and in the
but
little
attention
given to the
;
mode
of
proceeding or to the form

is
of the flaps
all
but the greatest interest
taken in
questions touching the pathological physiology

solutions of
to
continuity. Thirty years ago it chemistry that we looked for an explanation of the complex phenomena which favor or
of
was
prevent the cicatrization of wounds to-day it is above all to the microscope or rather it is to that part of chemistry which is the most particularly indebted to the microscope for the progress which
:
it
has accomplished, that
is
to say, to the science
of ferments, to
zymotic chemistry.
To show by
what labors this tendency has been brought about, to what facts they have led, and what progress has been realized, is the object which we propose to
ourselves in this paragraph.
it is
possible to reproduce malarial infection in every

it is
which
known
in
men
2,
form That the malaria produced
in rabbits in
artificially in
is generated by organisms existing in the malarial soil at a time the outbreak of the fever has not yet taken place." Extract from Leading Article in " Philadelphia Medical Times," March 13, 1880.
animals
when
176
In Bacteria in Liquids Exposed to the Air. order to comprehend the importance of bacteria
from a surgical point of view, it is sufficient to put a drop of pus from an open wound under the microscope.
bacteria will be demonstrated.

is
In the majority of cases the presence of And, truly, there
nothing in this which should astonish us, if we remember what has been said above, since we know the facility with which these vegetables develop in all the liquids of the organism, and the
which they offer to all but the most However, all pus is not equally suitable for the development of these organisms. It is easy to remark that they are more abundant in pus of a bad character, in that which smells bad and exhales an odor of butyric acid. They are also more commonly found in pus which has remained a long time in wounds having hidden siresistance
powerful agents.
nuses.
But while recognizing these

confess that there
is
differences,
we must
nothing absolutely fixed about them, and above all that they do not bear a constant relation with the conditions which govern the genesis of putridity.
It is certain, also, that the conditions surrounding the sick person, the quality of the air in which his wound is bathed, are conditions which it is
necessary to
And this results from what we have said relative to atmospheric germs. For example, when we submit to maceration in distilled water, dust gathered in a hospital, on one hand, and on the other, dust from a different locality, taken in the country, for instance. The
consider.
THE BACTERIA IN SURGICAL LESIONS.

first
177
etc.,
will
much
sooner develop Micrococcus,

(L.
and in far greater numbers

it is
Julien).
Now
evident that this result
is
exactly applicable to
the subject which occupies us, since the pus of
wounds exposed
to the air can be compared, in
a certain measure, to the infusions of dust.
elements found in pus, they are Most frequently the cocco-bacthemselves present in the form of little chains teria
As
to
the
equally variable.
They rarely exhibit any moveThe appearance of bacteria upon the surface of wounds occurs at the end of sixteen to twenty-four hours. During the first hours following the division of the tissues, as is well known,
(strepto-bacteria).
ment.
the only exudation which appears
is
a yellowish-
pink serum. In this inflammatory exudation, which
always contains a considerable quantity of blood

globules, the parasites do not at once appear.
as I
But,
have
said, at
the end of a day or two Micrococci
and Bacteria in chains, very small, and of average size, make their appearance. It seems, then, as has been remarked by G. Nepveu, to whom we owe an excellent work on " The Role of Inferior
Organisms in Surgical Lesions," that

cretion of
this first se-
wounds
is
quite propitious for the de;
velopment
able to
of bacteria
and, perhaps,
we might be
draw from
this fact
of their formation
an argument in favor and their existence in the blood.
Later, with free suppuration, the inferior organ-
isms increase
still more. It is, however, to be remarked that they are never very abundant upon the surface of healthy wounds. If we gather this
12
178

it
open air for some time, we may follow the increasing development of these germs. An important remark, due to Dr. Molliere
pus, and preserve
in the
of Lyons, is
that the
phenomena
of putrefaction
are hastened by the presence of blood in the puruA quantity of pus drawn by aspiralent liquid. tion from a deep abscess, and not mixed with blood,
was exposed to the air for fifteen days, without any bad odor being developed.
Bacteria in Purulent Collections not Exposed
1875, Dr. Albert Bergeron communicated to the Academy of Sciences (Seance of
to
the Air.
In
Feb.
26)
in
the
the
results
of of
numerous observations
Prof.
if
made
service
Gosselin, for the
purpose of ascertaining
contains bacteria.
sions of his
the
pus of abscesses
are the conclu-
The following memoir

:
1. Vibrios are found in the pus of abscesses, without any contact with the external air and
without, usually, any indication that the organism

is
seriously infected by their presence ; 2. We cannot admit that in these cases the vibrios have pen-
etrated into the interior of the abscess through the
lymphatic system, or through the circulatory system, both being intact. The pus of warm abscesses
in adults often contains vibrios
;
if
the case of infants the fact has not

3.
they occur in been observed

vibrios
The pus
of cold abscesses in the adult, as in the

;
infant,
never contains them
4.
The
may
be considered as indicating a serious inflammatory state, and a certain tendency to decomposition of
THE BACTERIA
the
179
humors which contain them, without, however, exercising any toxic action upon the organism 5. The author is far from rejecting the
as a rule,
;
possible intervention of vibrios in the pathology
and he explains the happy exemption of infants from septicemia, in a majority

of purulent infection
;
of cases,
by the
fact that these organisms are not
found in the pus of abscesses in young children.
The conclusions
of the
memoir
of
M. Bergeron
were the object of earnest discussions. According to the accepted theory, there ought never to be a development of organisms, unless the germs had been introduced from the air; if, then, we admit
the correctness of these observations, the explanation given
that
many
by Pasteur breaks down. Let us add, times, by the bedside of the patient,
has furnished results
absolutely
-
the microscope
contradictory.
Sometime before
M. Bouloumie
had formally established, as the result of long continued researches, that pus coming from any collection whatever, not in communication, directly or indirectly, with an open wound, never contained organized elements, mobile or motionless, which
can be considered as microzoa, or microphytes,
except
some highly-refractive moving points,
often
joined together in pairs.
We dare not say that the long discussions to which these communications have given rise have thrown any light upon the grave problems which they have attempted to resolve. Let it suffice for us to have pointed out these different points
of view.
180

the Effects
It would be rash of Bacteria. to attempt to-day to give a definite verdict upon the greater or less noxiousness of the bacteria.
Of
At
the outset of the studies which disclosed their presence in many pathological liquids, it was believed that we had finally found tbe true explanation of the obscure phenomena which retard or
complicate the normal repair of wounds.
But
what
shall
we
think to-day of the redoubtable role

first
which was at
attributed to a microbe,
its
when
we
ascertain that
clinical
by the
praised
development is not fettered means which are most highly
? These are the difficulties of the problem upon which the future will, without doubt, shed some light, but of which I repeat it notwithstanding the amount of labor which they call
forth every day,
it
is
ulate the solution to-day.
not possible for us to formLet us try, however, to
indicate
that which
experiment has taught us
up
to the present time.
Upon
the surface of a granulating wound, not
any vascular or lymphatic be believed that the microbe constitutes only a very contingent danger. It may
offering to absorption
orifice, it is to
multiply in greater or
less
degree, and will absorb

birth, perhaps, as
more or
less
oxygen, giving
result of chemical decompositions, to a virus
upon
the surface of the wound, which, notwithstanding,

will arrive at cicatrization.
But, if a solution of continuity happens to break through the thick
by the spontaneous movements of the patient or by those

layer of fleshy granulations, either
THE BACTERIA IN SURGICAL LESIONS.
181
which occur in dressing the wound (the pressure and manipulations which it was formerly customary to resort to), a rent being produced, the infectious agent will be able to penetrate into the blood current or into the lymphatics, and the door will thus be opened to local or general complications.
As a
all,
local complication,
we
should
cite,
above
Vabces de voisinage. If the presence of bacteria in the pus of spontaneous abscesses is still under discussion, all observers are agreed as to
secondary purulent collections. Bouloumie has taught us that in pus coming from abscesses developed in the parts in the vicinity of a wound, whatever may be its extent and depth,
their presence in
we may
verify the
presence of
all
the
micro-
organisms found in the pus of the wound, or cer-
developed with or contiguous in parts continuous to the tissues of the wound. There is then no doubt iîat,
tain ones only, according as the abscess is
in this case, these
find
elements are absorbed, or at least

the veins or lymphatics.
of micro-organisms,
their
way through
The inflammatory action
thrown
thus into the midst of healthy tissues, even of those
which become inflamed with the most

easy to demonstrate.
difficulty, is
this
The following unpublished experiments upon point have been communicated to us by our
:
friend Dr. Louis Jullien
Experiment
surgical
1.
Having gathered some dust

it
in the
wards
at Lyons, I put
in a flask of distilled
water.
At
the end of some days I had thus given rise
182
to the development of numerous micro-organisms, the most common form being Bacterium. The 20th of May, 1873, with a Pravaz syringe, I
injected four drops of this liquid into the right ocular Immediately afterward, the iris globe of a rabbit.
bulged forward, became clouded, and the pupil dilated irregularly. As a result of this injection a terrible inflammation was developed. On the 25th I note an intense conjunctivitis and a roughness of the cornea, from which the epithelium has disappeared at certain
points.
Upon
the posterior surface of the cornea

in certain points
;
is
a white cloud occupying the inferior part of the pupillary opening,
more opaque
and present-
ing the appearance of a hypopyon the iris was still bulged forward, tomentous, of a violet red color ; pupil
contracted.
June
to
4,
the
iris is still
;
touch the cornea forward.
the crystalline lens
bulged forward, so as nearly is also pushed
June
5.
By
aspiration I
a sort of
membrane having
withdrew from the vitreous the form of a whitish fila-
ment. Upon examining this with the microscope, I recognized the presence of pus globules, cryptococcus,
and bacteria. June 10. The ocular inflammation has disappeared, but a cataract remains.
Exp. II. The same as the preceding. When the syringe was withdrawn from the vitreous, into which four drops were injected, a chemosis occurred, resulting no doubt from the fact that a
little fluid
was extrav-
asated into the sub-conjunctival tissue.
Operation made
May
25.
ocular inflammation, conjunctiva of a uniform red color cornea clouded, of a pearl gray tint iris very red, tumefied. The animal seems to suffer much when it is examined.
;
29. Intense
THE BACTERIA
30. Still
183
much
inflammation, the ear
is
very warm,
white,
fever intense.
June
4.
capsular cataract
is
recognized,
milky, and glistening.

5. Aspiration by means of Pravaz syringe. A white membrane was obtained and examined under the microscope. It contained a great number of pus corpuscles,
a very great quantity of highly refractive yellowish

bodies, resembling cryptococcus,
bacteria.
10.
and a small number of
The inflammation
III.
is still
considerable.
Exp.
injection
As a control
experiment I made an in-
jection of distilled water into the eye of a rabbit.
The
was well made, and,
as in the preceding case,
a chemosis occurred.
There has been no reaction of any sort, either and it is impossible to distinguish the which the injection was made. eye into
June
10.
local or general,
The inflammatory properties

isms being demonstrated,
of the micro-organ-
we
can easily understand
the pathology of an abces de voisinage, and

ceive also the consecutive formation of
cesses as a result of the
first.
we connew ab-
This
is
one of the
modes derived from a

rulent infection
is
local process
by which pu-
accomplished.
As a general complication, we must mention the penetration of the microbe into the blood, and the possibility, thanks to this liquid, of the infectious
agent being transported to
tion,
all
the organs, where
it
will form, either centres of softening
and suppura-
which have been called metastatic abcesses,
184
or,

a
little
by
different
mechanism, veritable emsince,

is
bolisms.
A very curious
of a
fact
was published not long

This observation
which supports this view. to Hjalmar Helberg (of Christiania).
due
In the case
woman
in
whom
uterus was found to
mucus membrane of the be covered with a great numthe
ber of micro-germs, the tissues of the eye presented a series of lesions, which microscopic ex-
amination showed to be due to the presence of parasites. In the cells of the cornea, in the vessels
of the choroid and of the retina, were seen
veritable plugs containing bacteria identical with
the micro-organisms found in the genital parts.
The author admits

I will
that the ocular inflammation

septic embolisms.
had been produced by

cess,
not insist further upon the embolic prois
which
studied in another chapter of this
work.
To sum
of bacteria
up, I will say that, so far as the influence
on wounds themselves is concerned, we know as yet nothing positive since, as I have said, we find these parasites upon the surface of solutions
;
which progress most rapidly and surely to a cure. Better informed in regard to the generalization of the process and the infection of the organism by products formed on the surface of the wound, we cannot dissimulate the fact that
of continuity
much
of our information
line of hypothesis,
and that
to accept
it
yet as
upon the borderwould be imprudent invariably settled. According

is
still
it
to all probability,
we
will find
the
key
to these
THE BACTERIA. IN SURGICAL LESIONS.

obscurities
185
when we know
better
how
to distin-
guish the different kinds of microphytes.
Indeed,
while Billroth only admits two invariable funda-
mental types, Coccos and Bacteria, Weigert has

recently expressed views quite opposed to these in
speaking of the bacteria of fermentations and of
chromogenes, which according to Cohn and Pasteur constitute as
many
physiological species as
there are different fermentations and colorations. According to Weigert, there are an infinite number of sorts of bacteria, arising from the fact that each Micrococcus assumes special vital properties according to the medium in which it finds itself, and consequently gives birth, as the result of decompositions which it effects in taking possession of oxygen, to various chemical products acting as morbid
viruses.
Influence of the Preceding

peutics.
We have
Notions upon Therafor
just
shown that
it
many
au-
thors -germs are the origin of the greater part of
the complications of wounds,
was then natural
that they should seek to prevent their develop-
ment.
In order to attain this result, the clinicians
have used means either physical or chemical. M. Alphonse Gue"rin, founding his practice upon
the ideas of Pasteur regarding the possibility of
filtering
and purifying the
air
by passing
it
through
cotton-wadding,
realized
conceived the idea of covering

of cotton,
wounds with a considerable quantity
the
fact cannot be denied
an
and
immense
progress in the treatment of severe traumatisms.
186
PHYSIOLOGT OF THE BACTERIA.

attributed his success to
all
But while the surgeon
the absence of germs, and gave
the credit to
M. Pasteur, the microscopists had no difficulty in proving that, far from being exempt from them, the pus of the wounds kept under these dressings swarmed with micro-organisms. It was, then, to some very different conditions that the real progress The as realized by M. Gue"rin should be ascribed.
constant temperature, the absolute immobility, the
continued pressure, and consequent absence of any

rent of the tissues, as well as the absolute want of
absorbent openings upon the surface of the wound,

are probably the circumstances to which so
many
is
happy cures have been due
since 1870.
Among
the chemical agents to which recourse

in the front
had we must place

extolled especially
rank carbolic
acid,
by Lister. Not more than for M. Guerin can we deny the fact that- the number
of cures after severe surgical operations has
been
considerably increased by operating under a cloud

of pulverized carbolic acid solution, and applying upon the wound nothing but dressings which have
been for a long time submitted to the action of

this agent.
But
in this instance also the interpre-
was a mistaken one, in seeking the secret of success in the exclusion of every microbe for, in a great majority of cases, Virchow has not been able to find any appreciable difference between the pus treated by the old methods and that of wounds submitted to that of Lister. And, nevertation
;
theless,
tions of
purulent infection disappeared, complicaall kinds diminished singularly in fre-
THE BACTERIA
;
187
quency and union by first intention is attempted and often obtained in very extensive wounds, where formerly it could not have been hoped for, even in the cases which presented the most favorable
appearance.
results
Let us rejoice that we can record such favorable and, however cloudy the present theories concerning bacteria may be, let us recognize that the labors of Pasteur and Cohn have at least had the merit of inspiring great reforms, which are
;
subjects of just pride in the operative surgery of
the present day.
Many other substances have also been praised as being an obstacle to the development of germs. We will only mention the permanganate of potash,
the hyposulphites, chlorine water ,and tincture of
eucalyptus, of which the action
is
doubtful.
We
must
still
mention glycerine, which from
its affinity
for water has the property of fettering the
move-
ments
of bacteria,
and determining
at their ex-
pense a considerable exosmosis. We will not return here to the subject of the origin of micro-organisms, but refer the reader to the chapter in which this has already been
treated.
CONCLUSIONS.
"We may sum up as follows the actual knowledge upon the bacteria
:
state of
our
1.
The
bacteria are cellular organisms of vege-
table nature.
Their organism is more complicated than The principal was for a long time believed. their structure, the points brought to light are presence of cilia, the nature of the substances
2.
:
contained in their protoplasm,

grains of sulphur, etc.
3.
colored granules,
The forms
etc.
of torula, zooglcea, leptothrix,
my-
coderma,
4.
The multiple affinities of the bacteria, on the one hand with the algae, on the other with the fungi, differently understood by authors, and their development, still unknown for the greater number of species, make it impossible to classify these beings except in a provisional manner. 5. This development, well studied in several species of Bacillus, has proved that bacteria may multiply not only by fission, but also by formation of spores, and even by veritable sporangia.
6.
These spores or permanent germs are the
PHYSIOLOGY OP THE BACTERIA.

principal
189
means by which these
inferior organisms
are disseminated.
7.
As
to their role in fermentations, in putrefac-
tions, in
contagious diseases, and in surgical

considerable
le-
sions,
notwithstanding the
number
it is
1
of
labors of
which the bacteria have been the

not
it
object in these different points of view,
yet possible to define
in a certain manner.
1 The candid statement made in the last paragraph by a savant who has shown himself so familiar with the whole subject, and by a Frenchman who evidently has a high regard for his distinguished countryman,
Pasteur, shows us that there

ful
is still much to be done in the way of careand conscientious work in the study of the life-histories and physiological functions of the micro-organisms known under the general name
of bacteria.
6. M.
S.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Trdcul (on Alcoholic Fermentation). Reply to the Notes of M. TrtScul of the 30th Dec. and 13th Jan.
Observations on his Reply.
Last Reply and Further Reply.
Second, Third, and
Observations on
his
Fourth Replies of M. Berthelot. C. R. Ac. des Sc. LXXXVIII, nos. 2, 3, 4, and 6. C. R. Observations on M. Felz's Paper. 1879. Pasteur.
LXXXVIII,
pp. 1216, 1217.
Routier and Regnard.

at the H6tel-Dieu.
A Case of Anthrax observed

XXIX,
Journ.
C. R. Soc. Biol. Paris,
pp. 442-445, 465, 466. Robin. Remarks on Bacterian Fermentation. Anat. and Phys. (Robin), XV, p. 465-91.
Pragmowski.
On
the History of Development and
Ferment. Action of some Species of Bacteria.

nary Communication.
Bot. Zeit.
Prelimi-
XXXVII. p. 409-24.
C. R. Ac. des
Tieghem, Van.
Sc.
Identity of Bacillus Amylobacter and
the Butyric Vibrion of
M.
Pasteur.
LXXXIX,
p. 5.
On the Nature of Tommasi-Crudelli and Klebs. the Specific Agent which produces Malarial Fever.
Uri.ichs.
Trans. R. Acad. Lincei, III. pp. 216-20. Ueber Vegetation von Pigment-Bacterien in
Verbandstoffen.
Arch.
f.
klin.
Chir.
Berl.,
XXIV,
303-308.
Waldstein.
Bacteria.
Contribution to the
Biology of the
Arch. path. Anat. et Phys.

iiber
LXXVII,
p.
Untersuchungen Bacterien. Beitrage 105. Wernich, H. Action Dry Heat and of Sulphurous
Wernich.
zur Biologie der Pflanzen, Bd. III. Heft
of
1, p.
34-68.
Acid on the Bacteria which accompany Putrefaction. Nature XII. pp. 311, 312 (Abstract from Centralblatt f. die Med. Wiss.). Wernich, H. The Aromatic Products of Decomposi-
tion in their Influence on the Schizomycetes.
Arch.
path. Anat. and Phys.
1880.
Arndt.
Observations
LXXVIII.
of Teeth.
pp. 51-83.
on Spirochete denticola.
pp. 76-86.
The
Spirochete of the
Mucus
Arch. Path. Anat.
and Physiol.
LXXIX.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1880.
219
Biologie
einiger
Ein Beitrag zur Dorpat, 1880, Bkantlecht. Algues d'eau douce, genique. Ann. d'Hyg. 2 Dallinger. Experiments
Boehlendorf.
Schizomyceten.
8.
leur r61e
patho275.
Public,
stSrie, t. 2, p.
Series of
to
determine the
etc.
Thermal Death-point of known Monad Germs,
Journ. E. Micr. Soc. Ill, pp. 1-16. Declat. On the Analogies which seem to exist be-
tween the Cholera of Fowls and the " Nelavan " or Malady of Sleep. C.B. Ac. des Sc.XC, pp. 1088-1090. Frisch. On the Behavior of the Bacilli of "Milzbrand" at extremely low Temperatures. S. B. K. Akad. Wiss. (Wien) (3d sec), pp. 77-94.
Friedrich.
Pathogenetic Bacteria Marshes. Medical Record, N. Y. Greenfield. Anthracis. Rep.

in
LXXX
Salt-water
Bacillus
to
Agricultural
Society.
Quar. Journ. Mic.

to
Boyal Sc, No.
LXXIX,
Hansen, E.
p. 374.
C.
Contributions
the
Knowledge of
Organisms which live in Beer and the Wort of Beer. 1. Besearches on the Organisms which at Different Periods of the Year are found in the Air at Carlsberg and Neighborhood, and which develop in Beerwort, I, pp. 49-67.
2. 3.
On
the Membranes, pp. 67-72.

in
Compte Rendu Trav. Lab. Carlsberg 49-75. (French Resume), Oidium Red-colored Saccharomyces, 75-80. Hansen, E. exercised by Hansen, E. C. On the
Hansen, E.
C.
lactis, II,
Organisms observed
Beer and Wort, pp. 72-75.

pp.
C.
pp.
Influence
the In-
troduction of Air on the Fermentation of Wort, pp.
81-88.
Hansen, E. C. Hansen, E. C. Hansen, G. A.

pp.
Hypothesis Mycoderma Bacillus
of Horvath, pp. 88-93.

Aceti, pp. 94-96.
terium of Leprosy.
leprce. Studies on the BacArch. Biol. (Van Beneden) I,
225-240.
Hansen, G. A.
et
Bacillus leprce.
pp. 32-42.
Arch. path. Anat.
Phys.
LXXIX,
220
1880. King-sett.
tion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Contributions to the History of PutrefacPart I. Journ. Chem. Soo. XXXVII. 1880, pp. 15-22. Studies on the Cause Klebs and Tomassi-Crudelli. of Intermittent Fever and the Nature of Malaria. 5 plates. Arch. expe>. Pathol, et Pharmacol. XI.
88 pp.
Kobert.
Naturw. (Gieble), IV, pp. 884-886. Lassar, O. Die Micrococcen der Phosphorescenz. Arch. f. d. Ges. Physiol., Bonn, 1880, XXI, 104-109. Loomis. The Relation of Bacteria to Pyaemia. Med. Gaz. N. Y., VII, 24. The Schizomycetes and their R61e in Luerssen, C.
Diseases and Fermentations.
pp. 242-260.
Bacillus
Beitr. Biol.
e
Anthracis.
Zeitsch.
Gesammt.
Rev. Internat.
Sci.
V,
Researches on the Bacteria suspended the 119-140. Pflanzen Miguel. Poussieres organisers de l'atmosphere. Ann. 226, 333. 2 sene, d'Hyg. Moss, E. L. Experiments on Septic Organisms
Miflet.
Air.
in
III. pp.
Public,
t.
2, pp.
in
Rep. Brit. Ass. Adv. Sci. Meeting, 1879, pp. 416-18. Existence of Bacteria or Nencki, Giacosa.
Living
Tissues.
49 th
their
Germs
Nencki.
zoa.
in
the Healthy Organs of Animals.
Journ.
Relation of Oxygen the Life the Micro337-358. Journ. Prakt. Chem. XIX. the Nencki, M. Contributions
to
Prakt. Chem.
XX,
pp. 34-44.
of
pp.
to
Life-history of the
figs.
Schizomycetes.
Leipsic, 1880.)
62 pp. 2 plates and 7
(8vo,
Ollive
C.
On the
with
p.
Resistance of Barbirine Sheep to
Inoculation
Charbon.
C.
R.
Ac.
des
Sc.
LXXXIX,
Pasteur.
Observations
792.
the Bacteridium of
(verbal) on the Cold which Anthrax and other Microscopic
Organisms can support without losing their Virulence. C. R. Ac. des Sc. LXXXIX, p. 1015. On Virulent Diseases, and particularly that Pasteur.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
popularly called " Cholera des Pouhs."
221
C. R. Ac.
1880. Pasteur.
Pasteur. On
des Sc.
XC,
pp. 239-248.
Studies on Fermentation (trans, by F. Faulkner and D. C. Roff ). 8vo, London, 1879. Pasteur. On the Cholera of Fowls. C. R. Ac. des Sc. XC, pp. 952-958, 1030-1033.
the Extension of the
to the Etiology of
Theory of Germs some Common Diseases. C. R. XC,

the
pp. 1033-1044.
Pragmowski.
On
Development of some Species
of Bacteria and the Fermentation which they cause.

(Transl. from "Bot. Zeitung.") Bev. Internat. Sci. IV, pp. 546-554. Pragmowski. Researches on the Developmental History and Ferment-action of some Species of Bacteria, 58 pp. 2 plates (8vo., Leipzig, 1880). Romueguere. The Micrqscopic Organisms of the
Blood.
Rev. Mycol.
II, pp.
71-73.
Nitrification.
Schloesing and Munz.

C. R. Ac. des Sc.
Researches on
"Wiss.,
Soyka, G.
Air.
On the Passage
M.
LXXXIX, pp.
891-894, 1074-1077.
of Schizomycetes into the
S. B.
K. Bayer. Akad.
Munchen, 1879,
pp. 140-147.
Stapff, F.
Zeitschr.
Bacteria
in
the
Gotthard Tunnel.
to exist
Talmt.
On
Gesammt. Naturw.
(Giebel), IV, pp. 848-853.
the Analogies which
seem
between
the Cholera of Fowls and the Malady of Sleep (Ne-
On the Butyric Ferment the Coal LXXXIX, 1002-1004. Epoch. C. R. Ac. des Tieghem, P. Van. On the pretended Flagella of BacTieghem, P. Van.
in
lavan).
C. R. Ac. des Sc.
XC,
pp. 1104-1117.
Sc.
pp.
teria.
C. R. Ac. des Sc. Sp. Nov. C. R.
Tieghem, P. Van.
ferum.
C. R.
Development
On
pp. 141, 142.
LXXXJX,
pp. 37-45.
of Spirillum Amylipp. 65-68.
LXXXIX,
Tieghem, P. Van.
Tieghem, P. Van.
lose.
the Spores of some Bacteria.
On the Fermentation CelluBot. Fr. XXVI, 25-30. Malaria? Tommasi-Crudelli, C. Selinunte

of
Bull. Soc.
LXXXIX,
pp.
Bacillus
of
222
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
and Campobello. Atti R. Aocad. Lincei (Transunt.), IV, pp. 1 10-113; 653-696. 1880. Vallin. Sur la resistance des bacteries a la chaleur. Hun. d'Hyg. Public, 2 e sene XLIX, p. 259. The Diphtheria Fungus. Midi. Nat. II, Vizb, J. E.
E. Micro-fungi Britannici Cents. 1-4. Vize, "Waldstein. Contribution the Biology of the BacQuart. Journ. Micr. XX, pp. 190-201. Wernich. Experiments on with Micrococpp. 289-291.
J.
to
teria.
Sci.
Infection
cus prodigiosus.
Beit.
BioL
j^flanz. Ill, pp.
105-118.
INDEX.
B. genus established by Davaine,
A.
Abscesses, bacteria
Acetic ferment, 83.
Aerobies, 116.in, 178.
18.
B. luteum, 73. B. prodigiosum, 73.

B. violaceum, 74.
Algae, bacteria classed with, 56.
Bacterio-purpurine, 38.
Ammonia, does not

source
dissolve bac149.
Bacterium,
B.
80.
teria, 53.
of,
B. seruginosum, 85.
brunneum,
85.
Anaerobies, 116.
Antiseptic treatment, in charbon,
166.
B. catenula, 82. B. griseum, 81. B. lineola, 81.
Ascococcusê. A. BiUrothi, 96.
B. littoreum, 81.
B.
'
punctum,
82.
B. rubescens, 85. B. sulphuratum, 86. B. syncyanum, 85.
B.
Bacillus, 87.
B. amylobacter, 88.
B. termo, 81. B. triloculare, 81. B. xanthinum, 85. Bastian, views and experiments Beggiatoa, 91. [of, 103. B. alba, 91.
B. arachnoidea, 91.
B. anthracis, 88.
B. ruber, 89.
B. subtilis, 87.
B. ulna, 89.
Bact^ridie charbonneuse, 88.
B. des infusions, 90.
B. leptomitiformis, 91.
B. minima, 91. B. mirabilis, 91. B. nivea, 91.
Billroth, views
of,
B.
B.
du levain, 89. du vin tourn6,
90.
B. glaireuse, 90. B. intestinal, 89.
22.
? 108.
of,
Blood, bacteria in
bacteria, 122.
Bacteridium auriantiacum, 73. B. cyaneum, 73.
Boracic acid, action
upon the
224
C.
INDEX.
Conclusions, 188.
of,
Carbolic acid, action

bacteria, 122.
upon
Coze and Eeltz, experiments

155.
of,
Carbonic acid, action

teria, 122.
of,
upon bac-
Culture-fluid of Cohn, 113. Pasteur, 112.
Carbon,
how
obtained by bacbacteria, 35.
Mayer, 113.
teria, 113.
Cell-membrane of
60.
D.
Characters, generic
and
specific,
Charbon, bacteria in, 138. Chloroform, action of, upon bacteria, 122.
Dallinser and Drysdale, extract from paper of, on " The Existence of Flagella in B. Termo,"
41.
Chlorophyll, bacteria destitute

56.
Davaine, classification
of,
of, 18.
Definition of bacteria, 13.

72.
Chromogenes,
Desmobacteria, 86.
39.
Cilia, described
by Ehrenberg,
extract from paper of Dallinger
Dimensions of the bacteria, 29. Diphtheria, bacteria, in, 170.

Dissemination of the bacteria, 103. in air, 103. in the human organism, 107. in water, 106. Distinction between animals and
vegetables, 53.
and Drysdale de-
scribing, 41.
seen by various authors, 39.

Cladrothrix, 97.
CI. dichotoma, 97.
Classification of Billroth, 23.
Bory de SaintVincent, 15.
Cohn, 65. Davaine, 18.

Dujardin, 17. Ehrenberg, 16.
of bacteria from inorganic substances,

49.
Dujardin, classification
of, 17.
Hoffmann,
Nageli, 57. Sachs, 57.
20.
E.
O. F. Miiller, 14.
Ehrenberg,
classification of, 16.
generic and specific

characters, 59.
Fat-qlobules, resemblance
to micrococci, 51.
of,
Coccobacteria septica of Billroth,

22.
Fermentation
of,
acetic, 139.
Cohn,
120.
ammoniacal of
urine, 142.
Cold, effects
upon the bacteria,
butyric, 145.
lactic, 144.
Color of the bacteria, 31. Colored bacteria, where found, 32.
viscous, 146.
Compressed
air,
action
of,
upon
Fermentations, role of bacteria

in, 137.
the bacteria, 121.
INDEX.
Forms
of the bacteria, 29. Fungi, bacteria classed with, 56.
225
aurantiacus, 73.
G.
Glanders,
171.
Gliabacteria, 45.
Gliacoccos, 45.
Grouping, different modes
of, 43.
H.
Heterogenesis, 102. Hoffmann, memoir of,
20.
I.
M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M.
bombycis, 76.
candidus, 74.
chlorinus, 73.
crepusculum, 75.
cyaneus, 73.
diphtheriticus, 76.
fulvus, 74.
luteus, 73.
of epidemic diarrhoea, 77. of exanthematous typhus, 78. of glanders, 78.
of intestinal typhus, 78. of rugeola, 77.

of scarlatina, 77. of stringy wine, 75. of syphilis, 78.
77.
Intermittent fever,
174.
K.
Koch, experiments
charbon, 101.
of,
relating to
M. of the variola of animals, M. prodigiosus, 73. M. septicus, 76. M. urea?, 75. M. vaccinae, 76. M. violaceus, 74.
Microbacteria, 65, 80.
Microspha^ra vaccinae, 76.

L.
Leptothrix,
90.
L. brevissima, 90.
Microsporon septicus, 76. Microzyma bombycis, 76. Miquel, experiments of, 104. Monas crepusculum, 75.
L. croespitosa, 90.
L. parasitica, 90. L. pusilla, 90.
L. radians, 90.
L. rigidula, 90. L. spissa, 90.
M. gracilis, 79. M. Okenii, 79. M. prodigiosa, 73. M. termo, 81.
M.
first
vinosa, 79.
Leeuwenboeck,
bacteria, 14.
to
observe
M. Warmingii, 79. Movement, brownien,

cause
of
of,
33.
34.
32.
Leptothrix, form of grouping of
two kinds,
the bacteria, 43.
Muller, O.
F., classification of, 14.

of,
Multiplication, rapidity
125.
M.
Malignant pustule, without

bacteria, 164.
Mycoderma aceti, M. form of, 45. M. vini, 141.

Myconostoc, 96. M. gregarium, 97.
83, 140.
Micrococcus, 72.
\
I;,
226
INDEX.
Respiration of the bacteria, 111. Reproduction of the bacteria, 123.
N.
Nageli,
149.
Nitrification, role of bacteria in,
by by
fission, 123.
spores, 126.
Rhabdomonas
rosea, 80.
of,
Nitrogen,
how
obtained
by the
Rugeola, bacteria in blood
169.
bacteria, 112.
Nutrition of the bacteria, 111.
S.
Saccharomycetes,
0.
Sachs, classification
Sarcina, 96.
57.
of,
57.
Ophidomonas sanguinea, 80. Origin of the bacteria, 101.

Oxygen, role
teria, 121.
of,
Scarlatina, bacteria in blood
of,
169.
115.
Ozone, action
of^
upon the bac-
Schizomycetes, 57. Schizophytes (Cohn), 66. Septicemia, role of bacteria in,

152.
Species, physiological of Pasteur,
Palmella
63.
prodigiosa, 73.
Pathogenes, 75.
Petalobacteria, 46.
value of, 61. Spherobacteria, 71.

Spirobacteria, 91.
Petalococcos, 46.
Pigmentary
series, 55.
bacteria, 72.
Place of the bacteria in vegetable
Spiromonas Cohnii, 80. Spirillum, 94. S. attenuatum, 96.

S. Rosenbergii, 96. S.
Polymorphism, 133.
Position of the bacteria, 48.
rufum, 94.
undula, 94. violaceum, 96.
S. tenue, 94.
S. S.
Protoplasm, currents granules

Pseudobacteria, 50.
in, 37. in, 37.
of the bacteria, 36.
S. volutans, 94.
Spirochete, 93.
S. gigantea, 93.
S.
Pulverulent precipitate, consisting of bacteria, 46.
Obermeieri, 93.
Pus, bacteria
in, 111, 177.
S. plicatilis, 93.
Putrefaction, r61e of bacteria in, 148.
Sporangia, 130.
Spores, development
of,
128.
131.
germination
R.
of,
Starch, in Bacillus amylobacter, 39.

of,
Ray-Lankester, researches
38.
Streptobacteria, 44.
relating to bacterio-purpurine,
Streptococcos, 44.
Streptothrix, 97.
S. Foersteri, 97.
Relapsing fever, bacteria
in, 173.
INDEX.
Structure of the bacteria, 35.
Surgical lesions, role of bacteria
in, 173.
227
Sulphate of Quinine, action of, upon the bacteria, 122. Sulphur, contained in bacteria,
38.
V. lactic, 83. V. lineola, 81. V. prolit'er, 94. V. rugula, 92.

V. V. V. V. V. V.
serpens, 93.
subtilis, 87.
Swarms, 46.
syncyanus, 85. synxanthus, 85.

tartaric right, 83.
T.
tremulans, 81. Vibrioniens, definition of Ehrenberg, 16.
Temperature,
action
of,
upon
the bacteria, 118.
Thermal death point

119.
of bacteria,
W.
Wounds,
180.
effects of bacteria
Torula form of bacteria, 43.
upon,
Typhoid
fever, bacteria in, 171.
Y. U.
Ulcerative endocarditis,
teria in, 173.
bac-
Yellow-eevek blood, no bacteria, 108.
contains
Ulvina
aceti, 83.
Z.
Variola, micrococci Vibrio, 92.

V.
bacillus, 89.
in, 167.
Zooglcea, genus established by Cohn, 21. Zooglcea form of grouping of the

bacteria, 44;
Zymogenes,
75.
University Press
John Wilson and Son, Cambridge.
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'

ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY

Cornell University Library

3 1924 003 200 288

the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

the United States on the use of the

John Wilson and Son, Cambridge.

edge of the bacteria, by Dr. Magnin, of great assistance

to me, in pursuing the investigations in

that a translation of the

work into English and its publicountry would be productive of good in

more ways than

and of the advancement of

full description of species.

value to this portion of the work, figures of

best-known forms, drawn from various foreign sources,

graphs (by permission of the National Board of Health),

have been introduced.

are to judge from the scanty literature of the

subject in this country, the

has been aroused by the revelation of a

micro-organisms, and by the momentous questions which

have been raised in connection with them,

Germany, France, and England. This

not, however, really the case

few active workers

the difficult fields of inquiry

which have proved so man and the French

wide-spread interest in these investigations, and a desire

met with which has no doubt discouraged many, and

perhaps caused some to drop the whole subject in disgust.

have been so contradictory, and so

savants have uttered opinions entirely

opposed the one to the other, that we find any

This being the condition of

ourselves familiar with

has been done abroad, and then avoiding,

quicksands into which unfortunate science has too often

which we have experienced

ing of the comparative value of the observations of dif-

or a very cautious observer

confidence in his results, because of a certain degree of

confusion in his language.

experiments are well

and described with precidone by such men as Pasteur and Tyndall, we

weight to the conclusions

asserts that he has seen

has achieved reputation in one line of study, but of

be a mere tyro with the microscope.

announced that Dr. So-and-so

any micrococci in pus,

are justified in asking,

unorganized granules of organic origin.

a decision which the most accomplished microis

sometimes unable to make, except by the aid

of chemical tests and culture experiments.

avoid this want of confidence in results, which has

desirable that full

experiments made, and, whenever possible, that photo-