What are the differences between unix and linux?

Ans:Linux is an open source,free to use operating system widely used for computer hardware and software,game development,tablet PC ,mainframes etc! "nix is an operating system commonly used in internet servers,wor#stations and PCs by olaris,$ntel,%P etc! Linux is an example of &pen ource software development and free operating system! "nix is an operating system that is very popular in universities,companies,big enterprises etc! Linux can be freely distributed,downloaded freely,distributed through maga'ines,boo#s etc !(here are priced version for Linux also but they are normally cheaper than windows! )ifferent flavors of "nix have different cost structure according to vendors! Linux #ernel is developed by the community!Linus (orvalds oversees things! (hree biggest distribution of "nix are olaris*&racle+,A$,*$-.+,and %P/",*%ewlett Pac#ard+ Apple ma#es & ,,an unix based os! $n Linux -A %*-ourne Again shell+ is the linux default shell!$t can support multiple command interpreters! $n "nix originally the -ourne hell! 0ow it is compatible with many other including -A %,1orn and C! 2xample of Linux/"buntu,3edora,4ed %at,)ebian,Arclinux,Android etc! 2xample of "nix/ & ,, olaris,All Linux!

Pathname OSa Contents /bin All /boot LS /dev All /etc All /home All /lib All /media LS /mnt LSA /opt All /proc LSA /root LS /sbin All /stand ' /tmp All /usr All /usr/bin All /usr/include All /usr/lib All /usr/lib64 L /usr/local All /usr/sbin All /usr/share All /usr/share/man All

Core operating system commands. Kernel and files needed to load the kernel Device entries for disks, printers, pseudo-terminals, etc. Critical start up and configuration files Default home directories for users Libraries, shared libraries, and parts of the C compiler ount points for file systems on removable media !emporary mount points, mounts for removable media "ptional soft#are packages $not consistently used% &nformation about all running processes 'ome directory of the superuser $often (ust /% Commands needed for minimal system operabilityc Stand-alone utilities, disk formatters, diagnostics, etc. !emporary files that may disappear bet#een reboots 'ierarchy of secondary files and commands ost commands and e)ecutable files 'eader files for compiling C programs Libraries* also, support files for standard programs +,-bit libraries on +,-bit Linu) distributions Soft#are you #rite or install* mirrors structure of /usr Less essential commands for administration and repair &tems that might be common to multiple systems "n-line manual pages

/usr/src /usr/tmp /var /var/adm /var/log /var/spool /var/tmp

LSA All All All LSA All All

Source code for nonlocal soft#are $not #idely used% ore temporary space $preserved bet#een reboots% System-specific data and configuration files -aries. logs, setup records, strange administrative bits -arious system log files Spooling directories for printers, mail, etc. ore temporary space $preserved bet#een reboots%

a. L / Linu), S / Solaris, ' / '0-12, A / A&2. b. "n '0-12 and A&2, /bin is a symbolic link to /usr/bin.

1.BIOS
BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System Performs some system integrity checks Searches, loads, and executes the boot loader program. It looks for boot loader in floppy, cd-rom, or hard drive. Once the boot loader program is detected and loaded into the memory, BIOS gives the control to it. So, in simple terms BIOS loads and executes the MBR boot loader.

2. MBR
MBR stands for Master Boot Record. It is located in the 1st sector of the bootable disk. Typically /dev/hda, or /dev/sda MBR is less than 512 bytes in size. This has three components 1) primary boot loader info in 1st 446 bytes 2) partition table info in next 64 bytes 3) mbr validation check in last 2 bytes. It contains information about GRUB. So, in simple terms MBR loads and executes the GRUB boot loader.

3. GRUB
GRUB stands for Grand Unified Bootloader. If you have multiple kernel images installed on your system, you can choose which one to be executed. GRUB displays a splash screen, waits for few seconds, if you dont enter anything, it loads the default kernel image as specified in the grub configuration file. GRUB has the knowledge of the filesystem. Grub configuration file is /boot/grub/grub.conf (/etc/grub.conf is a link to this). So, in simple terms GRUB just loads and executes Kernel and initrd images.

4. Kernel
Mounts the root file system as specified in the root= in grub.conf Kernel executes the /sbin/init program Since init was the 1st program to be executed by Linux Kernel, it has the process id (PID) of 1. Do a ps -ef | grep init and check the pid. initrd stands for Initial RAM Disk. initrd is used by kernel as temporary root file system until kernel is booted and the real root file system is mounted.

It also contains necessary drivers compiled inside, which helps it to access the hard drive partitions, and other hardware.

5. Init
Looks at the /etc/inittab file to decide the Linux run level. Following are the available run levels 0 halt 1 Single user mode 2 Multiuser, without NFS 3 Full multiuser mode 4 unused 5 X11 6 reboot Init identifies the default initlevel from /etc/inittab and uses that to load all appropriate program. Execute grep initdefault /etc/inittab on your system to identify the default run level If you want to get into trouble, you can set the default run level to 0 or 6. Since you know what 0 and 6 means, probably you might not do that. Typically you would set the default run level to either 3 or 5.

6. Runlevel programs
When the Linux system is booting up, you might see various services getting started. For example, it might say starting sendmail . OK. Those are the runlevel programs, executed from the run level directory as defined by your run level. Depending on your default init level setting, the system will execute the programs from one of the following directories. Run level 0 /etc/rc.d/rc0.d/ Run level 1 /etc/rc.d/rc1.d/ Run level 2 /etc/rc.d/rc2.d/ Run level 3 /etc/rc.d/rc3.d/ Run level 4 /etc/rc.d/rc4.d/ Run level 5 /etc/rc.d/rc5.d/ Run level 6 /etc/rc.d/rc6.d/ Please note that there are also symbolic links available for these directory under /etc directly. So, /etc/rc0.d is linked to /etc/rc.d/rc0.d. Under the /etc/rc.d/rc*.d/ directories, you would see programs that start with S and K. Programs starts with S are used during startup. S for startup. Programs starts with K are used during shutdown. K for kill. There are numbers right next to S and K in the program names. Those are the sequence number in which the programs should be started or killed. For example, S12syslog is to start the syslog deamon, which has the sequence number of 12. S80sendmail is to start the sendmail daemon, which has the sequence number of 80. So, syslog program will be started before sendmail.

There you have it. That is what happens during the Linux boot process

USER ADDITION
log on as super user useradd test...will give command not found if super user is not logged su- root su stands for switch user then it will ask the password enter the password and enter the user home page... id..gives the present user details who am i what user and how logged on the machine this can be used to know that user is switched or not. eixt Now cretaing a user useradd test id space the user name will give the information of the new user added. useradd -u 529(it is the group number) -g test1(group name) newuser(the name which is needed to be created)

user information kept in ls -l /etc/passwd view /etc/passwd to change the password passwd username delete a user userdel -f -r username -f for force removal -r for remove all related files

date > $HOME/usage.log date >> $HOME/usage.log one > symbol given the output will be overwritted in the file

two >> symbol given the output will be appended to the file cp -R /tmp/* /home/test1/tmp this is used to move all the contents of a directory to a new place...it will copy alll the contents along with the directories also.

GREP
grep -n 3#ork3 451Licence.t)t -c can also be used to count the number of lines #ith given pattern or result. -i for ignaring the case -v for getting the line in #hich the pattern is absent. -e for escaping the ne)t command so that it can be used as a pattern -# for specific #ord. to find #ork at the beginning of the line give the carat sign before 3#ork3 in the grep command. Similarly dollar sign after the 3#ork3 can be used. grep -n 3th.. 3 451Licence,t)t -c. 36ab76ab73 this #ill search either aa ab ba or bb from the file and #ill print the results. 68-97 means all the numbers bet#een 8 to 9. 68-976a-:A-;7 #ill search a digit follo#ed by a letter. 3<=#ork<> specific #ord can be searched.