Transport Ecology

Vestlandsforsking
Boks 163, 6851 Sogndal

Tlf. 57 67 61 50
Internett: www.vestforsk.no VF rapport13/2003
Otto Andersen:
Transport and Industrial Ecology - Problems

and Prospects
Ph.D. thesis
Department of Development and Planning

Aalborg University
Aalborg, Denmark
Department of Environmental Research

Western Norway Research Institute
Sogndal, Norway
ISBN nr. 82-428-0240-8

TRANSPORT AND INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY – PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS
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Preface
This Ph.D. thesis is about transport and industrial ecology. The superior objective is
to develop an understanding of relations between industrial ecology and transport,
in terms of problems and prospects. Theoretical as well as empirical research
approaches and materials are used.
The thesis is based on contributions from several research projects. They cover a
period of 8 years, all with a prime focus on relations between industry, transport
and the environment. In most of the projects I have had the function as project
manager in combination with active researcher. Several other researchers have also
contributed in these projects. Some of them are employed in the research group I
am part of at Western Norway Research Institute. I am grateful for their
contributions and in particular thankful for the constructive suggestions and critical
comments from the group’s Head of research, Karl Georg Høyer. In addition,
without the valuable advices from my academic supervisor at Aalborg University,
Associate Professor Arne Remmen, this thesis would not have become a reality.
In addition to the introduction and the conclusion chapter, the thesis consists of 6
main chapters. One is a theoretical contribution that is previously unpublished. Four
chapters are all separate articles published, or submitted for publishing, in scientific
journals. They are exactly in the form they have been published / accepted for
publishing. The last main chapter is a conference paper with a separate set of notes.
The texts in these notes were not included in the submitted paper due to restrictions
regarding the length of the paper. They are included to give a more complete
presentation, both of the theoretical and empirical material the paper is based on.
Sogndal, Norway
March 2003
Otto Andersen
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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF TRANSPORT .................................................................... 1
1.2. DIFFERENT WAYS OF UNDERSTANDING TRANSPORT PROBLEMS ........................................ 3
1.3. INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY....................................................................................................... 7
1.4. THE HANDLING OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF TRANSPORT IN INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY 8
1.5. PROBLEM FORMULATION .................................................................................................. 9
1.6. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH........................................................................................ 10
1.7. THE CHAPTERS ................................................................................................................ 15
1.8. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 18
2. AN INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY TYPOLOGY .............................................................................. 21
2.1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 21
2.2. ESTABLISHING OF THE TYPES .......................................................................................... 22
2.3. CHARACTERISATION OF THE TYPES ................................................................................. 25
2.4. INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY TYPE: PRODUCT-DESIGN ............................................................. 28
2.5. INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY TYPE: ECO-PARKS....................................................................... 31
2.6. INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY TYPE: CORPORATE ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT.................. 36
2.7. INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY TYPE: FACTOR X ........................................................................ 40
2.8. INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY TYPE: RESOURCE ANALYSIS ....................................................... 43
2.9. COMPARISON OF THE FIVE TYPES .................................................................................... 46
2.10. COMPARISON OF TRANSPORT IN THE TYPES ..................................................................... 49
2.11. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 64
3. INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY AND SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR RURAL SMES ................... 70
3.1. ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... 70
3.2. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 70
3.3. THE PROBLEMATIC RECYCLING SOCIETY ......................................................................... 74
3.4. THE GREEN SMES PROJECT ............................................................................................ 75
3.5. CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................. 78
3.6. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 79
4. TRANSPORT OF FISH FROM NORWAY: ENERGY ANALYSIS USING INDUSTRIAL
ECOLOGY AS FRAMEWORK.......................................................................................................... 81
4.1. ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... 81
4.2. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 81
4.3. METHOD AND DATA MATERIAL ....................................................................................... 84
4.4. RESULTS.......................................................................................................................... 86
4.5. FINAL DISCUSSION........................................................................................................... 91
4.6. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 93
5. TRANSPORT SCENARIOS IN A COMPANY STRATEGY .................................................... 94
5.1. ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... 94
5.2. A COMPANY STRATEGY WITH SCENARIOS AS BASIS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL REPORTING ... 94
5.3. OVERALL METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 96
5.4. THE PERSON TRANSPORT IN THE BASE YEAR 1996........................................................... 97
5.5. PERSON TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT IN THE SCENARIOS FOR 2016 .................................. 99
5.6. ENERGY USE .................................................................................................................. 104
5.7. CO2 EMISSIONS .............................................................................................................. 106
5.8. NOX EMISSIONS ............................................................................................................. 108
5.9. PARTICLE EMISSIONS ..................................................................................................... 109
5.10. LAND USE CONSEQUENCES OF THE SCENARIOS .............................................................. 112
5.11. TIME USE IN THE SCENARIOS ......................................................................................... 113
5.12. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................... 116
5.13. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 117
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6. ENVIRONMENTAL REPORTING AND TRANSPORT – THE CASE OF A PUBLIC

TRANSPORT COMPANY ................................................................................................................ 120
6.1. ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... 120
6.2. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................. 120
6.3. THE ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT PROJECT ........................................................................ 122
6.4. MAIN COMPANY OPERATIONS ....................................................................................... 124
6.5. BUSINESS TRAVEL ......................................................................................................... 125
6.6. TRAVELS TO WORK........................................................................................................ 127
6.7. PURCHASING ................................................................................................................. 132
6.8. THE SOCIETAL ACCOUNTING ......................................................................................... 133
6.9. FINAL DISCUSSION......................................................................................................... 136
6.10. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 137
7. ALTERNATIVE ENERGY IN TRANSPORT COMPANIES. INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY
PERSPECTIVES ON RESOURCE- AND IMPLEMENTATION-LIMITS OF BIOLOGICAL
FUELS.................................................................................................................................................. 139
7.1. ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... 139
7.2. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................. 140
7.3. RESEARCH BASIS ........................................................................................................... 141
7.4. COMPANY BARRIERS TO BIODIESEL USE ........................................................................ 141
7.5. BIODIESEL USE IN COLD AMBIENT TEMPERATURES ........................................................ 142
7.6. BIODIESEL PRODUCTION BARRIERS ............................................................................... 142
7.7. EFFECTS OF BIODIESEL ON EMISSIONS OF GREENHOUSE GASES ..................................... 143
7.8. BARRIERS TO WOOD-BASED MOTOR-ALCOHOLS ............................................................ 144
7.9. CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................... 145
7.10. NOTES ........................................................................................................................... 146
7.11. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 151
8. CONCLUSIONS............................................................................................................................ 152
8.1. THE TYPOLOGIES ........................................................................................................... 152
8.2. CONCLUSIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY TYPOLOGY AND THE CASES ........................... 157
8.3. CONCLUSIONS ON TRANSPORT PROBLEMS AND INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY ......................... 159
8.4. CONCLUSIONS ON THE ROLE OF ACTORS ....................................................................... 167
8.5. FINAL CONCLUSIONS ON PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS .................................................... 170
8.6. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 172
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Contribution of key sectors to greenhouse gas emissions in the EU. 1990
emissions and 2010 forecast...............................................................................3
Figure 2 The efficiency-pattern-volume dimensional axis........................................4
Figure 3 The basis for generalisation from cases and theory ..................................11
Figure 4 Schematically presentation of the process of identifying the various types
in the typology..................................................................................................23
Figure 5 Formal characteristics of the product-design understanding of industrial
ecology .............................................................................................................30
Figure 6 Substance characteristics of the product-design understanding of
industrial ecology .............................................................................................30
Figure 7 Formal characteristics of the eco-park understanding of industrial ecology
..........................................................................................................................34
Figure 8 Substance characteristics of the eco-park understanding of industrial
ecology .............................................................................................................34
Figure 9 Formal characteristics of the CEM understanding of industrial ecology..38
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Figure 10 Substance characteristics of the CEM understanding of industrial

ecology .............................................................................................................38
Figure 11 Formal characteristics of the factor X understanding of industrial
ecology .............................................................................................................41
Figure 12 Substance characteristics of the factor X understanding of industrial
ecology .............................................................................................................42
Figure 13 Formal characteristics of the resource analysis understanding of
Figure 14 Substance characteristics of the resource analysis understanding of
Figure 15 Different understandings of industrial ecology characterised by the
formal elements limited and total.....................................................................47
formal elements gradual (extensions) and radical (new paradigm) .................47
substance elements nature integration and nature analogy ..............................48
substance elements material and energy ..........................................................48
substance elements product and production/production system ......................49
Figure 20 Transport themes in the five types characterised along the dimensional
axis efficiency - pattern - volume.....................................................................49
Figure 21 Schematic presentation of the transition from traditional linear material
flow to a cyclic flow based on ecological principles........................................72
Figure 22 Domestic transport work of goods in Norway from 1970 to 1995 .........77
Figure 23 The main issues being dealt with in this article, and their connections ..82
Figure 24 Energy use in feed-production and overseas export of frozen and fresh
aquaculture fish. 1994 ......................................................................................88
Figure 25 The connections between the scenarios, environmental report, societal
accounting, and decision-making levels...........................................................95
Figure 26 Main structure of the scenario-analysis ..................................................96
Figure 27 Transport work of main categories of transport modes in 1996 and the
three scenarios for 2016 (million person-kilometre)......................................103
Figure 28 Energy use for 1996 and the three scenarios for 2016. Direct and total for
main categories of transport means (GWh)....................................................106
Figure 29 Emissions of CO2 for 1996 and the three scenarios. Direct and total for
main categories of transport means (1000 tonnes).........................................107
Figure 30 Emissions of NOx for 1996 and the three scenarios. Direct and total for
main categories of transport means (1000 tonnes).........................................109
Figure 31 Emission of PM2.5 for main categories of transport means in 1996 and in
the three scenarios (tonnes) ............................................................................111
Figure 32 Emission of PM10 for main categories of transport means in 1996 and in
the three scenarios (tonnes) ............................................................................111
Figure 33 Direct and total land use for main categories of transport means in 1996
and in the three scenarios (1000 m2) ..............................................................113
Figure 34 Time consumption for the Oslo population in 1996 and the three
scenarios for 2016. Direct and total for main categories of transport means
(mill. hrs) ........................................................................................................116
Figure 35 Distance travelled by the employees of Oslo Sporveier in business
travels, by various transport means in 2000 (Percent) ...................................126
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Figure 36 Distribution of Oslo Sporveier employee travels to work on various

transport means (percent of total)...................................................................128
Figure 37 Private car usage in travels to work as a function of the distance from the
work location to Oslo centre. 1990/91 (Percent of all work journeys) ..........130
Figure 38 Energy use and emissions from Oslo’s total person transport (Energy in
GWh, CO2 in kilo-tonnes, other emissions in tonnes)....................................134
Figure 39 Specific energy use and emission per person-km for Oslo’s person
transport (Energy in kWh/pkm, CO2 in kg/pkm, other emissions in g/pkm).135
Figure 40 Total environmental costs of Oslo’s person transport (million NOK)..135
Figure 41 Average environmental costs of person transport in Oslo per person-km
(NOK).............................................................................................................136
Figure 42 Typology of transport problems............................................................153
Figure 43 Industrial ecology types and their main characteristics ........................154
Figure 44 The potentials of industrial ecology types for handling various forms of
transport problems..........................................................................................154
Figure 45 The actor typology ...............................................................................155
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Energy use in production of aluminium and steel (kWh/tonne).................52
Table 2 World production of crude oil (in million barrels per day, and factor
increase since 1960) .........................................................................................56
Table 3 World production of bauxite and alumina (in 1000 tonnes, and factor
increase since 1960) .........................................................................................56
Table 4 Transport volume of sea-borne raw materials 1960-1999 (in billions tonne-
km, and factor increase from 1960)..................................................................57
Table 5 Energy use factors applied in the calculations for the 2015 scenario.........86
Table 6 Energy use in the aquaculture fish feed production chain in Norway in
1980 and 1994 (GWh)......................................................................................87
Table 7 Energy use in the export of Norwegian aquaculture fish. 1994 (GWh) .....87
Table 8 A detailed look at the energy use in the transport of fresh and frozen
aquaculture fish from Norway to East Asia and USA. 1994............................88
Table 9 Average fuel consumption, distances, time usage and load for the transport
of dried cod to Italy. Round trips (from Norway to Torino and back to
Norway). 1998..................................................................................................89
Table 10 Average energy use for transport of dried cod from Western Norway to
Italy and back to Norway. 1998. ......................................................................89
Table 11 Energy and time use in the transport of dried cod to Italy. Round trips
(from Norway to Italy and back to Norway). 2015..........................................90
Table 12 The energy and time use for the transport of dried cod to Italy. Round
trips. Actual data from 1998 and calculated data for rail and sea transport in
2015 ..................................................................................................................90
Table 13 Person transport by various transport means in 1996 (million person-
kilometre) .........................................................................................................97
Table 14 Number of journeys in 1996.....................................................................98
Table 15 Average lengths per journey for various transport means in 1996...........99
Table 16 Person transport by various transport means in three scenarios for 2016
(million person-kilometre, percent)................................................................102
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Table 17 Number of journeys in the three scenarios (million journeys, percent) .103
Table 18 Energy use factors applied (kWh per person-kilometre)........................105
Table 19 Factors for CO2 emissions applied (gram CO2 per person-kilometre) ...107
Table 20 Factors for NOx emissions applied (milligram NOx per person-kilometre)
........................................................................................................................108
Table 21 Average PM10 and PM2,5 emissions in 1996 and 2016 (milligram per
vehicle-kilometre) ..........................................................................................110
Table 22 Estimates of land use for various transport purposes in Oslo.................112
Table 23 Direct time use factors............................................................................114
Table 24 Indirect time use factors applied (All numbers in minutes) ...................115
Table 25 Key figures for Oslo Sporveier in the year 2000....................................122
Table 26 Vehicle fleet operated by Oslo Sporveier...............................................123
Table 27 Direct energy use of main company operations in the year 2000 ..........124
Table 28 Direct CO2, NOx, PM10 and PM2.5 - emissions from the company’s main
operations .......................................................................................................125
Table 29 The location of the homes of employees in three areas (number and
percent)...........................................................................................................129
Table 30 Private car use in work travels, relative to the work location at increasing
distance from Oslo centre. 1990/91 (percent of all work journeys) ...............129
Table 31 The assumptions made in the three different agriculture systems for year
2005 ................................................................................................................143
Table 32 The biodiesel replacement potential of three different agriculture systems
in year 2005 (tonnes and percent) ..................................................................143
Table 33 Effect of biodiesel on the emission of greenhouse gases .......................144
Table 34 Industrial ecology understandings applied through each empirical case157
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SUMMARY
This thesis is about relations between industrial ecology and transport. The thesis
addresses how problems connected to transport is understood within the frame of
industrial ecology. In particular the thesis deals with transport problems in different
understandings of industrial ecology. The superior goal is to develop understanding
of the relations between transport and industrial ecology. Both theoretical and
empirical research approaches and material are used. Theoretically by the
development of a typology of different understandings of industrial ecology.
Empirically through analyses of cases with basis in results from several research
projects carried out at Western Norway Research Institute over a period of about 8
years. They are all projects with prime focus on relations between industry,
transport and the environment.
In addition to an introduction and a chapter with conclusions, the thesis has six
main chapters. The six chapters consist of a relatively comprehensive theoretical
contribution, four articles and a conference paper expanded with a separate set of
endnotes. The theoretical chapter is not previously published. Two of the articles
are printed, and two are submitted for publishing, in international scientific
journals.
The introduction (Ch.1) presents the background for the problem issues in the thesis
and the theoretical framework. This includes a classification of transport problems
understood as efficiency-, pattern- or volume problems. The superior problem issue
is:
• How can we understand relations between industrial ecology and transport?
The superior problem issue is addressed through three leading issues that define, in
an operational sense, the scope and content of the thesis:
• To what extent are transport problems themes in the various understandings of
industrial ecology?
• How are transport problems understood in industrial ecology?
• What is the role of actors in the relations between industrial ecology and
transport?
Chapter 2 consists of a review of the main literature contributions to the field of

industrial ecology. This is carried out in the form of developing a typology of
different understandings of industrial ecology. The characterisation and
classification of the different understandings of industrial ecology has given basis
to identification of transport problems emerging in connected with the concept.
Five main types of industrial understandings are identified and characterised. The
transport problems connected to the different understandings are illustrated, and
characterised according to the three dimensions efficiency, pattern and volume.
The first article (Ch.3) gives an analysis of implications with the use of industrial
ecology principles for rural industry. The relation between industrial ecology and
transport is studied in connection with small and medium sized enterprises (SME).
It is shown a.o. that these companies have limited possibilities for taking part in
energy efficient recycling systems (industrial ecosystems) due to long and energy
demanding transport distances between the companies. The article is based on
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results from a project in the Ministry of Local Government programme for

industry-targeted research.
In the second article (Ch.4) industrial ecology is used as a framework for an

analysis of transport energy. It is shown what implications the use of transport
energy can have for the products. The importance of transport energy in a natural
resource based production system is illustrated. By using fish as example, it is
shown that the amount of transport being used, to a large extent depends on the
method used for transporting the product. In the article the industrial ecology
principle of life cycle approach is used for assessing energy use. The analysis
therefore includes the transport of the finished product from Norway to the
receiving country. In the analysis it is shown that this last part of the transport chain
can be extremely energy demanding for the product fish. This has implications for
the products, and the state of the product fish (fresh, frozen, dried, smoked) during
transport.
The third article (Ch.5) presents scenarios for person transport in Oslo, as part of a
company’s environmental strategy. The scenarios developed for the public transport
company Oslo Sporveier illustrate the use of industrial ecology as a frame for
environmental strategy work. The basis for three different scenarios for
development of person transport up to the year 2016 is presented. Analyses are
performed of the consequences of person transport, in the form of energy-, land-
and time use, together with emissions of CO2, NOx and particles, in the scenarios.
The three scenarios are: 1) a private car scenario, where the growth in person
transport is mainly met by an increase in the use of private cars, 2) a public
transport scenario, where the growth in person transport is mainly met by an
increase in the use of public transport, and 3) a sustainable transport scenario, with
a reduction in total person-mobility, combined with increased share of public
transport and walking/bicycle use, and reduced use of private cars.
In the fourth article (Ch.6) a discussion is given of environmental reporting in the

transport sector. In addition to a general analysis of this theme, empirical material
from Oslo Sporveier is used. The relation between transport and industrial ecology
is studied through development and implementation of systems for environmental
reporting in the transport company. The process of preparing the environmental
report for Oslo Sporveier for the year 2000 is analysed, and examples of
environmental improvement actions and indicators are given. The article presents in
addition results from analyses of the company transport activities, which in addition
to the main activity of providing public transport services, also include the
employee work- and company travel. The societal accounting of the company is
presented, and it is shown how this is used in the environmental reporting.
In Chapter 7 the relation between industrial ecology and alternative energy for
transport is addressed. This is analysed from an industrial ecology perspective of
loop-closing by connecting bus companies to energy systems based on biological
renewable resources. Implementation strategies for biological renewable energy
systems in the transport sector in general are also discussed. Limits and barriers for
the use of biodiesel produced from rape/colza (RME) and biologically-based motor-
alcohols, are addressed using industrial ecology as framework. This includes
identification of national, company-related and motor-technical barriers for RME
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production and use in Norway. In addition, this article analyses the effect of a
transition to RME use, on changes in emission of greenhouse gases. The article also
presents the experiences with the use of stakeholder group networks in connection
with implementation of biologically based motor-alcohols.
The conclusions chapter (Ch.8) summarises the main contributions of the thesis to
understanding relations between transport and industrial ecology. The empirical
material from the five chapters 3-7 are connected together with the theoretical
contribution (Ch.2). In this way it is shown how both theory and empirical material
shed light on the main problem issues of the thesis. This gives basis for some
generalisations on problems and prospects connected to industrial ecology in
relation to transport.
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SAMMENDRAG
Denne avhandling omhandler relasjonene mellom industriell økologi og transport.
Avhandlingen tar opp hvordan problemer knyttet til transport forstås innenfor
rammen av industriell økologi. Spesielt tar avhandlingen for seg transportproblemer
i ulike forståelser av industriell økologi. Det overordnede formålet er å utvikle
forståelse for relasjonene mellom transport og industriell økologi. Både teoretisk og
empirisk forskningstilnærming og materiale er anvendt. Teoretisk ved å gjennomgå
litteratur om fagfeltet industriell økologi, samt karakterisere og kategorisere de
sentrale litteraturbidragene. Dette har gitt grunnlag for utvikling av en typologi for
ulike forståelser av industriell økologi. Empirisk ved analyser av case med basis i
resultater fra en rekke forskningsprosjekter gjennomført ved Vestlandsforsking
gjennom en periode på ca 8 år. De er alle prosjekter med hovedfokus på forholdet
mellom industri, transport og miljø.
Ved siden av en innledning og et kapittel med konklusjoner består avhandlingen av

seks hovedkapitler. De seks kapitlene består av et relativt omfattende teoribidrag,
fire artikler og et konferanse-paper utvidet med et eget sett sluttnoter. Teorikapitlet
er ikke tidligere publisert. To av artiklene er publisert, og to er innlevert til
publisering, i internasjonale vitenskapelige tidsskrift.
I innledningen (kap.1) presenteres bakgrunnen for avhandlingens problemstillinger

og det teoretiske rammeverket for belysning av disse. Dette inkluderer en inndeling
av transportproblemer forstått som effektivitets-, mønster- eller volumproblemer.
Den overordnede problemstilling er:
• Hvordan kan vi forstå relasjonene mellom industriell økologi og transport?
Den overordnede problemstilling er belyst gjennom tre underordnede
problemstillinger som definerer, på en operasjonell måte, avhandlingens rammer og
innhold:
• I hvilken grad er transportproblemer tema i ulike forståelser av industriell
økologi?
• Hvordan forstås transportproblemer i industriell økologi?
• Hva slags rolle har aktører i relasjonene mellom industriell økologi og
transport?
Kapittel 2 består av en gjennomgang av de viktigste litteraturbidragene til fagfeltet

industriell økologi. Dette er gjort i form av utvikling av en typologi for ulike
forståelser av industriell økologi. Karakteriseringen og klassifiseringen av de ulike
forståelsene av industriell økologi gir grunnlag for identifisering av transport-
problemer som reiser seg i tilknytning til begrepet. Fem hovedtyper forståelser av
industriell økologi er identifisert og karakterisert. Transportproblemene som knytter
seg til de ulike forståelsene er illustrert, samt karakterisert i henhold til de tre
dimensjonene effektivitet, mønster og volum.
Den første artikkelen (kap.3) gir en analyse av implikasjoner ved anvendelse av

industriell økologi -prinsipper for distriktslokaliserte industribedrifter. Relasjonen
mellom industriell økologi og transport er studert i tilknytning til små og
mellomstore bedrifter (SMB). Det synliggjøres bl.a. at disse bedriftene vanskelig
kan ta del i energieffektive resirkuleringssystemer (industrielle økosystemer) p.g.a.
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lange og energikrevende transportavstander mellom bedriftene. Artikkelen bygger

på resultatene fra et prosjekt i Kommunaldepartementets næringsrettede
forskningsprogram.
I den andre artikkelen (kap.4) benyttes industriell økologi som et rammeverk for en
analyse av transportenergi. Det vises hvilke implikasjoner dette kan ha for
produktene. Betydningen av transportenergi i et naturbasert produksjonssystem er
illustrert. Ved å bruke fisk som eksempel vises det at mengden transportenergi som
brukes er svært avhengig av måten produktet blir transport på. I artikkelen brukes
industriell økologi -prinsippet om livssyklustilnærming for vurdering av
energibruk. Analysen inkluderer derfor transporten av det ferdige produktet fra
Norge fram til mottaksland. I analysen vises det at denne siste delen av transport-
kjeden kan være ekstremt energikrevende for produktet fisk. Dette har implika-
sjoner for produktene, og formen av produktet fisk (fersk, frossen, tørket, røkt)
under transport.
Den tredje artikkelen (kap.5) presenter scenarier for persontransport i Oslo, som en
del av en bedrifts miljøstrategi. Industriell økologi som en ramme for
miljøstrategisk arbeid i bedrifter er synliggjort gjennom scenariene utviklet for
kollektivtransportselskapet Oslo Sporveier. Grunnlaget for tre ulike scenarier for
utvikling av persontransport fram til år 2016 presenteres. Artikkelen tallfester
persontransportens konsekvenser i form av energi-, areal- og tidsbruk, samt utslipp
av CO2, NOx og partikler i scenariene. De tre scenariene er 1) et personbilscenario,
hvor hovedveksten i persontransport tas hånd om gjennom en økning i personbil-
bruken, 2) et kollektivscenario, hvor veksten i persontransport tas hånd om av økt
bruk av kollektivtransport og 3) et bærekraftscenario, med en reduksjon i total
personmobilitet, kombinert med en økt andel kollektivtransport og bruk av
gange/sykling, og redusert andel privatbilbruk.
I den fjerde artikkelen (kap.6) gis det en diskusjon av miljørapportering innen

området transport. I tillegg til en generell analyse av dette temaet, benyttes empirisk
materiale fra Oslo Sporveier. Relasjonene mellom transport og industriell økologi
er her studert gjennom utvikling og implementering av systemer for miljø-
rapportering i en transportbedrift. Prosessen med å lage miljørapporten for år 2000
for Oslo Sporveier analyseres, og det gis eksempler på miljøforbedringshandlinger
og indikatorer. Artikkelen presenterer også resultater fra analyser av bedriftens
transportaktiviteter, som i tillegg til hovedaktiviteten kollektivtransportdrift,
omfatter de ansattes arbeids- og forretningsreiser. Bedriftens samfunnsregnskap
presenteres, og det vises hvordan dette benyttes i miljørapporteringen.
Kapittel 7 tar opp relasjonen mellom industriell økologi og alternativ transport-

energi. Dette er analysert fra et industriell økologi perspektiv om kretsløps-lukking
ved busselskapers tilknytning til energisystemer basert på biologiske fornybare
ressurser. I tillegg diskuteres implementeringsstrategier for biologiske fornybare
energisystemer i transportsektoren generelt. Begrensninger og barrierer for bruk av
biodiesel fra raps/rybs (RME) og biologisk-baserte motoralkoholer, er diskutert ut
fra industriell økologi -perspektiver. Både nasjonale, bedriftsmessige og
motortekniske barrierer for RME -produksjon og -bruk i Norge er analysert. I
tillegg beregnes effekten av en overgang til RME bruk, i form av endringer i utslipp
av klimagasser. Artikkelen presenterer også erfaringene med bruken av
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interessentnettverk i forbindelse med implementering av biologisk-baserte

motoralkoholer.
I konklusjonskapitlet (kap.8) oppsummeres avhandlingens bidrag til økt forståelse

for sammenhengen mellom transport og industriell økologi. Det empiriske
materialet fra kapitlene 3-7 knyttes sammen med det teoretiske bidraget (kap.2). I
denne sammenfatningen vises det hvordan både teori og empiri belyser
avhandlingens sentrale problemstillinger. Dette gir grunnlag for noen
generaliseringer omkring industriell økologi og transport.
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ALTENER European Commission DG-XVII programme for increased use of
renewable energy
CAFE Corporate Average Fuel Economy
CARB California Air Resources Board
CCFPP Critical cold filling (or filter) pouring (or plugging) point
CEM Corporate environmental management
CFC Chlorofluorocarbon
CF4 Carbon tetra fluoride
C2F6 Hexafluoroethane
CMA United States Chemical Manufacturers Association
CO Carbon monoxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CSR Corporate social responsibility
DFE Design for environment
EMAS Eco-management and auditing scheme
EMS Environmental management system
EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
FAME Fatty acid methyl ester
GMO Genetically modified organism
GNP Gross national product
GWh Giga watt-hours
ha Hectare
HC Hydrocarbon gases
HF Hydrofluoric acid
HFC-134a Tetrafluoroethane
HSE Health, safety and environment
LCA Life cycle assessment / Life cycle analysis
MIPS Material input per service unit
3M Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Corporation
NGO Non-governmental organisation
N2O Nitrous oxide
NOx Nitrogen oxides
NOK Norwegian krone
pkm Person-kilometre
PPD Pour point depressor
PPM Parts per million
PM10 Particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter <10 micrometer
PM2.5 Particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter <2.5 micrometer
RME Rape methyl ester
SAVE European Commission DG-XVII programme for increased energy
efficiency
SL Greater Oslo Local Traffic
SME Small and medium sized enterprise
SO2 Sulphur dioxide
TMR Total material requirement
VOC Volatile organic compounds
VR Virtual reality
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland
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1. Introduction
The title of this thesis is “Transport and Industrial Ecology – Problems and
Prospects”. This title implies that transport and industrial ecology are the two
main themes addressed, and particularly the relations between them. These
relations cause problems. But there are also prospects about the way they may be
handled. Industrial ecology is fundamentally about how environmental problems
may be solved or limited. Industrial systems necessarily involve transport. The
focus on transport in relation to industrial ecology has its background in the
serious environmental problems caused by transport.
1.1. Environmental problems of transport

The following seven points illustrate the environmental problems connected to
transport1:
• The transport sector is the source of an unusual wide range of environmental

impacts. They cover a range from global to local effects, from consequences
for the natural environment to health effects, from impacts on cultural
landscape to destruction of cultural monuments and valuable built
environments.
• The transport sector is responsible for a large part of the global consumption
of energy and material resources. In the rich industrial countries, more than
30% of the total energy consumption is on the whole linked to transport. The
high energy consumption does not only constitute a problem of global
character, it is also in itself the source of environmental impacts where the
resources are consumed in terms of exploitation, production, and
transportation. The transportation of the transport means and the fuels is one
of the major global streams of goods transport.
• Transport is an important source of many of the serious environmental and

health impacts caused by the emission of polluting substances, especially to
air. These are emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
volatile organic compounds (VOC), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter
(PM), sulphur dioxide (SO2), etc. Several of the emission substances are also
important in the formation of tropospheric ozone, which in turn is a source of
health effects, impaired plant growth, and degradation of biological diversity.
Noise can also be understood as a type of emission to air. In this respect
transport is a dominating source in cities and urban areas, as well as connected
to important transport elsewhere.
• The transport sector is special in the way that it is close to 100% based on
fossil energy, that is, the energy resource that many of the most serious
environmental impacts are linked to. Globally, fossil oil products account for
98% of all energy consumption for transport purposes. This represents more
than 60% of the consumption of all fossil oil products in the world, but
1
The description of environmental problems from transport through the list of seven points is
based on Høyer (2000).
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INTRODUCTION
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obviously a smaller share of all fossil energy (which also includes natural gas
and coal). Road transport is almost completely based on fossil oil, and it
dominates in terms of volume as well. In the OECD countries road transport
on average makes up 80% of all fossil oil used for transport. Most of the
remaining 20% is used for air transport, whereas rail and boat just account for
approximately 5% (OECD, 1996).
• The development of the infrastructure of transport, coupled by the barriers

caused by its use, are – as elements of an increasingly more extensive and
finely-meshed network – important sources of the degradation of biological
diversity and other values linked to the characteristics and localisation of land.
The latter refers, for example, to the deterioration of cultural landscapes and
production values for human activities, such as agriculture.
• The infrastructure of transport, but also the polluting emissions from the use
of the transport means, is an important, perhaps the most important source of
the deterioration of cultural monuments and valuable built environments. This
applies particularly to cities and urban areas. In this context it has been
suggested that the transport sector in the past few decades can be blamed for
more destruction of such cultural values in western European cities than the
total of all bombing during World War II (Høyer & Simonsen, 1996). In
strongly car-based cities and urban areas, the transport land areas may occupy
as much as 30-40% of the total land.
• In all OECD countries, the transport sector is the main source of the special
accumulation of serious environmental impacts we get in the largest cities and
urban areas. This is particularly the case with environmental impacts that
affect the health. According to the recommended limits by the Norwegian
Pollution Control Authority (SFT), 600 000-700 000 people in Norway are
living in areas with too high concentration of NO2 and particles. The critical
concentration of ozone – with regard to plants as well as to human health – is
exceeded practically all over the country. Road traffic alone leads to an excess
of recommended limits for outdoor noise in residential areas for about 1.35
million people. In addition, of all the society’s economic sectors, transport
accounts for the major share of fatal accidents and accidents causing injuries
to people.
There is in addition one aspect of the environmental problems of transport that

make them particularly important; many of them are increasing rapidly in
magnitude. One example is the greenhouse gas emissions from transport. While
the greenhouse gas emissions from power generation, industry, households,
agriculture, services and waste in the European Union are expected to remain
approximately stable or be reduced towards the year 2010, the emissions from
transport are expected to rise substantially (Figure 1).
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Figure 1 Contribution of key sectors to greenhouse gas emissions in the EU. 1990
emissions and 2010 forecast
1600
Million tonne CO2 equivalents 1400

1990 emissions
1200
2010 forecast
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Power Transport Industry Households Agriculture Services Waste
supply
Source: EC (2001)
The expected increase in transport’s contribution to major environmental

problems in the future is the main reason for the key focus on transport in this
thesis. Another reason is that transport is rather important in the debate connected
to sustainable development, particularly connected to modern industrial societies.
In the main chapter on energy in the Brundtland Commission report “Our
Common Future”, transport is an important source of three of the four
environmental problems the commission highlights as implied in a future
consumption of energy (WCED, 1987, p. 129). These are:
• The risk of climate changes due to increased emission of CO2 from the
combustion of fossil fuels
• Air pollution in cities and industrial areas caused by the combustion of fossil
fuels
• Acidification of the environment for the same reason
1.2. Different ways of understanding transport problems

As indicated in the previous chapter, the problems connected to transport are
many and complex. One way of differentiating transport problems is that they
range from technical to systemic problems, requiring successively greater changes
to society. Another, but related differentiation is to use the dimensional axis
efficiency-pattern-volume (Figure 2). This way of differentiating transport
problems is found more suitable for the application in this thesis. It is based on
previous work by researchers at Western Norway Research Institute (Høyer et al.,
1998; Høyer, 2000). The problems on this axis range from relatively simple
problems connected to the efficiency of transport (efficiency), to successively
more complex problems of societal systemic character (volume). In addition to
these two main dimensions, the axis has an intermediate position (pattern). At
each endpoint the most extreme variants of efficiency and volume are found.
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INTRODUCTION
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Intermediate positions between the three main dimensions also exist. A certain
transport problem can for example be characterised as both having characteristics
of pattern and volume. We can also speak of a transport problem having both
pattern and volume effects2.
Figure 2 The efficiency-pattern-volume dimensional axis
Efficiency problems
• How to improve aerodynamics of vehicles
• How to purify exhaust emissions
• How to recycle vehicles and infrastructure
• How to make fuel efficient engines
• How to use more renewable energy sources
• How to increase capacity utilisation (load factor)
Pattern problems
• How to make substitutions between means
Bus instead of car?
• How to make substitutions between modes
Goods transport: Water and rail instead of road and
air?
Person transport: Rail instead of road?
• How to make substitutions between non-motorised transport
(walk/bike) and motorised transport
Volume problems
• What societal and individual processes can reduce transport?
How can infrastructure and land use planning reduce
transport?
How can locating functions for improving accessibility
reduce transport?
How can global mobility of goods and people be
reduced?
The efficiency problems of transport are connected to the aim of making

improvements in existing transport, or processes of doing things better. This
includes technical problems connected to improving the environmental
performance of existing transport and creating new and more efficient transport
means. This is an important aspect of industrial ecology. Design with the aim of
reducing the wind resistance (aerodynamic design) of automobiles is on the
extreme side of the efficiency end of the dimensional axis. An approach to
“solving” the main transport problems by building cars with improved
aerodynamic design can thus be considered as an extreme variant of the efficiency
2
Both positive and negative effects are possible. In general, the transport problems are considered
as having negative effects. Hovewer, if one focuses on prospects or solutions, it is also possible to
concieve of positive effects of various approaches to deal with the transport problems. This
implies that the efficiency-pattern-volume dimensional axis, in addition to differing between
transport problems, also can be understood to differ between various approaches to find solutions
to transport problems.
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INTRODUCTION
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understanding. Reducing emissions by various purification technologies, such as

through the installation of catalytic converters, filters and particle traps are also
examples of efficiency approaches, but less extreme than the approach of
obtaining aerodynamic design. Another efficiency problem is how to improve the
recyclability of transport means. This include problems connected to material
choice for improved material recyclability and re-use of parts. The production of
more fuel-efficient engines is another example of a less extreme variant of
efficiency approaches. Other transport approaches on the efficiency segment, but
less extreme, include the transition to more use of renewable energy sources, and
the improvements in capacity utilisation by increasing load factor in goods
transport and occupancy rate in person transport.
Pattern-problems of transport can be understood as being caused by the relative

usage of different transport forms. Changes to transport patterns are obtained by
changes in the relative usage share of the various means and modes of transport3.
This includes the substitution of transport modes and means with environmentally
preferred alternatives. Transport on water and rail instead of road and air are key
mode substitutions for goods transport. These mode-substitutions can occur by
changes away from lorry and aeroplane use to more use of railways, cargo ships at
sea and barges on inland waterways. Mode substitution in goods transport can
imply major savings in energy use. Lorry-based transport is much less energy
efficient than rail and water-based transport. The average lorry transport in
Finland, for example, requires a factor of 6 times more energy per tonne
transported goods, compared with rail transport, and about 3 times more than
transport on water (Andersen et al., 2001). The corresponding factor for lorry
transport in Norway are about 4 times higher than rail and 5 times higher than
water-based transport (ibid.).
Using bus instead of car is an example of a transport mean substitution for person
transport using the road-based transport mode. The other main substitution in
motorised person transport is change from private car and aeroplane to more use
of rail-based transport. These substitutions can imply major savings in energy use.
On the average public transport is much more energy efficient than transport by
car. A study of person transport in Oslo indicates a 35% lower energy use per pkm
for bus than car (Andersen, 2001). A 74% reduction in energy use can be obtained
by changing from automobile usage to rail (metro).
Changes in transport pattern can also occur through substitution of motorised

transport with the more environmentally preferable non-motorised transport
(walking and bicycling). This can occur either as a change of transport mean or a
change of transport mode. An example of the former is change from the use of car
or bus to the use of non-motorised bicycle or walking. The change from tram or
metro to more use of non-motorised bicycle or walking is an example of the latter.
Also within the main dimension pattern, the order of placement on the axis is far
from random. The pattern issues that share characteristics with efficiency issues
are positioned close to the efficiency dimension. Correspondingly, pattern issues
3
A distinction is made between transport mean and transport mode. Transport modes are: road,
water (sea and inland waterways), air and rail. Transport means are vehicles, ships, airplanes and
rains. Vehicles are road-based transport means, such as automobiles, buses and lorries.
5
INTRODUCTION
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that also share characteristics with volume problems are positioned close to the
volume dimension. Changes in transport means can in general be considered
closer to the efficiency dimension than the case is for changes in transport modes.
How to obtain changes from motorised transport to non-motorised transport
(walking and bicycling) is however the pattern problem that is considered to have
the most connection to volume problems.
Volume problems of transport are of particular interest today, as these forms of

environmental problems are rapidly increasing in importance. It is the sum of all
the individual automobiles, aeroplanes, and lorries etc., which contribute most to
the major environmental problems, such as climate changes due to the emission of
greenhouse gases. These problems are connected to lifestyle changes and the
systemic character of society, in contrast to the efficiency problems, which are less
complex and mainly connected to technical aspects. The volume problems are
strongly connected to the necessity of making reductions. The focus is on societal
and individual processes for reducing motorised transport of both people and
goods. This includes establishing of industrial infrastructure and land use
practices that minimise the need for motorised transport. Locating societal
functions for improving accessibility can also reduce the need for transport. A
reduction in the global mobility of both people and goods is one of the most
comprehensive issues connected to the volume segment of the efficiency-pattern-
volume dimensional axis.
In the industrial ecology literature the transport problems have been divided
according to a similar 3-level differentiation. In connection with the development
of urban transport systems Thomas Graedel et al. (2002) identify three general
problem approaches, requiring successively greater changes in lifestyle and
infrastructure:
1. Improve private transport through advances in car and road design

2. Establish public transport systems that meet or exceeds the expectations of
current car users
3. Minimise the need for transport through more use of telecommunication,
and locating services within walking or biking distance of residents.
The three approaches presented by Graedel (ibid.) thus resemble the efficiency-
pattern-volume dimensional axis in Figure 2. The first approach, focusing on
improvements in current transport, corresponds to the efficiency-segment. The
second approach is about making public transport more attractive, facilitating a
transport pattern change. The third approach is about minimising the need for
transport, with the potential for subsequently reducing transport volumes.
The efficiency-pattern-volume dimensions transport problems can also be

considered having a parallel in the field of ecological economy. In the discussion
of social conditions for achieving sustainable development, the American
economist Herman E. Daly uses allocation, distribution and scale as determinants
of environmental degradation (Daly, 1992; Daly & Foy, 1989; Daly & Foy, 1992).
It might appear, at first glance, that there are two quite different themes being
considered. However, considering Daly’s 3 dimensions might help
comprehending the division of transport problems into efficiency, pattern and
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INTRODUCTION
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volume problems. Daly explains the three issues allocation, distribution and scale
as follows:
• Allocation refers to the distribution of the throughput of natural resources to

different end-use applications. Thus, it refers to how much of the resources
that are used to private cars, houses, clothing, water and sanitary purposes etc.
• Distribution refers to the distribution between people, of the throughput of
natural resources in the form of end-use products and services. Thus it refers
to how much of the resources that are distributed to you and me, to people in
other regions of the world, and to people in future generations.
• Scale refers to the total volume of the throughput of natural resources and
waste- and emission-products. Thus, it refers to the volumes of sources and
sinks.
According to Daly acceptable volumes (scale) must be decided before distribution

and allocation. At the same time these volumes must be determined through
political decisions, and the decisions must reflect physically defined ecological
limits. The next step is to decide on distribution through criteria of distributional
justice. This is also a matter of political decisions. Only after having politically
determined the ecologically acceptable volumes and the ethically just distribution,
can allocation take place through market economy. Intervening in scale (volume)
and distribution (pattern) can thus only be done at a superior societal or political
level. It is only for the allocation (efficiency) issue that the market forces can play
a role. A similar reasoning can be made for transport problems, in that the volume
and pattern problems require comprehensive and for the most part policy-driven
approaches, while efficiency problems are more suitable for being controlled by
the market forces.
1.3. Industrial ecology

Industrial ecology aims at reducing the environmental impacts of industrial
activities. It is a relatively broad concept which includes materials, processes,
products and facilities. It also covers how these components of the industrial
systems are linked together through flows of material resources, as well as the
interaction with natural ecosystems. Since industrial ecology is a system-based
approach, it is in principle, applicable for dealing with environmental problems
caused by transportation systems.
The concept industrial ecology has roots back to the 1950’s from a concern of
potential limits of raw materials, caused by an increasing demand for resources.
The possible depletion of the world’s stock of minerals was a result of economic
growth and expansion of mineral extraction in connection with the rebuilding of
war-torn nations after 1945 (Hodges, 1995).
Many of the core ideas of industrial ecology, such as material flow analysis, have
been practiced since the 1960’s most notably by Robert Ayres (Ayres and Kneese,
1969; Ayres and Nair, 1984; Ayres et al., 1985). This area would later be termed
industrial metabolism (Ayres, 1989). In a special issue of Scientific American on
“Managing planet earth”, the core principles of industrial ecology were introduced
to the scientific literature at large (Frosch and Gallopoulos, 1989). The notion of
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INTRODUCTION
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industrial ecosystems, using the ecosystems in nature as models for the

organisation of industrial activity, was launched:
“Wastes from one industrial process can serve as the raw material for another, thereby
reducing the impact of industry on the environment”
(Frosch and Gallopoulos, 1989, p. 94)
This time the concept sparked off a considerable interest, primarily by industry
and academia, and later also by governing bodies. Subsequently, a large number
of scientific contributions in the field of industrial ecology appeared, in the form
of journal articles, conference papers and books (Ausubel and Sladovich, 1989;
Frosch, 1992; Tibbs, 1992; Socolow et al., 1994; Ehrenfeld, 1994; Allenby and
Richards, 1994; Frosch, 1995; Graedel and Allenby, 1995; O’Rourke et al., 1996;
Ayres and Ayres, 1996; Lowe et al., 1997; Allenby, 1999; Ayres and Ayres,
2002). These contributions represent different understandings of the concept
industrial ecology. This literature is reviewed and the various understandings
characterised in Chapter 2 – An Industrial Ecology Typology.
1.4. The handling of environmental problems of transport in

industrial ecology
Since industrial ecology is emerging as a framework for industry, it becomes
relevant to ask the question of how problems of transport are handled within this
field. Dara O’Rourke et al. (1996), in a critical review of industrial ecology, point
to the lack of considerations regarding energy use in general as a main weakness
in the industrial ecology literature. When transport problems are focused in
industrial ecology, they mainly deal with technical aspects of designing less
environmentally harmful motor vehicles. When applying design for environment4
(DFE) in industrial ecology, O’Rourke et al. (ibid.) point to the danger that larger
questions regarding the sustainability of transportation systems largely dependent
on petrol powered automobiles are not addressed. Instead, these questions are
being buried under complicated, but relatively unimportant technical design
problems (e.g. plastic versus aluminium car components).
Global transport of goods is analysed, from the perspective of industrial ecology,

by Stephen Bunker (1996). He points to examples of false claims of
dematerialisation5 in the industrial ecology literature. By not accounting for the
4
Design for environment is a term commonly used in connection with industrial ecology. It
implies that products should be designed to minimise the environmental impacts during the use
phase, and to make possible easy disassembly and re-use after the end of use.
5
Dematerialisation is often used as a term for resource efficiency, or the more efficient use of
available resources. A more up-coming definition of dematerialisation takes into consideration the
change from product to services. This concerns the reduction in material input per service unit
(MIPS), which refers to the mass of materials needed to produce one unit of a service. An even
more comprehensive definition, from an ecological point of view, is:
“Dematerialisation is the decline in the total global amount of resources (i.e. material and
energy) mobilized to manufacture one unit of an industrial product/service, without
changes in the basic qualities of the product/service”.
(Høyer, 2000, p. 82)
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INTRODUCTION
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strong increase in volumes of global transport of goods, which has occurred the
last decades, claims of global dematerialisation cannot be made.
Several other industrial ecology contributions deal with a limited, but important
component of transport; the automotive system (Keoleian et al., 1997; Graedel &
Allenby, 1998; Graedel et al., 2002). All these contributions use a life-cycle
perspective on the analysis of the design of the automobile product. They also
include analyses of material usage, including considerations of materials for use in
infrastructure. Compared to analysis of material use, energy use issues are
however given little attention.
The examples above indicate that some important transport questions are dealt
with in the discussion connected to industrial ecology. Both simple and more
complex transport problems in connection with the concept industrial ecology can
be found in the international literature. Bunker (1996) applies a more complex
perspective, focusing on fundamental transport problems, exemplified by the
increase in global transport volumes.
Initially when considering the concept industrial ecology, it might however appear
that transport either is not included, or is only included to a limited extent in
various interpretations and understandings of the concept.
1.5. Problem formulation

Transport is a major source of the local, regional and global environmental
problems. Industrial ecology aims at reducing the negative environmental
consequences of industrial activities. It thus becomes important to understand the
relations between industrial ecology and transport. It is a main problem for
assessing industrial ecology’s prospects for handling the environmental problems
connected to transport that these relations are not well understood. This Ph.D.
thesis therefore aims at improving this area of understanding – the relations
between industrial ecology and transport. The superior issue of the thesis is
therefore:
The term understand implies that the focus in the thesis is not on explaining, but
rather at obtaining increased knowledge of the relations between industrial
ecology and transport. The focus is on various ways the concept of industrial
ecology is understood and applied, with a particular attention to the environmental
problems connected to transport and transport systems. A relatively broad
approach to industrial ecology is chosen, to throw an extensive light on transport
relations in industrial ecology.
Since transport is an increasingly important contributor to many of the most

serious environmental problems connected to industrial societies, it is important to
understand how transport is handled within the frame of industrial ecology. This
is addressed through two leading issues that define, in an operational sense, the
scope and content of the thesis:
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INTRODUCTION
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industrial ecology?
Since industrial ecology aims at reducing the environmental impacts of industrial

activities, the element of change becomes important. Improvements in industrial
systems occur through making changes. Industrial ecology is thus to a large extent
connected to the act of making changes to industrial systems. Changes, such as
the implementation of industrial ecology principles, occur through the
involvement of individual actors or actor groups. It is therefore important to
identify the role of actors, in various understandings of industrial ecology. A third
leading issue can thus be formulated:
transport?
1.6. Methodological approach

1.6.1. Overall methodological approach
In this thesis a case-methodology is applied for the purpose of making
generalisations on relations between industrial ecology and transport. An
understanding of generalisation from case studies similar to the understanding of
Robert K. Yin (1994) is applied. Yin differentiates between statistical and
analytical generalisation, and makes the point that the case-methodology to a
larger extent is based on analytical generalisation. Analytical generalisation is
based on logical sequence of reasoning with emphasis on theoretical
considerations, while in statistical generalisation much emphasis is on statistical
techniques with stringent criteria regarding selection of study units.
Several research projects form the basis for the cases in this thesis. In the research
projects, as well as in the thesis, mainly analytical, rather than statistical
generalisations are applied.
A specific understanding of the term ”case” is used in the thesis. The term is
expressing, as in Yin (ibid.), the empirical and theoretical sources for generating
knowledge. The empirical cases are presented in the thesis in the form of four
articles (Chapters 3-6) and one conference paper expanded with additional notes
(Chapter 7). For the purpose of simplicity, the five empirical contributions are all
referred to as ”articles”.
The research projects forming the basis for the five cases have not specifically
been designed to elucidate the relations between industrial ecology and transport.
They are first of all projects about transport problems. But the transport problems
are studied in connection with industrial systems. They thus provide knowledge
relevant for understanding relations between industrial ecology and transport. In
addition they study a wide range of transport problems. The research projects
forming the bases for the cases are thus well suited to provide knowledge about
transport - industrial ecology relations because they:
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INTRODUCTION
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• Study transport in industrial systems

• Study a wide range of transport problems
In addition to the empirical material in the form of the cases there is in the thesis
also a main theoretical contribution. It consists of a typology (Chapter 2) where
five different industrial ecology understandings drawn from international
literature are identified. These five theoretical industrial ecology types handle
transport differently, both in terms of the actual transport problems addressed, and
the limits and potentials. The typology is mainly descriptive, based on central
contributions found in the industrial ecology literature. In total, the five types of
understandings can be considered to represent a description of the field of
industrial ecology.
From the empirical cases and the theoretical contribution, some analytical
generalisations are made. This is illustrated in Figure 3.
Figure 3 The basis for generalisation from cases and theory
Industrial
ecology types: Empirical cases:
Transport problems
Generalisations
on relations
between transport
and industrial
ecology
Role of actors
In Figure 3 the five cubes to the left represent the five industrial ecology types
(understandings) drawn from the international literature. The types have different
potentials for handling transport problems. For each of the five types it is
described how and which transport problems are addressed. This is shown in
Figure 3 by the line from each cube to the rectangular box labelled “Transport
problems”. Four of the industrial ecology types are tightly connected to changes,
and thus also the role of actors. For these four types the role of actors is described,
shown by the lines from four of the cubes to the rectangular box labelled “Role of
actors”.
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INTRODUCTION
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The empirical cases are shown as ellipses in Figure 3. The lines from each ellipse
to the “Transport problems”- rectangular box illustrate that the transport problems
in each case are described.
The cases have different characteristics, which makes it possible to connect them
to one or several industrial ecology types. Each case can thus be considered to
represent the application of one or several industrial ecology understandings. It is
expected that transport problems are addressed in certain ways, based on what
type(s) that each case is connected to. The cases then illustrate how transport
problems emerge, and this is discussed in relation to what can be expected from
the industrial ecology types. A similar logic is applied for the role of actors. Four
of the empirical cases represent the application of industrial ecology types with a
strong connection to change, and for these cases there is also a description of the
role of actors. This shown in Figure 3 by the lines from four of the ellipses to the
“Role of actors” – rectangular box.
In summary, the empirical (cases) and theoretical sources (industrial ecology

typology) of material are basis for analysing transport problems and role of actors
in industrial ecology. This is used for making general conclusions on problems
and prospects of transport in connection with industrial ecology.
1.6.2. The basis in research projects

This thesis is based on theoretical and empirical material from several research
projects carried out at Western Norway Research Institute. They are all projects
with a prime focus on relations between industry, transport and the environment.
In most of the projects I have had the function as project leader in combination
with active researcher. This implies that several researchers have contributed to
the research material that forms the basis.
The detailed methodological approach in each empirical case is described in the

five articles constituting the case-presentations. What follows is a brief
description of each research project and their main method approach.
1995-1997. Green-SMEs. This was a project under Norwegian State Department

of Local Government. The relation between industrial ecology and transport was
studied for small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs). The main aim was to
develop knowledge of the most important changes SMEs are facing in terms of
future environmental challenges. The main method approach was case-based with
10 individual enterprises as cases. Important actors in the project were the
individual SMEs, and their employees. The company facilities, infrastructure, and
other framework for the activities of the companies, were also focused. The
empirical data material was obtained through series of structural interviews with
the employees of the 10 participating SMEs. The interviews were complemented
with participatory dialogue with the enterprises where improvement possibilities
were discussed. In two of the case companies, technical environmental audits
were carried out. These audits consisted of detailed mapping of energy- and
material usage of the company activities. Focus was on technical improvements
that in addition to have environmental benefits also would imply cost savings, and
in that sense the method was inspired by the pollution prevention pays (3P)
12
INTRODUCTION
—————————————————————————————————
strategy of 3M in improving the industrial metabolism. For the main part of the
case companies the focus was on external challenges, which included customer
and supplier demands, pressure from environmental groups, government
regulations, banks and the insurance industries.
1996-1998. Transport scenarios for Oslo. The main aim of this project was to
provide the basis for environmental reporting for the case company Oslo
Sporveier. This comprised of, as part of the company strategy, the developing of
scenarios for person transport in Oslo up to year 2016. Relations between
industrial ecology and transport were studied through the process of strategic
planning in urban transport systems. Energy use, land use, time use and emissions
of CO2, NOx, PM10 and PM2.5 connected with person transport in 1996 and in
three different scenarios for 2016 were determined. The scenarios were: 1) a
private car scenario, where the main growth in total person transport is to be met
with a strong increase in the use of private cars, 2) a public transport scenario,
where the increase in total person transport is to be met with a strong increase in
the public transport, and 3) the sustainability scenario, with a reduction in total
person transport, increased share of public transport and walking/bicycling, and
reduced share of private car use. The design of the project, as well as the data
generation-, and implementation phases were carried out with a close interaction
between the researchers and the case company Oslo Sporveier.
1996-1998. Biodiesel in heavy duty vehicles in Norway – Strategic plan and

vehicle fleet experiments. This was a project under the European Commission
DGXVII ALTENER -programme. The project focused on relations between
transport and industrial ecology from the perspective of bus companies’
connections to biological renewable energy systems. This coupling between
transport companies and a cyclic energy resource system constituted the key
connection to industrial ecology for this industrial sector (the transport sector).
The main objective of the project was to develop a strategic plan for deployment
of biodiesel in heavy-duty vehicles, applicable both for Norwegian Federation of
Transport Companies and bus companies. The identification of the main barriers
to the use of biodiesel produced from rapeseed in Norway was also an aim. The
main methodological approach consisted of identification of barriers to biodiesel
at the three different levels: 1) National policies and strategies, 2) Bus companies
and 3) Production of rapeseed as raw material for biodiesel. A wide range of
national actors was interviewed regarding their opinion of alternative fuels in
general and biodiesel in particular. For the identification of barriers in bus
companies, actors at the three different levels management, garage / maintenance
and drivers in the two participating bus companies were interviewed. This was
carried out before, during and after fleet tests with biodiesel driving in the buses.
The fleet tests also gave empirical basis to the strategic plan for implementation of
biodiesel in Norway. Particular focus was to identify barriers connected to using
biodiesel in cold weather. A literature study of fuel additives and an analysis of
barriers connected to the production of rapeseed as raw material for biodiesel. For
the identification of barriers connected to the production of biodiesel a life-cycle
approach to the fuel was applied. This included identification of the barriers and
limits to cultivation of rapeseed in Norway for three future scenarios of
agricultural systems. Biodiesel’s potential for reducing the emission of
13
INTRODUCTION
—————————————————————————————————
greenhouse gases was also assessed, by including new estimates of nitrous oxide
emissions in rapeseed production.
1997-2000. Energy saving in transport of goods – a pilot project in rural natural

resource-based industries. This was a project under the European Commission
DGXVII SAVE-programme. In the project the relations between industrial
ecology and transport were studied in terms of energy efficiency improvements in
transport of goods. Within the framework of industrial ecology, energy efficient
industrial production systems are important components. The main objective of
the project was to gain knowledge of possible actions, strategies and measures for
improved energy efficiency in transport of goods in rural, natural resource-based
industries in the Nordic countries. The project had three main phases. In the first
phase the energy use in transport of goods in the three Nordic countries Finland,
Sweden and Norway was analysed. This comprised the compilation of statistical
data on the trends in energy efficiency of goods transport by road, rail, sea and air.
The second phase of the project comprised of pilot actions for improvement in
energy efficiency of goods transport. This engaged actors in the form of a total of
four case companies in Finland, Sweden and Norway. The researchers and the
participating transport companies interacted through series of interviews and
meetings and constructive dialogue. The identification of potentials for
improvements of energy efficiency included both analysis of conditions and the
implementation of actions through actors connected to the four case companies.
The third phase of the project identified measures and actions in regional policies,
for improvements in energy efficiency of goods transport. Actors important for
mode change from road to rail and sea were identified and subjected to two
rounds of structured interviews. Most of these actors were from within the
regional and local political/administrative system and transport companies.
1999-2000. Motor-alcohols from wood resources in heavy duty vehicles. A Nordic

project on market-penetration through stakeholder group networks. This was a
project under the European Commission DGXVII ALTENER-programme.
Industrial ecology – transport relations were studied in the form of
implementation of strategies for biological renewable energy systems in the
transport sector. The role of actors in implementing changes to industrial systems
was studied through stakeholder group networks on wood-based motor-alcohols.
The main aim of the project was to identify and analyse the most important
barriers in the production, distribution and usage of wood-based motor-alcohols in
the three Nordic countries Norway, Sweden and Finland. The methodological
approach included the forming of stakeholder group networks for wood-based
motor-alcohols. These networks consisted of a wide range of actors important for
the implementation of wood-based motor-alcohols. They included actors from
transport companies, transport organisations, wood-processing industries and
manufacturers of wood-based alcohols, distributors of motor-fuels and
manufacturers of heavy duty vehicles dedicated to motor-alcohols. The
stakeholder group networks are forms of environmental co-operative regimes,
which function to successfully manage environmental problems. The project
gained experience with the functioning of such regimes, in the area of alternative
energies, where they not previously had been tried. The three different study units
in the project were 1) the networks themselves, 2) the barriers to the
implementation of wood-based motor-alcohols and 3) the required conditions for
14
INTRODUCTION
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resolvement of the barriers. The method for resolving the barriers comprised of,
through the stakeholder group network, the establishing of co-operative channels
to major governing bodies. Through the project new cooperative channels were
established, in a setting encompassing three different countries.
2000-2002. Environmental reporting for Oslo Sporveier. The public transport

company Oslo Sporveier financed this project. The relations between industrial
ecology and transport were studied through the development and implementation
of an environmental reporting system for a public transport company. As a basis
for the publishing of the first environmental report, basic analyses of energy usage
and transport activities in the company were performed. These analyses
comprised the energy usage and emissions connected to the basic transport
services by tram, metro and bus. The company buildings and properties were also
included in the analysis, as well as the company business travels to
conferences/meetings and daily employee work travel to and from work. The
analysis provided a foundation for identifying company actions for environmental
improvements, and indicators for measuring progress. Societal accounting was
used to analyse how the environmental effects of the company’s services compare
with other transport in Oslo. The project design-, data generation-, and
implementation phases were all characterised by close interaction between the
researchers and the employees of the case company. A wide range of actors within
the company organisation was involved, either through the process of gathering
relevant data for the reporting, or in the implementation of actions and measures
for improving the environmental performance of the company.
1.7. The chapters

In addition to this introduction and the conclusion chapter the thesis consists of 6
main chapters.
The first chapter is:
1. Typology of Industrial Ecology Understandings.

The chapter is previously unpublished.
The chapter identifies different understandings of the concept industrial ecology,
and establishes a typology where the understandings are classified according to
their main characteristics. It thus constitutes a theoretical contribution to the field
of industrial ecology. The chapter also represents a review of the main literature
contributions to industrial ecology. The typology established in the chapter is
intended to function as a basis for elucidation of problems connected to transport.
The characterisation of the various understandings of industrial ecology facilitates
the identification of transport problems emerging with the concept industrial
ecology. The chapter identifies a total of five main understandings of industrial
ecology, and illustrates the transport themes connected to each individual type.
The four chapters that follow after the typology-chapter are all separate articles
published, or submitted for publishing, in scientific journals. They are exactly in
the form they have been published / submitted for publishing.
15
INTRODUCTION
—————————————————————————————————
The journal articles are:
2. Industrial Ecology and some Implications for Rural SMEs.

The article is published in the international journal “Business Strategy and the
Environment”, 1997, vol. 6, no. 1, p. 1-7.
The article gives an introduction to industrial ecology and provides an analysis of
the implications of applying industrial ecology principles to rural industries. The
relation between industrial ecology and transport is through this article studied in
connection with small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs). Actual industrial
cases and examples of illustrative problems are given. The cases presented are
from participating firms in the “Green SMEs” research project. In the article it is
shown that the problems include the inability to participate in efficient industrial
ecosystems (industrial webs, eco-parks) with exchange of wastes into useable
input materials. It is further shown that the ‘cluster’ properties of efficient
industrial ecosystems can be a limiting factor in the development of such systems
in rural areas. The long transport distances are key barriers in the establishing of
industrial ecosystems for small rural industries.
3. Transport of Fish from Norway: Energy Analysis using Industrial Ecology as

Framework.
The article is published in the international journal “Journal of Cleaner
Production”, 2002, vol. 10, no.6, p. 581-588.
The article uses industrial ecology as a framework for analysing transport energy
and its implication for products. The relations between industrial ecology and
transport are studied in terms of energy use in transport of goods. The importance
of the energy use for transport in a natural resource production system is analysed
in detail. By using fish as case, it is in the article shown that the amount of energy
for transport is highly dependent on the transport mode used. The article applies
industrial ecology principles for making assessments of the environmental
impacts of products, i.e. the whole product chain is examined. This is an extended
life-cycle approach, which also includes the transport of the finished products
from the exporter to the importing country. The article shows that this last part of
the transport chain can be extremely energy demanding in the case of fish
transport. This finding has implications for the products and the form (e.g. fresh,
frozen, and dried) the products are transported in.
4. Transport Scenarios in a Company Strategy.

The article is accepted for publication in the international journal “Business
Strategy and the Environment”.
The article presents the case transport company Oslo Sporveier’s strategy that
includes scenarios for the development of person transport in Oslo up to year
2016. The basis for the scenarios is described. Energy use, area use, time use and
emissions of CO2, NOx, PM10 and PM2.5 from person transport in three different
scenarios were determined. The scenarios were: 1) the private car scenario, where
the main growth in total person transport is to be met with a strong increase in the
use of private cars, 2) the public transport scenario, where the increase in total
person transport is to be met with a strong increase in the public transport, and 3)
the sustainability scenario, with a reduction in total person transport, increased
16
INTRODUCTION
—————————————————————————————————
share of public transport and walking/bicycling, and reduced share of private car
use.
5. Environmental Reporting and Transport – the case of a Public Transport

Company.
The article is accepted for publication in the international journal “Business
Strategy and the Environment”.
The article discusses corporate environmental reporting in the field of transport. In
addition to analysing the issue in general, the article covers empirical material
from Oslo Sporveier. The relations between industrial ecology and transport are
studied through the development and implementation of environmental reporting
systems for a public transport company. The process of preparing the year 2000
environmental report for the company is described. This presentation also
includes examples of actions for improving the environmental performance of the
company, and indicators for monitoring the progress from year to year. The article
has empirical basis in separate studies of the employee’s company travels, daily
travel to work, and the purchasing of energy. The article also shows how the
company is using societal accounting to show its responsibility as an important
societal actor, improving the stakeholder dialogue and providing knowledge at the
political level.
The chapter that follows after the four scientific journal articles is a conference
paper with a separate set of notes. The texts in these notes were not included in
the paper presented at the conference due to restrictions regarding the length of
the paper. They are included here to give a more complete presentation, both of
the theoretical and empirical material the paper is based on.
The conference paper is:
6. Alternative Energy in Transport Companies. Industrial Ecology Perspectives

on Resource- and Implementation-limits of Biological Fuels.
The paper is published in the proceedings from the 8th European Roundtable
on Cleaner Production in Cork, Ireland, October 9-11th, 2002.
The paper addresses the relations between industrial ecology and alternative
transport energy. The industrial ecology and transport relations are discussed from
the perspective of bus companies’ connection to biological renewable energy
systems and in the form of implementation strategies for biological renewable
energy systems in the transport sector in general. Limits and barriers to the use of
biodiesel from rapeseed, and alcohols from wood, are discussed from industrial
ecology perspectives. The paper presents results from the two projects “Biodiesel
in heavy duty vehicles in Norway – Strategic plan and vehicle fleet experiments”
and “Motor-alcohols from wood resources in heavy duty vehicles. A Nordic
project on market-penetration through stakeholder group networks”. The mobile
energy conversion is the key to the connection to industrial ecology for transport
companies. The most important barriers to implementation of biodiesel in Norway
are presented, in terms of national barriers, company barriers, barriers connected
to driving and starting in cold weather, and biodiesel production barriers. The
effect on the emission of greenhouse gases from a transition to use of biodiesel is
also discussed. The paper also discusses the experiences with the use of
17
INTRODUCTION
—————————————————————————————————
stakeholder group networks for identification and resolvement of barriers to

wood-based motor-alcohols.
1.8. References
Allenby, B. R. and Richards, D.J. (1994): The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems,

National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Allenby, B.R. (1999): Industrial Ecology: Policy Framework and
Implementation, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Andersen, O. (2001): Miljørapport 2000 for konsernet AS Oslo Sporveier.
Dokumentasjonsrapport. Vf-notat 6/01, Western Norway Research
Institute, Sogndal (in Norwegian).
Andersen, O., Uusitalo, O., Suutari, U., Lehtinen, J., Ahlvik, P., Hjortsberg, H.,
Groven, K. and Brendehaug, E. (2001): Energy Saving in Transport of
Goods – a Pilot Project in Rural Natural Resource-based Industries.
Final report from the European Commission SAVE -project
XVII/4.1031/Z/97-229. Vf-rapport 4/2001. Western Norway Research
Institute, Sogndal.
Ausubel, J.H. and Sladovich, H.E. (1989): Technology and Environment,
Ayres, R.U. and Ayres, L.W. (1996): Industrial Ecology. Towards Closing the
Materials Cycle, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK.
Ayres, R.U. and Ayres, L.W. (2002): A Handbook of Industrial Ecology, Edward
Elgar, Northampton, MA.
Bunker, S. (1996): Raw Material and the Global Economy: Oversights and
Distortions in Industrial Ecology. Society and Natural Resources, 9, p.
419-429.
Daly, H.E. (1992): Allocation, Distribution, and Scale: Towards an Economics
that is Efficient, Just, and Sustainable. Ecological Economics, 6(3), p. 185-
193.
Daly, H.E. and Foy, G. (1989): Allocation, Distribution, and Scale as
Determinants of Environmental Degradation: Case Studies of Haiti, El
Salvador and Costa Rica. September, World Bank Environment
Department Working Paper No. 19.
Daly, H.E. and Foy, G. (1992): The Economic Causes of Ecological Disorder in
Brazilian Amazonia: Allocation, Distribution and Scale. In Ecological
Disorder in Amazonia: Social Aspects, Kosinski, L.A. (ed.), International
Social Science Council and UNESCO, Rio de Janeiro, p. 49-76.
EC (2001): Environment 2010: Our Future, Our Choice. The sixth European
Union environment action programme. 2001-10. The European
Commission.
Ehrenfeld, J.R. (1994): Industrial Ecology: A Strategic Framework for Product
Policy and other Sustainable Practices. The Second International
Conference and Workshop on Product Oriented Policy, Stockholm.
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INTRODUCTION
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Erkman, S. (1997): Industrial Ecology: A Historical View. Journal of Cleaner

Production. 5 (1-2), p. 1-10.
Frosch, R.A. (1992): Industrial Ecology: A Philosophical Introduction.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 89, p. 800-803.
Frosch, R.A. (1995): Industrial Ecology. Adapting Technology for a Sustainable
World. Environment, 37(10), 17-37.
Frosch, R.A. and Gallopoulos, N.G. (1989): Strategies for Manufacturing.
Scientific American. September, p. 94-102.
Graedel, T.E. and Allenby, B.R. (1995): Industrial Ecology. Prentice Hall, New
Jersey.
Graedel, T.E. and Allenby, B.R. (1998): Industrial Ecology and the Automobile.
Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Graedel, T.E., Kakizawa, Y. and Jensen, M. (2002): Industrial Ecology and
Automotive Systems. In A Handbook of Industrial Ecology, Ayres, R.U.
and Ayres, L.W. (eds.), Edward Elgar, Northampton, MA, p. 432-444.
Hodges, C.A. (1995): Mineral Resources, Environmental Issues and Land use.
Science. 268, p. 1305–1312.
Høyer, K.G. (2000): Sustainable Mobility – The Concept and its Implications.
Ph.D. thesis. Vf-rapport 1/2000, Western Norway Research Institute,
Sogndal.
Høyer, K.G. and Simonsen, M. (1996): På reisefot - men ikke til fots. Om
reiseliv, transport og miljø. VF-rapport 7/96. Western Norway Research
Institute, Sogndal. (In Norwegian, with English summary).
Høyer, K.G., Holden, E., Lundli, H.E. and Aall, C. (1998): Sustainable Transport
and Mobility. Theories, Principles and Examples in a Norwegian Context.
Vf-Rapport 12/98. Western Norway Research Institute, Sogndal.
Keoleian, G.A., Kar, K., Manion, M.M. and Bulkley, J.W. (1997): Industrial
Ecology of the Automobile. A Life Cycle Perspective. Society of
Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pennsylvania.
Lowe, E.A., Warren, J.L. and Moran, S.R. (1997): Discovering Industrial
Ecology. An Executive Briefing and Sourcebook. Batelle Press,
Columbus, Ohio.
O’Rourke, D., Connelly, L. and Koshland, C.P. (1996): Industrial Ecology – a
Critical Review. International Journal of Environment and Pollution,
6(2/3), p. 89-112.
OECD (1996): Environmental Criteria for Sustainable Transport. Working Paper
of the PPCG Task Force on Transport. Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development, Paris.
Socolow, R.H., Andrews, C., Berkhout, F. and Thomas, V. (1994): Industrial
Ecology and Global Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Tibbs, H.B.C. (1992): Industrial Ecology: An Environmental Agenda for
Industry. Whole Earth Review, Winter, p. 4-19.
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INTRODUCTION
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WCED (1987): Our Common Future. Report from World Commission on

Environment and Development. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Yin, R.K. (1994): Case Study Research, Design and Methods. 2nd ed., Sage
Publications, Newbury Park.
20
TYPOLOGY OF INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY UNDERSTANDINGS
—————————————————————————————————
2. An Industrial Ecology Typology

2.1. Introduction
Industrial ecology is a wide approach applied to the concerns of natural resource
exploitation and environmental impacts from industrial activities. The concept is
emerging as an umbrella for industrial leaders, academia and government
agencies. A wide range of interpretations and understandings6 of the concept
exists. The aim of this chapter is to elucidate these different understandings. This
is done through the establishing of an industrial ecology typology7 where the
different understandings are classified according to their main characteristics.
There are three main reasons for establishing the typology. The first two reasons
are connected to theoretical aspects of the thesis:
1. The establishing of a typology of industrial ecology is one way of carrying

out a review of the main literature of industrial ecology. The typology
gives a presentation of the most important literature contributions to
industrial ecology.
2. The establishing of the typology constitutes a theoretical contribution to
the industrial ecology literature. It is thus a form of theory building, which
aims at improving the understanding of the concept industrial ecology.
The third reason is of a more instrumental character, in that it serves the purpose
of identifying transport problems connected to the various understandings of
industrial ecology:
3. The typology can be considered a basis for illustrating problems related to

transport. The fact that there are many different ways of understanding
6
The concept understanding is mainly limited to usage in the human- and social sciences. The
German philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey claimed that there is a main difference between human
sciences and natural sciences in terms of the development of knowledge (Dilthey, 1883). The
natural sciences are studying material phenomena that can be observed from the outside and be
explained with reference to physical regularities (“the laws of nature”). The human sciences are
studying human relations, experiences and manifestations, with the goal of understanding these
phenomena from within.
The German sociologist and political economist Max Weber considered an understanding as a part
of the social science that aims at explaining social actions in relation to the intentions of the actors
(Weber, 1994). Weber distinguishes between direct observational and explanatory understandings.
The direct observational understanding is an understanding that is based on the ability to grasp the
meaning of a given act. The explanatory understanding is directed towards revealing the motive an
actor attaches to an action, or the average meaning of the actions of several actors, or the
theoretical constructed meaning of a certain type of actions.
7
The term typology is used for a classification scheme, which is based on grouping of phenomena
into ideal categories, according to a set of common characteristics. Sets of dichotomised mutual
excluding variables are commonly used to establish a typology. Typology and taxonomy are two
opposed methods of classification. Typology classifies according to the sensuously given
characteristics of the thing, while taxonomy classifies objects according to the origin (genesis) of
the thing. Among the most known typologies in the social sciences is Weber’s typology of social
action as value-rational, intentional-rational, affectual or traditional (Weber, 1968). Karl Marx’
typology of societies as tribal, antique, feudal, capitalistic or communistic is another example.
21
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industrial ecology makes it difficult to identify the associated transport

problems, without first characterise each of the main understandings of the
concept. The typology thus establishes a basis for illustrating transport
problems connected to the concept industrial ecology.
In the following part of this introduction it will be explained how the typology has
been established. This is in part based on earlier contributions by Suren Erkman
(1997) and Thomas Graedel (1994) to the establishing of typologies for the
understanding and interpretation of the concept.
The next part of the introduction explains how the characterisation of the different
types of understandings is carried out. The elements used in the characterisation
of the types, and the background for the choice of the elements, are also
described.
The final part of the introduction is a presentation of the approach used to

characterise the transport themes connected to the different understandings of
industrial ecology.
Subsequently after this introduction, each type is presented. This is carried out by,
for each individual understanding, first presenting the central contributions, then
the key characteristics, and finally a brief discussion of the transport themes
connected to the type.
At the end of Chapter 2 is included a comparison of the different understandings

of industrial ecology. Also the transport themes in the different understandings are
compared, followed by a more extensive discussion of transport connected to the
different understandings of industrial ecology.
2.2. Establishing of the types

This sub-chapter explains how the typology of industrial ecology understandings
has been established. The process of identifying the various types in the typology
is shown schematically in Figure 4. In the figure the types are shown in oval
boxes.
22
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Figure 4 Schematically presentation of the process of identifying the various

types in the typology
Design (form- Structure
giving (systemic
perspective) perspective)
Product-
design
Analysis Change
Resource- Firm Society

analysis
Corporate Eco- De-

environmental system materialisation
management
Eco-
park
Factor X
First, the commonly made distinction between design (or: form) and structure is
applied. Design is a form-giving aspect, connected to the appearance and forming
of industrial products and processes. Structure is a perspective applied to the inner
organisation of the industrial systems, and the interrelations between their
elements. The application mainly of the design perspective in industrial ecology,
leads us to the first distinct type, the product-design understanding of industrial
ecology. This is an understanding of industrial ecology as mainly consisting of
design of products and processes with improved environmental characteristics,
more compatible with natural ecosystems.
The structure perspective is applied either in the form of analysis or change. The
understanding of industrial ecology as mainly consisting of analysis of resources
23
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and their flow through society brings us to the second distinct type, the resource
analysis understanding of industrial ecology. In this understanding of industrial
ecology the analysis of resource flows gives knowledge, which can form a basis
for obtaining changes and improving industrial metabolism. This is distinctly
different from those understandings of industrial ecology where the focus is on
developing and implementing the changes to industrial structures.
A distinction is further made between changes at the company level and the
societal level. At the level of the individual company, industrial ecology can be
understood as a framework for the management of environmental issues in the
companies. This brings us to the third distinct type, the corporate environmental
management understanding of industrial ecology. This understanding of industrial
ecology as a framework for corporate environmental management is distinctly
different from the understanding of industrial ecology as aiding in obtaining
changes to larger segments of society.
At the level of society, a distinction made by Erkman (1997) is applied. Erkman

points out that industrial ecology has evolved into two main directions:
1) Eco-industrial parks and islands of sustainability.

This direction of industrial ecology is characterised as constituting the most
immediate application of the ecological concept of food web between
companies. The analogy is drawn to the natural food web by the creation or
retrofitting of industrial zones where one company uses waste or by-products
of another company as its resources.
2) Dematerialisation (and decarbonisation).

This direction focuses on the development of concepts and strategies for the
optimisation of the flows of materials within the economy, which is largely
based on technological evolution. This implies an increase in resource
productivity, or dematerialisation, and the strategy for selling of services
instead of products. The main approach in the field of energy is the
“decarbonisation” strategy, with the objective of decreasing the relative
amount of carbon in fuels, meaning a shift from coal to petroleum, then to
natural gas and ultimately to solar energy and hydrogen.
The former direction, in which an ecosystem approach is taken, leads us to the

fourth type, the eco-park understanding of industrial ecology. In this
understanding the natural ecosystems are explicitly used as models for
organisation of industrial activities. The latter direction, the direction of
dematerialisation, leads us to the fifth type, the factor X understanding8, where
industrial ecology mainly is interpreted as a way of achieving dematerialisation of
society.
The five understandings represent in total a description of the field industrial

ecology drawn from the international literature. A question can be asked if this is
based on a wide or narrow interpretation to industrial ecology. From a narrow
8
In the term factor X reduction in resource use, the X denotes a number, usually between 4 and
50. The factor 4 and factor 10 are the most common. A high X-value indicates a high degree of
dematerialisation.
24
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perspective it would be possible to argue that the corporate environmental

management and factor X understandings are only weakly connected with the
field of industrial ecology. In much of the literature covering corporate
environmental environment and factor X the connection to industrial ecology is
not explicitly made. There are however justifiable reasons to widen the typology
by including these two understandings. As will be shown in the presentation of the
most central contributions to these two understandings (Chapter 2.6.1 and 2.7.1)
there are overlap and commonalities between their key principles and elements of
industrial ecology. They clearly fit within the frame of industrial ecology. A very
narrow frame for industrial ecology, would not reflect the various interpretations,
and probably give a poorer foundation for throwing light on transport problems
connected to industrial ecology. Joseph Huber also points to the dangers of
drawing the lines around industrial ecology too narrow. He claims that it is
unfortunate that industrial ecology often is understood in a rather narrow sense as:
“Redesigning industrial processes so they mimic natural ecologies where there is no

waste because all outputs become inputs for something else”.
Huber (2000, p. 282)
There is also another important reason for the choice of a wider interpretation of
industrial ecology. By excluding corporate environmental management and
factor X and limiting the typology to the three remaining understandings, a
tradition dominated by the United States would be the result. The industrial
ecology typology would then be too limited and not sufficiently reflect important
traditions and understandings in a European context. Corporate environmental
management has strong historical basis in Britain, for example, while the factor X
concept originated to a large extent in Germany.
2.3. Characterisation of the types

In this section it is explained how the characterisation of the different
understandings of industrial ecology is carried out. The characterisation has basis
in earlier reviews of the industrial ecology literature (O’Rourke et al., 1996;
Erkman, 1997).
In the characterisation of the industrial ecology understandings several sets of

conceptual pairs of elements are applied. Some of the elements applied by
O’Rourke et al. (ibid.) are used, but supplemented with other elements found
more suitable for the characterisation in this typology.
The conceptual pairs of elements used in the characterisation are of two

categories. The first category consists of pairs of formal elements. These are used
to express the formal characteristics of each of the various understandings of
industrial ecology.
The set consists of the following contrasting pairs of formal elements:
1. Limited ↔ Total
2. Gradual (extensions) ↔ Radical (new paradigm)
25
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The formal element limited is used to characterise an understanding as focusing

on limited (or minor) changes in existing systems. The contrasting element total is
used to characterise those understandings of industrial ecology that focus on much
larger transformations of industrial activity. A parallel can be made to the science
of planning, where limited (or incremental) planning implies planning in small
segments at a time, often executed with limited long-term perspectives, and as ad
hoc adjustments to previous plans. Total planning is a more comprehensive
planning process where changes in larger systems are projected in one single
planning process. The total planning is comprehensive and requires clearly
defined goals. An example used by O’Rourke et al. (1996) of limited changes for
industrial firms is the continuation of pollution prevention efforts, while total
transformations consist of fundamental re-thinking and re-design of products,
services and processes.
The second contrasting pair of conceptual formal elements expresses the

characteristics of each industrial ecology type as either constituting gradual
extensions of efficiency improvements underway in industry or a radical new
paradigm that must be embraced “if we are to save the planet from the impacts of
industrial development” (ibid.). Initially the gradual extensions to radical pair
might appear quite similar to the limited – total dimensional axis, but it will be
shown that they differ in several ways. The gradual-radical conceptual pair
expresses, to a larger extent than limited-total, the characteristics of the way of
carrying out a change. It is more oriented towards understanding, rather than
merely describing, a process of change. In other words, the gradual-radical
dimension is used in seeking to obtain knowledge of the type of changes in
question. There is in addition a distinct difference between total and radical. A
radical approach does not have to be total or comprehensive, and a total change
does not have to be radical, for example if it occurs over a long time period.
The second category of contrasting conceptual pairs applied in the

characterisation of industrial ecology understandings is made up of substance
elements. For the purpose of this characterisation, the following contrasting pairs
are used:
1. Nature integration ↔ Nature analogy

2. Material ↔ Energy
3. Product ↔ Production / Production system
The substance element nature integration expresses that the industrial activities
are integrated with the natural ecosystems. Best possible integration, i.e. minimal
encroachments in natural ecosystems is understood as the optimal situation. A
life-cycle approach to industrial product and processes is applied in this context,
including resource use connected to extraction and transport of raw materials,
production, waste, distribution and use of product, and finally recycling. An
example of where the principle of nature integration is applied is in a product
made exclusively from natural biological material. This product is better
integrated with natural ecosystems than the case is with a comparable synthetic
product, due to the renewable raw material composition and biodegradability.
26
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The interpretation of industrial ecology as a nature analogy implies that the

natural ecosystems are used as models for industrial activities. In a natural
ecosystem there is interplay between the organisms, through a network where
waste from one organism is turned into nutrient for another organism. Everything
is fuelled by solar energy. In the nature analogy interpretation the organisms are
replaced with industrial facilities, in such a way that the interplay now is between
the industrial facilities. Waste from one industrial locality (or factory) is used as
raw material for another industrial activity. If the analogy is to be completed, only
solar energy can be an acceptable primary source of energy. The exploiting of
natural deposits, such as obtaining energy from combustion of fossil fuels, will
have to be replaced by an energy usage based on renewable sources, all which are
based on the sun as primary energy source. Nature analogy is thus used to
characterise an understanding of industrial ecology where the ecosystems in
nature are used explicitly as models for the organisation of industrial activities.
Even though this principle of modelling according to systems found in nature is
central to the core of the concept industrial ecology, the focus on this principle
varies between the different understandings of industrial ecology. The analogy-
element is thus used to characterise this focus as opposed to the other element of
this conceptual pair, the nature integration.
The pair of substance elements energy – material is used to express relative

emphasis on energy vs. material in the various understandings of industrial
ecology. The substance elements energy and material are used in many other
discussions of industrial ecology (e.g. O’Rourke et al., 1996; Connelly and
Coshland, 1997).
The third pair of conceptual substance elements is used to express each

understanding’s focus on products or production / production system. The main
focus in some of the understandings of industrial ecology can be on changing the
functioning of products to reduce the release of toxic substances during their
lifetime, for example, or to make the products more recyclable. The emphasis is
then on the products. Another different focus is on improving the production or
production systems9 by reducing emissions and waste from industry. This can be
obtained by making changes to the processes and the way industrial facilities are
located relative to each other, to improve the possibilities for the utilisation of
industrial waste in other industrial processes.
As described in connection with the establishing of the five understandings, a

differentiation is made between analysis and change. This differentiation leads to
three industrial ecology types strongly connected to changes (Figure 4). They are
1)Corporate environmental management, 2)Eco-park, and 3)Factor X. In addition
to these three types, there is also a strong element of change in the Product-design
understanding. This is due to this understanding’s focus on design of products and
processes with improved environmental characteristics, which are ways of
changing the connections between industry and natural ecosystems. Studies of
changes to society often include analysis of actors in addition the structural
9
It must be emphasised that there is a main difference between production and production
systems. The latter is much more comprehensive than the former. A production system also
include the energy production, transport activities etc., activities which it is possible to exclude
with the more limited focus on production only.
27
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conditions (Parsons, 1949, 1951; Giddens, 1984). The involvement of actors is

important in connection with societal changes. Thus, in the characterisation of the
four industrial ecology understandings connected to change, the actor-perspective
is described. This is carried out by asking the following superior question:
• What is the actor perspective in the type?
This superior question is answered through the two operational questions:
• Which actors are involved?

• How are the actors involved?
The fifth understanding in the typology, the resource-analysis, is not directly

connected to societal changes. It is more focused on establishing necessary
knowledge for understanding the flows of resources in society. The actor-
perspective is thus not described for this type.
As touched initially, the aim of this typology is to give an overall picture of

various understandings and traditions in industrial ecology, and to use this as a
basis for illustrating problems related to transport. The transport problems are
addressed in each understanding of industrial ecology by asking the following
questions:
1. How is transport included, and what focus is there on transport in the

understanding?
2. What conditions and limits are there for handling transport questions in the
understanding?
The first question is connected to the main transport issues in each understanding.
It is discussed through a descriptive presentation. The question of how transport is
included is answered using the systematic of the efficiency-pattern-volume
dimensional axis previously presented in Figure 2. The last question concerns the
limitations and conditions for including transport in each understanding. This
issue is approached through a discussion of the transport problems and the limits
for including transport considerations in the various understandings.
2.4. Industrial Ecology Type: Product-design

2.4.1. Central contributions to the product-design understanding
The product design understanding of industrial ecology can be traced back to the
work in the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) in the
late 1960’s. About fifty experts from industry, public sector and consumer
organisations explored the possibilities of making the Japanese economy less
dependant on exploration of material resource use, and rely more on information
and knowledge. The first report from this group is a Japanese document of more
than 300 pages, but a summary in English was published by the urban engineer
Chihiro Watanabe (MITI, 1972). The basic principle of the early Japanese
thinking on industrial ecology was to replace material resources with technology
28
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and increase the efficiency of resource use. These early ideas of industrial ecology
were put into practice in Japan aiming at improving the productivity of the
Japanese national economy.
The contribution by Hardin Tibbs (1992) “Industrial Ecology: An Environmental

Agenda for Industry” was important in disseminating the core principles of
industrial ecology, mainly due to the use of the language of the business world.
The presentation of industrial ecology was in addition done in a rather
summarised form and published widely, both by Arthur A. Little in 1991, in
Whole Earth Review in 1992 and by Global Business Network in 1993.
In one of his many contributions in the field of industrial ecology, John Ehrenfeld
(1994) has termed industrial ecology “a strategic framework for product policy
and other sustainable practices”. The aim was to use the industrial ecology
principles of DFE, loop-closing10 and life-cycle assessment11 (LCA), in forming
product policies. Ehrenfeld’s approach is directed towards “aligning product
policy with long-term industrial system evolution” and “balancing input and
output with ecological capacity”.
Thomas Graedel and Braden Allenby wrote the first student textbook on industrial
ecology in 1995 (Graedel and Allenby, 1995). The book was written as a tool for
engineering and designing of industrial products. It includes, in addition to issues
on material and energy, a description of the main industrial process residues.
Trends in technology are presented, likewise risk assessment and environmental
interactions during product use. The central industrial ecology methods LCA and
DFE are described in detail, and also their application for various specific
products. This contribution is mainly limited to product and production aspects,
with the former being the main focus. Larger system considerations are only to a
smaller extent covered, and long-term alterations in the development of the
industrial society are outside the approach taken by the authors.
Three years later, the same authors wrote the book “Industrial Ecology and the
Automobile” (Graedel and Allenby, 1998). This was a thorough contribution to
the industrial ecology aspects of the automotive production and the automobile
product itself. The book mainly focuses on guiding engineering students in
designing products through the application of DFE and LCA. It presents methods
for assessment of material consumption and energy use using “streamlined
versions of LCA” and the “weighted matrix” approach. Even though larger system
considerations are touched, this is only done briefly, without leaving the main
10
By “loop-closing” is understood the process of moving from linear to cyclic material flows. This
is facilitated by increased re-cycling and re-use of industrial residuals in place of generation of
unusable waste-flows.
11
Life-cycle assessment usually follows a four-step methodology consisting of scoping, inventory
analysis, impact assessment and improvement assessment. Scoping is a process of identifying the
goals that motivate the assessment and determining the proper boundaries of the study. The
inventory analysis is an accounting of the resource requirements for a particular product, process
or industry from virgin materials extraction to final deposition. The impact assessment is
conducted to relate the inventory data to specific environmental concerns. Finally, the
improvement assessment (or interpretation phase) identifies those aspects of the materials life
cycle that might be most amenable to mitigation, or evaluates the potential for application of new
strategies that offer the greatest leverage for environmental benefits (Saeger and Theis, 2002).
29
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focus of the design of the automobile as an industrial product. More

comprehensive changes in the development of transport in industrial societies are
absent in the approach.
2.4.2. Key characteristics of the product-design understanding

The understanding of industrial ecology as mainly a framework for design of
industrial products can be characterised as a limited approach to changing existing
systems. The design of products is carried out in small areas at a time, with the
long-term perspectives and change to the total industrial systems receiving
relatively less focus. This understanding is also characterised as mainly focusing
on gradual extensions and improvements in designing products with less
environmental impacts along the product chain, rather than radical changes or a
new paradigm.
The key formal characteristics of the product-design understanding of industrial

ecology is summarised in Figure 5.
Figure 5 Formal characteristics of the product-design understanding of industrial

ecology
limited total
gradual (extensions) radical (new paradigm)
The product-design understanding can be characterised as applying the principle

of nature integration rather than the contrasting concept nature analogy. This is
due to the fact that the focus is on designing products (and processes) with less
environmental impacts, thus better integrated with nature. There is more focus on
material use than on energy use in this understanding of industrial ecology.
Energy is certainly important, but it is over-shadowed by material considerations
in this understanding. Illustrative of this disproportionate handling of energy
issues in this understanding of industrial ecology, is the presentation by Graedel
and Allenby (1995, p. 114) of a table of “The total industrial ecology cycle”. The
quite comprehensive table does not include even a reference to energy use.
When considering the axis with the substance elements products and production
system, the product design understanding has a main focus on products rather
than the production or production systems.
The key substance characteristics of the product-design understanding of

industrial ecology are summarised in Figure 6.
Figure 6 Substance characteristics of the product-design understanding of

industrial ecology
nature integration nature analogy
material energy
product production/production system
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2.4.3. Actors in the product-design understanding

The actors involved in the product design understanding of industrial ecology are
first of all the industrial engineers and designers involved in the design and
development of new products with improved environmental performance, so-
called eco-design. The public sector and consumer organisations also play
important roles as pressure groups in demanding more environmentally friendly
products, for example eco-labelled products. Branch organisations can function as
actors through influencing the product design by setting standards and codes of
conduct pertaining to industrial producers. Responsible Care programs and
Product Stewardship codes developed by the Chemical Manufacturers Association
are examples of this.
2.4.4. Transport and the product-design understanding

The product-design understanding of industrial ecology includes some transport
issues. Transport is however not a central issue in this understanding, and is
usually overshadowed by other considerations. The contributions by Gregory
Keoleian et al. (1997), and Graedel and Allenby (1998) are two of the few
examples where transport is included in this understanding of industrial ecology.
Transport in the contributions to the product-design understanding is mainly

limited to design of the automobile. In this understanding industrial ecology can
thus be considered as a framework for the design of transport means, with a main
focus on automobiles. Life-cycle perspectives are applied on material and, to a
lesser extent, energy use in the design of the automobile product (Keoleian et al.,
1997; Graedel and Allenby, 1998). Improvement in the materials use in the
vehicles is one central issue in this understanding. The changes in vehicles and
components have resulted in some efficiency improvements over the last decades.
Changes made to the engines and fuel systems have reduced the fuel
consumption, exemplified by a 12% reduction from 1980 to 1990 in the fuel
consumption of the average new automobile in the USA (Keoleian et al., 1997, p.
56). The continuation of this decreasing trend is however not that evident, as will
be discussed later (Chapter 2.10.2).
The transport issues in the product-design understanding of industrial ecology are

on the efficiency end of the efficiency-pattern-volume dimensional axis. The focus
is on technical aspects of improving the efficiency of the automobile. The
problem of the increasing amounts of air pollution and emission of climate gases
from transport is, in this understanding of industrial ecology, addressed mainly by
technical approaches. These include the design of new motor-technologies for
increasing the energy-efficiency and reducing the emissions.
2.5. Industrial Ecology Type: Eco-parks

2.5.1. Central contributions to the eco-park understanding
In a special issue on “Managing Planet Earth” of the popular scientific monthly
magazine Scientific American, Frosch and Gallopoulos (1989) published the
article titled “Strategies for Manufacturing”. In this contribution the notion of an
31
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industrial ecosystem was brought into the popular literature12. The authors
presented the concept of industrial ecosystem as a system where “wastes from one
industrial process can serve as the raw material for another, thereby reducing the
impact of industry on the environment”. This is in essence a description of the
principles of an industrial “ecological” cluster or more commonly termed, an eco-
park.
Frosch (1992) suggests that the strategy for reducing the flow of materials is to
cascade waste and products at the end of their life. Materials are passed down the
industrial food chain through a series of more and more degraded uses. Plastic
products are given as an example where this strategy is applied. The extreme
difficulty of recycling plastics, due to the complexity of the composition, makes
cascading a viable alternative to incineration and land filling. This contribution by
Frosch focuses mainly on developing industrial systems where by-products and
wastes can be utilised.
Ernest Lowe and co-workers at Indigo Development have made several

contributions to industrial ecology in general and the development of industrial
ecoparks in particular (Lowe and Evans, 1995; Lowe, 1997; Lowe et al., 1997a,
1997b). Particularly the U.S. EPA sponsored “Eco-Industrial Parks: A Guidebook
for Local Development Teams” (Lowe et al., 1997a) is a central contribution to
the establishing of industrial ecosystems, or in Lowe’s terminology “eco-
industrial parks”. The contribution includes guidelines for initiating the
establishing of eco-industrial parks and integrating these systems into economic
development programmes in communities. These guidelines encompass setting
environmental performance objectives, develop planning, financing and
recruitment strategies, and designing management systems for eco-industrial
parks. The contribution also includes a survey of options for the design of
infrastructure, buildings and support services. Furthermore, the book includes
material on actual cases of eco-industrial parks, plus extensive organisational and
bibliographic resources. The main focus in the contributions by Lowe is on
providing practical guidance to establishing industrial ecosystems (eco-parks).
In Nelson Nemerow’s book titled “Zero pollution for industry – waste

minimization through industrial complexes” the concept of “zero”-emissions
clusters is used extensively for industrial facilities co-existing in industrial
ecological complexes (Nemerow, 1995). The concept is based on “loop-closing”
of industrial waste streams by trading wastes between each industrial facility in
the cluster. Nemerow’s term for these systems is “environmentally balanced
industrial complex” (EBIC). A wide range of different types of EBICs is
presented in the book, each with their specific composition of different industries
and waste trading systems.
12
What might be the earliest occurrence of the concept “industrial ecosystem” is found in a paper
by the American geochemist Preston Cloud (1977). The paper was dedicated to the Rumanian-
American economist Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, who has emphasised the importance of
considering material flows in the human economy from a thermodynamic perspective (1971).
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In the 1997-contribution by Lloyd Connelly and Catherine Coshland it is argued

that exergy13-based considerations can provide a useful framework for analysing
waste cascading and recycling in industrial ecosystems (Connelly and Coshland,
1997). The authors show that exergy-based considerations can be used to
distinguish a cascaded waste from a recycled waste and to determine what waste
cascading can – and more importantly cannot – accomplish. While waste
cascading has the potential to reduce the demand for resources, exergy removed
from materials during consumption must be returned to those materials if they are
to be recycled – i.e. returned to their pre-consumed quality level. The authors
point out that the closing of material cycles require full recycling of material
exergy, and not merely re-use of waste materials in any available feedstock. They
point to the fact that with a failure to address the irreversible nature of the
consumption process, the loop-closing theory will only capture a limited aspect of
the integrated material-energy strategy necessary to achieve sustainable material
management. This contribution thus focuses on improving the fundamental
understanding of systems for recycling and cascading of waste.
13
Exergy is the common term used for analysing flows of both energy and matter through society.
The meaning of the term can be illustrated by the following examples (Wall, 1997):
A system in complete equilibrium with its environment has no exergy. There is no difference in
temperature, pressure, or concentration etc. that can drive any processes. Thus, a waste flow, of
any kind, with no exergy, does not influence the environment.
The more exergy a system carries, the more it deviates from the environment. Hot water e.g. has a
higher content of exergy during the winter than it has on a hot summer day. A block of ice carries
hardly any exergy in the winter while it does in the summer. This fact was the basis for a
prosperous trade of ice in the last century, when ice was transported by boat from North America
to Europe.
When a physical resource, i.e. energy, matter or information, looses its quality, exergy is
destroyed. The exergy is the part of the resource that is useful in the society and therefore has an
economic value and is worth taking care of.
Almost all exergy, converted in the thin layer on the earth’s surface, where life can be found,
derives from the sun. Sun-light, which is rich in exergy, reaches the earth. Much of it is reflected,
mainly the harmful ultraviolet light by the ozone layer. The energy that is absorbed on the earth,
partly by photosynthesis in the green plants, is converted and finally leaves the earth with no
exergy content relative to the earth. The net exergy absorbed by the earth is gradually destroyed,
but during the destruction it manages to drive the water/wind systems and the life on earth. The
green plants absorb exergy and convert it via photosynthesis into chemical exergy. The chemical
exergy then passes through different food chains in the ecosystems. Exergy is consumed on all
levels of the food chain, and microorganisms live on the last level. There exists no waste i.e. all
exergy is being taken care of and efficiently used by the living nature.
A concentrated mineral deposit “contrasts” with the environment and this contrast increases with
the concentration of the mineral. The mineral is thus a carrier of exergy. When the mineral is
mined, the exergy content of the mineral is kept constant, and if it is enriched, the exergy content
increases. A poor deposit of mineral contains less exergy and can accordingly be utilized only
through a larger input of external exergy. Today this substitution of exergy often comes from
exergy forms such as coal and mineral oil.
33
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2.5.2. Key characteristics of the eco-park understanding

The understanding of industrial ecology as a framework for organising industrial
activity into clusters of recycling and waste trading is characterized as focusing on
total transformations of industrial systems rather than on limited changes to
existing activities. The establishing of new industrial complexes with the aim that
they function as “industrial ecosystems” is a main focus here. The approach in
general is however on individual recycling systems and industrial ecosystems, and
not on broader aspects of recycling such as by way of the concept recycling
society14. The establishment of eco-parks is understood as gradual extensions of
current practices underway in industry rather than a radical new paradigm. The
key formal characteristics of the eco-park understanding of industrial ecology is
summarised in Figure 7.
Figure 7 Formal characteristics of the eco-park understanding of industrial

ecology
limited total
The eco-park understanding can be characterised as applying the principle of

nature analogy rather than nature integration. In this understanding the
organisation of industrial activities, to greatest extent, should use natural
ecosystems as model. Nature’s resource cycles as model for industrial resource
cycles make recycling a main theme in this understanding of industrial ecology.
This applies both for nature’s sources of energy and for raw materials for
industrial products. For the sources of energy it follows, from the principle of
recyclability of sources fuelled by solar energy, that a change is to be made from
today’s exploitation of fossil fuels to energy systems based on renewable energy
sources, such as bio-, wind- and solar energy.
An imbalance between material and energy issues is evident in this understanding

of industrial ecology. The energy issues are not frequently addressed, but
overshadowed by material considerations.
When considering the pair of substance elements products and production /

production system, the eco-park understanding has a main focus on production
and production systems rather than on the products being produced.
The key substance characteristics of the eco-park understanding of industrial

ecology are summarised in Figure 8.
Figure 8 Substance characteristics of the eco-park understanding of industrial

ecology
material energy
14
“Recycling society” is a term used for a society where the classical one-way flows of material
resources are kept to a minimum, and recycling is established on an overall societal level.
34
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2.5.3. Actors in the eco-park understanding

The industrial companies taking part in an industrial ecological cluster (eco-park)
are playing an important role in the functioning of these structures. The
companies can have the function as material suppliers, product manufacturers,
transport- or infrastructure operators (incl. maintenance) or product
dismantler/recycler. The willingness to share, with the other member-facilities, the
information about the composition of the waste streams is crucial for a well
functioning eco-park. But in addition to the participating industrial companies, a
facilitator is often needed for the forming of an eco-park. A facilitator is an actor
whose function is to stimulate to the forming of a recycling network and co-
ordinate the waste-producers and the waste-consumers (scavengers). A facilitator
can be one of the participating industrial companies, but can also be a neutral part,
for example the local or regional development council.
2.5.4. Transport and the eco-park understanding

In the eco-park understanding of industrial ecology transport is not a main focus.
It is rather rare within this branch of the industrial ecology literature to encounter
discussions of transport themes. Rather the failure of addressing transport
problems is more the general rule.
In the few instances when transport problems are included in the eco-park
understanding, these can be characterised as being relatively close to the efficiency
end of the efficiency-pattern-volume dimensional axis. One example connected to
the establishing of the “closed-loop” systems concerns the recyclability of
automobile components. A promising energy-conversion system for future
vehicles is based on fuel cell technology. For the operation of vehicles based on
fuel cells, a system for temporarily storage of electricity is however required15.
True ”closed loop” systems for the recycling of future batteries are required.
Björn Andersson at Chalmers University points to the fact that processes to
recover metals exist or are under development for most vehicle battery types
(Andersson, 2001). However, some of these processes are not compatible with
“closed loop” recycling. As an example, nickel used in NiCd batteries is currently
not recycled to yield nickel of a grade suitable for battery manufacturing, but is
downgraded to ferronickel for stainless steel production. This is an example where
a more complex material composition is used (NiCd vs. lead-acid battery) aiming
at improved performance, but resulting in decreased recyclability.
Another example in the eco-park understanding is illustrative of this

understanding’s lack of volume-considerations connected to transport. The
approach to developing industrial ecosystems taken by Michael Moldaver (1999)
includes developing a learning tool in the form of the board game “The Green
Game”. This game is claimed to function as a strategic simulation of the
automobile life-cycle, where the teams are divided into the four primary
components of the automobile industry’s supply chain; supplier, manufacturer,
operator and dismantler-recycler. The participants are to use the industrial ecology
15
Fuel-cells do not operate well in cold ambient temperatures. An electric battery in combination
with the fuel-cell technology is required for satisfactory operation in cold weather. The battery is
in addition required for temporarily storage of re-generated brake energy.
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principles of waste minimisation, pollution prevention, design for environment,

recycling, full cost accounting, design for sustainability, life cycle assessment,
environmental management and design for disassembly. The goal is that the
participants shall synthesise and implement “whole-system strategies”. This is
however to be carried out without any considerations at all of transport-forms, -
volumes or –distances in the system. It is quite obvious that these so-called
“whole-system strategies” are only “part-system strategies” with the
environmental impacts of the transport volumes completely missing.
2.6. Industrial Ecology Type: Corporate environmental

management
2.6.1. Central contributions to the corporate environmental
management (CEM) understanding
Thomas Gladwin, later on the editorial board of the Journal of Industrial Ecology,
pointed in 1993 to industrial ecology as one of the most significant trends in
corporate environmentalism (Gladwin, 1993). This was done in the book
“Environmental Strategies for Industry. International Perspectives on Research
Needs and Policy Implications”, authored by the two founders of the Greening of
Industry Network16 (Fischer and Schot, 1993). Gladwin particularly referred to the
industrial waste “food-chain” involving Novo Nordisk, Kemira, Statoil, and the
Asnaes power plant in Kalundborg. The characterization of industrial ecology as
an important trend in corporate environmentalism was based on a survey of major
newspapers and environmental periodicals. This contribution, through the
positioning of industrial ecology as a major trend within the greening of
business17 concept, was important in the developing of the understanding of
industrial ecology as a framework for environmental management.
Bruce Paton (1994) has raised the question of what industrial ecology principles
imply for the environmental management in firms. The author claims that the
principles of industrial ecology can be important in an integrated management
approach. In such an approach, environmental values are internalised within the
design of products and processes. This can, according to Paton, only be obtained
if a clear vision exists of what needs to be accomplished. Furthermore, a workable
plan, effective business processes, and an understanding of the financial impact of
reuse and recycling, are all requirements of the integrated management approach.
It is also pointed to the fact that traditionally little attention has been paid to the
resource usage implications of companies’ distribution systems. The life-cycle
approaches of industrial ecology contribute to higher focus on this aspect of the
production system. Paton’s contribution is thus an example of an approach to
corporate environmental management where industrial ecology principles are
found particularly valuable.
16
The Greening of Industry Network is a network fronted by business scholars and industry
leaders, originated by Kurt Fischer at Tufts University in the United States and Johan Schot at
University of Twente in the Netherlands.
17
The “greening of business” is here understood as the continuous improvements in the
environmental performance of business corporations, an issue being dealt with in the Greening of
Industry Network.
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As a central industrial ecology contributor Allenby (1997) analyses the responses

of private firms to external challenges. Principles of industrial ecology, such as
LCA, DFE, and product take-back policies are such challenges that firms must
adapt to. The author points to corporate environmental codes of behaviour which
function to guide corporate environmental management. Examples of these codes
that are beginning to reflect the principles of industrial ecology include the
principles of the Business Charter for Sustainable Development developed by the
International Chamber of Commerce in 1991 and the Responsible Care Program
and Product Stewardship Code developed by the Chemical Manufacturers
Association (CMA) in the USA. The CMA Product Stewardship Code includes,
for example, a requirement that CMA members encourage distributors and direct
product receivers to implement proper health, safety, and environmental (HSE)
practices. This is an indirect extension of responsibilities of the producer to
include the use stage, with a desire to improve the life-cycle impacts of the
products. Allenby is through this contribution giving improved insights in the
functioning of industrial ecology as a framework for corporate environmental
management.
In an editorial in the Journal of Industrial Ecology, the important industrial

ecology contributor John Ehrenfeld (2001) discusses the functioning of
environmental management systems (EMS) from an industrial ecology
perspective. He argues that EMS and industrial ecology have existed separately
from each other, and that EMS historically have focused on single firm issues.
Industrial ecology has focused on the connectedness between firms. According to
the author, this is one main reason why EMS literature not has been found
relevant enough to be accepted in the Journal of Industrial Ecology. Ehrenfeld
argues that this trend is changing, and EMS literature has much to contribute to
the field of industrial ecology. He also, on the other hand, considers industrial
ecology to be a strengthening factor for virtually any EMS by providing a
systematic framework for assessing environmental impacts. In this contribution it
is argued that industrial ecology principles applied to environmental management
in firms opens up new possibilities for strategic vision and system-oriented
approaches. Ehrenfeld points to the fact that EMS based on the standard ISO
14001 is relatively weak in forcing change, but within the framework of industrial
ecology the normative aspect is stronger, which aids in promoting sustainability.
Joseph Huber (2000) considers EMS as a “transitional strategy for sustainable

development”, connected to the process towards an industrial ecology.
Sufficiency is the sustainable development strategy of conservation advocated by
NGOs, while efficiency is the industry approach of improving the input-output
relations of processes and product chains. Huber suggests that a third strategy, the
strategy of consistency, is the joint strategy of the future for government, business
and research. It leads to a consistent metabolism in an industrial ecology; meaning
that the industrial flows of material and energy are environmentally compatible
with nature. Preventive EMS strategies for technological innovation are viewed as
central elements of the integrated environmental problem approach industrial
ecology (as opposed to end-of-pipe, or downstream measures).
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2.6.2. Key characteristics of the CEM understanding

The CEM understanding of industrial ecology include, in addition to the explicit
standardised EMS such as ISO 14001 and the European Eco-Management and
Auditing Scheme (EMAS), also other forms of environmental management. These
other aspects include management systems such as Responsible Care, Corporate
Social Responsibility (CSR) and the principles developed by The Natural Step to
help organizations and communities understand and move towards sustainability.
Firms’ environmental reporting to its stakeholders is an important element of this
understanding.
The understanding of industrial ecology as a framework for corporate

environmental management can be characterized as focusing on limited changes
to existing practices, by establishing corporate procedures, authority structures,
targets and policies, rather than aiming for total transformations of industrial
activity. The focus in this understanding is on continuous improvements in
operations, largely by gradual extensions of existing practices, rather than a
radical new paradigm that must be embraced.
The key formal characteristics of the CEM understanding of industrial ecology are
summarised in Figure 9.
Figure 9 Formal characteristics of the CEM understanding of industrial ecology

limited total
The CEM understanding can be characterised by the substance element nature

integration in that the focus is on reducing the environmental impacts of firms,
thus improving the integration with the natural environment. This understanding
has an emphasis on the management of material resources as well as energy. This
understanding has a main focus on the production rather than the products. The
production-focus is however usually limited to the manufacturing operations
controlled by a single firm.
The key substance characteristics of the CEM understanding of industrial ecology

are summarised in Figure 10.
Figure 10 Substance characteristics of the CEM understanding of industrial

ecology
material energy
2.6.3. The actor-perspective in the CEM understanding

In the CEM-understanding of industrial ecology many types of actors have
important roles. Corporations are the main actors in this understanding. Within the
38
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corporations important actors can come from the top management, middle
management with responsibility for quality assurance and long-term planning, or
individual employees contributing to the functioning of the management systems.
Also governmental authorities can function as important actors connected to the
mandatory requirement of some forms of quality management systems. This is the
case with the internal control regulation, mandatory to all companies in Norway,
which entered into forced in 1992. It is a quality management system aimed at
demonstrating compliance with environmental, health and safety laws. The
governmental agencies responsible for supervisory control to ensure that the
enterprises comply with the internal control regulations are: Labour Inspection;
Directorate for Fire and Explosion Prevention / Municipal Fire Board, Electricity
Inspectorate, National Pollution Control Agency, Ministry of Children and Family
- Section for Product Safety, and Local County Council.
Also connected to two other governmental regulations can governmental actors be

important for the CEM understanding. Both the Norwegian Accounting Act and
the Norwegian Limited Liability Companies Act require companies to publicly
report on environmental aspects of their activities. These are laws, implying actor
involvement of legislative and judiciary authorities.
2.6.4. Transport and the CEM understanding

Transport is not well included in the understanding of industrial ecology as a
framework for corporate environmental management. Traditionally little attention
has been paid to the implications of resource use connected to the companies’
distribution systems (Paton, 1994).
Corporate environmental management has mainly been limited to production

activities, while transport connected to the distribution of goods traditionally has
been outside the responsibility of the producer. When corporate management
adapts industrial ecology principles, the focus however changes somewhat, as
pointed out by Allenby (1997). With life cycle assessment as an integrated
element of corporate environmental management, the firms need to encourage the
suppliers and distributors to implement proper HSE practices. Through this
process of engaging suppliers and distributors could transport issues be included
better in corporate environmental management.
The limited transport considerations in this understanding of industrial ecology

are on the efficiency end of the efficiency-pattern-volume dimensional axis. These
types of transport issues can be considered to be a part of the traditional
understanding of HSE. The purification of polluting emissions by installation of
catalytic converters and particle filters is a central element in the maintenance of
distributors’ and suppliers’ vehicle fleets. Also the energy-efficiency of vehicles is
in focus, mainly in the form of reducing the fuel consumption. The transition to
alternative energies, another form of an efficiency approach, is also an option,
although not commonly implemented.
Also the corporations’ person transport is in question when industrial ecology is a

framework for CEM. The relatively extensive character of industrial ecology in
general implies that firms also must include the assessment of the environmental
39
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impacts from their employee transport. Both daily travels between the employees’
homes and the workplace, business journeys, and the internal transport within the
company are parts of the transport accounted for by a firm. But few corporations
include this transport in their environmental management and reporting systems.
The Norwegian company Telenor is one example of a company, which in addition
to the efficiency problems, also bring in pattern problems through quite extensive
reporting of the various modes used in transport by the employees of the
company. This example may indicate that firms are beginning to offer incentives
for switching to more energy efficient transport modes in employee travel. In this
way the transport considered in this understanding of industrial ecology is also
touching problems in the pattern segment of the efficiency-pattern-volume
dimensional axis.
2.7. Industrial Ecology Type: Factor X

2.7.1. Central contributions to the factor X understanding
The Club of Rome report, Factor Vier: Doppelter Wohlstand-halbierter
Naturverbrauch by Ernst von Weizsäcker, Amory Lovins and Hunter Lovins
(1994), followed by the English version in 1997 Doubling Wealth – Halving
Resource Use was important in spreading the factor X concept. A factor 4 of
improvement in resource productivity is by the authors of this book envisioned to
be near-term obtainable through already existing means. This is to be obtained in
the areas of materials and energy use, including transportation. The many
examples of improvements in resource efficiencies and in the use of energy range
from issues as different as the “Hypercar” concept by Amory Lovins, to the
production of low-energy beef. The examples of improvements in materials
productivity cover issues ranging from sub-surface irrigation to electronic books.
In the contribution by Friedrich Schmidt-Bleek (1995) the factor 10 concept is

connected to materials, and assumes that material turnovers should be reduced by
at least 50% on a worldwide basis to avoid a systematic degradation of the
biosphere. Since the per capita consumption is about five times higher in the
OECD countries than in the developing countries, and the world population is
increasing, Schmidt-Bleek claims that sustainable levels of material flows will not
be reached unless and until the material intensity of the OECD countries is
reduced by a factor of ten. The tenfold reduction of material flow per unit of
service is to be realised over a period of 30-50 years, through a combination of
technical, financial and lifestyle changes. Based on these considerations Schmidt-
Bleek took the initiative to form the Factor 10 Club of environmentalists
subscribing to that goal, formulated in the so-called Carnoules Declaration. The
core industrial ecology principles of DFE and transition from linear to cyclical
flows are essential elements in reaching a factor 10 of dematerialisation.
The study “Sustainable Germany” carried out by the Wuppertal Institute and
Friends of the Earth resulted in the publication of the book “Greening the North:
A Post-Industrial Blueprint for Ecology and Equity” by Wolfgang Sachs et al.
(1998). This is a central contribution to the understanding of industrial ecology as
being closely connected to the factor X concept. In the book industrial ecology is
presented as a new paradigm that could contribute to a reduction in resource use.
40
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Industrial ecology is here understood as an element of desired transformation to a

sustainable society. It is conceived of as one possibility “founded on ideas and
initiatives put forward, developed and implemented by ecologically aware people
over the years”. Sachs et al. consider industrial ecology as an important concept in
a far-reaching conceptual framework for a process of fundamental societal
transformation (ibid.).
Lucas Reijnders brought the factor X debate into the industrial ecology literature
through his contribution in the Journal of Industrial Ecology (Reijnders, 1998).
Reijnders states that the factor X debate fits in a wider discussion on the
importance of technological change in improving the environmental performance,
and lowering the materials intensity of economies. The author claims that not
much forcing of technologies aiming at a factor X with higher X-value exist,
particularly in non-European countries. In using the indicators TMR (total
material requirement) and MIPS (material input per service unit), Reijnders
claims that factor X becomes a quantitative measure for the dematerialisation
described in the industrial ecology contribution of Herman et al. (1989).
Importantly, however, Reijnders points to that TMR and MIPS are not adequate
environmental indicators, given the large differences in materials regarding their
environmental impact. The environmental impact of an input into the economy of
one tonne mercury is, for example quite different from the impact of one tonne
alfalfa. Even so, Reijnders considers dematerialisation using the factor X concept
a viable measure, but achievable only by strong government-driven policies,
especially when X is large.
2.7.2. Key characteristics of the factor X understanding

The factor X understanding of industrial ecology can be characterised as aiming
for total transformations of industrial activity, rather than limited changes to
existing practices. The focus is on reducing the per capita material flows in the
OECD countries as a whole. This understanding of industrial ecology is clearly a
radical new paradigm rather than gradual extensions of current practices
underway in industry.
The key formal characteristics of the factor X understanding of industrial ecology

are summarised in Figure 11.
Figure 11 Formal characteristics of the factor X understanding of industrial

ecology
limited total
The factor X understanding is clearly characterised by the substance element

nature integration rather than the contrasting substance element nature analogy.
The goal of the factor X dematerialisation is improved integration of industrial
activities into the natural ecosystems. There is roughly equal weight on energy
and material resources in this understanding. When considering the axis with the
substance elements products and production/ production system, this
41
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understanding has a main focus on products. This is in the form of

dematerialisation of products, achieved through the use of environmentally
preferred materials, and substituting products by services.
The key substance characteristics of the factor X understanding of industrial

Figure 12 Substance characteristics of the factor X understanding of industrial

ecology
material energy
2.7.3. Actors in the factor X understanding

In the factor X understanding of industrial ecology the actors are connected to
changes in the form of technological innovations necessary to reach the goals of
major resource productivity improvements. Reijnders (1998) points out that the
resource productivity improvements of factor X, especially with high X-values,
are achievable only with strong government-driven policies. Governmental actors
thus become important for the implementation of changes in the factor X
understanding of industrial ecology. Two strategies can be identified for
governmentally induced forcing of factor X technology:
1) Technology-forcing law, as has been used for energy efficiency, for example
in automobiles through the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)
regulations, requiring all vehicle manufacturers to comply with the fuel
efficiency standards set by the U.S. Department of Transportation (Greene,
1990; Schipper and Meyers, 1992). Another example where technology-
forcing law is used is in reducing automotive emissions of new cars (Ashford
et al., 1985; Grant, 1995).
2) Using ecotaxation for increasing the attractiveness of factor X technology.
This implies that environmental costs can be internalised through the taxation
system. The ecotaxation strategy is strongly favoured by von Weizsäcker et al.
(1997), who trace the roots back to the works by the British economist Arthur
Cecil Pigou (1920). Pigou made the point that it would be good for the
economy if fair prices were paid for common goods. Taxes would help
adjusting the prices accordingly.
2.7.4. Transport and the factor X understanding

In the factor X understanding of industrial ecology transport is a central theme.
Von Weizsäcker et al. (1997) give, in addition to the Hypercar concept, 10
examples of how the factor X principles are connected to improvements in
transport. The examples cover videoconferences as substitutes for business travel,
switching to low-transport-intensive products (yoghurt and local fruit juice as
examples) and increasing the capacity and speed of both person- and goods rail
transport. The public transport system of the Brazilian city of Curitiba, used by
nearly 70% of the city’s population, and initiatives for car-and city planning for
42
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car-free mobility are also given as examples. Through the large number of
examples, the authors illustrate that it is possible to extract at least four times as
much wealth from the energy and material resources we currently use in transport.
The transport theme of the Hypercar is an example of an efficiency theme, with

main focus on new materials, giving lighter more energy-efficient cars, and
alternative sources of energy.
However, pattern and volume themes can also be connected to the factor X-
understanding of industrial ecology.
A pattern-transport theme encountered in the factor X understanding is the

necessity of changing to alternative modes of transport. Goods transport on road
will in this understanding to a large extent have to be replaced with the more
energy-efficient transport by the modes rail and sea. The suggestions for
achieving the desired modal change include disincentives for road-transport of
goods, by charging systems reflecting the true external costs of this transport form
(Sachs, et al., 1998, p. 90). Another pattern thematic addressed is the above-
mentioned example of the public transport system in Curitiba.
Reduction in transport volumes is a transport problem, which can be associated

with the higher X variants of factor X. There is a realisation in this understanding
that the failure of reducing transport volumes severely restricts the possibilities of
stretching the available energy resources. Sachs expresses policy aspects of the
transport volume reduction problem as follows:
Genuinely ecological transport policies primarily seek to influence the underlying

conditions so as to attain step-by-step reductions of traffic volumes to an acceptable
level. Avoidance of transportation is at the heart of ecological transition.
(Sachs, 1998, p. 87)
2.8. Industrial Ecology Type: Resource analysis

2.8.1. Central contributions to the resource analysis understanding
The concept industrial metabolism, as described by Robert Ayres (1989), is the
industrial analogy to nature’s material metabolism. The work on industrial
metabolism was based on earlier studies by the same author, on the connections
between thermodynamics and economics (Ayres and Nair, 1984) and production,
consumption, and externalities (Ayres and Kneese, 1969). Industrial metabolism
denotes the transformation of materials and, to a lesser extent, energy in society.
Ayres and his colleges built up the industrial metabolism concept from analyses of
mineral and chemical mass balances (e.g. Ayres et al., 1985). They globalised the
approach by comparing estimates of pre-industrial and contemporary human
impacts on the nutrient cycles of carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorous
(Ayres et al., 1994). As a background for improving resource use in the industrial
systems, the contributions on industrial metabolism are central in this
Robert Socolow et al. (1994) present mass-flow analysis, based on “total flow of
materials” as a “unifying analysis” in industrial ecology. Mass-flow analysis is
43
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viewed as a “productive integrative tool”, which “treats on a common footing all

sources, all transport media, and all receptors”. Within the understanding of
industrial ecology as a tool for assessing material and energy throughput in
society, it is commonly accepted that certain reductions are necessary in the
future. The presence of suitable mechanisms are however required for a
realization of a reduction in industrial use of materials and energy. Socolow et al.
(1994) describe how, in various ways, such mechanisms are being developed in
industry.
In their two recent contributions, Connelly and Coshland (2001a, 2001b) propose
that a core deficiency in industrial ecology is “a rather weak definition of what
constitutes resource consumption”. They point to the fact that the industrial
ecology literature only provides qualitative terms such as residuals, wastes, or
pollution, to distinguish a consumed waste from the associated unconsumed
feedstock. The authors however, define resource consumption as exergy removal.
The process of allowing resource consumption to occur with decreasing levels of
resource depletion is taking place through a process of de-linking consumption
from depletion, through increased cascading, recycling, exergy efficiency, and
renewed exergy use. This thermodynamic interpretation of ecosystem evolution
provides a basis for quantitative analysis of strategies for reducing resource
depletion. An indicator for resource depletion, the so-called “Depletion number”,
is introduced for expressing resource depletion per unit consumption. The authors
also show how this methodology can be used in economic analysis to identify
least-cost approaches to depletion avoidance in production and recycling of
industrial chemicals.
2.8.2. Key characteristics of the resource analysis understanding

The understanding of industrial ecology as a framework for analysis of material
and energy resources in industrial systems, cover both the flow of resources and
the availability of materials and energy sources utilised in industrial production
systems.
In this understanding it is claimed that we must learn from the biosphere and
modify the industrial metabolism:
“Modifications are needed both to increase reliance on regenerative (or sustainable)

processes and to increase efficiency both in the production and in the use of by-
products”
(Ayres, 1989, p. 23)
The resource analysis thus aims at giving insights in how industrial metabolism
can shift in the direction of increased efficiency in materials flow and waste
streams. The foreseeable shifts in the industrial processes, resulting from the
increased knowledge gained through resource analysis, are thus of a limited type,
rather than in the form of total changes resulting from fundamental re-thinking
and re-design.
This understanding is better characterised by the formal element gradual

(extensions) than the contrasting concept radical changes (new paradigm). The
44
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knowledge generated by the resource analysis can give basis to many smaller
changes in the industrial metabolism, but radical paradigmatic changes are not
associated with this understanding.
The key formal characteristics of the resource analysis understanding of industrial

Figure 13 Formal characteristics of the resource analysis understanding of

industrial ecology
limited total
The industrial metabolism is an analogy to nature’s metabolism. Thus the

substance element nature analogy could immediately appear to be a more suitable
characteristic than the contrasting element nature integration for this
understanding. However the purpose of analysing the flow and stocks of resources
in this understanding is to generate knowledge for better integrating industrial
activities into the natural ecosystems. More optimal integration, based on the
knowledge obtained through the analyses of the stocks and flows of resources, is
at the heart of this industrial ecology understanding. Nature integration is thus
used to characterise this understanding.
In this understanding there is more focus on material resources than on energy.

Actually, rather few energy use analysis can be found in the literature representing
this understanding of industrial ecology. This understanding has more focus on
the flows through the industrial production systems than flows connected to
individual industrial products.
The key substance characteristics of the resource analysis understanding of

industrial ecology are summarised in Figure 14.
Figure 14 Substance characteristics of the resource analysis understanding of

industrial ecology
material energy
2.8.3. Transport and the resource analysis understanding

In the understanding of industrial ecology as a framework for resource analysis,
transport is not a main focus. It is quite rare to encounter transport themes within
this segment of the industrial ecology literature.
Pertaining to those few transport issues that are considered within the industrial
metabolism framework, a distinction is made by Socolow et al. (1994), who
describes industrial metabolism as addressing “transportation”, a wide concept
45
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referring to the “totality of civilization”. The industrial ecology approaches

represented by Graedel and Allenby (1995, 1998) however focus on narrower
aspects such as the automobile, aircraft, petroleum, tire, battery, and other
transport industries”. Socolow thus points to the efficiency transport themes
common in the industrial ecology literature. The “transportation” addressed in
industrial metabolism, can be interpreted to include more of the pattern and
volume segments of the efficiency-pattern-volume dimensional axis.
Resource limits for materials and energy systems for vehicles are examples of
transport problems touched within the resource analysis understanding. The future
limits of a sustainable industrial metabolism are characterised as being connected
to the dynamic problems within industrial ecology (Andersson, 2001). Such
dynamic problems include future energy systems for transportation. As discussed
in Chapter 2.5.4, one of the most promising future energy conversion systems for
automobiles is connected to fuel-cell technology. The operation of this system
however is improved substantially in combination with an electric battery (hybrid
electric/fuel cell). For electric batteries, several material flow studies have been
conducted in industrial ecology (e.g. Socolow and Thomas, 1997a, 1997b). Many
of the existing and potential battery types for automobiles contain metals that are
toxic or have detrimental environmental effects. In the future, severe resource
depletion of the metals needed in the production of these batteries might in
addition emerge if large-scale systems were to be built. Cadmium, used in the
production of nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries, is one example of a metal that
could be mined to depletion with an extensive introduction of the fuel-cell
technology (Andersson, 2001). As a response to the threats of resource scarcity,
and also reflecting its toxicity, the EU recently started a process of phasing out
nickel-cadmium batteries in new vehicles by banning their use from the year 2006
(EC, 2002b).
The problems connected to future energy systems for vehicles are examples of the
transport themes of alternative energy sources. These are normally considered as
efficiency themes. However, in the discussion of massive implementation of
future energy systems for transportation, the volume problems are evident. It is
thus justifiable to characterise the transport problem connected to the resource
analysis understanding of industrial ecology as not being limited to efficiency, but
also including elements of pattern and volume.
2.9. Comparison of the five types

In this chapter the different understandings of industrial ecology are compared
according to their characteristics, identified in their individual presentations. First,
the understandings are compared with respect to their characterisation by the
formal elements.
The comparison of the understandings according to their characterisation by the

formal elements limited and total is shown in Figure 15.
46
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formal elements limited and total
Limited Total
Product design X
Eco-park X
CEM18 X
Factor X X
Resource analysis X
As seen in Figure 15, three of the five understandings of industrial ecology are
characterised as focusing on minor (limited) changes in existing systems. The
understandings of industrial ecology as frameworks for product design, corporate
environmental management and resource analysis are in this category. The eco-
park and the factor X understandings of industrial ecology focus on larger (total)
transformations of industrial activity, most evident in the eco-park understanding.
The comparison of the understandings according to their characterisation by the

formal elements gradual (extensions) and radical (new paradigm) is shown in
Figure 16.

formal elements gradual (extensions) and radical (new paradigm)
Gradual (extensions) Radical (new paradigm)
Product design X
Eco-park X
CEM X
Factor X X
Resource analysis X
As is shown in Figure 16, four of the five understandings of industrial ecology are
characterised as focusing on gradual changes (extensions) to existing systems.
The only understanding of industrial ecology that is characterised as radical and
constituting a new paradigm is the factor X understanding.
The different understandings of industrial ecology are also compared with respect
to their characterisation by substance elements. The comparison according to their
characterisation by the substance elements nature integration and nature analogy
is shown in Figure 17.
18
Corporate Environmental Management
47
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substance elements nature integration and nature analogy
Nature integration Nature analogy
Product design X
Eco-park X
CEM X
Factor X X
Resource analysis X
As illustrated in Figure 17, four of the five understandings of industrial ecology

have focus on improving the integration of industrial systems into nature. The
only understanding of industrial ecology in which the analogy to nature is
predominant is the eco-park understanding.
The comparison of the different understandings of industrial ecology according to

their characterisation by the substance elements material and energy is shown in
Figure 18.

substance elements material and energy
Material Energy
Product design X
Eco-park X
CEM X
Factor X X
Resource analysis X
In Figure 18 it is clear that three of the five understandings of industrial ecology

have a higher focus on material considerations than on energy issues. Only the
factor X and the CEM understandings have about equal focus on energy and
material.
The comparison of the different understandings of industrial ecology according to

their characterisation by the substance elements product and
production/production system is shown in Figure 19.
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substance elements product and production/production system
Product Production/production system
Product design X
Eco-park X
CEM X
Factor X X
Resource analysis X
As is illustrated in Figure 19, in three of the five understandings of industrial

ecology the focus is mainly on issues connected to production and production
systems. The two understandings of industrial ecology with a main focus on
products are the product-design and the factor X understanding.
2.10. Comparison of transport in the types

In this sub-chapter the different understandings of industrial ecology are
compared with regards to their inclusion of transport themes. The comparison is
based on the characterisation of the transport themes in the three dimensions
efficiency, pattern and volume. This is followed by a more extensive discussion of
transport issues connected to each of the understandings. This includes examples
of efficiency, pattern and volume transport themes, and a discussion of their
inclusion in the different understandings. This is carried out by first a discussion
pertaining to the two main forms of transport; person and goods transport,
followed transport in general. At the end of the sub-chapter are some conclusions
made on the discussion of transport in the various understandings of industrial
ecology.
2.10.1. Characterisation of transport questions in the five types by the

dimensional axis efficiency, pattern and volume
Figure 20 illustrates the characterisation of the transport themes in the five types
of industrial ecology understandings by the dimensional axis efficiency, pattern
and volume. In the understandings with transport themes covering more than one
dimension, the minor focus is shown with dotted line.
Figure 20 Transport themes in the five types characterised along the dimensional
axis efficiency - pattern - volume
Efficiency Pattern Volume
Product-design
Eco-park
CEM
Factor X
Resource analysis
49
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As shown in Figure 20, two of the five understandings of industrial ecology are
limited to efficiency themes. The product-design and the eco-park understandings
are only suited for dealing with themes connected to the efficiency of transport.
The CEM understanding also includes pattern themes, but this is not as
dominating as the efficiency themes. Transport issues in the factor X and the
resource analysis understanding in addition include some thematics connected to
volume themes.
2.10.2. Final discussion of person transport in the types

Person transport is not immediately associated with industrial ecology. Transport
in connection with industrial ecology is traditionally understood as the movement
of goods to, from and between industrial facilities. Raw material must be
transported to the production facilities, and finished products must be transported
to the customers. In addition there is internal transport and transport of waste and
by-products.
The private car is however a product dealt with extensively in industrial ecology.
The design and production of vehicles for person transport (mainly automobiles)
is particularly well included in the product-design and the factor X understanding.
The claims of dematerialisation in the design and production of new automobiles
are thus examples of problems connected to person transport.
In the product-design understanding of industrial ecology rather optimistic claims

of dematerialisation are frequently being made. One example of a commonly
encountered efficiency issue is the design of new automobiles, using lighter
materials resulting in reduced fuel consumption. The previously mentioned 12%
reduction in fuel consumption from 1980 to 1990 of the average new automobile
in the USA is used as an example of dematerialisation (Keoleian et al., 1997, p.
56). This however only tells part of the story. The dematerialisation claim fails to
recognise the more recent increase in the direction of heavier average cars with
stronger engines and higher fuel consumption. Empirical data on the fuel
consumption of average new cars indicate no significant decrease in the more
recent years. The fuel consumption per 100 km of an average new UK automobile
in 1987 was 7.92 litre, while in 2000 it was 7.91, for example (UKDOT, 2001).
When taken into consideration that the average occupancy rates of private cars has
been reduced in the same period of years, it is even less basis to the claimed
argument of increased fuel efficiency of the private automobile, expressed as fuel
consumption per person-kilometres, a common unit for fuel efficiency used in a
societal context. The average occupancy rate, expressed as the number of persons
per car, in Norway is reduced from 1.86 to 1.77 in the period 1987-2000 (Rideng,
2001).
If indeed lighter automobiles can be considered a form of “dematerialisation”, this

is however connected with serious problems. Lighter automobiles can contribute
to major problems regarding the transportation safety for both drivers and
passengers. The use of the private car is a major source of deaths and disabilities
from transport activities. Approx. 25 000 persons in automobiles are killed in the
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EU15 every year. The drop in the average weight of passenger cars, such as the
development between 1975 and 1985 in the USA, made the cars less safe for the
driver and the passengers. A study has indicated that a driver of a 1000-kg car is
2.6 times more likely to be killed in a single car collision than when driving a
2000-kg car (Herman et al., 1989, p. 51). Lighter cars are thus less safe both for
the driver and the passengers.
Also other problems emerge with the understanding that replacing heavier
materials with lighter materials in private cars is a form of dematerialisation,
particularly regarding the large replacement volumes in question. The replacement
might actually in some respects imply environmental degradation. Substitution of
steel in automobiles with the lighter material aluminium is one example where this
could be the result. The following should illustrate this point. Aluminium is
produced from bauxite in a two-step process that refines the bauxite into
aluminium oxide (Bayer process) and then reduces the aluminium oxide (Hall-
Heroult electrolysis) to aluminium metal. The mining of bauxite and refining into
aluminium oxide are two far from environmentally benign processes. The key step
in the refining of bauxite involves the removal of silica under heat and high
pressure. This results in waste in the form of a red mud that drastically reduces
soil fertility (Bunker, 1994). The red mud contains in addition heavy metals.
As will be dealt with in the sub-chapter on goods transport, bauxite and

aluminium are in addition transported globally and in increasing amounts, as is
shown in Table 4.
The substitution of aluminium for steel in private cars also might contribute to
environmental problems in the form of emissions of polluting gases to the air. The
smelting of aluminium oxide to form aluminium metal is an electrolytic reaction
where electric current is passed through a fluoride bath. This process contributes
to particulate emissions in the form of aluminium oxide dust, carbon dust and
fluoride compounds. The gaseous emissions include HF, CF4, C2F6, other
fluoride-bearing gases, CO2, CO, and SO2. Significant amounts of fluorocarbons
are emitted at rates of 1.5 to 2.5 kg per tonnes of aluminium produced. These
fluorocarbons are potent greenhouse gases, with global warming potentials of
many thousand relative to CO2. The global warming potentials for CF4 and C2F6
are 5 700 and 11 900 respectively (IPPC, 2001). These two compounds are also
among some of the most stable industrial pollutants known, with lifetimes of 50
000 and 10 000 years respectively (ibid.). The emission of the fluoride-containing
gases has historically been reduced by improved control routines during the
process, and some never aluminium plants, also capture and recycle most of the
fluoride-containing emissions (Bunker, 1994, p. 443). The fluorocarbons emitted
from the aluminium production could however still account for as much as 1,7%
of total human greenhouse gas releases (Keoleian et al., 1997, p. 27).
The production of aluminium is in addition much more energy intensive compared

to steel, as is clear from Table 1.
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Table 1 Energy use in production of aluminium and steel (kWh/tonne)

Process stage Aluminium Steel
Mining 1 668 1 711
Ore Preparation 8 507 922
Smelting 35 384 6 055
Casting and Finishing 4 937 2 452
Source: Keoleian et al. (1997, p. 29)
It is only in the mining process stage that the energy use for aluminium is similar
to steel. Ore preparation is more than nine times, smelting close to six times, and
casting and finishing two times more energy intensive for aluminium than for
steel production. The high energy use for the smelting of aluminium oxide to form
aluminium is due to the particularly strong chemical bonds to oxygen in this
metal, bonds that are broken by applying electricity at high temperatures.
Substitution of automobile parts with the lighter material plastic is another

example, which, particularly in the product-design- understanding, is claimed to
represent a form of dematerialisation. As with the case for aluminium, this
replacement is not necessary leading to less environmental problems, particularly
when considering the large replacement volumes in question. First of all, the
production of plastic materials is highly dependent on continued exploitation of
fossil fuels supplies. The alternative of using recycled plastic is only to a small
degree possible. The complexity of different forms of plastic is a major problem
for the production of plastics based on recycled material. The large replacement
volumes in question pose serious recycling and disposal problems (Frosch, 1995).
The automobile contains approximately 25 chemically incompatible forms of
plastics, which cannot be melted together and reused (Keoleian, 1997). The
individual forms of plastic must be separated before recycling, a task requiring
large inputs of energy and material resources connected to construction and
operation of facilities and equipment. The solution is often to incinerate
remaining plastic material for energy recovery, which is a far from
environmentally benign solution. Chlorine-containing plastics such as PVC are
known sources of dioxin emissions when incinerated. But also other plastics can
produce dioxins when burned in the presence of chlorine donors such as road salt,
which is commonly trapped in the automobile bodies during the use phase. The
result is that most of the plastic from retired automobiles currently are disposed in
landfills (ibid.). The “dematerialisation” by replacing steel with plastic in
automobiles might thus actually imply an escalation of environmental problems
connected to incineration and land-filling.
The use of the lighter materials plastic and aluminium instead of steel in private
cars can be described as a form of re-materialisation instead of dematerialisation.
Re-materialisation is a term used for describing the use of new materials in the
process of commodity production (Mofatt et al., 2001). This is rather different
from the dematerialisation claimed to be necessary for sustainability, as
interpreted in the product-design and factor X understandings of industrial
ecology.
Changes to the private car also can have other important implications for
transportation. Changes in the design and functioning of automobiles have led to
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reduced emissions of some polluting compounds. The introduction of the 3-way

catalytic converter in automobiles has reduced the amount of NOx, HC and CO
emitted from each vehicle, per kilometre driven. But the increased use of the
catalysts has also in itself created other environmental problems. The catalysts are
based on the Platinum-group metals, which are only found in scarce deposits in
nature. Ores of platinum in as low concentration as 7 ppm are currently being
mined. Frosch and Gallopoulos (1989, p. 99) point to that about 20 million metric
tonnes of ore must be refined to produce the approx. 140 tonnes purified platinum
metal for the USA market per year. More than 40% of this is used in automobiles
(Keoleian et al., 1997, p. 22). The mining of platinum involves encroachment into
large areas of land, movement of large volumes of earth and leaves behind
millions of tonnes polluted tailings and polluted surface and ground water (Høyer,
1997, p. 820).
The use of platinum in catalytic converters can also represent problems with
relevance for the eco-park understanding of industrial ecology. Recycling of
platinum is, to a large extent, not carried out, and the problems concerning the
disposal of this material are escalating (Frosch and Gallopoulos, 1989, p. 99).
The changes in the products focused within the product design and factor X
understandings of industrial ecology aim at developing products with improved
environmental performance. The new products are however not necessarily
reducing the severity of environmental problems, but sometimes rather
contributing to other forms of ecological disturbances. This is the case with the
replacement of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases in automobile air conditioners.
The most widely used replacement chemicals are extremely potent greenhouse
gases. The most common replacement for CFCs used in automobile air-
conditioners is HFC-134a, which was introduced in new vehicles in 1993. This
compound has a global warming potential of 1 300 times that of CO2 (IPPC,
2001). This is thus another example particularly connected to the design
understanding of industrial ecology, where a problem “solved” by a technical
product change rather ends up creating other types of problems. The technical
“solution” has contributed to the amplification of another problem, the increased
emission of greenhouse gases.
Another problem connected to the product-design understanding of industrial

ecology is the limit connected to DFE. Sometimes the system limits in DFE are
narrowly defined, focusing on small parts of the design of the products. This can
increase the risk that industry can be enmeshed in complicated tradeoffs regarding
small aspects of complicated products. This again can cause the manufacturers to
miss entirely the need for more fundamental changes in broader system structures.
An example can be taken from the automobile manufacturing industry: A team of
automotive engineers can be discussing the environmental aspects of using plastic
versus aluminium radiator caps, while more fundamental questions about the
sustainability of the petrol powered automobile are never raised. Although smaller
changes in products and process designs are necessary, this focus on minute
changes implies a risk of “loosing sight of the forest for the trees” (O’Rourke,
1996). This example illustrates the limitation of industrial ecology understandings
that focus mainly on efficiency aspects of transport problems.
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The issue of moderation in time and space is connected to the reduction in

transport volumes (Sachs, 1998). Slower speeds and shorter transport distances
are central components of this problem. It is usually a fact that higher speeds lead
to saving time, but the history of transportation shows that the gains quickly are
offset by increased amount of transport. The constant travel time principle of
transport implies that a reduction in travel time by 10%, for example, is
compensated by a similar increase in travel time from longer distances or
increased frequency. A slower speed also has implications connected to the
possibilities for stretching the available energy resources. The connection between
speed and increase in a vehicle’s energy throughput is not at all linear. The energy
use goes up exponentially due to increased resistance and friction. A car using 5
litres of fuel per 100 km at 80 km/h, will not need 10, but 20 litres of fuel per 100
km at 160 km/h. A reduction in energy use by a factor of 10 is thus difficult to
comprehend without taking into consideration a reduction of maximum speed of
vehicles, while simultaneously striving for more efficient motors and new
materials (ibid. p. 88).
The pattern of person transport has changed in recent years to less use of energy
efficient transport modes. The mode changes have consisted of more use of
automobile and aeroplane, and less use of rail transport. Rail is by far the most
energy efficient transport mode for person transport, while aviation and high-
speed sea transport are the least energy efficient (Høyer & Heiberg, 1993; Høyer
et al., 1998; EC, 2001). This pattern change is contributing to the increasing
global energy use for transport, up by 48% between 1980 and 1998 (EC, 2002a).
A factor 10 of dematerialisation implies that material input per service unit

(MIPS) in the OECD countries should be reduced by a factor of ten to reduce the
global material turnover by one-half within one generation. It is hard to imagine
that such a degree of dematerialisation is obtainable. Particularly in the field of
transport is it difficult to envisage how a world with twice today’s population can
obtain this. It does not appear likely that further increase in the automobile-based
person mobility towards the levels of current OECD-average is compatible with a
50% reduction in the global use of material resources. Establishing the required
transport infrastructure alone would generate an increase of factor 10 in the use of
material resources for such purposes (Høyer, 1997, p. 819). It is not likely that
increased recycling, waste reduction in production, increased energy efficiency,
and extension of the lifetime of products are sufficient to obtain a factor of 10 of
dematerialisation. A dematerialisation by a factor of 10 does not appear to be
compatible with an increased number of private cars and increased person
transport volumes. The need for volume-reductions becomes evident.
2.10.3. Final discussion of goods transport in the types

The efficiency improvements in goods transport have only resulted in small
improvements in the overall energy efficiency of this form of transport. In fact,
there has been no improvement in the overall energy efficiency of road-based
goods transport in the EU the last two decades, partly due to a lowering of load
factors (EEA, 2001, p. 39). This is illustrative of the shortcomings of those
understandings of industrial ecology that are limited to efficiency themes. This is
the case for the product design and the eco-park understandings.
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The understanding of industrial ecology as a framework for corporate

environmental management also has major limits for dealing with transport
themes. One limitation connected to the standardised EMS, such as ISO 14001
and EMAS, is the traditional focus on the production activities in this
understanding. The transport connected to the distribution of the final products to
the customers in most cases is outside the control of the producers. The
outsourcing of transport services to contractors is a contributing factor to the lack
of control by the producers. Even though an EMS specifies that contractor audits
are required, it is evident that the outsourcing weakens the producer’s
responsibilities for the environmental impacts of these transport activities.
Also in goods transport there has been a change the recent years in the pattern of
the transport. There has been a change to relatively less use of energy efficient
transport. Such mode changes have consisted of increased use of aeroplane and
lorries, and relatively less use of goods transport on rail and sea. Rail is a much
more energy efficient transport mode than road for goods transport, while aviation
is the least energy efficient (EC, 2001). Sea transport is the most energy efficient
mode for transport of large volumes of goods over long distances.
The necessary changes in the modal composition of good transport, such as those
prescribed in the factor X understanding, might be connected with major
problems. Particularly the transfer to a future of more reliance on high-speed
trains can be problematic for transport of goods by rail. High-speed person
transport by rail often has higher priority than goods transport, slowing down the
goods transport. This could make the rail mode less attractive for goods transport.
A reduction of both person and goods mobility, might thus be necessary for
dealing with these problems in the future.
A limit for the inclusion of volume themes particularly in the product design
understanding, and also to a certain extent in the eco-park understanding, is
connected to the view on industrial dematerialisation in these understandings.
Two questions connected to this can be asked:
1) Has dematerialisation occurred in transport?

2) What are the conditions for further dematerialisation in transport?
Tibbs’ example is representative for the product-design understanding’s

interpretation of dematerialisation:
“In industrially developed economies, dematerialisation – a decline in materials and

energy intensity in industrial production – is an established trend. When measured in
terms of physical quantity per constant dollar of GNP, basic materials use has been
falling since the seventies, and has even levelled off when measured in terms of quantity
consumed per capita. Practical examples of this trend are the steadily declining size and
increasing power of computers, or the nearly 20 percent drop in the average weight of
automobiles in the USA between 1975 and 1985. And micro-structural engineering of
smart materials is yielding even lighter, higher-performance components.”
(Tibbs, 1992, p. 13)
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This view on dematerialisation however fails to recognize that the absolute

volume of consumed material, rather than the volume relative to GNP, is a more
significant measure of dematerialisation in ecological terms. This view can in
addition be characterised as representing a limited understanding of
dematerialisation regarding the range of minerals used and the physical and
chemical processes involved in their extraction (Bunker, 1996). The
dematerialisation claims by Tibbs do not address the fact that, on a global scale,
the volumes and distances transported of major minerals have increased over the
periods for which dematerialisation has been claimed. This is partially due to the
fact that extraction and processing of main minerals have expanded greatly in
scale. This is shown for crude oil in Table 2 and bauxite and alumina in Table 3.
Table 2 World production of crude oil (in million barrels per day, and factor
increase since 1960)
Increase from 1960
Year Produced volume (factor)
1960 21.0 1.0
1980 59.6 2.8
1999 65.9 3.1
Source: USDOE (2000)
The increase in global extraction and processing of bauxite and alumina is shown
in Table 3.
Table 3 World production of bauxite and alumina (in 1000 tonnes, and factor
increase since 1960)
Increase from 1960
Year Produced volume (factor)
1960 27 641 1.0
1980 89 220 3.2
2000 127 000 4.6
Source: USGS (2002), Mbendi (2002)
In addition to increase in the extraction and production of crude oil, bauxite and
alumina, the world production of iron ore has increased from 864 million tonnes
in 1986 to 938 million tonnes in 2000 (USGS, 2002). The production of coal has
increased from 3.7 million tonnes in 1980 to 4.3 million tonnes in 1999 (USDOE,
2000). Extraction and processing of major minerals also have moved into more
and more remote locations to compensate for increased consumption and
depletion of deposits close to existing industrial centres (Bunker, 1996). This has
resulted in a situation today, where the major minerals are transported vastly more
now they were four decades ago, as illustrated by the seaborne transport shown in
Table 4.
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Table 4 Transport volume of sea-borne raw materials 1960-1999 (in billions

tonne-km, and factor increase from 1960)
Factor Factor Factor Factor
in- in- in- in-
crease crease crease Bauxite crease
Crude from from Iron from and from
Year oil 1960 Coal 1960 ore 1960 alumina19 1960
1960 2 655 1.0 233 1.0 425 1.0 55 1.0
1980 11 574 4.4 1 540 6.6 2 656 6.3 277 5.1
1999 12 832 4.8 3 781 16.2 3 728 8.8 328 6.0
Source: Bunker (1996), Fearnleys (2000).
The production volumes of crude oil increased by a factor of 3.1 between 1960
and 1999 (Table 2). The volume of sea transport of the same raw material
however increased by a factor of 4.8 (Table 4) over the same time period,
indicating that each barrel of oil on the average is transported 55% longer in 1999
than in 1960. The same development is evident for bauxite and alumina for which
the production volume has increased by a factor of 4.6 (Table 3) while the
transport volume has increased by a factor of 6.0 (Table 4) in the same period of
years, indicating an average increase of 30% in the transported distance for each
tonne of this group of raw materials. The increases in the transport volumes of
coal and iron ore have been even stronger, with factors of 16.2 and 8.8
respectively (Table 4), but reliable data on production volumes for the entire
period is not available, limiting the basis for similar conclusions on transport
increase per unit of these two minerals.
The combination of increased volumes of raw materials and its accelerating

transport around the world sharply contrasts the dematerialisation claims
frequently encountered in the product-design understanding of industrial ecology.
The fact that dematerialisation not appears to have a major effect in reducing the
consumption of raw materials is thus outside the product-design understanding of
industrial ecology.
A barrier for the inclusion of transport volume themes in several understandings

of industrial ecology is connected to the limited view on nature’s complexity,
common in these understandings (O’Rourke et al., 1996). In the product-design,
eco-park and the CEM understandings improved design and control are key
solutions to the environmental problems. This view may however reduce the
problems to merely technical and manageable aspects. One example is the claim
by Tibbs (1992, p. 10) that ecological damage can be avoided by stressing design
that is “intrinsically incapable of acute environmental impact”. This way of
managing the interface between industry and nature by utilizing “ecofeedback”
strategies is overly optimistic. It is based on a rather limited view of nature’s
complexity. The idea of using “real-time” information about environmental
conditions is an exaggeration of current monitoring capabilities, which cannot
always predict the consequences of today’s emissions and encroachments on
tomorrow’s ecosystems (O’Rourke et al., 1996). These types of problems have
long feedback loops, which mean that uncertainty is often connected with the
19
Data for 1980 are not available. The figure of 277 billion tonne-km is for the year 1981.
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effects on the ecosystems. The destruction of the ozone layer resulting from CFC
emissions, and climate change from greenhouse gas emissions, are illustrative
examples of such problems. CFCs were released from industry and consumer
products 1930s to 1970 at steadily increasing amounts (except during years of the
recession and World War II) without any apparent environmental damage. A high
degree of uncertainty was however connected with the long-term effects on the
ecosystems, from the release of these compounds. This uncertainty was the basis
for the actions implemented to limit the production and use of these industrial
substances. The effect on the stratospheric ozone layer was not seen until later.
The anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, mainly resulting from the
burning of fossil fuels, also have taken place at increasing rates during the last
century. The uncertainty regarding the effects on the global ecosystems, in the
form of climate changes, is being applied in efforts to reduce these emissions. The
limited view on nature’s complexity is thus a barrier to the inclusion of transport
problems that have uncertainty connected to their ecological effects.
The societal processes for volume reduction require comprehensive approaches,

reflecting the fact that it is the sum of all the individual automobiles, aeroplanes,
and lorries etc., which contribute to the major environmental problems, such as
climate changes due to the increased emission of greenhouse gases. The limited
view of nature’s complexity tends to reduce the environmental problems to
merely solvable by technical efforts. The climate changes are thus understood as
being “solved” by improved design and control solutions, not considering the
systemic changes necessary for obtaining necessary reductions of global goods
mobility.
A more principal aspect of ecological disturbances caused by the high volumes of

transport is that these problems are generated through product consumption and
distribution chains. An efficiency-oriented design approach is not optimal for
solving such environmental problems of a systemic character. An encroachment
today can in some cases give a full backlash not until after hundred years, even if,
in the meantime, the extent of the encroachment is reduced. The long feedback
loops, with their uncertain time lags and cause-effect relations, are much less
prone to solutions by technical efficiency design approaches than the more easily
defined short feedback loops. It is in addition much easier to develop and
implement technical solutions when the sources are a few, concentrated and well-
defined points, than when they are many, scattered and diffuse, which is the case
for transport. A more suitable approach to such problems is that of seeking
solutions by input management, which means in addition to increasing the
efficiency of production systems, also reducing the inputs of environmentally
damaging materials (Odum, 1989). This is an approach which is more compatible
with the factor X understanding than the other understandings of industrial
ecology.
The problems connected to the increase in transport volumes resulting from

increased goods- mobility and the connected increase in transport infrastructure
is outside the scope of the EMS understanding of industrial ecology. There is a
clear limit for corporate environmental management in handling these more
systemic transport problems. The corporations are dependent on making profits
from selling their products and services. The corporate stimulation of reduction in
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transport connected to these activities is however difficult to envisage.20 For

transport companies, which are based on providing transport services, the
establishing of environmental management systems is mainly limited to having an
effect on transport themes of the efficiency type. Major reduction in transport is
not compatible with the management interests in these companies.
One of the limits of the eco-park understanding is conceivable through the

concept “zero” emission industrial clusters. This concept is based on the natural
ecosystem analogy, where waste from one industrial process is used as raw
material for another process. The waste-donors and the waste-receptors are
located in close proximity, in co-called industrial clusters, to minimise the
necessary transport. The immediate objection is that the emissions from the total
cluster never can be zero. In theory it is possible to imagine that one of the
facilities could get all its raw materials in the form of waste from the other
facilities in the cluster. Correspondingly, it could be possible that this facility
could obtain its energy needed from excess energy from the other facilities in the
cluster. The emissions from the transport of material and energy into the
individual industrial facilities in the “zero-emission” cluster also theoretically
could be close to zero, due to minimal transport distances within the cluster. It is
however not possible that all the facilities making up the industrial cluster are in
such a favoured situation, that they obtain all their energy- and material needs
through recycling within the cluster. Neither can all wastes be utilised. In
addition, the total industrial cluster must be supplied with energy and raw material
from the outside. Even though it is theoretically possible that the supplied energy
and raw material are recycled from another cluster, the energy use and emissions
from the transport can never be zero. One objection to this is that the energy could
be based on renewable, so-called “non-polluting” technologies. It is however a
problem that there are no energy-technologies that are not polluting in a life-cycle
perspective. Even hydropower, sun-, bio- wind- or wave-energy implies
environmental encroachments, for example, in the form of installations disturbing
natural ecosystems. In addition, these technologies require production and
maintenance of equipment and infrastructure that can utilise these energy forms.
This production and maintenance can never be carried out without causing
pollution.
The closing of material cycles is an important principle in the eco-park

understanding. A weakness in the “loop-closing” theory is that it is commonly
overlooked that degraded materials (waste) must be regenerated, and usually
transported, before they can be recycled (Connelly and Coshland, 1997). The eco-
park understanding focuses on one main strategy for resource conservation:
recycling. Other strategies for reducing the depletion of resources, such as
increased renewable energy use and increased energy efficiency receive far less
attention. This understanding thus provides limited solutions to the problems
connected with the increase in fossil fuel consumption from the increasingly
larger volumes of goods transport.
In the eco-park understanding there is a focus of trading waste and even designing
waste that can be utilized by other industrial facilities. This might represent a
20
The selling of services instead of products is however a strategy often connected to the factor X
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conflict with a principle of source reduction of pollution. Source reductions are

based on avoiding waste-generation in the first place, and thereby reduce the need
for transport of waste material. This delimits the eco-park understanding of
industrial ecology from clean production activities, in which principles of source
reduction are well established. Clean production has actually been described as
the European equivalent of pollution prevention in the United States (Ashford,
2002). Pollution prevention and source reduction are closely related concepts. The
difference between industrial ecology and clean production, according to
Karamanos is (1995, p. 38):
“Cleaner production focuses on waste reduction, while in industrial ecology the

emphasis is on cycling of unavoidably produced wastes, especially between companies”
The potential avoidance of waste-reduction, because the waste can be traded, can
thus represent a limit for the eco-park understanding of industrial ecology. More
complex approaches are required to simultaneously take into consideration source
reduction of pollution, waste minimisation and the utilisation of residues.
Otherwise the result might be even more transport of waste.
The problem of increased transport volumes connected to recycling systems is not

often addressed in the industrial ecology literature. This is problematic as many
studies show that transport volumes can be quite immense in connection with
systems for reuse and recycling. One example is used by Leach et al. (1997) in the
systems for paper recycling in UK. In some of these recycling systems a massive
energy use is documented, mostly resulting from the transport to the recycling
plants. At one case plant which has been studied, the Aylesford Newsprint
recycling mill in Kent, 30 000 deliveries of waste paper per year was received by
lorry, constituting a total annual transport distance of more than 4 million
kilometres. This results in more than 5 800 tonnes of CO2 emissions per year. In
addition come the journeys made by individual recyclers from their homes to the
neighbourhood recycling bins. One study referred to in rural Norfolk found that
cars travelled 270 kilometres for every tonne of waste delivered in local bins
(ibid.). The long transport distances to recycling plants, plus the transport
necessary to distribute the recovered materials, can thus generate large transport
volumes, usually not considered in the eco-park understanding of industrial
ecology.
2.10.4. Final discussion of transport in general in the types

Many transport problems cannot be considered to be unique for either person
transport or goods transport. A discussion of these type of problems connected to
transport must also be discussed in light of the various understandings of
industrial ecology.
The eco-park understanding has clear limits for inclusion of transport problems in
general. The first is the limit in scale. The natural ecosystem analogy is usually
limited to individual eco-industrial parks. The wider industrial production
systems, and the transport between them, are considered only to a much lesser
extent.
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The eco-park understanding of industrial ecology also implies that near-closed

material cycles corresponding to those found in natural ecosystems should be
established. Expanding systems of waste exchanges through the creation of so-
called industrial ecosystems or eco-industrial parks are practical examples of
efforts to close the loops. The most often cited example of industrial ecosystem is
the so-called industrial symbiosis complex in Kalundborg, Denmark (Knight,
1993; Karamanos, 1995; Edgington, 1995; Lowe et al., 1997b). Two of the core
facilities in this industrial cluster are however based on the exploitation of non-
renewable resources. With both a coal-fuelled power plant and a petroleum oil
refinery making up the core of the complex, it is quite misleading to use the term
industrial ecosystem for this industrial complex. The analogy to nature’s
ecosystems is in this case limited to waste exchanges, and fails to include the
wider transport problems connected to the main operations. The petroleum oil
refinery is for example a part of the production chain for a non-renewable fuel
source for transport.
Another limit for the eco-park understanding is connected to the sources of

emissions in the industrial ecosystems. In establishing or maintaining “zero”-
emission industrial clusters, the focus is on reducing the waste from industrial
facilities. These sources are the traditional point sources of emissions from
industrial production. In this focus on the point sources, the increasingly more
important diffuse sources are not well addressed. By reducing the point sources,
the pollution is still coming out of the factories, not through the factory chimney,
but through the factory doors, in the form of the products being produced. The
example of polluting automobiles being produced by “non-polluting” factories is
illustrative of this situation. This limited focus on the diffuse sources of emissions
from the distribution and use of the industrial products is a main deficiency of the
eco-park understanding. Reducing the diffuse sources of emissions, of which
transport is an important element of, require more complex approaches then
represented through the eco-park analogy understanding.
It is also possible to point to important limits for the inclusion of transport in

general for the CEM understanding. The increases in transport volumes are results
of globalisation processes outside the normal control of corporations through their
management systems. However, with the concepts connected to the wider
implications of corporate activities, such as Corporate Social Responsibility
(CSR), potential possibilities for including more systemic transport problems
emerge. CSR refers to the overall relationship of a firm and all its stakeholders,
and could be an important factor in this context. Public concerns regarding the
social accountability of corporations and their operations in the global
marketplace have led to the forming of guidelines in this field. Even though the
guidelines not explicitly address reduction of transport volumes, this aspect
certainly has relevance when discussing the improvements of social issues. High
volumes of transport have detrimental social effects, for example in the form of
traffic accidents, which have serious social consequences and are in addition
expensive for society as a whole. People die or become injured and disabled,
resulting in wide and lasting social impacts on their families.
Energy for transport is a theme that has low focus in most of the industrial
ecology understandings. O’Rourke et al. (1996, p. 105) also point to the general
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lack of energy considerations in the industrial ecology literature. The failure to

address energy issues is thus a weakness for the inclusion of transport issues,
since they are tightly connected to energy use. The alternatives to fossil fuels are
ranked as the number one problem facing industrial ecology (ibid.). “The failure
to address the use of fossil fuels reflects the large weakness in industrial ecology’s
handling of energy issues”. Major problems connected to transport’s increasingly
important role as a consumer of fossil energy, is thus emerging from the failure of
addressing these issues in the various understandings of industrial ecology. As
discussed previously (in Chapter 2.9), only the factor X and the CEM
understandings have a reasonable inclusion of energy considerations.
Improved understanding of the limits of industrial ecology could also be gained

by applying the concept of exergy in material and energy considerations
(Connelly and Coshland, 1997; Wall, 1986). Exergy considerations are however
not common in the industrial ecology literature. Failure to apply such analyses
could halt the establishing of energy-efficient material recycling and utilisation of
renewable sources for energy in industrial systems. This is again of particularly
relevance in the discussion of transport problems. Avoidance of transferring to
renewable sources of energy for transport makes, for example significant
reductions in greenhouse emissions from transport difficult to envisage.
The principle of exergy-saving for reducing the environmental impacts of

resource consumption, which was briefly touched in Chapter 2.8.1, is particularly
important for the resource analysis understanding of industrial ecology. This
principle can be used to further support the argument of using renewable energy
in place of energy based on combustion of deposits, such as fossil fuels. With the
use of renewable raw materials as a source of energy, the exergy loss is smaller
than the comparable exergy loss from combustion of fossil fuels. Fossil deposits
have been formed through natural processes with duration of millions of years,
removed from the recycling processes in the biosphere. This has given them
higher exergy content than biological raw materials, which are part of the
renewable flows. By using fuels based on renewable biological raw material,
instead of fossil fuels, exergy can thus be saved. A transition from today’s
extensive usage of fossil fuels in transport to a future with more of the fuel
produced from renewable material is therefore compatible with the principle of
exergy-saving. The study of exergy flows in industrial ecology can thus contribute
to a transition away from exploiting deposits and in the direction of using
renewable resources instead. An exergy tax has been suggested in this respect, to
support the necessary changes in a sustainable direction. The future of today’s
resource use, of which a major share is for transport activities, is aptly
characterised by Wall (1997):
“The present resource use in the society is a dead-end technology”.
2.10.5. Conclusions on transport in the types

The conditions for including transport in the product-design understanding of
industrial ecology are limited in several ways. The most striking limitations are
connected to the main focus on efficiency aspects of transport problems. The
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limited view on nature’s complexity tends to reduce the transport problems to

mainly technical challenges. The conditions are not favourable for including
problems of a more systemic character, such as the volume problems connected to
transport. The narrow interpretation of dematerialisation, without taking into
consideration that there has been a large increase in transport volumes, also
emphasises this. The conditions for further dematerialisation are not sufficiently
present, as these are dependant of major changes to the production and
consumption systems. The product-design understanding is thus well suited for
dealing with problems related the design and manufacture of single products, such
as automobiles, but not for the problems connected to society’s increased
mobility.
There are several forms of limitations for the inclusion of transport in the eco-park
understanding of industrial ecology. The main focus on material use relative to the
minor focus on energy represents a limit in this understanding’s inclusion of
transport issues. Important transport issues such as the transition to alternative
renewable energy forms and increased energy efficiency are seldom addressed.
Also the central focus on waste trading and utilisation of waste takes the attention
away from reducing waste products being produced in the first place. This has
implications for the volume problems of transport, which in this understanding is
addressed only at a limited extent. It is limited to the systems of recycling being
considered in this understanding, such as the clusters of industries making up a
single eco-park. This understanding implies a major focus on establishing
recycling systems, which might actually generate more transport in some cases.
In the CEM understanding of industrial ecology there are clear limits for the
inclusion of problems in the form of volume problems of transport. These
problems are connected to distribution of raw materials and finished products. The
practice of outsourcing transport to contractors reduces the companies’
possibilities for influencing the distributors of the products, regarding the
environmental impacts along the whole product chain. The emerging concept of
corporate social responsibility could however imply a change towards increased
attention to the volume problems of transport.
The factor X understanding of industrial ecology, to a certain extent, addresses

volume themes of transport. Input management of production systems could be
important in obtaining the required increase in resource productivity prescribed in
this understanding. The high dematerialisation rates prescribed are however
difficult to envisage in combination with increases in global transport volumes.
This is one of the few understandings where energy issues are reasonably well
included, thereby increasing its applicability for dealing with problems connected
to energy use in transport activities.
The understanding of industrial ecology as a framework for resource analysis is

important in identifying resource limits connected to the production of transport
means. Particularly regarding future energy-conversion and -storage systems can
this understanding provide knowledge of metal scarcity and other constraints for a
sustainable industrial metabolism. It is also evident that exergy analysis could aid
in the transition away from exploiting fossil deposits into a future based on
renewable sources of energy.
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INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY AND SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR RURAL SMEs
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3. Industrial Ecology and some Implications for

Rural SMEs
3.1. Abstract
In a project at Western Norway Research Institute, the concept of industrial
ecology is used as a framework for environmental performance of small- and
medium sized enterprises (SMEs) in Norway. The main goal of the project ‘Green
SMEs’ is to identify existing and future environmental challenges for rural SMEs.
The focus is on external demands coming from the surroundings of the individual
businesses. Examples of issues being dealt with are industrial wastes becoming
sources of raw materials for other industries, design and material choice for
disassembly and reuse, development of industrial ecosystems, and industrial
metabolism.
This paper presents actual examples of industrial ecosystems and also some cases
illustrating the problems small remotely located firms meet when the principles of
industrial ecology are to be applied. These problems include the inability to
participate in efficient industrial ecosystems (webs) with exchange of wastes to
raw materials. Larger companies, often being more centrally located, have greater
chances at identifying and attracting other businesses, which they can co-operate
with in finding usage for their wastes. The ‘cluster’ properties of efficient
industrial ecosystems can therefore be a limiting factor in the development of such
systems in rural areas. Small companies also have less opportunities to be
proactive in establishing industrial ecosystems also merely due to the smaller
scale of their operations.
3.2. Introduction
Deep ecology, as originally formulated by the Norwegian philosopher Arne Næss
(1973, 1984a, 1984b), and later developed further by (among others) Næss (1989),
McLaughlin (1993), Fox (1990) and Welford (1995) can be considered as having
had an influential role on the work of the World Commission on Environment and
Development and its report ‘Our Common Future’ (WCED, 1987). In the wake of
the introduction of the concept ‘sustainable development’ in that report, the
metaphor industrial ecology has evolved, using the ecosystems of nature as
models for industrial systems.
Industrial ecology can be considered a third paradigm of corporate environmental

management (Frosch, 1995). The two previous approaches have been end-of-pipe
pollution control and pollution prevention. The more comprehensive approach, in
which the industrial enterprise is viewed as an integrated part of its surroundings,
has been launched as the new environmental agenda for industry (Tibbs, 1992).
Industrial ecology implies that a holistic approach is taken where not only the
product chain, but also whole industrial systems and networks become the issue.
A result of this is that increased demands are on the responsibilities of the
manufacturer for the safe use and disposal of the products. Ease of dismantling,
recycling or reuses are beginning to be taken into account when designing new
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products (design for disassembly). Industrial ecology focuses on technology

development as the key to a desirable global state (Allenby, 1994). A logical
consequence of this technology-reliance is that the design segment of the
industrial ecology concept is being incorporated into the engineering training by
introduction of new curricula for the engineering students. One example of this is
at the Centre for Environment and Development at the Norwegian University of
Science and Technology in Trondheim. Here industrial ecology is viewed as the
‘driving force’ for environmental life-cycle technology management and
sustainable product design. This in turn implies that the engineering field will
have to focus on cleaner production process design and development of
technologies for recycling (Brattebø, 1996). The role of the universities is further
emphasised by Ehrenfeld (1994) and the fact that industrial ecology programmes
are offered at several educational institutions in the USA, among others Princeton
University, University of Michigan, Harvard University, New York University,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Spelinan College in Atlanta, University of
California in Los Angeles, and Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia. The
concept is also included in the ‘Cleaner production, cleaner products, industrial
ecology & sustainability’ programme at the Erasmus University in Rotterdam,
Netherlands.
A major inspiration of the industrial ecology conceptual development was the

work on industrial metabolism by Ayres (1989). By optimising the flow of
materials in the industrial systems using as a model the metabolism found in
nature, with its efficient process steps with high yields (often 100%), the rationale
is that the industry will have a built-in insurance against further environmental
surprises, because their essential causes will have been designed out (Tibbs,
1992). This is obviously an optimistic claim, and is based on the strong faith in
technology and its ability to solve future environmental problems. An observed
reduction of the volume of raw materials used per unit of gross national product
(GNP) is also claimed to constitute a process of ‘dematerialisation’. As Bunker
(1996) points at, this however gives a wrong picture of material usage, because it
fails to recognise that the absolute volumes and distances transported of major raw
materials have increased over the same periods for which dematerialisation has
been claimed.
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Figure 21 Schematic presentation of the transition from traditional linear

material flow to a cyclic flow based on ecological principles
Linear material flow:
Virgin raw material
Production
Virgin raw material Waste
Waste
Cyclic material flow based on ecological principles:

Raw material
Production By-product Re-generation
Product
A transformation from traditional linear to cyclic material flows (Figure 21) is of

fundamental importance in the industrial ecology concept. This implies a focus on
finding usage of wastes, and this can both become a challenge and an opportunity
for businesses. The development of industrial parks, also termed ‘industrial
ecosystems’ (or ‘industrial ecological clusters’), is necessary to facilitate efficient
exchange of wastes for raw materials. Successful application of the principles of
industrial ecology requires that the implications for rural SMEs are well known.
Local and regional socio-economic and environmental conditions must be
accounted for when implementing increased reliance on recycling principles.
The close proximity of businesses taking part in an industrial ecosystem is of

ultimate importance to reduce the amount of transport of waste material. A result
of this is that industrial ecosystems to a great extent occur as clusters often
surrounding one or a few ‘core’- industrial facilities. Many such industrial
ecosystems are beginning to emerge, mainly in the USA, but also to a lesser
extent in Europe. One example is in King County in Seattle where the Duwamish
coalition and the local economic development office are conducting an industrial
ecology study of the Duwamish industrial corridor. This is an area where decades
of intense industrial use have resulted in the contamination of sediment, soil and
water, as well as the loss of natural habitat along the Duwamish waterway and on
upland properties. Contamination is especially hazardous in the corridor because
pollutants move via groundwater and surface water runoff, reaching the river and
Elliott Bay and entering the food chain through fish and other wildlife.
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Contamination is also of great concern to people living in nearby residential

communities. There is great need for cleaning up existing contamination and
preventing further pollution in the area. The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) has given a grant to the county’s Economic Development Office in
the Department of Development and Environmental Services. It is used to identify
waste products generated by manufacturers in the Duwamish industrial corridor.
Everything from toxic chemicals and sandblasting grit to scraps of fabric and
leather from garment manufacturing that can then be recycled into other products
as soft as pillows or as abrasive as the stones used in grinding wheels are
included. Another example of industrial ecology projects in the USA is the
President’s Environmental Technology Initiative, funded through EPA and
sponsoring a prototype industrial ecology project in the Brownsville,
Texas/Matamorous, Mexico border area. The EPA hired the North Carolina-based
Research Triangle Institute to provide the necessary background and research
support for developing and operating an eco-industrial park in the area. A
guidebook to assist other communities in setting up eco-industrial parks was
prepared by Indigo Development, a California-based international design
company, which specialises in the redeveloping of industrial parks and facilities to
optimise both environmental and economic performance.
In Europe, a good example of an industrial ecosystem is around the city Graz in

Austria, where a business recycling network exists using more than 1.2 million
tonnes of residuals annually (Linnanen and Halme, 1996). In several types of
industries, particularly materials focused, integrated chain networks or industrial
ecosystems can be seen emerging in Germany. Current examples are found within
the chemicals industry and the automotive industry where material circulation
networks are being established (Wagner and Matten, 1995). The integrated chain
management experiments in the Dutch industry can also be viewed as a form of
holistic approach resembling industrial ecology, although it is somewhat more
limited compared to a whole industrial ecosystem (Cramer, 1996).
Kalundborg in Denmark is however the most often used example of a successful

industrial ecosystem. In this small industrial city of 20 000 several businesses in
close proximity to each other exchange and make use of their industrial
by-products. The local electric plant supplies surplus steam (which would
otherwise be condensed into a local fjord) to a refinery and a pharmaceutical
plant. A wallboard producer buys surplus gas from the refinery as a replacement
for coal, and removes the sulphur from the gas and sells it to a sulphuric acid
plant. The electric plant uses its surplus heat to grow trout and turbot, and sells
sludge from the fish farm as fertiliser to local farms. This industrial ecosystem
makes productive use of otherwise unwanted industry outputs, increasing
productivity and efficiency while at the same time decreasing impacts to the
environment. The economics of this scheme is large, of a total investment of USD
60 million, the groups participating annually receive USD 10-12 million payback.
Total earnings are estimated to USD 120 million as of 1995 (Edgington, 1995). In
Kalundborg however, a cluster of industrial firms already existed, the new fact
was that they began to co-operate in solving environmental problems by
exchanging wastes for resources. Due to the close proximity of the industries
involved, the transport of the materials are minimized, and negative
environmental impacts of material transport can be kept low.
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The concept of industrial ecology does however imply some problematic issues of
particular significance for SMEs. The establishment of efficient industrial
ecosystems, where wastes from one process can be used as raw materials for
another industry is essential for obtaining efficient material exchange. In order for
a rural SME to participate in an efficient ecosystem, the wastes from the
enterprise often must be transported over long distances, with the resulting
negative impact on the environment, to find suitable usage. This again emphasises
that the implementation of the practices of industrial ecology must take into
account the implications for rural SMEs to be successful.
3.3. The problematic recycling society

The strong emphasis on material recycling that the industrial ecology approach
implies is often not viewed critically. One example where design for recycling is
being applied is in automobile manufacturing. Economic incentives, such as
deposits or refunds to further encourage recycling, are also being applied. The
efficient recycling of car parts can only be obtained if the cars are exchanged
before they become so old that the parts are worn out. Associated with this issue
there has been a discussion of whether forced exchange of new cars for older ones
will give environmental gains. Reduced fuel consumption and reduced emissions
would be possible additional benefits with frequent exchange. Results from
several life-cycle assessments focusing on this issue do however support the
opposite conclusion. With regard to energy consumption and emission of
greenhouse gases there are no immediate gains. Total emissions of primary local
importance are however reduced (Høyer, 1997).
Extensive recycling can actually imply more transportation and larger

environmental problems following the demands for energy and the infrastructure
to support the transportation. This is particularly relevant connected to the
activities of rural SMEs. A question can also be asked whether the extensive
recycling is the most efficient solution. The ‘inverted logistics’ of returning and
re-manufacturing goods back into useful raw materials are not well developed
(Jahre, 1995). For some products it can cost up to nine times as much to recycle
the product (reverse logistics), compared to producing it and transporting it to the
customer. This is in part due to the inability of the goods to be transported and
stored as in the traditional linear forward material flow. Also uncertain supply,
determined by when products are used up, contributes to this problem. One
example of this problem is the taxation system introduced through the German
packaging take-back policy. These taxes are now 4-5 times higher than when they
were introduced two years ago. This demonstrates the large discrepancy between
the presumed and the actual cost of recycling. A major problem has been in
household recycling. For some homes up to 32 cars are now picking up sorted
garbage, compared to only four cars before the recycling system for waste started.
This example illustrates some of the problems associated with the transition into a
society where the emphasis on recycling is rapidly increasing.
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3.4. The Green SMEs project

In the project at Western Norway Research Institute some of the principles of
industrial ecology are used in establishing environmentally sound practices in
SMEs. This is not without problems, as industrial ecology is a concept that
originated from leaders of large industrial corporations, and is not always well
suited for small operations. SMEs in Norway almost always have limited
resources, and the government support through research projects is of significant
importance. The ‘Green SMEs’ project is financed by the Norwegian State
Department of Local Government, who supports the policy of keeping the rural
SMEs alive as one of the prerequisites for continued desirable regional
development.
3.4.1. Goals of the project

The project aims at developing knowledge of the transitions SMEs has to go
through to be prepared for environmental demands in the future. The knowledge
obtained is transferred to the enterprises, to make them more compatible with the
principles of sustainable development. At least 90% of all businesses in Norway
are SMEs, and as the national environmental authorities mainly focus on the large
industrial companies, there is much need for this knowledge.
There has never been a goal in this research project to compare the individual
cases of SMEs. Rather, there has been emphasis on identifying general problems
the regional SMEs has to cope with in the future. The transition to a society where
the principles of industrial ecology are increasingly applied represents one
framework for such problem identification.
3.4.2. Methodology
During the ‘Green SMEs’ project several different approaches in the work with
the enterprises have been applied. In two companies a detailed mapping of
energy- and material usage was performed. The enterprises were then given
suggestions of how to become more efficient in their use of energy and raw
materials. There was a focus on technical improvements that in addition to have
environmental benefits, would imply cost savings, and in that sense it was
inspired by a pollution prevention pays (3P) approach as developed by Minnesota
Mining and Manufacturing (3M) in improving industrial metabolism. In a third
enterprise a different method was used. This consisted of building up elements of
an environmental management system. The approach implied that the main focus
was on the internal routines necessary to ensure quality assurance as a prerequisite
for successful environmental management. The work with these three companies
constituted what is called Phase I of the project.
In phase II of the project a more focused approach was used. From applying a
wide set of different approaches ranging from technical environmental audit to
building up quality assurance and environmental management systems in phase I,
a move towards viewing the enterprise as a function of its surrounding
environment was taken for phase II. The focus shifted towards the demands
coming from outside the factory walls. The internal working environment was still
regarded important, but the main emphasis was on the relationship between the
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enterprise and its surroundings. Industrial ecology is one example of such a

demand from the outside. The other challenges from the surroundings in this
context are (among others) customer demands, supplier demands, pressure from
environmentalist groups, government regulations, banks and insurance companies.
To be able to identify the most important environmental demands that the
individual SME has to meet, a quick first audit is performed followed by a report
where themes for further work are suggested. Depending on the response from the
company management on the suggestions, further work with the enterprise was
performed. The first audit served as a tool to give a ‘snapshot in time’ of the SME
and its relationship with its surroundings.
3.4.3. Results and discussion

The different approach used for phase II of the project was chosen on the basis of
the experiences with the different methods used in phase I. The extensive mapping
of internal company issues, such as energy- and raw material usage, gave many
small improvements for the environment. The experience with the enterprises in
this project was, however, that there are other issues than those that can be
identified during a detailed technical audit, which are the most important for the
environmental performance of the SME. The environmental impact of the
individual firm is strongly determined by what type of product-chain the
enterprise is a part of. Most of the SMEs are tightly connected with other
companies that make up a production network. This must be viewed as a whole to
assess the environmental effects and demands on the individual enterprises. The
more holistic approach, which industrial ecology represents, is useful in this
respect, because it is not limited to improving the environmental performance of
the individual SME. The industrial ecology concept however, does not cover all
features of manufacturing goods as demonstrated in the following example: two of
the SMEs in the project are part of the same industrial production chain, one a
producer of food for fish farming, and the other a producer of polystyrene boxes
for packaging, mainly for transport of the frozen fish. The greatest environmental
impact of these two enterprises are found within the production chain they are part
of, and is likely to be the transport of the fish to the customer. A rapidly growing
and large market for fish from Norwegian salmon farms is the Japanese market.
The fish is transported over long distances by aeroplane to the customer, and
thereby gives large environmental impacts. Reduction of transportation (by
providing goods and services as close as possible to the consumers, according to
the proximity principle) was one of the four changes needed to attain a society
based on sustainable consumption agreed upon by the Commission on Sustainable
Development meeting in Oslo in January 1994 (Høyer, 1997). The goal of
reducing transportation is outside the usual scope of the industrial ecology
concept. The transport issue is particularly important for Norway, because
transportation over long distances is often necessary due to the scattered
geographical distribution of the population. The growth in domestic transport of
goods has been exponential during the last 25 years in Norway (Figure 22) with
the corresponding negative implications for the environment.
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Figure 22 Domestic transport work of goods in Norway from 1970 to 1995
35 000
30 000
25 000
M illion tonne km
20 000
15 000
10 000
5 000
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Year
Source: Rideng (1996)
Another company participating in the ‘Green SMEs’ project is a producer of

advanced filtration systems for water purification. Design for disassembly is an
industrial ecology principle that could be used to make the products more
compatible with the trends in one of the main product markets, oil-drilling
platforms in the North Sea. After the Brent Spar event, where the plans by Shell to
dump the platform were withdrawn, future dumping of oil-platforms will not
likely occur. Since the enterprise supplies the platforms with advanced filtration
systems, these also will have to be disassembled after final usage. Without taking
this trend into account in its product design, the company will not contribute to
facilitate recycling of the end product. This company is also in the process of
implementing technological solutions for remote training and servicing based on
the virtual reality (VR) concept. This is partially motivated by environmental
factors based on the assumption that this technology will reduce the necessary
travel for service personnel and staff training during implementation of new
production units. Many reports however have shown contradictory effects of
telecommunication solutions on travel (Niles, 1994). Travel stimulation and urban
sprawl (geographical dispersal) of people and goods are some observed effects of
telecommuting. The magnitude of the urban sprawl occurring is however
dependent of the spatial distribution of the population. There are substantial
empirical data indicating that the urban sprawl indeed causes increased
transportation with its corresponding negative effects on the environment. The
same reasoning as for telecommuting applies for regional small businesses
implementing advanced information technologies such as VR to communicate
with people remotely located.
The extensive use of waste as raw material is the foundation for the existence of a
different firm in the project. This enterprise utilises cut-offs from the fish
processing industry and animal waste from slaughterhouses as the major raw
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materials for the production of animal food to fur farms (fox and mink). Within
the concept of industrial ecology this enterprise and its suppliers can be viewed as
being parts of an industrial ecosystem exchanging wastes for raw materials, but
from ethical and animal rights point of view this production chain is not desirable.
A relevant question would be if it is ethically acceptable that thousands of animals
must be deprived of their freedom and instead be kept in cages to produce a
product that to a large extent can be substituted by materials produced by more
benign methods.
A bakery participating in the project finds usage for their wastes (from bread kept
too long time in the ovens etc.) by giving it to local pig farmers. This is another
illustrative example of an SME being part of an industrial ecosystem where waste
is used as raw material for another process (pig farming). The effect of supporting
pig farming in the transition into a sustainable future is however questionable, as
there is increasing acceptance for the need to move towards a consumption pattern
consisting of less meat and accordingly more vegetables, to be able to cope with
the food demand for the rapidly growing global population. This idea might seem
remote from the individual SME, but it does illustrate the difference between
day-to-day activities and long-term strategy building based on ecological
principles.
A ship building company is also participating in the Green SMEs project. This
firm utilises large quantities of steel as raw material in the production of the
vessels. The environmental demands for this SME will probably not be associated
with its production activities, but rather concerning the raw material consumption
and the usage of the finished product. One way, in which this company can
prepare for the environmental demands of the future, and in accordance with
industrial ecology principles, is by increasingly applying recycling principles
when choosing raw material. By demanding that a high portion of the steel used as
raw material is recycled steel, this enterprise can be environmental proactive when
selecting suppliers. One other issue that might become relevant for this SME is
the usage of the final products (ships). Is it possible for this company to secure
that the finished ships are not involved in illegal over-harvesting of limited food
resources in the oceans? How will the principles of extended product liability,
which are becoming more common, affect this SME in the future?
3.5. Conclusions
The principles of industrial ecology can serve as a useful framework for corporate
environmental strategy forming, and for identifying environmental challenges that
SMEs can meet in the future. It can also function as a guiding tool to identify
environmental problems of particular relevance for rural enterprises, such as the
inability to participate in efficient industrial materials recycling systems. Several
environmental aspects of manufacturing relevant for SMEs are, however, not
usually dealt with within the framework of industrial ecology. This is especially
true for the transportation reduction necessary to attain a society based on
sustainable consumption. The transition towards the high level of recycling that
the industrial ecology approach represents is rather problematic when the
environmental performance connected to the transport activities of the rural SMEs
is considered. The most critical environmental issues for rural SMEs are not
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emissions from the individual industrial facility, but rather the external challenges
facing the businesses. The products being produced, the distribution of raw
materials and products, and the production chains the firms are parts of, are
becoming increasingly important for the rural SMEs.
3.6. References
Allenby, B. (1994): Industrial Ecology gets down to Earth. IEEE Circuits and
Devices Magazine, 10(1), p. 24-28.
Ayres, R. (1989): Industrial Metabolism. In Technology and Environment,
Brattebø, H. (1996): Changes in Environmental Strategies and Premises for
Industrial Production - an Overview. In Environmental Life-Cycle
Management, Report from international COMETT-seminar Trondheim,
17-18 August 1995, CED Report 10/95, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology, Centre for Environment and Development, Trondheim.
Bunker, S. (1996): Raw Material and the Global Economy: Oversights and
Distortions in Industrial Ecology. Society and Natural Resources, 9, p.
419-429.
Cramer, J. (1996): Experiments with Implementing Integrated Chain
Management in Dutch Industry. Business Strategy and the Environment,
5(1), p. 38-47.
Edgington, S.M. (1995): Industrial Ecology: Biotech’s role in Sustainable
Development. Bio/Technology, 13, p. 31-33.
Ehrenfeld, J.R. (1994): Industrial Ecology and Design for Environment: The role
of Universities. In The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems, Allenby, B. R.
and Richards, D.J. (eds.), National Academy Press, Washington, DC, p.
228-240.
Fox, W. (1990): Toward a Transpersonal Ecology. Developing New Foundations
for Environmentalism. Shambhala, Boston.
World. Environment, 37 (10).
Høyer, K.G. (1997): Materials recycling - the case of automobiles. In The Global
Environment, Vol. 2, Part 1, Chapter 6c, VCH Verlagsgesellschaft,
Weinheim, Germany, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.
Jahre, M. (1995): Logistics Systems for Recycling - Efficient Collection of
Household Waste. Ph.D. thesis, Report 26, Dept. of Transportation and
Logistics, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg.
Linnanen, L. and Halme, M. (1996): Can Sustainable Industrial Networks be
Created? Environmental Value chain Management in the Paper-based
Packaging Industry. In Industry and the Environment: Practical
Approaches in Business, Ulhøy, J.P. and Madsen, H. (eds.), The Aarhus
School of Business, Denmark.
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McLaughlin, A. (1993): Regarding Nature. Industrialism and Deep Ecology.

State University of New York Press, Albany, NY.
Næss, A. (1973): The Shallow and the Deep, Long-range Ecology Movement. A
summary. Inquiry, 16, p. 95-100.
Næss, A. (1984a): Identification as a Source of Deep Ecological Attitudes. In
Deep Ecology, Tobias, M. (ed.), Avant Books, San Marcos.
Næss, A. (1984b): Intuition, Intrinsic Value and Deep Ecology. Arne Næss
replies. The Ecologist, 14, p. 5-6.
Næss, A. (1989): Ecology, Community and Lifestyle. Translated and edited by
David Rothenberg, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Niles, J.S. (1994): Beyond Telecommuting: A New Paradigm for the Effect of
Telecommunications on Travel. Internet document
(http://www.lbl.gov/ICSD/Niles/), United States Department of Energy,
Washington, DC.
Rideng, A. (1996): Transportytelser i Norge 1946-1995. (Transport Performance
in Norway 1946-1995). Institute of Transport Economics, Oslo. Report
331/1996. (In Norwegian, with English summary).
Industry. Whole Earth Review, Winter.
Wagner, G.R. and Matten, A. (1995): Betriebswirtschaftliche konsequenzen des
kreislauftwirtschaftsgesetzes. Zeitschrift fur angewandte
Umweltungsforschung, 8.
Welford, R. (1995): Environmental Strategy and Sustainable Development. The
Corporate Challenge for the 21st Century. Routledge, London.
WCED (1987): Our Common Future. World Commission on Environment and
Development. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
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TRANSPORT OF FISH FROM NORWAY: ENERGY ANALYSIS USING INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY AS
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4. Transport of Fish from Norway: Energy

Analysis using Industrial Ecology as Framework
4.1. Abstract
In this article, industrial ecology is used as a framework for analysing transport
energy and its implication for products. The importance of the energy use for
transport in a natural resource production system is analysed. By using fish as
case, it is shown that the amount of energy for transport is highly dependent on
the transport mode used. When applying industrial ecology principles for making
assessments of the environmental impacts of products, the whole product chain is
examined. This is an extended life-cycle approach, which also includes the
transport of the finished products from the exporter to the importing country. This
last part of the transport chain can be extremely energy demanding, as is shown
for the case of fish transport. This finding has implications for the products, and
what form the products should be transported in. Increasing the energy efficiency
of production systems is an important industrial ecology principle, and must be
taken into consideration when analysing product chains. A revision of today’s
practice of transporting large quantities of fresh whole fish by transcontinental
airliners is bound to be necessary. This is a consequence of the demands for
increased energy efficiency of tomorrow’s industrial production systems.
4.2. Introduction
Industrial ecology encompasses a wide range of issues connected to the relations
between industrial production systems and the environment. Included are energy
and material resource use, emissions to air, water and land, during the whole
production chain. The whole chain in this respect consists of extracting and
processing of raw materials; manufacturing, transportation and distribution;
use/re-use/maintenance; recycling and final disposal (Graedel and Allenby, 1995).
It is however not equally emphasis on the various aspects of the chain in the
industrial ecology field. First of all, the energy use considerations are not well
focused on compared to what is the case for material resource use. This has been
pointed to earlier by O’Rourke et al. who states that:
…It is rather odd that energy flows in natural ecosystems are largely neglected. In
an introductory text on ecology, Kormondy writes, “…a one-way flow of energy
constitutes one of the most important if not the cardinal principle of the
ecosystem” (Kormondy, 1969). If energy flows – not material flows – are “one of
the most important” principles of a natural ecosystem, then industrial ecology
should place at least equal emphasis on energy flows and how they change as
ecosystems evolve.
(O’Rourke et al., 1996)
Secondly, there is strong focus on issues connected to extraction, processing,

manufacturing, waste utilisation and recycling. Transport in connection with the
various segments of the production chain is only scarcely considered. Analyses of
the energy use and environmental effects of distributing the products are missing
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in particular. The perspective on products in industrial ecology is however quite
strong, and integrated with the energy and material flows. The design and
manufacturing of environmentally friendlier products are highly relevant, as the
statement by Robert Frosch points to:
“A product is a transient embodiment of material and energy occurring in the

course of material and energy process flows of the industrial system.”
(Quoted in Ehrenfeld, 1994)
Product Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is an important tool in industrial ecology.

However, the LCA approach often fails to include the trans-national transports
from producer to the customer. The wide approach that is represented by
industrial ecology should have focus on all the life-cycle stages of the products
and the environmental demands along the whole product chain. If transport in the
product chain is not included, important environmental effects of the products are
omitted. This is problematic when facing transport’s contribution to major
environmental problems (Høyer, 2000). Including the transport considerations in
the product chain might result in other demands to the products. Hardly any of the
various understandings of the concept industrial ecology include the transport
considerations along the complete product chain. If these considerations were
included, other answers to the question of environmental impacts might be
obtained. Fish is the product case used in this article to illustrate this issue.
There is particular reason for concern regarding the energy use for transport of
raw materials and finished products. The increased globalisation of the economy
causes raw materials and particularly finished products to be transported over
longer distances, resulting in steadily higher energy use for these parts of the
industrial production chains. This serves as a background for this article’s focus
on the products being produced. The connections between the main issues dealt
with in this article are summarised in Figure 23. The figure illustrates that the
article discusses issues along two dimensions:
1. The transport - energy use dimension
2. The production - product dimension
Figure 23 The main issues being dealt with in this article, and their connections
1. Transport-energy dimension: 2. Production-product dimension:
(b)
Energy Production
(a) (c) (e)
Transport Product
(d)
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In the transport-energy dimension (1) a discussion of the energy use in transport is

carried out (a). This is based on an analysis of the energy use in the various
transport activities in the production chain. The energy use in the production chain
also includes stationary energy uses (b). This is also dealt with in the article, but
seen in light of the relative higher importance of the energy use for transport. The
type of production considered has implications for transport choices (c), while the
transport itself has implications for the product type (d). This brings us over to the
production-product dimension (2). The energy use for transport in the production
chain has implications for the products being produced (e). Particularly the
transport of finished products to the customers can require excessive energy
inputs if the product is in a form not suited for transport by energy-efficient
transport modes.
The research presented here is based on the hypothesis that the environmental
impact, in the form of increased energy use and emissions from the transport of
raw material and finished products in most cases are underestimated. The
empirical material is from research in energy use of natural resource-based
industries. Transport of goods is large in the natural resource-based industries, and
particularly the strong increase in air- and lorry-based transport is problematic for
many reasons. Both in terms of energy use, emission of CO2, and congestion of
the air space and the European road network, this increase is undesirable. Changes
in transport modes are necessary to combat these problems. Transfer of today’s
road based goods transport to more energy efficient rail and sea-based transport
will be required in the future. Likewise will limitations on goods transport by air
be required. The application of a wide range of measures and actions are
necessary to obtain these changes in the systems for transport of goods.
Substantial environmental gains will however only be obtained after major
changes in the production systems, particularly regarding in what form and where
the products are transported.
The theoretical framework applied in the research presented here is industrial

ecology, while fish is the case product. Some aspects of this choice of case
product are described in the following. The historical development in Norway
points to the problem that while the total volume of fish catch is approximately at
the same level in 1990 as in 1960, the energy use in the fisheries has three-
doubled over the same time period (Høyer and Groven, 1995). This is partially
explained by longer transport distances for each boat to the fish-rich waters. This
emphasises the development towards a steadily more energy-demanding fishery
where increased transport is an important component responsible for this change.
The change in the energy use in the production segment of the product chain is
important to be aware of. For the fish sector, a wide focus on the production
segment implies that not only the activities of the fishing boats and the fish farms
are included, but also the transport of the raw materials (fish feed) and finished
products (fish for sale). This wider approach also has relevance in the discussion
of sustainable development. There have been tendencies, both in politics and
research, of a narrow understanding of the term ecological sustainability. In
fisheries this is made into a question of staying within the maximum sustainable
yield for the species. In principle, then, it may be ecologically sustainable to
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establish a fishery consisting of a small fleet of energy-demanding trawlers, which
makes sure that the catch is kept within the sustainable yield. Similarly, a
sustainable aquaculture can be defined, as long as certain criteria, such as minimal
pollution from the facilities, are fulfilled. Consequently, there is in principle
nothing to prevent the export of fish by jet plane from Norway to Japan. It is
evident that this is not consistent with the understanding of ecological
sustainability that ensues from the term sustainable development, for example in
the way it is described in the Brundtland Commission report (WCED, 1987).
A wider ecological sustainability perspective of the whole product chain must also
be applied in industrial ecology considerations. This is necessary when making
efforts to determine the magnitude of energy input into products. The energy use
of both upstream and downstream industrial activities must be considered. It is
necessary to include the energy use for production and transport of fish feed for
aquaculture. Also the transport system for the finished products is included. This
is of particular importance since the energy use for transport contributes large in
general to the total life cycle energy input in products (Høyer, 2000).
4.3. Method and data material

The data material forming the empirical base for this article is mainly drawn from
two research projects carried out at Western Norway Research Institute. The first
research project is “Local and global environmental challenges as conditions for
rural development”. The project was part of the programme for research on rural
development in the “Department for bio-production and breeding” at Norwegian
Research Council in the period 1992-95. One of the core questions asked was:
How large is the energy use for transport in fisheries and aquaculture (fish
farming)? Data on energy use were obtained for the segments of the fish product
chain that was assumed to be the most important. For the calculation of energy
use in the aquaculture fish feed production chain in Norway in 1980 and 1994,
data were obtained from Norwegian fish feed producers and the Norwegian
Herring Oil and Meal Industry Research Institute. The segments of the
aquaculture fish feed production chain and their 1994-specific energy use (in
parenthesis) are: 1) Catch of fish feed raw materials (1 552 kWh/tonnes), 2)
production of fish flour (3 210 kWh/tonnes), 3) import of fish flour (148
kWh/tonnes) and 4) production of feed-pellets (249 kWh/tonnes). The origin of
the imported fish flour material is assumed to be as follows: 50% from Iceland,
25% from Denmark and 25% from Chile. The energy use for production of fish
flour is assumed to be the same in these countries as in Norway.
In the calculations of the energy use in the distribution of the exported fish, three
main categories of fish are analysed: 1) Fresh and frozen fish to Europe, 2) frozen
fish to East Asia21 and USA and 3) fresh fish to East Asia and USA22. Norwegian
Seafood Export Council supplied the data on the amounts in 1994 for each of the
three categories.
21
Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore and Korea.
22
This constitutes 98% of fresh fish exported from Norway to USA and other overseas countries
in 1994.
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The data on energy use, load capacity, load factor (utilisation of load capacity) are
based on data for the boats to East Asia operated by Maersk Line23.
The calculations of the energy use in feed-production and transport of overseas

export of frozen and fresh aquaculture fish are based on a total of 222 000 tonnes
harvested aquaculture fish in 1994. This number was provided by Kontali Analyse
AS (www.kontali.no).
The other research project from which the empirical base for this article is drawn
is “Energy saving in transport of goods – a pilot project in rural natural resource-
based industries”. The project was part of the programme for research on
“Specific Actions for Vigorous Energy Efficiency” (SAVE) in the European
Commission Directorate-General for Energy, DG XVII and was carried out in the
period 1998-2000 (Andersen et al., 2001). The main objective of this project was
to develop and implement actions, strategies and measures for improved energy
efficiency in transport of goods. The project covered rural natural resource-based
industries from 3 different branches. All “cases” were transport in connection to
rural natural resource-based industries in the 3 Nordic countries Finland, Norway
and Sweden. The three branches were transport in forest industry (Finland),
fishing industry (Norway) and agriculture industry (Sweden).
The data material included in this article is on the transport of fish from Western
Norway to the European continent. A total of four different cases for transport of
fish, which was used in 1998/99, were analysed in detail in this project. All four
cases were operated by one transport company and the cases were mainly based
on lorry transport24. One of the four cases is analysed in detail in this article. The
main results of the other three cases are however discussed for generalisation
purposes. The analysed cases all included a segment where the lorries were
transported by ferries. The case which is presented in detail in this article is the
transport of dried cod to Italy (Torino/Foligno) with lorry from Ålesund to Oslo,
ferry to Copenhagen, lorry to Gedser, ferry to Rostock, lorry to Manching, rail
(lorry on rail) from Manching to Brenner, and lorry on the last distance to
Foligno.
For the calculation of energy use for the case route in 1998 it is assumed an
energy content of 9.76 kWh per litre diesel fuel used by the lorries. The ferries are
assumed to travel with an average speed of 37 km per hour. The specific energy
use for each of the two transport modes ferry and lorry-on-rail is 0.50 and 0.11
kWh per tonne-km respectively.
23
For the calculation of energy use in the export of frozen fish to East-Asia and USA it is assumed
that the transport is carried out by 60 000 dwt. container boats, with a capacity of 7 500 tonnes
frozen fish total, in 300 containers with 25 tonnes fish each. It is further assumed a fuel
consumption of the ships of 150 tonnes heavy oil per 24 hours. The energy content of the heavy oil
is 11.65 kWh/kg, and the boats travel with an average speed of 24 knots. The energy use per 24
hours with full load capacity is 32.5 kWh/tonnes fish transported. This includes 3.8 kWh for the
operating the freezing aggregates during the transport. Average load factor is 52.5% (80% to East-
Asia, 25% on the return trip).
24
The fuel consumption by the lorries was measured using the on-board Volvo Road Relay
system. This was supplemented with manual logs completed by the drivers using dedicated
logbooks on the routes.
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The case routes are compared with a scenario for 2015. This scenario presupposes
major changes in the transport systems in Europe, such as increased capacity of
the rail systems, and increased efficiency of harbour operations (Hansen et al.,
2000). The energy use factors applied in the calculations for 2015 and changes
since 1998 are shown in Table 5.
Table 5 Energy use factors applied in the calculations for the 2015 scenario
Transport mean Energy use Change since 1998
(kWh/tonne-km) (%)
Boat (at 70% load factor) 0.08 0
Lorry25 (at 60% load factor) 0.36 -10
Train26, electric (at 70% load factor) 0.06 -25
4.4. Results
4.4.1. Aquaculture and energy use
The empirical data material presented here from the project “Local and global
environment challenges as conditions for rural development” is previously
published, in Norwegian language, in one of the reports from the project (Høyer
and Groven, 1995). The report covers both what can be termed mobile fisheries
(by boat) and stationary fisheries (aquaculture). The main focus in this article is
aquaculture, which is the fastest growing of the two forms of fisheries. Both
upstream and downstream energy uses are included in the analysis.
The energy use in the production chain of feed for aquaculture is analysed first.
The Norwegian energy use for this segment of this form of fish production in the
years 1980 and 1994 is shown in Table 6. From the table it is obvious that the
energy use for catch of fish flour raw material dominates the picture. This can be
explained in part by the large amount of raw material that is needed for fish flour
production. Approx. 5 kg fish is needed for the production of 1 kg fish flour.
Table 6 also shows the tremendous increase in the energy use for the aquaculture
industry in Norway during the last two decades. The increase in energy use in the
feed production chain between 1980 and 1994 is actually more than 24-fold. This
underlines the importance of considering the environmental aspects of this
industry.
25
Lorries are assumed to mainly be used for shorter distances in distribution- and supply
transports. This explains the small improvement of only 10%.
26
Trains are assumed to be powered by electricity only. The trains for goods transport are assumed
to have maximum speed of 120 km/hr and with carriages for transport of containers/semi-trailers
on 2 floors. Already at the end of the 1990’s in Swedish and Finnish rail transport, an average
0.03-0.04 kWh/tonnekm (load factor 60-70) was obtained. A higher energy use factor than this is
used to compensate for the weight of containers/semi-trailers.
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Table 6 Energy use in the aquaculture fish feed production chain in Norway in
1980 and 1994 (GWh)
Segment of the chain 1980 1994

Catch of fish flour raw material 58.2 1 448.0
Production of fish flour 24.1 599.2
Import of fish flour27 - 6.1
Production of feed-pellets 5.4 85.3
Total 87.7 2 138.6
The energy use in the distribution of the exported aquaculture fish from Norway
in the three main forms of fish export is shown in Table 7. It is evident from the
table that the transport of fresh fish to East Asia and USA dominates the energy
use in the export of aquaculture fish from Norway, comprising more than 70% of
the total energy use.
Table 7 Energy use in the export of Norwegian aquaculture fish. 1994 (GWh)
Category of the exported fish Energy use

Fresh and frozen fish to Europe 105.7
Frozen fish to East Asia and USA 32.5
Fresh fish to East Asia and USA 379.2
To compare the different forms of fish transport in terms of energy efficiency it is

necessary to also consider the amount of fish transported for each of the two
product categories, frozen and fresh fish, which is exported to East Asia and USA.
The amounts transported in 1994 were 15 751 tonnes frozen and 17 575 tonnes
fresh fish respectively. It is then possible to compare the energy efficiency of the
transport of the two product forms. An energy efficiency of 2.1 kWh per kg fish is
obtained for the transport of frozen fish, while the transport of fresh fish requires
21.6 kWh per kg, thus a factor of more than 10 times difference in energy
efficiency of the transport of two different forms of the same product. This large
difference can be explained by analysing the energy use in the different segments
of the two transport chains. This is done in Table 8, where the energy use in the
different transport means and routes for the two forms of the fish product are
shown in more detail. It is obvious from Table 8 that it is the air transport that is
the major reason for the high energy use of the transport of the fresh fish
compared with frozen fish.
27
Data for import of fish flour in 1980 is not available
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Table 8 A detailed look at the energy use in the transport of fresh and frozen
aquaculture fish from Norway to East Asia and USA. 1994
Product form, transport means and Total energy Energy use per
route use (GWh) product unit
(kWh/kg)
Frozen fish:
• Lorry Bergen-Oslo 2.7 0.2
• Boat Oslo-country of 29.8 1.9
destination
Fresh fish:
• Lorry Bergen-Frankfurt 10.6 0.6
• Aeroplane Frankfurt-country 368.6 21.0
of destination
Transport is the key factor in the calculations of the energy use in the two product
chains. This is evident in Figure 24, which shows the transport’s share of total
energy use in the two product forms. The two bars show the energy use for feed
production and export of frozen and fresh aquaculture fish. The energy use in the
production of fish feed is the same (9.6 kWh per kg fish) for the two product
forms. The large difference in energy efficiency between transport by boat and
aeroplane results in a total of three times higher energy input in the fresh fish
product compared with the frozen.
Figure 24 Energy use in feed-production and overseas export of frozen and fresh
aquaculture fish. 1994
35
30
25
KWh/Kg fish
20 Transport
15 Feed-production
10
0
Frozen Fresh
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4.4.2. Fish transport in Europe
The following results are based on the analysis of the empirical material from the
SAVE-project “Energy saving in transport of goods – a pilot project in rural
natural resource-based industries”. The fuel consumption, distances, durations and
average loads for the case fish transport route are shown in Table 9. A total of
four case routes were analysed in detail, but only the result from one of the routes
is presented here.
Table 9 Average fuel consumption, distances, time usage and load for the
transport of dried cod to Italy. Round trips (from Norway to Torino and back to
Norway). 1998.
Lorry fuel Road Ferry Rail Total Payload

consumption distance duration distance duration (Tonnes)
(Litre) (km) (Hrs) (km) (Hrs)
1 659 4 622 28 440 158 22
The energy use was calculated from the measured fuel consumption of the lorries
and by using the factors for energy content of the fuel, speed of ferries, and
energy use for ferries and lorry-on-rail presented in the methods section of this
article. The results are shown in Table 10. It is clear from the table that the
contribution to the total energy use from ferries is relatively large, even though the
distance with transport of lorry on ferry is short compared with the total transport
distance.
Table 10 Average energy use for transport of dried cod from Western Norway to
Italy and back to Norway. 1998.
Transport Energy use (kWh)

mean
Lorry 16 192
Ferry 11 149
Lorry on train 520
Total 27 861
To achieve major improvements in energy efficiency, a change in mode from

todays road-based transport into using more rail and boat transport is however
necessary. The necessity for using the energy-demanding ferry transport to carry
lorries would then also be less. The effects of such mode transfers, on the energy
use, are analysed in the work for the Nordic Transport-political Network in the
Interreg IIc-programme. In the report from the project “Optimal transport
corridors based on a sustainability- requirement” the energy use and the product-
time relationship for the four cases are studied (Hansen et al., 2000). The data
material from that report has in this article been supplemented by updated data
from the analyses in the SAVE-project (Brendehaug and Groven, 2001).
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In 2015 the situation for the presented transport case is assumed to be either sea-
based or rail-based. The sea-based transport is by boat from Ålesund harbour to
Genova, and lorry the last distance to Foligno. The rail-based transport is lorry
from Ålesund to Åndalsnes, with the rest of the distance by train to Torino. For
the rail alternative significant reloading/recoupling will take place in Oslo,
Gothenburg and Lübeck and at a total of four other rail-nodes in Germany,
Switzerland (Zurich) and Italy (Milan). The same average payloads as for the
actual transports in 1998 are used for the calculation of the energy and time usage
for the case route in 2015. The results are shown in Table 11.
Table 11 Energy and time use in the transport of dried cod to Italy. Round trips
(from Norway to Italy and back to Norway). 2015
Main Lorry Rail Boat Total Energy use
mode distance distance distance duration28 (kWh)
(km) (km) (km) (Hrs)
Rail 226 5 274 0 166 8 752
Sea 814 0 10 686 438 25 254
A comparison between the actual case in 1998 and the calculated scenario in 2015
is shown in Table 12.
Table 12 The energy and time use for the transport of dried cod to Italy. Round
trips. Actual data from 1998 and calculated data for rail and sea transport in
2015
Energy use (kWh) Time use (hours)

1998 (Lorry-based) 27 861 158
2015 Rail 8 752 166
2015 Sea 25 254 438
% Change 1998-2015, Rail -69% +5%
% Change 1998-2015, Sea -9% +177%
From Table 12 it is clear that the transport of dry cod by train to Italy in 2015 is
significantly more energy-efficient with a 69% lower energy use compared to the
lorry-based transport in 1998. The sea transport is also more energy efficient than
the lorry-based transport. The rail-based transport in 2015 is similar in time
efficiency (5% difference) to the lorry-based transport in 1998. The transport by
28
An average speed of 80 km/hr is assumed for trains. In addition is 6 hours waiting time at each
of the loading/re-coupling locations assumed. The average speed of boats is assumed to be 14
knots. In addition comes a loading and unloading time of 4 hours at each port. This might appear
to be low, but it is due to the much-improved efficiency of the port operations. The average speed
for lorries (including rest hours) is assumed to be 60 km/hour. This might appear to be low, but as
pointed out earlier, the lorries are assumed to be used only for short distances in connection with
the two main transport modes, at the beginning and the final segment of the case routes.
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boat is however more time consuming. But since the product is dried fish, this is
of less importance due to the long durability of this form of the product.
From the other three cases analysed similar results were obtained, with significant
energy saving effects (ranging from 9% to 79% reduction) for changing from
lorry to rail and sea transport. Increased time use is not an important barrier, and
in some cases the time efficiency is actually better with rail than with lorry. In
some of the cases with shorter total time use the fish is in its fresh state during the
transport.
4.5. Final discussion

A central principle of industrial ecology is a transition to more energy efficient
industrial production systems in the future (see e.g. Graedel and Allenby, 1995).
In this article, the importance of the energy use for transport in natural resource
production systems has been analysed. By using fisheries as a case, it is shown
that the energy for transport dominates the picture. Particularly the transport of the
finished products is extremely energy demanding.
When using industrial ecology principles for making assessments of the

environmental impacts of products, the whole product chain must be considered.
The energy input into products should also include the transport of the finished
products to the customers. This has implications for the products, and for what
form the products should be in when they are transported.
One production system that has increased rapidly the last decades, and is seen by
many as promising for the future, is aquaculture. Regarding its energy usage,
there are reasons for major concerns with this system. It has previously been
shown that the energy use per produced unit of fish for traditional aquaculture
(cage farming) is ten times higher than free ranching at sea (Folke, 1988). The
transport component of the aquaculture production system contributes to this
problem. An example of this is that a large part of the fish feed used in Norway is
produced in South America. The problem of high energy use for aquaculture is
further amplified when taking into consideration what happens with the fish after
it is harvested. Most of the fish that is transported in its fresh state on
transcontinental air flights are produced by aquaculture production techniques. As
is shown in this article, the energy use per unit of product is 10 times higher for
this transport compared to when the product is transported in its frozen state by
boat.
The dominating trend the last few decades has been to transport whole fresh fish,
consisting of more than 90% (w/w) water. However, further back in history, it was
common to transport the fish with less water, processed and preserved in the form
of dried or smoked. Intercontinental flights carrying whole fresh fish is an
extremely energy demanding way of transporting a product that consists mainly of
water. This is not an activity that is compatible with central industrial ecology
principles.
If the energy efficiency of industrial production systems is to be improved, more

of the goods will have to be transported with energy efficient transport modes.
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This realisation has implications for what type of products can be transported over
long distances in the future. The example taken from fish transport by air
illustrates this by showing that in an already energy-demanding production
system, the energy use must not be increased additionally by transporting the
product over long distances in a form requiring the use of excessive energy.
Instead, if the product is to be transported far, the transport must be carried out in
a product form suitable for transport by an energy-efficient transport mode. For
the case of the industrial product fish, such a product form is the frozen, dried or
smoked, which can be transported by rail or boat. Without these considerations
being applied in industrial ecology, the concept reduces its value as a useful
framework for improving the industry – environment relations.
For transports shorter than transcontinental, such as within Europe, it is possible,

at least in principle, to transport a product consisting of mainly water in an energy
efficient way. This is however dependent on mode changes from today’s road-
based transport to the more energy efficient sea and rail transport modes. The
cases analysed show that the same product types can be transported more energy-
efficient by sea and rail, without increasing the time use correspondingly. In those
cases of fish transport where the time use is increased, this is of little importance
for the quality of the product, if it is in a form (frozen or preferably dried or
smoked) that is suited for long periods in transport. This illustrates the importance
of transport mode change for improving the energy-efficiency of the fish
production system.
Transportation of whole fresh fish implies that also large amounts of potential
waste material are transported. When the product is transported in the unprocessed
form, the waste is dealt with in the destination country, far from the origin of the
product. The utilization of waste into useful raw materials and products is an
essential principle in industrial ecology. However, the practice of dumping fish
waste at sea, which is commonly done by factory freezer trawlers, can be
considered a way of reducing the environmental impact of the waste. This is the
same principle used when chipping branches and bark in the forest and spreading
it to recycle some of the nutrients. Since the fish waste is a source of nutrient for
life in the ocean, it is recycled locally which also reduces the total volumes to be
transported to land. The principle of processing the waste locally, before it is
transported, should also be adhered to when considering the environmental
aspects of fresh whole fish transport vs. processed (frozen, dried, smoked) fish.
The proximity principle, which states that the products should be produced close
to the customer, is highly applicable in this context. If the proximity principle is
not adhered to, more transport is generated, resulting in more negative
environmental effects. These are principles that should be applied within the
industrial ecology framework.
Finally, a discussion of the advantages of using industrial ecology as a framework

for the analysis of energy use in production chains might be of value for the
understanding of the major issues in this article. As pointed to in the introduction,
both life cycle analysis and life cycle assessment are important tools within the
wider conceptual frame of industrial ecology. Both LCA-based methodology and
industrial ecology analysis can give important data for energy use along
production chains. There are however major differences between the two
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approaches. LCA is a much more limited approach than industrial ecology. LCA
can give data on the environmental impacts such as energy use, but industrial
ecology goes much further, and points in addition to implications for products and
production processes, within the industrial systems. Two major implications are
pointed out in this article. They are the implications for the form the fish product
is in during transport (less whole fresh, more processed such as frozen, dried or
smoked) and implications for transport mode (less air and road, more rail and
sea).
4.6. References
Andersen, O., Uusitalo, O., Suutari, U., Lehtinen, J., Ahlvik, P., Hjortsberg, H.,
Groven, K. and Brendehaug, E. (2001): Energy saving in transport of
goods – a pilot project in rural natural resource-based industries. Final
report from the European Commission SAVE -project XVII/4.1031/Z/97-
229, Vf-rapport 4/2001, Western Norway Research Institute, Sogndal.
Brendehaug, E. and Groven, K. (2001): Energy saving potential in the fish export
from Norway. A report from Phase 2 of the European Commission SAVE
-project XVII/4.1031/Z/97-229: Energy saving in transport of goods – a
pilot project in rural natural resource-based industries, Vf-rapport 1/2001,
Western Norway Research Institute, Sogndal.
Folke, C. (1988): Energy Economy of Salmon Aquaculture in the Baltic Sea.
Environmental Management, 12(4), p. 525-537.
Graedel, T.E. and Allenby, B.R. (1995): Industrial Ecology. Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Hansen, C.J., Høyer, K.G. and Tengström, E. (2000): Nordisk Transport i
framtiden. Krav til bærekraft og effektivitet. (Nordic Transport in the
Future. Sustainability and Efficiency requirements). Vf-rapport 8/2000,
Western Norway Research Institute, Sogndal. (In Norwegian).
Ph.D. thesis, Vf-rapport 1/2000, Western Norway Research Institute,
Sogndal.
Høyer, K.G. and Groven, K. (1995): Fisk og Miljø. Hvordan står det til med
bærekraften? (Fish and Environment. What about Sustainability?). Vf-
rapport 5/95, Western Norway Research Institute, Sogndal. (In
Norwegian).
Kormondy, E.J. (1969): Concepts of ecology. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 17. Cited in O’Rourke et al. (1996).
6(2/3), p. 89-112.
WCED (1987): Our Common Future. World Commission on Environment and
Development. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
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TRANSPORT SCENARIOS IN A COMPANY STRATEGY
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5. Transport Scenarios in a Company Strategy29
5.1. Abstract
The environmental company strategy of the case company Oslo Sporveier30
includes scenarios for the development of person transport in Oslo up to year
2016. The basis for three different scenarios is described. This paper presents the
use of scenarios as background for environmental reporting. Emissions, energy,
land and time use from person transport in the three different scenarios were
determined. The scenarios were: 1) a private car scenario, where the main growth
in person transport is to be met with a strong increase in the use of private cars, 2)
a public transport scenario, where the increase in person transport is to be taken
care of with a strong increase in the public transport, and 3) the sustainability
scenario, with a reduction in total person transport, increased share of public
transport and walking/bicycling, and reduced share of private car use. The total
energy use, CO2-emissions, NOX-emissions and particle emissions from person
transport in Oslo are reduced in all 3 scenarios compared with the situation in
1996. The reduction is smallest in the private car scenario and largest in the
sustainability scenario. The land use increases in the private car scenario and the
public transport scenario, while there is a reduction in land use in the
sustainability scenario. The total time consumption connected to person transport
increases in all 3 scenarios.
5.2. A company strategy with scenarios as basis for

environmental reporting
This is the first of two articles describing the work carried out by Western Norway
Research Institute in connection with the environmental reporting from the public
transport company Oslo Sporveier. This article describes scenarios for the
transport development in Oslo, while the second article comprises work connected
to the environmental report and the societal accounting from the company
(Andersen, 2003).
Oslo Sporveier is a company that provides public transport services to a large part
of Oslo’s population. As a background for the environmental reporting from the
company, scenarios were developed to show the environmental consequences of
future growth of person transport in Oslo. The company’s strategy is emphasising
the importance of increasing the use of public transport relative to individual
transport. By developing scenarios for different trends in the development of
person transport it is possible for the company to illustrate the environmental
consequences of implementing its strategy of increased share of public transport.
Scenarios can have elements of a political character. In the scenarios for Oslo
Sporveier the environmental consequences of future growth in public transport are
29
Hans-Einar Lundli, Erling Holden and Karl Georg Høyer, all at Western Norway Research
Institute, are co-authors on this article.
30
The full name of the company is Oslo’s Public Transportation Company Ltd or AS Oslo
Sporveier (in Norwegian). The shorter name Oslo Sporveier is used throughout this article.
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compared with growth in individual transport. This is important knowledge for

guiding the decision-makers in the development of a city. As part of its business
strategy, the company therefore has, in collaboration with Western Norway
Research Institute, made three scenarios for development of person transport in
the city Oslo towards the year 2016 (Høyer et al., 1998; Lundli et al., 1998a,
1998b; Andersen, 1998).
The connection between the scenarios, the company environmental report,

societal accounting, and levels of decision-making is shown in Figure 25.
Figure 25 The connections between the scenarios, environmental report, societal

accounting, and decision-making levels
Level of decision-
making:
Private Public Sustain-
car transport Political
ability
scenario scenario scenario
(a) (b)
Environmental
Company
report
Societal
accounting Political
The scenarios, the environmental report and the societal accounting are all
elements of the company strategy for Oslo Sporveier. In Figure 25 it is illustrated
that these elements provide knowledge to decision-makers at two different
societal levels. This is indicated by the dotted lines in the figure. First of all, the
scenarios function at a political level, in providing knowledge to political
decision-makers. This is strengthening the dialogue with the city authorities,
which is important in establishing the necessary framework conditions for the
operations of the company.
The public transport scenario is part of the company’s long-term transport politics,
which is based on a strong growth in public transport. In a sustainability scenario
there is in addition a strong absolute reduction in the use of private cars. In
addition the total mobility is reduced in the sustainability scenario. Few long-term
environmental gains can be expected from an isolated focus on improving public
transport. A large reduction in the private car use and the total mobility is in
addition necessary for achieving a sustainable transport system. Both the private
car scenario and the sustainability scenario thus give input into the public
transport scenario, as indicated with dotted arrows in Figure 25.
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The environmental report is providing knowledge for decision-making mainly at

the level of the company, while the societal accounting is providing knowledge to
decision-makers at the political level. The process of issuing the societal account
is taking place at more frequent intervals than the updating of the scenarios; in
connection with the preparation of the annual environmental report. The societal
account has the function to provide knowledge to the political level through a
supplement and correction to the scenarios. The solid arrow (b) in Figure 25
indicates this. There is thus a loop of knowledge-flow between the company and
the political level; from the scenarios through the environmental report (a)
including the societal accounting and back to the scenarios (b).
5.3. Overall methodology

The main structure of the scenario-analysis presented in Figure 26.
Figure 26 Main structure of the scenario-analysis
Consequences
Environment/
resource
Transport- Consequences
alternative Land use
Consequences
Time use
The different transport alternatives (car, bus, walk etc.) have consequences in the
three areas environment/resource, land use and time use. The consequence group
environmental/resource is limited to energy use, CO2 emissions, NOX emissions
and particle (PM) emissions. The consequence group land use is limited to land
use for traffic purposes. The last consequence group, time use, is limited to time
consumption for person transport.
Each transport alternative has different values for a set of fixed variables. The
following main variables are used:
• Accumulated transport performed (person-kilometre / year)

• Distribution of person transport performed by the different transport
means
• Average occupancy rate for the different transport means
The study comprise of transport being conducted within the county border of
Oslo31. The following transport means are included in the analysis: walk, bicycle,
private car, taxi, bus, tram and metro.
31
Statistical office of City of Oslo have made prognosis for growth in population up to year 2005.
In addition data from Statistics Norway was applied for making an estimate for the growth in the
population of Oslo from 488 659 in 1996 to 595 500 in 2016.
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5.4. The person transport in the base year 1996

In obtaining figures for accumulated transport work many different data sources
were analysed. The main sources were data from the Planning and Building
department in the municipality of Oslo, which they collected in connection with
their transport planning work. Upon request from Western Norway Research
Institute, the Planning and Building department performed calculations based on
their data material. In addition, data material from Oslo Sporveier and the Greater
Oslo Local Traffic (SL), based on surveys of the person transport work carried out
by their own transport means, was used. Table 13 shows the results of the
calculations of person transport work in 1996.
Table 13 Person transport by various transport means in 1996 (million person-

kilometre)
Transport 1996 %
mean
Walking 131 2.9
Bicycle 68 1.5
Private car32 3 280 73.8
Taxi33 160 3.6
Bus34 253 5.7
Train35 173 3.9
Tram36 87 2.0
Metro 294 6.6
Total 4 446 100.0
Some comments to the methodology for calculating the person transport work for
1996 can be made:
• The figures apply to the total traffic in 1996, that is, weekend and holiday
traffic is included
• The figures for walking and bicycle are estimated on the basis of data from the
travel patterns survey for the Oslo area in 1990 and comprise only Oslo
citizens.
• The person transport work by private car includes all driving on the roads in
Oslo, regardless of where the travel starts and ends. The Planning and
Building department in the municipality of Oslo estimated the number of
32
The calculations are based on an occupancy rate of private cars in Oslo to 1.6 persons per
vehicle. This was based on counting made at the toll ring in Oslo, travel pattern survey for Oslo in
1990 and the private car survey made by Statistics Norway in 1995.
33
The calculations are based on an estimate of an occupancy rate of 1.3 passengers per taxi, based
on previous studies.
34
An occupancy rate of 13.5 passengers per bus is applied, based on previous analyses.
35
An occupancy rate of 32% is applied in the calculations. This is based on empirical data for
local- and intercity train traffic in Oslo (Høyer & Heiberg, 1993)
36
An occupancy rate of 16% for tram and metro, based on analyses performed by Oslo Sporveier,
was used.
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vehicle-kilometres carried out by private car, based on traffic counting made

at various locations in Oslo.
• The taxi figure was estimated on the basis of statistical material from Oslo
Taxi (www.oslotaxi.no).
• The train figure includes travels with SL starting in Akershus37 and ending in
Oslo. Travels starting in Oslo and ending in Akershus are registered on
Akershus.
• The bus figures for Oslo comprise the bus services of Oslo Sporveier
including contract driving and SL. Like the train figures, the bus travels
starting in Akershus and ending in Oslo are registered on Oslo. Other type of
bus transport in Oslo such as the bus to the airport and long-distance express
coaches to and from Oslo are not included.
In Table 13 it can be seen that private car (including taxi) accounts for approx. ¾
of the person transport work in Oslo. The public transport means account for less
than 20% of the total transport work, while walking and bicycle together
constitute less than 5%.
If we take a look at the distribution of number of journeys made with the various
means, the picture is somewhat different (Table 14).
Table 14 Number of journeys in 1996

Transport Number of journeys %
mean (million)
Walking 147 25.8
Bicycle 44 7.7
Private car 219 38.5
Taxi 15 2.6
Bus 48 8.4
Train 9 1.6
Tram 32 5.6
Metro 56 9.8
Total 569 100.0
More than 41% of all the journeys in Oslo are carried out with private car or taxi,
25% by public transport and 34% by walking/bicycle. The reason why private
cars still carry out as much as 75% of the total transport work is that the length of
the car journeys in average are longer than the journeys by public transport and by
walking/bicycle.
Table 14 is based on assumptions of average lengths per journey for various

transport means. These are shown in Table 15.
37
Akershus is the neighbouring county of Oslo to the west, south and east
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Table 15 Average lengths per journey for various transport means in 1996
Transport Length of journey
mean (km)
Walking 0.9
Bicycle 1.5
Private car 15.0
Taxi 10.7
Bus 5.2
Train 20.4
Tram 2.7
Metro 5.2
The average length of journeys by private car is estimated with basis in the travel
pattern survey for Oslo and Akershus (Vibe, 1991). Here the average journey for
private cars on weekdays was estimated to 12.0 km for driver and 14.6 for
passenger. Since we are interested in the lengths on all days, not only weekdays, a
somewhat higher average length is assumed (15.0 km). The average length of
journeys by bus, train, tram and metro was obtained from Oslo Sporveier and SL.
The journey length for bus is a weighted average of the bus transport of Oslo
Sporveier and SL’s commuting buses. The average length of taxi trips is based on
statistics from Oslo Taxi. The length of walk and bicycle trips is determined with
the use of the numbers for person-kilometres and number of journeys38.
5.5. Person transport development in the scenarios for 2016

5.5.1. The private car scenario
The private car scenario is not compatible with the company strategy. In this
scenario it is assumed that all growth in the person transport in Oslo up to the year
2016 will be taken care of by private car or taxi. The scenario is based on a 1.9%
annual increase in the total person transport work, a 1.1% annual increase in the
person transport work for private car and a 1.7% annual increase for taxi in the
period 1996-2016. The projected growth in the person transport work carried out
by private car and taxi is based on county prognoses given in the “Veileder” (the
Guide) no. 4 of the national road and road traffic plan (NVVP) for the period
1998-2007. These prognoses have been adjusted for updated population growth
prognoses made by Statistics Norway. It is assumed that the growth in person
transport work in terms of vehicle-kilometres will be just as high for taxis as for
private cars. However, the occupancy rate39 is assumed to be lowered for private
cars, but remain constant for taxis, resulting in a higher percentage increase in
person transport work (in terms of person kilometres) for taxi then for private
cars.
38
The number of walk- and bicycle journeys in 1996 was determined with the basis in the travel
pattern surveys carried out by Oslo Sporveier. Here the number of journeys was estimated to 1.3
per day for walk and bicycle (for persons above 15 years old).
39
The occupancy rates for various transport means in the private car scenario are assumed to be
the same as in 1996, except the lowering from 1.6 to 1.4 persons per car.
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The various public transport means and walking/bicycle will carry out the same
amount of person transport in 2016 as in 1996. The public transport’s share of the
total amount of person transport in Oslo will therefore be reduced towards the
year 2016 in the private car scenario.
In this scenario it is presupposed a continuation of today’s development in terms

of land use patterns in the Oslo region, with a continued tendency to urban sprawl,
as well as a sub-urbanisation on a regional level. This stems from a continuation
of the policies of expanding the road system and a relatively unrestrictive parking
policy.
5.5.2. The public transport scenario

Of the three scenarios it is the public transport scenario that is within the
framework of the company strategy. This scenario is based on a precondition that
in the year 2016 there is a situation in which 1/3 of individuals’ journeys are
carried out by public transport, 1/3 by private car, and 1/3 on foot or by bicycle40.
The total person transport work in the public transport scenario 2016 is assumed
to be the same as in the private car scenario41. Within public transport, the share
of usage for each of the means remains constant. The same is assumed for the
share between bicycling and walking. These preconditions gives annual increases
in the person transport work by 0.3% for private car and taxi, 1.3% for walking
and bicycle, and 2.7% for bus, train, tram and metro, in the period 1996-2016.
Generally, this scenario is based on a precondition of a major increase in services

for public transport. This implies an effort to establish new public transport nodes
through land use planning, with emphasis on co-localisation of bus and rail. In
order to avoid congestion of central streets, nodes will be built where a fast
transfer can occur, between the commuting buses using the main arteries
into/from Oslo and the public transport network in Oslo. Furthermore, it is
presupposed that a “combined rail” system will be built. This is based on carriage
material which can be used on the national rail tracks as well as on the tram and
metro lines of Oslo Sporveier42. The introduction of a combined rail system will
reduce the need for a major expansion of the bus system43.
It is presupposed that a strong effort is made in the construction of pedestrian and

bicycle lanes, with emphasis on ensuring walking and bicycle access to important
public transport nodes and stops.
40
This distribution of person travels is approximately equal to the present situation in Copenhagen
(Eir, 1997).
41
The estimation of the transport work in the public transport scenario is based on occupancy rates
as in 1996, except the lowering from 1.6 to 1.4 persons per car, increase from 13.5 to 20
passengers per bus, increase from 32% to 38% for train, and increase from 16% to 22% for tram
and taxi. Based on empirical data from other large cities there is no basis for applying a larger
average capacity utilisation than 20 passengers per bus. The assessments of the potentials for
increases in occupancy rates for tram and metro are based on previous analyses by Western
Norway Research Institute (Høyer & Heiberg, 1993).
42
Oslo Sporveier operates all the tram and metro lines in Oslo.
43
On the other hand, we have no basis for assuming how large a share of the bus traffic that can be
transferred to a combined rail.
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5.5.3. The sustainability scenario

The sustainability scenario for 2016 is used to illustrate the consequences if Oslo
will achieve a sustainable transport system by the year 2050. In a sustainable
transport system in a major city, the inhabitants can get their mobility needs
satisfied through a well functioning public transport system in combination with
the pedestrian and bicycle lanes. The person transport in 2016 is estimated by
assuming a linear development rate for the period 1996-2050, with basis in
population growth estimates from Statistics Norway44. The sustainability scenario
presupposes a significant reduction in the total mobility per inhabitant45.
The person transport work carried out by public transport means is assumed to be
the same in the sustainability scenario as in the public transport scenario. The
average transport work by walking per inhabitant in Oslo will be almost doubled
from 0.73 km per day in 1996 to 1.5 km per day in 2050. The bicycle use will
increase from 0.38 km per day in 1996 to 2.0 km per day in 2050. As a
comparison, the inhabitants in Denmark bicycled on the average 1.5 km per day in
199446.
The main difference between the public transport and the sustainability scenarios
is that the sustainability scenario is based on the implementation of a number of
policy measures to reduce the private car-based mobility. It is presupposed that
stringent policy measures within land-use planning, which direct key societal
functions towards the centre of Oslo, are implemented. This includes a complete
termination of the practice of establishing car-based shopping centres on the
outskirts of Oslo. In addition, it is presupposed the same land use policies
regarding transport nodes as in the public transport scenario.
A restrictive parking policy is presupposed. This will mean a gradual closing-

down of central car-parks and parking areas connected to major workplace
locations. The scenario is based on new forms of land use policy in relation to
existing transport infrastructure (mainly roads and car parks). Instead of building
special pedestrian and bicycle lanes, sections of the existing road system are being
reserved for bicycles. Similarly, a significant priority of buses in special lanes for
all important transport arteries is presupposed. Furthermore, the scenario assumes
a major increase in the extent of car-free zones. It is also presupposed that parts of
the existing areas of road-transport infrastructure are replaced with buildings. This
44
The estimation of the transport work in the sustainable transport scenario is based on occupancy
rates the same as in 1996, except increases from 13.5 to 20 passengers per bus, from 32% to 40%
for train, and from 16% to 25% for tram and taxi.
45
In 1995, the person mobility in Norway was approx. 35 km per day per inhabitant, excluding
walking and bicycling (Høyer, 2000). In other works we have estimated a level of “sustainable
mobility” in the Nordic countries for 2050. In these studies we have arrived at a mobility of 16 km
per day per inhabitant in 2050, excluding walking and bicycling. Oslo (and other major cities)
must take a larger share of the reduction in mobility than the rural areas. This implies that the
mobility per day per inhabitant must be lower than 16 km in 2050. Our data material suggests that
the total mobility level per inhabitant in Oslo in 2050 must be lowered to 11 km per day
(excluding walking and bicycling).
46
Denmark and Holland have a significantly higher bicycle usage per inhabitant than any other
country in Europe.
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is particularly the case for parking areas and parts of the road areas in the centre of
the city.
The policy measures to ensure improved services for bus and rail transport in the
public transport scenario are also presupposed in the sustainability scenario.
5.5.4. Comparison of person transport in the scenarios

Table 16 shows the predicted transport work to be performed by various transport
means in the three scenarios for the year 2016.
Table 16 Person transport by various transport means in three scenarios for 2016
(million person-kilometre, percent)
Transport Private car % Public % Sustainability %
Mean scenario 2016 transport scenario 2016
scenario 2016
Walking 131 2.5 171 3.2 241 6.0
Bicycle 68 1.3 89 1.7 254 6.3
Private car 4 096 76.9 3 505 65.8 2 065 51.0
Taxi 222 4.2 171 3.2 101 2.5
Bus 253 4.8 438 8.2 438 10.8
Train 173 3.2 300 5.6 300 7.4
Tram 87 1.6 147 2.8 147 3.6
Metro 294 5.5 504 9.5 504 12.4
Total 5 324 100.0 5 324 100.0 4 049 100.0
In comparison with the person transport work in 1996 (Table 13) we see from
Table 16 that the total person transport increases by 20% in the period 1996-2016
in both the private car and the public transport scenario. In the sustainability
scenario it is reduced by 9%.
The person transport in the three scenarios for 2016 is also shown in terms of the
number of journeys47 made by each transport mean (Table 17).
47
The calculation of number of journeys made in each scenario was based on the assumption that
average travel distance for the various transport means is the same as in 1996 (as shown in Table
15).
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Table 17 Number of journeys in the three scenarios (million journeys, percent)

Transport Private % Public % Sustainability %
Mean car transport scenario 2016
scenario scenario
2016 2016
Walking 147 21.2 192 25.6 271 32.6
Bicycle 44 6.3 57 7.6 165 19.8
Private car 337 48.6 234 31.2 138 16.6
Taxi 21 3.0 16 2.1 9 1.1
Bus 48 6.9 84 11.2 84 10.1
Train 9 1.3 15 2.0 15 1.8
Tram 32 4.6 54 7.2 54 6.5
Metro 56 8.1 97 13.0 97 11.7
Total 694 100.0 749 100.0 832 100.0
The transport means can be summarised into three main categories of transport
modes:
• Walking/bicycle
• Public transport
• Private car/taxi
The development of the person transport for these three main categories of
transport modes in the scenarios is shown in Figure 27.
Figure 27 Transport work of main categories of transport modes in 1996 and the
three scenarios for 2016 (million person-kilometre)
6 000
5 000
4 000 Walking/
bicycle
3 000 Public
transport
2 000
Private
1 000 car/taxi
0
1996 Private car Public Sustainability
2016 transport 2016
2016
The share of private car (including taxi) of the total person transport work in Oslo
will increase from 77% in 1996 to 81% in 2016 in the private car scenario. The
private car scenario implies a decline in the public transport share from 19 to 15%
of the total person transport work. The public transport scenario implies an
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opposite development: the share of the private car of the total person transport
work falls to 69% in 2016, whereas the share of public transport increases to 27%.
The sustainability scenario gives an even more substantial decline in the use of
private cars than the public transport scenario. In the former scenario, the private
car accounts for 53% of the person transport work, whereas the public transport
means has increased its share to as much as 35%. The sustainability scenario
implies a significant growth in the transport work carried out by walking and
bicycle, and in 2016, 12% of the person transport work is carried out this way.
5.6. Energy use

The energy use linked to person transport has three main components:
1. Direct energy use: Energy used for the propulsion of the transport
means.
2. Gross direct energy use: Direct energy use plus the energy use taking place at
all stages from production of energy source to
distribution of processed fuel.
3. Indirect energy use: Energy used to produce and maintain the transport
means and their infrastructure.
The energy use factors48 applied in the calculations are shown in Table 18.
48
The factors for direct energy use in 1996 are based on those used by Statistics Norway
(Holtskog & Rypdal, 1997). These factors are for national averages, and have been adjusted to
city-factors by applying data on energy use in different driving patterns from the National
Pollution Control Agency (SFT, 1993).
For petrol-fuelled vehicles a density-factor of 0.74 kg/l and a factor for energy-content of 12.2
kWh/kg is applied, while for diesel-vehicles the density-factor of 0.84 kg/l and energy-content of
11.97 kWh/kg is used. The figures for energy use are obtained through a weighed average based
on the ratio of vehicles fuelled by petrol and diesel. It is assumed that this ratio kept constant up to
2016 in the three scenarios.
The factors for gross direct and indirect energy use have their basis in previous analyses by
Western Norway Research Institute (Høyer & Heiberg, 1993).
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Table 18 Energy use factors applied (kWh per person-kilometre)

Transport mean/energy 1996 Private car Public Sustainability
component scenario 2016 transport scenario 2016
scenario 2016
Private car49 -Direct 0.72 0.53 0.53 0.46
-Gross direct 0.13 0.10 0.10 0.08
-Indirect 0.10 0.07 0.07 0.06
50
Taxi -Direct 0.79 0.52 0.52 0.52
-Gross direct 0.12 0.08 0.08 0.08
-Indirect 0.13 0.10 0.10 0.10
51
Bus -Direct 0.35 0.31 0.21 0.21
-Gross direct 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.02
-Indirect 0.08 0.05 0.03 0.03
52
Train -Direct 0.17 0.13 0.11 0.10
-Gross direct 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
-Indirect 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.06
53
Tram -Direct 0.21 0.20 0.15 0.13
-Gross direct 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.02
-Indirect 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.04
Metro -Direct 0.20 0.17 0.12 0.11
-Gross direct 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02
-Indirect 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.04
The results of the calculations of the direct and total (direct plus gross direct plus
indirect) energy use are shown in Figure 28.
49
The energy use factors are based in the assumption that the increase in energy-efficiency is the
same in all three scenarios. The assumptions for reduction in fuel consumption for cars are based
on estimates made by IEA (1993).
50
Also for taxi it is assumed that the increase in energy-efficiency is the same in all three
scenarios.
51
Also for buses it is assumed that the energy-efficiency improvements are the same in the three
scenarios. It is assumed that all buses use standard diesel as fuel.
52
The energy-use factors for train are based on previous analyses by Western Norway Research
Institute (Høyer & Heiberg, 1993; Vestby, 1997) and Statistics Norway (Holtskog & Rypdal,
1997). The preconditions for the energy use are the same in all three scenarios.
53
The factors for tram and metro are equal to those used by Statistics Norway (Holtskog &
Rypdal, 1997). Assessments of potentials for energy efficiency improvements are based on
previous analyses by Western Norway Research Institute (Høyer & Heiberg, 1993). In all
scenarios it is assumed an energy efficiency improvement for metro of approx. 10% up to 2016
and approx. 5% for tram in the same period.
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Figure 28 Energy use for 1996 and the three scenarios for 2016. Direct and total
for main categories of transport means (GWh)
4 000
3 500
3 000
Public
2 500 transport
2 000
1 500 Private
1 000 car/taxi
500
0
Direct Total Direct Total Direct Total Direct Total
Private car Public transport Sustainability
1996 2016 2016 2016
Private car and taxis accounted for 92% of the energy use in 1996. Both the direct
and the total energy use are expected to decrease in all three scenarios compared
with the situation in 1996. This is not surprising for the public transport and the
sustainability scenario, as a transition from private car to public transport in itself
will lead to lower use of energy. The reason why there is also a decline in the
energy use in the private car scenario is that the expected growth in the use of
private cars in Oslo will be more than compensated for by improved energy
efficiency of the cars.
The total energy use in 2016 compared with 1996 will be reduced by 9% in the
private car scenario, 20% in the public transport scenario, and as much as 55% in
the sustainability scenario.
In the public transport and sustainability scenarios there will be no decline in the
energy use for public transport. This is caused by the significant growth in the
person transport work by public transport means in these two scenarios, as a
consequence of the transition from private car.
5.7. CO2 emissions

In the same way as for energy use, the total emissions of CO2 from person
transport consist of three main components: direct CO2 emissions, gross direct
CO2 emissions, and indirect CO2 emissions. The factors for CO2 emissions54
applied in the calculations are shown in Table 19.
54
The calculations of direct CO2 emissions for cars, taxis and buses are based on the previously
presented factors for direct energy use. The conversion-factors for CO2 – content of 3.13 kg CO2
per kg petrol and 3.17 kg CO2 per kg diesel are used in the calculations. Rail-based transport (train,
tram and metro) in Oslo is all electrified, and thus have no direct CO2 emissions. The factors for
gross direct and indirect CO2 emissions have their basis in the study by Høyer & Heiberg (1993).
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Table 19 Factors for CO2 emissions applied (gram CO2 per person-kilometre)
Transport mean/ 1996 Private car Public Sustainability
emission component scenario 2016 transport scenario 2016
scenario 2016
Private car -Direct 185 135 135 118
-Gross direct 33 24 24 21
-Indirect 24 11 11 10
Taxi -Direct 208 136 136 136
-Indirect 33 17 17 17
Bus -Direct 94 83 56 56
-Indirect 18 10 7 7
Train -Direct 0 0 0 0
-Indirect 14 9 8 7
Tram -Direct 0 0 0 0
-Indirect 14 9 7 6
Metro -Direct 0 0 0 0
-Indirect 14 9 7 6
The results of the calculation of the direct and total (direct plus gross direct plus
indirect) CO2 emissions are shown in Figure 29.
Figure 29 Emissions of CO2 for 1996 and the three scenarios. Direct and total for
main categories of transport means (1000 tonnes)
1000
800
600
Public
400 transport
Private
200 car/taxi
0
1996 2016 2016 2016
In 1996, private cars and taxi accounted for as much as 95% of the total CO2
emissions from person transport in Oslo. In the private car scenario the total
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emission of CO2 from person transport in Oslo will be reduced by 13% in 2016
compared with 1996. In other words, improved energy efficiency will more than
compensate for the increased use of private car in the private car scenario. The
public transport and sustainability scenario will give an even stronger reduction of
the CO2 emissions. These two scenarios will give a total CO2 reduction of 24%
and 58% respectively.
5.8. NOx emissions

The total emissions of NOx also consist of three main components: direct NOx
emissions, gross direct NOx emissions, and indirect NOx emissions. The factors
for NOx emissions55 applied in the calculations are shown in Table 20.
Table 20 Factors for NOx emissions applied (milligram NOx per person-kilometre)
Transport mean/ 1996 Private car Public Sustainability
emission component scenario 2016 transport scenario 2016
scenario 2016
Private car -Direct 1587 50 50 44
-Gross direct 170 120 120 105
-Indirect 110 55 55 48
Taxi -Direct 669 62 62 62
-Gross direct 160 110 110 110
-Indirect 100 50 50 50
Bus -Direct 1160 400 270 270
-Indirect 70 50 34 23
Train -Direct 0 0 0 0
-Indirect 60 40 34 27
Tram -Direct 0 0 0 0
-Indirect 50 30 22 14
Metro -Direct 0 0 0 0
-Indirect 50 30 22 14
The calculated direct and total (direct plus gross direct plus indirect) emissions of
NOx from person transport in Oslo are shown in Figure 30.
55
The factors for direct NOx emissions in 1996 are based on those used by Statistics Norway
(Holtskog & Rypdal, 1997). These factors for national averages have been adjusted to city-factors
by applying data on different driving patterns from the National Pollution Control Agency (SFT,
1993). Factors for direct NOx emissions in 2016 are based on the assumption that all cars, taxis and
buses comply with the EURO IV standard. The factors for gross direct and indirect NOx emissions
have their basis in the study by Høyer & Heiberg (1993).
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Figure 30 Emissions of NOx for 1996 and the three scenarios. Direct and total for
main categories of transport means (1000 tonnes)
8 000 Public
7 000 transport
6 000
Private
5 000 car/taxi
4 000
3 000
2 000
1 000
0
1996 2016 2016 2016
Private car and taxis accounted for 95% of the NOx emissions in 1996. For all
three scenarios there is a considerable reduction (94-96%) in the direct emissions
of NOx up to the year 2016. Technological development coupled with gradually
more stringent regulations on NOx emissions from vehicles (particularly for
private cars) will contribute to this development.
5.9. Particle emissions

The calculation of emission of particles is limited to the direct emissions of PM10
and PM2.5. Gross direct and indirect emissions of particles are not included due to
the large uncertainties connected to the quantification of these components of the
total particle emissions. In this analysis five main processes responsible for
generation of particles are included:
1. Emissions from exhaust56

2. Wear of pavement57
3. Wear of tyres58
4. Wear of brakes59
5. Grinding of larger particles with subsequent re-suspension in the air60
56
The factors for calculations of particles from exhaust in 1996 are based on those used by
Statistics Norway (Holtskog & Rypdal, 1997)
57
The calculations of PM10 and PM2.5 from wear of pavement, mainly from the use of studded
tyres, have basis in several Norwegian studies (Larssen, 1987; Vegdirektoratet, 1997; SINTEF,
1994; Larssen, 1997; Anda & Larsen, 1982).
58
The calculations of emissions of PM10 and PM2.5 caused by wear of tyres, i.e. particles
originating from the tyres, have basis in estimations made by California Air Resources Board
(CARB, 1979; Gaffney, 1998).
59
Determination of particle-generation from wear of brake linings are also based in estimations
made by California Air Resources Board (CARB, 1979; Gaffney, 1998 and CARB, 1998).
60
The calculations of PM10 and PM2.5 from grinding of larger particles with subsequent re-
suspension in the air have basis in estimates made by Norwegian Institute for Air Research
(Larssen, 1987).
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The calculations cover particle emissions from bus, private cars and taxis.
Emission of particles from rail transport is not included, as this mainly is
connected to diesel-trains. Because the rail transport in the Oslo-region is
electrified, these emissions can be neglected.
The factors for emission of PM10 and PM2.5 applied in the calculations are shown
in Table 21.
Table 21 Average PM10 and PM2,5 emissions in 1996 and 2016 (milligram per
vehicle-kilometre)
Transport mean/source 1996 2016
PM10 PM2.5 PM10 PM2.5
Private car: Exhaust61 47.6 46.4 5.4 5.2
Wear of pavement 81.5 40.7 37.0 18.5
Wear of tyres 52.3 41.9 52.3 41.9
Wear of brakes 24.3 19.4 24.3 19.4
Grinding and re-suspension 35.5 17.7 8.9 4.4
Taxi: Exhaust62 129.4 117.7 17.8 16.2
Wear of pavement 81.5 40.7 37.0 18.5
Wear of tyres 52.3 41.9 52.3 41.9
Wear of brakes 24.3 19.4 24.3 19.4
Bus: Exhaust63 1034.3 930.9 122.2 110.0
Wear of pavement 88.9 44.4 88.9 44.4
Wear of tyres 120.4 96.3 120.4 96.3
Wear of brakes 130.4 104.3 130.4 104.3
The results of the calculations of PM2.5 in 1996 and the three scenarios are shown
in Figure 31, while the PM10 results are shown in Figure 32.
61
The bases for the calculations of emissions of PM10 and PM2.5 in the exhaust of petrol-fuelled
cars in 2016 are estimates on U.S. national averages made by CARB (CARB, 1998). These have
been adjusted to be applicable for city-driving in Norway with the use of data on driving patterns
from the National Pollution Control Agency (SFT, 1993). For calculation of emissions of PM10
and PM2.5 in the exhaust of diesel-fuelled cars in 2016, it is assumed that all cars comply with the
EURO IV standards.
62
The factors for taxis have basis in the same works as for private cars, but adjusted for a higher
share of diesel-fuelled vehicles.
63
The factors for PM10 and PM2.5 in the exhaust from buses in 2016 are based on compliance with
the EURO IV standards.
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Figure 31 Emission of PM2.5 for main categories of transport means in 1996 and
in the three scenarios (tonnes)
500
400 Public
transport
300 (bus)
Private
200
car/taxi
100
0
1996 Private car Public Sustainability
2016 transport 2016
2016
Figure 32 Emission of PM10 for main categories of transport means in 1996 and
in the three scenarios (tonnes)
600
500
Public
400 transport
(bus)
300
Private
200 car/taxi
100
0
1996 Private car Public transport Sustainability
2016 2016 2016
Private car and taxis accounted for 95% of the particle emissions in 1996. The
total emissions of PM2.5 and PM10 from person transport in Oslo will be reduced
in all 3 scenarios compared with 1996. Technological development in
combination with political measures and more stringent regulations on particle
emissions will contribute to this development. The reduction is smallest in the
private car scenario, and largest in the sustainability scenario.
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5.10. Land use consequences of the scenarios

A considerable land use is connected to the transport sector. Land use serves as an
indicator for land-linked environmental problems, such as reduction of biological
diversity, closing-down of valuable production areas and cultural landscapes, as
well as conflicts in relation to other user interests for these land areas. In the
analysis it is distinguished between two different types of land use:
1. Direct land use:

• Transport artery (road and rail)
• Stations (bus stops, railway stations etc.)
2. Indirect land use

• Land tied up to other land use as a consequence of transport activities
(e.g. building-restriction zones along roads)
• Car parks and other types of parking grounds
• Land use linked to offices, workshops, etc. for the transport mode
• Land use linked to production and distribution of energy (e.g.
transmission lines and water reservoirs for electricity consumption,
petrol stations, etc.)
• Land use linked to maintenance and distribution of transport means
(e.g. workshops and car dealers)
This analysis covers direct land use and limited indirect land use. The indirect
land use is limited to include land areas for car parks and petrol station premises,
terminals, and depots.
As a basis for the calculations, the estimates64 of land use for various transport
purposes shown in Table 22 were used.
Table 22 Estimates of land use for various transport purposes in Oslo

Type of land use Size (1000 m2)
Road65 + parking areas 17 000
Parking 6 790
Seaport 1 100
Railroad, tram, metro (including stations,
terminals and depots) 3 200
Private cars, taxis and bus all use the same land. For the calculations, the total size
of the land use for road was distributed on each of these transport means based in
the vehicle-kilometres and the relative size of the transport means.
64
The calculations are based on rough estimates of total area for traffic purposes in Oslo made by
the Planning and Building department of Oslo Municipality. This is supplemented with a mapping
made in 1991/1992 of the total parkering space within the central areas of Oslo (Plan- og
bygningsetaten, 1992). Additional data was obtained from Oslo Sporveier, making it possible to
calculate the direct land use for tram and metro.
65
The road area is calculated with basis in road lengths and widths from the database of Statens
kartverk (Statistics Norway, 1997).
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In 1996 the total length of tramlines was 40 kilometres. Almost all of this is
double-tracks having a width of 6.3 metres. This gives a direct land use of 252
000 m2. Private cars, taxis and bus, also use about 40 percent of this, but in the
calculations this part of the streets is considered exclusively for tram use.
The total length of metro in 1996 was 78 kilometres. The whole length is double
tracks with an average length having a width of 10.4 metre. This gives a direct
land use of 811 000 m2. About 15 kilometre of the metro is in tunnel. The metro
thus have a direct land use of on the surface of 657 000 m2.
The rail net for trains in Oslo is used both for local, regional and international
trains. However, insufficient data was available for estimating the direct land use
of each train type. Instead the calculations are based on a presumption that the
land use for per person-kilometre of the local trains is similar to the land use for
metro. This gives a direct land use of 388 000 m2 in 1996.
The results of the calculations of the direct and total (direct plus indirect) land use
are shown in Figure 33.
Figure 33 Direct and total land use for main categories of transport means in
1996 and in the three scenarios (1000 m2)
35 000 Public
30 000 transport
25 000 Private
20 000
car/taxi
15 000
10 000
5 000

1996 2016 2016 2016
Private car/taxi accounts for the majority (87%) of land use for transport purposes
in Oslo. Roads and car parks are land demanding. The total land use increases by
39% in the private car scenario and 22% in the public transport scenario. The
sustainability scenario gives a reduction in the total land use of 33%, a
consequence of the fact that use of private car and taxi is drastically reduced in
this scenario.
5.11. Time use in the scenarios

In the analysis of time use, calculations are made for the total time that makes
individual movements possible with the various transport means (including
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walking). The total time consists of two components: direct time spent on the
travel itself, and indirect time in terms of working hours spent to earn money to
pay for the total costs of the travel. The indirect time consumption also includes
hours needed for tanking, maintenance and care of one’s own transport means.
This methodological approach corresponds to the understanding of time

consumption outlined by Ivan D. Illich in the book “Energy and Equity” (Illich,
1974). Based on the situation in USA he argues in the following way: The typical
American male devotes more than 1 600 hours in a year to the car. He sits in it
when it stands still and when it is moving. He parks it and searches for it at the
parking lots. Han earns money that is used to pay the monthly payments on the
car. Han works to pay petrol, taxes and duties, insurance, and parking fees. This
way he spends four out of sixteen hours awake on the car or in the car. And this
does not include time spent in hospitals, repair/maintenance shops and
courtrooms, or the time in front of the car commercials on TV. The typical
American male thus invests 1 600 hours to drive 12 000 km i a year: less than 8
km/h. In countries without a transport industry people manage the same, to walk
wherever they want, and they spend only 3-8% of the society’s time budget for
transport, instead of 28% (Illich, 1974).
The factors for direct time use66 in the calculations are shown in Table 23.
Table 23 Direct time use factors

Transport mean Time use (minutes per journey)
Walking 11
Bicycle 15
Private car 23
Taxi 16
Bus 25
Train 51
Tram 23
Metro 24
66
Most of the figures are from the travel pattern analysis by Oslo Sporveier in 1996 (Oslo
Sporveier, 1996). These are figures that include walk- and waiting in connection with each journey
with each transport mean.
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Table 24 shows the indirect time use factors67 applied in the calculations.
Table 24 Indirect time use factors applied (All numbers in minutes)

Transport 1996 Private car Public Sustainability
mean/energy scenario transport scenario
component 2016 scenario 2016 2016
Walking 0 0 0 0
Bicycle68 (per pkm) 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
Private car69 (per pkm) 1.3 1.5 1.5 2.0
Taxi70 (per pkm) 5.0 5.0 5.0 7.5
Bus71 (per journey) 4.0 4.0 2.7 2.7
Train71 (per journey) 6.8 6.8 5.7 5.7
Tram71 (per journey) 4.0 4.0 2.9 2.6
Metro71 (per journey) 4.5 4.5 3.3 2.9
The results of the calculation of the time consumption for main categories of
transport means are shown in Figure 34.
67
All conversions from costs in NOK to time (in minutes) are based on an average for
Oslo/Akershus of NOK 120/hour, or NOK 2/minute.
68
This is based on Åkerman (1996) and includes 0.1 minutes for maintenance and 0.2 minutes for
value-depreciation, interest and repair costs.
69
Time for own maintenance is 0.3 minutes in all scenarios. This is bases on Åkerman (1996). The
total costs for ownership and usage of car (medium-size) is NOK 3,70/vehicle-kilometre. This is
based on information from the national road traffic information council (Opplysningsrådet for
veitrafikken, 1997). This is for 1996 and in the private car and public transport scenarios for 2016.
In the sustainability scenario it is presupposed that the share of the total costs (25%) from fuel and
oil will double, while the share for value-depreciation, interest and insurance (approx. 60%) will
increase by 50%. This is connected to preconditions in the sustainability scenario of increases in
duties on car ownership, and increase in the CO2-taxes from NOK 0.90/kg in 1996 to NOK
3.90/kg in 2016 (based on a.o. Kågeson, 1993).
70
The calculations of taxi costs are based on the travel fare system of Oslo Taxis. It is assumed an
average of NOK 13/vehicle-kilometre in 1996 and in the private car and public transport scenarios
for 2016. In the sustainability scenario it is presupposed that this cost will increase of an amount
corresponding to the cost increase for private cars.
71
The figures are based on average costs per journey, and are obtained from Oslo Sporveier and
SL. In 1996 this is NOK 8 per bus journey, NOK 13.5 per train journey, NOK 8 per tram journey
and NOK 9 per metro journey. These are assumed to remain constant in the private car scenario.
The costs will be reduced in the public transport and the sustainability scenario corresponding to
the increases in occupancy rates. It is thus presupposed that increased capacity utilisation implies
increased income and correspondingly reductions in ticket prices. The public transport is assumed
to be exempt from CO2-taxes.
115
—————————————————————————————————
Figure 34 Time consumption for the Oslo population in 1996 and the three
scenarios for 2016. Direct and total for main categories of transport means (mill.
hrs)
350
300 Walking/
bicycle
250
Public
200 transport
150 Private
car/taxi
100
50
0
1996 2016 2016 2016
Private car and taxis accounted for 59% of the time consumption for person
transport in 1996.The total time consumption for person transport increases in all
three scenarios. The lowest increase in the total of public transport and private
car/taxi is found in the sustainability scenario (17%), and the highest in the private
car scenario (30%).
5.12. Conclusions
This article presents the use of scenarios for different developments of person
transport as part of a company strategy. The public transport scenario illustrates
the environmental consequences of a development in person transport in line with
the company strategy. This scenario implies a strong increase in the share of
public transport use. Two other scenarios are used to illustrate other development
tracks in person transport. The private car scenario is used to show the
consequences of a continued increase in the private car use, while the
sustainability scenario is used to illustrate the consequences of a development in
person transport that follows a direction towards a sustainable transport system.
The sustainability scenario is also used to draw the attention to the necessity of
reducing the private car use and reducing the total mobility in addition to increase
the share of public transport use.
The results showed that private car and taxis in Oslo in 1996 accounted for 77%
of the person transport work, 92% of the energy use, 95% of the CO2-emissions,
95% of the NOX-emissions, 95% of the particle emissions, 87% of the land use
and 59% of the time consumption. The total energy use, CO2-emissions, NOX-
emissions and particle emissions from person transport in Oslo are reduced in all
3 scenarios compared with the situation in 1996. The reduction is smallest in the
private car scenario and largest in the sustainability scenario. The land use
increases by 39% in the private car scenario and by 22% in the public transport
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scenario, while there is a reduction in land use by 32% in the sustainability

scenario. The total time consumption connected to person transport increases by
approximately the same amount in all 3 scenarios.
5.13. References
Anda, O. og S. Larssen (1982): Luftforurensninger fra vegtrafikk: Slitasje av
vegdekke, bildekk og bremsebånd (Air pollution from road traffic. Wear
of roads, car tyres and brakes). OR 31/82, Norwegian Institute for Air
Research, Kjeller. (In Norwegian).
Andersen, O. (1998): Svevestøv fra persontransport i Oslo. En beregning av
mengder og kostnader (Particles from Person Transport in Oslo. A
Calculation of Amounts and Costs). Vf-Rapport 14/98, Western Norway
Research Institute, Sogndal. (In Norwegian).
Andersen, O. (2003): Environmental Reporting and Transport – the case of a
Public Transport Company. Business Strategy and the Environment
(Submitted).
CARB (1979): Fine particle emissions from stationary and miscellaneous
sources in the south coast air basin. Final report, KVB5806-783,
California Air Resources Board, Sacramento, California.
CARB (1998): Emissions factors scenario. Predicted California vehicle
emissions. Ozone planning inventory. Scenario MVE17G, California Air
Resources Board, Sacramento, California.
Eir, B. (1997): Cykelregnskab og Grønne Cykelruter (Cycle Account and Green
Cycle Routes). Paper presented at the conference Trafikdage på Aalborg
Universitet 1997.
Fosli, O. and Lian, J.I. (1999): Effekter av byspredning på bilhold og bilbruk. En
studie av Oslo og Bergen pendlerregioner (Effects of Urban Sprawl on
Car Ownership and Use. A study of Oslo and Bergen commuting
regions). TØI-rapport 438/1999. Institute of transport Economics, Oslo.
(In Norwegian, with English summary).
Gaffney, P. (1998): Personal communication with Patrick Gaffney
(pgaffney@cleanair.arb.ca.gov) at California Air Resources Board.
Holtskog, S. and Rypdal, K. (1997): Energibruk og utslipp til luft fra transport i
Norge (Energy use and emissions to air from transport in Norway).
Rapport 7/97. Statistics Norway. (In Norwegian, with English summary).
Høyer K.G. and Heiberg, E. (1993): Persontransport – konsekvenser for energi
og miljø (Public Transport – Impacts on Environment, Energy- and Area-
use). Vf-Rapport 1/93, Western Norway Research Institute, Sogndal. (In
Vf-Rapport 12/98, Western Norway Research Institute, Sogndal.
117
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Sogndal.
Illich, I.D. (1974): Energy and Equity. Open Forum Series. London: Calder &
Boyars.
International Energy Agency (1993): Cars and Climate Change. Energy and the
Environment Series, IEA, Paris.
Kågeson, P. (1993): Getting The Prices Right - A European Scheme for Making
Transprot Pay its True Costs. European Federation for Transport and
Environment, Brussels.
Larssen, S. (1987):Støv fra asfaltveier. Karakterisering av luftbåret veistøv. Fase
1: Målinger i Oslo, våren 1985 (Dust from asphalt roads.
Characterisation of air-borne road dust. Phase 1: Measurements in Oslo,
spring 1985). OR 53/87, Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Kjeller. (In
Norwegian).
Larssen, S. (1997): Har piggdekk virkelig skylden for all luftforurensing i de store
byene?(Can studded tyres really be blamed for all air pollution in the large
cities?). Paper presented at the STOR-seminar 1997 – the Scandinavian
Tire and Rim organization, Høvik, 11.desember 1997. F 26/97, Norwegian
Institute for Air Research, Kjeller.(In Norwegian).
Lundli, H.E., Høyer, K.G. and Holden, E. (1998a): Transportscenarier for Oslo.
Grunnlagsnotat (Transport Scenarios for Oslo. Background document).
VF-notat 5/98, Western Norway Research Institute, Sogndal. (In
Norwegian).
Lundli, H.E., Andersen, O. and Høyer, K.G. (1998b): Transportscenarier for
Oslo. 1996-2016. Konsekvenser for areal, tidsbruk og utslipp av CO2,
NOx og svevestøv (Transport Scenarios for Oslo. 1996-2016.
Consequences for land use, time use and emission of CO2, NOx and
particles). VF-rapport 13/98, Western Norway Research Institute, Sogndal
(In Norwegian).
Opplysningsrådet for Veitrafikken (1997): Bil- og veistatistikk 1997 (Car- and
road statistics 1997). Opplysningsrådet for Veitrafikken, Oslo. (In
Norwegian).
Oslo Sporveier (1996): Reisevaner 1996 (Travel patterns 1996). Division for
market information, Oslo Sporveier, Oslo. (In Norwegian)
Plan- og bygningsetaten (1992): Privat og offentlig parkeringstilbud innenfor
Kirkeveiringen i Oslo (Private and public parking space within
Kirkevegen road circle). Prosamrapport nr 24. Oslo: PBE. (In
Norwegian).
SFT (1993): Utslipp fra veitrafikken i Norge. (Emissions from road traffic in
Norway). Statens forurensningstilsyn, Oslo. (In Norwegian, with English
summary).
118
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SINTEF (1994): Vegstøvdepot i Trondheim – partikkelstørrelsesfordeling,

kjemisk og mineralogisk sammensetning (Road dust depot in Trondheim –
particle size distribution, chemical and mineralogical composition).
STF36 A94037, SINTEF Bergteknikk, Trondheim. (In Norwegian).
Statistics Norway (1997). Ukens statistikk nr. 43 (Weekly statistics nr. 43).
Statistics Norway, Oslo.
Vegdirektoratet (1997): Veg-grepsprosjektet. Delprosjekt 5.4: Vegstøv –
helseskader og kostnader. Økonomiske konsekvenser av endret
piggdekkbruk, helse og trivsel (The Road-grip project. Subproject 5.4:
Road dust – health damages and costs. Economical consequences of
changed use of studded tyres, health and comfort). Internal report nr.
1980, Statens vegvesen, Veglaboratoriet, Oslo. (In Norwegian).
Vestby, S.E. (1997): Gardemobanen. Energi- og miljøkonsekvenser av
alternative transporttilbud (Gardemobanen. Energy- and environmental
consequenses of alternative transport choices). VF-notat 28/97, Western
Norway Research Institute, Sogndal (In Norwegian).
Vibe, N. (1991): Reisevaner i Oslo-området. Endringer i reisevaner i Oslo og
Akershus fra 1977 til 1990 (Travel behaviour in the Oslo-area. Changes in
travel behaviour in Oslo and Akershus from 1977 to 1990). Norwegian
Centre for Transport Research, Oslo (In Norwegian).
Åkerman, J. (1996): Tid För Resor - om tidsanvänding, värdering av tid och
snabbare transporter (Time For Travel – about time use, value of time
and faster transports). Forskningsgruppen för Miljöstrategiska Studier.
KFB-Rapport 1996:6. KommunikationsForskningsBeredningen,
Stockholm. (In Swedish).
119
ENVIRONMENTAL REPORTING AND TRANSPORT – THE CASE OF A PUBLIC TRANSPORT COMPANY
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6. Environmental Reporting and Transport – the

case of a Public Transport Company
6.1. Abstract
This article discusses corporate environmental reporting in the field of transport.
In addition to addressing this issue in general, the article includes empirical
material from a case transport company. The process of preparing the year 2000
environmental report for the company is described. The environmental report
includes actions for improving the environmental performance of the company,
and indicators for monitoring of the progress from year to year. This is based in
separate studies of the employee’s company travels, daily travel to work, and the
purchasing of energy. The company is using societal accounting to show its
responsibility as an important societal actor, improving the stakeholder dialogue
and providing knowledge at the political level.
6.2. Introduction
This is the second of two articles describing the work carried out by Western
Norway Research Institute in connection with the environmental reporting from
the public transport company Oslo Sporveier. This article comprises work
connected to the environmental report and the societal accounting from the
company, while the first article describes scenarios for the transport development
in Oslo (Andersen, 2003).
The publishing of environmental reports has become an important way for

companies to communicate environmental issues with the stakeholders. A
substantial amount of research has been carried out in the field of corporate
environmental reporting since the first environmental reports were issued more
than a decade ago (e.g. Azzone et al., 1996; Kolk, 1999; Kolk et al., 2001).
Legislative requirements in many countries (e.g. the Netherlands, Sweden and
Norway) for disclosure of environmental issues have contributed to the increased
attention on corporate environmental reporting. In addition, a stronger societal
demand for corporate transparency on environmental issues has emerged both
from primary and secondary stakeholders72.
Transport is a major consumer of energy and an important source of emissions of

greenhouse gases. Transport activities are in addition an important source of the
72
The differentiation between primary and secondary stakeholders is based on the definitions by
Clarkson (1995). A primary shareholder group is “one without whose continuing participation the
corporation cannot survive as a going concern”, whereas secondary stakeholders are “those who
influence or affect, or are influenced or affected by, the corporation, but are not engaged in
transactions with the corporation and are not essential for its survival”. According to such a
classification, primary stakeholders are investors, employees, customers, suppliers, governments
and communities. Secondary stakeholders include media and activist groups.
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most serious local and regional environmental problems73. The problems are
particularly detrimental in cities. To take a look at how well transport is included
in corporate environmental reports thus becomes important. Historically the
environmental reporting has focused on the production activities of the
corporations. Process-energy, material use and emissions connected to the
production processes and the production facilities have historically been well
accounted for in the environmental reports. It is however not that common to
include transport activities in the reporting. A recent study of environmental
reporting in Denmark indicates that no more than a quarter of the companies
include transport in their environmental reports (Holgaard and Remmen, 2001).
There are in addition many different ways to include transport in corporate

environmental reporting. At least four types of transport connected to the
activities of companies can be identified:
1. The movement of goods to and from a production facility. This includes

the transport of raw materials into the production facilities and the
distribution of finished products to the customers. For a transport company
that has transport services as its main product, the amount of transport
provided through the services is commonly included in the reporting. For
public transport companies this encompass the person transport work of
the basic transport services provided (bus, tram, metro etc.).
2. The internal transport in the company. This type of transport encompasses

the person- and goods-transport within a unit and between the different
0units of the company. This is usually carried out by the company’s own
vehicles, but can also be performed by contracting companies.
3. Business travels. The travels made by the employees to meetings, seminars

and conferences are also a type of transport work that is generated by a
company’s activities. This type of transport is taking place within the
company’s working hours and the travels often last for several days. Even
so, this transport is not commonly included in corporate environmental
reports.
4. Travels to work. The daily travels of the company’s employees between

home and the work place are even less common to include in corporate
environmental reports. However, a company that provides public transport
services is particularly exposed to criticism or pressure from stakeholders
if the employees are not using public transport. The reporting of
employee’s travels to work is in addition particularly relevant for a
company providing environmentally friendly transport. This is reflected in
the environmental report from the case company Oslo Sporveier.
Since transport is a major consumer of energy, it is logical that energy use has a
central position in the environmental reports from companies providing transport.
73
The list of local and regional environmental problems from transport is extensive, and includes
the emissions of a large number of substances with serious environmental and health effects
(nitrogen oxides, particles, sulphur oxides, volatile organic compounds and others), noise, land-use
demands, building corrosion and death/disabilities from traffic accidents.
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Both the type and amounts of energy used are important from an environmental
point of view. For companies that consume large amounts of energy in their
operations, the choice of energy type and quality are important for environmental
reasons. It is important for these companies to be able to document the amount of
purchased energy coming from renewable sources of energy. The emission of
greenhouse gases is tightly coupled to the combustion of fossil energy. Disclosing
data on emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases are essential elements in
company environmental reports.
Corporate environmental reports are used to communicate relevant environmental

issues to the stakeholders. For companies that provide public transport services,
important primary stakeholder groups are the public and communities. In addition,
the public transport system is important for the functioning and development of
urban areas. Public transport companies thus have important societal functions. As
important societal actors public transport companies have a societal responsibility.
The publishing of an environmental report is one way by which the company can
demonstrate this responsibility. The company can show how the environmental
effects of the company’s services compare with other ways of providing the
service. The company can do this by disclosing its societal account. This is done
in the environmental report for Oslo Sporveier for the year 2000. It is not common
to include societal accounting in corporate environmental reports. But for a
company that serves an important societal function, which is the case for Oslo
Sporveier, it is logical to do so. The societal accounting can have the function of
providing knowledge at the political level, by analysing the impact of various
transport forms in the city. The societal accounting can thus complement an
important function of the scenarios prepared by the company for the development
of transport between 1996 and 2016 in Oslo (Andersen, 2003).
The process of preparing the environmental report for Oslo Sporveier has
consisted of a long-term collaboration between the company and the researchers
at Western Norway Research Institute. It started with the preparation of scenarios
for the development of transport, continued with the compilation of material for
the 2000 environmental report including the societal accounting, and continues on
with annual environmental reporting.
6.3. The environmental report project

The company Oslo Sporveier is the largest public transport provider in Oslo, a
city with approximately half a million people. The size of the public transport
provided by the company is illustrated by the key figures for year 2000 in Table
25.
Table 25 Key figures for Oslo Sporveier in the year 2000

Company Number of Number of Number Total length
segment person- person- of lines of lines
journeys kilometres (kilometres)
(millions) (millions)
Metro 68 405 5 119
Tram 35 86 11 153
Bus 54 231 62 1 387
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In addition to the three transport means metro, tram and bus, the company also
provides train and boat services through contracts with companies operating these
transport means. Of the three main transport means provided by the company, the
metro lines transport most people, while the bus route network is the most
extensive in terms of number of routs and total length. The area of coverage is
mainly within Oslo, but some lines also extend outside the city borders.
The composition of the vehicle fleet is shown in Table 26.
Table 26 Vehicle fleet operated by Oslo Sporveier

Vehicle type Numbers
Metro train cars 207
Tram cars 73
Buses 303
In addition to the vehicles providing the transport services, shown in Table 26, the
company also operates a fleet of additional vehicles for use in service and
maintenance of material, infrastructure and company buildings.
Since the company’s main activity is to provide transport services, the

environmental effects of the transport was chosen as the superior focus in the
environmental report. The report comprises all the basic transport systems, metro,
tram and bus in which the company provides services. But due to the superior
transport focus, other forms of transport are also included. These encompass
company travels and the daily employee travel to and from work.
The project, which consisted of preparing the environmental report for Oslo
Sporveier, can be considered as a case in itself, for the collaboration between a
research institute and a public transport company. It has been part of a long-term
collaboration between Oslo Sporveier and Western Norway Research Institute.
The project was organised through a steering group and a project group in Oslo
Sporveier. The steering group had the superior responsibility for the project, while
the project group was responsible for the operational aspects of carrying out the
project. The steering group consisted of the company-wide upper management
and functioned to motivate the employees to commit time and effort to the project.
The project group consisted of middle management from the operational units of
the company. The following units were represented: metro, trams, buses, property,
service, economy, purchasing, marketing, HSE (health, safety and environment),
planning, and traffic management.
The preparation of the environmental report was a process based on a high degree
of employee participation. The members of the project group collaborated closely
with the researchers from Western Norway Research Institute, and made
substantial efforts in assembling the necessary data material on the activities of
the company. The employees participated in the identification of the critical areas
and the formulation of actions for improving the environmental performance of
the company.
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In this article the empirical material in five main areas connected to the Oslo
Sporveier environmental report for the year 2000 is presented: 1) The company’s
main operations, 2) Business travel, 3) Travels to work, 4) Purchasing and 5)
Societal accounting.
6.4. Main company operations

The environmental impacts of the main operations of Oslo Sporveier were
analysed in terms of direct energy use and emissions of CO2, NOx, PM10 and
PM2.5. Both energy in the form of electricity and the mobile and stationary
combustion of fuels were included. The various types of energy use in the main
operations of the company are shown in Table 27.
Table 27 Direct energy use of main company operations in the year 2000
Type of energy use Amount of energy used
(MWh) %
Electricity for metro lines 70 940 35.3
Electricity for tram lines 19 074 9.5
Electricity for buildings 40 840 20.3
Electricity for trains 5 576 2.8
Fuel oil for buildings 5 036 2.5
Fuel for buses 53 278 26.5
Fuel for boats 3 000 1.5
Additional vehicles (service etc.) 3 307 1.6
Total 201 051 100.0
The largest energy-consuming operation is the metro lines, which used close to 71
GWh of electricity, which is 35% of the total energy use of the company in 2000.
The fuel for the buses also constitute a large part (27%) of the company’s total
energy use, while the energy for the buildings is the third largest (20%) form of
energy use in the company.
Due to the large energy use in the operation of the main services provided by the
company, a series of actions to reduce the energy use has been identified (Box 1).
Box 1 Actions in energy use of main company operations
Actions in energy use of main operations.

• Plan for reducing energy use in buildings includes prioritising
energy-saving actions
• More energy-efficient trams and metro rail cars will replace old ones
• New buses will comply with the EURO IV-norm
• Car-sharing will be applied in the use of the additional vehicles
The main sources of direct CO2, NOx, PM10 and PM2.5 -emissions from the
company’s main operations are shown in Table 28.
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Table 28 Direct CO2, NOx, PM10 and PM2.5 - emissions from the company’s main
operations
Source of CO2 NOx PM10 PM2.5 %
emissions (tonnes) % (kilogram) % (kilogram) % (kilogram)
Buses 14 272 83.1 141 415 85.6 11 570 90.7 8 999 91.3
Buildings
(fuel oil) 1 230 7.2 1 172 0.7 64 0.5 45 0.5
Boats 800 4.7 17 600 10.7 466 3.7 363 3.7
Additional
vehicles 880 5.1 5 010 3.0 651 5.1 451 4.6
Total 17 182 100 165 197 100 12 751 100 9 858 100
The combustion of fuel in the buses is the largest source of all three emission
components. In total for the year 2000 the use of diesel to run the buses caused
emission of 14 272 tonnes of CO2, 141 tonnes of NOx and almost 12 tonnes of
PM10, of which close to 9 tonnes are PM2.5. Direct emissions from rail transport is
not included, as this mainly is connected to diesel-trains, which are not used on a
regular basis on the rail lines in Oslo.
In reducing the emissions from the main operations the company has implemented
several actions and measures (Box 2).
Box 2 Actions for reducing polluting emissions from main company operations
Actions in emission reduction.

• Modern emission-reducing technology, such as CRT-filters and
DeNOx catalysts will be installed on buses
• A transition to the use of low-sulphur diesel is in process for the
buses. This is essential for the functioning of the DeNOx catalysts.
• The company supports work on alternative fuels in transport
6.5. Business travel

The transport in the form of business journeys made by the employees of Oslo
Sporveier to conferences, meetings, seminars etc. was analysed in detail. The
sources of data material for this analysis were two internal reporting systems used
by the employees to claim reimbursement for this type of travel activity. The first
consisted of forms used to claim reimbursement for travel by public transport or
rental car, while the second consisted of forms used to report private car usage on
the business journeys. All the forms in these two categories in the company,
processed in the year 2000, were used in this analysis. This consisted of a total of
334 journeys by air, rail, train bus or ferry to destinations outside Oslo and
Akershus.
The results of the analysis of the company journeys indicated that in the year 2000
they accounted for a total energy use of 535 MWh, the emissions of 356 tonnes
of CO2, 713 kg NOx and 40 kg PM10.
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Figure 35 Distance travelled by the employees of Oslo Sporveier in business

travels, by various transport means in 2000 (Percent)
2% 10 %
3% Air
2%
Rail
Ferry
Bus
Private c ar
83 %
In Figure 35 the distribution of the distance travelled with the various transport
forms used on the business journeys is shown. Of the accumulated distance of
810 000 kilometres, air travel constituted 83%, private car 10%, and train, bus and
ferry each 2-3%. Air travel accounted for 338 tonnes or 97% of the total CO2 –
emissions from the company journeys. This corresponds to as much as two
percent of the total CO2 –emissions from the company operations shown in Table
28. It is therefore important for the company to reduce the air travel. Private car
also accounts for a much larger part of the emissions than rail and bus. These are
superior justifications for implemented company actions (Box 3) aiming at
reducing all unnecessary air travel and private car use.
Box 3 Actions connected to company business travels
Actions in business travels.

• Restrictions on travel to conferences and meetings outside Norway
with only participants from Norway
• Environmental criteria will be used in the approval of business
travels
• Conferences and meetings organised by AS Oslo Sporveier will only
take place at locations accessible with public transport.
Restrictions on unnecessary business travel and travel by air and private cars are
proposed and implemented in various ways through the environmental action plan
in the company. Indicators have also been established for measuring the changes
in this form of employee travel. They are shown in Box 4.
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Box 4 Indicators for measuring the changes in the employee’s business travels
from year to year
Indicators for business travels.

• Percent of business travels by bus and train
• Number of business travels by air
• Number of kilometres business travel by car per man-years
• Number of video-/telephone-/Internet-conferences per business travel
6.6. Travels to work

Due to the fact that the daily travels of the company’s employees between home
and the work place are not common to include in corporate environmental reports,
but are particularly relevant for a company providing environmentally friendly
transport, it is devoted relatively large space to this type of transport in this article.
The work travels performed by the employees of Oslo Sporveier were analysed
through a relatively extensive study where 796 of the employees were interviewed
on nine of the largest work locations in the company. The total number of
employees at the time of the study was 2323. By taking into consideration the
amount of part-time employment, answers were obtained from 38% of the total
number of man-years in the company, which is the respondent rate in the study.
The interviews were carried out by employees of the company in collaboration

with the researches from Western Norway Research Institute. A combination of e-
mail and personal interviews was used. Employees with access to personal
computer answered a questionnaire distributed by e-mail, while the others were
interviewed in-person. Answers were obtained regarding the travel to work on the
actual day the questionnaires were sent out and the interviews carried out. The
“today’s travel” approach used was chosen to reduce the potential source of errors
from the employees having to remember their travel far back in time. The
disadvantage with this approach is however that the chosen day of the interviews
could be an atypical day for various reasons. No such reasons was however
identified, except for the fact that the day chosen in November is in a season when
the use of bicycling/walking is relatively low. The question of how the
bicycling/walking on the day of the interview deviated from the annual average
was not answered with this methodological approach. Questions were asked about
transport mode, distance travelled, and for the use of private cars, also the number
of people in the car during the journey.
The results of the study indicated that the work travel by the employees accounted
for an energy use of 11.9 GWh corresponding to 6% of the company’s total
energy use in year 2000. This is a relatively high number, as the company is a
major consumer of energy through the trams, metro and bus services. Emissions
of CO2 from the work travel amounted to as much as 2 963 tonnes, corresponding
to 17% of the company’s total CO2 –emissions. The NOx –emissions amounted to
8.1 tonnes, or 5% of the company total. Approx. 1.6 tonnes of PM10,
corresponding to 13% of the total from the company operations were emitted. The
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reason why the percentage is so much higher for CO2, NOx and PM10 than for
energy is that there is a much higher fraction of energy use in the form of fossil
fuels in the work travel than in the total company energy use. A major part of the
total company energy use is in the form of electricity for the trams and metro
systems.
The result of the study also showed that 428 of the 796 of the work journeys (54%
of total) were carried out by private car, while in 324 of the journeys (41% of
total) public transport were used for the major (longest) segment of the work
journey (Figure 36).
Figure 36 Distribution of Oslo Sporveier employee travels to work on various

transport means (percent of total)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Walking/bicycle Public transport Private car O ther
Two additional studies of work travel in Oslo and Akershus County have found
private car shares ranging from 58% to 53% (Andersen, 2001). The share of
private car use of 54% found in the study of employee work travel in Oslo
Sporveier thus indicates a similar private car share as work travel in general in
Oslo city and Akershus County. However, as relatively large parts of the company
are centrally located in Oslo and with good access to public transport it is reason
to expect that the share of private car usage was lower. This share of private car
use should however be considered in light of the employees’ home relative to the
work place location. In Table 29 the location of the employees’ homes in three
areas is shown: 1) Oslo, 2) Akershus County and 3) Outside Oslo and Akershus
County. Close to 69% of the employees live within Oslo city’s borders, with
relatively good access to public transport. This supports the expectation of a lower
share of private cars than the findings in the study indicate.
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Table 29 The location of the homes of employees in three areas (number and
percent)
Outside Oslo
and
Oslo Akershus Akershus Total
Number % Number % Number % Number %
Total Oslo
Sporveier 1 631 68.7 585 24.6 158 6.7 2 374 100.0
Analyses of data from an earlier study of travel behaviour for Oslo/Akershus

(1990/91) showed the share of private car use relative to the work location at
increasing distance from Oslo centre (Andersen, 2001). The results are shown in
Table 30 and Figure 37.
Table 30 Private car use in work travels, relative to the work location at
increasing distance from Oslo centre. 1990/91 (percent of all work journeys)
Work location Private car use in
work travels (%)
Oslo centre 28
Inner city 40
Outer city 55
Akershus County 66
Average Oslo/Akershus 50
Source: Andersen (2001), based on Fosli and Lian (1999)
As seen in Table 30 the share of private car is relatively low when the work
location is Oslo centre. At locations further away there is a substantial but still
gradual increase up to the outermost zone: Akershus. In the inner city the share of
private car is still substantially below the average of approx. 50%, while it is
barely above in the outer city. It is not until a location in Akershus that the share
of private car is substantially higher than the average and higher than what
referred to above in the other studies of Oslo/Akershus (average 53-58%).
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Figure 37 Private car usage in travels to work as a function of the distance from
the work location to Oslo centre. 1990/91 (Percent of all work journeys)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
Distance from Oslo centre (km)
Source: Andersen (2001), based on Fosli and Lian (1999)
In Figure 37 a strong increase in the share of private car out to about 6 km from
the Oslo centre is evident. The use of private car is there somewhat higher than
the average for Oslo/Akershus. When the work location is gradually farther away
from the city the increase in private car share is more moderate. When the
distance from the centre is about 25 km the private car share is above 70%.
The study of work travel among the employees in Oslo Sporveier found that at the
company locations with the lowest private car use the share of private car is about
as would be expected relative to the average for Oslo/Akershus. The basis for the
relatively high share of private car for the company as a whole is primarily the
high shares (77-86%) of private car usage at three units. The shares of private car
usage at these three units are above what one would expect from their location
with relatively good accessibility with public transport and situated at node-points
in the public transport route network. This is an additional indication that there
would be reason to believe that lower shares of private car is possible, facilitated
by actions working in that direction at all company units.
The average occupancy rate of the private car journeys in the study of employee
work travel in Oslo Sporveier was found to be 1.18 persons per car. This is the
same as the occupancy rate on weekdays in Oslo in the morning rush found in a
separate study (Andersen, 2001). An average private car occupancy rate of 1.1 for
work travel has previously been found in Oslo/Akershus. The Norwegian national
average occupancy rate for work travel in 1998 was also about 1.1 (ibid.). The
occupancy rate for work travel in Oslo Sporveier is thus somewhat higher than the
average both nationally and for Oslo and Akershus. The possible difference is
however small. The occupancy rate found in the study of work travels in Oslo
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Sporveier is not high enough to rule out the possibilities that company actions
could have an effect on increasing the occupancy rate.
Oslo Sporveier has established several actions connected to the employee’s work
travel (Box 5). The first group of actions is aiming at stimulating the employees to
use public transport instead of private car. First of all, the employees can travel
free on the transport means operated by Oslo Sporveier within the Oslo city
border. In addition, the company is operating a system of employee transport,
consisting of buses picking up and delivering employees. The superior
justification for this system is to make it easier to get to and from work for
employees with work hours extending into the night, when the public transport
services are not operating. The company has also made an objective to establish a
new overall parking policy. A superior goal is to increase the restrictions on
accessibility of parking space. These restrictions apply to employees who are not
dependent on private car use to and from work.
Box 5 Actions in Oslo Sporveier connected to the employee’s work travel
Actions in employee work travel.

Actions aiming at stimulating to use of public transport:
• Free travel on public transport operated by Oslo Sporveier
• Employee transport system between work and home consisting of
buses picking up and delivering employees
• Parking restrictions for automobiles
Actions aiming at stimulating to bicycling/walking:

• Information on positive health effects of increased
bicycling/walking
• Physical facilitating actions for increased bicycle use
In spite of the system with free travel on public transport within the borders of
Oslo, and the system of special buses picking up and delivering employees at their
homes, the study of the work travel among the employees found a relatively high
private car use. On the other hand, the use of public transport – about 40 percent –
is substantially higher than the average for Oslo/Akershus. The use of metro is
more than twice as high. Seen this way, it is apparent that the stimulating actions,
such as the system of free travel, have an effect. The problem however is that they
do not appear to result in a lower private car use, but first of all a lower
walking/bicycle use. The average in Oslo/Akershus for walking/bicycle use is 18-
20 percent, while it was found to be as low as 5 percent in Oslo Sporveier74.
The second group of actions connected to the employee’s work travel consists of
actions aiming at stimulating to increased bicycling/walking. As a part of its
environmental action plan the company is working towards increasing the
74
See previous comment in the main text regarding potential error in bicycling/walking rate.
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bicycling use by implementing information and facilitating actions for making the
use of bicycle a more preferred transport choice. These actions are anchored in the
company’s HSE work. In addition, an objective of carrying out annually surveys
of employee’s work travel is established, for the purpose of monitoring the use of
various transport modes.
The company has established a set of indicators for the measuring of changes in
the employee’s work travel from year to year. The indicators are shown in Box 6.
Box 6 Indicators for measuring the changes in the employee’s travels to work
from year to year
Indicators for employee travels
• Average percentage of the travels to work performed by private car

• Average percentage of the travels to work performed by bicycle in May
or September
• Average occupancy rate for private car travels to work
6.7. Purchasing
The company Oslo Sporveier has selected purchasing as one of the main areas of
focus in its environmental action plan. As was briefly touched in the introduction,
the energy consumption in the company is high. With energy as such a central
issue for the company, it is justifiable to draw attention to the energy use. For the
purchasing of energy two aspects of the energy systems are of particular
importance for the company:
1. The company Oslo Sporveier consumes large amounts of energy in its

operations. For the trams and metro systems electricity is the carrier of
energy, while in the bus system fossil diesel is used as energy carrier.
2. The energy systems are understood in an extended societal context.

This implies that the energy systems are not limited to the direct
energy use for the propulsion of the transport forms. An energy-chain
perspective is applied, which means that the source of the energy also
is focused upon. This is usually a standard approach in environmental
reporting, but it is of particular relevance for a company that consumes
large amounts of energy in its operations. In this case, the energy type
and quality are important choices for environmental reasons.
Information about the amount of purchased energy coming from fossil
sources of energy is for example required in determining the
company’s emissions of climate gases.
Clear possibilities for environmental improvements connected to the purchasing

of electricity exist. In the year 2000 Oslo Sporveier purchased almost 70 GWh of
electricity for the metros, 19 GWh for the trams, and almost 41 GWh for the
buildings. Through the preparation of the environmental report for the year 2000 a
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discussion was started if the company should start to apply environmental criteria
to the purchasing of electricity. For the years 2001/2002, the company action plan
specifies that the possibilities for purchasing of environmentally labelled
electricity will be investigated, both for the propulsion energy and energy for the
buildings. There are many different criteria for environmentally labelling of
electricity. Criteria for green electricity according to the Swedish “Bra miljøval”
(“Good environmental choice”) label guarantee that only the energy sources
hydropower, bio energy and wind energy are utilised. The main issue here is to
exclude the electricity from coal fired or nuclear power stations. The exclusion of
fossil fuel- or nuclear generated electricity implies that the electricity comes from
renewable energy sources only, and as such can be considered CO2 neutral. A
decision to switch to only using green electricity can thereby contribute to a
reduction in the CO2 emissions from the company activities75.
Also for the purchasing of new equipment the company will start to apply
environmental criteria. For the upgrading and purchasing of new electrified
transport equipment (trams and metro) are increased energy-efficiency and
reduction in noise important factors taken into consideration. For the purchasing
of new buses is in addition company criteria established for the reduction in
exhaust emissions.
Environmental criteria are also established for the choice of suppliers. These
include criteria regarding the supplier’s environmental policy, environmental
report and environmental management system. Indicators expressing the
percentage of purchases where the supplies fulfil the criteria are also established.
Also for the choice of products, indicators expressing the environmental aspects
are starting to be applied. Both life-cycle costs and environmental issues such as
eco-labelling, content of recycled material and content of hazardous chemicals are
included in the indicators.
6.8. The societal accounting

As a way of showing its responsibility as an important societal actor, the company
Oslo Sporveier has chosen to disclose its societal account. Through the societal
account, the company is demonstrating how the environmental consequences of
the company’s transport activities compare with other parts of Oslo’s person
transport system. The company thus uses the societal accounting to communicate
important environmental issues to the stakeholders.
The environmental indicators used in the societal accounting for Oslo Sporveier
include direct energy use, emissions of CO2, NOx, PM10 and PM2.5. Data for the
indicators in the year 2000 was obtained for the company’s activities. In addition,
data was obtained from the other public transport companies operating in Oslo, to
determine the environmental consequences of the total public transport in Oslo.
The data for the private cars and taxis in Oslo were obtained by using official
75
Since basically all electricity produced in Norway is from hydroelectric power, the CO2 -
reduction is based on the assumption that there is a net import of electricity to Norway. This was
the case in the years 1997 (3.4% import), 1998 (3.1% import), 1999 (2.9% import), and 2001
(3.0% import). In the year 2000 the situation was however quite different with a net export of
13,3% (Statistics Norway, 2002).
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statistics of this transport work and applying average factors for energy use and
emissions connected to this transport in Oslo. The results of these calculations are
shown in Figure 38. From the figure it is evident that the environmental
consequences in terms of emissions and energy use for both the public transport
as a whole, and for the company’s transport activities, are small compared with
private car and taxi.
Figure 38 Energy use and emissions from Oslo’s total person transport (Energy
in GWh, CO2 in kilo-tonnes, other emissions in tonnes)
4 000
3 500
Oslo Sporveier
3 000
2 500 All public transport
2 000 Private car + taxi
1 500
1 000
500
0
Energy CO2
CO2 NO
NOx
x PM10
PM10 PM2.5
PM2.5
Also the average specific energy use and emissions per person-km for the
company’s activities, the total public transport and private car and taxi were
determined. The comparison in Figure 39 clearly shows that the average specific
emissions and energy use for both the company and the public transport as a
whole are much less then for private car and taxi. This indicates that there would
be large environmental improvements connected to an expansion of Oslo’s public
transport.
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Figure 39 Specific energy use and emission per person-km for Oslo’s person
transport (Energy in kWh/pkm, CO2 in kg/pkm, other emissions in g/pkm)
0.8
Oslo Sporveier
0.6 All public transport

Private car + taxi
0.4
0.2
0
Energy CO2
CO2
NOx
NOx PM10
PM10 PM2.5
PM2.5
The societal accounting also includes determining the environmental costs of the
company’s transport activities, the public transport as a whole and the use of
private cars and taxis. The results of the calculations of the environmental costs
are shown in Figure 40. It is evident that the environmental costs76 of the public
transport as a whole and for the company’s transport activities are small compared
with private car and taxi.
Figure 40 Total environmental costs of Oslo’s person transport (million NOK)
3 000
2 500
2 000
1 500
1 000
500
0
O slo Sporveier All public transport Private car + taxi
76
The calculations of environmental costs are based on a unit cost of 0.35 NOK per kg CO2, 400
NOK per kg NOx and 2 050 NOK per kg PM10. The unit cost of PM2.5 is included in the unit cost
of PM10.
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The average specific environmental costs per person-km for the company’s
services, the total public transport and the private car and taxi were also
determined. The comparison in Figure 41 clearly shows that also the specific
environmental costs per person-km for the company’s transport activities and
public transport as a whole are much less than for car and taxi.
Figure 41 Average environmental costs of person transport in Oslo per person-

km (NOK)
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
O slo Sporveier All public transport Private car + taxi
6.9. Final discussion

In this article environmental reporting in the field of transport is discussed. An
example is given of a company strategy that includes, in addition to
environmental reporting, also societal accounting.
There are strategically good reasons for a transport company to include the
environmental consequences of business travels and travel to work in the
environmental report. By disclosing these types of information the company is
improving its transparency. This is important for a good stakeholder dialogue.
These types of transport activities can cause major environmental impacts, adding
to the impacts of the main operations of the company. This is shown for the case
of Oslo Sporveier, where the company’s total CO2-emissions increase by 20% and
the PM10 -emissions by 13% when the employee’s company travel and daily travel
to work are included.
It is not strategically wise for a public transport company to accept that a large
number of its employees use private car to work. This problem is amplified if the
occupancy rate of the car use is low. If this is the case the company will easily be
subjected to stakeholder critique. The reporting of developments in employee’s
travels to work is thus strategically advantageous for a company providing
environmentally friendly transport.
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The case of Oslo Sporveier also shows how an environmental strategy for a
company can include specific requirements to the purchasing of energy and
materials. It is a logical environmental strategy for a company that purchases large
amounts of energy, to apply specific environmental criteria to the type of energy
being purchased. Failure to consider the environmental life-cycle, for example of
the electricity being purchased, can result in omission of major impacts of the
company’s activities.
In this article an example is given of how societal accounting can be used in

connection with environmental reporting. Through the societal accounting a
company can show the environmental consequences of the company’s services in
relation to other ways of providing the service. Applied to transport services, the
societal accounting for Oslo Sporveier is an example of how the environmental
consequences of the company’s products (services) compare with the total public
transport and the private car usage. The results of the societal accounting for Oslo
Sporveier clearly indicates that there would be large environmental improvements
connected to an increased share of public transport usage, as is also a key element
of the company strategy. The societal accounting thus gives important knowledge
at the political level regarding the development of a city. In that way it serves the
function of supplementing and correcting the scenarios.
It is possible to picture the flow of knowledge through the company strategy and
the political level with a “loop”. The scenarios provide important knowledge to
the political level regarding transport development. The societal accounting
corrects and supplements the scenarios. With the help of the societal accounting,
the environmental report is thus “lifted” up annually to a political level. This is of
high value for a company with important societal functions. The “looping” of
knowledge back to the scenarios contributes to change the framework conditions
for the company, expressed through the environmental report. A connection
between political strategies and the company strategy is thus established.
6.10. References
Andersen, O. (1998): Svevestøv fra persontransport i Oslo. En beregning av
mengder og kostnader (Particles from Person Transport in Oslo. A
Calculation of Amounts and Costs). Vf-Rapport 14/98, Western Norway
Research Institute, Sogndal. (In Norwegian).
Andersen, O. (2001): Arbeidsreisene for ansatte i AS Oslo Sporveier (The work
Travels of the Employees of AS Oslo Sporveier). Vf-Notat 9/01, Western
Norway Research Institute, Sogndal. (In Norwegian).
Andersen, O. (2003): Transport Scenarios in a Company Strategy. Business
Strategy and the Environment. (Submitted).
Azzone, G., Manzini, R. and Noci, G. (1996): Evolutionary Trends in
Environmental Reporting. In Industry and the Environment: Practical
Applications of Environmental Management Approaches in Business,
Ulhøy, J.P. and Madsen H. (eds.), The Corporate Technology and
Environment Management Research Group, The Aarhus School of
Business, Aarhus.
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Clarkson, M.B.E. (1995): A stakeholder framework for analysing and evaluation

corporate social performance. Academy of Management Review, 20(1), p.
92-117.
Holgaard, J.E. and Remmen, A. (2001): Transport på vej ind i virksomhedernes
miljøarbejde? (Is Transport Becoming part of Enterprise Environmental
Work?). Transport- og Luftkvalitetskontoret, Miljøstyrelsen / Aalborg
University. (In Danish, with English summary).
Vf-Rapport 12/98, Western Norway Research Institute, Sogndal.
Kolk, A. (1999): Evaluating Corporate Environmental Reporting. Business
Strategy and the Environment, 8, p. 225-237.
Kolk, A., Walhain, S. and van de Wateringen, S. (2001): Environmental
Reporting by the Fortune Global 250: Exploring the Influence of
Nationality and Sector. Business Strategy and the Environment, 10, p. 15-
28.
Lundli, H.E., Andersen, O. and Høyer, K.G. (1998): Transportscenarier for Oslo.
1996-2016. Konsekvenser for areal, tidsbruk og utslipp av CO2, NOx og
svevestøv (Transport Scenarios for Oslo. 1996-2016. Consequences for
Land use, Time use and Emission of CO2, NOx and particles). VF-rapport
13/98, Western Norway Research Institute, Sogndal. (In Norwegian).
Statistics Norway (2002): Elektrisitetsstatistikk. (Electricity statistics). Statistics
Norway. (In Norwegian).
138
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY IN TRANSPORT COMPANIES. INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY PERSPECTIVES ON
RESOURCE- AND IMPLEMENTATION-LIMITS OF BIOLOGICAL FUELS
—————————————————————————————————
7. Alternative Energy in Transport Companies.

Industrial Ecology Perspectives on Resource-
and Implementation-limits of Biological Fuels
7.1. Abstract
This paper addresses the relations between industrial ecology and alternative
transport energy. Limits and barriers to the use of biodiesel from rapeseed and
alcohols from wood are discussed by applying industrial ecology perspectives.
The paper presents results from the two European Commission DG-XVII
ALTENER projects “Biodiesel in heavy duty vehicles in Norway – Strategic plan
and vehicle fleet experiments” and “Motor-alcohols from wood resources in
heavy duty vehicles. A Nordic project on market-penetration through stakeholder
group networks”. These projects gained new empirical material connected to
barriers in two main areas: 1) Implementation of biological fuels in transport and
2) Analysis of resource requirements for a larger implementation of biological
fuels as energy for transport (mobile energy). The implementation part comprised
of fleet tests with biodiesel in two Norwegian bus companies. The main
organisational barriers connected to the bus companies, as well as environmental
barriers to biodiesel use were analysed. Organisational barriers to biodiesel were
identified at different levels (management, garage staff and drivers) in the two
companies. The analysis of environmental barriers focused on additives and
emissions. The barriers to implementation of motor-alcohols from wood were
identified through the forming of stakeholder group networks. These networks of
actors from Norway, Sweden and Finland, comprised of members drawn from
manufacturers of wood-based alcohols, distributors of motor-fuels, manufacturers
of heavy duty vehicles dedicated for motor-alcohols, and others. The analyses of
resource requirements for a larger implementation of biodiesel revealed
consequences in various agricultural scenarios. The environmental impacts in
terms of land-use, fertiliser use, pesticides and herbicides and the application of
transgenic plants were also discussed. The effect of biodiesel on emission of
greenhouse gases were analysed in detail using a life cycle approach.
The paper discusses these empirical results from industrial ecology perspectives.
An important perspective is the integration of industrial activity with natural
ecosystems. A general characteristic of the transport sector is that this industry is a
large converter of mobile energy. The mobile energy conversion is the key to the
connection to industrial ecology for this type of industry. A case analysis of the
two bus companies reveals this connection further. Both bus companies are large
converters of mobile energy. The bus companies are responsible for natural
resource consumption mainly in the form of fossil fuel combustion. The transition
to renewable sources of energy is mandatory for obtaining an improved
integration of industrial activity into natural ecosystems. This is an essential
element of industrial ecology. The connecting of transport activities up to basic
biological systems however raises new questions regarding volume as barrier to
energy use and alternative fuel implementation. The alternative transport fuels and
their associated volume-problems, in terms of limits on emissions and agricultural
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production, are likely to be some of the most important topics for industrial
ecology in the future.
7.2. Introduction
The transport sector is a major converter of energy. The large energy use is a
characteristic of the type of industrial activity represented by the transport sector.
Energy is a key factor for understanding the relations between industrial ecology
and transport. Energy for transport (mobile energy) can be considered as the main
connection between transport companies and industrial ecology. Bus companies
are of particular interest, since they are responsible for major natural resource
consumption in the form of fossil diesel combustion.
The integration of industry into nature’s ecosystems is an important perspective of

industrial ecology. Improved integration is a main strategy for reducing industry’s
negative impact on ecosystems. For the transport sector, the key to this integration
is energy. Fossil energy is a non-renewable resource, which is incompatible with
cyclic natural resource flows. The transition from exploiting non-renewable
resources, towards higher dependence on renewable sources of energy can
improve the integration of industrial activity with natural ecosystems. Energy
from biological sources is one example of renewable energy. The transition to
biologically based energy can thus be a strategy for connecting the transport
industry to biological systems, and thus improving the integration with natural
ecosystems.
However, problems emerge with the increased transition to alternative mobile

energies. First of all, the systems efficiency is low for many of the alternatives1.
High efficiency is required for future energy systems.
Many of the problems connected to the implementation of alternative fuels are not
solvable by purely technical measures, but are present in the form of volume
problems. An example of a volume problem is the large amounts raw materials
required for the production of alternative fuels for the rapidly increasing number
of private cars. This is a different form of problem than, for example, the problem
of reducing the exhaust emissions of automobiles. The latter is an example of an
efficiency problem, consisting of making things better. Volume problems are
however connected to the necessity of making reductions.
The resource requirements for larger implementations of bio-based fuels can

exceed available land. Larger implementation of biodiesel produced from rape
(rape methyl ester, RME) for example, can be severely restricted by the
agricultural land available for this production. The environmental impacts of this
production can in addition consist of increased leaching from fertiliser use,
damages from pesticide usage, and the application of genetically modified crops.
Another area of concern is the effect of biodiesel usage on the emission of
greenhouse gases. This is not well enough understood from a life cycle
perspective of the fuels.
Industrial ecology is about making changes to society. Changes are implemented

through the involvement of actors and through structures. Barriers to
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implementation of alternative energy can be connected with both actors and
structures at various societal levels. At the level of individual transport
companies, implementation barriers can be present at different organisational
levels (management, garage staff and drivers). Environmental barriers can also be
present and connected to additive usage and emissions, of concern during
transport, storage and final combustion of alternative fuels.
The engaging of actors is important for implementation of alternative energies.

The formation of stakeholder group networks with a wide range of actors
represented is one way of identifying, and possibly resolve barriers. The actors
included in a stakeholder group network for biologically based motor- alcohols
would for example include transport companies, transport organisations, wood-
processing industries and manufacturers of biologically based alcohols,
distributors of motor-fuels, and manufacturers of heavy duty vehicles dedicated
for motor-alcohols.
7.3. Research basis

The empirical data material presented here is based on two European Commission
DG-XVII ALTENER projects:
1) “Biodiesel in heavy duty vehicles in Norway. Strategic plan and vehicle

fleet experiments”
2) “Motor-alcohols from wood resources in heavy duty vehicles. A Nordic

project on market-penetration through stakeholder group networks”
The main objective of the former project was to develop a strategic plan for
deployment of biodiesel in heavy-duty vehicles, applicable both for Norwegian
Federation of Transport Companies and bus companies. Fleet tests with biodiesel
in buses were carried out to provide empirical foundations for the plan. Particular
focus was on barriers when driving in cold weather, and barriers in the production
chain of RME.
The latter of the two projects aimed at identifying, in collaboration with Ecotraffic
R&D in Sweden and VTT in Finland, barriers in the production, distribution and
usage of wood-based motor-alcohols. This was done through the forming of
stakeholder group networks for wood-based motor-alcohols.
7.4. Company barriers to biodiesel use

To generate more knowledge of the barriers, fleet tests2 with biodiesel were
conducted in the project. Through the tests, barriers were identified in connection
with driving and starting in cold weather. Both technical, environmental and
health aspects of fuel- and additive-usage were included. Barriers related to the
three company levels administration, driver and workshop were identified through
interviews in connection to the fleet tests.
At the management level of the organisation the main barrier was the price of
biodiesel. Unless the price is at least 10-20% below the price of fossil fuel, to
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compensate for the higher fuel consumption, the bus companies are not likely to
use biodiesel. Another important barrier at the management level is the vehicle
manufacturers’ reluctance to give full approvals for biodiesel use. Bus companies
are therefore not using biodiesel from the fear of potential engine damages.
At the driver level the most important barrier is the reduced engine-power of
biodiesel. Fear of not being able to drive according to the route’s time schedule is
thus a barrier to the implementation of biodiesel.
Among the staff in the workshop the most important barriers were connected to
the fear of more maintenance work in the form of more frequent changes of
lubricating oil and filters. There was also a noteworthy uncertainty among the
workshop staff regarding the health effects of additives used in biodiesel.
7.5. Biodiesel use in cold ambient temperatures

The barriers connected to driving and starting in cold ambient temperatures were
also identified. These barriers encompassed the following:
1) Biodiesel does not work as well as mineral diesel in cold winter

temperatures. Special precautions must be taken when operating in cold
weather.
2) The use of additives in biodiesel represents potential environmental and

health-related problems3. Several of the most common winter-additives in
use today are carcinogenic and exhibit potential pollution threats in the
case of spillage and accidents.
A literature study4 of biodiesel additives indicated that problems with driving in

cold weather are overcome by using additives. Environmental and health
problems are however connected with additives used to obtain improved winter
properties (“cold flow additives”) and other additives.
Additive products marketed are almost always mixtures of different compounds

blended together into additive packages to provide several functions
simultaneously. Substantial research is conducted in improving fuel properties by
finding combinations of different types of additives (Wilson, 1997). This implies
that the environmental effects of additive usage are not limited to the effects of
individual compounds. The possibility for synergistic effects of each individual
compound must also be taken into account when assessing the effect of additives
on health and environment5.
7.6. Biodiesel production barriers

The most important barriers connected to Norwegian production of biodiesel
based on the energy-crops rape and colza were identified. The total agricultural
land in Norway in 1998 was 1.04 million hectare (2.57 million acre). One third of
this, 0.33 million hectares, was used for cultivation of grains, mainly barley, oats
and wheat. Oil seed was cultivated on approx. 7 600 hectares. This is less than 1%
of the agricultural land6. In 1991, oil seed cultivation reached a maximum of 11
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400 hectare (Statistics Norway, 1998). Barriers were identified in three different
scenarios for future agricultural systems in Norway. The three systems are:
1) An organic agricultural system

2) A traditional agricultural system
3) A high-technological intensive agricultural system
The assumptions connected to each agricultural system are shown in Table 31.
These assumptions are optimistic, especially regarding the available land, the
yield, and the improvements in yield and oil seed content from the application of
genetic engineering.
Table 31 The assumptions made in the three different agriculture systems for year
2005
System
Organic Traditional Intensive
Available land (ha) 250 000 300 000 300 000
Oil seed cultivation frequency (year) 6 5 3
Annual land use (ha) 42 000 60 000 100 000
Average yield (tonnes/ha) 1.5 2.5 2.5
Oil content in seeds (%) 45 45 55
It is only possible to reach the replacement percentages in these systems with an

active application of policies to further develop systems for increased biodiesel
use. It is only within the scenario of a high-technological intensive agricultural
system that it is possible for biodiesel to replace a significant portion (>15%) of
the fossil diesel consumption in heavy-duty vehicles7 (Table 32). Major
environmental barriers are however connected to this scenario. Problems from the
application of genetic engineering, excessive use of chemicals and artificial
fertilisers are some examples8.
Table 32 The biodiesel replacement potential of three different agriculture

systems in year 2005 (tonnes and percent)
Tonnes %
Total diesel use in heavy duty vehicles 900 000 100.0
Intensive agriculture 156 240 17.4
Traditional agriculture 76 680 8.5
Organic agriculture 32 220 3.6
7.7. Effects of biodiesel on emissions of greenhouse gases

Emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O) from rapeseed cultivation have a large effect on
the total CO2 -balance in RME production and usage. New estimates of N2O
emissions from rapeseed cultivation indicate that this effect is larger than
previously assumed by Figenbaum (1995) 9. The effect on the CO2 -balance of
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using updated estimates on N2O emissions were analysed, and complimented with
more recent data from Statistics Norway (1998) on land use.
The results from the study by Figenbaum (ibid.) indicate a reduction of 1.90 kg
fossil CO2 emissions per kilo RME used (by-products included). These reductions
represent 60% of the total CO2 -emissions from mineral diesel use. Using the data
from Figenbaum, with the new estimates on N2O -emissions, we get the results
shown in Table 33. These are results based on the intensive and the traditional
agricultural scenarios. As shown in the table the lowest estimate in the
calculations (-50% error in the calculation of the N2O -emissions) will reduce the
CO2 –emissions to about the same level as in the Figenbaum study (ibid.). But in
the middle estimate the reduction in CO2 -emissions from a transition to RME use
is only 17%. The “highest” estimate (+50% uncertainty in the calculation of the
N2O -emissions) actually gives a 15% increase in greenhouse gas emissions with
the replacement of fossil diesel by RME.
Table 33 Effect of biodiesel on the emission of greenhouse gases

Uncertainty
Figenbaum This -50% +50
study (ibid.) study %
N2O-emissions (in CO2- equivalents: 636 1 655 828 2 482
kg/hectare)
Net reduction (kilogram CO2 / kilogram 1.9 0.55 1.60 -0.50
RME)
Net reduction (%) 60 17 50 +15
The new estimates of N2O emissions from rape production indicate that RME’s
positive effect on reducing greenhouse gas emissions is smaller than previously
assumed.
7.8. Barriers to wood-based motor-alcohols

The barriers to implementation of motor-alcohols from biological material were
identified through the forming of stakeholder group networks10. These networks
of actors from Norway, Sweden and Finland, comprised of members drawn from
manufacturers of wood-based alcohols, distributors of motor-fuels, and
manufacturers of heavy duty vehicles dedicated for motor-alcohols.
The stakeholder group network agreed upon that bio-based motor-alcohols should
be considered primarily a long-term strategy for the reduction of CO2. Both
methanol and ethanol are important future fuels for vehicles. Both the blending of
alcohol in petrol/diesel and use of pure methanol/ethanol are relevant strategies.
Alcohols can be used as fuel in both light and heavy-duty vehicles.
Among the key problems for increased use of motor-alcohols is the high
production cost for bioalcohols considered the main barrier. The absence of long-
term government policies for biofuels in the Nordic countries is also an obstacle
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for the further development of motor-fuel systems based on bioalcohols. A long-
term perspective is not present today, but will have to be necessary for future
implementation.
One main strategy identified for resolving the barriers is to establish co-operative
channels to major governing bodies. Such channels are important in promoting
the use of bio-alcohols by businesses and organisations in their negotiations and
dialogues with the governmental authorities.
7.9. Conclusions
The implementation of alternative energy is important for integrating industrial
activity into the ecosystems of nature, an important industrial ecology principle.
The transition from fossil energy to renewable energy use is thus a form of
industrial ecology strategy applicable to transport companies. The alternative
energy forms are however not compatible with industrial ecology unless they have
high life-cycle system efficiency.
Main problems connected to industrial ecology are however emerging with the
increased utilisation of alternative mobile energies. Many of the important
problems, such as the agricultural land requirements and the large amounts of
nitrous oxide emissions from rapeseed production, are problems emerging from
the large volumes to be replaced by alternative fuels. The barriers connected to
volume problems are less easily resolved than the problems of developing new or
adapting existing motor technologies to alternative fuels (efficiency problems) 11.
Both biodiesel and wood-based alcohol can in general be used with existing motor
technologies. Barriers are however present in transport companies, as is shown in
two bus companies.
For a large implementation of biodiesel produced from rapeseed in Norway, a

main barrier is the limited agricultural land available for this production. Even
with the application of a high-technological intensive agricultural system it is not
possible for biodiesel to replace more than about 17% of the fossil diesel
consumed by heavy-duty vehicles. Even with this low replacement major
problems would be likely to emerge, in the form of excessive application of
genetic engineering, chemicals for pesticide control and artificial fertilisers.
Biodiesel is commonly promoted as being CO2 –neutral, based on the thought that
the amounts of CO2 emitted to the atmosphere during the combustion is
compensated by the CO2 – assimilation by the plants. The assumption of CO2 –
neutrality is however not necessarily valid when the production of biodiesel is
analysed in more detail. Particularly the nitrous oxide emissions during the
cultivation have large effects on the total balance of greenhouse gas emissions in
RME production and usage. Our study indicates that biodiesel’s positive effect on
the reduction in the emission of greenhouse gases is smaller than previously
assumed.
From the experiences with the stakeholder group network on wood-based motor-
alcohols, it is noteworthy that all the stakeholders in the stakeholder group
network agreed upon working towards further implementation of wood-based
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motor alcohols. Even the oil companies, which have their basis in the production
and distribution of fossil fuels, agreed in supporting the implementation of
alternative energy in the form of wood-based motor-alcohols.
7.10. Notes
1
With system efficiency we understand the life-cycle efficiency of the energy
alternatives. This includes the energy efficiency during the production,
distribution, reforming, and final use (conversion) in the vehicles. For many
alternative fuels the energy system efficiency is lower than for fossil fuels. Bio-
methanol used in fuel cells can however compete with fossil diesel in terms of
total system efficiency (Ahlvik & Brandberg, 2001). In exergy-based
considerations, the biological alternatives usually come out better in terms of
system efficiency. This is due to the fact that the biological fuels are based on
renewable raw materials and the bi-products to a large extent are returned back to
nature’s renewable flows. Connected to this, it is common to differentiate between
dead stocks or deposits and living stocks or funds. Deposits and funds are defined
with regard to the difference in the time of reproduction. Natural flows and flows
from funds are often called renewable flows. It is also possible to distinguish
between deposits and funds by means of origin. Deposits, such as fossil energy
sources, origins from matter that is being removed from the recycling processes in
the biosphere, and placed into the lithosphere. Funds, such as trees and plants,
however, are part of the cyclic processes in the biosphere, powered by the sun.
2
Fleet tests with biodiesel were conducted in two bus fleets. Driving with
biodiesel was conducted in the two transport companies Sogn Billag and Firda
Billag during March 1997 and January-February 1998. Three buses were driven a
total of 25 000 km and consumed approx. 11 000 litre of biodiesel during these
tests. The lowest temperature recorded during the test period was –11 °C. No
major problems occurred during the test periods. The drivers however reported
somewhat reduced engine yield, especially noticeably when driving the bus up
steep hills. The fuel consumption increased 10-20 percent compared with fossil
diesel driving. A few passengers responded negatively to the characteristic odour
of the biodiesel exhaust.
In the project title the term “fleet experiments” is used for the biodiesel driving in
the bus companies. However, in describing the methodological approach applied
in the project, it is more correct to use the term “fleet tests”. The term
“experiments” signals the use of controlled conditions and rigid methods, such as
in conducting repeatable sequences of laboratory experiments. “Fleet tests”
implies less controlled conditions, more like a “case” for obtaining experiences
and knowledge. The fleet tests with biodiesel gave empirical experience and
knowledge of applying biodiesel as a fuel for buses.
3
An important strategically question regarding the implementation of alternative
energy forms is: Why is this important to elucidate the health and environmental
problems connected to the various energy forms? The question can be answered
by applying two different perspectives. The first is the structure-perspective: If
there is not much environmental benefits to gain from a transition to alternative
energy, then the transition is not compatible with industrial ecology. The second
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explanation is based in the actor-perspective: The various alternative energy forms
have emerged out of an environmental discourse, from the understanding that they
are important in achieving environmental improvements. The knowledge of the
various aspects of the alternatives is important to generate and disseminate,
because a successful transition to alternative energy forms requires that all central
actors (stakeholders) support the transition. It is quite problematic if some of the
central actors are opposing the energy form in question. In the transition to
alternative energy forms, environmental organisations are important actors. It is
thus a major problem if an environmental organisation is opposing some aspects
of the transition to an alternative energy form. The use of genetically modified
organisms (GMO) in connection with development and production of biological
fuels is an example of an issue connected with strong opposition. Another
example is the use of additives with damaging health and environmental effects.
A third example is that large implementation of RME in most countries is only
possible with intensive agricultural systems.
In the process of obtaining knowledge of the various aspects of the alternative

energy forms and dissemination it to the stakeholders, the focus on barriers is
important. Comprehensive knowledge is necessary for successful implementation.
The focus on the barriers is based in the understanding that unforeseen effects of
alternative energy forms must be avoided. The barrier-focus is thus applied to
give the actors knowledge of what is required for overcoming the barriers.
4
The goal was to obtain an overview of the usage of different types of additives
applicable for biodiesel. This knowledge overview is a starting point for
evaluating environmental, health and safety aspects of additive usage. This can
provide an aid in the identification of barriers to implementation of biodiesel.
Some indications of such environmental aspects are included in the final report
from the project (Andersen et al., 1998). The results from the study by no means
constitute a complete overview of different additives in use. A major problem in
this regard is the proprietary information of many additive compositions, only
available to the additive producers.
The USA EPA suggests that the possible environmental problems from emissions
of biodiesel additives primarily consist of nitrogen oxides and aldehydes (Sopota,
1997).
Most additives in the USA are recommended used in concentrations up to 2 000

PPM (2%), which means that 20 gram of the active ingredient can be added to 1
litre of the fuel. The Austrian standard for biodiesel however has an upper limit of
1% for additives.
There are at least four different reasons for using additives in biodiesel:
1) At temperatures below -5 oC it is necessary to improve the flow
properties of biodiesel to avoid plugging of fuel lines and filter. Two
different terms are being used to describe the cold flow properties.
CCFPP is an abbreviation both for critical cold filling pouring point
and for critical cold filter plugging point. With a CCFPP of -20 oC the
fuel is suitable for use at temperatures down to -20 oC. Additives that
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increase the cold flow properties, by lowering the CCFPP, are termed
pour point depressors (PPD).
2) The use of biodiesel can cause the formation of deposits in the engines,
mainly on intake valve shafts and injection systems. Additives used to
reduce this deposit-forming tendency are named dispersant
supplements.
3) RME has a high content of unsaturated fatty acid methyl esters
(FAME). The double bonds are vulnerable to oxidation. Contact with
metal can also result in oxidation that reduces the stability of the fuel.
A wide range of antioxidants and metal-passivators (increasing the
metal compatibility) are being used to extend the shelf-life of
biodiesel.
4) The different fatty acids that are esterified to form biodiesel possess
different ignition properties. The ignition properties are described in
terms of cetane numbers. Including additives can improve the ignition
properties of biodiesel by reducing the time delay between the
injection and the ignition. This will increase the cetane number of the
fuel.
5
This consideration must be taken into account both regarding combustion
products, emissions and physical contact.
6
The agricultural land use (% of each crop) in Norway in 1997 is shown in the
following figure:
Oilseed
Other crops 1%
7%
Grain
32 %
Grass
60 %
7
In the resource analysis for biodiesel a Norwegian national perspective is
chosen. In principle, much larger amounts of biodiesel could be produced in other
countries, where climate and agricultural conditions are more favourable, e.g. in
Germany, and imported for use in Norway. However, transporting alternative
fuels over long distances, such as currently is being done with fossil fuels, is not a
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good solution. The national perspective is based in an environmental discourse,
with to a large extent agreement that in order for future energy forms to be
environmentally sound, they must be compatible with the three principles of:
1) Self-support
2) Local-regional systems for production, distribution and consumption
3) Nature integration: The integration of industrial activities into nature’s
ecosystems
The calculated share of fossil diesel use that biodiesel can replace is for the diesel
use in heavy duty vehicles only. The share is substantially lower when the fossil
diesel use in private cars, taxis, agricultural machinery, boats and ferries are taken
into consideration. The total use of fossil diesel in Norway is approx. four times
the amount used in heavy duty vehicles, resulting in a total replacement potential
of only 4% for the most intensive agricultural scenario.
8
Some environmental organisations are opposing large-scale biodiesel use from
the perspective that it requires a high-intensitive agriculture. There is a particular
strong opposition to the use of genetic engineering. The development of new plant
properties by the use of genetic engineering can represent a conflict with the
precautionary principle, as there is uncertainty regarding the future environmental
consequences of this technology. The precautionary principle states that if there is
scientific uncertainty regarding irreversible effects on the environment from an
activity, the lack of full scientific proof for the effects is not a good enough
argument for continuing with the activity.
9
N2O -emission is not only an impact from cultivating rapeseed, but from all
agricultural cultivation. The most important factors for N2O -emissions from
agriculture are:
1) Industrial production of fertiliser
2) Use of mineral fertiliser and manure
3) Runoff/leakage from mineral fertiliser and manure
4) Decomposition of plant-material (plant-rests).
5) Nitrogen-fixation by bacteria
6) Livestock on pasture
In the analysis of N2O form rapeseed production the three first factors are
included. The percentage of nitrogen in fertiliser and runoff that ends up as
nitrogen in N2O is shown in the following table:
Source Factors
Production of fertiliser 0.54% N in fertiliser as N in N2O
Use of fertiliser/slurry 1.25% N in fertiliser as N in N2O
Runoff/leakage 2.50% N in runoff as N in N2O
Source: Rypdal (1998) and Jevne (1998)
The N2O-emissions from rape seed cultivation, using 150 00 tonnes mineral
fertiliser in the intensive/traditional agriculture system, and 95 000 tonnes manure
in the organic agriculture system are as follows (in kg N2O / hectare):
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Intensive/Traditional Organic system
agricultural system
From production of 1.27 0
fertiliser
From fertiliser usage 2.95 1.87
From runoff/leakage 1.12 1.12
Total N2O-emissions 5.34 2.99
The intensive and the traditional system will result in emissions of 21.4 gram N2O
per kilogram rapeseed produced. The corresponding figure for the organic system
will be 19.9 gram. On a land area basis, the emissions of CO2 will be 1 655
kilogram per hectare for the intensive and the traditional system, and 925
kilogram per hectare for the organic system.
10
The formation of stakeholder group networks is based in the actor-perspective
of industrial ecology, by which it is understood that changes to society are
implemented through the involvement of actors. Successful implementation of
alternative energy forms can only be carried out through the involvement of
stakeholders (actors). Stakeholder group networks can be placed within the
concept of environmental co-operative regimes. Such regimes had not previously
been applied within the area of expanding the use of alternative energy forms in
transport. From a strategic policy point of view, the environmental co-operative
regime is an example of co-operative environmental governance as described by
Glasbergen (1998). Lafferty and Meadowcroft (1996) describe these types of
regimes as implying the process of bargaining and cooperation among groups, and
between groups and governments – for the successful management of
environmental problems. The regimes work to solve environmental problems by
clearly defining the responsibilities of each member and then negotiate on
concrete agreements on how to achieve a goal. The “groups” participation can
come from established producer and consumer organisations, trade and
professional associations, scientific and educational institutions, religious and
charitable foundations, in addition to environmental organisations and even from
corporations whose environmental credentials are under scrutiny. Each group may
be concerned with one or more dimensions of the environmental debate, and their
activity may range from public education and campaigning to private lobbying of
the bureaucracy and elected officialdom. Through such regimes can the
significance of environmental degradation more rapidly be brought into the open;
a fuller picture of social and ecological interconnections among issues may be
built up; and a wider range of policy options can emerge and be subject to critical
scrutiny.
Through constructive dialogue, reflection, negotiation and compromise can the

participating groups arrive at an agreed solution to the problem in question. Each
participant assumes some responsibility for the implementation of the agreed
solution and debate allows for further mutual understanding and facilitates
redefinition of group interests within the context of a broader common interest. A
commitment to search collectively for a solution leads to the development of a
joint “action plan” to which each party feels an attachment (ibid.).
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The joint action plan from the project’s stakeholder group network consisted of
actively supporting and promoting the further development and implementation of
bio-based motor-alcohols. The strategy identified by the stakeholder group
network for resolving the barriers was to establish co-operative channels to major
governing bodies. Through the project quite new cooperative channels were
actually established, in a setting encompassing three different countries. Both on
the Nordic level and within each of the three countries were conditions thus
established for a further contact and cooperation after the end of the project. In the
Norwegian context this was undertaken through the activities of the Norwegian
Bioenergy Association.
11
Even though the understanding of transport problems in industrial ecology often
is limited to efficiency problems, the systems approach of industrial ecology opens
up for inclusion of volume problems.
7.11. References
Ahlvik, P. and Brandberg, Å. (2001): Well-To Wheel Efficiency for Alternative
Fuels from Natural Gas or Biomass. Publication nr. 85, Ecotraffic,
Stockholm.
Andersen, O., Lundli, H. E., Brendehaug, E. and M. Simonsen (1998): Biodiesel
in Heavy-duty Vehicles – Strategic Plan and Vehicle Fleet Experiments.
Final report from European Commission ALTENER-project
XVII/4.1030/Z/209/96/NOR, Rapport 18/98, Vestlandsforsking, Sogndal.
Figenbaum, E., (1995): Biodiesel – En livsløpsanalyse. (Biodiesel – A life cycle
analysis). National Institute of Technology, Oslo. (In Norwegian).
Glasbergen, P. (1998): Co-operative Environmental Governance. Public-Private
Agreements as a Policy Strategy. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht.
Jevne, P.G. (1998): Norsk Hydro, Oslo. Personal communication.
Lafferty, W.M. and Meadowcroft, J. (1996): Democracy and Environment:
Prospects for greater Congruence. In Democracy and Environment.
Problems and Prospects, Lafferty, W.M. and Meadowcroft, J. (eds.),
Edward Elgar, England, p. 256-272.
Rypdal, K. (1998): Statistics Norway, Oslo. Personal communication.
Sopata, J. (1997): United States Environmental Protection Agency,
SOPATA.JOE@epamail.epa.gov. Personal communication, March 3rd.
Statistics Norway (1998): Internet site. http:\\www.ssb.no/www-
open/ukens_statistikk/utg/9805/8-2t.txt.
Wilson, D. (1997): Improving the Quality of Rapeseed Methyl Ester (RME) by
the use of Lubrizol´s Performance Chemicals. Paper at the First
International Colloquium Fuels, January 16-17, 1997, Ostfildem,
Esslingen.
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CONCLUSIONS
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8. Conclusions
The superior problem issue addressed in this thesis has been:
Three leading issues have been derived from the superior problem issue:

industrial ecology?
transport?
The problem issues of the thesis have been addressed by throwing a broad light on
the field of transport and industrial ecology. Both theoretical contributions and
case analyses of various segments of industrial systems are used to illustrate the
relations between industrial ecology and transport. The review of the industrial
ecology theory field gives principal insight into the problem issues, while the
empirical cases provide illustrative examples of the transport questions that
emerge with the use of industrial ecology as a framework.
8.1. The typologies

Three typologies are used for elucidating the problem issues of the thesis. They
each represent different perspectives on the main problems. The typologies are:
• The typology of industrial ecology

• The typology of transport problems
• The typology of actor involvement
The typologies are applied both in theoretical discussions, and through the five
empirical cases.
8.1.1. The typology of transport problems

The various forms of transport problems in this thesis have been characterized
according to the dimensional axis efficiency-pattern-volume (Figure 42). This
system of characterising transport problems has basis in on previous research
conducted by Western Norway Research Institute (Høyer et al., 1998; Høyer,
2000). The problems on the axis range from relatively simple problems connected
to the lack of efficiency of existing transport, to successively more complex
problems of societal systemic character caused by the high volume of transport. In
addition to these two main dimensions, the axis has an intermediate position for
problems of transport being caused by the relative usage (pattern) of different
transport forms.
The efficiency problems of transport are connected to the aim of making

improvements in existing transport. This consists of mainly technical problems
152
CONCLUSIONS
—————————————————————————————————
connected to improving the environmental performance of existing transport and

creating new and more efficient transport means. Examples are problems
connected to the design of more energy-efficient automobiles, and cars emitting
less polluting substances. Also problems of less technical character, e.g. in the
form of driver behaviour and capacity utilisation (passenger occupancy rates,
goods load factors) are forms of efficiency problems.
Figure 42 Typology of transport problems
Efficiency problems
• Problems with the lack of efficiency of existing transport. How
to improve the environmental performance of existing
transport and create new and more efficient transport means?
Pattern problems
• Problems caused by the relative usage of different transport
forms (modes and means). How to change the pattern of
transport, to environmentally preferred alternatives?
Volume problems
• Problems caused by the volume of transport, which is the sum
of all the in the individual uses of automobiles, aeroplanes, and
lorries etc. How to make reductions in transport volumes?
The transport pattern problems can be discussed in terms of how to make changes
in the relative usage of different transport forms. This includes the substitution of
transport environmentally preferred alternative modes and means. Transport on
water and rail instead of road and air are key mode substitutions. Bus instead of
automobile is an example of a transport mean change. Mode substitution in
transport can imply major savings in energy use.
The volume problems are connected to the necessity of making reductions in

transport. The problem is therefore how societal and individual processes can
reduce motorised transport of both people and goods. This includes questions of
how to establish industrial infrastructure and land use practices that minimise the
need for motorised transport. How to locate societal functions for improving
accessibility is another problem aiming to reduce the need for transport.
Many different types of transport problems have been addressed in the five
empirical cases. They illustrate how transport can be addressed with the use of
industrial ecology as a framework. The transport problems can also be discussed
in the context of the various understandings of industrial ecology. Relations
between industrial ecology can then be shown through an analysis of the principal
transport problems, and complementing this with the actual problems in the cases.
This is obtained through a discussion of potentials and limits for industrial
ecology to include various transport problems.
153
CONCLUSIONS
—————————————————————————————————
8.1.2. The typology of industrial ecology

The typology of industrial ecology is based on a review of the literature
contributions by central authors in the field of industrial ecology. The typology
differentiates the main understandings of industrial ecology into five theoretical
understandings (types). The types have different characteristics (Figure 43)
expressed through contrasting conceptual elements.
Figure 43 Industrial ecology types and their main characteristics

Limited Gradual Nature Material Product
vs. total vs. radical integration vs. vs.
vs. analogy energy production
Product design limited gradual integration material product
Eco-park total gradual analogy material production
CEM limited gradual integration both production
Factor X total radical integration both product
Resource limited gradual integration material production
analysis
As indicated in Figure 43, the understandings of industrial ecology as mainly

consisting of product design, corporate environmental management and resource
analysis all focus on relatively limited changes in existing industrial systems. The
eco-park and factor X understandings deal with larger (or total) transformations of
industrial activity. In all the understandings except factor X, the focus is on
gradual extensions to existing industrial systems rather than radical alterations. In
the eco-park understanding the analogy to nature is predominant, while the other
understandings focus on improving the integration of industrial systems into
nature. In most understandings of industrial ecology there is a higher focus on
material considerations than on energy issues. Only in the factor X and CEM
understandings have reasonable balance between energy and material
considerations. The product-design and the factor X understandings have main
focus on products, while the other understandings focus mainly on issues
connected to production and production systems.
The types also have different potentials for handling transport questions. In each
industrial ecology understanding, the transport problems commonly addressed in
the literature contributions form the basis for Figure 44 (also presented in Chapter
2).
Figure 44 The potentials of industrial ecology types for handling various forms of
transport problems
Efficiency Pattern Volume
Product-design
Eco-park
CEM
Factor X
Resource analysis
154
CONCLUSIONS
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As shown in Figure 44, the main focus in all main understandings of industrial
ecology is on efficiency problems (indicated by solid lines in the figure). This is
due to the fact that mainly efficiency problems of transport are dealt with in the
literature contributions to industrial ecology. Two of the five understandings can
in addition be considered limited to efficiency problems. The product-design and
the eco-park understandings are mainly suited for dealing with problems
connected to the efficiency of transport.
The three other understandings cannot be considered limited to efficiency

problems, but also include pattern and/or volume problems (indicated by dotted
lines in the figure). In the corporate environmental management understanding, it
is also possible to point to examples where pattern problems are dealt with. This
is however not common. Transport issues in the factor X and the resource analysis
understandings in addition include some thematics connected to volume problems,
and these understandings have a better potential for handling volume problems of
transport.
8.1.3. The typology of actor involvement

The third typology concerns the involvment of different actors. Clarkson (1995)
makes a differentiation between primary and secondary corporate stakeholders. A
primary stakeholder is “one without whose continuing participation the
corporation cannot survive as a going concern”, whereas secondary stakeholders
are “those who influence or affect, or are influenced or affected by, the
corporation, but are not engaged in transactions with the corporation and are not
essential for its survival”. According to such a classification, primary stakeholders
are investors, employees, customers, suppliers, governments and communities.
Secondary stakeholders include media and activist groups.
It is also possible to differentiate between inner and outer actors (Figure 45). This
typology is more applicable for characterising the role of actors in the empirical
cases dealt with in this thesis. With inner actors we understand the actors within
an organisation, e.g. in a company. Employees at different company levels are
examples of inner actors. Outer actors are actors outside the company
organisations. The outer actors can be of two main forms, government as actor
and cooperative-oriented actors.
Figure 45 The actor typology
Inner actor Outer actor

involvement involvement
Government Co-operative-
oriented actors
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CONCLUSIONS
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The co-operative-oriented actors include suppliers and customers, branch

organisations, interest groups and stakeholder groups. The government can
however also be represented in the stakeholder groups.
Using the differentiation described above, inner industrial ecology actors

identified in the theoretical contributions and the empirical cases include
industrial engineers and designers involved in the design and development of new
products, with improved environmental performance. The concepts “eco-design”
or “design for environment” are central in industrial ecology (Steinhilper, 1995;
Lifset & Graedel, 2002; Hendrickson et al., 2002). When designers and engineers
are applying these design-concepts on transport systems, including vehicles and
infrastructure, efficiency improvements can be made for future transport systems.
In connection with the implementation of alternative fuels are employees of

transport companies important inner actors. Due to the advantages of centralised
distribution systems for alternative fuels, the transition to alternative transport
fuels is likely to first occur in fleets of vehicles. In bus companies, employees at
many different levels of their organisation are important for the implementation of
alternative fuels. At all the three levels management-, driver-, and garage-level,
can barriers be present. Barriers can exist at all these different levels, and the
employees are important in identifying and resolving the barriers.
As inner actors must also be included the employees of individual companies

seeking to take part in the formation of industrial ecological clusters. In areas with
high density of industrial facilities, these actors are important for identifying
possibilities for waste exchange, and utilisation of recycled material in the
production. However in rural areas, this form of actor involvement is restricted by
structural conditions, i.e. long transport distances.
As outer actors are governmental actors in the position to influence, form and
decide upon national policies and strategies for alternative energy forms. Some of
these actors have opinions on positive and negative aspects of various energy
sources, and can play roles in, for example, facilitating the transition to renewable
energy forms. This can also include lawmaking processes for forcing of
environmentally superior technology and practices, such as through taxation laws
for internalisation if external costs in products and services (eco-taxation).
Governmental actors are also connected to the mandatory requirement of some

environmental management systems, as supervisory agencies for the regulations,
such as the Norwegian internal control system. In addition must certifying bodies
for standardised environmental management systems, for example Det Norske
Veritas (DNV) for ISO 14001 and EMAS, be considered as also important outer
actors.
Public sector and consumer organisations are among the most important outer
actors of the cooperative oriented type. By demanding “greener” (e.g. eco-
labelled) products and services these outer actors can contribute to a change in the
direction of improved integration of industrial activities into the ecosystems of
nature.
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Branch organisations play a function as outer actor by deciding upon standards

and codes of conduct pertaining to industrial producers. Responsible Care
programs and Product Stewardship codes developed by the Chemical
Manufacturers Association in the USA are some examples of these actor
involvements. The Responsible Care program have been adopted by the sister
organisations in other countries, for example through the Federation of Norwegian
Process Industries (PIL) in Norway.
8.2. Conclusions on industrial ecology typology and the cases

Here I make some conclusions on relations between industrial ecology and
transport, using the typology as a basis for analysing how transport can be
understood in the cases. Most of the industrial ecology understandings have
characteristics connecting them to one or several of the empirical cases. The cases
can thus be considered to represent the application of various understandings of
industrial ecology. Table 34 shows which industrial ecology understandings are
applied in each empirical case. Some of the understandings are represented by
more than one case. For these understandings, the case that represents a minor
application is indicated by a parenthesis enclosing the case name.
Table 34 Industrial ecology understandings applied through each empirical case

Industrial ecology type Case
Product design (Case 5 - Alternative mobile energy)
Eco-park Case 1 - Rural SMEs
Corporate Environmental Case 3 - Transport scenarios in a company
Management (CEM) strategy
Case 4 - Environmental reporting in a public
transport company
(Case 5 - Alternative mobile energy)
Factor X None
Resource analysis Case 2 - Transport of fish from Norway
Case 5 - Alternative mobile energy
The characteristics of the industrial ecology understandings that connect them to

one or several of the empirical cases, together with the transport problems
expected from theoretical analysis in chapter 2, are described in the following:
The product design understanding of industrial ecology is characterised by a focus

on the design of products. In case 5 - Alternative mobile energy – biofuels can be
considered a product. Even though it in many ways can be considered a natural
product, and not an industrial product, there are many aspects connected to this
product that can have industrial characteristics. The processes of cultivation of the
biological raw material and processing into final energy products are some
examples.
In the literature contributions to the product design understanding of industrial

ecology, transport problems are mainly considered as forms of efficiency
problems. It is thus to be expected that mainly efficiency problems of transport are
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dealt with in this understanding, as represented through the case of alternative

mobile energy.
In the eco-park understanding of industrial ecology the main focus is on recycling

networks and waste trading between industrial facilities. This is the main focus in
case 1 - Rural SMEs. The eco-park understanding of industrial ecology is thus
represented mainly by an application of this empirical case.
In the literature contributions to the eco-park understanding transport has a minor

focus. Those few transport considerations found are mainly limited to questions of
efficiency. It was thus to be expected that mainly efficiency problems of transport
emerge with the application of the eco-park understanding of industrial ecology.
The corporate environmental management (CEM) understanding of industrial

ecology is characterised by a main focus on environmental management in
corporations. Corporate environmental management, in the form of development
of environmental strategies, is the main focus in case 3 - Transport scenarios in a
company strategy. Environmental reporting is also closely connected to
environmental management in corporations, and this is the main focus in case 4 -
Environmental reporting in a public transport company. The CEM understanding
of industrial ecology is thus represented by the applications of these two empirical
cases. In addition, in case 5 - Alternative mobile energy – the development of
corporate strategies for alternative energy are addressed. This can also be
considered an example of environmental management in transport companies. The
CEM understanding of industrial ecology is thus also represented by this case.
The literature contributions to the CEM understanding of industrial ecology

indicate that transport is not well included in this understanding. When transport
considerations are found it is mainly in the form of questions of efficiency. Some
considerations of transport patterns are also present, but these usually have a
minor focus. It was thus expected that transport, for a large part could be
addressed with efficiency problems of transport, and perhaps some pattern
problems in the application of the CEM understanding of industrial ecology. This
is not a static situation, as there might be indications that pattern and volume
problems are becoming more important for this understanding. With the
application of concepts connected to the wider implications of corporate activities,
such as Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), there might be that transport
questions requiring more comprehensive approaches are beginning to emerge.
In the resource analysis type of industrial ecology the main focus is on

understanding the flow of resources in the industrial systems. Case 2 - Transport
of fish from Norway – is mainly an analysis of energy use in the natural resource
system based on fish. The resource analysis understanding can thus be considered
to represent an application through this case. In case 5 - Alternative mobile
energy – the main focus is on analysing barriers and limitations for the increased
utilisation of renewable energy resources. This can also be considered an
application of the resource understanding of industrial ecology.
Transport has a weak focus in the resource analysis understanding of industrial

ecology, based on literature contributions within this type. The few transport
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considerations that can be found in the resource analysis understanding have

themes with main focus on efficiency problems. The resource analysis
understanding however includes some themes connected to volume problems and
pattern problems, but only with minor focus. It was thus to be expected that
efficiency problems of transport would dominate with the case-application of the
resource analysis understanding of industrial ecology.
In summary, most of the various understandings of industrial ecology derived

from literature are represented through the four empirical cases. Four of the five
types of industrial ecology understandings have characteristics that connect them
to one or several of the cases. Relations between industrial ecology and transport
are elucidated through the application of these understandings through the
empirical cases.
From the various understandings of industrial ecology derived from literature

contributions (the typology) it was to be expected that mainly transport problems
of the efficiency category were addressed. Questions of pattern and volume are
addressed to a lower extent in the literature contributions.
8.3. Conclusions on transport problems and industrial ecology

This part describes what transport problems have been analysed in the cases. The
transport problems from the cases are examples that illustrate how the
environmental problems connected to transport within the frames of industrial
ecology can be addressed. It is also shown how the transport problems in the cases
are complementing the handling of transport problems in the industrial ecology
understandings derived from the literature contributions.
8.3.1. Conclusions on the transport problems in Case 1: Rural SMEs

Case 1 is about rural industries and how they are affected by the application of
industrial ecology principles. The rural location of the industries implies long
transport distances to nearby industrial facilities. If the enterprises are striving for
participation in industrial recycling networks, potentially more transport might be
generated. Only in those instances where industrial clusters already exist are there
possibilities for limited amount of transport connected to the rural industrial
ecosystems. The problem of transport-generation in recycling systems is about
transport volumes, and the problem that more transport can be generated through
the establishing of industrial ecosystems in rural areas.
If rural industrial activity is to be included in industrial ecosystems, a wide range

of conditions must exist. These include systems for re-generation of waste, which
must be located close to the participating industrial facilities, to reduce the
transport. This problem is less in branches where the industrial facilities can re-
use some of the waste material that is produced. This is the situation in large parts
of the wood-processing industry, for example, where waste wood material is
utilised as an energy source in heating the facilities. The existence of a separate
recycling facility is not a precondition, if the industrial facilities can take back
end-of-life products, and integrate the recycle/reuse activities within the facility’s
activities. “Scavengers” – industry that can utilize waste as raw material, must in
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CONCLUSIONS
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general also be present nearby in larger recycling networks. Better utilisation of

return trips, to reduce the extent of empty driving, can however reduce the
transport in connection with recycling systems in rural areas. If a large number of
return trips can be used for taking back used products and waste for recycling, the
condition of nearby ”scavenger” industries becomes less important.
If the industrial ecology principle of increased recycling (loop-closing) is applied

to rural SMEs, and the conditions described above not exist, increased transport
might be a result. The problem of increased transport in connection with recycling
networks is not commonly included in industrial ecology. The case of rural SMEs
is however an example that illustrates the importance of also considering the
potential for transport-generation in connection with recycling systems.
Another transport problem dealt with in Case 1 is the increased global transport
of goods, both of raw material and finished product. Some of the rural SMEs are
components of production chains experiencing a strong degree of globalisation.
The production chain in this case is aquaculture fish. One SME is a part of the
chain in the form of a producer of fish feed, another as a producer of packaging
material for the transport of fish. Long global transports of the raw material for
the fish feed and of the finished fish product to the costumers are the essentials of
this transport problem. The increase in global transport is in sharp contrast to the
necessity for transport reductions to attain a society based on sustainable
production and consumption.
When limiting transport to efficiency problems, it is possible that the

environmental impacts from transport in the total product chain are not being
addressed. A danger exists in industrial ecology, of missing the problems
connected to the increase in global transport of goods. The energy use for goods
transport, both of raw materials and final products, has increased rapidly the last
decades. Fish produced by aquaculture, and distributed globally, is a product
chain that experience a strong global increase in energy use for transport. More
comprehensive questions of the increase in global transport volumes in many
product chains could be asked within the frame of industrial ecology.
To Case 1 is also connected the problem of applying new telecommunication

technologies as means for reducing the need for transport. One of the enterprises
in the case was implementing advanced telecommunication technologies solutions
in the form of remote virtual reality -based employee training and servicing. This
was in part motivated by the potential for environmental improvements in the
form of reduced need for travel. Telecommunication’s effect on transport can in
this context be considered volume-related. This is due to the fact that it is the
reduction (or sometimes increase, due to urban sprawl and travel stimulation) in
transport activity that is affected. The effect of telecommunication can also
constitute a pattern effect. The availability of telecommunication technologies
such as internet-connected portable computers makes it possible to be far away
from the work place, and still perform the job. This particularly applies to long
journeys, having a potential for facilitating more air travel. However, tele-/video
conferences have the potential for the opposite development, reducing
unnecessary air travel.
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Treating transport mainly an efficiency problem is a limitation for understanding

the potentials in information and telecommunications technology (ICT) for
reducing the needs for travelling. The potentials of ICT to substitute transport
have been discussed for decades. It is quite clear that ICT has potentials for
improving transport logistics and substituting travel by e-commerce and
telecommuting, for example. The actual effects of applying telecommunication, as
a mean for reducing transport, is however more uncertain. This can best
determined by studying actual changes in transport volumes. The rather low focus
on the volume problems of transport in most understandings of industrial ecology
is a limit for addressing this issue well.
Case 1 is representing an application of the eco-park understanding of industrial

ecology. The transport problems addressed in this case are all mainly volume
problems, but two of them, transport-generation in recycling systems and
telecommunication’s effect on transport, can also be considered pattern problems.
The literature contributions illustrate that transport mainly is treated in the form of
problems of efficiency in the eco-park understanding. The application of the eco-
park understanding of industrial ecology raises in addition important pattern and
volume questions connected to transport. This is shown through the case. It is thus
possible to conclude that in addition to efficiency problems, also pattern and
volume problems of transport can be addressed in connection with the eco-park
8.3.2. Conclusions on the transport problems in Case 2: Transport of

fish from Norway
The increased global transport of goods is also a problem in Case 2. Through this
case it is shown that the growth in energy use connected to aquaculture has been
particularly large in the transport activities of this product chain. For two
components of the product chain, catch of raw material (fish feed) and the
distribution of the final product to the customers, this increase has been
particularly strong. The increase in mobile energy use from the globalisation of
the production chains clearly constitutes a volume problem, first of all in the form
of amounts of energy used and amounts of greenhouse gas emissions connected to
the combustion of fossil fuels. The major part of the mobile energy used in the
aquaculture production chain is in the form of fossil fuels. The increase in the
number of transcontinental air transports of fresh whole fish is of particular
concern, due to the emissions of high volumes of greenhouse gases. Greenhouse
gases are more detrimental when emitted at high altitudes. The greenhouse effect
of the CO2 emitted by the world’s subsonic fleet in 1992 for example, has been
estimated to be a factor of 2.7 larger than if the emissions would have occurred at
sea level (IPCC, 1999).
The increasing volumes of energy used for global transport in the industrial
system connected to aquaculture fish has implications both for the product form
and for the transport mode used in the transport of the finished product. The
implication for the product form of the final product is first of all a necessary
transition from whole unprocessed fish to processed (dried, smoked) fish to
reduce the high energy use in the transcontinental transports. The change in
product form facilitates changes in transport pattern. For this case the change in
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CONCLUSIONS
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transport pattern consists of a mode change from air transport to the more energy
efficient sea transport. The necessity for this mode change is not obvious when
the main focus is on efficiency themes. Case 2 illustrates the importance of
addressing the necessity for this mode change.
The third main transport issue in Case 2 is also connected to pattern. It is the mode
change from road-based transport to more rail and sea transport between
Norway and the European continent. The lowering of energy use and emission of
greenhouse gases are the primary reasons for this substitution, but also the
volume-effect in the form of congestion on the European road networks is a
motivating factor for making these changes in the transport pattern. Particularly
the increase in lorries through the Alpine region has been problematic in the
recent years, causing Germany, Italy, Switzerland and Austria to develop and
impede measures for restricting this transport, such as through the “ecopoint”
lorry permit system77. More of this transport is currently being transferred to rail
through the region.
Case 2 represents mainly the application of the resource analysis understanding of

industrial ecology. Two of the main transport problems dealt with in the case, the
mode change air to sea and road to rail are clearly change oriented. Based on the
process of identifying the various types in the typology (Chapter 2.2) it was not
expected that these two problems were connected with the resource analysis
understanding of industrial ecology. This is because the resource analysis
understanding of industrial ecology has a main focus on analysing resources and
their flow through society. The analysis however generates knowledge, which can
form a basis for obtaining changes and improving the industrial metabolism.
Change can thus be considered more an indirect result of applying this
8.3.3. Conclusions on the transport problems in Case 3: Transport

scenarios in a company strategy
The case is about the environmental consequences of different developments in
person transport in Oslo up to year 2016, discussed in light of the company
strategy of Oslo Sporveier. Energy use for transport is determined in three
different scenarios. Energy use in transport is a problem that can be connected to
all three dimensions efficiency, pattern and volume. Change to energy efficient
vehicles can reduce energy use. It is then an efficiency effect. Relative changes
between the usages of different modes of transport can have consequences for the
energy use. It has then a pattern effect. The increase in total energy use for
transport creates environmental problems due to demand for increased production
volumes of energy. It is then a volume effect.
Emissions of greenhouse gases are also determined for person transport in three
different scenarios. This is usually considered a volume problem, due to the
climate effects of large volumes of greenhouse gas emissions. However, both
77
The “ecopoint” lorry permit system is intended to restrict the number of heavy goods vehicles in
transit through the Alpine region. The number of “ecopoints” paid is proportional to the quantity
of pollution emitted by the lorry. The total number of ecopoints at the disposal of each country is
fixed annually, and reduced each year (EU, 2000a).
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efficiency and pattern approaches can have impacts on this problem. More
efficient engines, consuming less fossil fuel can reduce the CO2 emissions, while
relative changes between the usages of different modes of transport also have
impacts for the CO2 emissions.
Also emissions of NOx are determined for person transport in the three different
scenarios. Emission of NOx from the exhaust of vehicles is usually considered an
efficiency problem. To reduce this problem catalytic converters are used.
However, relative changes in the usages of different modes of transport can also
have consequences for the emissions of NOx. The total emissions of NOx from
transport can constitute a volume problem, due to the health and environmental
effects of large volumes of this pollutant.
The use of catalytic converters is an example of how volume problems can

emerge when transport is limited to efficiency problems. Catalytic converters can
actually increase the energy use and the emission of greenhouse gases. The
converters require energy to carry out the catalytic reaction of pollutants into less
harmful products. This can give higher fossil fuel consumption, and consequently
higher emissions of CO2. Another example is that increased use of catalysts in
automotive applications increases the demand for Platinum-group metals. These
metals are only found in scarce deposits in nature, and the mining involves
encroachment into large areas of land, movement of large volumes of earth and
leaves behind polluted tailings and ground water.
In the transport scenarios the emissions of particles is also determined. The

generation of the two particle fractions PM2.5 and PM10 are determined for the
main forms of person transport connected to the three different scenarios. Also the
emission of particles is commonly considered an efficiency problem, in
connection with controlling these emissions from the exhaust of vehicles. The
installation of particle filters is one example where emission of particles is treated
as an efficiency problem. The transition to other forms of transport with less
particle emissions, such as away from private cars to public transport in general,
will however have the overall effect of reducing particle emissions. Particle
emissions are also connected to the volume of transport, as the high volumes of
road –based transport cause substantial particle-generation from wear of tires,
road surfaces and brake pads/linings. The use of particle traps is also an example
of how volume problems can emerge when transport is limited to efficiency
problems. The traps require high operating temperature and energy input during
regeneration processes, contributing to high fossil fuel consumption and
correspondingly high CO2 –emissions.
Case 3 represents an application of the CEM understanding of industrial ecology.

From the theoretical contributions it is expected that first of all efficiency
problems, and secondly pattern problems of transport are addressed this CEM
understanding. The case illustrates clearly that also volumes problems of transport
can emerge, in addition to efficiency and pattern problems in this understanding
of industrial ecology. It must however be emphasised that the case company is a
transport company, with a high overall transport focus.
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8.3.4. Conclusions on the transport problems in Case 4:

Environmental reporting in public transport
In Case 4 the environmental reporting from the public transport company Oslo
Sporveier is analysed. The company aims at improvements in the activities by
looking into how it can switch to using more renewable energy for transport.
Choosing suppliers delivering environmentally labelled electricity for the
transport services is one way the company is addressing this problem. In addition
to mainly constitute an efficiency problem, the transition to using more renewable
energy in transport can also be considered a volume problem. In the literature
contributions to industrial ecology energy has a low overall focus. This is
contributing to a general weak handling of renewable energy in industrial ecology.
The case illustrates that discussions of renewable energy forms can however have
a place in industrial ecology. An inclusion of renewable energy discussions would
improve the ability of industrial ecology to deal with future sustainable energy
systems for transport.
Another efficiency transport problem discussed in the case is how to improve of

the occupancy rate of the private cars used by the company employees in the
travel between home and work. The problem of how to increase the occupancy
rate of cars is an efficiency problem. Through the case it is shown that the
company is addressing this problem by developing indicators for increased
utilisation of the capacity in the cars used by company employees. If successful,
such actions could contribute to an increase in the average overall occupancy rate
of cars. The overall occupancy rate of cars in Norway has, as previously dealt
with in Chapter 2.10.2, been reduced from 1.86 to 1.77 persons per car in the
period 1987-2000 (Rideng, 2001).
Case 4 also includes pattern transport problems. The substitutions of transport

modes/means are dealt with in several ways. In the area of business travel by the
employees, pattern changes are aimed at through the implementation of actions to
favour the use of public transport instead of private car to conferences and
meetings. One example is that conferences, seminars and meetings organised by
the company only will take place at locations accessible with public transport.
Also in the travels by the company employees between home and work, the
company is aiming at obtaining pattern changes from private car use to public
transport. The company is implementing actions in two main areas to obtain this.
Primarily it is achieved by the system of free travel by public transport for the
company employees. Secondly, by the employee transport system between work
and home consisting of buses picking up and delivering employees. Parking
restrictions for automobiles at the work locations are also implemented to favour
the use of public transport.
The parking restrictions on private cars can also have the effect of increasing the
use of bicycling/walking. This effect can in addition be obtained by the
information on positive health effects of increased bicycling/walking, and the
physical facilitating actions for increased bicycle use that the company is
implementing. Some cities, for example Amsterdam and Copenhagen, have
achieved relatively high shares of bicycle use, through bike- and walk-friendly
policies and city planning.
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There are also transport volume problems connected to Case 3. The company has
been looking into how to reduce business travels by the employees. Actions and
measures have been implemented for restricting travel to conferences outside
Norway with only participants from Norway, for example. The company is in
addition supporting more use of video-/telephone-/Internet-conferences with the
goal of reducing employee business travel.
Case 4 represents an application of the CEM understanding. The transport

problems present in this case cover all three dimensions efficiency, pattern and
volume. From the literature contributions it has been shown that that first of all
efficiency problems, and secondly pattern problems of transport are addressed in
the CEM understanding. The analysis in Case 4 thus illustrates that also volume
problems, in addition to pattern and efficiency problems are relevant in this
understanding of industrial ecology. As was also relevant for Case 3 it must be
emphasised that the case company is a transport company, with a high overall
transport focus.
8.3.5. Conclusions on transport problems in Case 5: Alternative

mobile energy
In Case 5 the implementation of renewable energy for transport is discussed.
Barriers connected to the use of two forms of alternative transport energy,
biodiesel from rapeseed, and alcohols from wood-based raw material are studied.
The transition to use of alternative renewable energy is commonly considered an
efficiency problem. The renewable energy forms are in general contributing to
improvement of the environmental performance of transport, resulting in more
efficient transport systems.
Through Case 5 it is however shown that also many volume problems emerge
with the increased use of alternative energy forms. The air emissions from the
combustion of alternative fuels can cause serious environmental problems, if a
high number of vehicles are using renewable fuels in the future. The emissions of
greenhouse gases are usually reduced with the transition to alternative fuels.
However, the reduction is not necessarily dramatically, when a life-cycle
approach is applied. This is shown when the nitrous oxide emissions are included
in the analysis of the production of rapeseed as raw material for biodiesel. The
emission of greenhouse gases can also be addressed by efficiency and pattern
approaches. It can be a result of more fuel-efficient vehicles and mode transitions
to more energy efficient transport.
The problem of reducing exhaust emissions from transport is commonly

considered an efficiency problem that can be solved by improved emission
control. The installation of catalytic converters and exhaust filters are common
ways to deal with this problem. The reduction in the emission of CO2 is however
obtainable only through a reduction in fossil fuel consumption. Historical
reductions in fuel consumption due to increased fuel efficiency have however
been more than outweighed by an overall increase in motorised road transport.
The life-cycle of biological fuels also results in emission of greenhouse gases,
although (usually) to a lesser extent than with the combustion of fossil fuels. The
emission of greenhouse gases connected to the use of biological fuels thus also
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constitutes a volume problem, if a high number of vehicles will be using these

fuels in the future.
The high agricultural land use requirement for the production of rapeseed for
biodiesel production is another form of volume problem connected to this
alternative transport energy. The analysis of raw material requirements connected
to the use of biodiesel from rapeseed indicates that only about 4 percent of
Norway’s total fossil diesel use for transport can be replaced with biodiesel
produced in Norway. This is even an optimistic estimate of the replacement
potential, achievable only in a high-intensive agricultural scenario. Such an
agricultural system can however cause other kinds of environmental problems,
from excessive application of genetic engineering, chemicals for pesticide control
and artificial fertilisers. The seriousness of theses damages is however dependent
on agricultural and environmental policies.
Another problem connected to the use of biological transport fuels is the use of
fuel additives. With a large-scale introduction of biological fuels in the future the
effects of the additives on health and the environment need to be thoroughly
understood. Without knowledge of the long-term health and environmental effects
of the additives, detrimental consequences cannot be excluded. This is a problem
connected to the use of biological fuels in general, as many different additives are
used for enhancing the performance of the fuel in the motors – already today. The
problem is however particularly important connected to the use of biodiesel in
cold regions of the world. In cold temperatures special winter-additives are used
in addition to the general additive mixtures. The fact that the producers of the
additives are reluctant to release the compositional information on the products
and consider them trade secrets enhances the seriousness of the problem.
The case illustrates that the additive usage can lead to the emerging of volume
problems. The increasing use of alternative fuels will lead to increasing volumes
of additives in use. Detrimental consequences for health and environment might
be a result. The large volume of additive usage is also a complex issue. Additives
in sale are almost always mixtures of different chemical compounds blended
together into additive packages to provide several functions simultaneously.
Substantial research is being conducted in improving the fuel properties by using
different combinations of various types of additives. This implies that the
environmental effects of additive usage are not limited to the effects of individual
compounds. Synergistic effects of each individual compound can enhance the
complexity of the problems, both connected to the distribution and handling of
additives and the fuel/additive mixtures, and the combustion products (emissions).
Case 5 is mainly representing an application of the resource understanding of

industrial ecology. However, the case also has properties that imply a connection
with both the product design and the CEM understandings. For the same reasons
as explained for Case 2, even though some of the main transport problems
addressed in the case are connected to change, they can be still be connected with
the resource analysis understanding.
From the literature contributions it was shown that first of all efficiency problems,
and to a lesser extent pattern and volume problems of transport are addressed in
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CONCLUSIONS
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the resource understanding of industrial ecology. The product design is limited to

efficiency problems, while the CEM understanding in addition to efficiency
problems also addresses, but to a lesser extent, pattern problems. The analysis of
Case 5 thus illustrates the importance of also considering volume problems of
transport, in the resource analysis understanding, as well as in the product design
and the CEM understanding of industrial ecology.
8.3.6. Final conclusions on transport problems in the cases

The five cases illustrate transport problems connected to industrial ecology. The
transport problems in the cases cover all three dimensions efficiency, pattern and
volume. From the literature contributions to the various understandings of
industrial ecology some conclusions on principal relations to transport ca be
made. Mainly transport problems of efficiency, to a lesser extent pattern, and to an
even lesser extent volume, are addressed in the literature contributions to
industrial ecology. The fact that this is not reflected in the cases can be explained
by the main emphasis, in the empirical cases, on giving illustrative examples of
the volume problems connected to transport. It is however clear that, as an aid in
giving a broad picture of the field of transport and industrial ecology, the cases
provide additional knowledge by illustrating how the environmental problems
connected to transport can be addressed. The cases emphasise the importance of
also addressing the volume problems of transport.
8.4. Conclusions on the role of actors

In this part some conclusions are made regarding the role of actors in various
understandings of industrial ecology. Of the five different understandings of
industrial ecology derived from the literature contributions to the field, four have
a focus on developing and implementing the changes to industrial systems. The
fifth understanding, the resource analysis type, has a main focus on analysis of
resources and their flow through society. In this understanding the role of actors
is more indirect, through the generation of knowledge, which can form a basis for
subsequent changes and improving the industrial metabolism. In the four other
understandings the connection to change is more direct, and some conclusions on
the role of actors can be made. This is discussed in light of the empirical case
material.
8.4.1. Conclusions on actors in the product design understanding

The literature contributions to the product design understanding of industrial
ecology indicate that the main actors involved are industrial engineers and
designers involved in the design and development of new products with improved
environmental performance. The public sector and consumer organisations can
also play important roles as pressure groups in demanding more environmentally
friendly products, for example eco-labelled products. In addition can branch
organisations function as actors by deciding upon standards and codes of conduct
pertaining to industrial producers. This can influence the design of products.
Responsible Care programs and Product Stewardship codes developed by the
Chemical Manufacturers Association are some examples where these actor groups
can play important roles.
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CONCLUSIONS
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Case 5 - Alternative mobile energy – can be considered an application of the

product design understanding, in addition to its main connection with the resource
analysis understanding. In this case actors were identified at two different levels.
The first actor-level consisted of outer actors in positions to influence, form and
decide on national policies and strategies for alternative fuels in general and
biodiesel in particular. The second level consisted of bus companies and the
employees at different levels in their organisation. The bus companies are key
actors, both in terms of the company as an actor, and the inner actors within the
company, at management-, driver-, and garage-level. Both the national actors and
the bus companies functioned as sources of information on barriers, and for
resolving them, facilitating the implementation of alternative energy in transport.
The case also gives an example of how actor involvement in the area of wood-
based motor alcohols can be organised, through the forming of stakeholder group
networks. These types of networks can be placed within the concept of
environmental co-operative regimes. Such regimes had not previously been
applied within the area of expanding the use of alternative biological fuels. These
are networks where many different actors co-operate in identifying key barriers to
the implementation of wood-based motor alcohols, and the resolving of the
barriers. Through such stakeholder group networks the actors can agree upon
common strategies. In this case the actors agreed upon that the main strategy for
resolving the barriers is to establish co-operative channels to major governing
bodies.
8.4.2. Conclusions on actors in the eco-park understanding of

industrial ecology
In the eco-park understanding it is possible, from the literature contributions, to
conclude that the most important actors are the individual companies taking part
in industrial ecological clusters. The participating companies are playing
important roles in the functioning of these industrial systems. In addition to the
participating industrial companies, a facilitator of some sort is usually needed for
the forming of an eco-park. A facilitator is an actor whose function is to stimulate
to the forming of a recycling network and co-ordinate the waste-producers and the
waste-consumers (scavengers). A facilitator can be one of the participating
industrial companies, but can also be a neutral part, for example the local or
regional development council.
Case 1 – Rural SMEs - is representing an application of the eco-park

understanding of industrial ecology. In this case it is shown that in rural areas the
possibilities for the individual enterprises to take part in the forming of ecological
clusters (or “eco-parks”) are restricted. The restriction is mainly in the form of
long transport distances. The actor involvement is thus restricted by structural
conditions. However, in collaboration with other companies (actors) the
restriction can be less severe. The case application thus reveals a problematic side
of industrial ecology, clearly seen in the eco-park understanding: Eco-parks are
limited to areas where the density of industrial facilities is high, usually close to
urban areas. Individual enterprises cannot participate in an efficient industrial
ecosystem unless nearby possibilities of waste-for-raw material exchanges exist.
168
CONCLUSIONS
—————————————————————————————————
Enterprises located in remote (rural) locations have limited possibilities for such
inclusion, without the existence of nearby clusters of industrial facilities.
8.4.3. Conclusions on actors in the CEM understanding

The literature contributions to the CEM understanding point to a wide range
actors with important roles. Corporations are the main actors in this
understanding. Top management, the middle management with responsibility for
quality assurance and long-term planning, and individual employees are
contributing to the functioning of management systems. Also governmental
authorities can function as important actors connected to the mandatory
requirement of some environmental management systems, as supervisory agencies
for the regulations. Other governmental actors are involved through law-making
processes, such as through the revision of the Norwegian Accounting Act and the
Norwegian Limited Liability Companies Act, which both require companies to
publicly report on environmental issues. Certifying bodies for standardised
environmental management systems, for example Det Norske Veritas (DNV) for
ISO 14001 and EMAS, are also important actors.
Case 3 - Transport scenarios in a company strategy and Case 4 - Environmental

reporting in a public transport company - represent the application of the CEM
understanding of industrial ecology. In addition, also Case 5 - Alternative mobile
energy – gives illustrative examples of connected to the CEM understanding, in
the form of implementation of strategies for alternative energy in bus companies.
Case 3 illustrates how a transport company can include in their environmental

strategy, scenarios for transport development. The public transport company Oslo
Sporveier is the main actor in this case. An important actor-involvement aspect is
illustrated in this case. Political actors are informed, through the transport
scenarios, of the consequences of different developments in public transport.
Important knowledge for guiding the development of a city is thus channelled
from the public transport company up to the political actors.
In Case 4 it is given examples of how actions and measures for environmental

improvements in public transport is identified and implemented. The successful
implementation of such actions and measures is highly dependant of the
involvement of actors. The actors in this case are found within the public transport
company Oslo Sporveier. The components of the organisation are important in
this case, and as such this case has a focus on the inner actors, i.e. the actors
within the company. The main actors involved are connected to the planning
department, with responsibility for the environmental reporting. But a wide range
of actors within the organisation is involved, either in the gathering of data for the
reporting, or for facilitating the implementation of actions and measures for
improving the environmental performance of the company as a whole.
In Case 5 it is shown that the bus companies, and the employees at different levels
in their organisation, are important actors, also in connection with the CEM
understanding. Actors at the different levels of the company, at management-,
driver-, and garage-level were shown to be important for the establishing of
strategies for implementation of alternative fuels.
169
CONCLUSIONS
—————————————————————————————————
8.4.4. The role of actors in the factor X understanding

Even though none of the five cases can be considered a representation of the
application of the factor X understanding of industrial ecology, some principal
conclusions can be made on the role of actors in this type. In the factor X
understanding important actors are connected to technological innovations
necessary to reach the goals of major resource productivity improvements.
Resource productivity improvements of factor X, especially with high X-values,
are likely to be achievable only with strong government-driven policies, thus
involving actors at the governmental level. The two strategies suggested by
Reijnders (1998), of 1) Technology-forcing law and 2) Ecotaxation, are examples
where governmental actors are involved through law-making processes and as
supervisory agencies for the regulations.
One example of actor-involvement through technology-forcing laws is in the area

of improving the energy efficiency of automobiles. The U.S. Department of
Transportation, through the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)
regulations, required all vehicle manufacturers to comply with sets of fuel
efficiency standards (Greene, 1990; Schipper and Meyers, 1992). Another
example is in the area of automotive emissions of new U.S. cars (Ashford et al.,
1985; Grant, 1995).
The strategy of making technology for factor X improvements in resource

productivity more attractive by ecotaxation implies that environmental costs are
internalised through the taxation system. This is another way by which actors are
involved, as supervisory agencies for the tax regulations.
8.5. Final conclusions on problems and prospects

The five different understandings of industrial ecology have revealed theoretical
knowledge on relations between industrial ecology and transport. The case
applications have in addition illustrated how transport can be addressed within the
frame of industrial ecology. Conclusions on the role of actors have been made
from those four industrial ecology understandings with particular focus on
change, and from the case applications of these understandings.
Some critical reflections on the overall methodology must however be made. The
first reflection concerns the limitations of the cases. The cases are not ideal for
elucidating relations between industrial ecology and transport. The projects
forming the bases for the cases were not designed with the aim of throwing light
at transport –industrial ecology relations. The projects were first of all designed to
study transport problems. This would normally constitute a limitation in the
empirical material. But in all the projects the transport problems were studied in
connection with industrial systems, and thus provide knowledge relevant for
understanding relations between industrial ecology and transport. In addition they
study a wide range of transport problems.
The second method-reflection is regarding the role of the researchers. The

researchers have played an active role and contributed to the design of the projects
forming the bases for the empirical cases. The cases are thus not viewed from the
outside by “sideline-researchers”. This raises some problems. It could for example
170
CONCLUSIONS
—————————————————————————————————
be argued that this constitute a limitation to the material, in that it can be

characterised as having a tendency to be used to confirm ones own understanding
of an issue. This can be illustrated by the cases based on empirical material from
the public transport company. The researchers had an active role in the defining of
what types of transport problems are emphasised in connection with transport
scenarios and environmental reporting. This is based on an understanding of what
forms of problems are important to address. The material is therefore vulnerable
for the criticism about using the empirical material to confirm ones own
understanding.
From the theoretical contributions and empirical cases it can be concluded that the
relations between industrial ecology and transport is characterised by an overall
main focus on the efficiency problems of transport. Some examples of these
problems include:
• How to improve the energy efficiency of automobiles

• How to reduce exhaust pollutants of automobiles
• How to improve capacity utilisation (load factor) of current transport
Pattern problems of transport are less frequently addressed in the field of

industrial ecology. The pattern problems, shown through this thesis to be
important to consider in addition to the efficiency problems, include:
• What substitutions in transport means can be made (bus instead of car)? Can
bus be used instead of car?
• Can substitutions in transport modes (water-based and rail instead of road and
air in goods transport, rail instead of road and air in person transport) be
made?
• Can non-motorised (walk/bike) be used instead of motorised transport?
Volume problems of transport have an even lower focus in industrial ecology.

Some of the transport volume problems shown in this thesis to be important to
address within the frame of industrial ecology include:
• Increase in global transport of goods

• Transport-generation in recycling-systems, particularly in non-urban, non-
industrial areas (rural areas)
• The actual effect of telecommunications on transport volumes
• The limits of alternative sources of energy
One might then ask: Could it be argued that, at least in principle, industrial
ecology never was meant to include transport? Or, is industrial ecology limited to
less fundamental transport questions, only requiring minor societal or individual
changes?
Based on theoretical contributions to industrial ecology it is possible to conclude

that there is no support for the argument that industrial ecology never was meant
to include transport. On the contrary, plenty of examples can be found within the
industrial ecology literature where transport is addressed. Several books are
written about transport issues within the context of industrial ecology. “Industrial
171
CONCLUSIONS
—————————————————————————————————
Ecology and the Automobile” by Graedel & Allenby (1998) and “Industrial
Ecology of the Automobile - A Life Cycle Perspective” by Keoleian et al. (1997)
are two examples. These contributions are mainly addressing efficiency problems
of transport. With the basis in the theoretical contributions, plus the five empirical
cases, it can be concluded that industrial ecology has reasonably good prospects
for addressing transport efficiency problems.
It would however be possible to agree that more fundamental transport questions,

requiring larger societal and individual changes, fall outside the main
understandings of industrial ecology. The fact that these transport problems are
not often included in the discussion of industrial ecology can be considered a limit
for the concept’s application. The empirical cases however illustrate that it is not
only possible, but also important, to address also the volume problems of
transport. It can thus be concluded that industrial ecology has a potential for
addressing also these more fundamental transport questions. This potential is
however not realisable without a change away from the traditional efficiency
focus of industrial ecology, and include more extensive approaches to the
problems. A final statement in a recent contribution to the industrial ecology
literature is to a large extent in agreement with this general conclusion:
Our conclusion is that industrial ecology has, as a field, overemphasised cars as

products and underemphasized the transport system of which the car is such a major
part. An emphasis on private vehicles is easier and more familiar for technologists, but
will almost certainly result in unsustainable systems over the long run.
(Graedel et al., 2002, p. 444)
8.6. References
Ashford, N.A., Ayres, C. and Stone, R.F. (1985): Using Regulation to change the
Market for Innovation. Harvard Environmental Law Review. 9, p. 419-
466.
Clarkson, M.B.E. (1995): A stakeholder framework for analysing and evaluation
corporate social performance. Academy of Management Review, 20(1), p.
92-117.
EC (2000a): The Ecopoints System. Press release 21/12/2000, RAPID database,
European Commission.
EC (2000b): EU Transport in Figures. Statistical Pocketbook. Directorate
General for Transport (DG VII), European Commission.
EEA (2002): Environmental signals 2002. Benchmarking the Millennium.
Environmental assessment report no. 9, European Environment Agency,
Copenhagen.
Graedel, T.E., Kakizawa, Y. and Jensen, M. (2002): Industrial Ecology and
Automotive Systems. In A Handbook of Industrial Ecology, Ayres, R.U.
and Ayres, L.W. (eds.), Edward Elgar, Northampton, MA, p. 432-444.
Grant, W. (1995): Autos, Smog, and Pollution Control. Edward Elgar, Aldershot.
172
CONCLUSIONS
—————————————————————————————————
Greene, D.L. (1990): CAFE or price: An Analysis of Effects of Federal Fuel

Economy Regulations and Gasoline Price on New Car MPG, 1978-1989.
Energy Journal, 11(3), p. 37-57.
Hendrickson, C.T., Horvath, A., Lave, L.B. and McMichael, F.C. (2002):
Industrial Ecology and Green Design. In A Handbook of Industrial
Ecology, Ayres, R.U. and Ayres, L.W. (eds.), Edward Elgar,
Northampton, MA, p. 457-466.
Sogndal.
IPCC (1999): Aviation and the Global Atmosphere. A Special Report of Working
Group I and III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva, Switzerland.
Lifset, R. and Graedel, T.E. (2002): Industrial Ecology: Goals and Definitions. In
A Handbook of Industrial Ecology, Ayres, R.U. and Ayres, L.W. (eds.),
Edward Elgar, Northampton, MA, p. 3-15.
6(2/3), p. 89-112.
Reijnders, L. (1998): The Factor X Debate: Setting Targets for Eco-Efficiency.
Journal of Industrial Ecology, 2(1), p. 13-22.
Rideng, A. (2001): Transportytelser i Norge 1946-2000. (Transport performance
in Norway 1946-2000). Institute for Transport Economics, Oslo. Report
515/2001. (In Norwegian, with English summary).
Schipper, L. and Meyers, S. (1992): Energy Efficiency and Human Activity.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Steinhilper, R. (1995): Product Recycling and Eco-Design: Challenges, Solutions
and Examples. International Conference on Clean Electronics. Edinburgh,
October.
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Vestlandsforsking

Boks 163, 6851 Sogndal

Transport and Industrial Ecology - Problems

Department of Development and Planning

Department of Environmental Research

ISBN nr. 82-428-0240-8

6. ENVIRONMENTAL REPORTING AND TRANSPORT – THE CASE OF A PUBLIC

Figure 10 Substance characteristics of the CEM understanding of industrial

Figure 36 Distribution of Oslo Sporveier employee travels to work on various

Chapter 2 consists of a review of the main literature contributions to the field of

results from a project in the Ministry of Local Government programme for

In the second article (Ch.4) industrial ecology is used as a framework for an

In the fourth article (Ch.6) a discussion is given of environmental reporting in the

Ved siden av en innledning og et kapittel med konklusjoner består avhandlingen av

I innledningen (kap.1) presenteres bakgrunnen for avhandlingens problemstillinger

Kapittel 2 består av en gjennomgang av de viktigste litteraturbidragene til fagfeltet

Den første artikkelen (kap.3) gir en analyse av implikasjoner ved anvendelse av

lange og energikrevende transportavstander mellom bedriftene. Artikkelen bygger

I den fjerde artikkelen (kap.6) gis det en diskusjon av miljørapportering innen

Kapittel 7 tar opp relasjonen mellom industriell økologi og alternativ transport-

interessentnettverk i forbindelse med implementering av biologisk-baserte

I konklusjonskapitlet (kap.8) oppsummeres avhandlingens bidrag til økt forståelse

1.1. Environmental problems of transport

• The transport sector is the source of an unusual wide range of environmental

• Transport is an important source of many of the serious environmental and

• The development of the infrastructure of transport, coupled by the barriers

There is in addition one aspect of the environmental problems of transport that

Million tonne CO2 equivalents 1400

The expected increase in transport’s contribution to major environmental

1.2. Different ways of understanding transport problems

Figure 2 The efficiency-pattern-volume dimensional axis

The efficiency problems of transport are connected to the aim of making

understanding. Reducing emissions by various purification technologies, such as

Pattern-problems of transport can be understood as being caused by the relative

Changes in transport pattern can also occur through substitution of motorised

Volume problems of transport are of particular interest today, as these forms of

1. Improve private transport through advances in car and road design

The efficiency-pattern-volume dimensions transport problems can also be

• Allocation refers to the distribution of the throughput of natural resources to

According to Daly acceptable volumes (scale) must be decided before distribution

1.3. Industrial ecology

industrial ecosystems, using the ecosystems in nature as models for the

1.4. The handling of environmental problems of transport in

Global transport of goods is analysed, from the perspective of industrial ecology,

1.5. Problem formulation

• How can we understand relations between industrial ecology and transport?

Since transport is an increasingly important contributor to many of the most

• To what extent are transport problems themes in the various understandings of

Since industrial ecology aims at reducing the environmental impacts of industrial

1.6. Methodological approach

• Study transport in industrial systems

Figure 3 The basis for generalisation from cases and theory

In summary, the empirical (cases) and theoretical sources (industrial ecology

1.6.2. The basis in research projects

The detailed methodological approach in each empirical case is described in the

1995-1997. Green-SMEs. This was a project under Norwegian State Department

1996-1998. Biodiesel in heavy duty vehicles in Norway – Strategic plan and

1997-2000. Energy saving in transport of goods – a pilot project in rural natural

1999-2000. Motor-alcohols from wood resources in heavy duty vehicles. A Nordic

2000-2002. Environmental reporting for Oslo Sporveier. The public transport