1

The Nuzhah of Ibn Hajar al-Asqaln (d. 852/1449); a

translation and critical commentary.

By
Ather Shahbaz Hussain.

A thesis submitted to
The University of Birmingham
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY.

School of Philosophy, Theology & Religion
The University of Birmingham
May 2012.
Student ID; 305611










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2
Abstract.

This subject of this thesis is Nuzhat al-nazar fi tawdih Nukhbat al-fikar, a manual written
by Ibn Hajar al-Asqaln (d. 852/1449), outlining the science of prophetic traditions
(ilm al-hadith). The thesis aims to fulfill two tasks. Firstly, an accurate and accessible
translation of the Nuzhah will be presented in English. Secondly, this will be coupled
with a detailed and critical commentary of Ibn Hajars work. This commentary will
assess the worth of the Nuzhah in many ways; the writings of Ibn Hajar will be analysed
to learn what it said about the climate of the ninth Islamic century, by comparing it with
the works of Muslim scholars before and after Ibn Hajar. Additionally, where the works
of modern, non-Muslim scholars such as Schacht and Juynboll are mentioned, it will be
with the purpose to show the interaction with their Muslim counterparts. Themes such as
the use of technical terms in the discipline, the importance of seniority and the
pedagogical nature of the Nuzhah will also be discussed.

3
The Nuzhah of Ibn Hajar al-Asqaln (d. 852/1449).

Contents.

1.0 Introduction to the thesis..7
2.0 The life and works of Ibn Hajar al-Asqaln...18
3.0 The Nuzhah of Ibn Hajar; the Authors Introduction and the related
literature...32
4.0 The Nuzhah of Ibn Hajar................41
5.0 The Main Section; a translation of the Nuzhah, with the commentary
and critical analysis.....51
5.1 Authors Introduction.
5.2 The division of traditions according to how they reached us.
5.3 Mutawtir- the Widespread.
5.4 Mashhr- the Famous and its types.
5.5 Aziz- the Scarce.
5.6 Gharib- the Rare.
5.7 Maqbl & mardd- the division of traditions according to the accepted and
rejected.
5.8 Fard- the Solitary.
5.9 Sahih- the Sound.
5.10 Hasan- the Fair.
5.11 Shdhdh & mahfz- The Preserved and the Anomalous.
5.12 Marf & munkar- the Familiar and the Unfamiliar.
5.13 Mutbi, shhid & itibr- the Parallelisms, the Attestations and the Analysis.
5.14 Muhkam- the Clear.
5.15 Mukhtalif al-hadith - the Contradictory Tradition.
5.16 Nsikh & manskh- the Abrogating and the Abrogated.
5.17 Mardd- the Rejected and the reasons for rejection.
5.18 Muallaq- the Suspended.
5.19 Mursal- the Loose.
5.20 Mudil & munqati- the Problematic and the Interrupted.
5.21 Mudallas- the Misrepresented.
5.22 Mursal khafi- the Hidden Loose.
5.23 Reasons for defamation in the tradition.
5.24 Mawd- the Forged.
5.25 Matrk- the Discarded.
5.26 Munkar- the Unfamiliar.
5.27 Muallal- the Defective.
5.28 Mudraj- the Material Interpolated.
5.29 Maqlb- the Mixed-Up.
5.30 Mazid fi muttasil al-asnid- the Addition in Cohesive Chains.
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5.31 Mudtarib- the Disrupted.
5.32 Musahhaf & muharraf- the Misread and the Misspelling.
5.33 Riwya bi-al-man- Transmission by Meaning.
5.34 Sharh al-gharib- the Commentary of the Rare Words.
5.35 Jahla- the Unknown.
5.36 Mubham- the Obscure.
5.37 Bida- the Innovation.
5.38 Mukhtalat- the Merged.
5.39 Hasan li-ghayrih- the Fair by other.
5.40 Marf- the Raised.
5.41 Sahbi- the Companions.
5.42 Tbii (the Successors) and the Mukhadramn.
5.43 Marf (the Raised), mawqf (the Halted), maqt (the Cut-Off) and athar (the
Traces).
5.44 Musnad- the Supported.
5.45 Uluww- the Elevated.
5.46 Muwfaqa & badal- the Agreements and Substitutions.
5.47 Muswh & musfaha- the Equivalent and the Hand-Shaking.
5.48 Aqrn- the Generations.
5.49 Riwyat al-akbir an al-asghir- the Narration of the Seniors from the Juniors.
5.50 Riwyat al-abn an al-b - the Narration of the Sons from the Fathers.
5.51 Sbiq & lhiq- the Preceding and the Reaching.
5.52 Muhmal- The Obscure.
5.53 Man haddatha wa nasiya- The one who narrated and then forgot.
5.54 Musalsal- the Enchained.
5.55 Siyagh al-ad- the Words of Delivery.
5.56 Muanan- the Continuous an.
5.57 Wijda- the discovery.
5.58 Ilm- the declaration.
5.59 Muttafiq & muftariq- The homogeneous and the non-homogeneous.
5.60 Mutalif & mukhtalif- the Similar and the Different.
5.61 Mutashbih -The Similar.
5.62 Conclusion: Knowing the generations of reporters, their birth-dates, their death-
dates and their places of origins and travels.
5.63 Martib al-jarh wa-al-tadil- the stages of accreditation and dis-accreditation.
5.64 Other rulings relating to jarh & tadil.
5.65 Knowing the paidonymics of the reporters and other related matters.
5.66 Knowing the etiquettes of the shaykh and disciple.
5.67 The age of hearing and delivering reports, and the reports of a non-Muslim and a
Muslim wrong-doer.
5.68 Knowing the method of writing and recording.
5.69 Travelling in pursuit of hadth.
5.70 Types of hadth Compilation.
5.71 The reasons behind the hadth.
5.72 Final Supplication.
5
6.0 Findings......425
7.0 Conclusion..495
8.0 Appendix A; Ibn Hajars literary works.501
9.0 Bibliography...505

List of Diagrams.

Section 5.8.2. A Summary of reports according to how they reached us.
Section 5.16.3. A Summary of the maqbl (accepted reports).
Section 5.38.2. A Summary of the rejected traditions.

6
Transliteration Table.
Consonants.

' A D
- B = T
- C = Z
- Th _ A

_ J _ Gh

_ H - F
_ Kh Q
- D = K
- Dh . L
R M
Z N
S - H
Sh , W
S Y
- -t in the construct state, -a in the non-construct state.

Vowels.

Short. Fatha: a Kasra: i Damma: u

Long. ' : : , :
Dipthongs. , preceded by a Damma: aw.
preceded by a Fatha: ay.
Arabic broken plurals have been translated into English. So, for example, I have written
hadiths rather than ahdth.
7
The Nuzhah of Ibn Hajar al-Asqaln (d. 852/1449); a
translation and critical commentary.

1.1. Introduction to the Thesis.

Nuzhat al-nazar fi tawdih nukhbat al-fikar is one of the most famous and respected
manuals in the discipline of ilm al-hadith. Written by Ibn Hajar al-Asqaln (d. 852
A.H./1449 C.E.)
1
, it was one of the last major works on the subject, aimed at
consolidating the vast array of literature that preceded it. The work is still revered today
and continues to be taught in seminaries throughout the Muslim world.

Nuzhat al-nazar is actually a detailed commentary of a much shorter treatise written by
Ibn Hajar, Nukhbat al-fikar fi mustalah al-athar. The latter consists of only a few pages.
In his introduction to Nuzhat al-nazar, Ibn Hajar explains that his contemporaries asked
him to offer a brief overview of ilm al-hadith. Ibn Hajar duly obliged in the form of
Nukhbat al-fikar, but he was then later asked to expand on this work. The result was
Nuzhat al-nazar fi tawdih nukhbat al-fikar. Though in reality the Nuzhah is two separate
works (Nuzhat al-nazar and Nukhbat al-fikar), Ibn Hajar wrote his final piece in an
amalgamated style.
2
The result is that it can be read as if it is one piece of work.

As it will be shown in chapter three, the Nuzhah is only a small reflection of Ibn Hajars
knowledge and academic contribution to the discipline of ilm al-hadith. He wrote

1
A.H. denotes After Hijra, the date from which the Muslim calendar commenced. C.E. denotes
Common Era. All corresponding dates in this thesis have been taken from The Muslim & Christian
Calendars. G.S.P. Freeman-Grenville. Oxford University Press: London, 1963.
2
What this means is that when Ibn Hajar embarked on writing the Nuzhah, he did not delete anything from
the Nukhbah. Rather, he added the commentary in between.
8
individual treatises on countless areas in this field. But the accessibility of the Nuzhah is
just one reason why the work has remained in the public domain for such a long period of
time. The work strikes a perfect balance between being a sound appreciation of ilm al-
hadith, but without deviation and without stretching into volumes of work. It offers an
excellent overview of the main terminologies used in the field, a simple and systematic
presentation of the division of traditions and an invaluable insight into Ibn Hajars own
methodology. In short, the importance of this work should not be overestimated and this
is why an appreciation of it is required.

1.2. The Objectives of the Thesis.
The primary aim of this thesis is:
a. to offer an English translation of the Nuzhah.
b. to couple this with a critical analysis and an evaluation of the work, through the means
of an innovative commentary.

1.2.1. The translation.
This work will present an accurate yet easily-accessible English rendition of Nuzhat al-
nazar fi tawdih nukhbat al-fikar. The actual text of the Nuzhah will be presented in bold
font throughout the chapter. In the Nuzhah, I have tried to keep the translation as literal as
possible. In places, this is difficult not least because the Nuzhah itself is an amalgamation
of two works. Therefore there are places where I have added words in square brackets
that are not to be found in the original Nuzhah. This is for the sake of easier reading in
English. Additionally I have sometimes added words in round brackets that are usually
9
the translation of certain terminologies that Ibn Hajar employs. Admittedly, there are
places where the English translation of the Nuzhah does not flow as well as one could
hope for, but as much as possible, I wanted the English to resemble the original Arabic.
In translation terminology, there is a distinction between dynamic equivalence (which
attempts to capture the thought and meaning at the expense of word order and
grammatical features) and formal equivalence (which attempts literal fidelity at the
expense of readability or even understanding). In practice translation tends to be a
mixture of the two, and I think the same could be said for my translation of the Nuzhah.
For the translation, I have depended upon the copy published by Muassasat Manhil al-
Irfn, in Beirut, Lebanon (1990). This version has been edited by Muhammad Abbs al-
Sabbgh.
3
1.2.2. The Commentary.
A thesis at this stage of academia needs to display an original contribution to knowledge.
Certainly the translation of the Nuzhah into English will fulfil this aim, as this is, to my
knowledge, the first time the Nuzhah has been translated in full into English at PhD
level.
4
But it is in the commentary of the Nuzhah where I hope to display a unique
understanding of the discipline, as well as show a degree of independent, critical and
analytical skills. I intend to do this with the following points in mind:

3
Unfortunately, I did not come across any information regarding the Nuzhah in original, manuscript form.
Informally, I was told that it can be found at the al-Azhar University manuscript archives, in Cairo.
4
I have not come across a full English translation of the Nuzhah. The shorter Nukhbah has been translated
into English by Musa Furber in the appendix to G.F. Haddads work, Sunna Notes - Studies in Hadith &
Doctrine Volume I; Hadith History & Principles. (Aqsa Publications: UK. 2005)

10
Muslim scholars after Ibn Hajar showed their admiration for the Nuzhah by penning
detailed commentaries on it, of which several are in circulation today. Many of these
works, such as al-Munws contribution, provided an unreserved and uncompromising
explanation running into volumes of work. However, the nature of these existing works
on the Nuzhah has followed a routine pattern. For most part, they have commented on the
Nuzhah, not necessarily critically assessed and evaluated it. The technical terms in the
commentaries have been explained, but the wider implication of them has not been
outlined. These works tell us little about the academic and social climate of the ninth
Islamic century. Certainly, the likes of al-Qr and al-Munw have not asked what the
Nuzhah said about the development of ilm al-hadith as a whole.
This is precisely where I hope to contribute with a fresh input and show true originality.
My purpose is not to comment on the Nuzhah for the sake of it. As much as possible and
wherever appropriate, I will ask what the writings of Ibn Hajar tell us about his era and
the nature of hadth academia at the time. If there are areas in the Nuzhah that received
more attention areas such as mutawtir, bida and marf for example then the
possible reasons behind this will be assessed. Similarly, the emphasis will not be on what
a particular technical term means, but more on what purpose it served in the discipline.

The thesis is centred on a work written over five centuries ago. Yet there will be places
where I will refer to recent, relevant literature stemming from non-Muslim, Western
academics such as Burton (1994), Brown (1999), Goldziher, Guillaume (1924), Juynboll
(1983, 1996), Muir (1858) and Schacht (1959). Wherever appropriate, I will compare the
writings of Ibn Hajar with what non-Muslim academics have had to say. For instance, in
11
the section on riwyat al-akbir an al-asghir (the narration of the seniors from the
juniors), I will compare Ibn Hajars observations with that of Schacht on family isnds.
The issue of asahh al-asnid (in particular, the strength of the isnd Mlik Nafi Ibn
Umar) has been looked at in detail by Schacht (1959), and I will assess this in light of
Ibn Hajars own writings on it. Leites (2000) analysed bida in considerable detail,
showing how differences in reporter denomination were reflected in hadth transmission.
It is important to stress the reason why non-Muslim input will be mentioned in this thesis.
It is not to entertain the authenticity debate over hadth literature as such. It is not to
answer whether Ibn Hajars opinion on family isnds is correct or whether Juynbolls is.
Rather, my purpose is to show how the contrasting camps interact with one another, and
what this tells us about Muslim academia. In places, I will show how the input of
Westerners has been portrayed by Muslim and frequently, I will suggest that the
convergence of views on a particular area is more apparent than one first assumes.
In order to fulfil the above point, I believe that the methodological approach I intend to
adopt for the commentary is pivotal to the quality of the work. My intention is to offer a
unique commentary that attempts to show utmost impartiality. The commentary will
attempt to neutrally assess the views held on the discipline by Muslim scholars
5
on the
one hand and non-Muslim scholars on the other. This task will not be easy. To highlight
the problem with this task, a brief example of sahifa will be briefly presented.
Collections marking the earliest period of hadth documentation took on the forms of
small booklets, called sahifas. At this stage, reports were simply put together in writing.

5
I accept that the term Muslim scholars is a sweeping generalisation. In this thesis, Muslim scholars
will refer to the mainstream Sunni Muslims who trust the sources of the Qurn and Hadth. This therefore
excludes the likes of the Ahl al-Qurn movement and the Ahmadis.
12
Primarily, such works pertain to the Prophets lifetime until the second Islamic century
(Kamali 2005, 31).
One of the earliest sahifas was Abd Allh ibn Amrs (d. 65/684) al-Sdiqa
6
. When
assessing the worth of this collection, one cannot fail to ignore the contrasting views from
academics. Muslims view this work in a favourable light whereas non-Muslims do not.
Al-Slih referred to it as one of the most reliable historical documents (in Kamali 205,
25) whereas Juynboll declared it to be the the fruit of someones imagination (1996, XI:
173-4). Such contrasting conclusions question the neutrality of both Muslim and non-
Muslim academics to the discipline.
This partiality issue is further seen in the language employed in the field. When assessing
the work of those who share a similar viewpoint, the tone is one of appreciation and
respect. When the Muslims analyse the works of non-Muslims and vice-versa the
temper and approach is dismissive and sometimes insulting. So Burton talks of
Goldzihers magnificent insight (1994, xvii) and Schacht of his brilliant investigations
(1994, xx). Al-Sib, on the other hand, describes Goldziher as the most dangerous of
the Orientalists, the one with the longest hand, the most evil and corruptive in this field...
(1998, 213).

So to a large extent, the discipline is marked by two contrasting approaches in terms of
interpreting early hadth literature. Non-Muslim academics have generally shown doubt
and suspicion, whereas Muslim academics have merely rebutted western observations
and have not appreciated it, with Azamis On Schachts Origins of Muhammadan

6
The work pertains to the family isnd Amr ibn Shuayb ibn Muhammad ibn Abd Allh ibn Amr
father (the latters) grandfather Abd Allh ibn Amr Prophet.
13
Jurisprudence being a prime example. Theoretically, the work of Edward Said on
Orientalism is perhaps pivotal in understanding the conflicting conclusions reached by
western academics on hadth literature. He argued that the production of knowledge,
especially western knowledge on the east, can never be impartial and value-free. Findings
and conclusions are influenced by the authors own social, religious and political position.
He implied that:

For if it is true that no production of knowledge in the human sciences can ever
ignore or disclaim its authors involvement as a human subject in his own
circumstances, then it must also be true that for a European or American studying
the Orient there can be disclaiming the main circumstances of his actuality: that
he comes up against the Orient as a European or an American first, as an
individual second (1995, 11).

But the same applies to Muslims studying Islam too. They come up against their religion
as a Muslim first, and then as an individual academic. This explains their robust rebuttal
of any criticism directed at the second principal source of Islam.

My commentary it is hoped will avoid these two extremes. With western works on
hadth, I will attempt to appreciate their endeavours and not just refute them as many
Muslim observers have done. With Muslims works on the Nuzhah, I will explore the rich
commentary offered by the Muslim scholars like al-Munw and al-Qr. Such works are
crucially important because they offer an analysis of hadth through the prism of ilm al-
14
hadith literature. In order to do this, I will have to display impartiality and act as a
researcher first and foremost, not as a Muslim.

In brief, through the means of the commentary I intend to:
assess what the Nuzhah indicated about the social and academic climate of the ninth
Islamic century.
through comparison with earlier and later works, ask what the Nuzhah said about the
development (or lack of it) of ilm al-hadith by that era.
display a balanced criticism between the Muslim and non-Muslim scholars.
enquire how the field of hadth related to others such as fiqh using the Nuzhah as a
basis.
show the pedagogical nature of the work.
ask what Ibn Hajars writings highlighted about the relationship between the isnd and
matn, and what it said about the usage of technical terms.
show how the interaction between Muslims and non-Muslims in the field has brought
benefit and indeed loss.

1.3 Presentation of the thesis and chaptering.

This thesis will consist of many chapters, all aimed at offering an extensive and useful
overview of the Nuzhah. In order to reach this objective and to fully appreciate the work
in the wider context, the thesis will commence with a brief overview of the life and works
15
of Ibn Hajar al-Asqaln. This will allow us to assess his authority in the field and will
help answer wider questions on the importance of the Nuzhah.
Ibn Hajar al-Asqaln was preceded by a long line of hadth masters who made
invaluable contributions to the field. The richness and depth of the discipline we
appreciate today was only possible thanks to the input of scholars like al-Rmahurmuz
(d. 360/970), al-Khatb al-Baghdd (d. 463/1071) and Ibn Salh (d. 643/1245). On this
basis, it is only befitting that a section of the thesis is devoted to the hadth works
preceding the Nuzhah. The need for this is further amplified when we note that in his own
introduction to the Nuzhah, Ibn Hajar paid tribute to seven important milestone works
that preceded him. The literature assessment will thus provide an insight into how
important the Nuzhah is in the historical context of hadth literature.

The following chapter will focus exclusively on the Nuzhah. It will be shown how this
work relates to the Nukhbah, and where the work fits in with the development of ilm al-
hadith literature between the third and ninth Islamic century.

The main section chapter five will primarily have two aims: to present a lucid
translation of the Nuzhah and to offer a detailed commentary and analysis.
To fulfil these aims, the simplest and most effective method of presentation is to divide
the works into two sections. The first section would offer the translation of the text void
of additional notes and commentary. The second section would provide a detailed
analysis of selected areas. The advantage of such a method is that the reader can easily
16
refer to the translation without being deterred by the commentary. If and when required,
he/she can refer to the commentary in the second section.
However, after much deliberation and thought, I decided that the translation and
commentary should be provided together (with the translation in bold font and the
commentary in normal font). There are two reasons for this.
Firstly, in many areas of the Nuzhah, a detailed and lengthy commentary is not required,
but rather a simple section to clarify key points. Without any deviation and distraction
from the main translated text, the reader will be able to refer to this if required, rather
than continuously referring to the second section.
Secondly, by adopting such an approach in the presentation, the work will resemble the
method used by classic scholars in their commentaries, and indeed what Ibn Hajar used
for his own commentary on the Nukhbah. Thus it is appropriate to assess a classic treatise,
in a style and method favoured by the classics.
Thus the thesis will be divided into the following chapters:

1. Introduction to the thesis.
2. The life and works of Ibn Hajar.
3. The Nuzhah of Ibn Hajar; the Authors Introduction and the related literature.
4. The Nuzhah of Ibn Hajar.
5. The Main Section; a translation of the Nuzhah, with commentary and critical
analysis.
6. Findings of the commentary.
7. Conclusion.
17
_______________________

It is sincerely hoped that the thesis will expose some very important points and display an
original contribution to knowledge.

18
2.0. The Life and Works of Ibn Hajar al-Asqaln.
2.1. Introduction.
Nuzhat al-nazar fi tawdih nukhbat al-fikar is one of the most famous and widely-used
treatises on the discipline of ilm al-hadith. The author of this important work was Ibn
Hajar al-Asqaln, who was born in 773 A.H./1372 C.E. In order to gain a fruitful insight
into the Nuzhah which is the primary focus of the thesis it is important that an effort
is made to understand the author behind the work. By assessing his ability, his other
works and what he was like as an individual, we can better evaluate the significance of
the Nuzhah, how it came about and how the era may have influenced the actual work.

2.2. His name.
Al-Imm al-Hfiz Ab Fadl Shihb al-Dn Ahmad ibn Al ibn Muhammad ibn
Muhammad ibn Al ibn Mahmd ibn Ahmad ibn Hajar al-Asqaln al-Shfi al-Misr
al-Qhir was born in Cairo on the twelfth of Shabn in 773 A.H./1372 C.E. (al-Wajd
1996, 13: al-Qr 1994, 26).

2.3. His parents.
Ibn Hajars father, Nr al-Dn Al, was a Shfi scholar who excelled in fiqh, Arabic,
literature and poetry. Sources states that he was known for his knowledge, piety,
trustworthiness and exemplary moral character. He died in 777/1375 in the month of
19
Rajab when Ibn Hajar was four years old (al-Barr et al. 1995, 92; al-Wajd 1996, 13).
His mother died before this, and thus his sister Sitt al-Rakb assumed the responsibility to
raise him (al-Wajd 1996, 13). She undertook this duty under the guardianship of the
brother of his fathers first wife, Zak al-Dn al-Kharrb, who was a renowned and
affluent trader (al-Barr et al. 1995, 93).

2.4. His education.
Despite the early setback of losing both parents, Ibn Hajars religious education was
given utmost attention. At the age of five, his formal Islamic education commenced with
the memorisation of the Qurn, and by the age of nine, he had completed it under the
guidance of Sadr al-Dn Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Saft (al-Barr et al. 1995, 94).
The practice of the time (as indeed today) was to allow newly-graduated Qurn
memorisers to recite it in its entirety in tarwih prayers during the month of Ramadn.
Because laws of sharia stipulate that the imm must be mature (bligh) to lead the
Prayer, Ibn Hajar had to wait three years when he reached the age of twelve to fulfil
this practice (al-Barr et al. 1995, 94). His wait was rewarded when he received the
honour of leading the Prayers at the Sacred Mosque in Makka, in the companionship of
his early mentor and teacher Zak al-Dn al-Kharrb.
Thus by the age of twelve, Ibn Hajar reached a landmark achievement that the majority of
other Muslims could only dream of. He led the tarwih prayers in the holiest mosque in
Islam, a commendable accolade.

20
Ibn Hajar was fortunate to learn from the best scholars of his generation in a variety of
Islamic disciplines. His astute memory and intelligence attracted the attention of the
leading shaykhs of the time. After the demise of his early teacher Zak al-Dn al-Kharrb,
Shams al-Dn ibn al-Qattn
7
(737-813/1336-1410) took responsibility for his education.
Ibn Hajar took jurisprudence and Arabic from him (al-Barr et al. 1995, 96). Al-Qattn
then entered him in the courses given by the great Cairene scholars al-Bulqn (d.
806/1403) and Ibn al-Mulaqqin (d. 804/1401) in Shfi fiqh. He also benefited from the
likes of Ibrhm Burhn al-Dn al-Shm (709-800/1309-1397)
8
, Muhammad ibn
Muhammad al-Dimishq (751-833/1350-1429), known famously as al-Jazar
9
, Abd Allh
ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Sulaymn al-Nsbr (705-790/1305-1388)
10
,
Ibrhm ibn Ahmad al-Tankh (709-800/1309-1397)
11
, Nr al-Dn al-Misr (735-
807/1335-1405), known famously as al-Haytham
12
, Muhammad ibn Abd Allh al-
Makhzm (751-8171350-1414)
13
and Ibrhm ibn Ms al-Abns (725-802/1324-
1399)
14
.
7
He was proficient in several disciplines such as qira, Arabic, jurisprudence and mathematics.
8
Ibn Hajar recited the seven readings of the Qurn from the beginning to Srat al-Muflihn with him, as
well as the Sahih of al-Bukhr (al-Barr et al. 1995, 103).
9
He was one of the leading shaykhs of qira of his era and the author of Hisn al-hasin and Ghyat al-
nihya fi tabaqt al-qurr. He was born and brought up in Damascus, where he later laid the foundations
of a school called Dr al-Qurn (al-Qr 1994, 28). Though he excelled in jurisprudence too, Ibn Hajar
learnt qira from him. It was al-Jazr who encouraged him to travel to Damascus to further his academic
career (al-Barr et al. 1995, 103).
10
He was a hadth master of Makka and one of the first teachers Ibn Hajar took hadth from (al-Barr et al.
1995, 103).
11
He resided in Damascus, where over four hundred disciples gained permission to narrate from him in
prophetic traditions (al-Qr 1994, 28).
12
After beginning his education with the memorization of the Qurn, he became the closest disciple of al-
Irq. His most renowned works are Majma al-zawid wa manba al-fawid, Tartib al-thiqt li Ibn
Hibbn and Ghyat al-maqsad fi zawid Ahmad (al-Qr 1994, 33).
13
Al-Makhzm was an outstanding character who was known for his piety, good character and love for
knowledge. He learnt the seven readings of recitation in his youth and adhered to teachers such as al-
Allma Shihb al-Dn and Kaml al-Dn Ab al-Fadl (al-Qr 1994, 31). Al-Makhzm was the first to
teach Ibn Hajar the jurisprudence of hadth in Makka. At the time, Ibn Hajar was only twelve years old.
14
He was born in the Egyptian village of Abns and moved to Cairo in his youth. He gained proficiency in
fiqh and studied hadth in Cairo, Makka and Syria. He later became a teacher and Mufti at al-Azhar
21
Importantly, it was the stature of these men which certainly shaped Ibn Hajars own
education, simply because each of these teachers were men of outstanding ability
themselves. Ibn Hajars student al-Sakhw (831-902/1328-1497) notes that it was
precisely because of the academic support available to him that he was able to excel as a
religious expert. He writes:

He amassed shaykhs which his contemporaries did not amass. All of his shaykhs
were experts and renowned authorities in their respective disciplines. Thus al-
Tankh [was an expert] in qira; al-Irq in hadth and related disciplines; al-
Haytham in prophetic texts; al-Bulqn in his outstanding memory and awareness:
Ibn al-Mulaqqin in his countless written works (in al-Qr 1994, 33).
Perhaps the most renowned of these early teachers was Hfiz Zayn al-Dn Abd al-Rahm
ibn Husayn al-Irq (d. 806/1403).
15
He spent approximately ten years studying hadth
with him (Ahmadayn 1958, 9; al-Barr et al. 1995, 96). It was here he was given the title
of hfiz, as a tribute to his proficiency and expertise in hadth (Anwar 2003, 21). Al-Irq
described him as his most learned disciple in hadth (al-Wajd 1996, 14).

University (al-Qr 1994, 29). Ibn Hajar acknowledged the vast contribution he made to his academic
development on countless occasions (al-Barr et al. 1995, 104)
15
Ibn Hajar first became his disciple in 786/1384 and later studied under his guidance for ten years (al-
Barr et al. 1995, 103). Al-Hfiz al-Irq originated from Kurd and migrated to Cairo as a youngster. His
extensive travels took him to the leading teachers of his time. His famous works are Dhayl al al-mizn,
al-Alfiyya, and its commentary Fath al-mugith (al-Qr 1994, 31).
22
Ibn Hajar was able to excel in all fields not only because of the famous teachers behind
him, but because he had a sustained love for learning. For example, on his first trip to
Makka, his main intention was to perform the Hajj. Yet he also found time to memorise
Umdat al-ahkm under Hfiz al-Jaml ibn Zahra, a renowned scholar of Hijz (al-Barr
et al. 1995, 95). Like many great scholars, Ibn Hajar travelled extensively to learn. For
instance, he travelled to Damascus and Jerusalem, where he studied under the likes of
Shams al-Dn al-Qalqashand (d. 809/1406) and Badr al-Dn al-Bals (d. 803/1400), as
well as Yemen. Additionally, Ibn Hajar did not merely study the important books, but
memorised them too. He memorised the text Mukhtasar of Ibn al-Hjib on usl, al-
Umda, al-Alfiyya and al-Hwi al-saghir (al-Qr 1994, 26). Ibn Hajar as a teacher also
depended heavily on his memory and in fact showed surprise to others who did not. He
reported as a novel practice that one of his biographees used to teach law from a book!
(Makdisi 1981, 148).

2.5. His career.
Ibn Hajar occupied many important posts during his life. Firstly, he undertook the
responsibility of delivering sermons in several mosques in Cairo, including the
prestigious Azhar and Amr (al-Barr et al. 1995, 100; al-Wajd 1996, 14). Secondly, he
taught numerous religious sciences in various seats of learning. For instance:

i. At al-Madrasa al-Shaykhniyya, a school founded by Sayf al-Dn Shaykh al-Umr in
756/1355, he taught Shfi jurisprudence (al-Munw 1999, 1: 121).
23
ii. At al-Madrasa al-Jamliyya, a school specializing in Hanaf fiqh founded by Al al-
Dn al-Jaml, he taught hadth.
iii. At al-Madrasa al-Salhiyya, which was built by Salh al-Dn al-Ayyb (al-Munw
1999, 1: 121; al-Barr et al. 1995, 102), he taught hadth.
iv. He also taught at Dr al-Hadth al-Kmiliyya,
v. He also taught at Jmi al-Qala (founded by al-Nsir Muhammad ibn Qalwan in
718/1318),
vi. At al-Madrasa al-Hasaniyya, he taught exegesis.
vii. He also taught exegesis at al-Madrasa al-Husayniyya and al-Mansriyya (al-Qr
1994, 52).
viii. He taught hadth at al-Madrasa al-Zayniyya (al-Qr 1994, 53)
ix. He dictated hadth at al-Madrasa al-Mahmdiyya (Ibid.).

Two points are worthy of mention here. Firstly, Ibn Hajar primarily occupied himself
with the study and teaching of hadth, though he was competent enough to teach other
disciplines like jurisprudence and exegesis. He was known as a hadth scholar first and
foremost and certainly the extensive literature on hadth and ilm al-hadith he produced
reflects this point too.
Secondly, the periods he spent in these numerous institutions were relatively short. This
was normal practice for the time. Esteemed scholars were known to extend their
knowledge and reach to as many places as possible. However, the exception was the sf
lodges (khanqah) of Baybars in Cairo, where he taught for over twenty years. Perhaps the
prolonged period here was a result of his love for the sf mystics and their way of life.
24
Ibn Hajar also served as the chief justice of Egypt for some time. He undertook this
responsibility in the judiciary in 827/1423 and fulfilled this until 852/1449 (Ahmadayn
1958, 10; al-Barr et al. 1995, 102). His experience as a judge was not pleasant overall, as
he was appointed, dismissed and re-appointed several times. More will be mentioned on
this in section 5.19.

2.6. The climate of Mamluk Cairo.
The outline of his career and the factors that shaped it were to some extent a product of
the tense political atmosphere of Mamluk Cairo at the time. During Ibn Hajars time,
there was a degree of dependency between the all-important military elite and the
religious scholars in Mamluk Cairo. The military provided the financial and material
patronage to the scholars in return for legitimation and integration into Cairos dominant
Islamic environment (Broadbridge 1999, 85). But the frequent tensions at state level
affected the position of the scholars and their proximity to the corridors of power. The
death of a sultan provoked shifts in the power relations within the military rule and, by
extension, could alter the way certain scholars were treated (Broadbridge 1999, 89).

Ibn Hajars early career was a product of the good relationship with the power elite. Upon
his return to Cairo in 806/1403-4, Ibn Hajar quickly established himself as a force in
Cairene intellectual society under the son and successor of Barqq, al-Nsir Faraj
(Broadbridge 1999, 90).
25
Broadbridge notes that compared with other notable scholars of his time, al-Maqrz in
particular, Ibn Hajar endured a relatively stable relation in a system that encouraged
patronage (1999, 93). In 822/1419, al-Muayyad Shaykh (815-24/1412-21) asked Ibn
Hajar to judge in the case of al-Haraw, who had been accused of embezzlement. After
Ibn Hajars successful resolution of the case, he was appointed instructor of Shfi fiqh
at the Muayyadi mosque, which was one of the two most important mosques of
Shaykhs regime in terms of patronage (1999, 95).

When relations were not at their best, he still persevered and seldom spoke out. He did
not enjoy the best personal relationship with Barsby but that did not lead to public
attacks on him. This was down to his character. He was a scholar who occupied a moral
middle ground, as Chamberlain described it (in Broadbridge 1999, 97). He found it
difficult to maintain his justness and politeness which he inherently had, in a corrupt and
short-sighted political climate (ibid.)

2.7. His literary works.
Ibn Hajars ability is perhaps best reflected by the vast number of quality, literary works
he produced during his lifetime. The majority of these works relate to hadth and ilm al-
hadith. Estimates vary, but it is clear he wrote over one hundred and fifty books and
treatises (Anwar 2003, 21: al-Munw 1999, 1: 123). Many of his works are still highly
regarded today by Muslim scholars. His student al-Sakhw wrote:

26
His works exceeded of which most were in the disciplines of hadth, adab and
fiqh more than one hundred and fifty. All were universally acclaimed,
particularly Fath al-bri bi sharh sahih al-Bukhri(in al-Barr et al. 1995, 106).

A list of his known literary works has been listed in Appendix A, at the end of the thesis.

Today, Ibn Hajar is primarily remembered in the Muslim world as the author of a detailed
commentary on the Sahih of al-Imm al-Bukhr. This work, called Fath al-bri, is
perhaps the magnum opus of his literary works. He began this project in 817/1414, as he
taught the Sahih to his hadth students in Cairo. His disciples would record his dictations
and soon these notes took on the form of a book. The work was not even complete yet it
still warranted attention from leading figures around the Muslim world. In 833/1429,
Timurs son Shhrkh sent a letter to the Mamluk sultan al-Ashraf Barsby requesting
several gifts, including a copy of Fath al-bri. Ibn Hajar sent him the first three volumes.
Similarly, the Moroccan sultan Ab Fris Abd al-Azz al-Hafs requested a copy before
its completion. When it was finally finished in 842/1438, a great celebration was held in
Cairo, in the presence of leading Cairean dignitaries, scholars and judges (al-Wajd 1996,
15). Ibn Hajar sat on a platform and read out the final pages of his work, after which
poets recited eulogies.
The reputation of Fath al-bri today is unquestioned in the Muslim world. But during his
life, Ibn Hajar must have enjoyed semi-celebrity status for his masterpiece to attract
attention from leading dignitaries, even before he had completed writing it.
27
There are a few points worthy of contemplation regarding his vast literary works.

a. Firstly, his works related to fiqh were not only focussed on his own school of thought
(Shfi). Al-Dirya, for example, identified the prophetic narrations used in the Hanaf
manual on fiqh, al-Hidya. This shows that Ibn Hajar had utmost respect for religious
sciences in general, and was not prejudiced in favour certain categories of works and
scholars.
b. Secondly, many of his works were geared towards supplementing the works of
previous scholars. For instance, al-Istidrk al al-Hfiz al-Irqi fi takhrij ahdith al-
Ihy was written to identify the original sources of the prophetic narrations used in the
Ihy ulm al-din of Imm Ghazl and Takhrij ahdith al-arbain li-al-Nawawi did the
same for the Forty Hadith of al-Nawaw. This shows that as a Muslim, he had a degree of
respect for scholars, classical and contemporary, and wished to advance the popularity of
such works. Perhaps more importantly, it indicates the type of literary works that were
popular and in demand in the ninth Islamic century. Rather than original and ground-
breaking material, the scholars had resigned themselves to improving and editing existing
works prior to them.
c. Thirdly, though he wrote works in all Islamic disciplines, the majority of his works
related to hadth and ilm al-hadith. This in turn means that the Nuzhah is by no means a
true reflection of the depth of his knowledge in ilm al-hadith; it is merely a manual
covering the discipline in general. For instance, a very brief analysis of mudtarib is
28
offered in the Nuzhah.
16
The extent of his knowledge on this type of tradition is reflected
in his separate treatise on the topic, al-Muqtarib fi bayn al-mudtarib. The same applies
to his works like al-Alqb, Bayn al-fasl bi-m rujjiha fihi al-irsl al al-wasl and al-
Tarij al al-tadrij, to mention a few. These are all separate, detailed works on different
areas of ilm al-hadith that he simply touched upon in the Nuzhah.
The Nuzhah is still significant however because it is the only work of his where he
analysed the discipline of ilm al-hadith as a whole. Certainly, Ibn Hajar himself
emphasised the importance of the Nuzhah from his vast literary works. He only expressed
pride in a handful of his books, and the Nuzhah was one of them (al-Munw 1999, 1: 27).

2.8. The moral development of Ibn Hajar; his outlook as
an individual.
To his contemporaries, Ibn Hajar was a simple and devout Muslim. He was known as a
gentle man, who was inclined to charity and kind-heartedness. Those who knew him
acknowledged his willingness to be good to those who wronged him and forgiving to
those he was able to punish. He was very spiritually-centred as an individual. The
extended time teaching in the sf lodge of Baybars for approximately twenty years must
have played a role in determining his outlook. Alternatively, it could be argued that a
lifetime of studying the traditions of the Messenger had imbued him with a deep love for
his morally-upright example.

16
This will be referred to in Section 5.31.
29
Ibn Hajars wife too played a role. When he reached the age of twenty-five, he married
nas Khtn (al-Barr et al. 1995, 97), in 798/1395. She was the daughter of al-Qd
Karm al-Dn Abd al-Karm ibn Abd al-Azz. nas was a hadth scholar too, having
studied under al-Irq just like Ibn Hajar did. Observers note that she always surrounded
herself with the poor, the old and the physically handicapped, whom it was her privilege
and pleasure to support.
Ibn Hajar passed this love of Islam on to his children. His wife had four daughters with
Ibn Hajar: Zayn Khtn, Farha, liya and Ftima. Ibn Hajar had one son Badr al-Dn
Muhammad from a later marriage (al-Barr et al. 1995, 100). Ibn Hajar paid utmost
attention to his religious education and development. He memorised the Qurn and led
tarwih prayers in 826/1422. The book Bulgh al-marm min adillat al-ahkm was
written by Ibn Hajar as a dedication to his son (al-Barr et al. 1995, 101).
As far as the Nuzhah is concerned, there are places in the work where his moral outlook
as a good Muslim is reflected in his writings as an academic. For instance, he sometimes
corrects and refutes the opinions of previous hadth scholars, mainly related to the use of
certain hadth terminologies. The tone and style employed by Ibn Hajar suggests subtlety
and respect, even when he does not agree with someone.

2.9. Conclusion.
The fame and acceptance that he enjoyed throughout his life extended to his demise too,
since even his funeral turned into a major event. Following his death on the twenty-eighth
of Dhl Hijjah in 852/22
nd
February 1449 (Anwar 2003, 21), fifty thousand people,
including the Sultan and Caliph, attended his funeral.
30
In relation to the Nuzhah, the analysis has indicated that:
a. Ibn Hajar was first and foremost a hadith scholar. Therefore, this may suggest his
preference to focus on this alone, rather than fiqh and other disciplines in the Nuzhah.
b. Ibn Hajar was a spiritually-inclined Muslim. This may manifest itself in the Nuzhah via
the non-confrontational approach he chooses to adopt.
c. He lived in a turbulent political climate. His character helped immensely in
overcoming such hurdles.
d. Many of his literary works were improvements of previous literature in the Islamic
sciences. This could indicate that Ibn Hajar lacked originality. Alternatively, it could say
something about academia in the ninth century in that it was largely void of pioneers and
original thinkers.
Where and when required, these themes will be referred to during the thesis.
To conclude, from the abundance of material we have on his life and works, it is
explicitly clear that Ibn Hajar al-Asqaln was a famed and revered hadth scholar. There
is no shortage of praise from fellow Muslim scholars, who have described him with
unique and outstanding qualities. Al-Munw (d. 1021/1612) praised him with the
following words:

The unique of his time, the bearer of the flag of the sunna in his timethe jewel
who has been a source of pride for many generations, the imm of this discipline
and the forerunner of the army of hadth experts, the resort of the people in
[hadth] authentication and dis-accreditation (1999, 1: 117)
31
Al-Qr (d. 1014/1605) wrote a detailed commentary on the Nuzhah. He commenced it
with the following words of praise for Ibn Hajar:

our leader, the shaykh of our own shaykhs, our dependable, the finest of the
outstanding scholarsShaykh al-Islm, and the seal of the huffz and hadth
mastersShaykh, Shihb al-Dn Ahmad ibn Hajar al-Asqaln(1994, 118).

Many titles have been bestowed on him, to reflect his position in the discipline. Fellow
Muslim scholars used the term Shaykh al-Islm and Amir al-muminn fi-al-hadith
17

when referring to him (al-Barr et al. 1995, 102). This latter title has usually been
reserved for the elite of hadth masters, such as al-Imm al-Bukhr.
But it is the title of the seal of the huffz (khtam al-huffz) which perhaps best
indicates his rank. It is as if he was the last great hadth master to have existed (and
therefore the Nuzhah was the last great work on the subject). This title is a great
compliment to Ibn Hajar because it reflects his expertise in hadth. But for that era, the
title can be interpreted as anything but complimentary. This is because it suggests that
after Ibn Hajar, the discipline of ilm al-hadith resigned itself to apathy and passiveness.
It suggests that by the era of Ibn Hajar, the field of hadth had been deprived of fresh
methodology and analysis of the prophetic traditions. He was the last great hadth master,
who himself resorted to improving, commentating and editing literature that preceded
him by centuries.

17
The Leader of the Faithful in hadith.
32
3.0. The Nuzhah of Ibn Hajar; the Authors
Introduction and the Related Literature.

As mentioned in the introduction, one of the aims of this thesis is to assess the Nuzhah in
light of the ninth Islamic century, namely the academic, religious and social climate of
that period. This aim will be mainly fulfilled in section five, where a critical commentary
will be offered of the Nuzhah. In part, however, the same issue will also be tackled in this
section (albeit through a different approach) by looking at a brief, historical account of
the ilm al-hadith literature that preceded the Nuzhah.
A historical account of ilm al-hadith literature is pivotal towards us gaining a sound
appreciation of the Nuzhah. Ibn Hajars work was not the first work in the field, or the
last. It was neither the shortest nor the longest. Yet it certainly was and still is one of the
most popular. By assessing the literature that preceded him, we can understand why the
Nuzhah became so popular. Moreover, such an account will help us evaluate whether the
Nuzhah was filling a void that had hitherto been unaddressed by his predecessors. Or,
alternatively, it can assist in answering whether the Nuzhah was merely one treatise on
ilm al-hadith, like the many before and after it.

In order to present a background to the literature in ilm al-hadith prior to the Nuzhah, I
have used Ibn Hajars own introduction to the Nuzhah as the basis in this chapter
18
, since

18
In this chapter and the main section, the translation of the Nuzhah has been presented in bold font.
33
he reviews key works that preceded him in this short introduction. Though he obviously
does not mention every work that came before him, the books he does quote gives us an
insight into the works which he personally saw as significant.
His introduction also indicates why he wrote the Nuzhah, and where this work lies in
relation to his shorter work Nukhbat al-fikar. To conclude the chapter, I will assess the
worth of the Nuzhah in relation to the development of ilm al-hadith literature throughout
the centuries. Two opinions will be presented. One suggests that the Nuzhah holds a
substantially important place in ilm al-hadith literature. The second implies that the
Nuzhah was typical of its era, and that the work highlighted the stagnant nature of the
development of ilm al-hadith literature as a whole.
The Shaykh, the Imm, scholar, practising [on what he knows], the Hfiz
19
, the
exceptional of his time, the unique of his generation, meteor of the religion, Ab al-
Fadl Ah mad ibn Al al-Asqlan, famous by the title Ibn Hajar
20
may Allh
reward him with Paradise, through His grace and favour writes;
In the Name of Allh, Most Merciful and Benevolent.

19
The word hfiz literally means someone who memorises. In the discipline of ilm al-hadith, it refers to
someone who has memorised over one-hundred thousand prophetic reports (Mighlw 2003, 27). The
writings of earlier scholars suggest that hfiz and muhaddith are synonymous terms. Later scholars explain
a subtle difference; that a hfiz is a title of higher rank. Al al-Qr writes that it refers to a scholar who has
memorised at least one-hundred thousand prophetic reports (Khalifa 2003, 42).
20
It is not clear where the title Ibn Hajar originated. Some scholars believe it was a title he was given as he
accumulated a small wealth of gold and silver. Others believe the title has a metaphorical connotation: his
thought and astuteness was as rigid as stone. Another opinion is that the fifth generation down from his
fathers side was called Hajar (Sabgh 1990, p. viii). All these reasons are plausible.
34
All praise is to Allh, Who remains the All-Knowing, All-Able, the Ever-Living, the
Firm, the All-Listening, and All-Seeing. I testify that there is no god except Allh,
He is Alone with no partner and I glorify Him excessively.
I testify that Muhammad is His Servant and Messenger. May Allh send blessings
upon our Leader Prophet Muhammad, who was sent to humanity in its entirety, as
a bringer of glad-tidings and as a warner. And many salutations be upon his family
and his Companions.

Undoubtedly, there is an abundance of literature in the science of hadth, [written]
by classical and contemporary scholars. Amongst the first to write in this area was
al-Qd Ab Muhammad al-Rmahurmuz , his book called al-Muhaddith al-fsil.
However, he did not complete this work. Then came al-Hkim Ab Abd Allh al-
Nsbr but the book was not ordered systematically or refined. He was followed by
Ab Nuaym al-Isbahn, who added to his predecessors works, and left out areas
for those after him [to complete]. Then came al-Khatb Ab Bakr al-Baghdd. Thus
he wrote al-Kifya on the rules of narration and al-Jmi li akhlq al-rw wa db
al-smi, on the etiquettes of narration. [In fact] he wrote separate treatises on
almost all areas of hadth criticism. As al-Hfiz Ab Bakr ibn Nuqta said: Every
impartial observer knows that all hadth scholars after al-Khatb al-Baghdd were
dependant upon his books.
Then after them came others and they took a portion from this knowledge. Thus al-
Qd Iyd compiled a wonderful book which he called al-Ilm and Ab Hafs al-
Mayynish wrote a pamphlet called M l yasau al-muhaddith jahluh.
35
Examples of these literary works which became famous are plentiful, (of which)
some were detailed to offer comprehensive knowledge, and some were abridged (to
make understanding easy).
(This was such) until al-Hfiz al-Faqh Taq al-Dn Ab Amr Uthmn ibn al-Salh
Abd al-Rahmn al-Shahruzr, resident of Damascus, appeared. He gathered his
famous book when he took over teaching at al-Madrasa al-Ashrafiyya. He refined
the fields of hadth (in this piece) and dictated it bit by bit. For this reason, its order
was not achieved in a suitable manner. He included the various works of al-Khatb
al-Baghdd, gathering its antecedent points and adding selected beneficial points
himself. In this book, he gathered what had hitherto been scattered in different
books. For this reason, people adhered to it and followed its path. The book resulted
in countless literature devoted to it, such as poems, abridged versions, commentaries,
shortened versions and (indeed) critical literature.

3. 1. The Existing Literature.
Ibn Hajar begins the book after the customary praise of Allh and salutations and
blessings upon Prophet Muhammad with a brief overview of the existing literature in
the field of ilm al-hadith. Though the works mentioned are by no means exhaustive, he
does refer to the key works on this subject prior to him. The works and authors he refers
to are;
i. Al-Muhaddith al-fsil bayn al-rwi wa-al-wi.
By Ab Muhammad al-Hasan ibn Abd al-Rahmn ibn al-Khalld al-Rmahurmuz (d.
360/970).
36
Almost certainly, al-Muhaddith was the first piece of work on ilm al-hadith that
encompassed the discipline as a whole.
21
The works include discussions on areas such as
the etiquettes of the narrator and hadth master, methods of delivery and the efforts of
hadth masters in the pursuit of knowledge.
As Ibn Hajar notes, the pioneering work of al-Rmahurmuz was not complete, precisely
because it was the first treatise written specifically in ilm al-hadith. More crucially, the
timing of the book is important to note. It was the middle of the fourth century when
hadth reporting and collecting was in its full swing before an individual and exclusive
treatise on ilm al-hadith first appeared. This indicates that to some extent at least, the
ilm al-hadith scholars had to write what had happened in the field and not what should
happen. In other words, the work of al-Rmahurmuz was in part descriptive rather
prescriptive.
ii. Marifat ulm al-hadith.
By Ab Abd Allh Muhammad ibn Abd Allh al-Nsbr (d. 405/1014).
22

Though it was not systematically ordered, the author addressed fifty sections relating to
the rules of narration.

21
Although al-Muhaddith al-fsil was most certainly the pioneering treatise on the discipline, it does not
mean it was the first time the rules pertaining to ilm al-hadith were written down. Prior to this, treatises
could be found on an array of individual topics, such as the words of accreditation and dis-accreditation, the
narrations of seniors from juniors, and the biographical details of reporters. For example, the Risla of al-
Imm al-Shfi (150/767-204/820) did contain random writings on ilm riwyat al-hadith (Siddiqi 1993,
108). Muslims (d. 261/874) introduction to his Sahih also contained various rules regarding the discipline
(Khalfa 1983, 10). Al-Tirmidh included key ilm al-hadith terminologies at the end of al-Ilal al-mufrad
and at the end of his Sunan (Khalfa 1983, 10). Al-Rmahurmuzs contribution was to attempt to amass
these rulings into one document.
22
Ab Abd Allh Muhammad ibn Abd Allh ibn Muhammad ibn Hamdawiyya al-Nsbr, known as al-
Hkim, was one of the most respected authorities in the field of hadth. Author of the famous al-Mustadrak
al-al-sahihayn, he was born in 321/933 and died in 405/1014. He was a prolific writer with
approximately fifteen hundred books to his name, including al-Ilal and Fawid al-shuykh. His quest for
knowledge took him to Hijz and Irq. In 359 he was appointed as the judge of his birthplace Nsbr.
(Miglw 2003, 68-69).
37
iii. Marifat ulm al-hadith al kitb al-Hkim.
By Ab Nuaym al-Isbahn (d. 430/1038).
23

The term used by Ibn Hajar to describe this book in relation to the work of al-Hakim is
that it is a mustakhraj.
24
This indicates that al-Isbahn most certainly took the works of
al-Hkim as his starting point, and wrote on areas he had left out, or expanded on parts
which had been left brief. However, as Ibn Hajar points out, his efforts were incomplete.
This indicates a theme that perhaps marks the discipline as a whole; dependency and
improvements on the works of others and not a desire to innovate and think outside the
box.
iv. Al-Kifya fi ilm al-riwya.
v. Al-Jmi li-akhlq al-rwi wa db al-smi.
Al-Khatb Ab Bakr al-Baghdd (d. 463/1071).
25

Al-Kifya dealt primarily with the rules of narrations that disciples were expected to
adhere to. Al-Jmi was a more extensive treatise, covering areas such as how to respect
the muhaddith, who a disciple should avoid taking traditions from and the etiquettes of
listening.

23
Ab Nuaym Ahmad ibn Abd Allh ibn Ishq al-Isbahn was one of the most celebrated classical
scholars. He had permission to hear hadith from his teachers at the age of six. He heard hadth from
amongst others al-Tabarn and counts al-Khatb Ab Bakr al-Baghdd as one of his close disciples. Al-
Isbahns other works include Hilyat al-awliy, Marifat al-sahba, Kitb dalil al-nubuwwa, Kitb al-
mustakhraj al al-Bukhri and Tabaqt al-asfiy. He died in 430/1038, at the age of 94 (al-Wajd 1996,
20).
24
In ilm al-hadith terminology, this refers to when a hadith master takes an existing book of hadith and
derives the isnds for each narration himself (Tahhn 2001, 32).
25
Ab Bakr Ahmad ibn Al ibn Thbit ibn Ahmad ibn Mahd al-Baghdd was perhaps one of the most
important figures in the field of hadth ever to have existed. Born in 392 /1002, al-Baghdd became a
master of hadth, History, Jurisprudence, Doctrines to mention but a few fields of knowledge (al-Suyt
1972, 2: 397). The historian al-Dhahab described him as the most peerless Imm, erudite scholar and
mufti, meticulous hadth master, scholar of his time in hadth, prolific author, and seal of hadth masters
(1994, 31: 86). His most famous works were al-Rihla fi talab al-hadith, Trikh Baghdd, al-Kifya fi ilm
al-riwya and al-Jmi li akhlq al-rwi wa db al-smi. He died in 463/1071.
38
vi. al-Ilm il marifat al-riwya wa taqyid al-sam.
Al-Qd Iyd.
26

This text was by no means a comprehensive one on ilm al-hadith; the book primarily
dealt with the process of receiving and passing on narration (al-tahammul wa-al-ad).
Nevertheless the work was commended for its clarity and layout (Tahhn 2001, 10).
vii. M l yasau al-muhaddith jahluh.
Ab Hafs al-Mayynish (d. 580/1184).
This short work offered a brief yet precise guide to the technical terms used in the
discipline.
viii. Muqaddima (Ulm al-hadith).
By al-Hfiz al-Faqh Taq al-Dn Ab Amr Uthmn ibn al-Salh Abd al-Rahmn al-
Shahruzr (d. 643/1245).
Though the work is officially known as Ulm al-hadith, it is popularly referred to as
Muqaddimat Ibn al-Salh. As Ibn Hajar notes, the book became an important milestone
in ilm al-hadith literature due to its scope, clarity and comprehensiveness. He drew on
the works of his predecessors, such as al-Khatb al-Baghdd, and gathered sections that
had previously not been confined to one work. A minor criticism of the work as noted
by Ibn Hajar was that the order was still somewhat unsystematic. The reason for this
was that, according to Ibn Hajar, Ibn al-Salh did not aim to write the book per se; the
works were put together from his lecturing at al-Madrasa al-Ashrafiyya.
As a form of praise for this momentous work, Ibn Hajar writes in the introduction that
Ulm al-hadith resulted in a surge of related works. These included nzims (poems) like

26
Ab al-Fadl Iyd ibn Ms ibn Iyd, better known as al-Qd Iyd, was an exceptional scholar of the
fifth/sixth Islamic century. His masterpiece Al-Shif bi tarif huqq al-mustafa refers to the life of
Muhammad, and is still universally revered and respected today. He died in 544/1149.
39
the efforts of Zayn al-Dn al-Irq, Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn al-Khall Shihb al-Dn
al-Khb and al-Qadi Shihb al-Dn al-Harb (al-Munw 1999, 1: 220). It also led to
summaries (mukhtasar), like the two written by al-Nawaw (d. 676/1277). The first was
called al-Taqrib, upon which Jall al-Dn al-Suyt (d.911/1505) later wrote a
commentary entitled Tadrib al-rwi fi sharh taqrib al-Nawawi. The second summary was
called Kitb Irshd tullb al-haqiq il marifat sunan khayr al-khaliq, or al-Irshd
for short. Al-Hafiz ibn Kathr wrote his own summary upon the works of al-Nawaw (al-
Munw 1999, 1: pp. 220-221).
Mustadraks (supplements) were also written on Ulm al-hadith. This term refers to a
literary work where a later author improves and adds to the existing, original work (al-
Uthaymin 2002, 29). Examples of such works on Ulm al-hadith are Islh ibn al-Salh,
by Maghlatai ibn Qalj ibn Abd Allh (d. 762/1360) and Mahsin al-istilh by al-Imm
al-Bulqin. In short, Ibn Hajar wanted to highlight the importance of Ulm al-hadith. In
fact it still remains a text of paramount importance today.
27

Ibn Hajar deemed it important to mention these seven treatises that preceded him in the
field of ilm al-hadith. There were other important works which he did not refer to, such
as:
1. Al-Iqtirh fi bayn al-Istilh by Ibn Daqq al-d (d. 702/1302).
2. Al-Khulsa fi usl al-hadith by al-Husayn ibn Abd Allh al-Tb (d. 732/1331).
3. Al-Muqni fi ulm al-hadith by Umar ibn Ali ibn al-Mulaqqin (d. 804/1401).
4. Alfiyyat al-hadith by Zayn al-Dn al-Irq (d. 806/1403).

27
The text has recently been rendered into English, by Dr. Eerik Dickinson. (2006) An Introduction to the
Science of Hadith (Garnet: Reading, UK).
40
Of these books, it is most surprising that he did not give his teachers work, al-Irq, a
mention. Perhaps because this was based on the Muqaddima of Ibn al-Salh, which he
does mention in considerable detail, Ibn Hajar did not feel the need to refer to the Alfiyya
separately.

41
4.0. The Nuzhah.
Some friends of mine asked me to offer a brief overview of the important parts of
this book. Hence I wrote it in a few papers and I named it Nukhbat al-fikar f
mustalah al-athar with an order I produced and a style I pursued, adding unique
and additional points. My friends re-approached me and asked me to write a
commentary for it, which would unlock its secrets and open its treasures, and
expose what had been hidden before. I duly obliged in hope of being included among
the people of hadth, and made extensive effort in explaining the hidden facets, since
the homeowner knows best as to what is in his home. It became apparent to me that
a comprehensive account was more suitable and an amalgamation (of the original
and the commentary) was more useful. Hence, I adopted this rare style, and I say,
seeking assistance from Allh

In the last part of the introduction, Ibn Hajar explains how his own book on the subject
came about. It is clear from his own wording that he based his work on the writings of
Ibn al-Salh, but aimed to offer a brief overview of it. The result was a small
manuscript which he named Nukhbat al-fikar, consisting of only a few pages.
28
Clearly,
this summary was almost too brief since he was asked to elucidate on the Nukhbah. This
second work was called Nuzhat al-nazar. Rather than treating the two works separately,
Ibn Hajar merged both works together, so it could be studied as one text. The uniqueness
of the work is reflected by the fact that the Nukhbah can still be read individually.

28
The Nukhbah has been recently rendered into English, by Musa Furber, in Sunna Notes; Studies in
Hadith & Doctrine (Haddad, G. F., 2005, Aqsa Publications, UK).
42
4.1. The Relationship between the Nuzhah and Nukhbat al-Fikar.
The request for a small manual on ilm al-hadith by his contemporaries led to Ibn Hajars
writing the Nukhbah. His second effort a more-detailed commentary of the Nukhbah
followed and this was called the Nuzhah. What did Ibn Hajar do in the Nuzhah which was
an addition and improvement on the original Nukhbah? Anwar (2003) comments that by
comparing the original Nukhbah and the subsequent Nuzhah, it becomes clear that Ibn
Hajar focused on improving and developing three areas:

1. Firstly, he geared effort towards what Anwar refers to as tawdih matlib, or clarifying
the aims of the book (Anwar 2003, 33). For example, Ibn Hajar begins the Nukhbah with
the division of different types of khabar. However, he does not mention in detail what is
meant by the term khabar in the actual Nukhbah despite the importance of this term.
Considerable detail is provided in the Nuzhah, where he provides us with how the term is
used, its comparison with the term hadth, and how the term is used in the Arabic
language (section 5.2. of this thesis).

2. Anwar writes that the second aim of the Nuzhah was tawjih ibra, or attention to the
text (2003, 33). Certainly, this is referring to how the reader is reminded of the meanings
and derivations of certain words used in the Nukhbah. For instance, we are reminded that
the word turuq is the plural of tariq on the template of jam kathra. It must be noted
however that as the book progresses, less emphasis is provided on points relating to the
meanings of words in relation to syntax and etymology. Instead, Ibn Hajar provides this
only in the earlier parts of the Nuzhah.
43
3. Thirdly, the purpose of the Nuzhah, as expressed by Anwar, was izhr ishra, or
revealing of indications. Perhaps this refers to where Ibn Hajar gives his own preference
over a disputed terminology, or where he expresses his dismay over commonly-
misunderstood or misinterpreted matters. For example, Ibn Hajar highlights the fact that
many have considered itibr a type of hadth, basing this on the sub-heading Marifat al-
itibr wa-al-mutbit wa-al-shawhid in Ibn al-Salhs Ulm al-hadith. Itibr as he
rightly points out is not a type of hadth; rather it is the means of investigation by which
mutbis and shhids are found.
29

4.2. The Unique Qualities of the Nuzhah.
Ibn Hajar as shown in the previous section was a prolific writer in both ilm al-hadith
and other Islamic disciplines, writing over one-hundred and fifty works. His student al-
Sakhw commented that of all his works, he showed pride in only a handful of his works.
He writes:

I heard Ibn Hajar say: I am not entirely content with any of my literary works,
because I initially wrote them and felt the need for re-editing in all of them. The
exceptions are Sharh sahih al-Bukhri, its introduction al-Mushtabih, Tahdhib
[al-tahdhib] and Lisn al-mizn.
[Al-Sakhw added]: In fact I have seen him on occasions praise his own Sharh
sahih al-Bukhri, the Taliq and the Nuzhah (in al-Munw 1999, 1: 27).

29
See section 5.13.
44
Al-Munw echoed the sentiments of Ibn Hajar when he identified key and outstanding
qualities of the Nuzhah (1999, 1: pp. 29-33). He highlighted the following unique
attributes;

1. He gathered the most important elements of Ibn al-Salhs Muqaddima.
2. He arranged the Nukhbah in a pioneering manner not done by his predecessors.
3. He amalgamated the Nukhbah into the Nuzhah in such a way that the Nukhbah can still
be read and treated as a separate book.
4. Along with defining and explaining each type of hadth, he supplemented it with
examples of each from hadth literature, as well as existing literary works on each
particular type. There are exceptions however, like mursal and mudallas; for which he
did not provide examples of such traditions, nor did he highlight the works of previous
scholars on them.
5. Ibn Hajar mainly concentrated on the preferred opinion on disputed issues. There are
places however where he did expand into other, weaker opinions on certain issues. For
example, he felt the need to highlight and refute the weak opinion of certain scholars who
defined a sahih report as one which consists of at least two reporters in each generation.
30

6. Ibn Hajar felt the need to stress certain points which he felt had been neglected by
previous experts in ilm al-hadith. When explaining the contrasting difference between
mursal and munqati, for example, he added how certain scholars considered the two
types synonymous. And very few are aware of this point he wrote.
31

30
See section 5.5.
31
See section 5.8.1.
45
7. Ibn Hajar praised the works and efforts of previous Muslim scholars in his Nuzhah.
With regards to al-Imm al-Dhahab, he praised him as a scholar of complete
competence in the criticism of [hadth] reporters.
32

Al-Munws observations do give an indication of the target audience for the Nuzhah,
something which will be addressed as this thesis progresses. It seems the work was
primarily aimed to be an introduction to ilm al-hadith for young students wishing to
learn about the discipline. This is because the Nuzhah defines each type of hadth along
with practical examples. Countless sections are concluded with an insight into further
literature available and he is keen to highlight the correct opinion on areas that are
sources of dispute. If this is true, then the friends of mine [who] asked me to offer a brief
overview could well have been fellow teachers, who wanted to provide their disciples
with an introductory guide to the discipline.
The other point which is apparent from al-Munws observations is that the
improvement was largely in the structure and detail, not necessarily in the content.

4.3. The Nuzhah and the historical development of ilm al-hadth
literature.
The ilm al-hadith literature which Ibn Hajar provides in his introduction is useful in
providing an insight into how the Nuzhah fits in historically with previous works, and
what all this says about the development of the discipline as a whole. There are key
observations that are crucial to mention:

32
See section 5.64.
46
In its earliest form, ilm al-hadith literature took the form of the merging of ilm al-
hadith rules and principles within hadth texts that mentioned chains and narrations. This
commenced in the second Islamic century, up until the fourth century. Al-Imm al-
Shfis al-Umm and the al-Risla are two examples of works reflecting this stage.
During the second half of the fourth Islamic century, texts on ilm al-hadith exclusively
appeared for the first time, as the Nuzhah indicates in the introduction. Most agree that
al-Muhaddith al-fsil by al-Rmahurmuz (d. 360) was the pioneering work in this field.
Thereafter, a pattern emerged in ilm al-hadith literature. After a period of individual
treatises on all or part of the disciplines by various scholars, a milestone work would
appear that would summarise, elucidate and edit the works preceding it. In the fifth
century, Marifat ulm al-hadith of Ab Nuaym al-Isbahn (d. 430/1038) served this
function and the next milestone work was most certainly the Muqaddima of Ibn al-Salh
(d. 643/1245).
Between the Muqaddima of Ibn al-Salh and the Nuzhah of Ibn Hajar (d. 852/1449), ilm
al-hadith literature continued to grow with the appearance of refined works,
commentaries and summaries on existing works in ilm al-hadith. But owing to the
universal acceptance of the Muqaddima, most literature after it was based on Ibn al-
Salhs work. For example, the Alfiyya of Zayn al-Dn al-Irq (d. 806/1403) was based
on the works of Ibn al-Salh, as was al-Nawaws (d. 676/1277) al-Taqrib.
The Nuzhah of Ibn Hajar was the next important and perhaps the last milestone work
on ilm al-hadith. This is because in essence, subsequent works after it were based on it,
just as the Muqaddima of Ibn al-Salh led to a surge of related literature before. Al-
Munw (1999, 1: 34) identifies thirty-six works that are directly based on the Nukhbah
47
or the Nuzhah, in the form of commentaries, hshiyas or nazms.
33
Some were written by
esteemed scholars in their own right.
So in essence, the disciplines literary development can be understood through two
important works. The Muqaddima of Ibn al-Salh (d. 643/1245) became an important
milestone because it summarised the previous important works on the discipline, and it
became the foundation upon which many subsequent scholars based their works on. The
extensive praise Ibn Hajar directs to it in his introduction indicates this fact amply.
Then the Nuzhah of Ibn Hajar (d. 852/1449) acted as a summary of Ibn al-Salhs
exceptional works and thereafter, a large majority of literature was based on this.

33
Here are some of the most-celebrated works written based on the Nuzhah or the Nukhbah (1) Unwn
mani nukhbat al-fikar fi mustalah ahl al-athar by Ahmad ibn Sadaqa al-Qhir (d. 905/1499) (2) Sharh
nukhbat al-fikar by Athr al-Dn (3) Hshiya al nuzhat al-nazar by Ibrhm al-Shahruzr (d. 1101/1689)
4. Sharh nukhbat al-fikar by Ibrhm al-Kurd. (5) Al-li al-rutba fi sharh nazm Nukhbah by Ahmad ibn
Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Hasan Taq al-Dn Ab al-Abbs al-Shamn (d. 872/1467) (6) Nazm li-
matn nukhbat al-fikar by Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Abd al-Rahmn Shihb al-Dn al-Tkh al-Qhir (d.
893/1487) (7) Sharh nukhbat al-fikar by Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Kawkb (8) Sharh nazm al-nukhba by
al-Ashmn (9) Aqd al-durar fi sharh mukhtasar nukhbat al-fikar by al-ls (d. 1342/1923) (10) Zubdat
al-nazar fi sharh nukhbat al-fikar by Taq ibn Shh Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik al-Lhor (11) Al al-
rutba fi sharh al-nukhba by Fash al-Dn al-Haydar. (12) Qasab al-sukar fi nazam nukhbat al-fikar by
Muhammad ibn Isml al-Amr al-Hasan al-Sann (d. 1182/1768).
(13) Thamart al-nazar fi ulm al-athar by Muhammad ibn Isml al-Amr al-Hasan al-Sann (d.
1182/1768). This book only deals with the knowledge of al-jarh wa-al-tadil (14) Istijl al-basar min
sharh nukhbat al-fikar by Abd al-Azz ibn Abd al-Salm al-Uthmn (15) Sharh mukhtasar nukhbat al-
fikar by Abd al-Azz ibn Muhammad al-Abhar (d. 895/1489) (16) Sharh qasab al-sukkar nazm nukhbat
al-fikar by Abd al-Karm ibn Murd al-Athar (17) Hshiyat laqt al-durar bi-sharh matn nukhbat al-fikar
by Abd Allh ibn Husayn Khtir al-Samn (18) Nazm li-nukhbat al-fikar by Abd Allh ibn Umar al-
Yamn (d. 1196/1781) (19) Sharh nukhbat al-fikar by Abd Allh ibn Fath Allh.
(20) Al-Mukhtasar min nukhbat al-fikar by Abd al-Wahhb ibn Ab al-Barakt al-Shfi al-Ahmad (d.
1150/1737) (21) Bahjat al-basar li-nathar nukhbat al-fikar by Uthmn ibn Sanad al-Baqar (d. 1236/1820)
(22) Al-Ghurar sharh bahjat al-basar by Uthmn ibn Sanad al-Baqar (d. 1236/1820).
(23) Aqd al-durar fi nazm nukhbat al-fikar and Sharh aqd al-durar fi nazm nukhbat al-fikar by
Ab al-Mahsin Ab Hmid (d. 1052/1642) (24) Sharh nukhbat al-fikar by Al ibn Sultn al-Qr (d.
1014/1605) (25) Sharh nukhbat al-fikar by Muhammad ibn Ibrhm ibn al-Sigh (26) Mukhtasar ulm al-
hadith by Ibn al-Wazr Muhammad ibn Ibrhm (d. 840/1436).
(27) Manh al-nughba al sharh al-Nukhba by Muhammad ibn Ibrhm ibn Ysuf Rid al-Dn ibn al-
Hanbal (d. 971/1563) (28) Imn al-nazar fi sharh nukhbat al-fikar by Muhammad Akram ibn Abd al-
Rahmn al-Sanad al-Makk (29) Nazm li-nukhbat al-fikar by Muhammad ibn Ab Bakr al-Husayn al-
Suyt (d. 856/1452) (30) Tashih al-nazar fi sharh nukhbat al-fikar by Muhammad ibn Husayn Hazwr.
48
It is quite possible to argue that after the Nuzhah, no independent, fresh and original
treatise was written in the field. If it is argued that Tadrib al-rwi fi sharh taqrib al-
Nawawi, by Jall al-Dn al-Suyt (d. 911/1505), was regarded as an instrumental work
after Ibn Hajars Nuzhah, one can reply by pointing out that even this work was based on
al-Nawaws work, who based his work on the Muqaddima.
This analysis of Ibn Hajar and his Nuzhah thus explains why many scholars consider him
as one of the last great hfizs. In fact, by referring to him as khtam al-huffz (the seal of
the hadth masters), al-Qr implicitly suggests that he marked the end of the period of
great hadth experts (1994, 118). Ibn Hajars service to the discipline of ilm al-hadith
could be viewed as the last major input; thereafter scholars in the field perhaps passively
geared their efforts in consolidating existing works and offering commentaries on the
books written by their predecessors. Undoubtedly, this further amplifies the importance
of a critical and detailed analysis of his Nuzhah. But this is not to say that the Nuzhah is a
true reflection of his in-depth knowledge of ilm al-hadith. As we have already shown, he
wrote individual treatises on countless areas within the discipline. The Nuzhah is merely
an indication to his true wealth of knowledge, not an accurate reflection.

The introduction of the Nuzhah therefore provides a rough guide to the development of
ilm al-hadith literature and how Ibn Hajars own work fits in. However, the same
introduction also indicates another important pattern. Even by Ibn Hajars own admission,
the literature in this field over the centuries largely depended on slightly improving the
works of predecessors, rather than a radical review of it. Ab Nuayms efforts were
simply geared towards refining the work of al-Hkim, proven by the fact that it is referred
49
to as a mustakhraj. Ibn al-Salhs Muqaddima, despite its importance, can be viewed as
an attempt to simply gather the works of previous scholars into one book. There is little
or no indication that as time went by, the classification and indeed authentication of
prophetic reports was radically overhauled. Instead, it was mildly refined. The Nuzhah
was a result of a personal request from Ibn Hajars contemporaries, rather than an urgent
requirement. Even he himself admits that only the approach of writing was original
(with an order I produced and a style I pursued). Like what had gone on for
centuries before, ilm al-hadith literature never seriously questioned the issue of
authenticity and never attempted to think outside the consensual norm.
Objectively-speaking, it is clear that there are only a handful of places where there is
some real originality in the Nuzhah in comparison with Ibn al-Salhs work. Al-Munw
identifies only ten sections which feature in the Nuzhah and not in the Muqaddima (1999,
1: pp.32-3). Eight of them simply relate to how we group different names and kunyas
(section 5.65.) such as reporters whose teachers name coincides with their fathers
name. This can hardly described as pioneering and important. There are only two
sections which are truly original, muhkam (section 5.14.) and the reasons behind the
hadth (5.71.). Otherwise, the material, classification and even the examples are similar to
the Muqaddima. Only the literary style is perhaps different.
On a wider scale, the fact that there are many similarities between the Nuzhah and the
Muqaddima raise a more important question about whether the discipline ever really
continuously developed throughout the centuries, or whether it suffered from academic
passiveness. A case can be made for the latter, and proof for this can be found in the
opinion of Ibn Hibbn (d. 354/965), who said: I see that the [Islamic] disciplines are
50
all developing except this discipline [of hadth]. For this is declining day by day (in al-
Munw 1999, 1: 4). Perhaps Ibn Hibbn wanted to highlight that as early as the fourth
Islamic century, there was not enough original work being done in ilm al-hadith.
In short, the Nuzhahs introduction suggests two themes. One suggests that milestone
works appeared in the discipline every so often which proved to be the depended guide
for scholars and disciples thereafter. Like the Muqaddima, the universal acceptance of the
Nuzhah suggests this too received such an accolade. The fact that esteemed scholars such
as al-ls (d. 1342/1923) and al-Qr (d. 1014/1605) have written commentaries on the
Nuzhah is undoubtedly a testimony to its acceptance and appeal. The other theme
suggests that the discipline largely depended on the endeavours of the early scholars;
thereafter there were modifications and slight alterations throughout the centuries. This
reached a terminal end with the Nuzhah.
Only a critical analysis of the Nuzhah will identify which of these two opinions is closer
to the truth. Therefore it is a theme which will be touched upon where possible
throughout the thesis.
51
5.0. The Main Section; a Translation of the Nuzhah,
with the Commentary and Critical Analysis.

5.1. The Authors Introduction.
34

The authors introduction has been translated (in bold) and analysed in the previous
section (4.0) and therefore it has not been duplicated here.

5.2. Khabar al-ahd and mutwatir; The division of
traditions according to how they reached us.
The khabar according to the scholars of this field is synonymous with [the
meaning of] hadth. It is said hadth is that which derives from the Prophet , and
khabar is that which derives from others. Furthermore, it is said to a person who
occupies himself with history and similar [disciplines] al-akhbr, and a person
who occupies himself with hadth muhaddith.
35
It is [also] said that the difference
between them is umm wa-khass mutlaq
36
; thus every hadth is a khabar, and not
vice versa. It has been described here with khabar to be more encompassing.

34
Throughout section five, the translation of the Nuzhah is presented in bold font.
35
To clarify the general usage of the two terms, Ibn Hajar writes that a person who occupies himself with
the study of history and similar subjects is called an akhbri and not a muhaddith. Likewise, a person who
occupies himself with the study of the Prophetic sunna is called a muhaddith, and not an akhbri.
36
This terminology is derived from usl al-fiqh (principles of jurisprudence) and refers to when two things
are related through generality and particularity. For example, every football is round, but not every round
object is a football and every Messenger (rasl) is a prophet (nabi), but not every Prophet is a Messenger.
The other type is umm wa-khass wajhi. This refers to a general statement from which some part has
been made particular. For instance, the Prophet said there is no Prayer after Asr until the sun disappears.
52
So according to consideration of how it reached us, the khabar either has tarqs,
namely many chains; because the plural of tarq is turuq. The word [on the template]
of fal pluralises on fuul for kathra with two dammas and afila for qilla. And
what is meant by tarqs is chains [isnds]. The isnd is the report of the path
leading to the matn. The matn is the final text at which the chain finishes. And the
numerous chains is one of the conditions of mutawtir when it appears.

Commentary
In this opening section, Ibn Hajar sets up the discussion for the forthcoming analysis on
mutawtir. He begins with the definitions of oft-used technical terms which he employs
throughout the book, namely khabar, hadth, tariq
37
, isnd and matn
38
. Owing to the
dispute surrounding its definition, he offers three definitions for khabar, of which he
prefers the first.
39

Interestingly, Ibn Hajar opts for a more detailed analysis of the word tariq by providing
information about what its plural is too. The reason for the in-depth analysis of this

(Sahih al-Bukhri, hadth no. 551; Book, the Times of Salh; Chapter, Prayer is not performed before the
sun sets.) Here, there is no Prayer is general and after Asr is particular (al-Uthaymin 2002, p. 37).
37
Tariq (pl. turuq). Ibn Hajar writes that the plural for a word on the template of fail falls under two
possibilities- fuul if it is jam kathra and afila if it is jam qilla. The literal meaning of tariq is path, but
here it refers to the chains of narration, or isnds.
38
The intended dialogue and text.
39
i. Khabar means the same as hadth, an opinion which al-Khatb al-Baghdd inclines to (1988, 16). In
other words, it is a narration ascribed to the Prophet , regardless of whether this narration describes the
words, actions or silent approvals of the Prophet. Commentators assert that this is the position which Ibn
Hajar himself adheres to (al-Uthaymin 2002, 36). The reason for this is that the latter two opinions are
cited using the word qila (it is said), thus giving the indication that they are weaker opinions.
ii. Whatever originates from the Prophet is called hadth, and that which comes from others (such as the
Companions) is called khabar. Under this position, it is not permissible refer to the sayings of the
Companions or those after them using the word hadth, except with further clarity. In other words, we
would be required to say hadth mawqf, rather than just hadth, when referring to the sayings of the
Companions (al-Munw 1999, 1; 228).
iii. The third opinion cited is that the terms hadth and khabar are related to one another through umm
wa-khass mutlaq. On this basis, a saying that stems from the Prophet can equally be referred to as a
hadth or khabar, but a narration stemming from a Companion can only be referred to as a khabar.
53
particular word is that the number of chains is the fundamental difference between the
first two types of reports he discusses in the Nuzhah. If the narration reaches us through
numerous chains
40
, then it is classified as mutawtir. If there are limited chains, then it is
khabar al-hd.
A few points are important to clarify regarding this opening section from Ibn Hajar:
i. He only provides such detailed, linguistic analysis in the early parts of the Nuzhah. As
the work progresses, less and less emphasis is given to the linguistic aspects of technical
terms. This is not inconsistency on his part; rather it makes sense to provide a detailed
definition for oft-used terms early on, which then creates ease for the reader for the rest
of the book. Additionally, providing such detail does indicate that the target-audience of
the Nuzhah was disciples embarking on hadth studies for the first time, rather than the
experts.
ii. Ibn Hajar commences the Nuzhah with the term khabar rather than hadth. This seems
incorrect as the discipline is known as ilm al-hadith rather than ilm al-khabar. He pre-
empts this possible objection and therefore answers it himself. He writes that the word
khabar is generally accepted to be more encompassing in referring to the traditions of the
Prophet and others such as the Companions.
41
This indicates that he sees the study of

40
Sanad, or isnd (pl. asnid). According to most hadth scholars, the word sanad and isnd are
synonymous. Tahhn notes that isnd can mean ascribing a tradition to its origin through a chain, or it
means exactly the same as sanad (2001, pp.13-14).
41
The literal meaning of hadth is new. The traditions of the Prophet are thus called to contrast it with the
Qurn, which is considered as qadim (al-Suyt 1972, 42 & Khalfa 1983, 26).
We find that the Prophet himself explicitly used the word hadth or its derivatives to refer to his own
sayings. For instance; (i) Report from Ban Isrl and there is no hindrance. Report (haddith) from me
and do not lie (Musnad Ahmad, hadth no. 11111; Book, The chains of the remaining oft-narrators;
Chapter, The Musnad of Ab Sad al-Khudr.) (ii) In a report narrated by Ab Hurayra, the Prophet
said: Shall I not report to you a hadith about Dajjl(Sahih al-Bukhri, Book; the Reports of the
Prophets, Chapter, the Saying of Allh, Verily We sent Nh to his people. Hadth no. 3090). Azami notes
that the word hadth has been used twenty-three times in the Qurn (1977, 1).
54
traditions as not just limited to the words and actions of the Prophet; it can refer to others
too.
iii. Related to the above point is the fact that he chose not to define sunna here in the
early part of the Nuzhah. Rather, he elaborates on this term much later on in the book
(section 5.40). This could be because he wanted to begin with the relatively easier terms
such as hadth and refer to the more complex terms such as sunna later on. Alternatively,
the reason could be because he viewed hadth and sunna as two, entirely separate things.
If this is the case, then his view is not dissimilar to the view of non-Muslim scholars on
the issue. Schacht, for example, has suggested that the word sunna was a source of
confusion amongst early Muslims. He writes that the likes of Mlik ibn Anas understood
sunna to mean the living tradition of the community, rather than a term specific to the
actions and sayings of the Prophet (1959, 62). More will be said about this in section 5.40,
once we have identified what Ibn Hajars stance actually is on the term sunna.
iv. In his introduction, Ibn Hajar declared that the Nuzhah would be presented in a rare
style. This is perhaps referring to the sequence adopted by him in presenting the
different types of prophetic reports and their classification. What we notice is that the
choice to begin with mutawtir differs with the scholars prior and just after him. For
instance:
a. Ibn al-Salh began his Muqaddima with the division of prophetic reports according to
its authenticity, thus categorising them into sahih, hasan and daif (1986, pp. 11-41).
b. Al-Mayynish began with an introduction on the importance and superiority of
reporting prophetic reports, after which he outlined the different words used to relate
them, such as akhbaran (Librande 1982, 42).
55
c. Ibn Hajars own teacher al-Irq commenced with the division of reports into sahih,
hasan and daif (1995, 7).
d. Al-Suyt too began with the division of reports into sahih, hasan and daif (1972, 62)
Ibn Hajars choice to begin with mutawtir could be due to three reasons. Firstly, as he
points out in the next section, mutawtir is not technically part of ilm al-hadith.
42
Hence,
he felt the need to define it at the beginning, and then dedicate the rest of the book to
what is widely understood to be the field of ilm al-hadith. Secondly, a plausible reason
may be that he felt the need to commence with the strongest type of tradition, which is
mutawtir. From the onset, Ibn Hajar wanted to alert the reader to the strong and
authentic nature of hadth material. Therefore it made sense to discuss mutawtir first.
Finally, Ibn Hajar perhaps wanted to adopt a rare style for the sake of it. If it could be
shown that the Nuzhah has largely repeated what fellow Muslim scholars have written in
their works on ilm al-hadith prior to him, then this certainly would support this opinion.
Whether this is true or not will be highlighted throughout section five.

From this short, introductory section from the Nuzhah, we can at least begin to gain an
insight into Ibn Hajars intentions and the character of the Nuzhah. By defining the oft-
repeated terms used in the field early on, he shows good literary skills and identifies his
potential target audience. By choosing to refer to mutawtir first (and not sahih, hasan
and daif), Ibn Hajar may be expressing originality for the sake of it. Alternatively, he
could be making a statement of bold intent: to present a truly original and ground-
breaking treatise in ilm al-hadith.
42
He writes: And the conditions of mutawtir have not been mentioned in the original [text of the
Nukhbah], because on this basis, it is not part of the discussions of ilm al-hadith.
56
5.3. Mutawtir.
[Either the khabar has many paths but] without a specified number; rather,
experience makes it impossible for them to collude on a lie. Additionally [it is
impossible] to occur coincidentally [and] unintentionally. According to the correct
[position], there is no requirement in specifying the number. Amongst them are
those who have specified four
43
[as the minimum number of reporters required in
each generation]; though five
44
, seven
45
, ten
46
, twelve
47
, forty
48
, seventy
49
and other
figures have [also] been mentioned. Every advocate has held to some evidence that
mentions that number, and thus gives knowledge. It is not necessary to repel other
[opinions], due to the possibility of specification.
50
Hence, when the khabar is
mentioned as such and this is coupled with the aforementioned number manifesting
itself from the beginning to the end and what is meant by this is that the
aforementioned number does not lessen in some places, not that it increases, since
an increase is desired by all means and that the end information is a witnessed or

43
A minimum of four transmitters; this is on the basis that at least four witnesses are required to prosecute
an adulterer (Anwar 2003, 36).
44
A minimum of five transmitters; when a husband accuses his wife of adultery but has no credible
evidence, then the Qurn outlines a procedure known as lin. Because the husband curses the wife on the
fifth attempt, some scholars accept that the minimum amount should be five (Qurn, 24: 7-9).
45
A minimum of seven transmitters; this is on the basis that this is the number of days in a week, as well as
the number of heavens.
46
A minimum of ten transmitters; in Arabic grammar, this is the minimum number of jam kathra (the
plural of plenitude).
47
A minimum of twelve transmitters; in the Qurn, Moses delegated twelve representatives for his
meeting with Allh (Qurn, 7: 160).
48
A minimum of forty transmitters; this is on the basis that when the verse O Prophet! Sufficient for you is
Allh and those who follow you from the believers(Qurn, 8: 64), the number of the Prophets followers
were forty.
49
A minimum of seventy transmitters; again, this has its roots from the Qurn (7: 155). Moses chose
seventy people from his community for the place of meeting (Anwar 2003, 37).
50
Ibn Hajar also suggests that other suggestions should not be ruled out, as this will lead to an objective
definition of mutawtir. If, for instance, twelve were to be defined as the universal minimum number, a
hadth may be found that has this number in each generation, but still does not give the benefit of
knowledge.
57
heard matter and not something proven by mere conjecture; thus when these four
conditions are found and they are a large number which makes it impossible for
them to have colluded on a lie or coincidentally agreed on a lie; they narrate it from
their likes from the beginning to the end; the last person witnessed the matter, and
that their khabar gives the benefit of knowledge to its listener then this is
mutawtir. Anything that is short of giving the benefit of knowledge is mashhr only.
So every mutawtir is mashhr, and not vice versa. It is said that when the four
conditions are achieved it necessitates the attaining of knowledge. This is the case
mostly, but it does not sometimes due to a hindrance. And by this, the definition of
mutawtir is clear. The opposite [of mutawtir] sometimes appears with indefinite
numbers too, but with the absence of other conditions.
[The khabar reaches us with numerous isnds] or reaches us with a limit, of more
than two; namely three or more, so long as it does not fulfill the conditions of
mutawtir; or [it reaches us] with two only, or one only. What is meant by our
saying that it reaches us with two is that less than two is not found. Thus, if it
appears with more than two in some places in one chain, it does not harm [it], since
the minimum is considered in this field over the maximum. So the first is mutawtir
with its conditions. This gives the benefit of certain knowledge (ilm al-yaqn). [By
mentioning this], this excludes controvertible knowledge (ilm al-nazar), which will
soon be explained. And yaqn is strong belief corresponding [to the truth]. This is
the trusted opinion; that khabar mutawtir gives the benefit of definitive knowledge.
This [knowledge] forces a person to accept it in such a way it is not possible to refute.
It has also been said that [mutawtir] does not give knowledge except controvertible
58
knowledge. This is not so. The reason is that knowledge via mutawtir is achieved by
him who does not have the ability of contemplation (nazar), like a layperson.
Contemplation (nazar) requires the ordering of known or presumed facts, leading
to [further] facts or presumptions. A layperson does not have the ability to do that.
Thus, if [the result of mutawtir] were controvertible knowledge, it would not be
achieved for them. With this discussion, the difference between definitive knowledge
and controvertible knowledge is clear; definitive knowledge gives benefit without
evidence-building and controvertible knowledge gives benefit but with evidence-
building. And controvertible knowledge can only be attained by the one who has the
ability to contemplate.
The conditions of mutawtir have not been mentioned in the original [text of the
Nukhbah], because on this basis, it is not part of the discussions of ilm al-hadth,
since ilm al-isnd involves the investigation of the authenticity and weakness of the
hadth so it can be acted upon or discarded, in terms of the attributes of the
narrators and the words of delivery. And the narrators are not investigated in
mutawtir, but rather it is compulsory to act upon it without investigation.
Note: Ibn al-Salh has mentioned that the examples of mutawtir based upon the
aforementioned definition are rare in existence, apart from what he claims for,
Whoever deliberately ascribes a lie to me, let him find a seat for himself in hell.
What he has claimed of its rarity is unfound, as is the claim of other [scholars] who
say that there are no mutawtir at all. This is because [these opinions] stemmed from
a lack of awareness of the excessive number of chains, the states of the narrators
and the [other] characteristics required to repel experience from allowing them to
59
collude on a lie, or for them to narrate the same coincidentally. The best explanation
for proving the significant existence of such reports is that the famous, widespread
books in the hands of the people of knowledge, east and west, that are definitively
proven to be ascribed to their compilers, when these compilers agree on recording a
hadth, and their isnds are sufficient to allow the impossibility of colluding on a lie,
along with the other conditions, this gives definitive knowledge of correctly
ascribing it to its speaker. Such examples in the famous books are plentiful.

Commentary
Ibn Hajar offers his definition of mutawtir (the multiply-attested), which literally means
widespread.
51
Four principal conditions of mutawtir are identified. Firstly,
the number of transmitters forms the primary element of a mutawtir hadth that the
tradition must be reported by such a large number that realistically speaking, it would
have been impossible for all the transmitters to have colluded on a lie, or that they all
coincidentally happened to narrate the tradition correctly. However, this actual number is
left ambiguous and subjective, as Ibn Hajar offers no definitive opinion on how many
transmitters must appear in each generation for the tradition to be labelled as mutawtir.
Rather he cites different opinions on the matter.
Secondly and importantly, this large number must be found in all generations. If a
particular tradition is reported by dozens of Companions, only to be reported by two or
three in the generation of Successors (tbin), the hadth will not be classified as
mutawtir. From the beginning to the end of the chain, the numbers must be maintained.

51
This word is derived from tawtara, meaning to be continuous or torrential (Tahhn 2001, 17).
60
Thirdly, the last person must have seen or heard the event (hiss) and the information in
the report should not be mere conjecture or guesswork.
52
Finally, the hadth gives the
listener the benefit of knowledge.
Ibn Hajar does provide additional information which is related to mutawtir. In detail, he
refers to the difference between definitive (al-ilm al-yaqini, also called al-ilm al-darri
and al-ilm al-qati) and controvertible knowledge (al-ilm al-nazari) and how mutawtir
gives the benefit of the former. Owing to the strength of a mutawtir hadth, this, he
believes, gives definitive knowledge.

5.3.1. Conclusion.
The section on mutawtir is long and extensive, and part of this is because of needless
repetition. In full, he mentions the four conditions of mutawtir twice in the above text
for no reason whatsoever. It is muddled too sometimes: his discussion on al-ilm al-
yaqini and al-ilm al-nazari is more suited for an oral audience rather than for a written
book, because he ventures into defining yaqin rather than al-ilm al-yaqini.
This indicates that the Nuzhah or at least this section may have been produced
through the students notes gained from his lecturing. Ibn Hajar was known to employ
this method; this was the case with Fath al-bri. His disciples would record his dictations
and soon the works took on the form of a book. Nor was he the first to adopt such a
methodology: Ibn al-Salh (d. 643/1245), author of the renowned Ulm al-hadith, did
not aim to write the book per se; the works were put together from his lecturing at al-

52
In other words, the last narrator uses words which suggest he witnessed the event related to the matn. For
example, the narrator would use words such as I heard, or I saw, and so on (Tahhn 2001, 18; al-Wajd
1996, 29).
61
Madrasa al-Ashrafiyya. Though dependency on students must have brought many
benefits to Ibn Hajar the time he could save, for example it does expose a
compromise in the quality of literary style.
There are other key observations to note from this section on mutawtir:
a. Ibn Hajar outlines the different opinions held on how many transmitters need to be
found in each generation for a report to be deemed as mutawtir, four, seven, ten, twelve,
forty and seventy. It is important to note that none of the aforementioned numbers has
any direct link or affiliation with the field of ilm al-hadith. Instead, they are merely
numbers that have Islamic importance, mostly because these numbers have been
mentioned in the Qurn or have other Islamic significance. There may be seven heavens,
but this is no valid reason to affirm that the minimum number of transmitters in each
generation must also be seven in a mutawtir hadth. This view is further proved by the
fact that some Muslim scholars have suggested that each generation should consist of at
least three hundred and thirteen transmitters, based on the number of Muslims that fought
in the Battle of Badr (Anwar 2003, 37). This is purely hypothetical since no hadth exists
with such a high number of transmitters in each generation.
Ibn Hajar asserts that a specific number of transmitters in each generation is not required,
and this has led to some confusion. Simply stating that a large number is required
possibly leads to a particular hadth being classified as mutawtir according to one
scholar and not another. Al-Munw implicitly acknowledges this problem when he
writes that:

62
Know that mutawtir is sometimes relative. So a khabar is mutawtir according
to one community and not another (1999, 1: 246).

The fact that the exact number required is left ambiguous means defining mutawtir is a
subjective exercise.
Moreover, do all scholars agree that mutawtir does not require a specific number? Al-
Suyt maintains the generally-held position that there is no consideration for a specific
number, but then later writes that ten is the chosen opinion (al-Suyt 1972, 2: 176-
177).
To conclude, considering mutawtir is the strongest type of tradition, then it is surprising
to see that even by the ninth Islamic century, there was still no clear guideline as to what
exactly constitutes a mutawtir hadth.
b. Compared to other Muslim scholars, Ibn Hajar does not divide mutawtir into lafzi and
manawi.
53
Al-Suyt clearly divides and defines the two:

Verily, the people of usl have divided mutawtir into lafzi and this is whose
wordings are repeated and manawi; this is when a group transmit a narration
[to such an extent] it is impossible for them to have agreed on a lie, in different
ways on a shared matter (1972, 2: 180).

53
If the words of the matn repeat ad verbum in all the narrations, then this is considered as mutawtir lafzi.
If the same meaning is found in all the narrations though the actual wording differs from report to report
then this is mutawtir manawi.
63
Had Ibn Hajar done so, then he would not have the need to criticise Ibn al-Salh for
suggesting that Whoever deliberately ascribes a lie to me, let him find a seat for himself
in hell is the only mutawtir hadth, adding that such an opinion stems from a lack of
awareness .
It seems Ibn Hajar may have simply misunderstood Ibn al-Salhs statement. Ibn al-Salh
was referring to mutawtir lafzi, not manawi. And undoubtedly, most scholars are
severely strained in producing a mutawtir lafzi hadth, other than Whoever deliberately
ascribes a lie to me, let him find a seat for himself in hell. In conclusion, Ibn Hajar
assumed that Ibn al-Salh denied the existence of mutawtir manawi, when in fact he
questioned the existence of mutawtir lafzi.
Regardless of this, Ibn Hajar and indeed other hadth scholars all agree that mutawtir
are very few in number. Ad verbum, there is only one mutawtir report and the manawi
are hardly excessive in number.
54
Though mutawtir is undoubtedly strong in terms of
authenticity for the Muslims, the almost non-existence of it means it is irrelevant. This
may raise questions about the field of ilm al-hadith as a whole, something which Sayyid
Ahmad Khn certainly asked. Khn, a close admirer of Muir, rejected the authenticity of
almost all prophetic reports and deemed only mutawtir as worthy of acceptance, which
he counted as five (Brown 1999, 34).

54
For instance, (a) the hadth related to the hawd (Fountain). Al-Suyt writes that over fifty Companions
have reported traditions on this topic (1972, 2: 179). (b) wiping on the khuff during ritual ablution. Al-
Suyt asserts that seventy Companions have reported traditions relating to this ruling (1972, 2: 179). (c)
The raising of the hands in Prayer. According to al-Suyt, fifty Companions have transmitted such
traditions (1972; 2: 179). (d) The intercession of the Prophet (Anwar 2003, 41). (e) The hadth, the Qurn
was revealed in seven qiras. Twenty-seven Companions transmitted this tradition (al-Suyt 1972, 2:
180).
64
c. Ibn Hajar makes no mention of the matn with regards to mutawtir. This suggests that
he saw the soundness of a hadth largely dependent on the isnd alone. Moreover, Ibn
Hajar writes that with mutawtir, there is no need to investigate the isnd either. Ilm al-
hadith is widely defined as the study of the literature of the Prophet by analysing the text
and chain in order to evaluate its authenticity. Ibn Hajar argues that since mutawtir are
universally accepted, and additional research into the chain is not required, it is not
technically part of the discussion of ilm al-hadith. The often difficult and long-winded
analysis required for other types of hadth sahih, hasan and daif for instance is not
required as all mutawtir are accepted unequivocally. In fact, in this section, Ibn Hajar
actually refers to the discipline as ilm al-isnd, rather than ilm al-hadith, which clearly
indicates the importance of the isnd in his view.
However, other Muslim scholars do not agree. Al-Munw implicitly suggests that the
exact nature of the transmitters can make a difference. When discussing the issue of the
requirement of the large number to be found in each generation, he writes:

Seven credible narrators outwardly and inwardly are like ten narrators who are
[only] outwardly crediblesometimes seven pious learned people give the
benefit of knowledge, whereas ten non-pious people do not. So what is meant is
equality in the [benefit of] knowledge, not equality in numbers (1999, 1: 244).

Thus this gives some weight to the opinion that not all mutawtir are readily-accepted
and that, like with other types of prophetic reports, mutawtir does require further
analysis.
65
d. Fourthly, Ibn Hajar spends considerable effort in explaining that mutawtir gives the
benefit of al-ilm al-yaqini, which thus adds to its credibility. Surely, if mutawtir gives
the benefit of definitive knowledge, then it would be necessary to act upon it without
question. Al-Suyt asserts that it is compulsory to act upon mutawtir (1972, 2: 176).
But one can argue that not all mutawtir are acted upon (maml bihi). Tahhn cites the
raising of the hands in Prayer as mutawtir, but it is not universally acted upon. Fifty
Companions have transmitted this hadth, but Ab Hanfa does not adhere to the position.
He argues that the practice of raising the hands in Prayer despite narrations on the
matter being mutawtir is abrogated (2001, 13). Mutawtir may give the benefit of
definitive knowledge, but this does not guarantee it is acted upon.
On a wider scale, this suggests that Ibn Hajar was primarily focussing on ilm al-hadth in
the Nuzhah, to the exclusion of fiqh. This is because he does not refer to how a mutawtir
report would manifest itself in the field of sharia, when it came to being acted or not
acted upon. He was only interested in how this report relates to ilm al-hadith.
e. Despite these points, there is one very important matter derived from the authors
explanation on mutawtir here. The text most worthy of attention in Ibn Hajars Nuzhah
is where he remarks:

And the best explanation for proving the significant existence of such [multiply-
attested] reports is that the famous, widespread books in the hands of the people
of knowledge, east and west, that are definitively proven to be ascribed to their
authors, when they agree on recording a hadth, and their chains are plentiful to
allow the impossibility of colluding on a lie, along with the other conditions, this
66
gives definitive knowledge of correctly ascribing it to its speaker. And examples
of that in the famous books are plentiful.

Ibn Hajars argument here is that geography actually helps to prove the authenticity of
traditions, not disprove them. In an age lacking fast and effective communication
methods, the only way a reporter in Kfa could have agreed with a reporter in Madina
was if they had both heard an authentic report, stemming from the Prophet. Practically, it
would have been all but impossible for them to have colluded on a lie from such a
distance.
This argument is crucial for one particular reason: it is precisely this point that modern,
Muslim scholars have used to defend the authenticity of hadth literature against non-
Muslim scholars. Muslims such as Azami argue that the geographical disparity of the
reporters seriously question whether large-scale collusion could have occurred, not just
for one report but for thousands. This is exactly what Ibn Hajar advocates here in the
Nuzhah. For instance, the hadth commanding Muslims to wash their hands thrice when
they awake consists of thirteen students reporting from Ab Hurayra, of which eight
come from Madina, one from Kfa, two from Basra, one from Yemen and one from Syria.
In the next generation of reporters, the reporters spread to Khursan and Makka, in
addition to the aforementioned places (Azami 1977, 34).
Ibn Hajar argues that certain traditions have been so widely reported albeit with slightly
different wording that one cannot imagine the possibility of all transmitters colluding
on a lie. Hence, such traditions are classified as mutawtir.
67
In short, the Nuzhah has helped modern Muslim scholars to convince the sceptics about
the early hadth literature with what they see as a very strong argument: that geography
proves the impossibility of collusion. Azami writes:

To claim that hundreds of thousands of scholars spent their lives making forgeries
in collusion and provided this literature with all biographical details is to show an
utter disregard for human nature (Azami 1992, 92).

But there is one point that Azami and other Muslim scholars have ignored. In the text of
the Nuzhah, Ibn Hajar suggests that one prophetic report found in the various famous,
widespread books in the hands of the people of knowledge is proof that the report cannot
be forged. Most of these books that Ibn Hajar was referring to were compiled in the third
and fourth century. By then, the fabrication and collusion, as depicted by Schacht, had
already taken place and the compilers such as al-Bukhr were merely compiling these
reports by the time they appeared, and not verifying them. So though it seems like a
strong argument to the likes of Azami, it is quickly dismissed by non-Muslim scholars
because the efforts of al-Bukhr and others came too late.
Therefore a contrasting view from the Muslim scholars on the one hand and the non-
Muslim ones on the other is apparent. This gulf is epitomised perfectly with the one and
only mutawtir lafzi that the likes of Ibn Hajar refer to: Whoever deliberately ascribes a
lie to me, let him find a seat for himself in hell. For the Muslims, this report is
undoubtedly sound in terms of authenticity. For non-Muslims, it is forged (Goldziher
1971, 127).
68
To conclude, Ibn Hajars decision to begin his Nuzhah with mutawtir was owing to its
importance and position. But we should also entertain another possibility, which would
enable us to comprehend the importance of mutawtir in the ninth Islamic century. The
purpose of mutawtir is not only to display that some reports were transmitted in a rigid
and fool-proof manner throughout the early period of Islam. It had another purpose; to
appeal to the Muslims of later times to participate in religious studies en masse (Graham
1993, 501). After all, this is the only method by which a report reaches such a lofty height
of mutawtir.
5.4. Mashhr.
The second and this is the first division of al-ahd is that which has limited
chains but more than two. This is mashhr, according to the hadth scholars. It is so
called because of its apparentness. This is [also called] mustafd based upon the
opinion of a group of the imms of the jurists. It is thus called because of its
dispersion, from [the verb] fda al-m yafdu fayd. There are some who have
differentiated between mustafd and mashhr; that mustafd is where the beginning
and ending are equal, and mashhr is more general than that. Then there are some
[scholars] who have differentiated them upon another basis; and this is not part of
discussions of this field [of knowledge].
55
Then, mashhr is the name given to what
we have explained, and upon what is famous on the tongues. Thus, this [latter type]

55
This other basis, al-Qr notes, is defining mustafid as a report which the people accept without looking
at how many people have reported it in each generation. Therefore, there is no difference between mustafid
and mutawtir (1994, 194). And because Ibn Hajar believes that mutawtir is not technically part of ilm
al-hadith, he writes here that this is not from the discussions from this field [of knowledge].
69
can consist of that which has one isnd or more; in fact [it can refer to] that which
does not have an isnd at all.

Commentary
5.4.1. The division of khabar al-hd - mashhr.
In terms of sequence and arrangement, this section corresponds well with the previous
one on mutawtir. Ibn Hajar explained earlier that any hadth which does not reach the
stage of mutawtir is called hd. The first type of this is mashhr, which he defines as a
hadth which has more than two narrators in each generation. He also entertains the term
mustafid, which he indicates is used by the jurists. However, he does not elaborate on this
much. There could be two reasons for this. Firstly, it is because mustafid is a term used
by the jurists and he wants to concentrate on terms used by the hadth scholars. Secondly,
it could be due to the fact that, quite simply, mustafid hardly exists and hardly matters.
Mustafid is where the same number of narrators is to be found at the beginning and end
of the chain, mashhr is where the number may vary. No hadth scholar has cited such an
example of mustafid, Ibn Hajar or others before and after him. Even if it did exist, then
the fact that the same number of narrators is to be found at the beginning and the end
does not in any way strengthen the report, particularly if there is a drop in the number in
the middle of the isnd. This leads to the question as to whether there is any function of
the term mustafid.
Nevertheless, Ibn Hajars section here on mashhr is concise yet very clear. In a simple
section, the reader is able to understand that the term mashhr has two types: the
70
terminological type and the non-terminological type. As for the former, this is where in
each generation there are more than two narrators (and does not reach the stage of
mutawtir). The latter is where the hadth is considered famous, regardless of how
many narrators are to be found in each part of the chain. For instance, the hadth actions
are judged according to intention can be referred to as mashhr in the sense it is famous
and known amongst the Muslims. But in terms of formal hadth terminology, it is
gharib.
56
In fact, a hadth can be classified as mashhr in this sense if it only has one
narrator, or does not even possess a chain and is thus fabricated. Al-Suyt several
traditions that he says are famous, but have no authentic basis such as Whoever knows
himself, knows his Lord and the hadth qudsi I was an unknown treasure (1972, 2:
176). The fact that Ibn Hajar adds the words according to the hadth scholars after
defining the technical term shows that he wants the reader to understand that this is not to
be confused with non-technical term.
Importantly, this clear difference between the two types of mashhr is missing from Ibn
al-Salhs Muqaddima. In a long analysis of mashhr, he dismisses the terminological
definition entirely and only focuses on reports that are famous amongst the Muslims in
general, or a particular group of Muslims like the jurists and the linguists (Ibn al-Salh
1986, pp. 265-269). The clarity of Ibn Hajars explanation is perhaps best reflected by the
fact that after him, al-Suyt repeated the Nuzhahs section on mashhr almost in its
entirety in his own Tadrib. (1972, 2: 173).

56
Other examples of traditions, as al-Suyt points out are; (i)Verily Allh does not retract knowledge, he
retracts it from the death of the scholars.This tradition is classified as sahih, in formal ilm al-hadith
terminology, and mashhr too, because it is a famous and widely-known report. (ii) The seeking of
knowledge is compulsory for every Muslim. This is mashhr in the sense of being famous, and hasan in
ilm al-hadith classification (al-Suyt 1972, 2: 174).
71
Ibn Hajars section on mashhr therefore highlights his skill as a writer and as a hadth
scholar. He presents the section in the correct place in terms of sequence. He identifies
the term clearly and alerts the reader of its other usage. Though the section does without a
practical example of mashhr, it is still sufficient; Ibn al-Salh mentions several
examples in his section yet it is still unconvincing.
To conclude this section, there are two points to raise.
a. Though Ibn Hajar differentiated between the two types of mashhr in meaning, he does
not do so in terms of technical terms. In order to prevent confusion, it would have been
useful to lend separate names for the technical and the non-technical type. The only
Muslim scholar to do this is Tahhn, who uses the terms mashhr istilhi and mashhr
ghayr-istilhi (2001, 20-21).
The opposite has seemed to happen with the term mustafid: that a term has been coined
for a type of report which is rare to find practically and serves little function.
b. The second point relates to non-Muslim interest in the discipline. Schacht was of the
opinion that al-Shfi was the first jurist to identify the term sunna with the Prophet,
and that prior to this, Muslims associated the term with the living tradition of the
community (1959, 80). In some sense, the non-terminological type of mashhr has some
overlap with this opinion. This is because this type of report shows how influential the
opinion of the community can actually be, in that they can assume a saying to be from the
Prophet when in fact it is not. Ibn Hajars own disciple al-Sakhw wrote al-Maqsid al-
hasana, a large work listing all the prophetic reports that are well-known amongst
Muslims.
57
There are many reports in this book that are famous, but have not been proven

57
Al-Maqsid al-hasana fi bayn kathir min al-ahdith al-mushtahira ala al-alsina. Dar al-Kutub al-
Ilmiyya, Beirut (2003).
72
to be the words of the Prophet. In the same way, one could argue that certain practices
prevailed in the Arab community which people automatically assumed to be the sunna of
the Prophet, when in fact they were not. Schacht certainly seems to suggest that this is the
case with many pre-Islamic and post-Muhammad practices, like muta for example (1959,
266). He also wrote that Mlik ibn Anas preferred common practice to traditions
stemming from the Prophet (1959, 64). For Muslims, the implication of this argument is
that many of the legal practices they know today are more Arab than they are Islamic.
The works of non-Muslim scholars is crucial in adding to the understanding of the
discipline and adds another layer that is lacking in Muslim works. Plenty of examples are
offered of the non-technical mashhr by the Muslim scholars. Yet, nowhere do we find a
discussion of a more pressing concern: how did prophetic reports become famous and
dispersed amongst the Muslims whereas in reality, they were forged and fabricated?
Mighlw cites the tradition whoever smells a rose and does not send salutations upon
me, then he has disowned me (2003, 345). He admits it is most probably forged. Yet he
does not elaborate on why this tradition reached a stage where it was assumed by the
Muslims to have stemmed from the Prophet.
This is where the works of Schacht add an important dimension. By arguing that the term
sunna may have simply meant the living tradition of the community and not particular to
the example of the Prophet, we can now begin to appreciate how certain traditions may
have become subject to confusion regarding its true source, the community or the Prophet.
Thus, the work of non-Muslim scholars is important, even in understanding the Nuzhah
of Ibn Hajar. Sometimes, their opinions are not totally different from that of the Muslims
(as it has been shown here), and therefore they are possible to accommodate. This shows
73
that Oriental studies can be of worth to Muslims, if they overcome the stereotype they
hold that all western interest in hadth is negative. They add a level of analysis which is
so lacking in Muslim works, even today.

5.5. Azz.
The third is azz. This is where a minimum of two reporters narrate from two
others. It is so called either because of its rare existence, or because it strengthens;
in other words it strengthens with its appearance via another path.
58
Azz is not a
condition for the sahh, as opposed to whoever assumes so. This is Ab Al al-
Jubb of the Mutazila. The writings of al-Hkim Ab Abd Allh also indicate
this opinion when he states: The sahh is that which is narrated by a Companion
void of ambiguity who then narrates it to two; then the people of hadth circulate it
until our time, like the testimony upon the testimony. Also, al-Qd Ab Bakr ibn
al-Arab has clarified in the commentary of Sahh al-Bukhr that this was the
condition of al-Bukhr.
In response to the argument presented to them, they offer a contentious answer.
This is because they said, if it is said the hadth actions are judged by intentions is
fard
59
[as] no one narrated it from Umar except Alqama, we say that Umar
narrated it on the pulpit in the presence of the Companions. If the Companions did
not know of it, they would have surely questioned it; this is what they have said.

58
As Tahhn explains, the word aziz in Arabic has two meanings; to be rare or to be strong. If the
former meaning is taken here, then the hadth is so called because very rarely are such traditions to be
found. Under the latter meaning, the hadth is so called because it strengthens in terms of authenticity when
it is supported by another chain (2001, 22).
59
i.e. solitary.
74
This is followed up with [the response] that the silence [of the Companions] does not
necessitate that they could not have heard it from someone else. [Moreover], though
the argument can be accepted in [the case of] Umar, it cannot be accepted in the
singularity of Alqama from him. Then Muhammad ibn Ibrhmwas solitary from
Alqama. Then Yahy ibn Sad was solitary from Muhammad, based upon the
authentic, known [path] from the hadth masters. Yes, supporting chains have
appeared but they cannot be considered. Likewise we do not accept in the answer in
other than the hadth of Umar. Ibn Rushayd states that it is sufficient to refute the
claim of al-Qd Ab Bakr (that it is a condition of al-Bukhr) that this is the first
hadth of al-Bukhr mentioned in his Sahh.
Ibn Hibbn has made the opposite of this claim. He said that the narration of two
from two to its end cannot be found at all. I say, if he intends the narration of two
only from two only cannot be found at all, then it is possible to accept. As for the
form of azz that we have explained, thus it is present: that less than two do not
narrate from two. Its example is that which the two Shaykhs have narrated from
Anas and al-Bukhr from Ab Hurayra that the Prophet said: No one is a
[true] believer until I become more beloved to him than his father, his son[to the
end of] the hadth. From Anas, Qatda and Abd al-Azz ibn Suhayb have narrated
it. Shuba and Sad have narrated it from Qatda. And Isml ibn Ulayya and
Abd al-Writh have narrated it from Abd al-Azz. Then a group have narrated it
from each one [of them].

75
Commentary
In the section on the second type of khabar al-hd aziz Ibn Hajar covers a variety of
different issues.
a. To commence, he offers a definition of aziz, along with the possible origins of the
name. In ilm al-hadith terminology, he writes that the definition of aziz is when at least
two reporters narrate the hadth in each generation. Implicitly, this is a criticism of Ibn al-
Salh. He writes:

We heard that the expert Ab Abd Allh ibn Manda al-Isbahn said: The rare
[gharib] is like those of al-Zuhr, Qatda and the other authorities whose hadth
are collected. When a single transmitter is alone in relating a particular hadth
from them, it is called rare [gharib]. When two or three transmitters relate from
them and they all have a single hadth, it is called scarce [aziz] (1986, 270).

However, very few scholars have voiced this same opinion and certainly Ibn Hajar does
not agree. If this definition of Ibn al-Salh is accepted, then in some cases, there would be
no difference between aziz and mashhr, since the latter is accepted as the existence of
at least three reporters in each generation. In the previous section, it was noted that Ibn al-
Salhs analysis of mashhr concentrated on the non-terminological type entirely (1986,
pp. 265-269). Here, we observe that his definition of aziz indicates that he does not
acknowledge that terminological type of mashhr at all, since the term aziz covers both.

76
b. The bulk of the section then refers to a debate that preceded the author; the argument
as to whether a hadth has to be at least aziz to be deemed as sahih. He cites the scholars
who believe that it does have to be at least aziz, Ab Al al-Jubb (d. 303/915) of the
Mutazilites,
60
al-Hkim Ab Abd Allh and al-Qd Ab Bakr ibn al-Arab (d.
543/1148). Then in detail, he explains why this opinion is not correct, citing the hadth
Actions are judged according to intentions as proof.
61

c. Ibn Hajar also felt the need to supplement the definition of aziz with the form it can
take on. The reason for doing so is to refute the opinion of Ibn Hibbn, who wrote that no
aziz hadth exists, namely two narrators in each generation. In reality, however, Ibn
Hajar clarifies that aziz is where a minimum of two are to be found in each generation,
not that exactly two are found in each part of the chain. Then as evidence, he cites a
prophetic report from al-Bukhris Sahih, along with the names of the reporters in the
first two generations.

60
According to the Mutazila, a khabar is not accepted until it is reported by at least four narrators in each
generation (Anwar 2003, 43). Al-Nawaw heard from the Qadariyya sect that they too only accept a hadth
when it is narrated by at least four narrators in each generation (al-Munw 1999, 1: 283).
61
Ibn Hajar explains their argument regarding the famous hadth Actions are judged according to
intentions. When opponents argue that this hadth is deemed sahih despite the fact only Umar narrated it
in the Companions generation, the likes of Ibn al-Arab reply by stating that this is difficult to accept,
since he narrated this hadth on the pulpit, in the presence of others. If they had only heard it for the first
time, then they would surely have questioned him further regarding it.
But this is a weak reply, since it is quite possible they all kept quiet individually, thinking that everyone
else was familiar with the saying. Also, they may have remained silent because they all trusted Umar and
knew he would not narrate something unproven (al-Uthaymin 2002, 59).
Ibn Hajar adds that even if we accept it as being gharib at this point of the chain, Alqama was alone after
Umar, and after Alqama, Muhammad ibn Ibrhm was the sole narrator, after which Yahy ibn Sad was
alone. This is the correct chain according to the scholars of hadth. Other chains are to be found for this
hadth but they are not considered authentic enough to consider.
Ibn Rushayd (d. 721/1321) states that it is sufficient to refute the claim of al-Qd Ab Bakr when we
remember that the first hadth of al-Bukhr is this hadth of Actions are judged according to intentions,
which is an aziz hadth.

77
5.5.1. Conclusion.
Three points can be deduced from this section on aziz regarding the approach Ibn Hajar
chose to adopt in the Nuzhah. Firstly, he provides clarification for what he saw as
mistakes by his predecessors in the definitions and usage of the technical terms. This is
shown when he refutes Ibn Hibbn and Ibn al-Salh. This also indicates that Ibn Hajar
felt the need to explain differences of opinion in the Nuzhah, even if he did not agree with
them personally.
Secondly, only four types of reports have been analysed so far, but we can already
appreciate the boundaries Ibn Hajar set in the Nuzhah with regards to what to include and
what to exclude. The issue of whether a hadth has to be at least aziz in order to be
deemed as sound touches upon the issue of the acceptance of khabar al-hd (or khabar
al-whid) and whether a lone reporter is sufficient to guarantee a reports authenticity.
Schacht shows that the acceptance of a lone reporter can be seriously questioned, since
even Umar was not content with the information of a single individual on a decision of
the Prophet, but instead asked for conformation from a second source (1959, 50). Ibn
Hajar sees such discussions as off-limit in the Nuzhah, despite its importance.
62
Earlier
scholars such as al-Khatb al-Baghdd did include sections on the acceptance of khabar
al-hd in their works (1988, pp. 26-31). Ibn Hajar may have felt that this discussion
would have prolonged his treatise, which he felt needed to be a mere introduction to ilm
al-hadith. Alternatively, he may have excluded such discussions because they pertain
more to the legal sphere. His treatise, as he makes clear, deals purely with ilm al-hadith.
62
Two modern works are worthy of mention which comprehensively outline the issue of khabar al-hd:
Pir Karam Shah in Sunnat khayr al-anm (1973: pp. 180-200) and G.F. Haddad in Sunna Notes - Studies in
Hadith & Doctrine Volume I; Hadith History & Principles. (2005: pp. 111-133).
78
In the section on mashhr (5.4.) we already noted his refusal to elaborate on mustafid,
which he noted was a term used by the fiqh scholars. Again, here he does not spend
energy on issues (the acceptance of khabar al-hd) which, though important to ilm al-
hadith, could also be seen as more related to fiqh. So early on, we note his tendency to
concentrate on purely ilm al-hadith matters. As the analysis on the Nuzhah proceeds, we
will observe whether this theme continues and ask the possible reasons behind it.
Finally, he acts as an arbitrator between contrasting views on hadth classification, as
shown in the dispute whether a hadth has to be at least aziz in order to be deemed sound.
The fact that he chooses to give this debate so much deliberation is interesting. Firstly,
the argument was not topical since the likes of Ab Al al-Jubb lived six hundred
years earlier. Secondly, the debate was not covered by other ilm al-hadith scholars: Ab
Hafs al-Mayynish (d. 580/1184), Ibn al-Salh (d. 643/1245), al-Suyt (d.911/1505) and
al-Irq (d. 806/1404) all skipped this debate in their works. So why did Ibn Hajar give it
attention? The climate of Ibn Hajar is crucial in answering this. With the ceasing of
finding genuinely new hadiths, the attention turned to consolidating the existing ones,
and widening the pool from which scholars of law and dogma could work from. By
stating that a hadth has to be at least aziz in order to for it to be considered sound meant
seriously diminishing the amount of hadth literature available. This is why Ibn Hajar was
insistent on clarifying this debate and giving the reader satisfaction that a hadth could be
reported by a solitary reporter, and still be considered as sahih.
79
5.6/5.7. The Division of khabar al-ah?d into the
accepted, the rejected and the paused upon.
The fourth is gharb. This is where one person is alone with its narration, regardless
of where the singularity occurs in the isnd, [based] upon the forthcoming division
into gharb mutlaq and gharb nisb. And all of them namely the four
aforementioned types, except the first which is mutawtir are hd. Each one of
them are [individually] called khabar al-whid. Khabar al-whid literally is that
which is narrated by one person. In [hadth] terminology, [it is] that which does not
meet the conditions of mutawtir.
Amongst them namely in hd are the accepted. This is a report which is
compulsory to act upon, according to the majority. Amongst them are [also] the
rejected. This is a report where the truthfulness of the transmitter has not been
established. [The division is such] because of the investigation [required] on the
states of the narrators before using as evidence, to the exception of the first, which is
mutawtir. Thus all mutawtir are accepted because of the certainty in the
truthfulness of the khabar, as opposed to the other types of khabar al-hd.
But it is only compulsory to act upon the accepted of them. This is because either an
essence of acceptance is found in it and this is the proving of the transmitters
truthfulness or an attribute of rejection is found in it; and this is the proving of the
untruthfulness of the transmitter. Thus [with] the first, the truthfulness of the
khabar is overwhelmingly established, because of the truthfulness of the transmitter.
[With] the second, the untruthfulness of the khabar is overwhelming established,
because of the untruthfulness of the transmitter. Therefore it is repelled. When
80
acting upon the khabar is paused upon, it becomes like the rejected [but] not
because of the proving of an attribute of rejection, but because an attribute that
necessitates acceptance is not found. And Allh knows best.

Commentary
Khabar al-hd is divided into mashhr, aziz and gharib, depending on how many
transmitters are to be found in each generation. Having presented a discussion on
mashhr and aziz, Ibn Hajar should ideally have dealt with the final type gharib.
However, even before concluding his analysis of all three types of khabar al-hd, here
he introduces two other discussions on it. The first is the division of khabar al-hd into
the accepted (maqbl), the rejected (mardd) and the paused upon (mutawaqqaf). The
second is again related to khabar al-hd and concerns how this can sometimes be
coupled with advantageous, external factors that helps to strengthen a prophetic report.
Ideally, he should have concluded the discussion on gharib before pursuing these two
new discussions. This is because these two discussions relate to mashhr, aziz and
gharib, not just mashhr and aziz. Therefore this is one of the places where Ibn Hajars
Nuzhah suffers from inconsistency in presentation style.

Nevertheless, Ibn Hajar here is indicating that khabar al-hd can be subject to another
form of division, not according to how many reporters there are in each generation, but
whether the report is now worthy of acceptance or not. Worthy of attention in this
section is the fact that Ibn Hajar almost explicitly suggests that the soundness of a hadth
is dependent solely on the reporters truthfulness. The rejected report, he writes, is
81
where the truthfulness of the transmitter has not been established. There is no mention
here of what role the matn (text) plays in determining whether a report is deemed
accepted or rejected. Certainly this is a criticism which the discipline of ilm al-hadith
has found difficult to respond to. The likes of Schacht (1959, 3) have exposed how the
hadth masters restricted their investigations almost exclusively to the isnd, and largely
ignored the importance of the matn. Ibn Hajars writings here suggest that he too views
the authenticity of a report dependant on the men reporting it.

5.7.1. Advantageous Factors.
Sometimes a factor is found in khabar al-hd which is divided into mashhr,
gharb and aziz that gives the benefit of controvertible knowledge, based upon the
chosen opinion. This is as opposed to those who deny that. The dispute in reality is
literal. This is because those who permit the benefit of knowledge specify that the
knowledge [given] is controvertible; this is achieved from evidence. Then those who
refute it specify the word of knowledge to mean mutawtir, and other than that, it
is controvertible. But this does not negate that those [traditions] marked by factors
are more preferred than those void of it.
63

The [advantageous] factors that can be attached to the khabar are of many types.
From them is that which the two shaykhs have recorded in their Sahh, when it does
not reach the stage of mutawtir. This [itself] is attached with many factors; amongst

63
Ibn Hajar writes that there are some scholars who argue that it does not give this type of knowledge. In
reality, it seems there is no difference of opinion, but rather there are lingual differences as to which type of
knowledge it gives; (i) Those who say it does give knowledge mean it gives al-ilm al-nazari. (ii) Those
who say it does not give knowledge mean it doesnt give al-ilm al-qati or mutawtir knowledge. Hence
both mean the same thing.
82
them is their rank in this field, their precedence in differentiating the sahh from
others and the scholars acceptance of their books. [In fact] this acceptance alone is
stronger in terms of giving the benefit of knowledge than mere numerous chains
that are short of being mutawtir. However, this is specific to those [traditions] in the
two books that have not been criticised by anyone from the experts, and to those
[traditions] where a contradiction has not occurred between the two texts in the
books, in such a way that one cannot be preferred; since it is impossible for two
opposing facts to be truthful without preferring one over the other. With the
exception of these two, the [scholarly] consensus exists upon accepting their
authenticity. If it is said, the [scholars] have merely agreed on the necessity of acting
upon them, not on their authenticity, we will disagree. The reason for disagreement
is that they are unanimous upon the necessity of acting upon all [traditions] that are
sahh, even if the two shaykhs do not record it. Thus no uniqueness would remain
for the two Sahhs, though the consensus exists regarding their uniqueness.
64

Amongst the scholars who clarify that whatever the two shaykhs have recorded
gives the benefit of controvertible knowledge are the al-Shaykh Ab Ishq al-
Isfarin, and from the imms of hadth Ab Abd Allh al-Humayd, Ab al-Fadl
ibn Thir and others. It is possible to say that the aforementioned uniqueness refers
to them being the most authentic of reports.

64
Some scholars suggest that the consensus is that it is wjib (compulsory) to act upon these reports from
the two Sahihs, not that they are authentic. If this position is maintained, then surely it is necessary to act
upon all sahih reports, whether Muslim and al-Bukhr have narrated it or not. Thus, the two Sahihs would
have no reason to be considered superior to other compilations.
83
Amongst [the factors] is the mashhr, when it has clear, individual chains free from
the weakness of narrators and hidden ailments. Amongst those who have asserted
that it gives the benefit of controvertible knowledge are al-Ustdh Ab Mansr al-
Baghdd, al-Ustdh Ab Bakr ibn Frak, and others.

Amongst [the factors] is the continuous isnd consisting of the expert, competent
imms, in such a way that it is not gharb. [For instance], like the hadth narrated by
Ahmad ibn Hanbal (when someone else partners him) from al-Shfi (when
someone else partners him), from Mlik ibn Anas. For undoubtedly it gives the
benefit of knowledge with evidence to the listener, in view of the grandeur of its
narrators, and because they have suitable attributes that make them necessary to
accept, which equals that which is narrated by a large number from others. There
can be no doubt for one who has the smallest knowledge of this field and of the
information of people that if Mlik for example participates in a khabar, then he
is truthful in it. When this is coupled with someone who is of that same rank, it
increases in strength and the fearing of mistakes becomes distanced.

With these types that we have mentioned, the knowledge of its authenticity is not
attained except for a scholar of hadth, who is emerged in it study, learned of the
states of the narrators and aware of the hidden ailments. Others will not attain the
knowledge of its authenticity because of his lack of these mentioned attributes,
though it will for the experts.

84
The attainment of these three types we have mentioned the first is that which is
specific to the two Sahhs, and the second is that which has many chains and the
third is that which is narrated from the imms is possible in one hadth. At this
time, it will not be far from being definitive in its authenticity. And Allh knows best.

Commentary
In the second discussion relating to khabar al-hd, the author asserts that they
sometimes have additional, external factors attached to it which gives the benefit of al-
ilm al-nazari and therefore allows them to have preference over other reports void of
them. Three types are identified by the author; (i) a hadth which al-Bukhr and Muslim
have recorded in their Sahih, when it does not reach the stage of mutawtir (b) a
mashhr hadth, when they have clear chains, free from weak narrators and hidden
ailments (c) a hadth which the expert imms continuously narrate, so long as they are not
gharib.
From these three factors, Ibn Hajar does not refer to mashhr in detail, possibly because
he has already presented a discussion on it (section 5.4.). He does elaborate on how a
hadth which both al-Bukhr and Muslim have recorded in their Sahihs is given
preferential treatment. This, he explains, is:
i. Because of their status and rank as hadth experts and as pious Muslims.
65

65
The title Amir al-muminn is frequently used to refer to al-Bukhr, which is perhaps the highest title
that can be given to a hadth scholar. Qutayba ibn Sad said: People from the east and west came to me to
seek hadth, but no one was like al-Bukhr. (Mighlw 2003, 253). Ibn al-Madn commented: Al-
Bukhr himself never met anyone of equal calibre to himself. (Mighalw 2003, 253).
His intellectual ability was also matched by his unparalleled piety. Al-Firabr said: Muhammad ibn Isml
said to me: I never included in the Sahih a hadth except I made a major ablution (ghusl) and prayed two
rakat before hand. (Haddad 2005, 105).
Al-Imm Muslims teacher Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhb Farr said of him: Muslim is a treasure of
knowledge; I have seen nothing but good traits in him (Mighlw 2003, 265).
85
ii. Because of their advanced ability to differentiate authentic sayings from
rejected ones over other scholars.
iii. The scholars acceptance of their work.

Ibn Hajar merely reinforces what Muslim scholars before him said on the exalted rank of
these two masters and their works. Al-Hkim described the reports of the two shaykhs as
the first grade of what is sound (Robson 1953, 14) and Ibn al-Salh too gave them his
backing.
66

Yet importantly, Ibn Hajar does not give their works an unequivocal backing. This is
shown where he asserts that the reports mentioned in the two Sahihs will only be
considered as advantageous when: (a) any of the hadth masters (hfizs) have not
criticised the hadth in question (b) there are no contradictions between two reports found
in them in such a sense that one cannot be favoured over the other.
On the lively debate as to whether the two Sahihs contain weak reports, the Muslim
scholars fall into two groups. The first group accepts the rank of the works, but
acknowledges some shortcomings. For instance, in his Kitb al-tatabbu, al-Draqutn
argues that 78 weak reports are to be found in al-Bukhri, 100 in Muslim and 32 that are
to be found in both (Haddad 2005, 106).
The second group seem to defend al-Bukhr and Muslim to the death, scholars such as
al-Syt and al-Dhahab. They argue that all the reports to be found in the two Sahihs
66
Ibn al-Salh wrote: The highest (the sound hadth recorded by both al-Bukhr and Muslim) is the first,
and it is the one scholars of hadth often call agreed upon to be authentic. When they apply that term
without qualification, they mean by it the agreement of al-Bukhr and Muslim on it, and not the agreement
of the Muslim community. However, the agreement of the Muslim community on it necessarily follows
from the agreement of al-Bukhr and Muslim and is concurrent with it, because of the agreement of the
Muslim community to receive with acceptance whatever al-Bukhr and Muslim agreed upon (1986, 28).
86
are sahih, but not all of them reach the same high degree of sahih.
67
Al-Dhahab notes
that none fall below the rank of hasan, which one can also view as the lowest rank of
sahih (Haddad 2005, 107). Haddad explains:

What al-Draqutn and others criticised is only on the basis that it did not reach
the high criterion which each of them defined in their respective books. As for the
[criterion of] soundness of the hdiths themselves, then both of them lived up to it
(2005, 108).

Ibn Hajar seemingly belongs to the first group of scholars. Whilst he acknowledges the
reputation and fame of al-Bukhr and Muslim, he also accepts some deficiencies in their
works.
The other factor which the author covers in detail is a hadth which the expert imms
continuously narrate, so long as they are not gharib. An example would be a hadth
which al-Imm Ahmad narrates with another narrator. Then on the same topic, al-Imm
al-Shfi narrates with another narrator, as well as al-Imm Mlik. Ibn Hajar gives three
reasons for this in the Nuzhah
But one can ask that if their rank stipulates their acceptance, then why does Ibn Hajar
assert that another narrator must also be present with them? In the text itself, Ibn Hajar
writes that such is their calibre and acceptance that their narration alone is equal in
strength to several narrators. Surely a gharib tradition narrated by one of the masters

67
As it will be shown later (section 5.9), the factors which deem a report as sahih are to an extent relative
and subjective and therefore two reports with varying authenticity can still both be declared as sahih.
87
would still warrant its acceptance and preference, even if no other transmitter participates
in the narration. No explanation is offered by Ibn Hajar.
Another criticism of this section is related to the last part in the Nuzhah. We are informed
that sometimes, all three of these factors feature in just one hadth. When this is the case,
then the hadth will be of great strength and not far from giving the benefit of al-ilm al-
qati (definitive knowledge). Despite this claim, an example of a particular tradition has
not been offered by Ibn Hajar, or indeed any other scholar. Hence, this last statement is
perhaps more hypothetical than practical. No narration of al-Imm al-Shfi is to be
found in the works of al-Bukhr and Muslim (al-Munw 1999, 1: 317).
68

To conclude, this section along with some other, forthcoming sections
69
- touches upon
the protectionism that certain famed, individuals hold in the discipline. Here, Ibn Hajar
praises the piety of al-Bukhr, Muslim and Mlik
70
and sees this as a reason for
accepting their works too. An impartial observer is confused when he compares the
opinions of such individuals from the Muslim scholars on the one hand and the non-
Muslim ones on the other. For example, Juynboll describes Mlik as a common-link
transmitter, which can be translated as a forger (1996, VIII: 310). Elsewhere Juynboll
notes that Mlik was often at the tail-end of family isnds, and that it is therefore not
inconceivable albeit far from proven, of course that he brought the rumour about a
Sahifa of Amr father great grandfather into circulation. (1996, XI: 174).

68
The closest example is where Ahmad ibn Hanbal, al-Shfi and Mlik have featured in the isnd. There
is only one such hadth and even this, as al-Suyt notes, is in reality four separate reports merged as one
(al-Suyt 1972, 1: 78).
69
Sections 5.18, 5.22, 5.36 and 5.41.
70
He writes: And there can be no doubt for one who has the smallest knowledge of this field and of the
information of people that if Mlik for example participates in a khabar, then he is truthful in it.
88
Perhaps it is impossible to objectively judge what al-Bukhr, Muslim and Mlik were
really like as Muslims and as scholars, because they lived so long ago. Juynboll did not
meet them but then nor did Ibn Hajar. But that has not prevented a perception being
painted by others; the Muslims who see them as largely competent and pious and the
non-Muslims who see them in a lesser light. The theory of Orientalism helps to answer
the polemics of ilm al-hadith. Edward Said explains:

For if it is true that no production of knowledge in the human sciences can ever
ignore or disclaim its authors involvement as a human subject in his own
circumstances, then it also must be true that for a European or American studying
the Orient, there can be no disclaiming the main circumstances of his actuality: he
comes up against the Orient as a European or American first, as an individual
second (1995, 11).

In other words, Ibn Hajar, as a Muslim, had a vested interest in defending the piety and
ability of his fellow Muslims, and hence the positive review. The non-Muslims do not
necessarily have this vested interest, and hence the more critical review. Sometimes it is
not the empirical data in front of us that affects our conclusions, but our actuality. As the
main analysis of the Nuzhah proceeds, there will be other places where the theory of
Orientalism can play a role in our understanding of the discipline.

89
5.8. Gharb/Fard.
Then the singularity is either at the root of the isnd which is the place where the
chain circulates and returns to, even if the paths to it are numerous; namely the
Companions side or it is not at the root of the isnd. This [latter form] is when the
singularity occurs in its duration. [This is] like when more than one narrates from
the Companion, then one person is alone in its narration. Thus the first is fard
mutlaq, like the hadth of the prohibition of selling wal and of its gift.
71
Abd Allh
ibn Dnr was alone from Ibn Umar. Sometimes one narrator is solitary from that
single person, like the Branches of Faith hadth.
72
Ab Slih is alone from Ab
Hurayra and Abd Allh ibn Dnr is alone after Ab Slih. Sometimes the
singularity continues throughout the transmission, or most of it. Many examples of
such are in the Musnad of al-Bazzr and al-Mujam al-awsat of Tabarn.
The second is fard nisb. It is called nisb because the singularity has occurred in
relation to a specific person, even if the hadth per se is mashhr. Rarely is the term
fard applied to fard nisb though gharb and fard are synonymous, literally and
terminologically. However, the people of terminology have differentiated between
the two in terms of frequent and infrequent usage. Thus fard is mostly applied to
fard mutlaq and gharb is mostly applied to fard nisb. This is in terms of their usage
as nouns. As for their usage in terms of the derived verb, then they do not
differentiate. Thus they say for mutlaq and nisb, tafarrada bih fuln (x was solitary
in reporting it) or aghraba bih fuln (x was solitary in reporting it).

71
This is the narration in which the Prophet said, Al-wal lahm ka-lahm al-nasab.
72
The Prophet said: Faith consists of seventy-something branches. The highest is to testify that there is no
God but Allh and the lowest is to remove a (harmful) object from the path. And modesty is a branch of
Faith.
90
Similar to this difference is munqati and mursal. Are they different or not? Most
scholars [agree] upon its difference, but [only] in terms of its usage as a noun. As for
usage as the derived verb, they use irsl only. So they say arsalah fuln (x made it
discontinuous), regardless whether that was mursal or munqati. Then there are
numerous [scholars] who do not consider the place of its usage, in that they do not
differentiate between mursal and munqati. And they are not the same, for the
reasons we have explained. Only a few are aware of this point. And Allh knows
best.

Commentary
5.8.1. Fard mutlaq and fard nisb.
Ibn Hajar concludes his discussion on mutawtir and khabar al-ahd with a look at the
last type of the former. When the isnd contains a solitary reporter in a particular
generation, then it is called gharib or fard. There are two types, fard mutlaq and fard
nisbi.
Owing to the confusion surrounding the usage of these two terms, the author offers an
excellent explanation of where each term is and should be applied. This particular part of
the Nuzhah gives an indication of who his target-audience was. Ibn Hajar eradicates any
confusion that exists between gharib and fard, explains which is typically used to denote
fard mutlaq and fard nisbi and warns readers not to confuse the usage of the terms when
they are used as a noun and when they are used as a verb. Certainly, this indicates that the
Nuzhah was meant as an introductory text to the study of ilm al-hadith for the first time.
Even today, the Nuzhah is largely used as an introductory treatise on the discipline in
91
Muslim universities and seminaries. The clarity shown by Ibn Hajar here indicates why
the Nuzhah was and still is an indispensable guide for the field.

5.8.2. Conclusion.
We previously briefly noted (section 5.7.1) that Orientalism can play a part in
understanding why the Muslims and non-Muslims have reached such different
conclusions in the discipline of ilm al-hadith. In general, the Muslims have a more
optimistic view on the authenticity of hadth material. Noth epitomised the polemics
when he remarked:

Leaving aside the fact that the autonomous Muslim ilm al-hadith as well as
Orientalist hadth scholarship recognise the existence of hadth forgery, the two
groups do not seem to have much in common. The reason for this is that the
burden of proof in the case of hadth forgery is distributed differently: For Muslim
hadth scholars, it has to be proved that a hadth is a forgery; for Orientalists, that
it is genuine (in Motzki (ed.) 2004, 310).

Yet using the discussion presented by Ibn Hajar on gharib and fard, it is possible to show
how both Muslims and non-Muslims can benefit from one another, towards a better,
more impartial and more objective appreciation of the discipline. Two issues will be
raised here that are related specifically to gharib and fard, one where the Muslims can
learn from the non-Muslims, and one where the non-Muslims can learn from the Muslims:

92
a. Where the Muslims can benefit.
One of the prominent theories of Schacht is the idea of the Common Link (CL)
transmitter. He argues that a common link in the chain of transmission indicates that the
hadth in question originated at the time of that common member (1959, pp. 171-172).
This person is then responsible for providing a fictitious isnd back to the Companion
and the Prophet.
I wish to show that his theory can be assessed in the light of Ibn Hajars writings on fard
nisbi, where the singularity occurs in some other part of the chain and not at the side of
the Companion. Common sense dictates that the chains of transmission are usually
expansive in nature rather than shrinking. In other words, as the isnd progresses, we
expect to find more transmitters. But fard nisbi is where there are more people in the first
part of the chain and then this shrinks to a solitary reporter later. This resembles the
common link form that Schacht was keen to portray. Therefore the cases where the isnd
becomes solitary in its duration, namely fard nisbi, is more likely to have been
projected backwards. Otherwise, it is difficult to explain why a report, for example, was
reported by two Companions and two Successors, only for them both to report to one
solitary person in the generation thereafter. We would expect to see the isnd expand in
its later part and not shrink. It can therefore be argued that Ibn Hajar and the scholars
before him actually gave a name to the common link theory of Schacht in fard nisbi.
Ibn Hajar explains the form that fard nisbi assumes in the Nuzhah but not why it takes on
this shape. The lack of clarification from him and indeed other Muslim scholars adds to
the suspicion surrounding this type. It is here where Muslims can re-assess the evidence
after appreciating the issues presented by non-Muslim academics.
93
As a criticism of this comparison between the common link theory and fard nisbi, one
important point is worthy of mention. A common link transmitter would certainly want
his report to gain acceptance, and therefore he would only claim to have heard from
reliable and trustworthy reporters. But then there are unexplainable cases where the
person the report has supposedly been projected back to is weak and rejected. This can
only be the case where the isnd is genuine. Otherwise, no right-minded transmitter
would project the report back to weak reporters and thus have his report rejected.

a. Where the non-Muslims can benefit.
Importantly, Ibn Hajar writes that the cases where the singularity continues throughout
the chain of transmission are not those reports which are recorded in the six canonical
collection. Rather such reports are to be found in the lesser books of compilations, such
as the Musnad of al-Bazzr.
73
This contrasts with the opinion of Juynboll who writes:

In other words, canonical Muslim tradition literature is first and foremost
characterised by the feature that the transmission of a particular saying allegedly
uttered by the Prophet travelled during the first sixty to one hundred and fifty
years or so of its existence along a path of consecutive single individuals. (1996,
VII: 172).

Juynbolls observations are part of his theory on the role of the muammarn, which will
be dealt with in Section 5.51. Elsewhere, Juynboll gives an indication why he was keen to

73
He writes in the text: And sometimes the singularity continues throughout the transmission, or most of it.
And many examples of such are in the Musnad of al-Bazzr and al-Mujam al-awsat of Tabarn.
94
portray single individuals in a chain as the predominant norm in hadth transmission;
because he felt that more often than not, [it is] a sure sign of its having been put together
by the youngest person mentioned in that strand or possibly the latters master (XI: 154).
But for our analysis here, we must first note that Ibn Hajar totally differs with Juynboll
regarding where the bulk of gharib reports are to be found. Juynboll believes that the
works of Muslim, al-Bukhr, al-Tirmidh and their likes are littered with them whereas
Ibn Hajar believes they are confined to the lesser works like al-Mujam al-awsat of
Tabarn. Al-Mayynish asserted that one of the conditions of al-Bukhr and Muslim
was that at least two or more narrated from the Prophet, and then at least four narrate
from each of these.
74
If this opinion is accepted, then it means that chains marked by a
path of consecutive single individuals was at the very least a rarity for two of the six
major hadth compilations, and not the norm.
Moreover, the works of Azami in particular cast doubts about the common nature of
gharib reports that Juynboll is so keen to depict. In his analysis of the works of Suhayl,
he found that there were only five reports where the isnd featured one report from the
Companion, transmitted to one Successor and then to one further reporter. There are
eleven traditions where only one Companion has reported it to one Successor, but the
report has been attested by other Companions. Thirty-two traditions take on the form
where a certain Companion has more than one student and this is attested with similar-
wording reports from other Companions. Azami identifies only a single tradition that
takes the form of fard nisbi: namely where a report is transmitted from many
Companions but later, there is only a single transmitter (Azami 1992, 236). In other

74
See section 5.5.
95
words, most of the work is distinguished by mashhr and aziz reports, rather than gharib.
And the semi-contentious fard nisbi is only found once in the works.
My approach here has not been to answer who is correct and who is not. Rather, it aims
to show that our understanding of the discipline is best appreciated through knowledge,
Muslim and non-Muslim knowledge. For too long, the sceptism (as highlighted by the
quote from Noth) has acted as a barrier to both parties from accepting each others views.
In short, the Nuzhah can help us to understand and answer new approaches laid down by
non-Muslim scholars to some degree. Crucially, new approaches laid down by non-
Muslim scholars can also help us to understand the Nuzhah, as shown with the similarity
between Schachts view on Common Link (CL) transmitter and fard nisbi.
96
5.8.3. Summary: Reports according to how they reached us.
97
Division of
reports in terms
of how they
reached us.
Substantial
paths that give
definitive
knowledge.
Limited number
of paths.
mutawtir.
khabar al-ahd
Same wording
to be found in
all reports
Wording varies
but meaning is
uniform
At least 3
reporters in
each
generation.
At least two in
each
generation
At least one
mutawtir lafz mutawtir
manaw
mashhr azz gharb
Singularity at
the root of the
chain
Singularity
elsewhere
fard mutlaq fard nisb
98
5.9. Sahh.
The khabar al-hd with the transmission of upright and completely accurate
[narrators], coupled with the continuation of the isnd, without it [being] shdhdh
or muallal, is [called] sahh li-dhtih. This is the first division of the accepted into
four types. This [division exists] because either it consists of attributes of acceptance
upon its highest form, or it does not. The former is sahh li-dhtih; and the second
if something is found which compensates for that shortcoming, like numerous
chains then it is sahih too, but not li-dhtih. And where there is no compensating
factor, then it is hasan li-dhtih. If an indication is found that gives preference to the
side of acceptance in what was [previously] paused upon, then this is hasan too, but
not li-dhtih. The dialogue for sahh li-dhtih has been preceded because of its high
rank.

Commentary
Perhaps owing to its importance, Ibn Hajar offers an extensive analysis on sahih. The
discussion commences with four divisions of the accepted (maqbl). They are;
i. Sahih li-dhtih- the Sound per se. This is a tradition that fulfills the five
conditions mentioned above, which the author elaborates on later.
ii. Sahih li-ghayrih- the Sound by other. In essence, this is a hadth that is hasan
in terms of grading. However it is promoted to the rank of sahih due to the
appearance of evidence that suggests its authenticity, like numerous,
supporting chains. Since it was originally hasan, it cannot be labelled as sahih
99
outright, and thus it is called sahih li-ghayrih, or Sound by other means
rather than per se.
iii. Hasan li-dhtih - the Fair per se. As Ibn Hajar later explains, this is a sahih
hadth in all respects, except the accuracy of the narrator is not of the highest
standard.
iv. Hasan li-ghayrih- the Fair by other. Here, Ibn Hajar suggests that a hadth
which was previously not acted upon due to some weakness can be upgraded
to the rank of hasan, when supporting evidence is found. Again, because it
was not originally Fair, it is only given the title of Hasan li-ghayrih, or Fair by
other means.

This opening section is very clear. It outlines the four types of the accepted and how they
relate to one another. He then proceeds to offer a detailed commentary of the first type,
sahih li-dhtih:
What is meant by upright is whosoever possesses a force that carries him upon the
adherence of pious, courteous behaviour. What is meant by piety (taqw) is the
refraining from evil acts, namely polytheism, lewdness and innovation. Accuracy is
of two types; the accuracy of the chest; this is that he preserves what he has heard in
a fashion such that he can present it when he wishes. [And the second type of
accuracy] is accuracy of the book; this is protecting it in his possession from the
time that he heard it, to verify it, until the point he gives it. Added is the condition of
completely to indicate the higher rank in that. Continuation is that whose isnd is
100
free from any drop, in the sense that all of them from the men have heard the
narrated [text] from their shaykh. The sanad; its definition has been mentioned.
Muallal literally is that which contains a defect. Terminologically, it is that in
which there is a hidden, defamatory, defect. Shdhdh literally means solitarily and
terminologically, it is that [tradition] in which the narrator has been opposed by
someone more preferred. And for it is another interpretation; this will soon come, if
Allh wills.

Commentary
5.9.1. Defining sahh.
Ibn Hajar defines a sahih
75
hadth as the transmission of upright and completely accurate
[narrators], with the continuation of the chain, without it [being] shdhdh or muallal.
For reasons that will become clear later, it is worth comparing this with what some other
hadth masters before and after Ibn Hajar have said regarding the definition of sahih.
a. Ibn al-Salh (d. 643/1245) defines the sahih as a supported (musnad) hadth, the isnd
of which coheres continuously throughout the transmission of one upright and accurate
person from another up to its point of termination. The sound hadth can be neither
shdhdh nor muallal (1986, 11-12). Though worded slightly differently, it is in essence
the same as the definition offered by Ibn Hajar, because he mentions the same conditions.

75
The term sahih as used here to describe prophetic traditions metaphorically. This is because the word
literally (haqiqa) is used in Arabic to describe persons and bodies (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 64).
101
b. Al-Irq (d. 806/1403), who was the teacher of Ibn Hajar, defines sahih in his Alfiyya
as the continuously supported, with the transmission of the upright and accurate
throughout the chain, without it being shdhdh and without the existence of a hidden
defect which harms it (1995, 7). Again, the definition is identical.

c. Al-Suyt (d.911/1505) defined it as a hadth whose isnd in continuous with upright,
accurate reporters, without it [being] shdhdh or muallal (1972, 1: 64).

From these definitions offered by the Muslim scholars, we can see notice the conformity
quite clearly. The key elements mentioned by Ibn Hajar are to be found in the definitions
offered by those before him and indeed after him. In fact, we note that even when Muslim
scholars have offered a different definition, the others have suggested it still confirms
with that of the majority. It is as differences are muted quickly. Two examples will be
sufficient to prove this:

a. Al-Khattb (d. 388/998) defined sahih as ma ittasala sanaduh wa-addalat
naqlatuh, or whose chain is continuous and whose transmission is verified reliable
(al-Suyt 1972, 1: 64). Note that in this version, there is no mention of the transmitters
being accurate and that the report must not be shdhdh or muallal. Rather than accepting
his difference of opinion, the other Muslim scholars have attempted to show that at least
implicitly, these three elements are to be found in his definition. Al-Suyt believes this
very fact, on the basis that he used the word addalat rather than adalat. The former
refers to when a narrator is verified as being reliable, by other marked scholars. A
102
negligent, deserved of disregard is not described as being verified reliable by the
companions of hadth, though he may express adl in his religion, al-Suyt writes (1972:
1: 64). Al-Nawaw too comes to the defence of the established definition of sahih when
he states that the comprehensiveness of the term adl means it automatically negates the
inaccuracy of the narrator. He writes:

The condition of adla stipulates the truthfulness of the narrator, the absence of
negligence and the absence of disregard at the point of preserving the report (in
al-Suyt 1972, 1: 64).

What this shows therefore is that though al-Khattbs definition is much shorter, it is still
the same as Ibn al-Salhs and Ibn Hajars, or made to look the same as theirs.

b. Al-Hkim (d. 405/1014) writes in Ulum al-hadith that for a report to be considered
sound, the reporter must be known (mashhr) for seeking hadth (cited in al-Suyt
1972, 1: 69). This is an addition to what the likes of Ibn al-Salh and Ibn Hajar have
offered. But again, this addition is quickly portrayed as being no different to the
established definition. Al-Nawaw believes that the condition of dabt encompasses this
element, since being known for narrating simply means that he has great care and
consideration for the task. Al-Samn echoed this sentiment when he wrote:

103
The sahih [reporter] is not merely known to narrate from the authoritative. It is
being renowned for understanding, acknowledgment, excessive listening and
revision (in al-Suyt 1972, 1: 70).

Therefore, even the slight variations to be found from some Muslim scholars can be
interpreted and incorporated into the widely-accepted definition of sahih.
The fact is that from the fourth Islamic century until Ibn Hajars time, the definition of
sahih has never really been questioned. It has been refined and tweaked, but not at all
revamped and critically assessed. For some scholars, it is not just the definition of sahih
that has suffered from stagnation, but the entire discipline of ilm al-hadith. For instance,
Ibn Hibbn (d. 354/965) said:

I see that the [Islamic] disciplines are all developing except this discipline [of
hadth]. For this is declining day by day (in al-Munw 1999, 1: 4).

This quote from Ibn Hibbn suggests that even by the fourth Islamic century, hadth
scholars had succumbed to apathy and were happy to confirm to what their predecessors
had written. In the definition of sahh, we can appreciate the point Ibn Hibbn was
making.
For the sake of our analysis of the Nuzhah, we find that Ibn Hajar does not deviate from
the works of his predecessors in defining sahih. Instead, he opted for uniformity.
What Ibn Hajar does do in the Nuzhah is accept the widely-held definition of sahih and
then indulge in a pinpoint analysis of each important word found in it. So we are given a
104
detailed analysis of (i) adl (ii) dabt (iii) tmm (iv) ittisl (v) sanad (vi) muallal (vii)
shdhdh. In fact, adl is given a two-tier analysis by him. This is because he defines adl
as a force that carries him upon the adherence of taqw and marwwa (or mara). He
then proceeds to define taqw and marwwa too. Perhaps the added detail on adl from
Ibn Hajar was so that he could show that a reporter must be known for his taqw as much
as his ability to transmit accurately; he reminds readers that ilm al-hadith has a religious
worth and not just an academic one. In transmitting the words and actions of the Prophet,
reporters are expected to follow his model too.

Ibn Hajar did not want to question the definition of sahih which he inherited from his
predecessors in the field. He accepted it unequivocally. This definition was almost like an
unchangeable constitution, engraved in stone. His duty, it seems, was to elaborate and
laud it, as the next part of the Nuzhah suggests.

Note: His saying and the khabar al-hd is like the jins and the remaining
conditions are like fasl. His saying with the transmission of upright excludes what
is transmitted by non-upright [reporters]. His saying it [huwa] is called fasl
76
; it
appears between the predicate and the news. It states that whatever appears after it
is the news for what is before it, and is not its description. And his saying li-dhtih
excludes that which is sahh through an external matter, like it has passed.

76
The damir huwa appearing in between clarifies that the two parts of the sentence are not related through
the means of mawsf and sifa (the described and the description) (al-Wajd 1996, 54).
105
Here, Ibn Hajar comments on the literary style employed in defining sahih from a
grammatical perspective. The definition takes on the form of jins and fasl, where a
general, universal statement is made followed by a more precise description of who or
what is excluded from it.
This text of the Nuzhah does not in any way add to our understanding what sahih is. It is
merely a grammatical analysis of the widely-accepted definition of sahih.
So we see that in this section on sahih, Ibn Hajar meticulously elaborates on sahih. But it
is hardly though-provoking, critical or evaluative. It is quite a superficial analysis. Had it
have been more critical, then he may questioned the absence of reference to the matn in
the definition of sahih. Had it been more reflective of his climate, he may have
highlighted the fact that elevation which was so preciously sought in his time is not a
condition for sahih (Dickinson 2002, 491). What he does do is show the dependency on
the men reporting the report as a means of establishing its authenticity, as the next section
suggests.

5.9.3. The most sound of chains.
The ranks of sahh differ, according to the varying attributes that are required for
authenticity in terms of strength. For indeed when it gives the benefit of
overwhelming thought upon which is the basis of soundness this stipulates that
for it will be stages, some higher than others in accordance to the strengthening
matters. When the matter is as such then that [report] whose transmitters are of the
highest calibre in reliability and accuracy and all of the other attributes that
necessitate soundness, will be more authentic than what is void of this. Thus from
106
the highest rank in that [matter] is that which some imms have declared as the
most sound of chains; like al-Zuhr Slim ibn Abd Allh ibn Umar his father;
and like Muhammad ibn Srn Ubayda ibn Amr Al; and like Ibrhmal-
Nakha Alqama Ibn Masd. Less than that in rank is like Burayd ibn Abd
Allh ibn Umar ibn Ab Burda his grandfather his father Ab Ms; and
like Hammd ibn Salama Thbit Anas. Less than that in rank is like Suhayl
ibn Ab Slih his father Ab Hurayra; and like Al ibn Abd al-Rahmn
his father Ab Hurayra. For verily all of them comprise the name of integrity
and accuracy, except that in the highest stage are preferred attributes that stipulate
precedence over the ones which are next. In the next stage are strengths of accuracy
that stipulate precedence upon the third. And this [third stage] is preceded upon the
ones which are considered as Fair only, like Muhammad ibn Ishq Asim ibn
Umar Jbir; and [like] Amr ibn Shuayb, from his father, from his grandfather.
Perform analogy with these stages with that which is similar to it in [terms of]
preferred attributes. The highest rank is that which some imms have declared as
the most sound of chains. The depended [opinion] is the non-declaration [with this
title] to a specific chain. Yes, the chains that the imms have mentioned [as such] are
deserved of precedence over the chains they have not declared as such.

Commentary
We have already seen in this main section that Ibn Hajar largely refers to the isnd rather
then the matn. For him, the credibility of the reporters plays a paramount role in
determining the acceptance and rejection of a report. In this section, Ibn Hajar explains
107
the issue of the asahh al-asnid, or the most sound of chains. Again, it indicates how
important the isnd was for him.
If, the author explains, a report has a chain of highly-credible reporters then this adds to
its validity. Ibn Hajar offers examples of such chains, such as al-Zuhr Slim ibn Abd
Allh Ibn Umar, which is considered the most sound of chains by Ishq ibn
Rhawiyya and Ahmad ibn Hanbal (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 77). He also offers examples of
chains which are considered slightly less in terms of credibility, such as the family isnd
of Burayd ibn Abd Allh ibn Umar ibn Ab Burda.

The lively discussion on asahh al-asnid goes back to the early period of hadth
compilation. Other than the ones mentioned by Ibn Hajar above, examples are Mlik
NfiIbn Umar, vouched for by al-Imm al-Bukhr (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 78), and al-
Zuhr Al ibn al-Husayn his father Al, vouched for by Ab Bakr ibn Ab
Shayba (Ibid.).

Is there benefit to be derived from listing certain chains as the most sound? In principal,
Ibn Hajar believes there is. The chains can be used as a litmus paper test to examine the
worth of other chains.
77
Also, as al-Uthaymin points out, knowing the most sound of
chains is useful when two reports contradict one another; the report with the higher
grade of reporters is one factor by which a report can be preferred (2002, 110).

77
This is shown where Ibn Hajar says: And perform analogy with these stages with that which is similar to
it in [terms of] preferred attributes.
108
But interestingly, Ibn Hajar does not give the practice unequivocal backing.
78
Firstly, Ibn
Hajars main reservation it seems is that people may begin considering these chains
are authentic without doubt, to the exclusion of all other chains that are not classified as
such. The conditions of acceptance for a particular report depend on many factors and not
just the reliability and accuracy of the narrators. Al-Al voices this sentiment when he
writes:

As for the chain, a group has classified them as such (namely the most sound of
chains). As for the hadth [in its entirety], it is not explicitly stated from anyone
from the experts of hadth that such and such hadth is unequivocally the most
sound of reports. This is because the chain being the most sound of chains does
not necessarily mean the matn will be as such too (cited in al-Suyt 1972, 1: 77).

78
It is clear that Ibn Hajar has followed the steps of Ibn al-Salh when refraining from decreeing a chain as
the most sound in general. The latter writes:
The grades of sound hadth vary in potency according to the degree that the hadth possesses the
aforementioned characteristics upon which soundness is based. In view of this, sound hadth can be
categorised into innumerable subcategories. For this reason, we think it is better to refrain from judging any
chain or hadth to be the absolute most sound, although a number of authorities have ventured into this
matter and their opinions were therefore contradictory. We heard that Ishq ibn Rhawayh said: the
soundest of all chains is al-Zuhr, from Slim [ibn Abd Allh ibn Umar], from his father. We also heard
something similar from Ahmad ibn Hanbal. We heard that Amr ibn Al al-Falls said: the soundest chain
is Muhammad ibn Srn, from Ubayda ibn Amr from Al. We heard something similar from Al ibn al-
Madn and this view was related from others too. There are some who specify the narrator from
Muhammad ibn Srn, some making him Ayyb al-Sakhtiyln and others Ibn Awn. One of the things we
hear from Yahy ibn Man is that he said: the finest chain is al-Amash from Ibrhm al-Nakha, from
Alqama from Ibn Masd. We heard that Ab Bakr ibn Ab Shayba said: the soundest of all isnds is al-
Zuhr, from Al ibn al-Husayn, from his father, from Al. We heard that Ab Abd Allh al-Bukhr the
author of the Sahih said: the soundest of all chains is Mlik, from Nfi, from Ibn Umar. The expert
Ab Mansr Abd al-Qhir ibn Thir al-Tamm extrapolated from this that the most exalted chain must be
al-Shfi from Mlik from Nfi from Ibn Umar, and he cited as proof the consensus of the scholars of
hadth that there was no transmitter from Mlik more exalted than al-Shfi. And God knows best. (1986,
pp. 14-16)
109
In other words, there is an acceptance that the best possible reporters do not mean the
best possible hadth. A hadth consists of two parts, the isnd and matn. Having the most
sound of chains tells us little about the matn.
Secondly, the practice may lead to academic apathy. Once a tradition has the most sound
of chains, the observer may accept it unequivocally and refuse to investigate its
authenticity any further.
Thirdly, Ibn Hajars refusal to give this practice total backing could be due to an
epistemological reason. The discipline of ilm al-rijl is not an exact science since
ultimately the authenticity of a report lies largely with the interaction and rationality (or
irrationality) of the reporters. Even if all the reporters of a particular chain are of the
highest calibre, there is still no guarantee that they did not slip or err in reporting it.
Perhaps this is why Ibn Hajar wrote that the depended [opinion] is the non-declaration
[with this title] to a specific chain. Quite simply, this is because ilm al-rijl cannot be
made scientific. Siddiqi writes:

The Muslims not only gave a scientific form and basis to the system of isnd, but
also tried to make a comparative study of the various isnds deployed in the
literature, with a view of establishing their relative value. It is said that Ahmad ibn
Hanbal, Ibn Man and Ibn al-Madn once gathered together with some other
traditionists and debated which was the most authentic of all isndsthe
consensus among later traditionists, however, was that it is impossible to qualify
any isnd as the best of all (1993, 81).

110
Certainly, ilm al-hadith as often been translated as the science of hadth. Most scholars,
Muslims and non-Muslims, have assumed this to be the correct definition for it. Daniel
Brown has repeatedly used this terminology (1999, pp, 9, 28, 93, 99, 110) as has Siddq
(1993, pp. 38, 84, 108, 115). Perhaps the reason for this is that science is characterised
by a high-level of precision, objectivity, and the ability to prove or disprove rigid
hypotheses. Brown and Siddq may have translated ilm al-hadith as a science because of
the existence of formal rules and procedures laid down by hadth scholars to determine
the authenticity of narrators and reports. If the narrator for example is found to be
neglectful and has a short memory, then his reports will not be accepted. If he is
trustworthy, pious and intelligent, then his report will be accepted. If the matn consists of
a ruling which complies with the Qurn perfectly, then it is accepted. If the matn refers
to a matter which does not fit with the established and consensual doctrines of Islam, it is
to be rejected. To a considerable extent, therefore, it is simple to see why ilm al-hadith is
described as a science of hadth; because it is marked with a level of formality and
objectivity, just like physics and chemistry is.

However, the issue of the most sound of chains has highlighted the certain frailties in
describing ilm al-hadith or ilm al-rijl as a science. Though the discipline is marked
with strict procedures and analytical methods, it is ultimately the study of men, and men
do not behave like compounds and elements in chemistry. This explains why Ibn Hajar
acknowledged the practice of labelling certain chains as the most sound, but stopped
short of giving it unequivocal backing.
111
This analysis of the most sound of chains here in the Nuzhah does show some insight
and evaluative skills from the author. Whereas in the definition of sahih he shows rigid
conformity to his predecessors, Ibn Hajar does at least question a practice that they
indulged in. More importantly, he steps back and accepts that men are fallible. And if this
is the case, then he is also implicitly accepting that hadth literature can be subject to
changes, shortcomings, alterations and indeed forgery.

Ibn Hajar indicates a lukewarm reservation on the most sound of chains. But he does
not question them empirically. The findings of the non-Muslim academics do. Schacht
argues that the chain Mlik Nfi Ibn Umar, which incidentally al-Bukhr
personally sees as the most sound of chains, is dubious. Based on the birth and death-
dates of Mlik and Nfi, Schacht doubts whether they could have exchanged reports
first-hand and believes that his reporting from him was perhaps based on written reports.
Secondly, because Nfi was the freedman of Ibn Umar, the isnd is now a family
isnd, which he sees as a general indication of the spurious character of the tradition in
question (Schacht 1959, pp. 176-177).
In response, the Muslim scholar Azami (1996) has revealed some shortcomings in
Schachts views. Firstly, Schacht writes that Nfi died in 117 and Mlik in 179, meaning
their association could only have been when Mlik was little more than a boy (1959,
177). Azami points out that the bibliographical works state that Mlik was born in 93,
with other variations putting the date as 90, 94 and 97. But there is no one who suggests
he was born later than this. Therefore Mlik was at least twenty years old, if not 24 or 27,
when Nfi died (Azami 1996, 171). Moreover, both lived in the same city, which meant
112
their exchanges were more likely to have been in person rather than through written
reports. Secondly, the family isnd can be viewed in two ways. Schacht believes it was
only a device for securing its appearance (1959, 170), whereas it can also be viewed as
a more rigid form of reporting. Family members engaged in hadth narration will enjoy
extensive companionship and this prolonged company will mean more opportunities to
check and revise the hadth from the source.
79

Despite Azamis response to Schacht, questions still remain regarding the chain Mlik
Nfi Ibn Umar. Juynbolls detailed analysis of the position of Nfi in hadth
literature shows that the isnd cannot be maintained as a historically feasible chain of
transmission (1996, IX, 241). Like Schacht, he questioned whether Mlik could have
heard from Nfi directly. Firstly, all the biographical information available to us on
Nfi is from Mlik himself, which, for Juynboll, raises suspicions (1996, IX, 219).
Secondly, he cites reports which show that Mlik was a shbb or fat (youth or boy) in
the year 134/752, which seems to suggest that Mlik was born in the year Nfi died.
Thirdly, Juynboll shows through his isnd bundle analysis that Nfi is the common
link transmitter in isnd strands, thus suggesting the lack of tangible evidence for the
respect and popularity this chain holds (1996, IX: 238).
If Juynbolls findings are accepted, then the entire debate surrounding the most sound of
chain is thrown into jeopardy. This is because if the most famous sound chain, Mlik
Nfi Ibn Umar, is questionable and suspect to fraud, then this raises questions about
the other ones too. It also raises questions about the authority of al-Bukhr and al-Shfi,
who vouched for the soundness of this particular isnd.
79
More will be said on family isnds in section 5.50.
113
Viewed from afar, this is an example where the debate has taken place on empirical
evidence and the Muslim scholars and the non-Muslim ones are engaged in a healthy
debate. There is more reliance on facts than perception. This suggests that the interaction
between them can be of great benefit to both parties.

5.9.4. The superiority of the Sahh of Muslim and the Sahh of al-
Bukhr.
Related to this superiority is that which the two shaykhs have agreed upon in
[recording it in their] compilations, in relation to what [only] one of them has
recorded. [This is followed by] what al-Bukhr has recorded in relation to what
Muslim has recorded alone. [This is] because of the agreement of the scholars after
them of taking their books with acceptance. There is a dispute regarding which one
of them is preferred; [though] what they both agree on is more preferred in this
respect over what they have not agreed upon. The majority has clarified the
precedence of the Sahh of al-Bukhr in terms of soundness. The opposite claim
(that Sahh of Muslim is preferred) has not been found from anyone. As for what
has been reported from Ab Al al-Nsbr that there is nothing under the sky
more authentic than the book of Muslim, he did not state that it is more authentic
than the Sahh of al-Bukhr. This is because he merely negated the existence of a
book more authentic than the book of Muslim, since the negated fact here by use
of the term afal is a book similar to Muslims in authenticity. He did not negate
114
the [possible] equality [of the two in terms of authenticity].
80
Similar to this is what
has been reported from some scholars of the west (North Africa) in giving
superiority to the Sahh of Muslim over the Sahh of al-Bukhr. This [statement]
refers to the good style, excellent placing and arrangement; no one has said that this
superiority refers to its authenticity.
81

Commentary
In this detailed section, Ibn Hajar highlights how in the same way that the most correct
chains have certain superiority over reports that are void of this quality, a report
mentioned by the two shaykhs al-Bukhr and Muslim also have qualities of acceptance
and preference. Two general statements are purported by Ibn Hajar;
a. A hadth recorded by both al-Bukhr and Muslim is preferred to a hadth that is not
recorded by anyone of them. This is because the scholars of hadth have for long accepted

80
In answer to Ab Al al-Nsbrs opinion, Ibn Hajar believes that his statement does not contradict the
overwhelming opinion that al-Bukhr is more authentic. Ab Al only negated that there is a more
authentic book than Muslim. Hence he could mean that al-Bukhr is the same as Muslim in terms of
authenticity. Al-Suyt provides a clear literary example to prove this grammatical point: And that which
indicates the customary usage of such quotes is the saying of Ahmad ibn Hanbal: There is no one in Basra
more learned than Bishr ibn Mufaddal. As for equal to him, then possibly (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 94). Also, al-
Uthaymin adds that even if the opinion of Ab Al al-Nsbr was to be interpreted to mean that the book
of Muslim alone was superior to all others including the book of al-Bukhr then this would not affect
the opinion of Ibn Hajar regarding the superiority of the Sahih of al-Bukhr. This is because: this is his
own opinion on an issueand when only one person has an opinion on an issue in contrast to what the
majority say, thenit is not worthy of consideration (2002, 113).
81
As for the opinion expressed by the scholars of the Maghreb, Ibn Hajar writes that the superiority
expressed is regarding the good layout, clear presentation and excellent arrangement of the chapters found
in the Sahih of Muslim. Undoubtedly, Muslim has won many admirers for his clarity and simplicity. Al-
Uthaymin expresses a commonly-held view when he writes that Muslim has arranged reports on a certain
event or issue in a more accessible manner than al-Bukhr has. This in addition to the excellent
introduction Muslim wrote for his Sahih, something that is not found in the Sahih of al-Bukhr (al-
Uthaymin 2002, 113). However, there is no mention that this superiority is in terms of the greater
soundness of the reports in the works of Muslim. Al-Suyt writes:
Maslama ibn Qsim al-Qurtub from the generation of al-Draqutn said: No one has compiled the
likes of the Sahih of Muslim. And this is in terms of excellent placing and outstanding ordering, and not in
terms of soundness (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 91).
115
the high standard and rigid methodology employed by these two scholars. A report
mentioned by both is classified as muttafaq alayh, or agreed upon.
b. Of the two scholars, the reports of al-Bukhr in his Sahih are deemed as more
preferred than those of Muslim in his Sahih.
In the next part of the text, he offers a comprehensive account on why the Sahih of al-
Bukhr is preferred in general over the Sahih of Muslim. The above text also indicates a
common theme found in the Nuzhah. The author himself champions the preference of the
Sahih of al-Bukhr, but he acknowledges the ikhtilf surrounding this issue. Why this
point is considered important will be discussed in detail in chapter six.

Were they to maintain [the claim], then the clear reality would refute them. For
instance, the attributes upon which the soundness rotates is more complete and rigid
in the book of al-Bukhr than in the book of Muslim. His conditions in it are
stronger and firmer. As for preferring al-Bukhr in terms of the continuity [of the
isnd], his condition is that the meeting of the reporter from whom he heard from
must be proven, even if it is [only] once. Muslim merely depended on them being
contemporaries. As a result, al-Bukhr has been objected upon that he should be
required not to accept muanan at all. This objection directed upon him is not valid,
because when the meeting of a narrator has been proven once, the possibility that he
has not heard from him no longer exists. And if he has not heard from him, then it
follows that he is a mudallis; and this matter is regarding other than the mudallis.
82

82
Al-Bukhrs condition is that the reporter and the shaykh must have met, even if it was only once.
Muslim says that being contemporaries is sufficient. A possible objection results from this difference in
116
As for his preference in terms of the credibility and accuracy [of the reporters], the
men who have been criticised from the men of Muslim are more in number than the
men of al-Bukhr, along with the fact that al-Bukhr did not utilise them often. In
fact, most of them are his own shaykhs who he [directly] took from and was familiar
with their reports. [This is] as opposed to Muslim in both matters. As for [al-
Bukhrs] preference in terms of not being shdhdh or muallal, the reports of al-
Bukhr that have been criticised are less than the reports of Muslim that have been
criticised. This along with the consensus of the scholars upon the fact that al-
Bukhr was more competent than Muslim in the disciplines, more learned in hadth
and that Muslim was his student and graduate who continued to take benefit from
him and follow his steps. To the extent that al-Draqutn said: If al-Bukhr had
not [existed], there would never have been Muslim.

Commentary
In detail, Ibn Hajar offers evidence as to why the compilation of al-Bukhr is considered
more authentic than Muslims. He identifies four reasons; (i) in terms of the continuity of
the isnd (ii) in terms of the credibility and accuracy of the reporters employed (iii) in
terms of not being shdhdh or muallal (iv) in terms of knowledge and ability. With all
four of these reasons, al-Bukhr is stronger. For instance, in the Sahih of Muslim, there

methodology: if al-Bukhr maintains this stringent condition, then it necessitates that he should not accept
a muanan hadth at all. This is because with such a hadth, the term an is used throughout as the word of
delivery, and in some cases the meeting of the reporter with his shaykh is not proven. Ibn Hajar replies by
dismissing such an objection. He writes that one it has proven that the reporter has met the person he is
reporting from once, then the possibility that he has not heard from him no longer exists. If he does now
narrate from him by using his name, though in fact he has not heard the particular report from him, then he
is labelled a mudallis. (This is someone who changes the chain or text of the hadith with malicious intent.
This type will be covered later in section 5.21.) And here the question is regarding the muanan and not
the mudallas hadth.

117
are more objected-upon narrators than there are in al-Bukhrs. Al-Suyt elucidates
when he writes that the number of reports that al-Bukhr has used to the exclusion of
Muslim are approximately 430 men. Of these, about eighty men are of dubious nature.
Muslim on the other hand as used 720 reporters who have not been used by al-Bukhr,
of which 160 are reported to have some weakness (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 92). In general, the
disputed narrations that are to be found in the Sahih of al-Bukhr and Muslim amount to
approximately two hundred and ten; the Sahih of al-Bukhr only contains eighty from
this number. Clearly, this highlights that the Sahih of al-Bukhr is more sound than the
Sahih of Muslim (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 93).

In section 5.7.1., we observed how Ibn Hajar considered the existence of a report in the
works of al-Bukhr and Muslim as an advantageous factor. The reason, he explained,
was because of their piety, the scholars acceptance of their works and their academic
ability. With precision, he mainly concentrates on this last reason here and shows why
from the two grand masters of hadth, al-Bukhr is given preference.
This point is important. The reason is that other Muslim scholars too have highlighted the
exalted nature of al-Bukhr and Muslim. But it seems they have ascribed this superiority
to their piety, rather than their academic ability. Ibn Hajars analysis here focuses almost
entirely on their academic ability, particularly that of al-Bukhrs. The Nuzhah
systematically points to al-Bukhrs precision in rooting out the sound from the weak.
On the other hand, others tend to remember his status as a good Muslim. Al-Suyt writes:

118
The first compilation in only sound hadth is the Sahih of al-Bukhr. And the
reason for that is what Ibrhm ibn Maqil al-Nasaf reports, who said: We were
with Ishq ibn Rhawayh and he said: If you were to gather a brief book for the
sound of the sunna of the Prophet . Al-Bukhr said: Thus this thought
occurred in my heart and I began to compile the compendium of the sound. He
also said: I saw the Prophet [in a dream] as if I was standing over him and
repelling [something] with a fan in my hand. And so I asked some experts in
dreams about this. And they told me you are repelling the lies from him. Hence
this is what drove me to compile the compendium of the sound (al-Suyt 1972, 1:
88).

Al-Suyt asks us to reflect on al-Bukhrs rank as a man who saw the Prophet in his
dream, a man blessed with a divine touch. Ibn Hajar asks us to reflect on his excellent
methodology and attention to detail. For Ibn Hajar, being a good Muslim is an asset in the
field of hadth but more important is being a great academic.
Why does this point matter? Simply because piety is not a guarantee against forgery. As
we shall see later (in section 5.24.4), all Muslim scholars, including Ibn Hajar, admit that
one of the main forgers in early Islam were the pious traditionists. The hadth scholar
Yah ya ibn Sad (d. 198/813) said: I have not witnessed lying about the Prophet more
than I have seen it in those known for ascetism and piety (Brown 2009, 73). Ibn Hajar
here accepts al-Bukhrs status but he ascribes it to his ability. This certainly shows his
common sense and why the Nuzhah is important compared to other works on the
discipline.
119

From this namely from the aspect of the preference of al-Bukhrs conditions
over others the Sahh of al-Bukhr is preferred over others from the books
written in hadth; then the Sahh of Muslim, because of its coupling with al-Bukhr
in the agreement of the scholars of accepting their books, other than those which are
muallal; then preferred in terms of soundness is that which complies with both of
its conditions, because what is meant by this is their reporters with the present of
their conditions. And the consensus has been reached in accepting their reporters as
credible by the means of necessity; thus they are preferred over others. This is a
principle that cannot be reversed except with evidence. If [the narration] complies
with both of their conditions together, it will be less than what Muslim narrates or
his likes. If [the narration] complies with one of their conditions, then the report
that complies with al-Bukhr alone is preferred over the one that complies with
Muslim alone, following the principle for each. Thus, derived from this [account]
are six types that differ in rank of soundness. Then there is a seventh type; and that
is what complies with neither of their conditions, collectively and individually. And
this ranking is merely in view of the aforementioned method. If, for instance, one
type is preferred over another through a means which necessitates preference, then
it is preceded, as sometimes a factor features which makes it higher in ranking. Like
[for example] a hadth with Muslim that is mashhr though short from the stage of
mutawtir, that possesses a factor which makes it give the benefit of knowledge;
undoubtedly this is preferred to a hadth that al-Bukhr records alone. Similarly a
hadth that neither have recorded but has been deemed as the most sound of
120
chains like Mlik, from Nfi, from Ibn Umar; for indeed this is preferred over
that which only one of them records, especially when their isnd contains a reporter
in which there is doubt.
83

Commentary
Based on his analysis highlighting the exalted nature of al-Bukhr and Muslims works,
the author draws a general list of the compilations which are considered the most reliable.
The order is;
1. That which both al-Bukhr and Muslim record.
2. Al-Bukhr.
3. Muslim.
4. That hadth which complies with the condition of al-Bukhr and Muslim.
5. That hadth which complies with the condition of al-Bukhr.
6. That hadth which complies with the condition of Muslim.
7. That hadth which complies with neither al-Bukhr nor Muslim.

As a criticism, Ibn Hajars list here does not explain what the conditions of al-Bukhr
and Muslim were. The reason for the lack of explanation here is because they themselves
were very abstract and vague about what conditions they laid down for a report to be
considered sahih. Ajln writes:

83
The author here means that this order is by no means exhaustive. If a strengthening factor or indication is
found in a hadth, then it will be preferred. For example, if a hadth recorded by Muslim is mashhr (but
not mutawtir), but a factor is found which means it gives the benefit of al-ilm al-yaqini, then this is
preferred to a narration from al-Bukhr, when it is only fard.
121
The scholars of this field are unanimous that al-Bukhr and Muslim did not
clarify in writing that these are my conditions. Their conditions have merely
been outlined from later research [from other scholars] (1999, 63)

One cannot expect to utilise this list if one is unaware of what exactly the conditions of
al-Bukhr and Muslim were.

To conclude this section on sahih, one cannot fail to notice the vast amount of literature
and emphasis that Ibn Hajar gave here in the Nuzhah to the two Sahihs, in particular to al-
Bukhrs superiority. In general, few Muslim scholars have dared to question their
authority in the field and Ibn Hajar does not venture into this either.

The extensive analysis can be explained via different means. First, the lengthy discussion
reflects his personal admiration for al-Bukhr, which is shown elsewhere by his
commentary on the Sahih of al-Bukhr, Fath al-bri bi sharh sahih al-Bukhri.
Secondly and perhaps more plausibly, the admiration for al-Bukhr was really a result of
the religious and academic climate of the ninth Islamic century. Brown notes:

Commentaries attained an important station in the late 1300s, when writing one
on al-Bukhrs or Muslims Sahih became the principal means for scholars
throughout the Sunni Muslim world to interact with the hadth tradition. At the
peak of intellectual activity in Mamluk Cairo in the fourteenth and fifteenth
122
centuries, almost every hadth scholar or note wrote a commentary on Sahih al-
Bukhri (2009, 53).

Before, during and after Ibn Hajars time, writing a commentary on Sahih al-Bukhri was
in fashion. Al-Kirmn (d. 796), Ibn Kathr (d. 774), al-Suyt (d. 911), Al al-Dn
Mughulaty (d. 792), al-Bulqn (d. 995), Ibn Rajab al-Hanbal (d. 795) and Badr al-Dn
al-Ayn (d. 855) had all written commentaries on Sahih al-Bukhri. A strong defence of
al-Bukhrs position was now required to defend this academic activity during this
period. This is the reason why the Nuzhah gave such a strong backing to al-Bukhr and
Muslim, the former in particular. It also clearly shows how Ibn Hajars work was affected
by the academic climate he resided in.

But this section which praises the rank of al-Bukhr and Muslim does raise an
important question. Clearly, the starting point for reliable, authentic hadth literature in
Ibn Hajars mind is the Sahih of al-Bukhr and the Sahih of Muslim. If this is true, then
what does this say about the vast hadth literature that preceded these two grand shaykhs?
We could interpret this as an acknowledgement from Ibn Hajar that the early sahifas were
not reliable, or that the Muwatta of Mlik was not truly a hadth compilation. The
emphasis on al-Bukhrs methodology in sifting the sound from the forged could indeed
suggest that Ibn Hajar believed this was ineffective prior to him.

123
5.10. Hasan.
If the accuracy is lighter namely less; it is said khaffa al-qawm khuff, when it
decreases and what is meant here is with the presence of the remaining
aforementioned conditions in the definition of sahh, then this is hasan li-dhtih, and
not by other. Hasan is a report whose [grade of] fairness is because of compensating
factors, like, for example, a mastr hadth when its paths become numerous. By
mentioning the remaining conditions of [sahh], the weak is excluded. This type of
hasan is synonymous to sahh in terms of usage as evidence, though it is less than it
[in rank]. It is [also] synonymous to it in its division into ranks, some above others.
And with numerous chains, it becomes sound. It is declared as sound with more
chains because the collective form now has a power by which the lack of accuracy of
the fair narrator is compensated for. Then [the term] sound is called upon the chain
which is hasan li-dhtih, when the chains become numerous. And this is [only] when
the attribute is solitary.

After a comprehensive account of the sound, sahih, the author identifies hasan, and in
particular hasan li-dhtih. This is identical to sahih in all aspects but one. Whereas the
accuracy of the narrator in sahih is expected to be of the highest calibre, hasan li-dhtih
is where the accuracy can be somewhat lighter, or less. Therefore the difference between
sahih and hasan is trivial rather than fundamental.
Nothing more is said on the issue of hasan in the Nuzhah. The rest of the section on this
type is devoted to a problem regarding the terminology of al-Tirmidh, which he
employed in his Sunan.
124
Thus if they both gather, namely sahh and hasan in one description; like the saying
of al-Tirmidh and others: [this is a] hasan sahh hadth, then this results in
confusion for the mujtahid in its transmission. Does it entail the conditions of sahh
or not? This is the case when the report in question is solitary. And it will be
clarified in this [discussion] the answer to those who deem it difficult to reconcile
between the two attributes and who say hasan is less than sahh like it is known
from each of the definitions. So in gathering the two attributes is an affirmation for
that shortcoming and its negation.

Commentary
Here Ibn Hajar tackles the long-standing debate regarding al-Tirmidhs (d. 279/892)
unique terminology used in his Sunan. As it has been identified, there is a marked
difference between sahih and hasan. In the former, the accuracy of the narrator is of the
highest standard, whereas with the latter, there is more leniency permitted.
In his Sunan, al-Tirmidh transmits a report and usually follows it with a statement
regarding its rank in ilm al-hadith. For example, he will say this is a sound hadth or
this is a fair hadth. However, there are several places where one solitary hadth will be
described as being hasan sahih, hasan gharib or so on. This results in confusion; how
can one narration be described as being sound and fair simultaneously? The problem is
amplified when the particular narration in question only has one variant. Referring to a
hadth as both sahih and hasan proves its accuracy and disproves it.
84

84
Implicitly, Ibn Hajar acknowledges that though al-Tirmidh is the most famous scholar to refer to one
report with two descriptions, he is not the only one to do so. In the text, Ibn Hajar writes like the saying of
al-Tirmidh and others. Al-Munw clarifies that other scholars who declared reports as hasan sahih,
125
The summary of the answer [to this] is that it is required from the mujtahid not to
describe it with one attribute [to the exclusion of the other].
85
Thus it can be said
hasan with consideration of its attribute according to one community, sahh with
consideration of its attribute according to another community. The conclusion of
this is that the particle of doubt (i.e. or) has been omitted. This is because he
should have said hasan or sahh. This is similar to how the particle of conjunction
has been omitted from the type described after this.
Upon this [basis], that which is described as being hasan sahh is less in rank than
that in which is described as sahh, because conviction is stronger than doubt. This
is when the report is solitary. When it is not, namely when the narration is not
solitary, then the calling of two attributes simultaneously on one report is done
according to it possessing two chains; one of them is sahh and the other is hasan.
And upon this [basis], that which is described as being hasan sahh is higher in
rank than that in which is described as sahh only when it is fard, because
numerous chains strengthens [the reports validity].

If it is said that al-Tirmidh has clarified that the condition of hasan is that it is
narrated by more than one path, then how can he say in some reports, hasan gharb,
we do not know of it except by this path? The answer is that al-Tirmidh did not
define hasan in general; he merely defined it specifically for his book. This is for

hasan gharib and so on were the likes of Yaqb ibn Shayba, Ibn al-Madn and Ab Al al-Ts, in his
book al-Ihkm (1999, 1: 396-397).
85
In his reply, Ibn Hajar begins by stating that an observer cannot simply say that one term (from hasan,
sahih and gharib) is applicable to the exclusion of the others. There must be a reason by al-Tirmidh chose
to declare a certain report as hasan sahih rather than just hasan or sahih. This is proven by the fact that
there are countless reports in his Sunan that are declared as hasan only or sahih only.
126
when the report is hasan without another attribute [attached to it]. In [describing]
some reports, he says hasan and in some sahh and in some gharb and in some
hasan sahh and in some hasan gharb and in some hasan sahh gharb. His
definition [of hasan] only applied to the first (hasan). His writings suggest that when
he said at the end of his book:

And a hadth described as hasan in our book, we merely intend it to mean
hasan in terms of its chain according to us. Every hadth which is narrated
by people who have not been accused of lying, and is narrated by more than
one chain of its like, and is not shdhdh, this is considered as hasan according
to us.

Hence it is deduced from this that he only defined that hadth which is called
hasan only. As for that for which he says hasan sahh or hasan gharb or hasan
sahh gharb he did not indulge in its definition, like he did not indulge in the
definition of sahh only or gharb only. It is as if he left out defining these because
of lack of need, as they were known by the people of this discipline. He sufficed on
the definition of hasan only either because of its ambiguity or because it was a new
terminology. And that is why he added according to us to his definition and he did
not ascribe it [universally] to the people of hadth, just as al-Khattb did.
With this analysis many objections that lengthen the discussion and do not lead to a
prefential view are repelled. So for Allh is praise upon what He has inspired and
taught.
127
Commentary
Ibn Hajar adopts great detail and clarity in explaining the apparent confusion resulting
from al-Tirmidhs unique usage of technical terms. But it is not an academic answer, but
rather a practical and easy one. In essence, Ibn Hajar gives two answers. The first answer
offered regards those reports that have only one variant. Quite simply, al-Tirmidh may
have meant to say hasan or sahih; that according to one set of scholars, the report in
question has been declared hasan whereas another set of scholars have declared it as
sahih.
The second answer is where the report in question has two variants. Ibn Hajar believes
that if a particular report is declared as hasan sahih, then this means that according to
one chain, the report is hasan and according to the other chain, it is sahih. Again, this
is perhaps a display of shorthandness from al-Tirmidh since he should have said hasan
and sahih.

The Nuzhahs outline of this debate raises some crucial points worthy of closer analysis.
a. Ibn Hajars lengthy-analysis suggests that he desired the Nuzhah to be an arbitrator and
clarifier of difficult terminologies. Perhaps this gives us an indication that the text was
not aimed at experts in the field, but for the new disciples. It was a guide for readers to
alert them of terms they would come across as their reading and research developed.
b. Ibn Hajar does not question the terms used by al-Tirmidh such as hasan sahih. If they
are confusing, it is because we do not understand them, not because of any deficiency in
al-Tirmidh. The task of scholars like Ibn Hajar is to make sense of the works of the
128
previous greats, not to question their work. Owing to his seniority in the field, al-
Tirmidh is protected by later scholars like Ibn Hajar.
c. Having said this, Ibn Hajar is perhaps admitting the Sunan of al-Tirmidh does contain
weaker reports, in relation to the works of al-Bukhr and Muslim. This is because he
interprets hasan sahih as possibly meaning hasan or sahih. In other words, the
scholars are divided as to whether the report has reached a sound standard. This is the
opinion that Goldziher reached. Because the aim was to gather a proof or argument for a
lawyer in legal practice, the Sunan of al-Tirmidh was much more liberal (1971, 231)
and the transmitters used were either weak or too distant (in time or place) to have heard
from one another. This, Goldziher writes, led to this new classification of reports using
terms such as hasan sahih (1971, 232). What this shows is that there are occasions when
the findings of Muslim scholars and non-Muslim ones are similar. Despite this, Muslims
tend to belittle the observations and research of the non-Muslims. Why this occurs will be
taken up in detail in section six.
d. Upon concluding the discussion explaining the difficulty in interpreting al-Tirmidhs
terminology, Ibn Hajar praises his own analysis. He writes that the Nuzhah here has
repelled many objections that lengthen the discussion and do not lead to views of
preference and therefore for Allh is praise upon what He has inspired and taught.
Ironically though, Ibn Hajar has merely plagiarized the views of his predecessors in
explaining al-Tirmidhs terminology. The majority of the views aired are from his
predecessors; he only amalgamated and edited the opinions of other scholars. Al-Munw
notes:

129
And this, all of it, is an amalgamation of three answers; from Ibn al-Salh
86
, Ibn
Daqq al-d and Ibn Kathr. And the author [Ibn Hajar] merely gathered, ordered
and summarised it. (1999, 1: 407-8)

5.10.1. Conclusion.
This final point needs closer deliberation. If, as al-Munw notes, Ibn Hajar merely re-
wrote the views of his predecessors on the terminology of al-Tirmidh, we need to
establish why this happened. Two possible reasons are plausible here.
a. The intellectual climate of Ibn Hajars time.
In short, academic originality had dried up by the time of Ibn Hajar in the ninth Islamic
century. The period of hadth compilation had ceased centuries ago and was replaced by
an era of consolidation and analysis. New work was in reality the work of the
predecessors arranged in a different matter. We have the compilation of Zayn al-Dn al-
Zbid (d. 893/1488) called Tajrid al-sahih, a small one-volume digest of all the reports
to be found in the Sahih of al-Bukhr (Brown 2009, 57). Then there is the attempt to
amass all of the hadth corpus into one book by al-Suyt, which he called Jam al-
jawmi. In such a climate, new, original ideas and approaches were the exception, not
the norm. In this particular section on al-Tirmidhs terminology, the Nuzhah too has
fallen victim to this apathy.

86
The similarities between the Nuzhah and Ibn al-Salhs Muqaddima are quite blatant in places. For
example, the latter wrote:
The statement of al-Tirmidh and others, this is a fair and sound hadth is problematic because the fair
hadth is inferior to the sound, as was explained above. The conjunction of these two states in a single
hadth is the conjunction of the negation and assertion of this inferiority. The answer here is that the
expression concerns the chain. When a single hadth is related with two chains, one of them fair and the
other sound, it may be properly called a fair and sound hadth; that is, it is fair in relation to one chain and
sound in relation to the other (1986, 39).
130
b. The lack of copyright laws.
If Ibn Hajar was guilty of copying the works of his predecessors, it was because there
was nothing stopping him from doing so. There were no laws or agreements to prevent
plagiarism. Goldziher notes:

Oriental authors always accepted much latitude in respect of literary ownership.
An index of plagiarists would contain many important names...In the seventh
century, Imd al-Dn b. al-Athr simply copied the historical commentary of Ibn
Badrn and passed the work off as his own without even mentioning the true
author (1971, 246).

There is no reason why both these points could have been applicable to the time of Ibn
Hajar. Importantly, the observations of Goldziher are important to adding to our
understanding of the Nuzhah and in fact, are not radically different to that of Ibn Hajar.
The Nuzhah suggests that al-Tirmidhs innovative terminology suggested some degree of
weakness and this is the same conclusion that Goldziher reached. The difference is in the
perception. Because most Muslims have already made their mind up about Goldziher, his
views are rejected as blasphemous, even if they converge with respected Muslim scholars
like Ibn Hajar. A genuine appreciation of Goldziher cannot be made if al-Sib describes
him as the most dangerous of the Orientalists, the one with the longest hand, the most
evil and corruptive in this field... (1998, 213). So in search of a better appreciation of
ilm al-hadith, knowledge as a universal entity needs to be respected, not just Muslim
knowledge.
131
5.10.2. The Addition of Reliable Narrators.
The addition of their narrators, namely hasan and sahh, is accepted so long as it
does not contradict the narration of someone more authoritative who has not
mentioned that addition. [This is] because the addition is either such that it does not
contradict between it and between the report that does not mention it. Thus this is
generally accepted, because it is like the principle of a solitary hadth which an
authoritative narrator has reported alone and no one else reports it from his shaykh.
Or either it contradicts it in the sense that accepting this one will necessitate
rejecting the other narration. Thus this is the one in which comparison is required
between it and the one opposing it; so the more preferred will be accepted and the
other will be rejected.
There is a famous opinion from the scholars that the addition is unequivocally
accepted without detail. This [opinion] cannot make sense from the [same] hadth
scholars who identify the condition in sahh that it must not be shdhdh. They then
define shdhdh as the opposition of a reliable narrator of someone more
authoritative. It is surprising to see such negligence from them though they accept
the condition in sahh of not being shdhdh, as well as in hasan. Examination of the
addition when deciding its worth has been transmitted from the classical hadth
masters, like Abd al-Rahmn ibn Mahd (d. 198/814), Yahy al-Qattn (d. 198/813),
Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 241/855), Yahy ibn Man (d. 233/847), Al ibn al-Madn (d.
234/848), al-Bukhr (d. 256/870), Ab Zura al-Rz (d. 264/877), Ibn Ab Htim (d.
327/938), al-Nas (d. 303/915), al-Draqutn (d. 375/985) and others. It is not
known from any of them to accept the addition unequivocally.
132
More surprising is the opinion of some Shfi scholars who unequivocally accept
the addition, though the text of al-Immal-Shfi indicates otherwise. For indeed
he said, when describing the state of a narrators accuracy, that:

and when one of the hfizs share the report he does not oppose them. If it
does, and the hadth is shorter, then this is proof upon the authenticity of the
source of the hadth. And when it is not shorter [but exists some other
shortcoming] then this proves the inaccuracy of the hadth.

The [text] stipulates that when the report contradicts another and it is longer, this
can harm the [authenticity of the] hadth. This indicates that the addition of a
reliable narrator according to him does not necessitate acceptance unconditionally;
merely it is accepted from the hfiz. For he has considered [and preferred] the
shorter hadth than the hadth of the one he opposes from the hfizs; and he has
made the shortcomings of this narrators hadth evidence of its authenticity since it
indicates precaution. Then he has made what is other than that harmful for the
hadth. So if it was accepted unequivocally according to him, it would not be
harmful for the narrator of the hadth.
87

87
Al-Imm al-Shfi writes, when describing the state of a narrators accuracy, that a narration is accepted
when a narrator does not oppose the h fizs. If it does, and the hadth is shorter, then this is proof of the
authenticity of the source of the hadth.
Al-Imm al-Shfi means that when a narrator has a longer narration, then this is sometimes harmful for
the hadth. What this thus proves that al-Imm al-Shfi did not accept the additions unequivocally, but
only from the h fizs. He considers that the hadth must be shorter for it to be accepted, as it is a sign of
more precaution. If al-Imm al-Shfi believed that additions are accepted unconditionally, then the
addition would not have been rejected.
133
Commentary
Ibn Hajar explains the principle of ziydat al-thiqa, or the addition of reliable narrators.
When extra words sometimes occur in a hasan or sahih hadth, then they are accepted as
long as they do not oppose the narrations of those who are more authoritative (who have
not mentioned these extra words). Two possible cases can result, both which are clearly
explained in the Nuzhah.
This section gives considerable emphasis to the dispute surrounding the issue. Ibn Hajar
here refutes those scholars who claim that the extra words of narration will be accepted
unconditionally, without explanation or detail. He does so via two means. Firstly, he
reminds readers that the established definition of sahih states that the hadth must not be
shdhdh. Shdhdh is when an authoritative narrator is opposed by a more authoritative
narrator. Secondly, he lists names of esteemed scholars who were of the opinion that the
extra words are not accepted unconditionally. This suggests that Ibn Hajar saw their
opinions as trustworthy evidence. This shows that for the author, there are two ways of
supporting an argument in hadth studies; through empirical means and through referring
the matter to the opinion of esteemed scholars in the field. It reminds the reader of the
role seniority plays in this discipline. It is also an indication that the Nuzhahs task was
not only to present the overwhelming opinion on a matter, but also to alert the reader of
minority views too.

134
5.11. Shdhdh & mahfBz?- The Preserved and the
Anomalous.
Thus if it is opposed (i.e. the narrator of a hasan or sahh), because [in contrast] a
narration is to be found which has more accuracy in the narrator, or more in
number or other reasons of preference are found, then the preferred is called
mahfz and the rejected is called shdhdh. An example is that [narration] which al-
Immal-Tirmidh, al-Nas and Ibn Mja recorded from Ibn Uyayna, from Amr
ibn Dnr from Awsaja from Ibn Abbs that a man passed away in the time of the
Prophet and did not leave a heir except for a slave which he had freed
88

Mutbaa
89
has been done for its continuation for Ibn Uyayna by Ibn Jurayj and
others. Hammd ibn Zayd has opposed this narration as he narrated it from Amr
ibn Dnr from Awsaja and did not mention Ibn Abbs. Ibn Ab Htim said the
hadth of Ibn Uyayna is mahfz. So Hammd ibn Zayd is from the narrators of
accuracy and trustworthiness; despite this Ibn Ab Htim gave preference to the
narration which has more numbers. It is thus deduced from this explanation that
shdhdh is where an accepted narrator is opposed by someone more authoritative.
This is the established definition of shdhdh according to [hadth] terminology.

Commentary
88
The text of Ibn Hajar only mentions part of the hadth. The full report is; A man died and did not leave a
heir except for a slave he had freed. The Prophet asked, Does the man have anyone? They said, No,
except the slave for him that he had freed. So the Prophet made the inheritance for him. This has been
recorded by Ab Dwd, al-Tirmidh and Ibn Mja.
89
This is the process of finding a similar supporting chain for a hadth. The explanation is provided later in
section 5.13.
135
In this brief section, the author explains the difference between shdhdh and mahfz. The
former is where an authoritative narrators report is not accepted, either because a more
authoritative narrator opposes him (by reporting the isnd or matn differently), or
because a report more in number is to be found. The latter is the name given to the report
that in contrast is accepted.
The example offered by Ibn Hajar in the Nuzhah (of Hammd ibn Zayd) relates to
shdhdh according to the chain. However, a report can be considered shdhdh by virtue
of the matn (text), which is then called shdhdh al-matn. Ab Dwd and al-Tirmidh
have narrated from the hadth of Abd al-Whid ibn Ziyd, from al-Amash, from Ab al-
Slih, from Ab Hurayra, that the Prophet said:

When one of you performs the two units of fajr [prayer], he should then lie down
on his right side.

Bayhaq writes that this version of Abd al-Whid opposes many authoritative narrators.
This is because they have recorded this as an action of the Prophet, rather than his saying.
Therefore this particular version of Abd al-Whid is deemed as shdhdh (Mighlw 2003,
437).
90

90
Likewise there is a report in which the Prophet said: The days of tashriq are the days of eating and
drinking. Ms ibn Al ibn Rbh - from his father, from Uqba ibn mir added the words and the day
of Arafa too. But because all reports exclude this addition, it is considered as shdhdh and thus is not
accepted.
136
5.11.1. Conclusion.
It has already mentioned (in section 5.9) that the definition of a sahih report almost
exclusively centres on the isnd to the exclusion of the matn. One of the conditions of a
sahih report is that it must not be shdhdh. Ibn Hajar only explained shdhdh al-isnd
here with an example and did not elucidate at all on shdhdh al-matn. Implicitly, this
suggests that even shdhdh mainly relates to the isnd and not the matn. The analysis of
shdhdh and mahfz shows the dependency on men as well as the importance of seniority
in the field; a higher authority is automatically preserved and the less-renowned one is
rejected.
Moreover, shdhdh also highlights the lack of clarity in the definition of sahih. We are
informed that a sahih report must not be shdhdh, but there is a difference of opinion as
to what exactly shdhdh is. For instance, it is said that shdhdh is a report that only has
one isnd, which is reported solitarily by an authoritative shaykh. Others have understood
by the term shdhdh (which literally means alone) that this refers to a report that has
only been reported by one authoritative narrator. Even Ibn Hajar seems to accept the
variety of definitions by writing that his view on shdhdh is the established definition,
thus suggesting that variations do exist.
Despite this, most scholars after him do accept the definition offered by Ibn Hajar. This
itself suggests his authority in the field. So in essence, shdhdh is where an authoritative
reporter is opposed by someone who is more authoritative. Otherwise, the hadth actions
are judged merely by intentions would be considered as shdhdh and no Muslim scholar
adheres to this opinion.

137
5.12. Marf & munkar- the Familiar and the Unfamiliar.
If the opposition occurs with the weak [reporter], then the preferred is called marf
and the opposing one is called munkar. Its example is that which is reported by Ibn
Ab Htim from Hubbayb ibn Habb, the brother of Hamza ibn Habb al-Zayyt al-
Muqr, from Ab Ishq, from al-zr ibn Hurayth from Ibn Abbs from the
Prophet who said: Whoever performs Prayer, gives zakt, performs the hajj,
fasts and is hospitable to guests, will enter Paradise.
Ibn Ab Htim said: This tradition is munkar because others from the reliable
narrators have recorded the tradition as being from Ab Ishq only
91
, [and not up
to the Prophet]. This is the marf narration.
It is known from this that between shdhdh and munkar is [a relation of] umm wa-
khuss min wajh,
92
because between them there is similarity in terms of opposition
and there is difference in that shdhdh is the narration of an authoritative or
truthful and munkar is the narration of a weak. Ignorant are those who made them
synonymous. And Allh knows best.

Commentary
Following the discussion on shdhdh and mahfz, Ibn Hajar refers to marf and munkar
in this section. The reason for this is because there is a close resemblance between the
two. Whereas shdhdh is the report of a reliable narrator being opposed by those who are

91
i.e. mawqf.
92
Because of the similarity between shdhdh and munkar, Ibn Hajar describes the relationship between the
two as one of umm wa khuss min wajh. This means that they in some form, they share some similarity
and in some form it does not. Shdhdh and munkar are similar in the sense that both involve the rejection of
the report because of the existence of a higher authority or because of more numbers. They are different
because the reporter of the shdhdh is deemed reliable (thiqa) whereas the reporter of the munkar is weak.
138
more reliable or more in number, munkar is where the report of a weak narrator is being
opposed by someone who is more reliable.
At the end of the discussion on marf and munkar, Ibn Hajar shows his dismay to the
scholars who do not differentiate between shdhdh and munkar when he comments, And
ignorant are those who made them synonymous. The target of his criticism is Ibn al-
Salh, though he does not mention him by name. In his Ulm al-hadith, he divides
munkar into two types; (i) the isolated hadth (munfarad) which contradicts what the
reliable transmitters relate (ii) the isolated hadth (fard) in which the transmitter does not
possess the reliability and exactitude to narrate by himself (1986, 80, 82). Clearly, neither
of these definitions comply with the one offered by Ibn Hajar.
Perhaps the criticism of Ibn Hajar is somewhat severe; this is because not all hadth
scholars adhere to the given definition of munkar. In fact Ibn Hajar himself acknowledges
that the term has divided scholars. Later in the Nuzhah, he defines munkar as:

The hadth in which the chain is a reporter whose mistakes are common, or his
negligence is severe or his lewdness (fisq) is apparent (section 5.26.)

Mighlw cites the opinion who Hfiz Ab Bakr Bardj from al-Wsit who defines
munkar as:

The hadth whose matn is not known except from its [lone] reporter (2003, 431).

139
By the time of Ibn Hajar, the majority of the technical terms used in the discipline were
harmonised. Munkar is one of the few exceptions. What can also be deduced from this
section is that purpose of the Nuzhah is also to analyse contrasting definitions on a
particular hadth terminology and offer the correct or most-trusted opinion on it. This is
seen with munkar as well as with shdhdh and itibr (which is explained in the next
section). Finally, the fact that Ibn Hajar singled out Ibn al-Salh for criticism also shows
that he saw his work as the benchmark and standard-marker in the discipline. This
criticism here regarding munkar and shdhdh is hardly devastating. But perhaps Ibn
Hajar felt the need to mention it to show how his own Nuzhah did not merely copy the
views of those before him, but did in fact introduce new ideas and correct previous
mistakes.

5.13. Mutbi, shhid & itibr- the Parallelisms, the
Attestations and the Analysis.
[With regards to] what has been mentioned regarding fard nisb; if it is found after
assuming that it was solitary that others have agreed with it, then this is mutbi,
with a kasra on the b. Mutbaa has stages; if the agreement is with the [original]
narrator, then it is [called] tmma. And if it occurs for his shaykh or whoever is
below him, thus it is qsira. The benefit of this is strengthening. The example of
mutbaa tmma is that which al-Immal-Shfi narrated in al-Umm, from Mlik,
from Abd Allh ibn Dnr, from Ibn Umar that the Messenger of Allh said:
The month is twenty-nine days. Thus do not fast until you see the crescent [of the
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moon] and do not cease [the fasts] until you see it. Therefore if it is cloudy upon you,
then complete (fa-akmil) the period [of] thirty. So this hadth with these words, a
group thought that al-Shfi was alone in narrating it from Mlik, thus counting it
as one of his gharbs (solitary reports). This is because the companions of Mlik
have transmitted from him with the word therefore if it is cloudy upon you, then
count (faqdir la-h) for it. But we have found a mutbi for [the report of] al-
Shfi. And this is Abd Allh ibn Maslama al-Qanab this is how al-Bukhr has
recorded it from Mlik. This is mutbaa tmma. We have also found for it
mutbaa qsira in the Sahh of Ibn Khuzayma, from the narration of Asim ibn
Muhammad, from his father Muhammad ibn Zayd, from his grandfather Abd
Allh ibn Umar with the word thus complete (fa-kammil) thirty. And [also] in
the Sahh of Muslim from the narration of Ubayd Allh ibn Umar, from Nfi,
from Ibn Umar with the word thus count (faqdir) thirty. In this mutbaa, there
is no condition that the exact words [are mentioned], regardless of whether it is
tmma or qsira. Rather, if it is transmitted with [mere] meaning, it is sufficient,
though the condition is that it is from that [same] Companion.
If a matn is found that is narrated from another Companion that resembles it in
wording and meaning, or meaning alone, then this is shhid. The example is al-
Nass version of the same hadth which we have mentioned, from the narration of
Muhammad ibn Jubayr, from Ibn Abbs, from the Prophet ; thus he mentioned
the likes of the hadth of Abd Allh ibn Dnr, from Ibn Umar equally. This is in
terms of wording. As for in terms of meaning, then it is that which al-Bukhr has
reported, from the narration of Muhammad ibn Ziyd, from Ab Hurayra with the
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words: therefore if it is cloudy upon you, then complete the period of Shabn
thirty.
A group [of scholars] have specified mutbaa with that [report] which occurs [the
same] in wording, regardless of whether it is from that [same] Companion or not,
and that shhid is that [report] which occurs [the same] in meaning. Moreover
sometimes mutbaa is applied to shhid, and vice versa. The matter in it is easy.
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Know that the examining of chains, from the jmis, the musnads and the juzs, to
know whether that hadth which was assumed to be solitary does in fact have a
mutbi is called itibr. The statement of Ibn al-Salh Knowing the itibr, the
mutbat and the shawhid; some have assumed that itibr is a division like the
[other] two. That is not the case; rather it is the means of attaining the two.
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The
benefit of the division of everything that has passed from the types of the accepted is
preference when there is conflict. And Allh knows best.

Commentary
Here, Ibn Hajar introduces three technical terms; mutbi, shhid and itibr. In essence,
these are not terms used for describe a hadth per se, rather they are terms used to

93
Ibn Hajar is aware of the different definitions that exist for mutbi and shhid. Some scholars have said
that mutbi is when the agreement occurs in terms of the words, regardless of whether the Companion is
different or not. Shhid is where the agreement occurs in terms of the meaning, regardless of whether the
Companion is the same or not. Others have inversed the definition of both. Ibn Hajar dismisses the
importance of the exact definition of each (when he writes the matter in it is easy) because both mutbi
and shhid serve exactly the same purpose; to strengthen reports that are first deemed solitary.
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Ibn al-Salh wrote as a sub-heading in his book Knowing the itibr, the mutbit and the shawhid.
Some people have understood from this text that itibr is a type of hadth, though this is not the case. In
fact it is the means and process by which we discover mutbiand shhid. In defence of Ibn al-Salh, it
must be mentioned that he merely mentioned this as a sub-heading for the fifteenth type, and his actual
writings in the section do not indicate a failure to understand that itibr is the name given to the means of
investigation (Ibn al-Salh 1986, pp. 82-85). In fact, al-Suyt uses exactly the same words (Knowing the
itibr, the mutbit and the shawhid) in the sub-heading of his ilm al-hadith manual, Tadrib (1972, 1:
241).
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describe the resulting outcome when scholars attempt to find supporting narrations for a
solitary report.
Considerable emphasis is given by Ibn Hajar to this section. It is one of the few places in
the Nuzhah where he cites a hadth with its full chain of narration. This very fact reflects
his maturity as a teacher and writer; the reason being that mutbi, shhid and itibr is
perhaps best understood through a practical example.
Implicitly, we deduce four things from this section. Firstly, Ibn Hajar is accepting that a
fard (solitary) report is deficient in ilm al-hadith. If it was not, then there would be no
need to indulge in the practice of itibr to find supporting narrations. The section here
only suggests a need for seeking supporting narrations for a solitary report, not a mashhr
or aziz one.
Yet at the same time, the section also suggests that Ibn Hajar wanted to highlight the
strength and authenticity of hadth literature. This is because the process of itibr helps
to find support for existing material. The chain Nfi from Ibn Umar is cited as an
example in the Nuzhah. By finding supporting chains for it from other Companions (Ibn
Abbs & Ab Hurayra), a case can now be made for its authenticity. So the author uses
the section, with a detailed example, to show what tools the hadth masters had at their
disposals to vouch for existing solitary reports.
Thirdly, this section indicates the direction hadth studies did take on by this period
though. By the ninth Islamic century, finding new, undiscovered hadiths was not possible.
The aim was of itibr was to support and authenticate existing reports and perhaps more
importantly, promote weak and solitary reports to acceptable levels through corroborative
research. This is turn would extend the pool of resources scholars of that period could
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work from. It is here we see a marked difference between Ibn al-Salh and Ibn Hajar in
terms of methodology. The former was of the opinion that these days, it is no longer
feasible for someone to apprehend sound hadth on his own my merely examining isnds
(1986, 25). This was because of the decline in reporter standards by his time. By Ibn
Hajars time, the reporter standards must have worsened much more, but he was of the
opinion that a qualified scholar could authenticate hadth material not previously
authenticated. Itibr could help immensely in this respect. When Dickinson wrote that
the abstract mechanism of collective acumen replaced the reliability of the individual
transmitters as the guarantor of the authenticity of hadth texts in later times (2002, 488),
he was referring to mechanisms such as itibr.
Thirdly, by outlining mutbi, shhid and itibr in detail, Ibn Hajar is suggesting that
knowing the different research techniques was important, even in the ninth Islamic
century. Rather than passively accepting the knowledge gathered by the hadth masters of
the past, the Nuzhah here suggests that new research in the field finding supporting
narrations and re-checking the paths was indeed still desired and possible. In short, he
wanted to show hadth studies still mattered, even in the ninth Islamic century.
However, the reality was that fresh-thinking and original research was rare during the
time of Ibn Hajar. Most of Ibn Hajars own literature was based on earlier works, in the
form of commentaries, compilations and collections. New research was an exception
rather than the norm. Instead, the serious and academic form of hadth studies was
viewed as dull and hardly thought-provoking in his time. Makdisi notes:

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The atmosphere of a classroom of a hadth differed dramatically from that of a
classroom on law. Hadths were copied word for word from dictation. The process
was tedious and dull. Teachers of hadth were praised in biographical notices for
their patience. Notices mention the complaints of teachers regarding the bad
behaviour of students in class, talking and distracting other students: no doubt
because some took dictation faster than others, and hadth classes were usually
much more crowded than law classes (1981, 115).

This contrasted with law classes, which was marked by controversy, argumentation and
debate (Makdisi 1981, 115).
Owing to such a climate, it is feasible to suggest that the section here on mutbi, shhid
and itibr was an appeal from Ibn Hajar that hadth studies could still be engaging,
thought-provoking and interesting in the Mamluk period. In short, that hadth studies still
mattered.

5.14. & 5.15. Muhkam (the Clear) and the mukhtalif al-
hadth (the Contradictory Tradition)
Then the accepted can also be divided into the acted upon and the non-acted upon.
This [division exists] because if it is immune from opposition in the sense that a
report contradicting it does not appear then it is muhkam. Its examples are
plentiful. If the report is opposed, then either the opposing is accepted just like it or
it is rejected. As for the latter [case] there is no effect for it, since the strong is not
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affected by the opposition of the weak. If the opposing [report] is equal to it, then
either it is possible to harmonise between the two meanings without deviation, or it
is not. Thus if harmonisation is possible, then it is the type called mukhtalif al-hadth.
Ibn al-Salh has given the example of the hadth: There is no contagion or evil
fortune with the hadth Flee from a leper as you would from a lion. Both of them
are sound and are apparently contradictory. The form of harmonisation is that
illnesses do not infect by their nature. But Allh has made the mixing with the ill a
reason for a sound person to become ill, but then sometimes He does not, like with
other causes. This is how Ibn al-Salh has harmonised between the two, in similar
fashion to others. The best [opinion] in harmonisation between the two is to say that
the negation from the Prophet remains in its generality. For it has been
authenticated from him that he said: Nothing infects another and that he
refuted the one who remarked that an ill camel mixes with sound camels and thus
becomes ill by saying: Then who infected the first? In other words, Allh initiated
the illness in the second just as He did in the first. As for the order to flee from the
leper, it is to stop the means [of wrongful thought]; that if a person mixes with the ill,
then this [has occurred] with the will of Allh originally, not from the negated
contagion. Lest in which case he will think that mixing with the ill was the reason
for his illness, and that he will [now] believe contagion does exist and thus he will
occur in sin. So he is ordered to stay way to prevent such thought. And Allh knows
best.
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Al-Immal-Shfi has written a book in this type called Ikthtilf al-hadth, but he
never intended to cover all aspects. After him, Ibn Qutayba, al-Tahw and others
have also compiled literature.

Commentary
In this new section, Ibn Hajar offers a different way of dividing the accepted (maqbl),
based on whether the hadth is acted upon.
The particular section can only truly appreciated when one reflects upon the intellectual
period Ibn Hajar was residing in. By the ninth Islamic century, the process of hadth
reporting with the full chains of transmissions had long ceased. Bayhaq (d. 458/1066)
declared that all the reports that could reliably be attributed to the Prophet had been
documented by his time (Brown 2009, 42). The likes of al-Dhahab (d. 748/1348) had
resigned to the fact that no new, previously-undetected hadth would be unearthed by his
contemporaries. So by the ninth century, the emphasis moved to sifting the sound from
the weak from the gathered material. Additionally, the scholars turned their attention to
commenting on the material and understanding its application in sharia.
This is where muhkam and mukhtalif al-hadith matters. In essence, this was the process
of focussing on the matn and see what could be acted upon and what could not. Whereas
the emphasis before in the Nuzhah was on the isnd, here the attention turns to the matn,
to see whether the rich existing material on any given subject matter largely complied
with one another or conflicted. Therefore this particular section in the Nuzhah is where
the matn comes to the forefront in terms of importance.
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In the Nuzhah, Ibn Hajar does admit that reports do exist that contradict one another
(mukhtalif al-hadith). But he also implicitly dismisses the extent of contradictory reports
in hadth literature. This is shown in many ways.
a. Firstly, he asserts that the bulk of hadth literature is muhkam. The thousands of reports
gathered on the Prophets life during the early period of Islam seamlessly complement
and support one another. This, Ibn Hajar is implying, is an indication of its authenticity.
b. Secondly, Ibn Hajar gives the same example of mukhtalif al-hadith which Ibn al-Salh
has offered in his Muqaddima (Ulm al-hadith), as indeed al-Syt has cited in Tadrib
(1972, 2:197). In fact, al-Irq too cites the same example (1995, 335). The two
contradictory reports in question are There is no contagion or evil fortune and flee from
a leper as you would from a lion.
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It may simply be a coincidence that Ibn Hajar cited
the same example as Ibn al-Salh and al-Irq before him. Another possible
interpretation is that by citing the same example, Ibn Hajar was trying to suggest that
finding contradictory reports was so difficult and hard to come by, that the ilm al-hadith
masters were pressed to find such examples and had resigned to using the same one
everyone else had. This interpretation may not be so far-fetched when we observe that

95
Seemingly, the two reports contradict one another and both have been recorded in the celebrated works
of al-Bukhr and Muslim. But it is possible to arbitrate between the two in the sense that both can be acted
upon, and that it is not necessary to disregard one in favour of the other.
Ibn Salh states that in essence, there is no such thing as contagious diseases. This is supported by a similar
hadth of the Prophet where he said that nothing spreads from one host to another. Allh does cause a
person to sometimes catch a disease by mixing with a person who suffers from a particular ailment. But we
also know that this is not always the case; a person can stay with a person with such a disease for a long
period of time and be perfectly fine. This is how Ibn al-Salh had offered reconciliation between the two
prophetic reports (1986, 284-5).
Ibn Hajar offers an answer from a slightly different angle, but agrees with Ibn al-Salh in that in essence,
there is no basis to contagious diseases. The Prophet once refuted a person who argued that a healthy
camel usually becomes ill by mixing with ill camels, by asking then who infected the first camel with the
disease? It was Allh, and He infected the second camel like He did with the first.
The question remains as to why the Prophet ordered to flee from the leper. The scholars write that this
was a precautionary measure, so that a person does not think he was infected by the leper (and that he
would never had been infected otherwise), but instead appreciates that everything occurs through the fate of
Allh. The Prophet himself was reported to have shared a meal with a leper (al-Wajd 1996, 93).
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only in the last section on itibr, shhid and mutbi, Ibn Hajar chose a different
example (the crescent moon sighting) from that of Ibn al-Salh on the same subject
matter (tanning) (1986, pp. 84-5). Now, using a different example served the purpose of
showing the soundness of hadth material; that supporting evidence in the form of
shhids and mutbis could be found for countless examples and not just for one.
c. Thirdly, the nature of the example given in the Nuzhah suggests its unimportance.
Knowing whether to flee from a leper or not is hardly a matter affecting the fundamental
faith of a believer. This is typical according to Muslim scholars like al-Sib. He
indicates that the subject area of the contradictory reports all relate to relatively trivial
matters in sharia. None relate to the fundamental beliefs of Islam (1998, 229)
d. Fourthly, the previous section on mutbi, shhid and itibr was given an extended
analysis, which we suggested may be an indication of its importance to the author for that
particular time. On the other hand, Ibn Hajars treatment of muhkam and mukhtalif al-
hadith is brief and concise. This is a surprise to some extent; the Nuzhah tends to cover
matters of significance and controversy with more detail
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, this is perhaps one of the
rarer occasions where the subject matters significance is not matched with the same
emphasis by Ibn Hajar.

Why is mukhtalif al-hadith important? It is important because it touches upon a
theological problem that the Muslim scholars have had to deal with; is it possible for the
Prophet to have contradicted himself in his dialogues?

96
For example, the section on bida, mawd and sahih are widely regarded as important areas in the
discipline, and the length of analysis in the Nuzhah reflects this fact.
149
The response from Muslim scholars on the issue past and present has been simple and
straightforward. We are reminded that the words of Muhammad are semi-divine and
approved by God himself. The Qurn affirms:

Your companion (Muhammad) has neither gone astray nor has erred. Nor does he
speak of (his own) desire. It is only an Inspiration that is inspired. (53; 2-4)

Therefore, Muslims should not for a moment entertain the idea that he contradicted
himself.
Following on from this, the scholars explain that if the words of Muhammad are
seemingly contradictory, then this is because of our misunderstanding and
misinterpretation, rather than the fallibility of Muhammad. Ibn al-Salh highlights this
when he writes:

We heard that the authority Ab Bakr Muhammad ibn Ishq ibn Khuzayma said:
I am not aware that two [genuinely] antithetical (mutadddayn) hadth with
sound chains were related from the Messenger of God (peace be upon him).
Whoever has seemingly contradictory hadth, let him bring them to me for me to
harmonise. (1986, 285)

We have seen this protectionism before, when discussing al-Tirmidhs unique
terminology such as hasan sahih (section 5.10). If it is confusing, it is because we do not
150
understand it, not because of any deficiency in al-Tirmidh. Here, if there are any
contradictory reports, it is our shortcomings, not the Prophets.
This mindset of the Muslim scholars produces a very clear set of results. The Prophet
could not have been wrong because he is flawless and perfect. The way the reports got to
us cannot be wrong because they have sound chains supporting them. Therefore the
scholars are left to take the seemingly contradictory material and employ a vast array of
factors to prefer one narration over another. Al-Suyt reminds us that there are over such
fifty factors and in fact, according to others, over one hundred factors (1972, 2:198).
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If
the sayings and actions of the Prophet seem to oppose one another, we simply need to
apply one (or more) of these factors to the texts and reach a suitable conclusion.
The Syrian scholar al-Sib follows a very similar approach to the Muslims before him.
He does not view the contradictory material from the Prophet as an indication of forgery
or contradiction. Rather, he suggests that these inconsistencies were sometimes deliberate
and mostly understandable. Such an approach allows him to protect the Prophet and the
scholars after him. In short, al-Sib shows that contradiction can occur:
a. Because the Prophet performed an act twice, in two different circumstances. One
Companion reported one occurrence whereas the second Companion reported the other.
An example of that is the dispute whether the minor ablution breaks when a person
touches the genitals.
b. Because the Prophet performed an act twice differently to show its permissibility. An
example of this is where the Prophet performed the evening witr prayer. Some

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For example, the general rule is that a reporter known for excessive narration is favoured over someone
who narrates less frequently, the shorter chain over the long chain, the reporter who is known for his
expertise in judicial matters over the one who is not, the report which mentions words of delivery
expressing certainty (like I heard) over the one using lesser words (such as from), the precedence of a
Madinan report over a Makkan report, and so on.
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Companions reported the number of units of this prayer to amount to three, whereas
others reported seven, nine and eleven. The Prophet read all of these numbers to show its
permissibility.
c. Because one report is acting as an abrogation of the other (which Ibn Hajar covers in
section 5.16).
d. Because the Companions were reporting an act from the Prophet which they could not
know the full extent of. For example, there is a difference of opinion regarding the exact
type of hajj the Prophet performed before his demise; was it tamattu, mufrad or qirn.
Al-Sib believes that because this ritual related largely on ones niyya (intention), no
one could know for sure which type of hajj it was (al-Sib 1998, pp. 229-231).
Muslims therefore entertain the possibility that perhaps the Prophet meant to show
variation in his sayings and actions, which has subsequently been wrongly interpreted as
contradiction. Al-Sakhw reports that the Prophet said: The ikhtilf (difference of
opinion) of my Companions is mercy for my umma (2003, 46). In other words, the
conformity of his practice may have led to theological apathy after him. To avoid this, he
deliberately showed contradiction which would then allow Muslims after him to make
the effort to study his sayings and actions. Umar ibn Abd al-Azz too agreed that
difference was not necessarily a bad thing when he said:

It would not have pleased me to learn that the Companions of Muhammad never
differed. This is because if they did not differ, there would be no room for rukhsa
(concession) for us (al-Sakhw 2003, 46).

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In short, the section here on mukhtalif al-hadith symbolises how the Muslims deal with
inconsistencies in the field. Disciples are taught to prefer one report over the other, using
the countless factors available to them. Muslims are taught that the Prophet could not
have been inconsistent, for this is a sign of weakness. In fact, it is better to believe that
the inconsistencies were deliberate from the Prophet, for the sake of his believers. The
Muslim approach on mukhtalif al-hadith does not radically question the authenticity of
the material, as the non-Muslim approach does. Muir is of the opinion that the existence
of contradictory reports (allegedly) stemming from the Prophet was extensive proof of
forgery and fabrication. His research on the numerous traditions of the Prophet on his
Signet Ring points out that there are reports suggesting that the Prophet wanted a ring
made from pure silver, whereas other reports suggest that Khlid ibn Sad had a ring
made from iron, which he appropriated to his own use. A third report suggests that the
ring was purchased for him from Abyssinia. There are also conflicting reports regarding
what was inscribed on the ring. In fact, Muir writes, there are reports that suggest that he
never had a ring (1858, I: LXXVI).
Goldziher and Schacht offer a simple answer as to why contradictory prophetic reports do
exist; because the Prophet never uttered the words in the first place. Rather the opposing
reports were fabrications, as a reaction to the political and doctrinal tensions that existed
in the first two centuries. Goldziher writes:

If [the ruling power] wished an opinion to be generally recognised and the
opposition of pious circles silenced, it too had to know how to discover a hadth to
suit its purpose. They had to do what their opponents did: invent, or have invented,
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hadths in their turnit is not surprising that, among the hotly debated
controversial issues of Islam, whether political or doctrinal, there is none in which
the champions of the various views were unable to cite a number of traditions, all
equipped with opposing isnds (1971, pp. 43-4).

Schachts own observations are not radically different from Goldzihers when he writes
that every legal tradition is in reality a fictitious expression of a legal doctrine
formulated at a later date (1959, 149). Elsewhere, Schacht writes that traditions are
formulated polemically with a view to rebutting a contrary doctrine or practice (1958,
152). Competing geographical centres fought with one another through these fabrications.
For example, the reports about Funeral prayers inside the mosque were directed at
refuting the Medinese practice.

To conclude, mukhtalif al-hadith seemingly suggests a large gulf between the western
academics on the one hand and the Muslim scholars on the other. Muslims are faced with
the crisis of defending the Prophet the Sdiq from discrepancies and inconsistencies,
and their views on the subject reflect the seriousness of such a charge. For the western
observers, mukhtalif al-hadith is further proof that there remains real doubt over the
authenticity of hadth literature. Even if Muslims maintain that the contradictory reports
to be found are over trivial matters in sharia, the western scholars suggest that they still
call into question the whole edifice of hadth as sources for Islamic law. Yet viewed from
another angle, the difference between the two camps is smaller than depicted. Both agree
154
on the existence of ikhtilf, the disagreement lies in the extent of it and the reasons
behind it.

5.16. Nsikh & manskh- the Abrogating and the
Abrogated.
If harmonisation is not possible, then there are possibilities; either the date is known
[of the tradition] or not. If the date is known and one is proven as being later, or it is
clarified [elsewhere], then this is nsikh and the other is manskh. Nuskh is lifting
the principle of a proof from shara with a later proof from shara. Nsikh is that
which indicates this mentioned lifting. Calling it nsikh is metaphorical, because the
abrogator in essence is Allh Almighty.
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The abrogation is identified by [several] means; the clearest of them is the
clarification in the text. [This is] like the hadth of Burayda in Sahh Muslim [that
the Prophet said] : I had forbidden you to visit graves. Visit them; for indeed it
reminds of the hereafter. Amongst [the means of identification] is that which the
Companion states is the latter. [This is] like the saying of Jbir , The last of the
two orders from the Messenger of Allh was the abandoning of ablution for what is
touched by fire. The Companions of the Sunan
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have recorded this. Also amongst
[the means of identification] is that which is known by the date; these are plentiful.
Not included is that which is narrated by a Companion who accepted Islmlate
opposing that which is reported by someone who preceded him, because of the

98
The author here means that in reality, the force behind nuskh is Allh; He abrogates a certain verse with
another from the Qurn or inspires His Messenger to replace a ruling with another.
99
This means the works of al-Bukhr, Muslim, Mlik and al-Tirmidh (al-Wajd 1996, 96).
155
possibility that he heard it from a Companion [even] older than the one he is
opposing, or like it and he made it mursal. However, if clarification occurs of him
hearing it from the Prophet then it directs it towards it being the abrogating, with
the condition that he did not narrate anything from the Prophet before his Islm.
As for the Consensus (ijm), thus this may not abrogate, but rather it indicates that.

Commentary
One of the most important types of prophetic reports to know and understand is analysed
in this section, the abrogating (nsikh) and the abrogated (manskh). Naskh is the process
of replacing one ruling from sharia and replacing with a latter one, provided that the
latter is of a subsequent origin and the two rulings are enacted separately from one
another (Kamali 2005, 127). Ibn Hajars analysis here is short yet very comprehensive.
He explains well how it relates to the previous section on mukhtalif al-hadith
100
, defines
the terms involved and he offers different ways the scholars have differentiated the
abrogating from the abrogated. A brief word on the role the ijm plays in abrogation
concludes the section.
Like with mukhtalif al-hadith, this discipline is reserved for the most skilled and
experienced scholars. Ibn al-Salh writes:

100
In essence nsikh and manskh are a type of mukhtalif al-hadith, because there are two reports which
seemingly contradict one another and there is a means of arbitrating between them. The difference however
is that with mukhtalif al-hadith, both reports are still acted upon whereas with the abrogating and the
abrogated, only one report the latter one is acted upon.
156
This discipline is important and regarded as difficult. We heard that al-Zuhr said,
It wears out legal scholars and makes it impossible to distinguish the abrogating
hadth from the abrogated (1986, pp. 276-7).

He warns further on:

Some of the scholars of hadth who have occupied themselves with this discipline
have included in it what does not properly belong, because of the obscurity of the
meaning of abrogation and what it constitutes. (1986, 277)

If this is the case, then the Nuzhah here does not venture into the difficulties surrounding
it and instead portrays the issue as relatively straightforward. Ibn Hajar argues that in
identifying the abrogating and the abrogated, a researcher sometimes does not need to do
anything, because a clear statement exists from the Prophet or the Companions
identifying which ruling is nsikh and which is manskh.
101
Ibn Hajar also suggests that
the dates too can be of great help in differentiating the nsikh and manskh and requires
little effort. The only difficulty a researcher may come across is when the report stems
from a Companion who accepted Islam late on.
102

101
The Nuzhah provides the example of Jbir to show how the statements of the Companions can help to
identify the abrogating and the abrogated. Ibn al-Salh offers another example of the abrogated by the
statement of the Companion when he writes: Examples of this are the hadth which al-Tirmidh and others
have related in which Ubayy ibn Kab said: The major ablution was optional in the case of a seminal
emission in the beginning of Islam and then the option was forbidden (1986, 277).
102
Ibn Hajar explains in the Nuzhah that if a hadth narrated by a Companion who accepted Islam late
contradicts a Companion who accepted Islam early on, then the formers narration will not necessarily be
accepted as abrogating. This is because there is a possibility that he heard the narration from a Companion
who is even older than the one hes opposing, or he may have narrated it as mursal al-sahbi (This is where
the Companion ascribes a report to the Prophet, though he did not hear it himself; rather he heard it from
another Companion, who heard it directly from the Prophet).
157
In reality, it is the role of the ijm (scholarly consensus) in abrogation that is most
difficult to comprehend, yet Ibn Hajar gives it the least emphasis. He simply states that
this cannot per se act as an abrogator, though it does indicate as to when a certain act is
abrogated. There are two reasons offered by the scholars as to why the Consensus (ijm)
cannot act as an abrogating element. Firstly, the Consensus is merely the consensus of the
scholars, and this is not strong enough in sharia to outweigh the sunna of the Prophet.
Secondly, the Consensus only came into effect after the Prophet passed away, after which
time, the abrogation had ceased.
Ibn Hajar has favoured an over-simplified outline of the abrogation, rather than an
appreciation of its difficulty and indeed the controversy surrounding it. Burton has amply
highlighted the controversy attached to nsikh and manskh (1994, 85-88, 113-115).
With references to the verses 2:234 and 2:240, he shows that the abrogation performed in
the Qurn do not address a common issue (1994, 113). Then there is evidence to suggest
that the rulings related to the penalty for illegal sexual relations imply that the Qurn can
be abrogated by the sunna, something which many Muslim scholars feel uncomfortable
with (1994, 114). Goldzihers observations too question the role the ijm in relation to
nsikh and manskh. He argues that the ijm is a counterweight to the attempt of
traditionists to reform existing customs according to their own views and to oppose
sharply the customary laws of society (1971, 88). Put simply, it was a political tool used
by early Muslims to promote or demote certain principles.
As with many other sections covered so far, Ibn Hajar may have avoided detailed
discussions on the abrogation because it does technically fall outside the sphere of ilm

If he does clarify, however, that he heard it directly from the Prophet, then this can be accepted as nsikh,
as long as he did not narrate anything before he accepted Islam.
To summarise, Ibn Hajar clarifies that the abrogating report must be later in date than the abrogated.
158
al-hadith. It is more related to fiqh. Alternatively, the section can be complimented for
acting as a satisfactory introduction to nuskh, ideal for first-time students. The term is
defined, examples are given and the means of spotting it is mentioned too. Nevertheless,
the works of Burton do highlight the controversy surrounding nsikh and manskh which
are simply not addressed in the Nuzhah.
5. 16. 2. The Paused Upon.
If the date is not known, then there are possibilities. Either it is possible to prefer
one report over the other by the many means of preference that pertain to the matn
or isnd, or it is not possible. If harmonisation is possible, the preferred is specified.
And if not, then it is not. Thus in reports in which there is apparent contradiction, it
materialises in the following order; harmonisation if possible, then consideration for
the abrogation and the abrogated, then preference if specified, then the paused upon
from acting on one of the two reports. Describing it as paused upon is better than
describing it as dropped, because the impossibility of preferring one over the other
is only in relation to the researcher at that [particular] moment. [There exists a]
possibility that what is hidden becomes apparent [later] for someone else. And Allh
knows best.

In this last section, Ibn Hajar states that there will be circumstances where two
contradictory reports cannot be harmonised by declaring one as an abrogating. If this is
159
the case, then there are many means by which one report can be preferred over another.
103

As mentioned earlier, such factors are numerous; al-Suyt wrote that there are over such
fifty factors and in fact, according to others, over one hundred factors (1972, 2:198).
In the rare case where one report cannot be preferred over another, then this is shelved in
a category called tawaqquf, or paused. Though this now means the report is not acted
upon, it is not to say that the report is rejected. Rather, it is an acknowledgement that later
scholars may be able to arbitrate between the reports which, for some reason, is
unachievable by the earlier scholars. This itself is a moral statement from the hadth
scholars to say that they are fallible. The Companion Ibn Masd once said that for a man
to say: I do not know in a matter he is ignorant of is in fact a sign of knowledge (al-
Uthaymin 2002, 151).

5.16.2.1. Conclusion.
The last point in the preceding section needs further deliberation. The existence of
tawaqquf implicitly suggests that no Muslim scholar claims to know all there is to know
in hadth literature. Al-Imm Shfi said:

We know of no one who possesses knowledge of all the sunnas without failing to
have a portion of it. So if the knowledge of all the scholars is gathered, the entire
sunna would be known. However, if the knowledge of each scholar is taken

103
For example: (i) Preferring the report declared as sahih over hasan (ii) Preferring the marf over the
mursal (iii) Preferring the riwya bi-al-lafz over the riwya bi-al-man (transmission by words over
transmission by meaning).

160
separately, each might be found lacking in some portion of it (in Azami 1996,
186).

This point is important because Schacht argues that:

The best way of proving that a tradition did not exist at a certain time is to show
that it was not used as a legal argument in a discussion which would have made
reference to it imperative, if it had existed (1959, 140).

His theory is based on the assumption that one scholars ignorance of a particular hadth
is sufficient proof that the hadth did not exist, and the emergence of it later proves that it
was later forged. But tawaqquf suggests otherwise. The simplest reason for the scenario
Schacht describes is that the earlier scholars did not perhaps have knowledge of that
hadth. It is not necessary that all reports were apparent and available to all scholars at all
times. Due to geographical differences, some could not have heard reports that others
knew well.
Additionally, Azami points to what he sees as shortcomings in Schachts thesis. Firstly,
he cites examples where the hadth is to be found in earlier works but not later ones (1996,
119), such as the hadth about ablution and touching the genital organs. This is the
inverse of the pattern Schacht describes. Secondly, Schachts work is littered with
references such as x hadth was known to y and x hadth was unknown to y
104
. What does
unknown mean? Does it mean the scholar in question did not know it or did not record
it? For instance, al-Bukhr recorded only approximately four-thousand reports in his

104
For example, (1959, 141).
161
celebrated works, but knew in the region of seven-hundred thousand prophetic reports.
There is no clarification from Schacht as to what he meant by unknown to x; either it
means the scholar in question knew it but did not record it in writing, or he did know of it
at all.
In general, Azami dismisses Schachts observations because they are based on:

the e silentio principle, which assumes that if any one scholar at any given time
was ignorant of a particular hadth or failed to mention it or, rather, that if it is
was not mentioned by later scholars that earlier scholars used that particular
hadth, then the hadth did not exist at that time. If the hadth is first found with
incomplete isnd, and, later, with complete isnd, then the isnd has been
improved, in other words, fabricated. In a Reductio ad absurdum, this argument
would mean that if writer in the Middle East failed to mention London as one of
the major cities in the world, then all the writers who mentioned it later would be
guilty of collusion in creating a fictional city (1996, pp.115-6).

5.16.3. Summary of the accepted reports.

162

maqbl
(Accepted report)

An opposing report exists No opposing reports exist
muhkam Arbitration between the
two reports is possible

Opposing report is weak
No effect Called mukhtalif
al -hadith
Dates are not known and
researcher cannot prefer
one over another
Dates are known for both
reports

nasikh &mans!kh
Paused upon
163
5. 17. Mardd- the Rejected and the reasons for rejection.
Then the rejected and the reasons that necessitate it is either because of a drop in
the isnd or because of defamation in the narrator; according to the varying reasons
for defamation that are more general than for a matter pertaining to the narrators
piety and his accuracy. Thus the drop is either at the beginning of the isnd from the
actions of the compiler or at the end, after the Successor, or other than that.

Commentary
In this prolonged and important section, Ibn Hajar focuses on rejected narrations
(mardd), and the reasons for their rejection. In principle the factors which necessitate
the rejection of a hadth are two;
a. A drop in the chain.
b. Defamation in the character of one of the narrators.
According to the number of drops and where the drop occurs, there are different types of
rejected traditions. Likewise, there are different traditions according to the varying
degrees of shortcomings in the narrator. Ibn Hajar commences with the muallaq, a
rejected hadth due to a drop at the beginning of the chain.
Again, it seems that the isnd plays the pivotal role in the acceptance and the rejection of
a prophetic report, not the matn. Both factors identified by Ibn Hajar have nothing or very
little to do with the matn.
164
5.18. Muallaq- the Suspended.
Thus the first is muallaq, regardless of whether the drops are one or more. Between
muallaq and mudil, that will soon be explained, is umm wa-khuss min wajh.
Thus in terms of the definition of mudil that two or more narrators are dropped
it resembles muallaq in some cases. In terms of specifying muallaq that it is [a
result] of the actions of the compiler at the beginning of the chain, then it is different
to mudil, as that is more general.
105

Amongst the forms of muallaq is that the entire chain is omitted and it is said, for
example, the Messenger of Allh said x. Another form is that it is [all] omitted
except the Companion, or the Successor and the Companion. Another form is that
the person the report is reported from is omitted and it is ascribed to the one above.
If the one above is the shaykh for the compiler, then there is a dispute; is it called
muallaq or not? The correct opinion in this matter is that detail [is required]. If it is
known through textual evidence or investigation that the one doing this is a mudallis,
then it is declared as such. Otherwise, it is [declared as] muallaq.
Muallaq has been mentioned in the section of the rejected because of the ignorance
surrounding the omitted narrator. However, sometimes it is declared as sound if the
[same] report is mentioned elsewhere with the narrator named. If someone says
everyone that I have omitted are authoritative (thiqa) then the issue of
authentication by ambiguity arises. According to the majority, it will not be

105
Ibn Hajar cites a scenario where one hadth can be categorised under two different terminologies;
muallaq and mudil. The former is where there are one or more consecutive drops at the beginning of the
chain, and the latter is where there are two or more consecutive drops, irrespective of where exactly in the
chain. Thus, when there are two consecutive drops at the beginning of the chain, the hadth can be labelled
muallaq and mudil. If there is only one drop at the beginning, then it will be classified as muallaq, and if
there are two consecutive drops in the duration of the chain (and not at the beginning), then it will be
categorised as mudil.
165
accepted until he names them. However, Ibn al-Salh said here: If the omission
occurs in a book devoted to authentic traditions only, like Sahh al-Bukhr and
Sahh Muslim, then if the words of narrations are words of conviction and certainty,
then it will be accepted and [it will be assumed] that he omitted the chain for a
[genuine] reason from the various reasons. And if the words of narration are not
words of conviction, then there is a dispute. I have explained such examples in al-
Nukat al Ibn al-Salh.
Commentary
The first type of the rejected which Ibn Hajar explains in this new section is muallaq, a
hadth where one or more narrators are missing at the top part of the chain, namely the
side of the compiler. After outlining how this compares with mudil, he shows some of
the forms it can assume,
106
followed by a discussion on its principle. A clear indication is
given from the author that the Nuzhah is not intended as the final word on the discipline,
but rather an introductory text. Like we shall see elsewhere in this section, Ibn Hajar
sometimes asks the reader to extend his/her sights on his other more detailed works on a

106
Ibn Hajar outlines the different forms muallaq can assume;
i. Sometimes the whole isnd from the beginning is omitted, and the compiler first mentions the words
The Prophet said x.
ii. Sometimes the whole isnd is omitted except the Companion (sahbi).
iii. Sometimes the whole isnd is omitted except the Companion (sahbi) and the Successor (tbii).
iv. Sometimes only the narrators shaykh is missing and it is ascribed to the person after him. This practice
is frowned upon because some narrators have omitted the shaykh for fraudulent purposes, which in ilm al-
hadith terminology is called tadlis (A full explanation for tadlis is offered later by the author, covered here
in section 5.21.). Thus Ibn Hajar writes that if it is known that the narrator commits tadlis through evidence
and investigation, then the hadth will be classified as such. Otherwise, it will be considered as muallaq.
v. There have been cases where the reporter has refused to explicitly name the chain and instead merely
says that all of his omitted men are authoritative. This, as Ibn Hajar writes, is called tadil al al-ibhm
(authentication by ambiguity). Such a statement from the narrator is not sufficient to warrant the
authenticity of the hadth. Rather the majority of scholars adhere to the opinion that his men must be named
before the report can be accepted. This is because the men may be considered authoritative according to
him, but not to other scholars (al-Munw 1999, 1: 491).

166
particular area, or that of the esteemed scholars. Here, he writes that a more detailed
discussion on the ruling of muallaq can be found in al-Nukat al Ibn al-Salh.
All scholars unanimously agree that in principle, muallaq is rejected. The reason is
simple: the absence of one narrator or more means the chain is now discontinuous. And
as outlined earlier, one of fundamental prerequisites for a sound report (sahih) is that the
isnd is continuous.
However, like scholars before him, Ibn Hajar offers to make an exception to this general
rule. If muallaq appears in a compilation reserved for authentic traditions only, like
Sahih al-Bukhri and Sahih Muslim, then it will be accepted if reported with words
suggesting certainty. This means that the compiler uses words such as qla (he said)
rather than qila (it was said).
In effect, Ibn Hajar is bailing out al-Bukhr, whose Sahih is full of muallaq reports.
107

By including this exception, one can still readily accept the authenticity of his Sahih,
despite the existence of muallaq reports in it. In addition to this bail-out, the Muslim
scholars have gone on to justify the frequent inclusion of muallaq reports in his Sahih.
For instance:
a. One reason offered is that he often names a chapter or sub-chapter using the words of a
hadth. Because it was merely acting as a heading, he did not see the need to mention the
full isnd. An example of this is Chapter: the ears are from the head.

107
From the different forms of muallaq mentioned in the Nuzhah, many are to be found in the works of al-
Bukhr. As an example where al-Bukhr omitted the entire chain, he includes a hadth where he simply
states: The Prophet said: The most beloved religion to Allh is the moderate, tolerant one (Book of
Faith; Chapter; the religion is easy). In other instances he has omitted the entire chain except the
Companion. For example, he writes: Ab Ms al-Ashar said: The Prophet covered his thighs when
Uthmn entered. (Book of Prayer; Chapter; what has been mentioned regarding the thighs.)

167
b. Another answer is that he mentioned the same report repetitively in his Sahih. There
are 7275 prophetic reports in the work of al-Bukhr, but excluding the repetitions, this
number falls to four thousand. So because he mentions one hadth in his works with the
full chain named, he did not see the need to mention the same hadth with the full chain
again elsewhere. Rather he shortened it and simply wrote the Prophet said, without
mentioning the full isnd again (al-Munw 1999, 1: 488).
But it seems that the Muslim scholars after al-Bukhr have fallen somewhat short of
offering a credible and fool-proof reason for the large scale inclusion of muallaq reports
in the works of al-Bukhr. According to al-Suyt, there are one hundred and sixty
reports in Sahih al-Bukhri that are muallaq and have not been mentioned elsewhere
with the full isnd in his works (1972, 1: 117). It was the later scholars who analysed
these reports and mentioned the full chain for them, like al-Nawaw in his treatise Tawfiq
(al-Suyt 1972, 1: 117).
More importantly, no scholar has entertained the idea that perhaps the muallaq reports in
his work should simply be rejected, owing to the drop in the isnd. Because of the
prestige and esteem attached to his work, it seems that the scholars, including Ibn Hajar,
dare not declare the muallaq reports in his works as inadequate and short of the standard
of sahih. In short, the scholars are saying that muallaq should certainly be rejected, but
only if it is not in the prized works of al-Bukhr and Muslim.
Leading on from this, we can see that the Nuzhah is descriptive of ilm al-hadith and not
prescriptive. Ideally, Ibn Hajar wanted to declare muallaq rejected but he had to
incorporate a ruling for it which justified al-Bukhrs large-scale inclusion of such
168
reports. To some extent therefore, the Nuzhah laid down the laws of what had occurred
and not what should occur.
In conclusion, we can note the protectionism given by later scholars (like Ibn al-Salh, al-
Nawaw and Ibn Hajar) to the hadth masters such as al-Bukhr. We have already seen
this in section 5.7 too. This section on muallaq shows that the later scholars started with
the assumption that al-Bukhr was correct, and that if there are discrepancies, it is
because of our shortcomings. By the time of Ibn Hajar, it was the duty to defend the
works of their predecessors endeavours, not question their methodology and results. So
this section on muallaq works on many levels. In its simplest form, it is an informative
account of what muallaq is, what forms it can take on and what the ruling for it is, all of
which is suitable for a disciple wishing to learn about ilm al-hadith for the first time. On
another level, it is an attempt by Ibn Hajar to defend his field, his climate and indeed his
personal circumstances; as noted in section 5.9.4, the ninth Islamic century was a time
when writing a commentary on Sahih al-Bukhri was in vogue (Brown 2009, 53). Ibn
Hajars magnum opus was the commentary of Sahih al-Bukhri called Fath al-bri. It
would be seen as contradictory on his part to present a prized and coveted work relating
to the great al-Imm al-Bukhr, and then seriously question his material.

5.19. Mursal- the Loose
The second and this is where there is a drop after the successor (tbi) is mursal.
And from its forms is that the tbi will say regardless of whether he is a senior or
junior tbi that the Prophet said x, or did x or x was done in his presence
or its likes.
169
Mursal is mentioned in the types of rejected traditions because of ignorance
surrounding the missing reporter. This is because it is possible the missing person is
a sahb or a tbi. In the latter case, then he could be weak or authentic. In the case
of him being authentic, he could have narrated it himself from a sahb or from a
fellow tbi. And in the latter case, the previous possibility returns and multiplies.
As for in theory, this pattern could continue endlessly. In practice, this has occurred
up to six or seven times; this is the most found where Successors have narrated from
one another.
If it is known from the habit of a tbi to drop only from an authoritative narrator,
then the majority of hadth scholars are of the opinion of tawaqquf (pausing)
because of the [aforementioned] existing possibility. This is one of the opinions of al-
ImmAh mad . His second opinion which is also the opinion of the Mliks and
Kfs is that it will be accepted unequivocally. Al-Immal-Shfi said that if
support is found in another hadth whether this second supporting narration is
continuous or mursal then this favours accepting the hadth and assuming the
missing person is authoritative. It has been reported from Ab Bakr al-Rz (from
the Hanafs) and Ab al-Wald al-Bj (from the Mliks) that when the narrator
performs irsl from authoritative narrators and other than them, their mursal
report will unanimously not be accepted.

Commentary
Of the rejected traditions based on a drop in the chain, mursal is perhaps the type which
has led to most disagreements, something which Ibn Hajar touches upon:
170

a. Disagreement in the definition.
i. Ibn Hajar simply describes mursal as where the drop occurs after the Successor, namely
the tbii. He does not elaborate on the age of this Successor and therefore, according to
him, this can be a senior or junior tbii.
108

ii. According to the scholars of fiqh and usl al-fiqh, mursal is defined in a more general
way. Any type of disconnection is called mursal according to them, regardless of where
and what type of disconnection it is. This is also the opinion of al-Khatb al-Baghdd (in
Ibn al-Salh 1986, 52).
iii. Bayqn also offers another variation on the definition. He writes that mursal is where
the Companion is dropped in the chain (in al-Uthaymin 2002, 161). Technically, this is
not always the case, as Ibn Hajar clearly indicates in the Nuzhah.
109

iv. Ibn Abd al-Barr believes that the Successors age is of paramount importance in the
definition of mursal. He writes that when the likes of al-Zuhr, Ab Hzim and Yah y ibn
Sad al-Ansr all junior Successors say The Prophet said then their hadth is
not called mursal but munqati. This is because they only met a handful of Companions
and most of their reports originate from fellow Successors. Only the reports of the senior
Successors are classified as mursal (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 52-3). Ibn al-Salh too implicitly
suggests that the age of the Successor must be taken into consideration with a mursal
report when he writes:

108
A senior tbii is defined as one who spent a considerable amount of time with the Companions, such as
Qays ibn Ab Hzim and Sad ibn al-Musayyab. A junior tbii refers to someone who spent only a short
period of time in the Companions, like Yahy ibn Sad al-Ansr.
109
The Successors missing narrator is usually a Companion because this is the next logical generation after
theirs. But as Ibn Hajar points out, the person who he missed could be a tbii or it could be a sahbi.
Therefore, Bayqns definition does not case for the unconventional cases where a Successor takes from a
fellow Successor, rather than from a Companion.
171

The form of the mursal hadth about which there is no disagreement is the hadth
of a senior (my italics) Successor like Ubayd Allh ibn Adi ibn al-Khayyr,
Sad ibn al-Mussayab and those like them who met a number of the Companions
and attended their classes when he says, the Messenger of God said (Ibn al-
Salh 1986, 52).

b. Disagreement regarding its ruling.
i. Mursal is deemed as weak and rejected according to the majority of the hadth scholars
(Mighlw 2003, 393). In the introduction to his Sahih, al-Imm Muslim states that a
mursal tradition does not constitute a hujja on the basis of the principles of our doctrine
and of the doctrine of the tradition experts (Juynboll (ed.) 1996, III: 296, Ibn al-Salh
1986, 55). They maintain that the missing narrator could be other than a Companion, and
thus could be weak (Tahhn 2001, 54-55).
ii. The Nuzhah states that mursal is considered as a rejected hadth because the isnd is
not continuous. One would assume that if the Successor reports a hadth and ascribes it
directly to the Prophet, then the missing person would only be a Companion. But Ibn
Hajar warns that this is not the case. It could be that he heard from a fellow Successor
who then heard from a Companion in which case there are two reporters missing.
110

110
There have been examples in the past where the number of reporters between the Successor who is
doing the irsl and the Prophet is six or seven. Al-Khatb al-Baghdd cites a tradition from a reporter
belonging to the Successors in which there were six more reporters before it reached the wife of Ab
Ayyb. He commented that:
If the wife of Ab Ayyb was a Companion, then there are six people missing. If she is not, then there are
seven missing (cited in al-Munw 1999, 1: 500-1).
172

However, Ibn Hajar deems it important to mention the cases where the Successor omits
the person he narrated from, but he is known only to report from authoritative reporters.
As clarified in the text, the majority of hadth scholars state that we will pause upon it,
since the possibility still remains that he did not narrate from an authoritative person in
this case. However, some scholars like the Mliks and Kfs state that it will be
accepted without question.
Seemingly, this position contradicts with the ruling made in the section on muallaq.
There, Ibn Hajar clearly affirms that when a narrator does not name his sources and
instead merely says that all of his omitted men are authoritative, then this is not accepted.
Rather the majority of scholars adhere to the opinion that his men must be named before
the report can be accepted. Thus on this basis, the report of a Successor who omits a
narrator should also be rejected until the source is named. Why is it that some scholars
will accept this unequivocally, like al-Imm Ahmad in one of his two opinions on the
issue and like the Mlik and Kf hadth scholars? Ibn Hajar offers no answer to this
change in opinion.
The answer to this question lies in the fact that with mursal, if the missing reporter is only
one Companion, then his ambiguity does not affect the authenticity of the hadth. This is
because all Companions are deemed credible and reliable in ilm al-hadith. As a result,
therefore, the scholars of hadth are willing to offer more leniency in the principle of
mursal.
173
The idea of the adla (integrity) of the Companions is not new. Al-Khatb al-Baghdd
elucidates on it in al-Kifya. He states that it is necessary to ask about the character of all
narrators in an isnd, except the Companions. This is as al-Khatb al-Baghdd
maintains because their adla is proven and known by the confirmation of Allh
Almighty, by informing us of their purity and worthiness in the Qurn (1988, 46). Thus,
questioning their rank is on a par with questioning the opinion of Allh and His Prophet
on the matter.
Therefore, the ruling for mursal and muallaq differs on this basis. With the muallaq the
missing reporters do not belong to the generation of Companions and thus they must be
explicitly identified and investigated. As for mursal, because there is a possibility that
only a Companion is missing, the scholars are willing to loosen the ruling governing it.
111

ii. According to the three imms of fiqh Ab Hanfa, Mlik and Ahmad
112
(in a famous
report from him) mursal is accepted and used as evidence so long as the person doing
the irsl is authoritative and only reports from authentic narrators. Their justification is
that an authoritative Successor would not consider it permissible to say the Prophet
said x except when they heard it from someone authoritative (Tahhn 2001, 54-55:
Mighlw 2003, 393).

111
More will be mentioned on the integrity of the Companions in section 5.41.
112
According to al-Imm al-Shfi it is accepted but under certain conditions. The conditions are four;
three concerning the narrator (mursil) and one concerning the actual hadth. They are (a) that the narrator is
from the Senior Successors (b) when he does name his source, he names someone authoritative (c) when he
narrates alongside the renowned huffz, he does not oppose them. The fourth condition must be from one of
the following (i) The hadth is narrated via another isnd which is continuous. (ii) That hadth is narrated
via another isnd which is mursal, but the narrators are different from the original mursal hadth. (iii) The
hadth complies with the saying of a Companion. (iv) That the scholars decree in compliance with the
meaning of the hadth. (Tahhn 2001, 54-55). It is also reported that al-Shfi was of the opinion that only
the mursal reports of Sad ibn al-Musayyab are worthy of acceptance. Al-Suyt believes that this is not
true and people have misunderstood his text in al-Umm (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 199).
174

So in short, the fiqh scholars are more lenient in accepting mursal whereas the hadth
scholars are stricter. The reason for this is simple; a large degree of prophetic reports
which relate to fiqh (such as worships and dealings) are mursal. If the fiqh specialists
such as Ab Hanfa chose to reject mursal like the hadth scholars did, then this would
seriously diminish the number of prophetic reports they could use for evidence. Burton
writes that:

Attitudes to the mursal hadth varied, although the greatest scholars, especially
those engaged in codifying the Law, view it with indulgence, this type of hadth
being the source of a great quantity of badly-needed material (1994, 112).

Goldziher agrees when commenting on the Muwatta of Mlik:

A proper isnd chain is not considered an absolute necessity, and nearly a third of
the sayings employed by Mlik are mursal or even maqt, i.e. they do not go as
far back as the Prophet but end the chain with the name of a Companion (1971,
202).

For example, the jurists have struggled to find marf (namely, a report proven as the
actions or sayings of the Prophet himself) reports that legitimise the recitation of the
Qurn in congregational prayer behind the imm. Ab Hanfa argues that the person
behind the imm is not required to perform recitation, based on the report whosoever has
175
an imm, then the imms recitation is considered his recitation too (Sad 2009, 196).
This report is mursal but Ab Hanfa happily accepts it as evidence.

So mursal shows how the scholars in the past disagreed according to their respective
specialty, fiqh and hadth in this example. It also suggests like, with muallaq, that the
ruling applied to a particular type of hadth (mursal in this instance) was based on
convenience and necessity, rather than objectivity. Ideally, mursal should be rejected
because of the absence of a reporter in the isnd, but applying this ruling would leave the
fiqh scholars with less resources to work with. We noted a similar theme in the discussion
on aziz in the Nuzhah. In order to protect and widen the hadth literature available,
rulings were made to increase the amount of material, not to lessen it. That is why the
Nuzhah discarded the argument that a sahih hadth has to be at least aziz for it to be
accepted. Here, in a similar fashion, rulings are made that ensure the hadth literature
pool is as wide as possible and so mursal is accepted.
Secondly, one could argue that Ibn Hajars approach was centred towards hadth rather
than fiqh. Any discussions that technically felt outside this sphere, he perhaps felt, were
not his jurisdiction.

5.19.1. Conclusion.

Though less than a third of the Nuzhah has been looked at so far, we can already
appreciate the authors insistence on focusing on ilm al-hadith only, to the exclusion of
176
fiqh. Sometimes, the refusal to extend his analysis to such areas has hindered a true
portrayal of the hadth type in question, like with mursal.
It is hard to dismiss this as a mere coincidence; that matters relating to ilm al-fiqh are
largely ignored or only touched upon. What is the reason behind this? Why did Ibn Hajar
focus on hadth matters only? The real answer may be difficult to find, but what follows
is a few plausible suggestions:

1. From the onset, the Nuzhah was meant to be a simple treatise, with no excess and no
needless deviation from ilm al-hadith. As mentioned in his introduction, his
contemporaries asked for a brief book on hadth not sharia. Had he indulged in debates
such as the acceptance of khabar al-hd, it would have prolonged what was meant to be
an introductory short treatise to the field.
2. As a skilled author, Ibn Hajar did not want overlap with his literary works. He had
authored twenty-eight books on fiqh-related matters (al-Qr 1994, pp. 48-49). It made
sense to him to discuss fiqh matters in such books, rather than hadth ones.
3. Ibn Hajar may have possessed a possible distaste for fiqh. Or to word it differently, his
own personal circumstances affected his literary works. He served as the chief justice of
Egypt for some time. He undertook this responsibility in the judiciary in 827/1423 and
fulfilled this until 852/1449 (Ahmadayn 1958, 10; al-Barr et al. 1995, 102).
Ibn Hajar himself admitted that he reluctantly undertook this responsibility. The reason
was that countless students and disciples eager to learn from him would travel from afar
to meet and learn from him. But because of his preoccupation with judicial duties, many
could not meet him (al-Barr et al. 1995, 102). Other commentators write that lack of
177
autonomy was the reason for his reluctance (al-Qr 1992, 53).
113
Mulla Al al-Qr
suggests that he did not enjoy this responsibility:

Ibn Hajar maintained that he would not enter into the judiciary. He turned down
the post of deputising Sadr al-Dn al-Munw before 800. He was then offered the
post independently in the days of Muayyad, which he refused. His colleagues
pressed him to take up the position and so he eventually accepted it. He was
appointed the justice for the Shfi madhhab in the reign of al-Ashraf Barsby in
827/1423. He showed increasing regret for taking up the position because the
representatives of the state did not differentiate between the scholars and others,
and because they refused to accept the scholars proposals, though the proposals
were compliant with haqq (truth). His absence from the office became more and
more apparent, until he tendered his resignation in 852/1449 after twenty-one
years of service. Because of his persistence on the truth and his refusal to pay lip-
service [to the state], the post became too difficult for him (al-Qr 1992, 53).

Ibn Hajar was not acting indifferently by showing reluctance to fully engage with this
post. Makdisi notes that many jurisconsults of high repute are known to have refused to
accept an appointment in spite of the insistence of the caliph. Others, Makdisi notes,
only accepted it with certain conditions (1981, 200). Broadbridge notes that it was not
only Ibn Hajar who found it difficult to hold positions of importance during that period:
the likes of al-Ayn and al-Maqrz had similar problems (1999, pp. 88-90).

113
More will be said about this is section 5.36.
178
Implicitly, this suggests that Ibn Hajar may have been affected by the political climate of
his era, in his teaching and in his literary works too.

To summarise this section on mursal, there are countless different rulings of mursal
114

and it is here where one can appreciate how different scholars in their respective
specialist areas offer different opinions. Ibn Hajars analysis is narrowly-focussed on
mursal from a hadth perspective, not a fiqh one.

5. 20. Mudil & munqati- the Problematic and the
Interrupted.
The third type pertaining to the drop in the chain; if it is two drops or more
consecutively, then it is mudil. And if it is not [consecutive], namely that the drops
are two inconsecutively in two [separate] places, for example, then it is munqati.
Similarly, if there is one single drop only, or there is more but with the condition of
being inconsecutive [then this is also mudil].

Commentary
The third and fourth type of hadth based on the drop in the isnd are mentioned here,
mudil and munqati. Little commentary or explanation is offered regarding its forms and

114
Al-Suyt summarises the scholars different opinions on mursal: (i) used as evidence unequivocally (ii)
not suitable for evidence at all (iii) used as evidence if the irsl is done from a reporter belonging to the first
three generations (iv) used as evidence if done by someone credible (v) accepted only from Sad ibn al-
Musayyab (vi) used as evidence only if no other report in the subject area (of the matn) exists (vii) used as
evidence in a mustahabb (preferred) manner, not in an obligatory manner (viii) used as evidence only if the
irsl is done by a Companion (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 201).
179
principle, though sufficient is mentioned to outline its appearance. What is clear is that
mudil is worse than the other types in this category because there are at least two,
consecutive missing reporters.
As for munqati, modern hadth scholars state that this is the name given to a general
drop in the chain when it does not take on the appearance of other types of hadth. In
other words, for a hadth to be classified as munqati, the drop must not be;
(i) At the beginning of the chain, as this is categorised as muallaq.
(ii) After the Successor, as this is called mursal.
(iii) Two consecutive ones, as this is referred to as mudil.
Only when the hadth avoids the above three scenarios is it classified as
munqati (Tahhn 2001, 57).
The other opinion regarding munqati is the one held by earlier scholars; that any type of
drop is called munqati. Al-Suyt writes:

The correct opinion towards which the jurists, al-Khatb [al-Baghdd], Ibn Abd
al-Barr and others from the hadth masters have inclined to is that munqati is that
whose chain is not continuous in any form. And most commonly it is used for the
report of those beneath the Successors from the Companions (1972, 1: 208).

Therefore it seems the exact definition of munqati differs according to earlier and later
scholars. In a literal sense, both interpretations are feasible as the word means to be cut-
off. However, the word should not be confused with maqt
115
, which is a term that

115
This will be referred to in section 5.43.
180
relates to the matn rather than the isnd. It seems that Schacht fails to acknowledge this
difference, and sees the two as synonymous. He writes:

Shaibn and al-Shfi confront each other objections to their respective
traditions because they are maqt, which means the same as munqati (1959, 38).

This section shows how the technical terms in the discipline developed throughout the
centuries. During the early period, one term (such as munqati) would be sufficient to
encompass a multiple of scenarios. By the time of Ibn Hajar, the technical terms had
flourished to cover all possible outcomes and scenarios.
The introduction of new terms such as mudil did not increase the authenticity of
prophetic traditions. What it did do was portray the discipline as a very intricate and
multi-layered one, with a plethora of terms to cover each and every possibility. This itself
did add to the authenticity debate in some form. The reason is because it portrayed the
discipline as a rigid, objective and professional field, able to cope with the task of sifting
the sound from the forged. The method in which Ibn Hajar has so far presented the
rejected traditions in the Nuzhah suggests that he too was keen to the discipline in such a
manner.

5. 21. Mudallas- the Misrepresented.
Then the drop in the chain is sometimes visible so all [observers] can identify it,
because the narrator for example is not a contemporary of the one he narrated
from; or sometimes the drop is hidden. Thus this cannot be identified except by the
181
expert imms who are aware of the [different] paths of the hadth. Thus the first
the visible one is identified by the non-meeting between the narrator and the
shaykh as he did not live in his time, or he did live in his time but he did not meet
him and he did not have permission from him or discovery.
116
For this, historical
records are required as they consist of the birthdates of the narrators, their death-
dates, the dates of their studies and their travels. Verily groups [of reporters] have
achieved notoriety by claiming to have narrated from their shaykhs, only for
historical records to refute their claims.
The second type the hidden one is mudallas (with a fatha on the lm). [This is] so
called because the narrator has not named the one he heard from and has created
doubt in hearing the hadth from someone he did not narrate from. Its origins is
from dalas with a haraka [on the lm]; and this means the mixing of darkness.
117

This [type of hadth] is so called because both involve concealment. The one
committing tadls mentions it with the words of delivery that give the possibility of
the occurrence of the meeting between him and the one he ascribes it to, like an and
like qla. When it occurs with the words of certainty, he will be [classified as] a liar.
The ruling for the reliable narrator for whom it is proven that he has committed

116
Ibn Hajar acknowledges that there can be certain cases where the report of the narrator from the shaykh
can be proven as sound even if they lived in two different times and places. This can be the case when the
shaykh delivers his traditions in written form to the narrator and grants him permission to report them
further. This is called ijza. Secondly, it can be where the narrator finds a script of traditions in which the
compiler has granted permission to narrate to all. This is called wijda (see section 5.57). Neither of these
cases relates to mudallas, as suggested in the text when Ibn Hajar writes, he did live in his time but he did
not meet him and he did not have permission from him or discovery.
117
This term comes from the root word dalas, which literally means a mixture of darkness, like when the
night first falls. When a person sells a good to someone and hides a defect to be found in it, then the Arabs
say that the seller has committed dalas (al-Wajd 1996, 109; al-Uthaymin 2002, 167). This hadth is so-
called because of this resemblance to the root meaning; the narrator has hidden a certain quality of the
report.
182
tadls is that he will not be accepted until he clarifies he heard the report, according
to the most correct opinion.

Commentary
In this section, Ibn Hajar refers to mudallas. This term refers to when on previous
occasions, the reporter has heard reports from his shaykh. In the particular report in
which he is committing tadlis, he has not heard from him and he reports it with such
words of delivery that give the impression he did hear from him.
118

To understand how delicately the author has treated this section on mudallas, it is
important to outline how the matter has divided the experts. Only then can we appreciate
the skill employed by Ibn Hajar as an author here.
In short, mudallas is finely balanced. For some, it is a serious problem which highlights
the tricks used by the forgers to escape detection whereas for others, it is an exaggerated
problem. Ibn Hajars analysis of mudallas in the Nuzhah captures these two moods well,
thus indicating his good skills as a writer.

5. 21. 1. The seriousness of mudallas.
Rather than simply acknowledging its rejection, the Muslim scholars have gone to
considerable descriptive detail to highlight how vile tadlis is. For example, Shuba said:

118
This can be such as x said (qla) or from x (an), as opposed to words such as I heard (samitu) or
x informed me (akhbarani). Using the latter words of delivery would necessitate him being a liar,
something the person committing tadlis wants to avoid (al-Uthaymin 2002, 168).
183
Committing adultery would be more beloved to me than performing tadls (al-
Munw 1999, 2: 16).

Al-Imm al-Shfi said:

Tadlis is the brother of the lie (in Ibn al-Salh 1986, 74).

Brown sees tadlis as large-scale isnd forgery (1999, 98) and similar expressions and
statements are offered almost universally condemning this practice.
Ibn Hajar only refers to one type of tadlis that is tadlis al-isnd.
119
Scholars such as al-
Suyt and Ibn al-Salh have identified a second variation called tadlis al-shuykh (al-
Suyt 1972, 1: 223; Ibn al-Salh 1986, 74). This is where a narrator narrates a hadth
from a shaykh whom he has heard from. He then refers to him with a name, title or
description that others are unfamiliar with, so that his status remains ambiguous. For
example, Ab Bakr ibn Mujhid once said: Abd Allh ibn Ab Abd Allh told us
He meant Ab Bakr ibn Ab Dwd al-Sijistn (Tahhn 2001, 61). One reason why a
reporter may commit such an act is to hide the embarrassment that he is reporting from
someone younger than him, or from his own son. There are other instances where the
reporter has changed the name because the one he is reporting from is considered weak
(al-Munw 1999, 17-18). Al-Suyt adds that the reporter may have narrated from one
particular shaykh excessively and thus he alters the name to give the impression that he
has a variety of sources (1972, 1: 231). These factors certainly give us an insight into the

119
Perhaps the reason why Ibn Hajar does not mention tadlis al-shuykh in this section is because he
mentioned it further on in the book, under the name of jahla. See section 5.35.
184
subjective side of hadth transmission. Rather than an objective academic exercise where
a report is heard and passed on to others, the practice of tadlis shows that sometimes,
reporters had to consider the personal and social impact of whom they narrate from
would have.

5. 21. 2. The over-precaution surrounding mudallas.
Closer analysis and insight can reveal that the issue of tadlis is not as serious as depicted
by the Muslim scholars. Firstly, the issue of tadlis was never a universal problem.
According to al-Hkim, the issue of committing tadlis was particular to certain areas. He
said:

The people of Hijz, the two Sanctuaries, Egypt, Awl, Khursn, al-Jibl,
Isbahn, the countries of Frs and Khzistn; we do not know any of their imms
to commit tadlis. Most of tadls stems from the inhabitants of Kfa and a small
percentage from the inhabitants of Basra. As for the inhabitants of Baghdd, tadlis
has not been reported from any of them bar Ab Bakr Muhammad ibn
Muhammad al-Bghand al-Wsit: he was the first to commit tadls there. If
anyone thereafter did commit tadlis then it was because of his precedent (in al-
Suyt 1972, 1: 232).

Secondly, the mudallis (one committing tadlis) is not technically a liar. He is declaring
that a senior said x (qla) which is true. All that is disputed is whether he heard him say
this directly or indirectly. Azami writes:
185

This is similar to the modern situation when we say that the king or the President
said so and so, though we have not had the opportunity to hear him directly,
except through press or TV etc. But this expression may be used in direct hearing
as well (1977, 63).

Brown notes:

Tadlis did not always occur for insidious reasons. If a student had to leave a
dictation session to answer natures call, for example, he would hear the hadiths
that he had missed from a class-mate. When narrating those hadiths, however, he
might leave out the classmates name and simply say Teacher so-and-so said.
Because tadlis was often innocuous, very few transmitters were totally innocent
of it (2009, 91).

This last point from Brown can be shown from the example given by Ibn al-Salh in his
Muqaddima:
Al ibn Khashram said: We were with [Sufyn] Ibn Uyayna and he said, al-
Zuhr said. He was asked: Did you hear from al-Zuhr? He fell silent and then
said, al-Zuhr said. Then someone asked him, Did you hear it from al-Zuhr?
He replied: No, I did not hear it from al-Zuhr nor from whoever heard from al-
Zuhr. Abd al-Razzq told me from Mamar from al-Zuhr.
186

Hence in this example, Ibn Uyayna dropped two narrators between himself and
al-Zuhr though he gave the impression he did by saying al-Zuhr said (Ibn al-
Salh 1986, 73-74).

Sufyn Ibn Uyayna committed tadlis when purporting to have heard from al-Zuhr. This
was a one-off example from him and, generally, it did not tarnish his reputation. It cannot
be said that committing tadlis once renders all of the reporters narrations null and void.
It is well known amongst the Muslims that the two Sufyns (Ibn Uyayna and Thawr) are
credible reporters (Kamali 2005, 105), to the extent that Muslim declares him as one of
the imms of tradition in the introduction to his Sahih (Juynboll 1996, III: 270). In the
same text, al-Imm Muslim implicitly suggests that tadlis is to some extent tolerable:

Abd Allh ibn al-Mubrak said: What an excellent man Baqya ibn al-Wald is!
If he could only refrain from his habit of calling transmitters by their kunyas when
they are better known by their names, and calling transmitters by their names
when they are better known by their kunyas. In the past he transmitted traditions
from Ab Sad al-Wuhz; when we looked into this, we found that he referred to
Abd al-Qudds ibn Habb (Juynboll 1996, III: 290)

As the above explanation has shown, this practice is known as tadlis al-shuykh. But the
comments of Ibn al-Mubrak suggest that Baqya did not deserve to be discredited on this
basis alone.
187
5. 21.3. Conclusion.
Whilst acknowledging the depth of criticism directed at tadlis by the likes of al-Imm al-
Shfi, an equal case could be made for their over-precautious ness. The unease
surrounding the acceptance of tadlis is on the basis that the mudallis may not have heard
the report directly. So as a precaution, the hadth masters prefer to dislike such a practice.
Whilst a case can be made for the fraudulent nature of tadlis, an equal one can be made
suggesting an over-cautious nature of the hadth masters.
In explaining this type, Ibn Hajar skilfully admits both opinions. In the Nuzhah, he does
this by firstly dividing the drop in the chain into the hidden drop and the concealed drop.
In doing so, he is showing the vast array of tools and methods that were available to the
hadth masters in stopping fraud and forgery. This suggests confidence in the system
employed by his predecessors.
For instance, a check on the biographical information of the shaykh and narrator can
identify whether the two reporters lived in the same period and whether they lived or
visited a certain area. Historical sources can be analysed to check the dates of birth, when
they passed away, when they studied and the period and place of their travels. An
example of spotting an apparent drop is provided by al-Munw when he writes:

Hkim said: When Ab Jafar al-Kassh came to us and claimed that he had
reported from Abd Allh ibn Humayd, I asked him of his birth-date. He
mentioned that it was in 260. I said to our companions: This shaykh heard from
Abd Allh ibn Humayd thirteen years after he died! (1999, 2: 8)

188
But importantly, in explaining the concealed drop (to which mudallas belongs), Ibn Hajar
is accepting that there were cases where such tools were insufficient to stop the forgers.
Sometimes, checking the biographical information of the reporters did not help in
identifying the genuine cases of transmission from the fraudulent ones.
This can be viewed as a very pragmatic stance from Ibn Hajar and an admission of his
realism. Whilst accepting the sincerity of the methods employed by early Muslims, he
also admits their fallibility. And when we read the text of the Nuzhah which was most
likely aimed at readers of hadth for the first time then we appreciate the fine line that
he took as a writer. He wanted the reader to be aware of the skills employed by the early
Muslims in stopping isnd fraud, but to also warn of how sometimes the forgers were a
step ahead. In short, the Nuzhahs section on mudallas is a fine balance between an
admission of forgery in the system, and a willingness to uproot it. It is also an indication
of Ibn Hajars skill as a good writer in that he captures mudallas, the positive and
negative of it, in a delicate manner.

5. 22. Mursal khaf- the Hidden Loose.
Also [rejected] is mursal khaf when it emits from a contemporary who has not met
the one he reports from, but rather between him and the [alleged] reporter is a gap
[of another reporter]. The difference between mudallas and mursal khaf is intrinsic;
this explanation can be outlined with that which is mentioned here. Tadls is specific
to the narration from someone he is known to have met. As for when he is the
contemporary of him and his meeting with the narrator is not known, then this is
mursal khaf. Whoever has added in the definition of tadls of being a contemporary
189
even if they have not met has thus necessitated including mursal khaf in the
definition [too], though the correct [opinion] is that there is a difference between the
two. The evidence that indicates consideration of having met in tadls and not just
being mere contemporaries is the agreement of the people of knowledge in hadth
that the reports of the mukhadramn, like Ab Uthmn al-Nahd and Qays ibn Ab
Hzim, from the Prophet are classified as irsl and not tadls. If being the
contemporaries was sufficient in tadls, then these [people] would be mudalliss,
because they certainly lived in the time of the Prophet but it is not known if they
met him or not. Amongst the scholars who have agreed with the [condition of]
meeting in [the definition of] tadls are al-Immal-Shfi and Ab Bakr al-Bazzr
and the writings of al-Khatb al-Baghdd in al-Kifya stipulate this. This is the
trusted opinion.
The absence of meeting is identified by the reporter himself informing such, or by
the firm statement of a versed imm.
120
It is not sufficient that an addition of one
reporter or more occurs in some variations, because of the possibility that this is an
addition.
121
Thus in this form, a definitive ruling will not be applied because of the
conflicting possibility of continuation and discontinuation [of the isnd]. Verily al-
Khatb [al-Baghdd] has compiled a book on this called al-Tafsl li-mubham al-
marsl and al-Mazd f muttasil al-asnd.
120
For example, Ibn Mja narrated from Umar ibn Abd al-Azz from Uqba ibn mir up to the Prophet
that May Allah have mercy upon the guard of the army. Al-Mizz writes in al-Atrf that Umar did not
meet Uqba (al-Munw 1999, 2: 26)
121
One may assume that when comparing two reports one with an additional reporter in the chain and one
with the absence of that person it must mean that the latter report is mursal khafi. Ibn Hajar warns against
jumping to such a swift conclusion in such circumstances. This is because the hadth with an additional
reporter may simply have an extra reporter in the chain, which is called al-mazid fi muttasil al-asnid
(section 5.30). Thus, it is difficult in such cases to decree the report as being continuous or discontinuous
until stronger evidence arises.
190
And with this, the types based on the drop in the chain conclude.

Commentary
5. 22. 1. Mursal khaf and how it differs from mudallas
Ibn Hajar explains that there is a slight difference between mursal khafi and mudallas. In
tadlis, the narrator has met the narrator, whereas in mursal khafi the narrator is a
contemporary of the missing person, but he has not met him.
The Nuzhah accommodates the other minority opinions on the issue too. Some scholars
have said that tadls is where they are contemporaries, even if they have not met. But Ibn
Hajar rightly points out that if this definition is accepted, then it is the same as mursal
khafi. Perhaps it is out of respect that he does not mention who these people are; it is in
fact his teacher al-Irq and al-Nawaw (al-Qr 1994, 425).
Two pieces of evidence are provided for this majority opinion by Ibn Hajar. Firstly he
writes that the narrations of the mukhadramn
122
those who lived in the time of the
Prophet and prior to it in the time of jhiliyya but were not known to have physically met
him are unanimously considered as mursal khafi, and not tadlis. If for tadlis being mere
contemporaries was sufficient, then they would be termed as mudallises, because they
were contemporaries of the Prophet , but never met him. But no one refers to them with
this term.
Secondly, Ibn Hajar cites the opinions of previous scholars who agree with him on this
issue, such as al-Imm Shfi, Ab Bakr al-Bazzr and al-Khatb al-Baghdd.
122
See Section 5.42.
191
This last evidence needs closer analysis. We have observed places in the Nuzhah
already where Ibn Hajar cites the opinions of past, hadth masters in order to show how
his own views correspond with theirs. For instance:
a. In section 5.7.1., he argues that what the two shaykhs have recorded gives the benefit
of controvertible knowledge, and that al-Humayd, Ab al-Fadl ibn Thir and others too
agree to this.
b. In the same section, he writes that a mashhr report is considered an advantageous
factor. This complies with the opinion of Ab Mansr al-Baghdd and Ab Bakr ibn
Frak, he asserts.
c. In the section on the addition of reliable narrators (5.10.2.), he shows that his opinion is
the same as many of the classical hadth masters, like Yah y al-Qattn, Ahmad ibn
Hanbal, Yah y ibn Man, Al ibn al-Madn, al-Bukhr, al-Nas, al-Draqutn and
others.
Realistically speaking, there could be two reasons for Ibn Hajar cites the opinion of his
predecessors on contentious matters. Firstly, it could be simply a sign of good academia.
The issues he refers to in the Nuzhah have been debated for centuries and so it makes
sense to alert the reader of past opinions on the matter.
Secondly, Ibn Hajar is alerting the reader of the importance of seniority in ilm al-hadith.
The fact that scholars like Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Yahy ibn Man and Al ibn al-Madn
have agreed (or disagreed on a matter) is as good as empirical and objective evidence. In
this particular section on mursal khafi, this is precisely what Ibn Hajar has done;
mudallas is different from mursal khafi because al-Imm al-Shfi, Ab Bakr al-Bazzr
192
and al-Khatb al-Baghdd said so. As an introduction to the discipline, the Nuzhah
encourages the disciple to respect the classical hadth masters and their opinions.
Though seemingly not important, this point has larger ramifications felt elsewhere in the
discipline. For example, should a Muslim feel uncomfortable with the fact that the
Muwatta contains 1720 reports, of which 295 are simply the opinions of Mlik? Most
Muslims would not. After all, they will argue, he was a pious, hadth master whose
endeavours in Islam will forever be appreciated. Therefore, his opinion is of great
significance. To the non-Muslim observer, it is more of a concern.

5. 23. Reasons for defamation in the tradition.
Then the defamation is with ten things, some are worse than others in severity. Five
from them pertain to the integrity (adla) [of the reporter] and five pertain to the
accuracy (dabt). Care for the [separation] of each type has not been done [here in
the text] for a reason; this is to arrange [these ten] from the worse in terms of
rejection downwards. [The division varies] because the defamation is either because
of the lying of the narrator in a Prophetic report, in that he deliberately narrates
something from the Prophet which he did not say. Or [the rejection is due to]
accusation of lying, in that the hadth has not been reported except by him and that
it contradicts known principles; and similarly the reporter is known to lie in his
[everyday] conversation though his lying has not been proven in Prophetic
traditions. This [type] is less than the first [in terms of severity]. Or [the rejection is
due to] his obscene mistakes, meaning plentiful [mistakes]. Or [the rejection is due
to] his negligence of accuracy. Or [the rejection is due to] his lewdness in action or
193
sayings when it does not reach the stage of disbelief. Between this and the first (i.e.
the lie) is [a difference] of generality. The former has been mentioned separately
because the defamation in it is worse in this discipline [of ilm al-hadth]. As for
lewdness in terms of doctrine, its explanation will follow soon. Or [the rejection is
due to] his doubts, in that he reports ambiguously. Or [the rejection is due to] is
opposition, namely of the authoritative narrators. Or [the rejection is due to] his
ignorance, in that his credibility or lack of it is not identified clearly. Or [the
rejection is due to] his innovative beliefs; and this is belief in something which
contradicts the established from the Prophet , not out of conviction but with a
shade of doubt. Or [the rejection is due to] is bad memory, an expression to mean
his mistakes are more than his corrections.

Commentary
The above paragraph serves as an introduction to the next section. The author writes that
there are ten primary reasons for defamation in the narrator; five are related to the
integrity (adla) of the narrator and five are related to his/her accuracy (dabt).
The five related to integrity are;
a. Lying.
b. Accusation of lying.
c. Lewd behaviour.
d. Ignorance of the narrator.
e. Innovation.
The five related to accuracy are;
194
a. Severe mistakes.
b. Negligence.
c. Opposing authoritative narrators.
d. Bad memory.
e. Excessive doubt.

Ibn Hajar writes that in his forthcoming explanation of each type, he will not present
them in order of those rejected on the basis of lack of integrity and then those rejected
based on the lack of accuracy. Rather, as he clarifies in the text, he prefers to mention
them in order of the most severe to the least severe, commencing with the fabricated or
forged tradition.

5. 24. Mawd- the Forged.
Thus the first type and this is defamation due to the lying of the reporter in the
Prophetic tradition is mawd. The declaration of forgery is merely by the means
of overwhelming evidence and not definitive [knowledge], since [even] the liar
sometimes tells the truth. [To combat forgery] the people of knowledge in [ilm] al-
hadth possess a strong ability to differentiate the reports [from the sound]. Only
those scholars whose knowledge is comprehensive, whose intellect is penetrating,
whose insight is complete and whose knowledge of the different indications of
forgery is sound can stand [successfully] in this field.
Sometimes the forgery is identified by the admission of the forger. Ibn Daqq al-d
said: But that [confession] will not be considered definitively due to the possibility
195
of him lying in the confession. Some have understood from this [statement] that his
confession will not be acted upon at all, because he is a liar. But this is not what he
meant. He only negated accepting it definitively. And negating it definitively does
not result in negating its ruling, because a ruling can be made with overwhelming
evidence, as is the case here. If this was not the case, then it would not be permissible
to apply capital punishment to the confessor of murder, nor to the confessor of
adultery, due to the possibility of their lying in their confession.
Amongst the indications by which the forged is identified is that which is found in
the state of the reporter, like what occurred to Mamn ibn Ahmad; in his presence
the debate of whether Hasan has heard from Ab Hurayra was mentioned. Thus he
read an isnd immediately to the Prophet , who [allegedly] said: Hasan heard
from Ab Hurayra. Similar to this is what occurred with Ghiyth ibn Ibrhm
when he entered upon al-Mahd who was playing with his pigeons. Immediately, he
read an isnd up to the Prophet , who [allegedly] said: There is no competition
except in archery, camel racing, horse racing and pigeon racing. He had added the
words and pigeon racing [himself]. Al-Mahd knew that he had lied for his sake
and thus ordered the pigeons to be killed.
Amongst the indicating factors [by which the forged is identified] is the state of the
text, such as contradicting the text of the Qurn or the mutawtir sunna, or the firm
consensus or the clear, common sense in a manner that [harmonising] interpretation
is not possible.
Then the reporter sometimes invents the text and sometimes he takes the dialogue
from others [and then ascribes it to the Prophet], like [the words of] some of the
196
pious predecessors, or the ancient wise or from biblical sources. Or he sometimes
takes a weak-chained hadth and invents a sound isnd for it so it can circulate.
The reasons for the forger to fabricate are either the absence of religion, like the
zindqs (disbelievers); or the prevalence of ignorance, like some worshippers; or
some adherents [to a madhhab]; or in pursuit of pleasing some leaders; or rarity
with the intention of attaining fame. All such acts are forbidden by consensus of [all
the scholars] considered in it. However, it has been reported from some Karrmiyya
and some Sfs the permissibility of lying in the area of targhb and tarhb (instilling
virtue and inspiring fear). This is the mistake from the one who does it and it stems
from ignorance. This is because targhb and tarhb too are part of the rulings of
shara. The scholars are unanimous that deliberately ascribing a lie to the Prophet
is from the major [sins]. Ab Muhammad al-Juwayn has over-emphasised [this
ruling] by decreeing the deliberate forger a disbeliever. The scholars have agreed on
the prohibition of reporting a forged report, except by explaining its forgery, due to
the saying of the Prophet :If anyone narrated a hadth from me which he knew
was fabricated, then he is one of the liars. Al-ImmMuslim reported this.

Commentary
5.24.1. Forged (Fabricated Traditions); an introduction.
123

No field of hadth literature has been the focus for non-Muslim academics, or a cause for
concern for Muslims more than mawd, forged (or fabricated traditions). It is, for most

123
The section on the Forged is in part taken from The Characteristics of a Hadith Narrator,
with reference to the al-Jmi of al-Khatib al-Baghddi (d. 463/1071) a thesis submitted to the University
of Birmingham for the Degree of Master of Philosophy, by Ather Hussain in November 2005.

197
part, the Achilles heel for Muslims. From a very early period, up until today, the subject
has roused a vast array of opinions and controversy.
This extensive section will begin with a definition of mawd and a brief explanation of
how it differs from daif. Then, there will be a short outline of when forgery in prophetic
traditions begun, who the fabricators were and the methods they employed. Then it will
be shown what was done to stop and detect fabricated traditions, and prevent its
circulation. The chapter will conclude by assessing the extent of mawds in hadth
literature.

5. 24. 2. Defining mawd.
A mawd is a fabricated or forged tradition, a report which cannot be described as a
saying or action of the Prophet. Ibn al-Salh defines it as al-mukhtalaq al-masn,
meaning created and fabricated (1986, 98) and al-Suyt defined it too with these same
words (1972, 1: 274).
It is imperative that a distinction is made between daif (weak) and mawd (fabricated
traditions). Ibn al-Salh defines the former as any hadth which does not fulfill the
aforementioned conditions of sahih or hasan (1986, 41). In other words, a daif tradition
does have some foundation to its authenticity, whereas a mawd has no foundation or
basis whatsoever. This is the reason why some Muslim scholars do not consider
mawd as a type of hadth at all, and consider it external to the discussion on hadth
criticism. Al-Slih, for instance, writes that mawd can only be labelled as a type of
hadth in the investigative stage, when one is determining whether there is any
198
authenticity in the report. Once it has been established as forged, then it should be
referred to as mawd and not al-hadith al-mawd (1999, 142).
The fundamental difference between daif (weak) and mawd (fabricated traditions) is
most apparent when the ruling concerning its narration and transmission is analysed. It is,
according to most scholars, permissible to narrate and circulate daif traditions. Ibn al-
Salh writes:

According to the scholars of hadth, it is permissible to adopt leniency in the isnd
and in the narration of daif traditions, other than mawd traditions, without
having to explain its weakness. This is not [however] where the text deals with
the attributes of Allh, or Islamic rulings like the forbidden and permitted things.
It is [only] permissible where the text refers to admonition, stories, the superiority
of certain actions and in all areas of preaching [al-targhib wa-al-tarhib]. Amongst
the scholars who have reported leniency with such narrations are Abd al-Rahmn
ibn Mahd and Ahmad ibn Hanbal (1986, 103).

So, for example, a Muslim would be allowed to use daif narrations to extol the virtues of
charitable donations but not to prove a fundamental tenet of Islam.
With mawd however, all scholars unanimously agree that transmitting such narrations
is strictly forbidden. Al-Khatb al-Baghdd confirms this fact in the chapter entitled The
Prohibition of narrating fabricated tales and the necessity of discarding forged traditions
(my italics) (1996, 2: 134). Later scholars too reiterated this view, including Ibn al-Salh
(1986, 98), al-Suyt (1972, 1: 274) and Ibn Hajar here in the Nuzhah.
199
It seems the distinction between daif and mawd has been a source of long-standing
confusion, rather than an issue which has come to light recently. Al-Suyt condemned
Ibn al-Jawz on his work on fabrications, al-Mawdt. Al-Suyt writes:

[Ibn al-Jawz] has exaggerated the number of fabricated traditions in his two-
volumed book al-Mawdt, which contains many traditions which have no basis
to be referred to as fabricated, but daif, sahih and hasan. Stranger still is the fact
he has included a hadth of Muslim [as being fabricated] (1972, 1: 280).

Ibn al-Salh was reported to have showed similar dismay with the findings of Ibn al-
Jawz (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 99). What this tells us is that historically, certain scholars have
erroneously confused the two.
To conclude therefore, a clear distinction must be made between the usage of the terms
daif (weak) and mawd (fabricated traditions). The former is rejected though it can be
used in certain areas of preaching. The latter is rejected too but cannot be used at all and
in fact has no real right to be referred to as a prophetic tradition.

5.24.3. When did the forging of traditions begin?
There is no unanimous opinion on when exactly the practice of forging traditions began.
William Muir believed it began in the caliphate of Uthmn (cited in Siddq 1993, 32).
Siddiqi writes that intermittent examples of fabrications were found in the time of the
200
Prophet and during the caliphate of Ab Bakr (1993, 32).
124
On the basis of the prophetic
report Let whoever tells lies about me deliberately take his place in hell, Brown
concludes that this can be taken to mean that Muhammad knew that there were those
among his Companions who were spreading lies about him (1999, 85).
125

Al-Sib believes that the year forty was the dividing point between the purity of the
sunna from lies and forgery (1998, 92). He adds that it is extremely difficult to believe
that the Companions would forge traditions on a large scale, in the time of the Prophet
and immediately after. Instead, it was the subsequent events between Al and Muwiya
which resulted in the first serious assault on the sunna of the Prophet (1998, 93-5). Muir
too voices a similar opinion (1858, I: xxxix), as does al-Slih when he said that forgery
begun in the year forty one, in the Caliphate of Al. (al-Slih 1999, 266). Goldziher
points out that al-Muhallab (d. 83/702) forged traditions, which, if true, makes him one of
the earliest fabricators of hadth (1971, 52).
It is perhaps easier to identify when fabricated traditions became a major issue in Islam,
rather than attempting to pinpoint when exactly it started. Mlik (d. 179/795) did not
allow fabricators under the disguise of story-tellers into the Prophets Mosque in Madina
(Siddq 1993, 35). Hammd ibn Zayd (98/716-179/795) famously said that the heretics
had fabricated fourteen thousand traditions (al-Suyt 1972 1: 284). What is clear from

124
The example he refers to is recorded by al-Suyt, which describes a man called Jadjad who desired to
marry a woman from a far-off tribe. He approached the tribe leaders and told him he had authority from the
Prophet in Madina. The tribe leaders checked the authenticity of the report by sending someone to the
Prophet to enquire further. When the falsity of the report became apparent, the Prophet ordered his
followers to find the liar. If they were to found him alive, they were to kill him. If they were to find him
dead they were to burn his body. Before the followers of the Prophet reached him, Jadjad was killed by a
snake bite (al-Suyt 1998, 2: 136).
125
The integrity of the Companions will be discussed in detail in section 5.41.2.
201
both of these references is that by the middle of the second Islamic century, forgery was a
serious problem.
In light of all the vast arrays of opinion regarding when exactly forgery began, it can be
said with some certainty that other than a handful of sporadic examples, the forgery of
prophetic traditions was not widespread in the lifetime of the Prophet, or immediately
after it. By the end of the first Islamic century however, it was evident enough to be
considered a source of anxiety for hadth scholars.

5.24.4. Who were the fabricators?
Clearly, the culprits who forged traditions did not fit a particular description and instead
took on a number of different disguises. The main categories of fabricators were;

a. The pious traditionists.
Al-Sib writes that a considerable number of Muslims who were known for their piety
and devotion to Islam fabricated traditions. The aim was to encourage people to perform
righteous actions (1998, 104). Ordinary Muslims would judge their outwardly character
and consequently accept their tales as authentic. How could someone accuse a Muslim of
fabricating traditions, when, like the example of Ab Dwd al-Nakha, they would
spend the entire night in Prayer and the entire day in fast? (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 283). For
this reason, the hadth masters considered this category of fabricators as the worst,
because of their contradiction between outlook and practice (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 281: Ibn
al-Salh 1986, 99).
202
There are no shortages of such examples. Al-Suyt writes that Nh ibn Ab Maryam had
fabricated several traditions, by falsely using the chain of Ibn Abbs. Most of the reports
he forged were regarding the superiority of different chapters of the Qurn. When the
hadth specialists uncovered his antics and asked what had driven him to such behaviour,
he replied: I saw people turning away from the Qurn and becoming immersed in the
fiqh of Ab Hanfa and the Maghzi of Ibn Ishq. So I fabricated these traditions (al-
Suyt 1972, 1: 282; Azami 1977, 69).
126

This oft-repeated quote from Nh does not comply with the writings of Goldziher, who
wrote that the early Umayyad period was marked by the promotion of profane literature
(1971, 189). He adds that Muhammad ibn Ishq had the merit of diverting the princes
from occupying themselves with books that were of no use and turning their attention to
the conquests of the Prophet, his mission and the beginning of creation (1971, 190). Nh
disagrees because he noted the lack of attention to prophetic literature was because of the
unhealthy obsession with the Maghzi of Ibn Ishq. For Goldziher, Ibn Ishq marked the
return to the hadth literature; for Nh he marked the diversion from it.
This aside, however, the Muslim and non-Muslim academics agree: that the pious
traditionists did forge reports. Where they differ is the reason behind it. The above
analysis shows that the Muslim academics believe they forged them for religious
purposes. The Westerners, particularly Goldziher, believe that they forged reports to fight
the tyrant Umayyad regime.

126
Maysara ibn Abd Rabbihi was another devout character who forged fabrications. To the ordinary
masses, he was known as an ascetic and pious Muslim. In fact, on the day he died the shops of Baghdad
closed in his respect. Despite this, he forged countless traditions relating to the superiority of certain
chapters of the Qurn and the superiority of Al (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 282).
203

b. Heretics (zindqs).
In an attempt to confuse unrest and confusion, many non-Muslims often of Manichean
leanings (Siddiqi 1993, 33) forged traditions and diluted them into the mainstream
sayings and traditions of the Prophet. Hammad ibn Zayd comments that the zindiqs
fabricated in the region of fourteen thousand traditions in the name of the Prophet. Abd
al-Karm ibn Ab al-Awj was caught and as he was about to be executed, confessed that
he personally had forged four-thousand traditions (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 284).

c. Story-tellers (qusss)
This category of fabricators probably gained prominence early on in the history of Islam.
To attract a larger audience as possible and to achieve fame and fortune, the story tellers
would attempt to narrate the strangest and most amusing stories. Often this meant forging
reports and attributing them to the sayings of the Prophet (Siddiqi 1993, 34). Al-Sib
adds that unfortunately, rather than ousting them from the public eye, the Muslims
merely fuelled their antics by attending such events (1998, 104).

d. Sectarian groups.
Al-Sib writes that political and religious indifferences was perhaps the main catalyst in
the diffusion of fabricated traditions (1998, 96). The Rfids and Shas were undoubtedly
responsible for seeking assistance for their innovative beliefs by the fabrications of
traditions. Hammd ibn Zayd once said that a shaykh from the Rfids had personally
told him that they would hold gatherings to fabricate traditions (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 275).
204
One Muslim belonging to a sectarian group reverted from his beliefs and confessed: Pay
attention to whom you take narrations from, for when we adopted any opinion, we would
forge it into a hadth (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 275). Al-Imm al-Shfi too was aware of the
Rfidss tendencies to forge traditions and warned they were the most likely to ascribe
lies to the Prophet (cited in al-Sib 1998, 96).

e. Other categories of fabricators.
The above four categories account for the majority of the fabricators in early Islam. There
were however other groups who were spurred by other motives. Some for instance forged
traditions to achieve proximity to political personalities. Ghiyth ibn Ibrhm, an
associate of al-Mahd, forged a tradition regarding racing pigeons to please him (al-Sib
1998, 105). In the Nuzhah, Ibn Hajar mentions this example and adds that one of the
reasons why Muslims in the past fabricated was in pursuit of pleasing some leaders.
Therefore there is substantial substance in Goldzihers view that politics played a major
role in the fabrication of prophetic reports. Azami, on the other hand, totally dismisses
such a possibility. When discussing the different types of forgers that existed, he wrote:

Scholars mention a class of fabricators who used to fabricate for the sake of rulers.
It is very remarkable that one finds only one example [i.e. Ghiyth ibn Ibrhms
pigeon-racing report] of this sort which has been repeated by the scholars (Azami
1977, 69).

205
Another minor group of fabricators were those who forged traditions to support a
particular school of thought, or a particular disputed religious issue. For example, one
person forged a tradition proclaiming Ab Hanfa as the lantern of the umma and
simultaneously degrading al-Imm al-Shfi as more harmful than the devil (al-Suyt
1972, 1: 278). Another forged tradition claimed that a person who denies that the Qurn
was created (makhlq) exits the fold of Islam (al-Sib 1998, 105).
In short, it is clear that the hadth masters had an additional problem in dealing with
forged traditions in that they did not fit any one particular category. The above analysis
shows they often came from all walks of life, with various motives.

5. 24. 5. The method of the fabricators.
Ibn Hajar comments in the Nuzhah that the fabricators had two main methods. Either they
would forge the text themselves, or would take a saying of pious individuals, traditional
leaders or Christians and Jews and ascribe it to the Prophet. Most forged traditions were
of the former type (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 277).

5. 24. 6. Fabricated Traditions; A problem out of control?
It is easy to readily assume that the issue of forged traditions spiralled out of control and
the hadth masters had no means to prevent it spreading. This is the conclusion many
have made including Brown. He writes:

206
the muhaddithn, no matter how dedicated, were simply too distant from the
time of the Prophet, and forgery had become too rampant, for authentic hadth to
be recovered (1999, 96).

However, one must not neglect the fact that the hadth masters had several means to
detect fabrications and to sift the authentic sayings from the forged ones. If the problem
of forgery was extensive, the hadth masters efforts to identify them were also extensive
and long-reaching. Also, as it will be shown, perhaps many have exaggerated (Muslims
and non-Muslims) the extent of the problem.
So far, an account has been given of who the fabricators were and the methods they
employed. It has been conclusively shown that the hadth masters were up against a vast
array of fabricators who did not fit one particular description. Moreover, the hadth
masters had to deal with a century or more of forgeries. In this next section, it will be
shown how the hadth masters tackled the problem, and how, for Muslims at least, the
problem was not as epidemic as many assumed.

a. Confessions of the fabricators.
Quite often, the guilty narrators themselves confessed to their crimes and gave
themselves up to the authorities. Nh ibn Ab Maryam fabricated countless traditions
relating to the superiority of different chapters of the Qurn. Eventually, he came
forward and confessed to the fabrications (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 282; al-Sib 1998, 105;
Ibn al-Salh 1986, 100). Maysara, another narrator who forged traditions concerning the
207
Qurn, too confessed (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 274). Hence, occasionally the hadth masters
did not have to do anything to tackle the problem of forgeries.

b. Biographical research by the hadth masters.
This method was to check the validity of the report by investigating when the narrator
heard the tradition from the shaykh. The hadth master would then cross-reference the
claim with each of the individuals birth dates, dates of travel and death date. History
testifies that this was an exceptionally useful tool to prevent fabrications. For example,
Mamn ibn Ahmad al-Haraw claimed that he had heard from Hishm ibn Ammr. Ibn
Hibbn asked him when he went to Syria to take the narration. He replied in the year 250.
Ibn Hibbn replied: The Hishm you heard from died in 245 (al-Sib 1998, 115). Abd
Allh ibn Ishq al-Kirman reportedly heard from Muhammad ibn Ab Yqb. He was
told that Muhammad died nine years before he was born (al-Sib 1998, 115-6).
There are many such examples given by the Muslim scholars. It shows how ilm al-rijl
did play a role in the prevention and detection of fabrications. Ilm al-rijl never claimed
to cover every aspect of a reporters life. But it did certainly help in providing the basic
biographical dates of the reporters, which then helped immensely in validating claims of
transmission. It may have been only an approximate science and sometimes flawed,
like Brown described it (1999, pp. 96-7), but this field of knowledge did serve some
function.
Perhaps the saying of Sufyn al-Thawr epitomises the usefulness of applying historical
data to identify forgery. When the narrators began lying he remarked, we began using
history against them (cited in al-Sib 1998, 115).
208

c. Indication in the narrator.
Ibn Hajar writes that the condition and circumstances of the narrator sometimes suggests
the hadth is fabricated. He cites the example of Ghiyth who forged a tradition regarding
pigeon racing. Al-Mahd was playing with pigeons at the time. Al-Suyt writes that if
the matn of the hadth is regarding the family of the Prophet, and the narrator is a Rfid,
then this also gives reasons for the hadth master to believe the report is fabricated (al-
Suyt 1972, 1: 276). For example, one report they forged was where the Prophet was
supposed to have said: When you see Muwiya on the throne, kill him (al-Sib 1998,
98).
Thus sometimes the circumstances of the narrator clearly suggest that tradition has no
basis.

d. Indication in the matn of the hadth.
Muslims assert that if one assumes it was simple to fabricate a few words and then simply
ascribe it to the Prophet, it was most certainly not easy to fabricate a few words which
resembled the words of the Prophet. After all, the Prophet was gifted with a unique
command of the Arabic language, able to convey a message with striking effect and
eloquence (Iyd 2002, 48). What this meant was that more often than not, the words of
the Prophet could be easily distinguished from the word of others.
The hadth scholars had many ways of detecting forgeries from looking at the text of the
hadth. These included;

209
a. The text contradicts the Qurn, the established and proven sunna, the unanimous
consensus and common sense (Ibn Hajar 1995, 71: Siddiqi 1993, 114) Earlier it was
mentioned how the heretics (zindiqs) had forged fourteen thousand traditions. For most
part, they contradicted the basic tenets of Islam and thus its forgery was readily
identifiable, even by the most amateur of scholars. For example, one tradition claimed
that Noahs Ark circled the Kaba seven times and read two units of Prayer at the Station
of Ibrhm (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 279, al-Sib 1998, 117). Clearly, this defies logic and
common sense.
b. The text refers to a substantially large reward for a relatively small action, or refers to a
severe punishment for a relatively trivial error (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 276). Storytellers were
identified earlier as known forgers, and very often their crime were uncovered because of
the blatant discrepancy between action and reward. An example is the forged tradition:

When someone reads there is no God but Allh, Allh then creates a bird for
him which has seventy thousand tongues. Each tongue of the bird can speak
seventy thousand languages and they all seek forgiveness for the person (al-Sib
1998, 120).

Al-Sib adds that the fabrications of storytellers were simple to identify because the
meaning was far-fetched and contrary to common sense (1998, 103). Muir believes that
fabrications could be identified by:

210
the attempts of narrators to exaggerate their labours and exploits, and to
multiply their losses and perils, in the service of the Prophet and of Islam. (Muir
1858, I; LX)

c. Traditions which contain detailed prophecies of future events, equipped with dates
(Siddiqi 1993, 114).
d. Traditions in which the matn violate the basic rules of Arabic grammar and style
(Ibid.).
e. Traditions that describe the excellence of certain chapters of the Qurn and mention
the superior virtues of persons, tribes and particular places should also be viewed with
some scepticism, according to Siddiqi (1993, 114).

What this proves is that matn criticism did exist in some form. Brown quotes Sayyid
Ahmad Khn who argues that the hadth masters were so concerned only with the
continuity of transmission and the character of the transmitters that they completely
ignored the subject matter of the traditions and failed to look at either internal or
historical evidence (1999, 97). A similar opinion has been voiced from Schacht (1959, 3).
But what the above analysis shows is that the hadth masters did take matn criticism on
board, and that it played some role in rooting out the authentic reports from the forged.
This is certainly the case with the reports extolling the virtue of certain chapters in the
Qurn (Azami 1977, 69).
Likewise, when a report mentioned a specific event, the scholars could validate it by
analysing whether it complied with the proven dates. For example, one hadth reports that
211
the Prophet levied tax (jizya) on the people of Khaybar but spared them doing unpaid
labour, upon the testimony of Sad ibn Mudh and written advice of Muwiya. History
testifies that this report must be fabricated: jizya was not introduced in the year of
Khaybar, but after the Battle of Tabk. Moreover, Sad died before this and Muwiya
did not accept Islam until much later, at the conquest of Makka (al-Sib 1998, 118).

e. The intuitive method.
So far, the formal and objective methods of detecting forged traditions have been
mentioned. However, perhaps the most useful yet unscientific tool the hadth masters
possessed in the fight against forgery was the intuitive method.
The hadth masters had accumulated and learnt thousands of traditions of the Prophet.
Yah y ibn Main had written six-hundred thousand prophetic reports (al-Khatb al-
Baghdd 1996, 2: 255). Ab Zur had written two-hundred thousand prophetic reports
(al-Khatb al-Baghdd 1996, 2: 256). Al-Bukhr knew in the region of seven-hundred
thousand traditions. In fact, most of the hadth masters had learnt over one-hundred
thousand traditions. This had enabled them to develop an acute appreciation of the style
of prophetic speech and his actions. Years of studying the sayings and actions of the
Prophet had bestowed them the instinctive ability to identify his sayings and differentiate
them from the sayings and actions of others. Thus, the detection of forgery became
second nature. Their intuition could immediately help to identify which sayings could be
accurately described as being prophetic.
Ibn Daqq al-d was an early advocate of this method. He stated that owing to the depth
and length of their studies, the hadth masters could easily appreciate what the Prophet
212
could and could not have said (al-Sib 1998, 116-7). Al-Imm Bulqin too was of the
same opinion when he said that when a servant serves a master for a number of years, he
gains an understanding of what the master likes or dislikes. When someone claims that
the master likes a certain object, the slave can instantly and instinctively vouch for the
authenticity of the claim (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 276: al-Sib 1998, 117). Azami writes:

Scholars who spent a great deal of their lives with the ahdith of the Prophet
developed a sense which they could use instantly in detecting error. Their
example was like that of a man who lived with a beloved friend for scores of
years, knew him very well in every situation and so could easily say which
statement belonged to him and which not. Similarly, a literary critic who studies a
poet for a long time and becomes fully acquainted with his style can, on the basis
of his perception and personal experience, easily detect a poem which does not
belong to the poet (1977, 71).

Therefore, the hadth masters did not have a huge task on their hand in detecting forgery.
Along with the objective tools, their own intuition and instinct was a significant asset. Al-
Rab was most probably referring to the value of the intuitive method when he remarked:
the hadth has a light as bright as daylight which helps to identify it (in al-Slih 1999,
264). It also explains Ibn al-Mubraks response when he was asked about the extent of
fabrications. He coolly remarked, the fabrications live with the experts; Indeed we
revealed the Remembrance and verily We are its protectors
127
(al-Suyt 1972, 1: 282).

127
Qurn, 15; 9.
213
5.24.7. Conclusion.
No scholar Muslim or non-Muslim would dare to suggest the problem of forgery in
prophetic traditions was of minor significance. It sometimes left the hadth masters
baffled and it distorted the portrayal of the sunna. In reply however, one must not neglect
the extent of the effort employed by the hadth scholars to fight forgery. Their dedication
and devotion in sifting the authentic traditions from the fabricated is unquestioned. Many
non-Muslim writers have overlooked their effort and argued that by the time forgery had
become common practice, it was too late to save the sunna. In response to this claim,
Brown raises an interesting point:

Who are we to judge, when we are so much farther removed from the events then
they [the hadth masters] were? The experts in hadth certainly knew much more
than we do. All the research in the world will not turn up anything new that the
muhaddithn did not take into account; any reassessment will therefore amount to
nothing but personal opinion. New research cannot change past events (1999, 99).

An additional point to highlight is the discussion of how the issue has been portrayed by
Muslims. Undoubtedly, the Muslim scholars took the issue of fabrications very seriously
and this was reflected by the effort they exerted to detect it. Perhaps no type of hadth
received as much interest and investigation than fabricated traditions. Ibn Hajars own
lengthy analysis reflects how important he viewed it. It is easy therefore to misinterpret
214
the extent of the problem, because of the large amount of care and attention it received
from Muslim scholars.
128

Hadth scholars were marked by a large degree of precaution in their work and analysis.
Even the slightest doubt was sufficient for a scholar to decree a tradition as not authentic.
Perhaps this precaution also resulted in the misinterpretation of the extent of the problem
of forged traditions. This is certainly the case with the works of Ibn al-Jawz, who was
severely criticised by al-Suyt
129
and others for including several authentic traditions in
his book devoted to fabricated traditions. Included in this number were traditions to be
found in Sunan Ab Dwd, Sunan al-Tirmidhi, Sunan al-Nasi, Sunan Ibn Mja and
even Sahih al-Bukhri (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 278-9). Part of the problem of Ibn al-Jawzs
work was that he based a large part of it on al-Abtil, by al-Jzqn, who was known to
deem any hadth contrary to the sunna as fabricated (al-Slih 1999, 271). The other factor
was that he was prone to rash generalisations. Because some forged traditions did
certainly exist on the merits of individuals, tribes or towns, he decreed that all or most
traditions of this genre too were forged (Kamali 2005, pp. 40-1). This is despite the fact
that a large array of authentic traditions do exist on the merits of certain individuals and
places.
Likewise, we learn that the likes of al-Asm, Shuba and al-Abbs ibn al-Mughra held
the view that anyone who studies hadth without learning Arabic grammar is categorised
as a forger (Siddiqi 1993, 85). In other words, there are numerous ways a report has been
classified as forged when it is clearly not.

128
The Muslim scholars have in fact compiled individual anthologies on forged traditions, the most famous
being the works of Ibn al-Jawz, Mull Ali al-Qr and al-Shawkn.
129
Al-Suyt wrote a book criticising him entitled al-Taaqqubt al al-mawdt.
215
Scholars have frequently categorised a certain hadth as mawd, though in reality it
belongs to another type. This too obscures the extent of the problem of forgery. An
example of this is mudraj, where a text has been mistakenly inserted by one of the
narrators
130
. Ibn al-Salh has viewed this type of hadth as a forgery (1986, 100). In his
book, he writes: sometimes forgery happens unintentionally, as what happened to
Thbit ibn Ms al-bid al-Zhid in the hadth: Whosoever performs Prayer by night,
his face is beautiful by day (1986, 100).

Scholars are quick to point out that this occurrence falls under the category of mudraj, not
mawd (al-Slih 1999, pp.272-3).
131

Ibn al-Salh wrote that labelling a report as sahih merely guarantees that the stated
conditions are to be found in it (1986, pp.13-14).
132
Likewise, when a report is labelled as
not sahih it means that the one or all of the conditions are missing, and not that the
report is baseless (Ibid.). Unfortunately, when a particular report has been declared as
not sahih, some have jumped to the conclusion that it is therefore forged. This, however,
is simply not the case, since it could mean it is Fair or Weak. Certainly, Muir (1858) is
one such academic who has seemingly fallen into this trap. He cites the famous fact that
al-Bukhr knew six-hundred thousand prophetic reports and deduces that only four
thousand from them were authentic, since that is how many he included in his own Sahih
(1858, I; xliii). Muir does not entertain the fact that by not being sahih, the reports could

130
Mudraj will be discussed in section 5.28.
131
The full story is that Thbit ibn Ms al-bid al-Zhid entered upon Shark whilst he was dictating
traditions. As he finished reading a chain, he paused so the auditor could finish writing. When he saw
Thbit he said Whosoever performs Prayer by night, his face is beautiful by day, as a praise of his ascetic
qualities and piety. Listeners however thought the words linked to the isnd, and began narrating it as one
hadth.
132
In section 5.9.2.
216
have been fair or weak, rather than forged. When something is described as not being
black, it does not automatically mean it is white: it could be grey, red or blue. Al-
Bukhr made it explicitly clear that he knew of thousands of more sound reports than
what he included in his Sahih, but did not include them because he feared the compilation
would be too long (Khalfa 1983, 57).
133

There is further evidence to suggest the problem of fabrications was not as extensive as
suggested. Earlier, it was mentioned that the heretics had fabricated thousands of
traditions, including Abd al-Karm ibn Ab al-Awj who confessed to fabricating four
thousand traditions. Azami writes that one should be cautious in accepting such
confessions, particularly since he was about to be hanged. After [the] confession, writes
Azami, we grade him as a liar. And it might be part of a conspiracy that when that
person was unable to destroy the faith of the people in the sunna of the Prophet, he used
this final trick (1977, 69). Hence, Azami suggests that the heretics perhaps did not
fabricate as many traditions they claimed to have.
On a last note, Muslims take comfort in the fact that paradoxically, mawd proves the
authenticity of hadth literature. The existence of mawd is the biggest proof that early
Muslims did not fabricate traditions on a grand-scale as depicted by Schacht and
Goldziher. As Robson asks, why were some men blamed for acting dishonestly while
others were allowed to do the same thing without any attention being drawn to the fact?
(in Azami 1992, 243). Or as al-Sib bluntly asks:

133
Kamali offers an alternative explanation. He writes that the figure of 600,000 was reduced to 9,082
because he has repeated ahdth which had more than one chain of isnd as the strength and reliability of
the isnd is deemed to increase with the plurality of its chains of transmission. When such repetitions are
taken into account, the original figure of 600,000 is also likely to be drastically reduced. For a single hadth
is sometimes transmitted through ten different chains of transmission all of which in the end establish just
one hadth. (2005, 33).
217

The pious scholars of Islam in the Umayyad period; did they collude with the
scholars of Madina in fabrication? And how did this happen? And where did the
conference to enact this tactic take place? And if they did not collude with the
scholars of Madina, why did they remain silent (about their supposed mass
fabrication) and why did they take prophetic reports from them? (1998, 225).

5. 25. Matrk the Discarded.
The second type from the rejected [traditions] is by reason of the narrator being
accused of lying, [which is called] matrk.
Commentary
Ibn Hajar does not expand on the matrk, and in fact Ibn al-Salh did not mention this
type at all. However from other sources, we learn that a hadth can be categorised as
matrk for two possible reasons. Firstly, a narrator narrates a tradition which no one else
has mentioned, and the meaning of the text contradicts established, practiced laws.
134

Secondly, a narrator lies in his everyday speech, though it has not been established as to
whether he has lied in narrating prophetic reports.
135

134
For example, innocent till proven guilty.
135
An example of such a hadth is provided by Tahhn, when he cites the case of Amr ibn Shimar al-Juf
al-Kf al-Sh, from Jbir, from Ab Tufayl, from Al and Ammr who said: The Prophet would
perform qunt at fajr Prayer, and he would perform takbir on the day of arafa after fajr, and stop at asr on
the last day of tashriq. Al-Nas, al-Draqutn and others have said that the hadth of Amr ibn Shimar al-
Juf is matrk (Tahhn 2001, 70).
218

5. 26. Munkar.
The third is munkar according to the opinion of those who do not add the condition
of opposition in munkar. And similarly, the fourth and the fifth [is also called
munkar]. So whoever makes severe mistakes, or whose negligence is excessive, or his
lewdness is apparent, then the hadth is munkar.
Commentary
The author previously defined munkar in the section on marf and munkar (section 5.12).
It is where the report of a weak narrator is opposed by someone who is more reliable. The
report which is accepted is then called marf.
Not everyone adheres to this definition of munkar. Here, Ibn Hajar cites the definition of
munkar according to those who do not agree with the above definition. He writes that the
third, fourth and fifth reason for rejection all have the same name munkar. These
reasons are severe mistakes by the reporter, negligence and open lewdness. Any of these
three reasons results in classifying the report as munkar.
Perhaps munkar is the most ambiguously defined type of hadth amongst the scholars. In
essence, a hadth labelled as munkar can be (i) because a weak narrator has opposed
someone more authoritative (ii) because the reporter makes severe mistakes (iii) because
the reporter is negligent (iv) or because the reporter is of lewd character. There is even a
219
fifth definition from Hfiz Ab Bakr Bardj who defines munkar as the hadth whose
matn is not known except from its [lone] reporter (Mighlw 2003, 431).
136

It is however possible to harmonise between these different views when one utilises the
views of al-Imm Muslim as a backdrop. In the introduction to his Sahih, he refers to
munkar in detail and identifies how this type can be identified; when the reporters
transmissions are compared with reliable reporters and it contradicts them (Juynboll 1996,
III: 269). It is quite possible that the other views on what constitutes munkar the severe
mistakes, the reporters negligence and his lewd conduct is directly as a result of his
opposition of more reliable reporters. This contradiction is a clue that he did not take it
from the sources he claims to have done so, or that he did not show the same precautions
his contemporaries did.
Additionally, the section on munkar does indicate a reversal of what is otherwise a
prevalent trend in the Nuzhah; the abundance of technical terms. Here we find that one
term munkar is sufficient to cover an array of scenarios.

5. 27. Muallal- The Defective.
Then the doubt and this is the sixth type; and it has been clarified by name
because of the long explanation of it
137
if the doubt in it is known through the

136
For example, al-Nas and Ibn Mja have recorded from Ab Zukayr Yahy ibn Muhammad ibn Qays,
from Hishm ibn Urwa, from his father, from isha marfan: Eat unripe dates with ripe dates. For
when man does so, the devil becomes angry. Al-Nas remarked: This hadth is munkar. Ab Zukayr is
alone in narrating this. He is a pious shaykh as [al-Imm] Muslim uses him in supporting narrations, but he
has not reached the point where he can be trusted to narrate alone (Tahhn 2001, 72).

137
Ibn Hajar did not elaborate on munkar and matrk. In fact the original Nukhbah merely reads: and
the second type is matrk and the third is munkar according to an opinion. And so munkar is [also] the
fourth and fifth. This is why at the beginning of this section on muallal, he writes that the reason for
220
means of indicating factors, such as making the mursal or the munqati continuous ,
or such as inserting a hadth into another or harmful acts similar to these; and this
is identified by intensive investigation and the gathering of the [numerous] chains,
then this is [called] muallal. This is one of the deeply [ambiguous] types [to uncover]
in ilm al-hadth and one of the most intrinsic. No one can aspire to [tackle it] except
he whom Allh Almighty has favoured with a penetrating understanding, a vast
memory, a complete awareness of the different ranks of reporters and a strong
grasp of chains and texts. For this reason, only a few have spoken on the issue from
the people of this field, like Al ibn al-Madn, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, al-Bukhr,
Yaqb ibn Ab Shayba, Ibn Ab Htim, Ab Zura and al-Draqutn. Sometimes
the investigator of muallal falls short from establishing evidence for his claim [that
a particular report is muallal], like a money exchanger in deeming counterfeit
dirhams and dnrs.

Commentary
As a technical term, muallal needs close analysis before we proceed to look at Ibn
Hajars discussion on it. Muallal as a term does not appear in the works of al-
Mayynishs (d. 581/1185) in his treatise on ilm al-hadith (Librande 1982). In al-
Suyts Tadrib we are told who can tackle this field (the men of memorization,
information and penetrating understanding), what an illa is literally (a hidden
defamatory defect which looks sound apparently), where it can appear (mostly in the
isnd though sometimes in the matn) and the different forms it can assume, which is the

elaborating on this type (and it has been clarified by name because of the long explanation of it) is due to
its importance and thus the extra explanation required.
221
same as what is mentioned in the Nuzhah (1972, 1: pp. 251-3). Ibn al-Salh again informs
us that it is a discipline reserved for the most competent scholars (1986, 89). He gives an
example of how it can occur in the matn and isnd and how the term can be used in
different ways (1986, pp. 90-1). Al-Irqs Alfiyya refers to whether the correct term is
muallal or mall, where it can occur (isnd and matn) and how it can be spotted (by
intense investigation) (1995, pp. 100-103).
In all of these discussions, the detail is present but it is still difficult to pinpoint what
exactly muallal is. It seems that the hadth scholars have tried to give an objective
portrayal of muallal though in reality it is anything but. Other terms pertain to a
particular problem and scenario and can easily be differentiated from others. Mawd,
matrk, munkar, mursal and bida are easy to define and their over-whelming feature can
be explained. Mursal is a drop after the Successor. Munkar is the opposition of an
authoritative. This is totally missing in muallal. It can occur in the matn and the isnd. It
can come about because of issues related to the continuity of the isnd or because of a
hidden defect in the narrator. In my opinion, it is a term coined for when the hadth
masters cannot objectively explain why it is rejected. It is an ad hoc term used when it
cannot categorised as mawd, matrk, munkar, mursal, bida and so on. When al-
Bukhr and the other experts declare a report as rejected (based on their intuition) and
later scholars cannot objectively see how they reached that decision, then it is
conveniently labelled muallal. This explains why the Nuzhah states that a muallal report
does not need to be justified for its rejection, in the same manner a money exchanger
does not need to give proof why he thinks the dirhams and dinrs in front of him are
counterfeit.
222
This point is important for two reasons. Firstly, muallal shows that the later hadth
scholars did not fully know the methodology of al-Bukhr when it came to declaring
reports sound or otherwise. If they did, then there would be no need for a type called
muallal. Secondly, it indicates how important the technical terms were for the hadth
scholars. Even in the absence of technicality and objectivity and in the presence of
intuition and gut-feeling, they still gave a technical feel to the discipline. It was a
scientific term to an intuitive method and an attempt to define something vague. This
shows how the technical terms in the field were used for different, covert purposes.

Proceeding to the Nuzhah on muallal, we see that Ibn Hajar offers only a glimpse into it.
One of the reasons perhaps is because he defined it earlier in the text on the section on
sahh.
138
There he wrote:

And muallal literally is that which contains a defect. And terminologically, it is
that in which there is a hidden, defamatory, defect.

In this section, the text does inform us that;
i. This type of hadth is based on the premises of doubt. For example, a reporter may try
to pass a mursal or munqati hadth off as continuous when in fact it is clearly
discontinuous.
ii. Finding such faults is extremely difficult. This is the reason why only a handful of
scholars can claim proficiency in this type of hadth, such as Al ibn al-Madn.
138
See section 5.9.
223
iii. Even such experts sometimes fail to present evidence as to why a particular report is
muallal. Instead they intuitively justify their opinion, rather like an experienced money-
exchanger who can pass a judgement on a currency note being fake, without objectively
explaining why.
These two last points, it seems, relate to one another. A prominent theme that we have
already observed throughout the Nuzhah is the appeal to respect authority and to accept
the opinion of past, great hadth masters. Here again, Ibn Hajar is highlighting this theme,
but in a more intense manner. The Nuzhah is informing the reader that it is the task of the
great hadth masters like Al ibn al-Madn, Ahmad ibn Hanbal and al-Bukhr to analyse
muallal. In fact, their authority is so great that they sometimes do not even need to
empirically prove why a particular report is defective. Rather, like a money-exchanger
who cannot objectively explain why he feels a currency is counterfeit, we do not require
an explanation why the past hadth masters have declared a report as muallal; their
decree is simply sufficient.
Again this section highlights the primacy of seniority in the discipline. It also questions
whether the methods employed by the early hadth were indeed empirical and scientific.
Ibn Hajar is suggesting that sometimes, their mere opinion and intuition is sufficient as
evidence for us.
5. 28. Mudraj- the Material Interpolated.
Then the opposition and this is the seventh type if it occurs by reason of the
changing of the text or the changing of the isnd, then that alteration is mudraj al-
isnd. And this is of many types. The first is that a group reports a hadth with
different chains. Then one from them reports it by gathering all into one chain from
224
the numerous chains and then does not explain the variation. The second is that a
narrator has the text except part of it. The remainder he has with a different isnd.
He then reports the entire text using the first isnd.
139
And from [this type too] is
that the narrator hears a text from his shaykh and hears the rest of it indirectly. He
then narrates it collectively with the omission of the indirect [reporter]. The third is
that the reporter has two reports with two different chains. He then reports both of
the reports using one of the chains only, or he narrates one of the reports with its
own specific chain and adds in the second text that which is not found in the first.
The fourth is that the narrator reads an isnd and is then distracted, after which he
says something himself. Some of the listeners think the [distracted] dialogue is the
text for that chain and then narrates it [to others] as such. These are the types of
mudraj al-isnd. As for mudraj al-matn, this is when dialogue occurs in the matn that
does not belong to it. Sometimes it is at the beginning of the matn, sometimes in the
middle and sometimes in the end, which is the most common because it occurs by
joining a sentence to the next. Or [mudraj can be] by the merging of a mawqf from
the speech of the Companions or those after them into a marf from the speech of
the Prophet without clarification. This is then mudraj al-matn. The interpolated
can be identified by the appearance of a detailed report highlighting the
interpolated part, or [it can be identified] by the statement from the reporter or
from some of the versed imms, or [it can be identified] due to the impossibility that

139
Ibn al-Salh offers an example of this scenario:
An illustration of this is the hadth of Sufyn ibn Uyayna and Zhida ibn Qudma from sim ibn Kulayb
from his father from Wil ibn Hujr concerning the description of the prayer of the Messenger of God, at
the end of which we find: He came in the winter and saw them raising their hands under their cloaks. The
correct version is the transmission of those who related from sim ibn Kulaib under this chain the
description of the prayer by itself and kept separate from it the reference to their raising their hands. They
related the [second part] from sim ibn Kulayb from Abd al-Jabbr ibn Wil from one of the members
of his family from Wil ibn Hujr (1986, 98).
225
the Prophet could have said it. Al-Khatb [al-Baghdd] has compiled a book on
mudraj, and I have summarised it and added to it twice or more than what he
mentioned.
140
And for Allh is praise.

Commentary
Ibn Hajar sees mudraj as important, which is reflected here by the fact he spends
considerable effort in explaining its division (mudraj al-isnd and mudraj al-matn) and
the forms it can assume. This is in addition to the fact that he alerts the reader of his work
specifically on this topic, which he asks readers to consider.
It does not require substantial effort to deduce why the author sees mudraj as important,
in particular mudraj al-matn. Ibn Hajar wants the reader to appreciate how crucial it was
to keep the text of the hadth pure from additional and alien input. If mechanisms are not
found to root out mudraj, then it can lead to forgery or at the very least, confusion over
what the Prophet said and what others (like the Companions reporting it) said in one
report.
Additionally, Ibn Hajar here is implicitly adding weight to the hadth authenticity debate.
The existence of mudraj, and in particular mudraj al-matn, is a clear indication of the
hadth scholars expertise and awareness. They had the ability to study one text and
deduce which part belonged to the Prophets words and which belonged to the
Companions or other transmitters. If they could sift the prophetic words from the non-
prophetic from one text, surely they could identify texts in which all of it did not stem
from the Prophet, namely a forged report. So in essence, the complexity of the system

140
Al-Khatb al-Baghdd wrote a treatise on the subject, which he later edited and improved on. Al-
Khatbs text is called al-Fasl li-al-wasl al-mudraj fi- al-naqal. Ibn Hajars book is called Taqrib al-manhaj
bi tartib al-mudraj.
226
laid down by the hadth scholars was a means of refuting those who doubted it and the
Nuzhah here reflects this sentiment. For Muslims, this is a running theme which brings
comfort and reassurance. The dialogue of the Prophet was so extraordinary that others
simply could not imitate his sayings. Al-Rab remarked that the hadth has a light as
bright as daylight which helps to identify it (in al-Slih 1999, 264).

5. 29. Maqlb- the Mixed-up.
If the opposition is due to preceding and delaying, namely in the names like Murra
ibn Kab and Kab ibn Murra, as the name of one of the two is the name of the
father of the other, then this is maqlb. For al-Khatb [al-Baghdd] is a book on this
[called] Rfi al-irtiyb.
141
The mixing sometimes occurs in the text too, like the
hadth of Ab Hurayra recorded by al-ImmMuslim, regarding the seven who
Allh will shade on the Day of Judgement beneath His throne which includes a man
that gives charitable donations discreetly to the extent that that the right hand does
not know what the left hand has spent. This has been mixed up by one of the
narrators; in reality it is to the extent the left hand does not know what the right
hand has spent, as it is recorded in the two Sahhs.

Commentary
Ibn Hajar explains maqlb here, a hadth where the existing text does not have any
omission in the text or chain, but one part has been altered and swapped for the other.

141
Al-Khatb al-Baghdds treatise on the subject is called Rfi al-irtiyb fi-al-maqlb min al-asm wa -
al-ansb (The Removal of doubt in the maqlb from the names and ancestries).

227
As Ibn Hajar highlights, this alteration can occur both in the text or chain.
Maqlb can take on various degrees of severity in terms of weakness, as mentioned
below:
a. That a narrator swaps a narrator for someone else, with the intention of making the
hadth rare. An example is a hadth from Slim, which one narrator swapped for
Nfi (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 291).
This has been the practice of forgers in the past, such as Hammd ibn Amr al-Nasb,
Isml ibn Ab Hayya al-Yasa and Buhll ibn Ubayd al-Kind (al-Qr 1994, 476).
142

A person who performs this type of qalb is known to have stolen the hadth (al-Suyt
1972, 1: 291)

b. That a narrator swaps a narrators name with his fathers. For example, Kab ibn Murra
has been erroneously reported as Murra ibn Kab.

c. That the narrator precedes and delays some words of the hadth. In the text, Ibn Hajar
gives the example where a reporter swapped the right hand for the left hand.
143

d. That the narrator takes the full chain of one hadth and places it on another matn, with
the intention of testing someone, like what famously happened to al-Imm al-Bukhr
when he first visited Baghdad.
144

142
In one example, Hammd ibn Amr al-Nasb narrated from al-Amash, from Ab Slih, from Ab
Hurayra: When you meet the polytheists in the streets, do not greet them first. Hammd made this hadth
maqlb. Though he said it was from al-Amash, it was in fact from Suhayl ibn Ab Slih, from his father,
from Ab Hurayra, as Muslim recorded it in his Sahih.
143
Al-Uthaymin writes that frequently the swapping does corrupt the meaning of the hadth and this report
is one such example. The reason is because the Prophet encouraged his followers to perform righteous
actions with their right hands. The maqlb version of the report suggests giving charitable donations with
the left is permissible (al-Uthaymin 2002, 218).
228

From these four forms, Ibn Hajar mentions the second and third form in the Nuzhah. He
does not mention the swapping done for the sake of testing (d) and the alteration with the
intention of making the hadth rare (a).
This omission, however, is justified. He does not mention form (d) here because Ibn
Hajar refers to this type as mudtarib, which he explains later in the Nuzhah. Though it
seems that this type should also be called maqlb (as a form of swapping and mixing has
occurred, which is what maqlb means), scholars such as al-Khatb al-Baghdd (1996, 1:
207-8), Ibn al-Salh (1986, 101), al-Irq (1995, 132), al-Suyt (1972, 1: 292) and
Tahhn (2001, 80) prefer to label this as a type of maqlb. Al-Munw explains that this
is also the opinion voiced by al-Nawaw (1999, 2: 90).
As for form (a), that a narrator swaps a narrator for someone else, with the intention of
making the hadth rare, Ibn Hajar does not mention it here in the Nuzhah because for him,
this is now a mawd hadth, not maqlb. Therefore, this short section on maqlb does
cover all the forms, though not necessarily all in this section.
This aside, maqlb can be due to an innocent mistake. But it can also come about due to
malicious intent. What this shows is that the forgers and fraudulent reporters had a vast

144
In al-Jmi li akhlq al-rwi wa db al-smi, al-Khatb al-Baghdd writes that in order to test the
academic potency of the hadth scholar, testing him by swapping the text and chain of reports is permissible.
Perhaps one of the most famous tests was when al-Imm al-Bukhr came to Baghdad. Ten hadth scholars
changed the isnds and text of one hundred traditions and read them to al-Bukhr. After hearing each
scholar reading ten traditions each, he told them that he had no knowledge of the traditions. He then
proceeded to correct each scholar and his narrations, so that the isnd and matn matched (Ibn al-Salh 1986,
101: al-Suyt 1972, 1: 293). Al-Bukhr faced a similar test in Samarqand and again he succeeded in
highlighting his proficiency and outstanding intellect (Siddiqi 1993, 55). Al-Imm Muslim too was put
through similar tribulations (Ibid.), as was al-Uqayl (Ibn Hajar 1995, 82).

As for the permissibility of such a practice, it seems the scholars of hadth do not encourage it. Al-Suyt
cites the opinion of al-Irq who believes the swapping the hadths chain and text for the sake of testing is
a deviant practice, because in the swapped state, the report can no longer be considered a hadth (1972, 1:
294). Haram said in disgust to Shuba when he swapped the reports in order to test Abbn ibn Ab
Ayysh: Most vile is that which you have done. Is this permissible? (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 294).
229
array of means at their disposal to tarnish the discipline. It also implicitly shows the
frailty of attempting to understand fabricated traditions hadth just by looking at mawd.
Ill-practice took on different forms (such as qalb, tadlis and muanan) and only a holistic
approach to the discipline can address the problem.

5. 30. Al-Mazd f muttasil al-asnd- the Addition in
Continuous Chains.
Or if the opposition is due to the addition of a narrator in the duration of the isnd
and the narrator who does not include the addition is more reliable then this is
mazd f muttasil al-asnd. Its condition is that clarification of hearing it [is found]
in the place of addition. If not, then when it is muanan for example, the addition
will be preferred.

Commentary
Mazid fi muttasil al-asnid is a rejected hadth due to the addition of a narrator in the
continuous isnd. This type will only be rejected when the words of delivery suggest
clarification (such as I heard rather than an (from)) in the place where the addition is
assumed. Also, the report must be compared with other ones to see whether the narrator
who does not include the addition is more authoritative (al-Munw 1999, 2: 94). When
these two conditions are met, then the hadth is declared as an addition. Otherwise, if both
230
or one of these conditions are not found, then the report with the addition will be
accepted and the contrasting report will be deemed as a hidden drop (Anwar 2003, 461).
No example is offered in the text of this type of hadth from Ibn Hajar. Moreover, the
author does not elaborate on why an extra reporter would appear in a chain.
145

5. 31. Mudtarib- The Disrupted.
Or if the opposition is with the changing of a narrator and there is no means of
preferring one report over the other, then this is mudtarib. This usually occurs in the
chain and sometimes occurs in the text. But rarely does a hadth master declare a
hadth as mudtarib in relation to the text (matn) rather than the isnd. Sometimes
the changing happens deliberately for whom is intended to be tested, like what
happened to al-Bukhr, Uqayl and others. The condition [for such a practice] is
that the report should not remain [in that altered state]. Rather the practice should
stop as the need for it ceases. If the alteration occurs intentionally and not for a
certain purpose, like to make the report rare for example, then this is from the types
of forgery. If it occurs due to a mistake, then it is from the maqlb or muallal.
145
Ibn al-Salh cites that which Ibn al-Mubrak narrated who said Sufyn told us, from Abd al-Rahmn
ibn Yazd, from Busr ibn Ubayd Allh, from Ab Idrs, from Wthila from Ab Marthad, from the Prophet
who said: Do not sit on graves or pray towards them (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 286-7). Ibn al-Salh explains
the addition in this example:
The mention of Sufyn in this chain is an addition and a mistake, just as the mention of Ab Idrs is. The
mistake of mentioning Sufyn was made by someone after Ibn al-Mubrak. This is because a number of
reliable narrators related it from Ibn al-Mubrak directly from Ibn Jbir himself. Some of these narrators
made explicit use of the phrase He informed us (ikhbr) between them there. The mention of Ab Idrs in
the chain is a mistake attributable to Ibn al-Mubrak. This is because a number of reliable narrators related
it from Ibn Jbir and they did not mention Ab Idrs between Busr and Wthila. Some of them explicitly
mention there the audition of Busr from Wthila (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 287).

231
Commentary
As mentioned earlier (5.29.), there is a difference amongst the scholars with regards to
what exactly mudtarib is. Ibn Hajar writes here that mudtarib is where changing of some
form has occurred and one report cannot be preferred over the other. Most scholars such
as al-Khatb al-Baghdd (1996, 1: 207-8), Ibn al-Salh (1986, 101) and al-Suyt (1972,
1: 292) are of the opinion that when the isnd and matn have been swapped, as in order to
test someone, then this is labelled as maqlb. Ibn Hajar believes that such a type is called
mudtarib. Because they see the testing form as maqlb, the other scholars entertain a
different definition of mudtarib. For instance, al-Suyt writes that mudtarib is a hadth
which is narrated in different contradicting ways, in a manner that one cannot be given
preference over the other (1972, 1: 262).

Confusion over its exact definition is amplified further when we note that Ibn Hajar does
not give an explicit definition or an example of such type of hadth. This could possibly
be the case because prior to the Nuzhah, he had completed the independent treatise on
mudtarib, called al-Muqtarib fi bayn al-mudtarib. He felt that a prolonged discussion on
this type was not therefore required in the Nuzhah. But this also points to some
inconsistency on the authors part. So far we have seen that when Ibn Hajar has an
independent work on a particular hadth type, then he alerts the reader of it in the relevant
section. He did this with muallaq (section 5.18.) and mudraj (5.28). Here, despite a
separate work on mudtarib, he does not mention it in the Nuzhah.
Nevertheless, Ibn Hajar does make an interesting point regarding mudtarib here.
Previously in the section on muhkam and mukhtalif al-hadith (5.14. & 5.15.), the author
232
was keen to stress that prophetic reports which contradict one another (in terms of the
matn) hardly exist, and that the hadth masters had tools at their disposal to harmonise
seemingly contradictory reports. Once again, he makes the same point when he writes
rarely does a hadth master declare a hadth as mudtarib in relation to the text (matn)
rather than the isnd. He alerts the reader that deficiencies found in a hadth normally
relate to the isnd, not the matn.
An example of mudtarib given by the Muslim scholars highlights this point amply.
Al-Tirmidh narrated from Shark, from Ab Hamza, from Shab, from Ftima bint Qays,
who said: The Prophet was asked about Zakt and he said: Indeed there is a right in
wealth except Zakt. Ibn Mja narrates it through the same means with the words:
There is no right in wealth except Zakt. Al-Irq notes: This hadth is mudtarib, and
impossible to interpret (al-Irq 1995, 109).
Whereas al-Irq believes the matn is impossible to interpret, al-Suyt writes that this
hadth as an example of mudtarib is not correct, because harmonisation is possible and
the text of the hadth is possible to interpret so that both versions make sense. The
affirmed right in the wealth refers to the mustahabb, and the negated right refers to the
necessary (wjib). Moreover, because the shaykh of Shark is rejected and weak as a
reporter, the contrasting report is given preference (al-Suyt 1972, pp. 266-7).
What this example shows is that the hadth masters exerted great effort in portraying
contrasting texts from the Prophet as reconcilable. The explanation for this is the
religious aspect of it. Accepting deficiencies in the matn suggests that the Prophet himself
had erred, something which no Muslim hadth master would want to acknowledge, even
implicitly. Accepting deficiencies in the isnd on the other hand was tolerable, because
233
now the blame is on the men reporting it, not the Prophet directly. This indicates why the
hadth scholars like Ibn Hajar preferred isnd-based investigations rather than matn-ones.
The isnd-based investigations could unearth discrepancies and defects in the reporters at
most. The matn-based investigations however could expose Prophet Muhammad as
contradictory and inconsistent. The fact that ilm al-hadith has for long been accused of
focussing on the isnd only and not the matn is well known. Importantly, this section
indicates why this has been the case.

5.32. Musahhaf & muharraf- the Misread and the
Misspelling.
If the opposition is due to the changing of a letter or several letters though the form
of the word remains the same; then if the changing is because of the dots [on the
letter] then it is musahhaf. If the changing is because of the form [of the word], then
[it is] muharraf. Knowing this type is important. Indeed al-Immal-Askar
146
, al-
Draqutn and others have compiled books on this. It most often occurs in the text
and sometimes occurs in the names [to be found] in the chains.

Commentary
In this relatively simple text, Ibn Hajar explains that two types of rejected reports can
result due to the misspelling of a word;

146
The name of this book is Tashift al-muhaddithn. Other scholars to have written on this topic are al-
Khattb and Ibn Jawz (al-Wajd 1996, 136).
234
(i) If there is a change in the dots (with the actual letter remaining the same), then this is
called musahhaf. For example, the name Shurayh (with the letter shin) is erroneously
read or written Surayh (with the letter sin).
(ii) If the changes are because of a change in the actual letter then this is called Muharraf.
In other words, the word in question is mis-spelt due to the wrong letters. For example,
Hafs is erroneously read Jafar.
Ibn Hajars classification here differs from that of his predecessors:
a. Scholars such as Ibn al-Salh have classified the musahhaf and muharraf according to
whether the mistake has occurred due to a reading error or an audible error (1986, 283).
b. Others choose to categorise it according to whether the mistake occurred in the chain
or in the text.
c. A third possible division is according to whether the change has occurred in wording or
in terms of meaning. In the latter case, it will be called muharraf. The famous linguist Ibn
Manzr writes that the word muharraf derives from the root word tahrif. This means to
change the meaning of the word (in Anwar 2003, 111).
As a guide to this section, it would have been useful to provide examples of mis-readings
in the text or matn, as al-Irq does (1995, pp. 332-3). Ibn Hajar does not do so. Had he
had done so, then it would have given the reader an idea of how mistakes could occur,
and more importantly, how it could sometimes distort the meaning of the report. Ibn al-
Salh gives an example where Zayd ibn Thbit reported that the Messenger of Allh was
cupped (ihtajama) in the mosque. Instead it should read, He made an enclosure
(ihtajara) in the mosque (1986, 280).

235
5.32.1. Conclusion.
For many observers, the fact that the early Muslims preferred and favoured oral
transmission over written records has been difficult to fathom. Ahmad Amn argued that
precisely because prophetic reports were left to memory and were not recorded on paper,
fabrication and corruption began very early, perhaps during the lifetime of the Prophet
himself (Brown 1999, 89).
But this section does amplify the primacy of audible reports over written reports. This is
because an error committed from audible reports is easier to rectify as one can refer to the
original shaykh the report was taken from. The same cannot always be said for written
reports. Moreover, Ahmad Amn fails to acknowledge the remarkable memory of the
Arabs (Azami 1992, 20), as well as the fact that written records too have their pitfalls and
disadvantages. Ibrhm al-Nakha pointed out that whoever writes becomes dependent
on it (Azami 1977, 29). But perhaps most importantly, the early Arabs saw nothing
wrong with dependence on oral transmission, like perhaps we do today. They simply
never saw books as a necessary advantage. This is what Goldziher was referring to when
he remarked: [For the early Muslim] it was not desired to learn from books. Books are
for practical use; he who wishes to gain the merit of seeking for the Prophets words must
hunt these out from the mouth of the carriers (1971, 169).
147

147
More will be mentioned on oral transmission and its worth in section 5.55, 5.61 and 5.68.
236
5. 33. Ikhtisr al-hadth and riwya bi-al-man-
Shortening the hadth and transmission by meaning.
It is not permissible to deliberately change the form of the matn at all, or shorten it
with deletions, or by changing a word with an equivalent one, or by changing it to
divert the meaning, except by a scholar aware of the indications of the words,
according to the correct opinion in both issues [of shortening and transmission by
meaning].
As for the shortening of the hadth, the majority [of scholars] express its
permissibility with the condition that the one shortening it is an expert. This is
because the expert will not omit except that which has no link with the remaining
text [and he will do it] in such a way that the indicated meaning will not differ and
the explanation will not suffer from shortcomings, to the extent that the included
and the excluded will be like two [independent] reports, or that which is included
will [at least] indicate that which is excluded. This is as opposed to the ignorant, for
he may omit that part which holds significance, like omitting the exception.
As for transmission by meaning, thus the difference [amongst the scholars] is well-
known. Most are also of the opinion of its permissibility. Their strongest proof is the
consensus on the permissibility of commentaries on shara [sources] done by non-
Arabs undertaken by their experts. So when it is permissible to change it into
another language, then changing it into Arabic is [certainly] allowed.
It is said that transmission by meaning is only permissible with solitary words and
not sentences. It is also said that it is permissible for he who knows the original
words so that he can revert to it. Additionally, it is said it is only permissible for he
237
who had memorised the hadth but then forgets it and the meaning still remains
firm in his mind. Thus for him is the permissibility to narrate by meaning in order
to explain a ruling, as opposed to someone who knows the hadth by its wording.
Everything here that has been mentioned concerns the permissibility and
impermissibility of it. [However] there is no doubt that it is preferred that the
hadth is reported with its [exact] words without change. Al-Qd Iyd said: It is
desirable that the practice of transmission by meaning is stopped so that those who
think that they are good at it but are not do not become prevalent, as it has
happened with reporters in classic and modern times. And Allh is the provider of
guidance.
Commentary
Ibn Hajar refers to two issues here; shortening the hadth and transmission by meaning. It
is important to note that both are not part of the discussion on the rejected traditions on
the basis of defamation of the narrator. Rather it seems Ibn Hajar has included this
section unsystematically, though it does seem to have some similarity with the previous
section on musahhaf and muharraf, since both involve alteration.

5. 33. 1 Ikhtisr al-hadth The shortening of the hadth.
Narrators are expected to narrate the entire text of the hadth, as they heard it from their
source. However, circumstances can arise where the hadth as a whole does not need to
be mentioned. This could be because the reporter wants to highlight a certain ruling and
needs to quote a hadth for reference purposes. He may feel that this function can be
served by only quoting part of the text. The shortening method has been employed by
238
classical scholars; al-Bukhr frequently mentioned only part of the hadth as the sub-
headings to his compilation.
However, allowing the practice in general could open the gate to the mass distortion of
the hadth. As Ibn Hajar highlights, an un-skilled reporter could leave out critical parts of
the text which would then divert the listener from the hadths true meaning.
Goldziher, it seems, has fallen to victim to this. In an attempt to show that al-Zuhr was
willing to lend his name to politically support the Umayyad regime through mass
fabrication, Goldziher writes that al-Zuhr himself had asserted that these Emirs forced
us to write hadiths (1971, 47). The full text of al-Zuhrs statement exposes the true,
intended meaning:

We did not originally approve of the written recording of religious knowledge
until these Emirs obliged us to do so. Then we decided we should withhold it
from none of the Muslims (cited in al-Sib 1998, pp. 248-9).

Not only does this quote show that the early Muslims preferred oral transmission and
disliked the dependence on books alone, it also highlights the stark dangers in selectively
picking one part of a quote, to the exclusion of the rest. Even Burton expresses dismay
over Goldzihers tactics:

This [statement from al-Zuhr] has nothing to do with the formation of a ministry
of propaganda where, behind closed doors, officials engaged in concocting false
hadiths to be disseminated among the public to further the regimes public
239
relations. The remark occupies its own place in the academic quarrel over the
legitimacy or otherwise of preserving and transmitting the hadith in writing (1994,
51).

This shows that sometimes the facts are there in front of us. Whats crucial is how one
shapes and evaluates it.

So on this basis, the hadth scholars dislike the practice of shortening the hadth in
general, but as Ibn Hajar points out, it has been permitted for the skilled scholars who are
well-versed. Ibn al-Salh voiced the same sentiments in his Muqaddima (1986, 216), as
does al-Suyt in Tadrib (1972, 2: 103).

5.33.1. Riwya bi-al-man Transmission by meaning.
A constant theme that the Nuzhah has so far highlighted is the importance of the isnd. It
would not be an exaggeration to say that the authenticity of a hadth largely depended on
the chain of transmission, epitomised by the fact that the conditions of a sahih report
centre around the reporter. Little is said about the conditions pertaining to the matn.
In this section, the matn comes to the forefront. After thirty-three sections, this is only the
second time that the Nuzhah focuses entirely on the matn (the other was section 5.14/5 on
muhkam and mukhtalif al-hadith). The author clarifies the ruling on how to report the
matn; does it have to reported in exactly the correct form the Prophet said the words, or
can it be worded differently by the reporter?
240
Common sense dictates that during transmission, the reporter must use the exact words he
himself gained the report. As most Muslims believe, the words of the Prophet are
considered as revelation (wahy), attested by Allh himself (al-Mahd 1989, 23: Burton
1994, 17). Surely therefore, narrators are required to transmit the exact words of the
Prophet as they heard them. Otherwise, they would be guilty of distorting the commands
of Allh.
Moreover, if each individual was permitted to use his own words when passing on the
report, then undoubtedly the message and meaning would be affected. Allowing the
practice of riwya bi-al-man would mean that by the time the report trickled down to
al-Bukhr, for example, it would not tally with what the Companions reported from the
Prophet initially. Seen from this angle, one would expect a rigid ruling concerning riwya
bi-al-man: that it should be outlawed to protect the matn. Instead, we find that Ibn
Hajar here is torn between ideal and reality.
Ibn Hajar does show he is aware of the dangers relating to the practice. In the Nuzhah, the
opinion of al-Qd Iyd (d. 544/1139) is cited, who comments that it is preferable to
prevent non-literal narration altogether. Otherwise, granting Muslims the free hand to
relate the words of the Prophet would lead to a mass distortion of his message. Therefore
the author does suggest that ideally, it should not be permitted.
But Ibn Hajars analysis here deals more with the reality: that riwya bi-al-man did
flourish in the early period of Islam. For example, al-Zuhr (d. 124/742) said: When you
have expressed the meaning [of the hadth], then there is no objection (al-Khatb al-
Baghdd 1996, 2: 22). Sufyn al-Thawr (d. 161/777) said: Were we required to narrate
traditions of the Prophet exactly as we heard it, we would not transmit a [single] saying
241
of his (al-Khatb al-Baghdd 1996, 2: 23). Ibn Srn was reported to have said: I used to
collect traditions from ten [narrators]; the meaning was one but the wording differed (al-
Khatb al-Baghdd 1988, 206). These three quotes show that during the earliest period of
hadth collection and transmission, riwya bi-al-man was rampant.
The practice of it meant its justification too was required. Again, early scholars suggested
why riwya bi-al-man was acceptable. One supporting evidence cited by al-Suyt is
ascribed to al-Imm al-Shfi. He argues that the Qurn was revealed in seven qiras,
and the Prophet gave permission to the Muslims to choose whichever recitation they
found the easiest. The seven qiras differ slightly in wording. So, if permission is
granted with the Qurn, then naturally it should be permissible in the hadth of the
Prophet (al-Suyt 1972, 2: 99). Ibn Hajar in the Nuzhah suggests that it is theoretically
impossible to deny the legitimacy of riwya bi-al-man. If translating religious texts in
other languages is perfectly legitimate by consensual agreement then it must be
permissible to change the words of the Prophet into the Arabic language.
In fact, Muslims went to extremes to justify the practice. Take, for instance, the following
example cited by al-Suyt in his hadth manual Tadrib al-rwi. As proof for riwya bi-
al-mans permissibility, he cites the incident of Abd Allh ibn Sulaymn, who once
said to the Prophet:

O Prophet of Allah! I hear your sayings but I am not able to transmit it to others
in exactly the same form as you said it; a letter is added or omitted. The Prophet
replied: So long as you do not make forbidden things legal, or legal things
242
forbidden, and you express the meaning, then there is nothing wrong (al-Suyt
1972, 2: 99).

This report is not sufficient to prove the legitimacy of riwya bi-al-man. Firstly, we do
not know as to whether the Prophet was making Abd Allh ibn Sulaymn the exception
to the rule, owing to his unique circumstances. Secondly, al-Sakhw classifies this very
narration as mudtarib, which is rejected (Ibn a-Salh 1986, 94). In fact, some scholars
have also suggested that the narration is fabricated (Latf in al-Suyt 1972, 2: 99). Even
if it is not fabricated, it is still interesting that al-Khatb al-Baghdd a strong, early
advocate of transmission by meaning did not mention the same narration in al-Jmi.
Put simply, it is an indication of how fabrication was used for religious purposes,
something which non-Muslim academics like Goldziher have for long suggested.
The result of this conflict between ideal and reality is that the Nuzhah lacks conviction on
riwya bi-al-man. The section falls short of offering a rigid verdict on its ruling and
instead cites different opinions on the matter. Perhaps this is a reflection of how the
Muslim scholars have approached the issue with indecision and uncertainty. On the one
hand, al-Suyt writes that traditions relating to a specific occurrence have passed down
to us, but the wording from the various Companions who heard it differs slightly. This,
therefore, indicates that to narrate according to the meaning was common practice
amongst the Companions (1972, 2: 99). Yet on the other hand, there is ample evidence to
suggest that the Companions would narrate a hadth of the Prophet, in exactly the form
they heard it, but would still take precaution by reminding the auditors that this was
according to how they heard it. Al-Khatb al-Baghdd writes that Abd Allh would
243
narrate a saying from the Prophet, and then say or like that, or to that effect or similar
to that. Even then, he would tremble in fear (1996, 2: 26). Anas ibn Mlik too would
tremble after narrating the words of the Prophet (1996, 2: 28). What this tells us is that
they would go to extreme lengths to transmit the words of the Prophet in exactly the same
form they heard it themselves. Al-Khatb al-Baghdd adds: They [the Companions]
would only add these words at the end to prevent distortion, as they knew the possible
dangers of narrating by meaning. And Allh knows best (1996, 2: 25-6).

5.33.2. Conclusion.
With such a vast array of opinions on whether one can report traditions by meaning,
clarity on the issue is essential. Daniel Brown quotes several Muslim modern scholars
who advocate that riwya bi-al-man led to an influx of unsound traditions in hadth
literature. For instance, Ahmad Khan believes this practice is a serious flaw in the process
of transmission (cited in 1999, 88). Jayrjpr (1881-1955) writes that:

Since the Companions had not written hadth down when they were with the
Prophet, nor consciously memorised his words, the best that they could do was to
transmit what they remembered. As a result, the muhaddthn had no choice but
to accept such transmissions (cited in Brown 1999, 89).

Ibn Hajar does at least attempt to offer that clarity. He states in the Nuzhah that the whole
discussion revolves around the permissibility of riwya bi-al-man. All scholars agree
244
that ideally, the practice of riwya bi-al-lafz is preferred. Hence, most scholars see
riwya bi-al-man as an option and not a norm.
Secondly, the Nuzhah tries to offer clarity by allowing the practice, but with strict
conditions. Here, Ibn Hajar depends on the writings of al-Khatb al-Baghdd who
suggests that practice of riwya bi-al-man is permissible, but with strict conditions.
These conditions are:
i. That the narrator is well-versed with meanings of the word (al-Khatb al-Baghdd
1996, 2: 25-6).
ii. He has ample insight into the topic of the narration (Ibid.).
iii. He has a firm understanding of Arabic in all of its variations and dialects (Ibid.).
iv. That the text being transmitted must be clear and known. If the meaning of the hadth
is hidden, ambiguous and open to interpretation, then it is not permissible to narrate by
meaning (Ibid.).
v. That the narrator is permitted to change individual words but not whole sentences
vi. It is said that it is only permissible for he who can recall the exact words so that he can
use them if needed (Ibid.)
vii. It is also said that it is permissible for he who remembers the hadth, forgot the words,
but still remembers the meaning well (Ibid.)
viii. Some scholars have allowed the practice when the saying refers to someone other
than the Prophet (al-Suyt 1972, 2: 99).

In my opinion, the issue is much clearer than Ibn Hajar has depicted and indeed many
other hadth scholars. Quite simply, we must venture into the precise type of hadth which
245
is subject to this practice. This is instrumental in determining the permissibility and non-
permissibility of riwya bi-al-man. Numerous scholars classical and contemporary
have divided the traditions according to nature of whether it is a saying, action or
affirmation of the Prophet. Al-Mahd writes:

The sunna of the Prophet (peace be upon him) encompasses his sayings, actions,
affirmations and descriptions of his physical and moral characteristics (1989, 11).

When the Companions reported the actions, affirmations and characteristics of the
Prophet, they used their own words, which is why narrations relating to the same theme
differed in wording. However, when the Companions reported the actual sayings of the
Prophet, they took utmost care to narrate the transmission exactly as they heard it from
the Prophet. This also explains why many Companions would tremble as they related the
words of the Prophet; it was an expression of how important they deemed it to report his
words exactly as he said them. This also explains why many experts expressed leniency
in allowing individuals to transmit narrations using their own words; it specifically
referred to non-verbal traditions of the Prophet.
To prove this thesis, consider the following example. The Prophet said:

If Allah wishes good for a person, then He grants him the understanding of
religion.
148

148
Man yurid Allh bihi khayran yufaqqihhu fi-al-din.
246
This is a verbal hadth of the Prophet (al-hadith al-qawli). Al-Bukhr
149
, Muslim
150
, al-
Tirmidh
151
, Ibn Mja
152
, al-Drim
153
, Ahmad
154
and Mlik
155
have all reported this
tradition. The wording of each narration is identical, with no addition or omission. All
narrations express exactly the same meaning with exactly the same words. This is
because it was a saying of the Prophet (rather than his action) which therefore led to the
reporters expressing more accuracy in how they reported it.
Even in prophetic reports that are not considered his sayings but a description of his
actions, the reporters still showed a considerable amount of uniformity. Take the example
of the method of revelation tradition, which describes how divine revelation would
descend upon the Prophet. Al-Imm al-Bukhr records the following hadth as the
second entry in his Sahih:
Narrated isha, that al-Hrith ibn Hishm asked Allh's Apostle: O Allah's
Apostle! How is the Divine Inspiration revealed to you? Allah's Apostle replied:
Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell, this form of Inspiration is the
most difficult of all and then this state passes off after I have grasped what is
inspired. Sometimes the Angel comes in the form of a man and talks to me and I

149
P. 26. al-Bukhr in al-Kutub al-Sitta. Vol. 1. (Book, of Knowledge). Dr al-Dawa Publications,
Istanbul, Turkey, 1981.
150
p. 719. Muslim in al-Kutub al-Sitta. Vol. 4. (Book of Zakt). Dr al-Dawa Publications, Istanbul,
Turkey, 1981.
151
p. 26. al-Tirmidh in al-Kutub al-Sitta. Vol. 14. (Book of Knowledge). Dr al-Dawa Publications,
Istanbul, Turkey, 1981.
152
p. 80. Ibn Mja in al-Kutub al-Sitta. Vol. 17. (Introduction). Dr al-Dawa Publications, Istanbul,
Turkey, 1981.
153
p. 74. al-Drim, 1: 74. in Introduction; the necessity to follow scholars.
154
p. 92, Ahmad in al-Kutub al-Sitta. Vol. 22. (Chains of the Syrians). Dr al-Dawa Publications, Istanbul,
Turkey, 1981.
155
p. 901, Mlik in al-Kutub al-Sitta. Vol. 20. (Book of Fate) Dr al-Dawa Publications, Istanbul, Turkey,
1981.

247
grasp whatever he says. isha added: Verily I saw the Prophet being inspired
divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead [as
the Inspiration was over].

This same hadth has been recorded by several scholars of hadth, including Muslim, al-
Tirmidh, al-Nas, Ahmad and Mlik. The wording and sequence in each of these
compilations slightly differ, but each hadth in all of these sources;

i. Compare the revelation to the ringing of a bell. In fact all narrations describe this
phenomenon with exactly the same words (salsala al-jaras)
ii. Mention that this form of revelation is the hardest for the Prophet to endure (wa huwa
ashaddu alayya).
iii. Use the same verb (wa) to describe how the Prophet would grasp the revelation
that had come to him.

These approach of mine can help mute the large barrage of criticism riwya bi-al-man
leads to. Some observers have suggested that riwya bi-al-man was an ideal
opportunity for fabricators to inundate hadth literature with forged traditions. In theory at
least, such suggestions seem to have some basis. The formal and universal writing of
prophetic traditions also would have ensured that riwya bi-al-man would not have to
exist at all.
To conclude, the section serves as a reminder that knowledge is not the prerogative of
Muslims exclusively or non-Muslims exclusively. They both possess it and they both
248
have an equal right to earn it and indeed share it. Ibn Hajar warns against the practice of
the shortening a report that leads to its distortation and Goldziher did exactly that.
Goldziher warned that the early period of hadth collection was marked by forgery for
religious purposes and the report of Abd Allh ibn Sulaymn suggests exactly that.

5.34. Sharh al-gharb- the Commentary of the Rare
Words.
Thus if the meaning is unclear that the word is used rarely then the compiled
books in the commentary of rare words are required, like Ab Ubayd al-Qsim ibn
Sallms work; and this is unarranged. Shaykh Muwaffaq al-Dn ibn Qudma
arranged the book in order of letters. The most comprehensive book is the book of
Ab Ubayd al-Haraw. Al-Hfiz Ab Ms al-Madn edited this work and made
improvements to it. And by al-Zamkhashar is a book called al-Fiq [which is]
arranged well. Then Ibn al-Athr gathered all in al-Nihya; this is the easiest book to
use as a reference, with only a few places where additional help is required.
If a particular word is used often, but [in the hadth] it is used in a specific context,
then compiled works like Sharh man al-akbhr (commentaries on the meanings of
the report) and Bayn al-mushkil (explanation of the difficult) are needed. Many
scholars have written books in this field, like al-Tahw, al-Khttab, Ibn Abd al-
Barr and others.

249
Commentary
This section certainly amplifies the opinion that Ibn Hajars Nuzhah was aimed at
students embarking on hadth studies for the first time. It explains which types of works
one can refer to find the explanation of rare words found in the text of prophetic reports,
and some of the scholars who have authored such works.
156

One may reach the conclusion that the existence of reference books called Sharh al-
gharibs suggests that the prophetic reports are generally difficult to understand and
fathom. The Muslim scholars reply that to a large extent, this is not the case. Firstly, the
Prophet himself ensured that his words were not to subject to misunderstanding and
would often repeat a sentence thrice (Azami 1977, 9). Secondly, it was the rapid
expansion of Islam to non-Arab lands that really led to the need of such supporting
literature, in the third generation of Muslims (Kamali 2005, 123). This is reflected by the
fact that the first works on reference books called Sharh al-gharib appeared in the first
part of the second Islamic century.

156
Scholars who have written on the commentary of rare words include:
(i) Ab Ubayd al-Qsims (d. 224/838) book, though this was not arranged in order. It took him forty years
to compile this book (Mighlw 2003, 582). Later, Shaykh Muwaffaq al-Dn ibn Qudma (d. 620/1223)
arranged the book in order. (ii) Ab Ubayd al-Haraws (d. 401/1010) book, which is more comprehensive
than the above. Al-Hfiz Ab Ms al-Madn (d. 581/1185) edited this work and made improvements to it.
(iii) Al-Zamkhashars (d. 538/1143) book called al-Fiq, which Ibn Hajar praises for its good, systematic
order. (iv) Ibn al-Athr (d. 606/1209) then gathered all previous works in the field into one book, called al-
Nihya. Later, al-Suyt summarised this work and improved on it in al-Durr al-nathir fi talkhis nihyat
Ibn al-Athir.
Scholars with works in this field not mentioned by Ibn Hajar include; (v) al-Imm al-Hfiz al-Nadr ibn
Shumayl Ibn Kharsha al-Basr (d. 203/818) with Gharib al-hadith. He is thought to be the first person to
write on this discipline (al-Munw 1999, 2: 126, al-Suyt 1972, 2: 185). (vi) Ab Ubayda Mamar ibn al-
Muthanna (d. 209/824). (vii) al-Imm Ab Muhammad Abd Allh ibn Muslim ibn Qutayba (d. 276/889)
in Islh al-khata (Mighlw 2003, 582). (viii) Abd al-Ghfir ibn Isml ibn Abd al-Ghfir (d. 529/1134).
His book was called Majma al-gharib (al-Munw 1999, 2: 127).(ix) Qsim ibn Thbit ibn Hazm al-
Sarkast (d. 313/925). His al-Dalil covered those difficult prophetic reports not to be found in the
compilations of Ab Ubayd al-Qsim and Ibn Qutayba (al-Munw 1999, 2: 128).
Scholars who have written on the commentary of difficult texts include:(i) al-Imm al-Tahw in Sharh
mani al-thr. (ii) al-Khattb in Malim al-sunan and Ilam al-hadith al al-Bukhri. (iii) Ibn Abd al-
Barr in al-Tamhid and al-Istidhkr. (iv) Ibn Frak (Mighlw 2003, 582).
250
5.35. J ahla - the Unknown.
Then the unknown [state] of the reporter this is the eighth reason for defamation
can appear for two reasons. One of them is that the narrator has numerous [means
of] references, like [his] name, lineage, title, occupation, description or ancestry. He
becomes known by one of them, only then to be mentioned with a name he is not
known with, for one reason or another. So it is thus assumed it is someone else
[when in fact it is the same person]. Hence, his state becomes unknown. The scholars
have written in this discipline al-Muwaddih li-awhm wa-al-tafrq; al-Khatb [al-
Baghdd] has done excellently in it. He was preceded by Abd al-Ghan, then al-
Sawr
157
. An example [of an unknown narrator] is Muhammad ibn al-Sib ibn
Bishr al-Kalb. Some have ascribed his name to his grandfather and have said
Muhammad ibn Bishr. Others have named him Hammd ibn al-Sib. Some have
ascribed him to his son [by calling him] Ab al-Nadr and Ab Sad and Ab
Hishm
158
. It became [to the point] where it was assumed these were a group of
reporters, though it is one. He who is not aware of the reality of the matter will be
oblivious of this.
The other [reason] is that the reporter sometimes only narrates rarely and thus
reports are not taken from him often.
159
The scholars have written [compilations
called] wahdn; namely those reporters from whom only one narrate, even if he is

157
This is Ibn Sad al-Azd al-Misr (d. 441/1049), one of the teachers of al-Khatb al-Baghdd ; the name
of the book is dh al-ishkl (al-Munw 1999, 2: 131).
158
Al-Munw adds that he has also been referred to as Atya al-Awf (1999, 2: 132).
159
Ab al-Ashr al-Drim, for example, rarely reported narrations and only Hammd ibn Salama was
known to report from him (Tahhn 2001, 89: Ibn al-Salh 1986, 322). Wahb ibn Khanbash al-T, mir
ibn Shahr, Urwa ibn Mudarris, Muhammad ibn Safwn, Muhammad ibn Sayf are all examples of
Companions from whom only Shab reported from (al-Munw 1999, 135). Muhammad ibn Ab Safwn
al-Thaqaf from the Successors only reported to Thawr (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 322).
251
named. From [the scholars] who have compiled [in this area] are Muslim, al-Hasan
ibn Sufyn
160
and others.

Commentary
Ibn Hajar returns to the division of reports based on defamation in the reporters. Jahla is
where the hadth is rejected because of surrounding confusion regarding who the reporter
actually is. The author indicates two reasons why this ignorance may come about, too
many names and lack of hadth reporting.
Ibn Hajars short account of jahla avoids the controversy surrounding the area. The
impression given by his writings is that the obscurity of the reporter is of no or little fault
of himself. Rather, he is a victim of the mistake of others.
What is clear however from other scholars is that the practice of naming a reporter with
an unclear name is sometimes done with ill intent. This is called tadlis al-shuykh (see
section 5.21.1). Forgers too can indulge in this practice to avoid detection. Muhammad
ibn Qays al-Shm had fifty different aliases, and as al-Munw writes, possibly one
hundred (al-Munw 1999, 2: 133).
Perhaps because the ill-intent now causes it to be classified as a separate type of hadth
such as mawd and tadlis, Ibn Hajar chose not to expand on the cases where jahla takes
on a more contentious form.

160
Al-Imm al-Hfiz Ab al-Abbs ibn mir (d. 303/915).
252
5.36. Mubham The Obscure.
Or the [ambiguity of the reporter can occur] because the reporter is not named
from the one he is reporting from due to short hand, like such and such informed
me or the shaykh informed me or the man informed me or the son of such and
such informed me and its likes. Identifying the obscure [persons] name is achieved
by his mentioning in another isnd with his name. The scholars have written
mubhamt in this field. The hadth of the obscure is not accepted until he is named,
because the condition of acceptance is the credibility of the reporter. When a person
whose name is obscure cannot be identified, how will his credibility be known? And
similarly, the report will not be accepted when his name is obscured with a credible
title, like the authoritative informed me. This is because he may be credible
according to him but not to others. This is the most correct opinion in the matter.
Because of this point, the mursal is not accepted, even if a reliable person does the
irsl with certainty. It is said that the hadth will be accepted, in adherence to the
apparent state, since defamation (jarh) is not the default state. It is [also] said that it
is accepted if the one doing it is a [reputed] scholar or someone who shares the same
school of thought. This is not part of the discussions on ilm al-hadth. And Allh
provides religious guidance.
If the reporter names the source, and one reporter is solitary in reporting from him,
then this is majhl al-ayn. This is like mubham [in that it is rejected] unless
someone other than him verifies him, according to the most sound opinion. Likewise,
it will be accepted if the sole person reporting from him is an authority.
253
If two or more report from him but he is not verified as credible, then this is majhl
al-hl, [also called] mastr. A group of scholars have accepted such a narration
without condition, though the majority has rejected this [stance]. The detail is that
the narration of a mastr and its likes in which there is possibility will neither be
unequivocally accepted or rejected. Rather it is paused upon until its state is
clarified, as Immal-Haramayn has asserted and Ibn al-Salh regarding someone
who defames someone without a detailed reason.
Commentary
Three different types of rejected reports are identified here by Ibn Hajar; mubham, majhl
al-ayn and majhl al-hl. Mubham is where the narrator is not clarified in the hadth.
Majhl al-ayn is where the narrators name is mentioned, but only one person narrates
from him. Examples are such reporters include Amr Dh Murr, Jabbr al-T and Sad
ibn Dh Huddn: only Ab Ishq al-Sab has reported from these men (Ibn al-Salh
1986, 113). Majhl al-hl (also called mastr) is where two or more narrate from an
individual, but he is yet to be authenticated. Three crucial points are worthy of closer
inspection in this particular section in the Nuzhah.
a. The rulings related to these three types of report do suggest the rigidity employed by
the hadth masters. This is certainly shown with majhl al-hl. Two people are known to
report from him, yet the majority say the report is still rejected, or at least paused upon.
b. As it has already been shown in the Nuzhah, this section reflects the role seniority
plays in the discipline. Majhl al-ayn is rejected, unless, Ibn Hajar writes, the sole
person reporting from him is an authority. Once an individual reaches a certain status
and ability, then he becomes protected and enjoys a different set of rules to others. In
254
particular, the authorities being protected with the ruling of majhl al-ayn are al-
Bukhr and Muslim. Ibn al-Salh notes that al-Imm al-Bukhr has included the reports
of those from whom only one has narrated in his Sahih: only Qays ibn Ab Hzim has
reported from Mirds al-Aslam. The same can be said of Muslim in his Sahih: only Ab
Salma ibn Abd al-Rahmn has reported from Raba ibn Kab al-Aslam (Ibn al-Salh
1986, 113). This suggests that the rule of rejection is not universal but particular to
individual cases and circumstances, based on seniority. As with the ruling on muallaq,
everyone is expected to adhere to one rule and the likes of al-Bukhr and Muslim enjoy
another.
c. Thirdly, Ibn Hajars analysis refers to cases where the name of the reporter is not
clarified in the hadth. The section does not go beyond this and no real explanation is
offered as to why such circumstances arise. Nor is he the only Muslim scholar to offer
such an objective approach to the obscurities in names: the same can be said of Ibn al-
Salh and of al-Munw.
The answer to the question to some extent is politics. Due to political unrest and fear
of persecution, some hadth reporters were sometimes fearful of mentioning their source
(al-Uthaymin 2002, 236).

5.36.1. Conclusion.
To conclude, an appreciation of the discipline in light of the political and social climate
of the time would help us understand ilm al-hadith better. The loss of such an approach
is undoubtedly shown in this section on the obscurities, where, as it has been suggested,
the political climate can have ramifications on the method of hadth transmission.
255
One can appreciate why the Nuzhah did not expand on such crucial issues. It was meant
to be an introduction to ilm al-hadith, not to historical studies. If Ibn Hajars approach
was so narrowly focussed on ilm al-hadith remember that he hardly ever entertains
discussions related to fiqh in the Nuzhah there was clearly no need to discuss why
reporters often hid their sources due to political reasons.
The target audience is perhaps another factor. As an introduction to the discipline for
students embarking on the studies for the first time, discussions on politics would perhaps
cause unease and alarm for the reader. Ibn Hajars Nuzhah was there to express the
perfection and rigidity of the field, not to explore the darker side of it.
But importantly, did Ibn Hajar at least acknowledge the effects of politics on hadth
transmission? In his works, he hardly did. The only place where politics gets a mention in
the Nuzhah is where the author acknowledges that forgery was done in pursuit of
pleasing some leaders.
This, in many ways, was typical of most Muslim scholars. They were eager to paint a
dividing line between religion and politics and to play down the importance of politics in
hadth transmission. A divorce from political life was the norm for the hadth masters,
according to Siddiqi and his likes. Siddiqi points out that none of the Companions known
for hadth transmission participated in the civil unrests that erupted after the Prophet
passed away. He adds that:

Ab Dharr, Muhammad ibn Maslama, Sad ibn al-Musayyab, Ab al-liya, al-
Mutarrif, al-Hasan ibn Yasr, Masrq and many other Companions and
Successors kept entirely out of politics. Some preferred prison and torture to
256
lending support to any of the warring factions against their own conviction. Sad
ibn al-Musayyab, for instance, was flogged by Ibn al-Zubayr al-Imm Mlik
was whipped on the orders of al-Mansr, because some of his legal judgements
did not suit the Caliph (1993, 39).

Similarly according to Azami, the discipline of ilm al-hadith as a whole worked
independently from the field of politics. He cites the example of Ibn Hanbal and his clash
with the creeds of the Caliph and Mutazila sect. He asked the Caliph to bring forward a
single hadth of the Prophet that supported the official view. But the Caliph was unable to
do so. Azami purports that if fabrication was so widespread, and in the opinion of
Schacht (1959, 164) prophetic reports were produced and forged on demand to prove a
particular religious point then certainly the Caliph would not have struggled to prove
Ibn Hanbal wrong by producing evidence (Azami 1996, 2).
However, the reality is somewhat different. There were cases where politics did mix with
religion. Ever since the Prophet passed away, politics has always been a source of dispute
and indeed bloodshed for the Muslims. The restriction of political power to Quraysh, the
hints of nepotism from Uthmn and his violent death, the Companions fighting one
another in the Battle of the Camel, the stand-off between Muwiya and Al and the
tragedy of Karbal - who can confidently claim that these political and violent clashes did
not affect the theological affairs of Muslims? Al-Sib wishes to dismiss the relationship
between hadth and politics, but also admits that the political tension between Muwiya
and Al was the starting point for forgery in hadth (1993, 93). Awna ibn al-Hakam
was known to forge prophetic reports in favour of the Umayyads, whereas other
257
traditionists though not necessarily forgers did enjoy limited patronage from the state,
such as Urwa ibn al-Zubayr, Raj ibn Hayawayh and Muhammad ibn Muslim al-Zuhr
(Siddiqi 1993, 90).

These examples are the ones which Muslim scholars will admit to. Then there are the
cases highlighted by non-Muslim scholars like Goldziher, which highlight the close
interaction between politics and the transmission of hadth. He suggested that the
Umayyad regime used hadth as a vehicle to strengthen and consolidate their grasp on
power. The fact the some reporters were unwilling to name their sources suggests that
Goldziher may have had some basis to his research. He famously suggested that al-Zuhr
forged the report encouraging Muslims to visit the Furthest Mosque in Jerusalem in order
to help Abd al-Malik against his political opponent Abd Allh ibn al-Zubayr (1971, II:
44-5).
161
In fact, Goldziher suggested that hadth literature told us very little about the

161
Goldziher wrote:
When the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik wished to stop the pilgrimages to Mecca because he was
worried lest his rival Abd Allh b. Zubayr should force the Syrians journeying to the holy places in Hijaz
to pay him homage, he found recourse to the expedient of the doctrine of the vicarious hajj of Qubbat al-
Sakhra in Jerusalem. He decreed that the obligatory circumambulation could take place at the sacred place
in Jerusalem with the same validity as that around the Kaba ordained in Islamic Law. The pious theologian
al-Zuhr was given the task of justifying the politically motivated reform of religious life by making up and
spreading a saying back to the Prophet, according to which there are three mosques to which people may
make pilgrimage; those in Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem. This hadth shows its sharp tendentiousness in an
addition which, apparently, belonged to its original form but was later neglected by leveling orthodoxy in
this and related sayings and a prayer in the Bayt al-Maqdis of Jerusalem is better than a thousand prayers
in other holy places i.e. even Mecca and Medina (1971, pp. 44-45).
Guillaume made a similar claim in his works too (1924, pp. 47-48).
In reply, the Muslims have tried to mute the seriousness of this claim. Al-Sib makes several important
remarks regarding Goldzihers observations. Firstly, Abd al-Malik did not build the Dome of the Rock; his
son al-Wald did, according to historians such as Ibn Askir, al-Tabar, Ibn al-Athr, Ibn Khaldn and Ibn
Kathr. Secondly, the supposed forged hadth extolling the virtue of travelling to Jerusalem could not have
been forged by al-Zuhr. This is because identical reports have been recorded in the six canonical
collection, with chains of transmission featuring reporters other than al-Zuhr. Thirdly, if the hadth was
supposedly forged by al-Zuhr to encourage people to perform the Pilgrimage at Jerusalem, the matn of the
report hardly suited and assisted this objective. The report only mentions how the mosque should be visited
and how prayers should be held in it. If, as Goldziher suggests, the place was meant to be a rival to Makka
258
Prophet, and more about the Muslims wrestling with their political and social
circumstances in the first and second century.
So despite reassurances from the Muslim academics, it is difficult to dismiss the
importance politics played in early hadth transmission. Like many treatises on ilm al-
hadith, such controversies are avoided by Ibn Hajar in the Nuzhah, in favour of an
objective portrayal of the discipline. We are told of the great rank of pious traditionists
such as al-Bukhr, Muslim, Ahmad ibn Hanbal and Mlik ibn Anas, but there are no
clues why they all faced political trouble or even persecution by their respective state
leaders. Such accounts are left to the history compilations rather than the hadth books.

5. 37. Bida The Innovation.
Then the innovation and this is the ninth reason for defamation in the narrator
either it necessitates disbelief, in that he believes in something which results in
disbelief, or the innovation necessitates fisq (deviance). Thus the majority do not
accept the first, though it is said that it is accepted unequivocally and it is [also] said
that it is accepted if the person does not believe in the permissibility of lying to assist
his opinion. The reality is that every report of the mubtadi that leads to disbelief
will not be rejected. This is because every sect claims that the opposing party is
heretical and sometimes they exaggerate the claim by declaring them disbelievers. If
this opinion was to be accepted generally, then it would necessitate that all sects are
disbelievers. Hence the trusted opinion is that the narration of someone who denies

for hajj, why was there no mention of when the mosque should be visited, namely in the season of the
Pilgrimage? (al-Sib 1998, 243-7)
259
the multiply-attested (mutawtir) matters of shara, known in religion through
conviction will be rejected. And similar is the case for one who does the opposite (in
that he believes in something which is definitively known to be forbidden in shara).
As for someone who is not of this attribute, coupled with the fact that he is careful in
what he reports with awareness and piety, then there is no hindrance to accepting
his report.
In the second namely the one whose innovative beliefs do not lead to disbelief
there lies a dispute too in accepting and rejecting it. Thus it is said that it is
unequivocally rejected. This opinion is far-fetched. The most common reason given
for its rejection is that narrating from him will be promoting his belief and will be
an approval of it. If this is the case, then the report of a mubtadi in which a non-
mubtadi also features should also be rejected. It is also said that the report of the
agent is accepted in general, except if he believes in the permissibility of lying, like
what has already been mentioned. It is also said the mubtadis report is accepted if
he does not propagate his bida. This is because appeal to his innovation may result
in distorting the narrations [in his favour] and moulding it to comply with the
requirements of his innovation. This is the most correct opinion. Ibn Hibbn has
deviated by claiming the consensus on accepting the agents report without further
investigation, when he does not propagate it. Yes, most are of the opinion of
accepting such a report, but if he reports that which strengthens his innovation,
then it is rejected according to the preferred, majority opinion. This is what al-Hfiz
Ab Ishq IbrhmYaqb al-Jurzjn, the shaykh of Ab Dwd has clarified, as
well as al-Nas in his book Marifat al-ilal. In this he said when describing the
260
different grades of a narrator, of which one of these is turning away from the truth
(zigh an al-haqq):

If such a person speaks the truth and his hadth is not munkar
162
, even if he
is a mubtadi, then there is nothing to stop us from accepting his narration as
long as he does not promote his innovative beliefs openly.

This opinion is strong because the reason why we reject a sectarians hadth is when
the text of the hadth apparently promotes his own innovative beliefs, even if he is
not an open propagator. And Allh knows best.

Commentary
The author tackles the debate regarding the narration of an agent of bida (mubtadi) by
dividing the innovation into two types. The first, bida mukaffara, is where the belief in
question is so severe and deviant that it can no longer be considered as part of Islam. For
instance, if a person believes that Muhammad is not the last Messenger of God, a matter
which is proven by unanimous consensus in Islam, then the innovation is deemed as
bida mukaffara. The second, bida mufassaqa, is where the belief in question leads to
deviance or wrongdoing but not disbelief, like believing in the created nature of the
Qurn (khalq al-Qurn). Implicitly, this also shows the role the ijm plays: that to
some extent, the consensus decides what is considered as innovation and what is not.
Owing to the importance of this issue, it is necessary to first begin with outlining the
seriousness of bida amongst the hadth scholars. This is so we can evaluate whether Ibn

162
This is where a weak narrator has been opposed by someone more authoritative.
261
Hajars own writings on the issue reflect this. To conclude we will reflect on the strengths
of his arguments as well as the weaknesses.
5.37.1 The seriousness of bida.
It is impossible to offer a full picture of how serious the issue of bida has been viewed in
ilm al-hadith. A few points will presented to at least show how a hadth containing a
mubtadi reporter in its isnd is one of the most problematic in the discipline.
a. Ibn Srn famously remarked:

People never used to ask others to name the isnds. But when the discord (fitna)
happened, they said: name your men. Thus the people of the sunna would be
viewed and their reports would be accepted, and the people of bida would be
viewed and their reports would be discarded.
163

Two points can be deduced from this remark. Firstly, isnds did exist before Ibn Srns
(d. 110/729) time. This is because he only negated the naming of the isnd, not the
existence of them.
164
Secondly, and importantly for our analysis here on bida, the remark
explicitly ascribes the rise of hadth examination to the appearance of heretical Muslims.

163
The Introduction to Sahih Muslim. Cited in Khalifa 1983, 10.
164
This saying has attracted more attention than it perhaps deserves, because many western observers see it
as the pivotal means by which one can identify when the use of isnds began. Schacht writes that the fitna
(civil war) being referred to was the killing of Umayyad Caliph Wald ibn Yazd (126) (1959, 37). Juynboll
believes that Abd Allh ibn al-Zubayrs seizing control of Hijaz, which came to an end in 73/692, was the
fitna being referred to. Conveniently, he dismisses a report from al-Bukhr which clearly identifies the
first fitna as the killing of Uthmn (in 35/656) as forged (1996, III, 305). Azami shows that al-
Shawkns work contained 42 spurious traditions about the Prophet, 38 regarding the first three caliphs, 96
about Al and Ftima and 14 about Muwiya (1992, 217). This suggests that the fitna started much earlier
than otherwise depicted. Thus the quote is far from conclusive in suggesting that the fitna led to the use of
isnds amongst Muslims. Ibn Srn could have easily meant that the isnd became common practice after
262
b. Al-Khatb al-Baghdd refers to a confession made by a shaykh from the Khrijites
who said:

look whom you take your religion from. For when we used to create a forged
lie, we turned it into a hadth. (al-Khatb al-Baghdd 1996, 1:210)

Al-Khatb al-Baghdd suggests that the people of innovation should be abhorred since
they were the one of the main culprits of forgery. On this basis, if there is any type of
hadth which requires precaution and close examination on the part of the hadth masters,
it is bida.
c. Al-Khatb al-Baghdd cites Sufyn al-Thawr, who said: Allh will not benefit
someone from what has been heard from an innovator. And he who dictates from an
innovator is diminishing Islam bit by bit (al-Khatb al-Baghdd 1996, 1: 210).

5.37.2. The Nuzhah on bida.
Ibn Hajars section on bida is a prime example of his diplomacy and pragmatism. He
suggests that despite its seriousness, one cannot simply avoid reports from heretical
Muslims. He explains that every sect accuses the other sect of being heretical and deviant
from the truth. Sometimes they even exaggerate their claims and refer to the opposing
groups as infidels. So if the hadth was not to be accepted, then sects would not accept
most reports since each sect would deem the others as disbelievers. A vast amount of

the fitna, and that they did exist in less stringent form before this point. The quote certainly does not
translate as they used not to bother to ask for the isnd, like Burton has suggested (1994, 106).
For an in-depth analysis of the origins of chains, the works of Azami (1992, 212-217), Juynboll (1996, III:
303-311) and Robson (1955) are worthy of mention.
263
hadth literature would be disregarded purely on the basis that each sect considered the
other as unworthy of acceptance. Al ibn al-Madn highlighted this point clearly when
he remarked that if all Kfans narrations were to be rejected [i.e. the Shas], then the
hadth of the Prophet would all but disappear (al-Khatb al-Baghdd 1988, 129). Not the
first time in the Nuzhah, we see that the rulings in the discipline aim to create a larger
source as possible for hadth literature. In this particular section, it means that the report
of a mubtadi is treated with cautionary acceptance.
This is not to say that the reports of all heretical Muslims are accepted. Rather, Ibn Hajar
offers guidelines to clarify whose reports can be accepted and whose reports should be
avoided. For example, he states that the report of a heretic will be accepted, so long as the
reporter firmly believes in the prohibition of lying in prophetic narrations, since all
scholars agree that the report of someone as such will be rejected. On this basis, the
narrations of the Khattbiyya sect are not accepted.
165
Al-Imm al-Shfi and al-Imm
Ab Hanfa stated that to use the testimony of the people of innovation (ahl al-ahw) is
permissible, except from a specific group of the Rfida (al-Khatb al-Baghdd 1988,
125-6). Ab Ysuf allowed the narrations of innovators, except the Khattbiyya and
Qadariyya sects (al-Khatb al-Baghdd 1988, 126).
This condition shows insight and sense from Ibn Hajar. On the one hand, it allows hadth
masters to use the reports from heretical Muslims (except the most serious ones) which
then extends the pool of material they can work from. On the other hand, the refusal to
accept all their reports shows the seriousness they attached to bida.
165
This was a group named after their leader, Ab al-Khattb from Kfa. He was of the belief that Al was
a senior deity and that Jafar al-Sdiq was a junior deity.
264
5.37.2. The Shooting Stars traditions.
However, it is the second condition which Ibn Hajar mentions that is more problematic.
The Nuzhah states that the agents report is accepted if he does not openly propagate his
bida.
166
Al-Khatb al-Baghdd records a saying attributed to Ibn al-Mubrak, which
shows how this condition works in practice:

Yah y ibn Uthmn narrates from Nuaym ibn Hammd who said: I heard Ibn
al-Mubrak say when asked why he left the narration of Amr ibn Ubayd but
accepted the narration of Hishm al-Dustaw and Sad [though all were
innovators], Amr used to propagate his beliefs (al-Khatb al-Baghdd 1998,
127).

A similar expression is recorded from Yah y ibn Man and Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who
again accepted the innovators who did not openly propagate their beliefs but rejected
those who did (Ibid.).
Unfortunately, no guideline or methodology has been offered by the hadth scholars as to
how one can establish whether an innovator is promoting his beliefs in the narration.
Presumably, traditions relating to the Islamic doctrines will be rejected, and ones relating
to less important matters perhaps on the respect for parents for instance will be
accepted. But there will inevitably be a grey area in between where it becomes difficult to
establish whether a covert attempt to promote a certain belief is being attempted. In short,

166
An example of propagation would be when a narrator belonging to the Rfid sect narrates a hadth
extolling the virtue of Al when no one else has reported its likes (al-Uthaymin 2002, 239).

265
there is no clear method one can employ to establish whether there is a correlation
between the matn and the narrators own belief and doctrine.
Adrien Leites has exposed this frailty quite comprehensively (in Motzki (ed.) 2000, 49-
66). By analysing the Shooting Stars traditions, he has argued that the different beliefs
held by the opposing Sunnis and Shas about the nature of the Prophet has been
expressed in subtle differences in various narrations.
Leites begins his analysis by citing the works of Tor Andrae, whose works showed that
the figure of Muhammad gave rise to two different conceptions of his prophethood (2000,
54) amongst Sunni and Sha scholars. According to the former, the Prophet is a mere
man invested with the function of prophethood at a certain point in his life. According to
the latter, Muhammad is a superhuman being invested with the attribute of prophethood
through an election preceding his terrestrial existence. This dichotomy forms the basis of
Leitess own interpretations.
With these two conceptions in mind, Leites offers an analysis of the traditions relating to
the Shooting Stars. The Shooting Stars traditions relate to the practices which used to
occur before the emergence of Islam. In the period prior to the appearance of the Prophet,
the demons had a certain amount of autonomy to roam throughout the skies, but with the
appearance of Islam, their powers were neutralised by shooting stars. Leites shows that
the many traditions relating to this event and all have slight variations in the words of
narration. But it is possible to divide them into two categories; those which state that the
demonic powers ceased when the Prophet was born and secondly, those which state that
it ceased when Muhammad officially was bestowed with prophethood, at the age of forty
(Ibid.).
266
Interestingly, Leites notes that the traditions which state that the old order of demonic
powers ceased with the prophethood of Muhammad (i.e. when he reached forty) consist
of mainly Sunni narrators (in Motzki (ed.) 2000, 55). For instance, the report by Ynus
ibn Bukayr and Ziyd ibn Abd Allh from Muhammad ibn Ishq, the words of narration
read When the Messenger of God was about to receive his call and when his mission
was about to start (Ibid.). A report by Ibn Sad mentions the same meaning, as does a
further report by Ab Nuaym (The words are When the day came on which the
Messenger of God started the prophecy).
Leites identifies that the only Sunni report which links the shooting stars with the birth of
Muhammad is via the chain of the Mawl of Uthmn Marf ibn Kharrabdh. The words
of the tradition are:

Ibls used to travel across the seven heavens. When Jesus was born, he was
debarred from [entering] the three [upper] heavens but still had access to the four
[lower] heavens. When the Messenger of God was born, he was debarred from
[entering] the seven heavens, and the devils were pelted with stars (2000, 55).

The Sunni reports ascribe the occurrence of the shooting stars when Muhammad was
bestowed with prophethood at the age of forty, but Leites shows that all the Sha reports
ascribe the same occurrence with the birth of Muhammad. For example, in a report
adduced by Ibn Bbawayh, with a chain going back to Abn ibn Uthmn (a disciple of
Jafar al-Sdiq and Ms al-Kzim), mina tells the story about the day Muhammad was
born:
267

When he fell onto the earth, he protected himself against [its impurities] with his
hands and knees, and raised his head towards the sky. A light came out of me
which illuminated what is between the heavens and the earth. The devils were
pelted with stars, and they were debarred from [entering] the heavens (Ibid).

A question remains over the sole Sunni report of Ibn Kharrabdh, which states that the
shooting stars are associated with the birth of Muhammad. This report aside, the pattern
is uniform in that all the Sunni reports refer to the shooting stars with prophethood, and
all the Sha reports refer to it with the birth of Muhammad. But Leites shows that Ibn
Kharrabdh himself has Sha tendencies, thus completing the symmetry of the two
contrasting camps of narrations. He writes:

In Sunni rijl literature, Ibn Kharrabdh appears as a rather controversial figure,
although it is his mere reliability as a transmitter that seems to have been
questioned. It is Sha rijl literature that provides us with a decisive piece of
information, namely that Ibn Kharrabdh was a disciple of Muhammad al-Bqir
and Jafar al-Sdiq, and that he played an important role in the transmission of
their teaching. On the basis of this evidence, and in the view of the ascription of
al-Barqs report, we may conclude that the present report was originally
transmitted by Sha scholars on the authority of Jafar al-Sdiq, perhaps
ultimately from him, and through a channel starting from Ibn Kharrabdh (Leites
2000, 60).
268

In short then, Leites has found a degree of frailty in the conditions laid down by hadth
scholars like Ibn Hajar. Leites has shown it is difficult to determine whether a narrator his
promoting his doctrine in the wording of the tradition. More importantly, the analysis
from Leites shows how western writers can contribute to areas which the likes of Ibn
Hajar have outlined. Muslims frequently dismiss the findings of non-Muslims in hadth
studies quite simply because it stems from non-Muslims. Leites extensive research
shows there is no reason to adopt such a stance, since he has merely given a practical
manifestation of a ruling that the Nuzhah itself outlines.

5.37.3. Conclusion.
The Nuzhahs analysis does seem to treat bida with considerable leniency, when
compared with other types of rejected traditions. This leniency is exposed through many
means:
a. Firstly, when introducing the section on the rejected traditions on the basis of
defamation of the narrator (section 5.23), Ibn Hajar clarifies that he has listed them in
order of the most severe to the least severe. On this basis, he believes that bida is only
the ninth worse type of hadth from ten.
b. Secondly, Ibn Hajars preference to pragmatism means that in essence, there are few
reports stemming from a mubtadi that are rejected outright. So long as a reporter does
not openly propagate his beliefs and does not believe in the permissibility of lying in
traditions which very few Muslims sects do then the report is accepted.

269
c. Thirdly, in Ibn Hajars definition of sahih
167
, he clarified that the reporter must be
known for his taqw, namely his ability to refrain from forbidden acts. Mighlw (2003,
353) writes that the term taqw stipulates that the reporter must refrain from bida. Yet,
here we are led to believe that a reporter known for innovation is not rejected outright.

It can be argued therefore, that the stance taken by Ibn Hajar and his likes is a clear break
from the early Muslims (like Ibn Srn), who viewed the traditions of mubtadis very
seriously. This argument is supported by the fact that Mlik (d. 179/795) did not accept
the narrations of an agent of bida, regardless of the nature of his bida (Kamali 2005,
190). In the introduction to his Sahih, al-Imm Muslim gives many examples of
traditionists who were rejected because of their ill-beliefs.
168
The classic masters attached
importance to the close scrutiny of the isnd and matn precisely because of such people
and their antics.
A case can thus be made to suggest that bida has perhaps not been viewed with the
required seriousness by Ibn Hajar it should have. It could be argued that Ibn Hajar was
torn between practice and ideal when discussing the issue of bida. Perhaps owing to the
severe nature of bida, as highlighted from the famous quote from Ibn Srn, Ibn Hajar
ideally would have desired to adopt a firm stance against the innovators and curb their
influence in hadth literature. But he also had to acknowledge the practice that preceded
him. Many hadth scholars prior to him had accepted the reports of an agent of bida. Al-
Imm al-Bukhr relied on the innovator Imrn ibn H ittn. Likewise Yahy ibn Man
167
Section 5.9.
168
For example, Ab Ghassn Muhammad ibn Amr al-Rz Jarr: I met Jbir ibn Yazd al-Juf but I
did not write any traditions down from him for he believed in [the heresy of] the return (raja) of Al.
(Juynboll 1996, III: 283).
270
and Ahmad ibn Hanbal validated Abd al-Hmid ibn Abd al-Rahmn al-Himmn, who
actively propagated his deviant beliefs (Kamali 2005, 191). Ibn Hajar found himself in a
compellingly-difficult situation: a desire to highlight the seriousness of bida along with
an acceptance that hadth masters before him did take reports from such men.
Not only did he have to acknowledge the practice that preceded him, but the reality of his
time. Ibn Hajar lived in a turbulent political era that affected the religious climate too.
Tensions were high between different denominations in Cairo and sometimes between
different madhhabs (Broadbridge 1999, 89). Viewed from this angle, the section on bida
in the Nuzhah was the perfect antidote to the tense religious atmosphere he lived in,
because he appeals to unity and tolerance.
Nor is this the first time we have seen this dilemma confront Ibn Hajar. In the section on
muallaq (5.18), we saw how Ibn Hajar had to simultaneously declare muallaq as
rejected and defend al-Bukhrs large-scale inclusion of such reports in his own Sahih.
Owing to a drop in the chain, there is no real justification to accept a muallaq report. But
taking such a hard-line stance would mean that hundreds of muallaq reports in al-
Bukhrs Sahih would have to be declared as rejected. Due to his rank and position in
the Muslim world, very few scholars would want the task of making such a statement.
The solution taken by Ibn Hajar therefore was to reject such reports in general, but allow
a loophole to cover al-Bukhrs large-scale inclusion of such reports. So Ibn Hajar
observed the practice that had occurred before him and created the rulings attached to it
accordingly.
Leading on from this, we can see that the Nuzhah is descriptive of ilm al-hadith and not
prescriptive. By the time Ibn Hajar wrote this manual, the process of reporting and
271
sharing traditions had ceased for half a millennium. The Nuzhah therefore laid down the
laws of what had occurred and not what should occur.

5. 38. Mukhtalat- the Merged.
Then the bad memory and this is the tenth reason for defamation in the reporter;
and what is meant by this is the narrators ability to be correct is outweighed by his
tendency to be incorrect is of two types. If this attribute is permanent for the
reporter in all states then this is shdhdh according to the opinion of some people of
hadth. Or if the bad memory is sudden on the reporter, either because of old age, or
loss of sight or the burning of his books or its loss; in that he used to depend on them,
reverted to memory and found that it worsened, than this is mukhtalat. The
principle for it is that what was reported before the loss is accepted when one can
[clearly] identify it [as belonging to the period before the loss]. And that which
cannot be identified is paused upon, as is that in which it cannot be known either
way. This is only identified by investigating those who took from him.

Commentary
In this last section on the rejected due to defamation in the reporters, Ibn Hajar refers to
mukhtalat, where the hadth is rejected due to the memory loss of the reporter. He
explains that this can take on two forms and clearly explains the principle for each.

A third scenario is also described; where the hadth scholars cannot clearly identify which
period the hadth in question belongs to before or after memory loss. Ibn Hajar writes
272
that such a report will be paused upon until further evidence comes to light. Ibn al-Salh
also adheres to this stance (1986, 392).
169

5.38.1 Conclusion.
To conclude this section of the Nuzhah that discusses all of the different types of rejected
traditions, Ibn Hajars deserves praise for the overall clarity of the analysis. It is for most
part well-arranged and well-defined. In particular, the length and depth of Ibn Hajars
analysis of mawd is worthy of credit.
What the Nuzhah does quite effectively is shows that the Muslim scholars did not totally
deny shortcomings and deficiencies in the system. In sufficient detail, the Nuzhah accepts
that reporters were sometimes cheats, deceitful and forgetful. It accepts the mechanisms
in place to preserve the hadth corpus were sometimes not rigid enough. This itself is a
great statement from the Muslim scholars; that they were fallible.
As a renowned hadth master, Ibn Hajar did not want to highlight the shortcomings in
ilm al-hadith per se. After all, this would be a source of embarrassment rather than pride.
But instead, he wanted to show that paradoxically, the existence of rejected traditions
proved the existence of authentic ones too. This is shown in his analysis of mawd.
169
In a very useful section in his Muqaddima, Ibn al-Salh lists several narrators who did suffer from
memory loss later in their life. Included in this list are the following:
(i) At ibn al-Sib. He suffered from memory loss late in his life and for that reason, only the reports of
the elders (akbir) such as Sufyn al-Thawr and Shuba are accepted. (ii) Ab Ishq al-Sab. Ab Yal
al-Khall writes that Sufyn ibn Uyayna heard from him after the memory loss. (iii) Sad ibn Iys al-
Jurayr. (iv) Sad ibn Ab Arba. Yahy ibn Man remarked that he suffered from memory loss from
142/759 onwards. The reports of Yazd ibn Hrn from him are however legitimate.
(v) Husayn ibn Abd al-Rahmn al-Kf. This is according to al-Nas and others.
(vi) Sufyn ibn Uyayna. Yahy ibn Qattn was reported to have said: I testify that Sufyn ibn Uyayna
suffered from memory loss in 197 A.H. Thus whosoever heard from him in this year and after it, then it is
of no worth. Sufyn ibn Uyayna died in 198 A.H. (vii) Abd al-Razzq ibn Hammm. Ahmad ibn Hanbal
said: he went blind at the end of his life. He used to be prompted and he responded to it, but his reports
after the blindness are worthless. (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 392-6).
273

274
5.38.2 Summary of the rejected traditions.
275

Rejected
traditions
Defamation in
the narrator
Apparent drop Concealed drop
Omission in the
chain.
muallaq
mursal
mudil
munqati
mudallas
mursal khafi
mawd
matrk
munkar
munkar; severe
mistakes
munkar; fisq
and negligence
muallal
Opposition of
the authoritative
jahla
bida
mukhtalat
mudraj
maqlb
al-mazid fi
muttasil al-
asnid
mudtarib
musahhaf &
muharraf
276

5. 39. Hasan li-ghayrih
When supporting attestations from someone above him [in rank] or equal, but not
less, is found for a reporter suffering from memory loss, or for a mastr report, or
for a mursal hadth, or likewise for a mudallas report when the omission is not
known, then the hadth becomes hasan li-ghayrih, not li-dhtih (per se). This is
because each type of report has an equal chance of being correct and incorrect.
When a supporting narration is found for one of them from the attesters, then one
of the two possibilities is preferred and this then indicates that the hadth is
preserved. Thus it is promoted from the rank of paused upon to the rank of the
accepted. And Allh knows best. Though it is promoted to the rank of accepted, it is
short of the rank of hasan (and thus is called li-ghayrih), though some scholars have
refused to call this type hasan.
And this concludes the discussion on that which pertains to the matn, in terms of
acceptance and rejection.

Commentary
Ibn Hajar first identified the four types of accepted (sahih li-dhtih, sahih li-ghayrih,
hasan li-dhtih, hasan li-ghayrih) in section 5.9, where he offered an in-depth analysis of
the first. He then discussed hasan li-dhtih briefly in section 5.10. Now, twenty-nine
sections later, he identifies hasan li-ghayrih.
Seemingly, this is bad arrangement from Ibn Hajar since it would have made sense to
discuss the four accepted together in one section. But in fact, it makes good sense to
277
mention hasan li-ghayrih here, after the discussions he has covered in-between. The
reason is because there are certain grades of report which are neither wholly accepted nor
rejected, and are thus classified as paused upon. Examples are like:
When a hadth is reported by someone who suffered from memory loss (5.38), and it
cannot be identified when exactly the hadth in question was reported, before or after
memory loss.
A mursal hadth (5.19), namely where the reporter after the Successor is missing.
A mudallas hadth (5.21), when the omission is not known.

Such reports can be accepted and promoted from paused upon to hasan li-ghayrih,
when supporting narrations are to be found for it. So Ibn Hajar delays the discussion on
hasan li-ghayrih (and mentions the paused upon and the rejected types in between) to
show how they can be upgraded to this type of the accepted.
The section on hasan li-ghayrih also indicates how the technical terms were used to serve
certain purposes in the era of Ibn Hajar. Before explaining how, it is important to note
that Ibn al-Salh and al-Mayynish did not explicitly divide hasan into li-dhtih and li-
ghayrih and nor did al-Irq. Ibn Hajar was the pioneer in this respect. As the above
commentary has shown, finding a corroboration for a mursal or a mudallas report (and
similar types which are normally rejeced) means there is more chances of its authenticity.
Rather than giving this newly-promoted type a new name, it has been given the name of
hasan, albeit li-ghayrih. This is deliberate. Giving it a new, unrelated name would
suggest that in terms of rank and ruling, it differs from the accepted hasan. Though in
reality it was weak and rejected, labelling it as hasan (li-ghayrih) suggests that it is
278
perfectly acceptable and fit for use in Islamic law and dogma. In short, the technical
terms were used precisely by Ibn Hajar to dress the weak with a cloak of acceptance. This
is turn would increase the pool of acceptable reports Muslims could claim to have access
to.

At the end of this section, Ibn Hajar declares that this outline of hasan li-ghayrih
concludes the discussion on that which pertains to the matn, in terms of acceptance and
rejection. In reality, references to the matn up until this point in the Nuzhah have been
almost non-existent.

5. 40. Marf The Raised.
Then the isnd this is the path leading to the matn; and the matn is the dialogue at
which the isnd terminates either ends at the Prophet , and the wording
suggests either explicitly or implicitly that the transferred text is from his sayings ,
or from his actions and from his silent approvals.
An example of an explicit (tasrh) marf from his sayings is that the Companion
says: I heard the Messenger of Allh say x, or the Messenger of Allh informed
us (haddathana) of x or the Companion or someone else says: The Messenger of
Allh said x, or from (an) the Messenger of Allh that he said x and its likes.
An example of an explicit (tasrh) marf from his actions is that the Companion
says: I saw the Messenger of Allh do x, or the Companion or someone else says:
the Messenger of Allh used to do x.
279
An example of an explicit (tasrh) marf from his silent approvals is that the
Companion says: I did x in the presence of the Prophet or the Companion or
someone else says: such and such person did x in the presence of the Prophet and
he did not object to it.
An example of an implicit (hukm) marf and not explicit from his sayings is when
the Companion who does not take biblical reports (isrliyyt) says something
which does not concern his independent thought (ijtihd) and has no reference to an
ambiguous word or commentary of a rare word. [For instance] informing of past
events like the beginning of creation and the occurrences of the [previous] prophets
(peace be upon them), or informing of future events, like the [forthcoming]
calamities and events, and the descriptions of the Day of Judgement. And likewise,
[when the Companion gives] information of an act which results in a specific reward
or specific punishment, [this too will also be considered as marf implicitly].
This is given the ruling of marf because the information stipulates that there must
be an informer for it, and in that in which there is no link to independent thought, it
also demands that there is an informer for it. There is no informer for the
Companions except the Prophet , or [possibly] some people who report from the
old scriptures. For this reason precaution is taken against it being the second type.
When it is as such, then for it is the ruling as though he said: The Messenger of
Allh said x. This is marf regardless of whether it originates from the one who
heard from the Prophet [directly] or from him through a means.
An example of an implicit (hukm) marf from his actions is that the Companions
does something that has no link with his own independent thought, and it becomes
280
manifest that this action stemmed from the Prophet . [This is] like what al-Imm
al-Shfi said about the Prayer of Eclipse performed by Al in which each unit
consisted of more than one bowing.
An example of an implicit (hukm) marf from his silent approvals is that the
Companion informs others that they used to perform a certain act in the time of the
Prophet . For indeed this has the ruling of being marf in the sense that it is clear
the Prophet told them of it, as they had the full means to question him on religious
affairs. Moreover, this was the period of divine revelation; no wrongful action
occurred from the Companions on a continual basis except it was prohibited. Indeed
Jbir ibn Abd Allh and Ab Sad (may Allh be pleased with them) used this
point to prove the permissibility of the withdrawal method [of contraception], in
that they used to perform this whilst the Qurn was being revealed. If it was from
the actions which were prohibited, then the Qurn would have outlawed it.
[Also] applicable to my saying implicitly [in the text] is that which is mentioned
through an indirect word (kinya) in the place of a direct word (sarh), in relation to
the Prophet . [This is] like the saying of the Successor from a Companion: he
raises the hadth (yarfa), or: he narrates the hadth (yarw) or: he ascribes the
hadth (yanm), or: the narration (riwya) or: he reaches it to (yablughu bih) or:
he narrates it (raw).
Sometimes they suffice with the saying with the omission of the speaker, and they
intend the [omission to be the] Prophet. [This is] like the saying of Ibn Srn from
Ab Hurayra who said: you will fight with a community In the works of al-
281
Khatb al-[Baghdd] is the suggestion that this is the specific terminology of the
people of Basra.
Amongst the possible words [of delivery] is the saying of the Companion: from the
sunna is x. Thus most of the scholars are of the opinion that this is marf. Ibn Abd
al-Barr has transmitted a consensus on this matter. He said: And when someone
other than the Companions says this, then it is as such (namely marf), so long as it
is not ascribed to another person, like the sunna of the two Umars.
170

In saying that there is a consensus on this is contentious, as al-Immal-Shfi has
two opinions on this issue. Ab Bakr al-Sayraf has said that such a saying is not
marf, along with Ab Bakr al-Rz from the Hanafs and Ibn Hazm from the Ahl
al-zhir. Their evidence is that the [word] sunna can be used for the Prophet and
others. The answer to this is that the possibility of the sunna of other than the
Prophet being meant is far-fetched. For al-Immal-Bukhr has recorded in his
Sahh in the hadth of Ibn Shihb, from Slim ibn Abd Allh ibn Umar, from his
father; in the story of the pilgrims when he said: If you intend the sunna, then leave
before the Prayer. Ibn Shihb said: I asked Slim: Did the Prophet do this? He
replied: And what do they mean by sunna except his sunna? So Slim transmitted
who is one of the seven jurists from the people of Madina and one of the hfizs
from the Successors that when the Companions use the term sunna they only
mean the sunna of the Prophet .
As for the opinion of some, that if it is marf, then why do they not say: the
Prophet said, then the answer is that they left [the words of] conviction due to
piety and precaution. An example of this is the saying of Ab Qilba, from Anas

170
The sunnas of the two Umars refers to the example of Ab Bakr and Umar.
282
that: From the sunna is that when a man marries a virgin over a non-virgin, then
he stays with the virgin for seven days. This report has been recorded in the two
Sahhs. Ab Qilba said: If I wished, I could have said that Anas reported this
marf from the Prophet . In other words, had he said such, he would not have
lied, because saying from the sunna implies this, but it is better to mention it with
the [exact] words the Companion did.
From the forms of marf [also] is the saying of the Companion we were ordered x
or we were prohibited from x. The dispute in this is the same as the previous
dispute, because the generality of the statement apparently ascribes it to the one
who orders and prohibits, and this is the Messenger .
A group [of scholars] have disputed this and have held on to the possibility that
what is meant is something (or someone) other than the Prophet, like the order of
the Qurn, or the order of the Consensus or the order of some of the caliphs or the
order of the derived ruling. The answer given is that the default position is the
Prophet and anything else is [merely] a possibility. It is most likely to be the Prophet
since whosoever is under the rule of a leader, when he says I have been ordered it
is not understood from this except that the one ordering is the leader.
As for the opinion of those who say that the Companion could think something
which is not an order, as an order, then there is no specification in this matter and
in fact is possible when there is clarification in when he says: the Prophet
ordered us x. This is a weak possibility because [all of] the Companions are credible
and competent Arabic speakers. They would not say such a thing except after
assurance.
283
Also from the forms of marf is their saying: we used to do x. This too has the
ruling of marf, like it has been mentioned.
From the forms of marf is when the Companion decrees an action as being the
obedience of Allh and His Messenger, or the disobedience. [This is] like the saying
of Ammr: Whosoever fasts on the day of doubt, then he has shown disobedience
to Ab al-Qsim . This has the ruling of marf too because it apparently seems
he has taken this from him .
Commentary
Having completed the discussions relating to the matn (text), Ibn Hajar proceeds to
analyse aspects relating to the isnd. To commence this section, he offers a detailed
explanation of marf, which perhaps is the longest section in the Nuzhah devoted to a
particular type.
In its simplest form, marf is a hadth ascribed to the Prophet , regardless of whether
this is a saying, action or silent approval.
171
Though in essence, marf is of three types
172

the Prophets words, actions or silent approvals Ibn Hajars analysis clearly shows
that marf can take on numerous forms. Indirectly, the text indicates that like before
(with aziz and mursal), the Nuzhah lays down rulings that extend the hadth literature
pool, not reduce it. At first sight, marf should only be that which stems from the
Prophet. But the wording used by the Companion (or someone else) and the nature of the

171
There is no difference whether the actual chain is continuous or not. Hence, a marf hadth can also be
mawsl, mursal, muttasil or munqati (al-Suyt 1971, 1: 184; Ibn al-Salh 1986, 45). There is also no
difference if the last narrator is a Companion or someone below him. However, al-Hfiz Ab Bakr ibn
Thbit is of the opinion that a report is only classified as marf when the Companions report it. On this
basis, he does not consider a mursal from a Successor as marf (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 45). Al-Khatb al-
Baghdd too voices the same opinion in al-Kifya (1988, 58).
172
Al-Suyt mentions a fourth type; when the Companions describe the physical and moral characteristics
of the Prophet, then this too is considered as marf (1972, 1: 187).
284
text can help us declare a hadth as marf though it apparently seems otherwise. The
definition and forms of marf offered in the Nuzhah suggests that there is an extensive
and vast pool of material available, not a restricted one.
In this long text, the first six forms of marf outlined by Ibn Hajar can be summarised as
follows:
Type Sub-Type Example.
Marf 1. Qawl tasrih The Prophet said: From the sign of a good
persons faith is leaving that which does not
concern him.
2. Qawl hukm Ibn Masd said: Whosoever approaches a
magician or fortune-teller, then he has disbelieved
in that which has been revealed to the Prophet.
Similarly, those sayings that do not have any link
with the reporters own independent thought, and
when it stems from a Companion not known to
take biblical reports.
3. Fil tasrih The Prophet used to accept gifts
4. Fil hukm Al performed the Eclipse Prayer in an
unconventional manner in that he performed the
bowing (ruk) more than once in each unit of
Prayer. Similarly, those actions from the
Companions that cannot be ascribed to his/her
independent thought.
5. Taqrir tasrih The report mentioning that a lizard was consumed
285
in the presence of the Prophet.
6. Taqrir hukm The sayings of the Companions that they would
consume sacrificial meat in the time of the
Prophet.
The above table shows suggests a rigid pattern since the three main types (qawl, fil and
taqrir) are further divided into two types, explicit and implicit. Furthermore, these six
make some religious points which perhaps the author felt were important to reflect. These
points are that:
a. The Prophet was aware of everything that his Companions did and said.
b. The Companions only source of guidance in sharia affairs was the Prophet.
c. Also, it works on the notion that their ijtihd and independency counted for very little,
in comparison to the Prophet. This is why the Nuzhah states that Al performed the
Eclipse Prayer in an unconventional manner in that he performed the bowing (ruk)
more than once in each unit of Prayer. Ibn Hajar asserts that such an action could only
have stemmed from a source, namely the Prophet.
173

Viewed from this angle, we can appreciate the multi-faceted analysis employed by Ibn
Hajar for marf. It allows the reader to understand what constitutes marf. In the wider
context, it shows the flawless nature of the Prophet, his all-encompassing wisdom and
knowledge and the exalted ranks of the Companions, for whom guidance meant prophetic
guidance only.

173
Al-Munw writes that al-Baq is of the opinion that the Prayer being referred to by al-Imm al-Shfi
was the Prayer performed during an earthquake, not an eclipse and thus a misunderstanding exists on the
matter. The eclipse prayer has been proven directly from the actions of the Prophet (when his son passed
away) and thus the legitimacy of it is proven from the Prophet explicitly, not through the means of Als
prayer (al-Munw 1999, 2: 184).
286
However, not all Muslim scholars agree with the three points mentioned above. For
example, al-Hkim and al-Khatb al-Baghdd point out that a possibility exists that the
Prophet did not know of the Companions actions (al-Munw 1999, 2: 186). For
example, it may not have been possible for the Prophet to know that Jbir practiced the
withdrawal method of contraception. Likewise, Haddad lists several religious acts
performed by the Companions in which they applied their own ijtihd (2005, pp. 94-102),
including the raising of the hands in the witr prayer for the qunt. This shows that the
definition of marf sketched by Ibn Hajar is not without reservations from Muslim
scholars, let alone non-Muslim ones (which shall be addressed later). Further clarity is
required, especially with the case when the Companions perform an act.
Al-Suyt has provided some of that clarity. He writes that if the Companions report that
they used to perform a certain action and they ascribe it to the time of the Prophet (for
example, we used to do x in the time of the Prophet), only then will it be considered as
marf. Mighlw cites the report mentioned in al-Nas and Ibn Mja where the
Companions affirmed:

We used to eat horse meat in the time of the Prophet (2003, 498).

If they merely say we used to do x with no ascription to the time of the Prophet, then
this is deemed as mawqf (the actions of the Companions). For example, Jbir ibn Abd
Allh reports that:

287
When we used to climb upwards, we would say Allh Akbar, and when we used
to descend we would say Subhn Allh.
Here, Jbir did not ascribe this to the time of the Prophet and therefore it is declared as
mawqf rather than marf (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 185).

Other than these six types, Ibn Hajar does mention four other forms of marf, two of
which are certainly more contentious:

a. When the Successor refers to a Companion and states he raises the hadth (yarfa), or
he narrates the hadth (yarwi) or similar words. This, the author writes, is considered as
marf by virtue of the words of delivery employed.
b. Also considered as marf is when a Companion decrees an action as being the
obedience of Allah and his Prophet, or his disobedience.
c. When the Companion states that we were ordered x or we were prohibited from x.
Ibn Hajar works on the assumption that when a Companion makes such a comment in the
passive state, then it must mean the Prophet. This assumption, again, is based on the idea
that the Companions only source of guidance in religious affairs was the Prophet.
Both from Muslims and non-Muslim observers, this assumption is questionable. Al-
Suyt writes that such a statement is not given the ranking of marf, because the one
ordering could be the Qurn or one of the caliphs (1971, 1: 188). Goldziher asks us to
entertain the possibility that early Muslims held a different meaning of sunna, namely all
that corresponded to the traditions of the Arabs, and the customs and habits of their
288
ancestors (1971, 25). On this basis, when a Companion says we were ordered x, it does
not automatically mean the Prophet ordered it, rather it could have meant the living
tradition of the Arabs.
d. When the Companion says: from the sunna is x. An example is the quote of Al who
said:

From the sunna is to place the palm on the [other] palm in Prayer beneath the
navel. (in al-Suyt 1971, 1: 188).

It is this last type that needs further analysis, owing to the rich debate around it. For Ibn
Hajar what does sunna mean and what does it encompass?
In principle, the Nuzhah indicates that when the Companion says from the sunna is x,
then it is given the ruling of marf, meaning it can safely be ascribed to the Prophet.
Therefore Ibn Hajar saw the sunna reflective of the Prophets own example. In order to
suggest the strength of this, he cites the opinion of Ibn Abd al-Barr in the Nuzhah, who
states that a consensus exists on the fact that such a statement is deemed as marf.
However, the Nuzhah cautiously accepts this general observation because it suggests that
the term sunna does not always mean prophetic sunna. This is because Ibn Hajar writes
when a non-Companion uses the phrase from the sunna is x, then we have to evaluate
whether he has ascribed it to someone else, like the sunna of Umar or the sunna of
Ab Bakr. Hence, it is an indirect acceptance that sunna does not always mean prophetic
sunna. In fact, the Nuzhah clarifies that many scholars actually say that when someone
says from the sunna is x it is not marf. They include Ab Bakr al-Sayraf, Ab Bakr
289
al-Rz and Ibn Hazm. These scholars write that the word sunna can refer to other
beings too, not just the Prophet.
But again, Ibn Hajar treads cautiously. Yes, sunna can mean many things, but the chances
of it referring to someone other than the Prophet are small. The Nuzhah wanted to
highlight this fact, by citing the example of al-Bukhr, who narrates a hadth describing
the Prayer on the day of Arafa. Ibn Umar informed the pilgrims: If you intend the
sunna then leave before the Prayer. Someone asked: is this what the Prophet did? Ibn
Umar replied By saying sunna, could it refer to anyone else?
In other words, when early Muslims used the term sunna, in particular the Companions,
then the chances that they meant something other than the prophetic sunna were virtually
non-existent.

5.40.1. Conclusion.
The importance of identifying what is considered as marf and what is not cannot be
over-emphasised. Without a clear indication and dividing line, there is no means by
which we can identify what is rightly attributed to the Prophet as his saying or action and
what is not. Ibn Hajars analysis goes a long way in explaining what exactly marf, and
subsequently what sunna encapsulates.
We note some indecision and lack of certainty from Ibn Hajar regarding what the sunna
encapsulates. I believe this indecision is totally justified. This is because in reality, what
the term means exactly is very difficult to pinpoint. No one Muslim or non-Muslim
scholar has really been able to provide a definite answer. At best, a rough guide can be
provided and the Nuzhah has done well to provide that.
290

Literally speaking, there are difficulties with the term. The sunna merely means path
or example and is not used exclusively to refer to the example of the Prophet.
Even the Prophet himself said: Adhere to my sunna and the sunna of the Rightly-Guided
Caliphs, thus suggesting the actions of others too can be classified as sunna.
But viewed in a different light, this hadth actually proves that the dispute over the term
sunna is purely academic. Implicitly, the Prophet indicated that his sunna and the
Companions sunna are the same thing, that following Umar was in essence following
the Prophet. The Prophet himself encouraged Muslims to emulate the examples of his
Companions, precisely because he knew they were following his footsteps.
174

The wide-ranging use of the term sunna too has led to confusion. According to Schacht,
the term sunna only came to refer to the Prophet thanks to the efforts of al-Imm al-
Shfi (Brown 1999, 7) and that prior to this period, the Muslims took the literal
meaning of sunna and thus applied it to refer to anyones example. But it is possible to
acknowledge al-Shfis efforts and believe that Muslims held value to the Prophets
sunna from an early period. As Brown himself acknowledges, al-Shfi was largely
responsible for developing a coherent system of jurisprudence (1999, 7). In order to
differentiate between the different sources of Islamic law, al-Shfi restricted the term
sunna to the Prophets sayings and actions, so that extracted laws could be systemically
ascribed to the Qurn, sunna or scholarly consensus. Additionally, more confusion is
likely when the jurists use the term to describe an act as sunna, as opposed to mandb,
harm or mubh in the field of sharia.
174
Adhere to my sunna and the sunna of the rightly-guided caliphs Sunan al-Tirmidhi, Book of
Knowledge, Chapter: what has been mentioned about adhering to the sunna and refraining from bida.
hadith no. 2600.
291
Besides the analysis in the Nuzhah, we should seriously entertain the possibility that early
Muslims differentiated between sunna and al-sunna. Azami points out that:

Sometimes the Arabic definite article (Al) was affixed to the word sunna to
denote the sunna of the Prophet, while the general use of the word continued,
though decreasing day by day. At the end of the second century it began to be
used exclusively in the legal books for the norms set by the Prophet or norms
deduced from the Prophets norm (1977, 4).

Azamis interpretation is useful in allowing us to accommodate the view of Brown and
Schacht, as well as maintaining the view that early Muslims did use the term sunna to
refer to the actions and sayings of the Prophet. If Muslims did use sunna to refer to the
example of other prominent people other than the Prophet in the first century, they used
the term sunna rather than al-sunna.
The writings of non-Muslims suggest the gulf between the sunna of the Prophet and the
sunna of the Companions. Juynboll highlights examples where Umar acted contrary to
the sunna regarding the spoils of war (1996, V:101). In my opinion, such opinions have
come about because all of the Companions have been treated with equal regard. As the
next section will highlight, some Companions were known for their judicial insight more
than others. This is why Umar acted with more autonomy than, for example, Ab
Hurayra.
A closer look reveals that Juynboll is actually in closer agreement with Muslims than one
perhaps first assumes regarding the usage of the term sunna. Though he advocates the
292
varied use of the term sunna in the first one hundred and fifty years to mean the
example of Muhammad and others he does also accept that divorcing the term from
him is all but impossible:

But since it is inconceivable, given the existence of the concept sunna and
given the prestige the Prophet had acquired especially towards the end of his life,
that Muhammads actions would not inspire his associates to follow his example,
we can safely assume that at least a significant part of the sunnas preserved in
later hadith collections and allegedly instituted during his lifetime were indeed
his (1996, V: 100).

Moreover, he accepts that in hadth literature, the use of the term sunna overwhelmingly
refers to the sunna of the Prophet (1996, V: 101). He successfully shows the term can be
applied in many different ways, but this is not from hadth literature, instead it is from the
awil literature (1996, V: 103) and from the kalm compilations (1996, V: 104).
Muslims too would not doubt that this is the case. No Muslim suggests that sunna is
exclusive to the Prophet alone. But in hadth literature, the default meaning is sunna al-
nabi like the Nuzhah indicates. On this point, Juynboll agrees. Ibn Manzrs Lisn al-
arab lists many meanings of the word (1988, x: pp. 234-8). The Quran mentions the
word sixteen times, mostly to refer to the way God has dealt with the disobeying people.
The Prophet himself used the word to refer to a bad practice.
175
Azami quotes nine
different ways the term sunna has been used in early fiqh-hadth literature (1996, pp. 31-
33). Thus if a case is being made to suggest that sunna does not necessarily refer to the

175
Man sanna fi-al-Islm sunna sayyia
293
example of the Prophet, there is no disagreement. Here, the Muslims and the non-
Muslims converge.
Where the disagreement lies is in the implications. The western scholars extensive
observations on the concept sunna are aimed at proving that early Muslims had no real
idea that they had to follow the example of the Prophet, and instead they preferred to
continue old practices, the living tradition. This is why Juynboll suggests that the verse
describing the Prophet as a perfect example
176
is particular to a certain incident; aimed
at those who did not march with the Prophet against the Confederates (Juynboll 1996, V:
107). This is the reason why Juynboll wants to suggest that hikma in the verse
177

translates as knowledge and insight rather than the sunna of the Prophet. This is why he
makes the point to indicate that the Qurn mentions sunna sixteen times, but none refer
to the sunna of the Prophet (Juynboll 1996, V: 101). This is why Schacht translates sunna
as the living tradition of the community, which is unrelated to the model behaviour of
the Prophet (1959, 29). And this is why Goldziher is keen to suggest that the hadth had a
troubled existence in the first Islamic century and that it was the likes of Umar II who
set out the task to revive the sunna and abolish the bida (1971, 43). Paradoxically, this
last observation from Goldziher actually proves the existence of the sunna of the Prophet
in the first Islamic century. This is because sunna and bida are opposing terms; one can
only abolish the sunna if one knows the sunna originally. Additionally, one can only
revive the sunna if it existed in the first place.
There are implications for the Muslims too. Confusion surrounding the term sunna
suggests that early Muslims had no real role model in the Prophet, that the Qurn gave

176
The Qurn, 33:21.
177
Wa yuallimuhum al-kitb wal hikma (2:129). (Juynboll 1996, V: 106-7).
294
no weight to his precedence, and that it was only al-Shfi who saved Muslims from this
confusion. There would be no meaning to the countless verses in the Qurn which stress
the need for Muslims to express obedience to the Prophet (33:21, 4:64, 3:32, 3:132, 4:59,
4:65, 59:7). Because this is difficult for the Muslims, they assert that the word sunna as
the model of the Prophet came into existence during the lifetime of Muhammad (Azami
1996, 31). They show that the uniformity in the core aspects of rituals and worships could
only have come about if the Muslims took their example from one source, Prophet
Muhammad.
What this shows is how the starting point for the Muslims and the non-Muslims affects
the end conclusion. Because some non-Muslim academics start with a negative
assumption about Muhammad, it affects the direction of the research. And because
Muslim academics start with the positive assumption that Muhammad was the mercy for
all mankind, the most perfect of Gods creation and the final Messenger of God, then this
too affects the nature and direction of the research.

On a final note, we return to the Nuzhah in particular. It was mentioned in section 5.2.1
that Ibn Hajar had chosen to define hadth in the opening section on khabar, but left the
discussions on sunna much later on in this section. Having analysed both sections, it
seems that owing to the complexity surrounding sunna, it made sense to define it much
later in a book designed for first time readers of ilm al-hadith. It also shows that perhaps
Ibn Hajar did agree with Goldziher in some respects. This is because Ibn Hajar defined
hadth in a much narrower sense whereas his analysis of sunna suggested a much-wider
295
scope. Goldziher agrees when he suggests that hadth is sunna though not every sunna is
a hadth (1971, 24).

5.41. Al-Sahb- the Companions.
[The isnd either ends at the Prophet] or at the Companion (Sahb) in a similar
fashion. In other words, like what has passed in that the wording clarifies that the
transmitted [text] is from the saying of the Companion, or from his actions or from
his silent approvals. Not all of the types previously mentioned are applicable to this,
but rather most of it. Similarity does not entail resemblance in every aspect.
Since this short treatise covers all of the branches of ilm al-hadth, I have embarked
on offering a definition of the Companions and who they are. Thus I say [that a
Sahb is] he who met the Prophet as a believer in him
178
and [then] died as a
Muslim
179
, even if he became an apostate in between, according to the most correct
opinion. What is meant by meeting the Prophet is a more general application than
sitting with him, walking with him and going to one another; even if they did not
talk to one another [he is still considered as a Companion]. Inclusive in this is one
seeing the other, regardless of whether this occurs through his own means or
through the means of someone else.

178
The person in question must have seen the Prophet as a Muslim and as someone who believed in him as
a Prophet. This thus excludes the disbelievers like Ab Jahl and excludes those who met him, but as a
believer in previous prophets like Jesus.
179
He must then have died as a Muslim for him to be classified as a Companion. This excludes the
apostates such as Abd Allh ibn Jahsh, Raba ibn Umayya and Ibn Khatl (Mighlw 2003, 517).
296
Referring it with meeting rather than seeing [the Prophet] is preferred, because
with the latter, the definition would not include Ibn Umm Maktmand his likes
from the blind, as they are undoubtedly [classified as] Companions.
180

Meeting in this definition here is like the jins
181
and my saying as a believer is like
a fasl that excludes those who achieved the meeting but as a disbeliever. My saying
in him is the second fasl that excludes those who met him as a believer but in the
state of believing in someone else from the [previous] prophets. But does this exclude
he who met the Prophet as a believer [prior to the public announcement of Prophet-
hood] and knew he would be declared a Prophet [later], and then did not live until
the announcement? In this is a dispute.
182

My saying and [then] died as a Muslim is the third fasl which excludes those who
became apostates after meeting him as a believer and then subsequently died as a
disbeliever, like Abd Allh ibn Jahsh and Ibn Khatl.
My saying even if he became an apostate in between namely between meeting the
Prophet as a believer and between dying as a Muslim means the attribute of
Companionship still remains, irrespective of whether he reverted to Islam during
the Prophets life [or not] or whether he met the Prophet again [as a reverted
Muslim] or not.

180
Ibn Hajar chose deliberately not to define a Companion as someone who saw the Prophet, because that
would then exclude the likes of Ibn Umm Maktm, who was blind.
181
Ibn Hajar employs terminology from balgha (prose) to explain how he has expressed the definition of a
Companion. A jins is like a general statement and any exceptions are expressed through the means of a fasl.
For example, all the Muslim, male students came to class is a general statement regarding who came to
class. From the statement, we readily understand that no non-Muslims came to class, no females did and no
non-students did. These three points are classified as the fasl for the jins.
182
Disputed are the group of people who saw the Prophet before he officially announced his Prophet-hood
and knew he was a Prophet, like Bahra the monk.
297
My saying according to the most correct opinion is an indication of the dispute
[that exists] regarding the issue [of defining the Companion]. The story of al-
Ashath ibn Qays gives preference to the first opinion; for he is from the ones who
became an apostate and he was brought to Ab Bakr as a prisoner. He then
reverted to Islam and Ab Bakr accepted it and he married him to his sister. No one
[from the scholars or other Companions] refrained from calling him a Companion
and no one refused to mention his hadths in the musnads and other sources.
Two notes: One of them is that there is no hiding the fact of the preferred rank of
him who adhered to the Prophet for a long time, fought with him or died under
his commandership over one who did not stay with him for long, did not participate
with him in the [key] events, or spoke to him or walked with him only rarely, or saw
him as a child. This is despite the fact that the honour of Companionship is still
applicable to all of them.
The hadth of one who did not hear from him is mursal in terms of narration,
though they themselves are classified as Companions, as they attained the honour of
seeing him.
The second of the two notes is that a persons Companionship is known by the
means of mutawtir
183
, through the dispersed and famous nature of this fact
184
,
183
For example, the fact that Ab Bakr was a Companion is known by definitive means, as he was the one
being referred to with the Prophet in the verse: For Allh did indeed help him, when the Unbelievers drove
him out: he had no more than one companion; they two were in the cave, and he said to his companion,
"Have no fear, for Allh is with us" (9: 40). All Qurn experts are unanimous that the companion being
referred to here is Ab Bakr. Likewise, Zayd ibn Hritha is known as a Companion through the means of
tawtur, as he is the only Companion mentioned explicitly in the Qurn, in the verse: Then when Zayd
had dissolved (his marriage) with her (33: 37)
184
Mighlw writes that Damm ibn Thalaba and Aksha ibn Muhsin are deemed as Companions through
this mean (2003, 519).
298
through the means of another Companion informing such
185
, through the means of a
credible Successor informing such or through the means of the person affirming it
himself, when his claim is plausible.
186
A group of hadth scholars have expressed
concern over this last means in the sense that such a claim from someone is akin to
someone claiming I am credible and [thus] this requires [further] analysis.

Commentary
As Ibn Hajar notes in the text of the Nuzhah, it is important to identify and know who the
Companions were. One benefit is being able to identify the mursal from the muttasil
hadth (al-Suyt 1972, 2: 206). Owing to the importance of this issue, Ibn Hajar firstly
offers a comprehensive definition of the Companion (Sahbi) and then offers his own
commentary and analysis of the definition. The definition he adheres to for a Sahbi is as
follows:

185
For instance, when Hamama ibn Ab Hamama died as a result of a stomach illness during the caliphate
of Umar, Ab Ms remarked that he heard the Prophet once inform him that he would die as a martyr
(Mighlw 2003, 519). In Islam, there are several types of martyr. In a report recorded by al-Bukhr, the
Prophet affirmed that a person who dies in a plague, who dies through drowning, who dies under a
collapsed building and dies due to a stomach illness are all considered as martyrs (shahid).
186
Precisely, this means that if someone claimed to be a Companion one hundred years after the Prophet, it
would be rejected. The Prophet himself was reported to have said to his Companions: Do you observe this
very night? For verily, one hundred years after tonight, no one present here will remain on the face of the
earth. (cited in Mighlw 2003, 520-1). According to the report narrated by Jbir, the Prophet said these
words one month prior to his demise (Mighlw 2003, 521).
Some people did erroneously claim to be Companions when in fact they were not, such as Ab Duny al-
Ashajj and Ratan Hind (Mighlw 2003, 520). The scholars research and the above prophetic report were
critical in rejecting such claims.
Not all scholars believe that the persons own statement is sufficient to determine whether he is a
Companion or not. This is because if someone says I am credible, his opinion on himself is not accepted.
Hence, scrutiny is essential.

299
A Sahbi is he/she who met the Prophet as a believer in him and [then] died as
a Muslim, even if he/she became an apostate in between, according to the most
correct opinion.

Two important facts are crucial to analyse with regards to the Companions. Firstly, in
terms of religious rank, Muslim scholars accept that all Companions hold an equal,
exalted rank, as testified by the Prophet himself and the Qurn. Secondly, it is agreed
that the conventional investigations required to establish the accuracy and credibility of a
hadth reporter are wavered for the Companions.
187

Ibn Hajar and other hadth scholars have treated these two points as fundamentally
related. We do not need to check the accuracy of a reporter precisely because their
character is described as exemplary by the Qurn. But an observer can argue that the two
points need to be treated differently as in reality, they belong to different spheres. The
Companions exalted rank is due to their religious sacrifice and assistance to Islam. This
is different to their academic capability as hadth reporters. Certainly, it is not contentious
to decree all Companions as equal in terms of religious worth, but the same cannot
always be said regarding their academic and intellectual capability. The following points
show why a strong case can be made to treat the Companions differently; theologically
and academically.

187
Al-Khatb al-Baghdd writes: It is not necessary for anyone to analyse their character once Allh has
done so, He Who knows their inner state (1988, 46).
Ibn al-Salh writes: [Mursal al- Sahbi] has the same principle of a hadth which is connected, because
the narrator took the hadth from a Companion. And not knowing from which Companion the hadth was
taken is not defamatory, because all Companions are udl (credible) (1986, 56). See also al-Suyt (1972,
2: 215-6).
300
a. Firstly, some Companions stayed with the Prophet longer than others. Though this may
not affect their spiritual position, it will certainly affect their ability to comprehend what
they are transmitting. It is strange that Ibn Hajar accepts that some Companions were
better than others because the amount of time they spent with the Prophet
188
, but then
does not elaborate on the ramifications of this fact in the sphere of hadth reporting.
b. Secondly, some Companions were known as specialists in sharia affairs whereas
others were not. The most experienced in religious decrees was Ibn Abbs, as certified
by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (Mighlw 2003, 526). He is followed by the senior Companions,
who Masrq classifies as six; Umar, Al, Ubayy ibn Kab, Zayd ibn Thbit, Ab al-
Dard and Ibn Masd (al-Suyt 1972, 2: 218: Mighlw 2003, 527). Needless to say,
this suggests that not all were academically equal.
c. Kamali is of the opinion that the development of jarh & tadil can be traced back to the
prominent Companions such as Ab Bakr, Ibn Abbas, Anas ibn Mlik
and Al (2005, 81). What this implicitly means is that they felt the need to evaluate and
analyse each others statements. If all the Companions were academically equal, then
there would be no need for them to approve or disapprove each others reports.
d. The Companions adla (credible nature) is not synonymous with their immunity
from mistakes. Al-Bukhr reports the statement of the Prophet, delivered when some
news broke out in Madina that considerable wealth had arrived from the collection of
jizya. He said:

188
He writes in the Nuzhah: there is no hiding the fact of the preferred rank of he who adhered to the
Prophet for a long time, fought with him or died under his commandership over one who did not stay
with him for long, did not participate with him in the [key] events, or spoke to him or walked with him only
rarely, or saw him as a child. This is despite the fact that the honour of Companionship is still applicable to
all of them.
301
By God! I do not fear poverty for you. I only fear that when this material world
has been opened to you, as was opened to those who came before you, it may
distract you from the right path, just as it distracted them (fa-tulhikum kam
alhathum).

In another version of the same report, the last three words have been recorded as
fatuhlikukum kam ahlakathum (it will destroy you as it destroyed them). The two
variations are most probably due to two different Companions hearing the words of the
Prophet differently, as both variations sound the same and can apply to the context
(Kamali 2005, 98-99). What this shows is that the Companions may be dedicated
servants of Islam, but they were still human and were thus prone to mistakes.

In short, my thesis is that the Companions as religious men and the Companions as hadth
reporters needs to be viewed separately, but it seems that very few Muslim scholars have
departed from the official view that all Companions are credible, regardless of age and
academic ability. With difficulty, I have come across three such scholars only who
indirectly suggest that not all the Companions are equal. One of these exceptions is al-
Mzar, when he wrote:

By the statement All Companions are credible, we do not mean every person
who saw the Prophet on one occasion, or visited him momentarily and met him
[briefly] for a moment. What we mean are those people who stayed with the
302
Prophet for a considerable amount of time, served him and assisted him. (al-
Suyt 1972, 2: 214).

Perhaps al-Mzirs definition was an acknowledgement that intellectually, the rank of
those Companions who stayed with the Prophet for a longer period is much greater, and
thus their capacity as hadth reporters will therefore also be greater. But al-Mzirs
opinion is not considered strong amongst the Muslim scholars. Al-Al was quick to
refute al-Mzir because holding such a view excludes prominent Companions who only
stayed with him for a short period of time, like Wil ibn Hujr and Malik ibn al-
Huwayrith (Ibid.).
Another possible exception is Sad ibn Musayyab. He refuses to define Companions in
such a general state as most of the scholars have. He argues that a Sahbi is one who
stayed with the Prophet for at least two years, and participated in at least one battle with
him (al-Suyt 1972, 2: 211).
189
Finally, there is al-Wqid (d. 207/822-3), who only
considered those who reached adulthood during the lifetime of the Prophet to be
Companions (Brown 2009, 87).
The argument I have presented above has at least been touched upon in the Nuzhah, but it
has certainly not been critically assessed. The guidelines set down for who is considered
a Companion in the Nuzhah are very loose and far-ranging. A Muslim can be deemed a
Sahbi if he saw the Prophet just once, even unintentionally and without any
conversation of any form. In other words, all of them enjoy this nobility of the title of
Companion, regardless of the extent of his/her interaction with the Prophet.

189
Ibn al-Salh writes that this definition is more likely to be according to the legal theorists, rather than the
hadth masters. If Sads opinion is accepted, then Jarr ibn Abd Allh would not be classified as a
Companion (1986, 293).
303
Yet he also intricately points out that the status of a Companion who stayed with the
Prophet for a considerable length of time and fought alongside him in battles is clearly
greater than those Companions who only momentarily met him, despite the fact all are
labelled as Companions. This duality is accepted therefore by Ibn Hajar in some form.
Hence a balance is required; this is only realistically possible when we view the
Companions differently, according to their religious rank on the one hand and according
to their ability to fully fathom the Prophets words and accurately pass it on to others on
the other.
Perhaps owing to the sensitivity of the issue, some scholars, including Ibn Hajar, have
chosen to imply that the theological status of the Companions automatically vouches for
their academic ability too. After all, no Muslim would want to be smeared with the
charge of questioning the rank of the Companions in any form. In the ninth Islamic
century, Ab Zura al-Rz stated that anyone who criticised a Companion was a heretic
(Brown 2009, 87), clearly indicating that questioning their rank was off-limit.
More recently, Mawdud wrote that even the noble Companions were overcome by
human weakness, one attacking another. This comment led to a barrage of criticism from
his Muslim contemporaries who saw the remarks as nothing short of slanderous (Brown
1999, pp.86-87).

The protectiveness enjoyed by the Companions and the sensitivity surrounding criticising
them has affected the nature of the debate regarding the Companions. Rather than dealing
with these sensitive issues, the Muslim scholars opt for the less controversial ones in their
analysis and commentaries. A prime example of this is the dispute as to whether someone
304
is considered as a Companion if he saw the Prophet after his demise before he was buried.
Mighlw and al-Munw are of the opinion that such people will not be considered as
Companions.
190
Another example is the dispute as to whether small infants who the
Prophet saw are considered as Companions.
191
Ibn Hajar does exactly the same here in
the Nuzhah when he touches upon whether Bahra the monk was a Companion or not.
Muslim scholars are content to analyse such discussions because it is not blasphemous in
any way. On the other hand, separating the religious and academic rank of the
Companions is controversial at the very least, if not blasphemous.
If Muslims are not willing to hear criticism about the Companions from Muslims, it is
obvious that they will not desire to hear it from non-Muslims. A few examples of their
constructive remarks are mentioned below:
a. Brown has suggested that even the Prophet did not completely trust all those who
could be called Companions (1999, 85). After quoting the famous hadth in which the
Prophet said: Let whoever tells lies about me deliberately take his place in hell, he
concludes that:

190
Mighlw writes: According to aforementioned definition (which is the same as Ibn Hajars), such a
person will not be classified as a Companion who saw the Prophet after his demise but before his burial.
For example, Ab Zuwayb Khuwaylid ibn Khlid Hazl accepted Islam during the lifetime of the Prophet,
but did not attain the honour of meeting him. He appeared in Madina on the day the Prophet passed away
(2003, 517). See al-Munw (1999, 2: 206) too.
191
Abd Allh ibn Hrith ibn Nawfal was brought to the Prophet as a newborn child, for whom he
performed the ceremonial tahnik and supplicated for him. Al-Al does not count him as a Companion.
However, al-Munw voices the opinion of the majority when he asserts that small children such as the
above example are included under the definition (al-Munw 1999, 2: 201 & 210).

305
this can be taken to mean that Muhammad knew that there were those among
his Companions who were spreading lies about him (1999, 85).
192

b. Brown also notes that there were reports of conflicts and mutual accusations among
the Companions (1999, 86).

c. In fact, Brown suggests, the Companions were marked by mistrust and dispute to the
extent that Umar felt the need to confine three Companions to Madina to keep them
spreading traditions (Ibid.).

In response to such remarks, Muslim scholars have felt the urgent need to mute such
voices, precisely because it questions the most dedicated men of Islam.
Over sixty Companions narrated Let whoever tells lies about me deliberately take his
place in hell from the Prophet, including those figures whom the Prophet promised a

192
Browns opinion clearly shows the wide discrepancy of western scholars on this tradition (Let whoever
tells lies about me). By suggesting that the Prophet did say these words to his Companions, he implicitly
suggests that there is some authenticity to the report. This is in stark contrast to other western academics
who strongly assert that the hadith is forged. Guillaume, for example, writes, A most remarkable feature
of the reaction [of increased forgery] was that the theologians borrowed the weapons of the liars. In order to
combat false traditions they invented others equally destitute of prophetic authority. An extra ordinary
number of Companions are cited as witnesses that the Prophet said, whoever shall repeat of me that which
I have not said, his resting place shall be in Hell (1924, pp.78-79)
Several points must be raised with regards to Browns objection;
Firstly, the logic of his reasoning is not conclusive. Merely because the Prophet warned of lying against
him does not automatically mean that the Companions were lying. Instead, the saying can be seen as a
reminder to those around him that his words are to be reported with utmost accuracy and integrity. If x
warns y to refrain from lying, it does not necessitate that y is already indulging in lying; it could mean that
x is asking y to refrain from lying as he has done in the past.
Secondly, the hadth itself, as classical scholars agree, is not directed at the Companions but at the
generations thereafter. In other words, the saying is a prophecy of what will occur after the Companions
times. Several traditions exist which do not address the Companions but those who come after them. For
example, the Prophet was reported to have said: Do not insult my Companions. For I swear by Allh, if
you were to spend the weight of Mount Uhud in gold [in Allhs path], you would not even reach their
sight, nor half of it (al-Khatb al-Baghdd 1998, 48). Clearly, this is directed to those after the
Companions. The hadth warning against lying against the Prophet is to be interpreted in the same light.

306
place in paradise during their lifetime. It seems illogical to say the least that for the
same group of people, the Prophet would be promising a place in Paradise, as well as
warning them of entering into Hell-Fire.
Without doubt, the Muslims admit that conflicts did arise between the Companions, but
the nature of these disputes has been misinterpreted by certain observers. More often than
not, the dispute centred on which traditions were to be acted upon and which would not,
in terms of abrogation for example. The nature of the disputes was not because the
Companions did not trust one another in terms of their character, honesty and ability to
accurately transmit what they had heard from the Prophet.
193
The supposed report
194

alleges that Umar confined the three Companions because they narrated too many
traditions. But the three Companions in question were not known for their excessive
narration. Ibn Masd narrated 848 traditions, Ab al-Dard narrated 179 and Ab Dharr
narrated 281. (Siddq 1993, 18) As Pr Muhammad Karam Shah asks, why did Umar
not confine Ab Hurayra (5374 reported traditions), Ibn Abbs (1660 traditions) or his
own son Abd Allh ibn Umar (2630 traditions)? (1973, 114) There are at least twenty-
one Companions who narrated more traditions than Ab al-Dard, but Umar did not
take any action against them.

193
For instance, the Hanafi Jurist al-Shsh (d. 335/946) cites the dispute that occurred between Ab
Hurayra and Anas as to whether it was necessary to perform ablution again after eating cooked meat.
Conflicting traditions exist on the matter; some state that ablution must be performed whereas others state it
is not necessary. The dispute between the two Companions on the matter was with regards to which
tradition had been abrogated. It was not because they questioned the authenticity of each others narration.
194
The actual narration which supposedly claims that Umar prevented three Companions from narrating
traditions is very weak. Ab Shuhba quotes Ibn Hazm who has shown the report has a discontinuous chain.
According to his investigations, Ibrhm ibn Abd al-Rahmn ibn Awf could not have heard from Umar.
This is because Ibrhm died in either 95/713 or 99/717, at the age of seventy-five. He was born in either
20/640 or 24/644, at the end of the caliphate of Umar. Hence, according to the dates of each, Ibrhm was
only three years old when Umar died, an age at which it would have been impossible to hear and transmit
narrations (Ab Shuhba 1996, 280, al-Sib 1998, 83).
307
5.41.1. Conclusion.
This section on the Companions reflects the polemics that marks the study of ilm al-
hadith. The Muslims dare not question the integrity of these servants of Muhammad
whilst the western scholars highlight the tension and accuracy that existed between them.
The truth it seems lies in between these two spectrums. The Companions were
religiously credible but not necessarily academically equal, as my analysis has shown.
Like with many other sections in the Nuzhah, it highlights the protectionism that certain
individuals and groups hold. Muslims cannot and should not question the rank of the
Companions, even if the result of its absence is a blurred understanding ilm al-hadith.
5.42. Al-Tbi and al-Mukhadramn.
[The isnd either ends at the Prophet, at the Companion (Sahb)] or at the Tbi
(Successor). The Tbi is the is one who met the Companion(s) with the same detail
as before (as a believer in the Prophet, and then died as a Muslim), except the
condition of faith in the Companion, as this is specific to the Prophet only. This
is the chosen opinion, as opposed to those [scholars] who add the condition of
extensive adherence for the Successor [to the Companion], the validity of hearing
from him or the condition of acknowledgement.
There lies between the Companions and the Successors a group upon which there is
a dispute regarding which of the two [aforementioned] categories they belong to.
These are the Mukhadramn, who lived through the period of Ignorance and the
period of Islam, but did not see the Prophet . Thus Ibn Abd al-Barr has
308
[seemingly] classified these as Companions and Iyd and others have claimed that
Ibn Abd al-Barr has explicitly said such. In this opinion lies doubt, because Ibn
Abd al-Barr clarified in the introduction of his book that he included the
mentioning of the Mukhadramn so that it could entail all those who lived in the
first generation. The correct opinion is that they are classified as the senior
Successors, irrespective of whether it is known one of them became a Muslim in the
time of the Prophet like al-Najsh
195
or not.
However, if it is proven that the all of the people of the earth were unveiled to the
Prophet on the Night of Ascension and he observed them all, then the
Mukhadramn should be classified as among those who believed in him during his
lifetime, even if he did not meet them as [conventional] Companions, since the seeing
has been achieved by the Prophet .
196

Commentary
195
He was the king of Abyssinia, who became a Muslim in the time of the Prophet. When he died, the
Prophet described him as a pious man (al-Uthaymin 2002, pp. 285-6).
196
Ibn Hajar himself is inclined to the opinion that the Mukhadramn are deemed as senior Successors
rather than Companions. He does however raise an interesting point which could suggest that they are in
fact Companions. Muslims believe that on the Night of Ascension, the Prophet saw the entire people of the
world. As previously mentioned in the definition of a Companion, it does not matter if the Prophet saw the
person in question and not vice versa; he will still be considered as a Companion. On this basis, the
Mukhadramn should be classified as Companions. Al-Wajd believes this is insufficient evidence to
classify them as Companions. On the night of Ascension, the Prophet observed all the people of the earth in
the lam ghayb (the unseen realm), whereas the matter here pertains to the lam shuhd (the visible realm)
(al-Wajd 1996, 178). Additionally, al-Uthaymin writes that if such a line of argument is maintained, then
all the previous prophets and messengers too should be classified as Companions, because the Prophet
met (and conversed with many of them) them too on this night (2002, 289). But of course, no scholar
adheres to such an opinion.

309
5.42.1. The Successors.
Ibn Hajar effectively defines the Successors (Tbii) in relation to the Companions. In the
same manner a Companion is defined as someone who met the Prophet as a Muslim and
then died in such a state, a Successor is one who met one of the Companions as a Muslim
and died as a Muslim. As Ibn Hajar highlights, the part which is not applicable to the
Successors is actually believing in the Companion, as this is only a requirement for the
Prophet.
In the previous section, it was shown that Muslims have dealt with the issue of
Companions with great sensitivity, lest it insult the closest men to the Prophet. This
section from Ibn Hajar too suggests a similar theme, albeit in a different manner.
When outlining his definition of a Companion, Ibn Hajars is cautious not to exclude
anyone; if a person even saw the Prophet from afar, he is still considered a Sahbi. The
likes of Said ibn Musayyab it was noted suggest that a person has to have extensive
companionship with the Prophet before he is deemed a Sahbi. Ibn Hajar in the Nuzhah
steered clear from any condition as such.
However, in this section, the Nuzhah offers the definition of a Tbii and then does
mention how some scholars add the condition of extensive adherence for the Successor
[to the Companion], the validity of hearing from him or the condition of
acknowledgement. He does at least entertain such conditions, even though he does not
agree with them.
What is the reason behind this difference? Because adding such conditions to the
definition of a Companion may exclude certain individuals as being a Sahbi, which is
quite a sensitive exercise. That sensitivity does not exist with the Successors and
310
therefore there is nothing wrong with suggesting that a Tbii needs to have extensive
companionship in order to have this title.
This interpretation reflects a theme that we have noted before in the Nuzhah; that certain
groups and individuals are protected in the discipline. For Ibn Hajar, we can question the
conditions surrounding the definition of a Tbii. But for the Companions, such
discussions are off-limit.
5.42.2. The Mukhadramn.
This term refers to the Muslims who lived in the time of Ignorance
197
and Islam, but did
not meet the Prophet. There is a dispute amongst the scholars regarding whether they are
classified as Companions or Successors. The word derives from the Arabic khadrama
to mean cut off (al-Uthaymin 2002, 285).
198
They are so-called because they were cut-
off from the Muslims who resided with the Prophet.
Al-Imm Muslim has declared that the Mukhadramn were twenty in total, which include
Ab Umar Shaybn, Sad ibn Iys al-Shaybn, Sharh ibn Hn, Suwayd ibn Ghafala,
Bashr ibn Amr ibn Jbir, al-Aswad ibn Yazd al-Nakha, Amr ibn Maymn al-Azd,
Ab Uthmn al-Nahd, Ab al-Hill Raba ibn Zurra al-Atak, al-Aswad ibn Hill al-
Muhrib and Marr ibn Suwayd. Most scholars believe there are more however. Al-
Suyt includes Abd Allh ibn Ukaym and Ahnaf ibn Qays, Ab Muslim Khawln as
well as Uways al-Qarn. (1972, 2: 239).

197
The time of Ignorance (jhiliyya) refers to the period prior to the Prophet. A minority opinion is that it is
the time before the Conquest of Makka.
198
Al-Suyt writes that the root word can also mean confused. The Arabs say lahm mukhadram to
describe meat when it is not known whether it derived from a male or female animal. (1972, 2: 238).
311
It has already been observed how the Nuzhah acts an arbitrator between disputed
technical terms in the discipline. Here in this section is an example of how Ibn Hajar
helps us to overcome misunderstandings that have existed between Muslim scholars.
In his biographical account of all the Companions al-Istib fi asm al-ashb
199
, Ibn
Abd al-Barr did include the biographies of the Mukhadramn. Al-Qd Iyd used this to
suggest that he considers them as Companions. But Ibn Hajar believes that Ibn Abd al-
Barr included them in his account so that his works could comprehensively cover all
those who lived in the first generation, not necessarily because he firmly believes they are
technically classified as Companions.

5.43. Marf, mawqf, maqt and athar.
Thus the first type in what has passed from the three types and that is where the
end of the isnd concludes at the Prophet , is called marf, irrespective of whether
that is with a continuous isnd or not. The second is mawqf; and that is what ends
at the Companion. And the third is maqt: and that is what ends at the Successor
and those beneath the Successors, namely the Followers of the Successors (atb al-
tbi) and those after them. It is equal in terms of naming it maqt, namely that
which is from the Successor and that which is from those after them. And if you like,
you can say: [the report is] mawqf to such and such.
So there is a difference in terminology between maqt and munqati: the latter
relates to the isnd, like it has already been mentioned, and the former relates to the

199
The Comprehensive, in the name of the Companions.
312
matn, as you can see. Some [scholars] have placed one in the place of the other,
contrary to the [correct] terminological use. And the last two, namely mawqf and
maqt are [also] called athar.
Commentary
In this short section, the author summarises the previous discussion on the Companions
and the Successors by highlighting what a report narrated by their likes are called in
hadth terminology. Variations do exist on the above definitions. For example, Ab Bakr
ibn Thbit defines marf as that report in which the Companion informs of a saying,
action or silent approval of the Prophet (Ibn al-Salh 1986. 45). On this basis, he does not
consider a mursal report as marf.
Owing to the fact that both derive from the same root word, Ibn Hajar reminds the reader
that there is a clear difference between maqt and munqati. Maqt is used to describe
the actual text, in that it stems from the Successors or those after them. Munqati on the
other hand refers to a report which has a discontinuation in the isnd. This is the
renowned definition for both, though the author does acknowledge that some scholars
have inverted the two. It seems that it is the earlier scholars who have deviated from the
definition offered by Ibn Hajar, such as al-Imm al-Shfi (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 47). This
is somewhat excused, because they lived at a time when the terminology of ilm al-hadith
was still in its infant stage. Such discussions on the technical terms and their usage
display why the Nuzhah is an ideal guide for disciples embarking on prophetic studies for
the first time.
313
5.44. Musnad.
The musnad in the saying of the hadth master This is a musnad hadth is a
marf [through the means of the] Companion with a chain that it is visibly
continuous [leading to the Prophet]. Thus my saying marf is like a jins and my
saying [through the means of the] Companion is the fasl that excludes that which
the Successor raises [to the Prophet]. That [will be declared as a report which] is
mursal and [if the report is raised by] someone below the Successor, then that is
mudil or muallaq. My saying visibly continuous excludes that which apparently
looks discontinuous, and includes that report which seemingly looks continuous.
Clearly, that which is in reality continuous [though looks otherwise] will also be
included in musnad. It becomes apparent from the condition of visibly looking
continuous that a hidden discontinuation like the anana from a mudallis and the
contemporary for whom the meeting [with his shaykh] has not been proven does
not exclude a report from being musnad, by virtue of the fact that the imms [of
hadth] have recorded musnads upon this form.
This definition complies with the saying of al-Hkim [when he writes]: The musnad
is that which a hadth master reports from his shaykh in which he seemingly heard
from him, and likewise so has his shaykh from his shaykh, continuous to the
Companion and to the Prophet .
As for al-Khatb [al-Baghdd], [he says that the] musnad is continuous. For this
reason, then the mawqf, when it is reported with a continuous chain, is called
musnad according to him. However, he says that this [terminology] is used rarely.
314
Far-fetched is the remark of Ibn Abd al-Barr when he said: The musnad is the
marf with no consideration for the continuity of the isnd. This definition then
will also befit the mursal, the mudil and the munqati, when the text (matn) is raised
[to the Prophet]. There is no one [else] of this opinion.

Commentary
In essence, the musnad is the term which refers to a perfect hadth. What this means is
that the hadth is marked by the following attributes:

The isnd leads to the matn that expresses the sayings, actions or silent approvals of the
Prophet. In other words, it is marf.
The Companion reports the saying or action of the Prophet in the musnad report. This
therefore excludes mursal, in which the reporter after the Successor (which is usually the
Companion) is missing (al-Uthaymin 2002, 296).
There are no visible breaks in the isnd. This means that it cannot be mursal, mudil or
munqati. However, by saying visible, it means that the isnd can have an invisible
break in the isnd. On this basis, the term musnad can still be employed to describe a
hadth that is muanan, mudallas or mursal khafi. As proof for this opinion, Ibn Hajar
reminds the reader that such reports are included in the works of the hadth masters and
are still declared as musnads. Also, the definition offered by al-Hkim lends firm support
to Ibn Hajars definition.

315
5.44.1. Other definitions for musnad.
Ibn Hajars task in the Nuzhah was to offer a brief overview of the discipline and inform
the reader of the different names and terms used in the discipline. This section shows that
he also felt it important to highlight the ikhtilf that exists too, when he included the
definition of musnad according to other scholars. The importance of ikhtilf in the
Nuzhah will be referred to in detail in chapter six. For now, we can see how he refers to
musnad according to the understanding of others:

1. Al-Khatb al-Baghdd writes that a musnad report is that which is continuous even if
it falls short of the Prophet (1988, 58). However, he admits that this usage for the term is
rare.
2. Ibn Abd al-Barr holds musnad to be synonymous with marf in al-Tamhid (Ibn al-
Salh 1986, 43). Ibn Hajars remarks suggest that his definition is wholly contrary to
general usage and more far-fetched than al-Khatb al-Baghdds variation. Ibn al-Salh
does acknowledge that this is not the only definition offered by Ibn Abd al-Barr. In
another variation, he adheres to the definition offered by Ibn Hajar (Ibn al-Salh 1986,
43).

5.45. Uluww - The Elevated.
If the numbers are less namely the numbers of the people of the isnd then either
it ends at the Prophet with that small number, in comparison to the another isnd
for that same hadth that has more numbers; or either it ends to a highly-attributed
316
immfrom the imms of hadth, such as [attributes of] memorisation, accuracy,
literary works and so on from the demanded attributes for the sake of preference,
like Shuba, and Mlik, al-Thawr, al-Shfi, al-Bukhr, Muslim and other [highly-
decorated] imms. Thus the first type, and that is what ends at the Prophet , is
uluww mutlaq.
If coincidentally the shorter isnd is sound, that will be the most desired [matter]. If
it is not, then the form of uluww is still present in it, so long as it is not forged; for
this is synonymous to non-existence.
200

The second [type], is uluww nisb. This is where the numbers are less leading to that
imm, even if the number from that imm to the end of the chain is numerous.
Certainly, the efforts of the earlier reporters have been great in seeking the
elevation (uluww) to the extent that this has deviated them from more pressing
matters. This elevation is [dearly] sought because it is closer to authenticity and
nearer to fewer mistakes. This is because there is not a reporter in an isnd except
the possibility of error exists for him. As the means increase and the isnd extends,
then the possibility of errors greatens. As this decreases, so do the chances of errors.
If a distinction exists in the non-elevated isnd that is not to be found in the elevated
isnd like the men of the isnd are more authoritative, or more outstanding in
memorisation or more learned in jurisprudence, or that the continuation is more
apparent then there is no hesitation in deeming the non-elevated isnd as better.
201

200
In other words, a shorter chain for a report that is forged is of no significance whatsoever.
201
Ibn Hajar is quick to point out that this is the general rule and not the universal one. There may be cases
where despite the existence of a shorter isnd for a particular report, the longer may still be preferred. For
instance, the latter may consist of more reliable and authoritative reporters than the shorter one. The words
of delivery employed may suggest more accuracy in the longer chain (al-Uthaymin 2002, 303). In such
cases, the shorter isnd is still deemed as isnd li (the elevated chain), but the longer one will be
preferred. Based on this principle, al-Uthaymin writes that there are two types of uluww; in terms of
317
As for those people who prefer the non-elevated in general because the extensive
analysis demands more hardship which subsequently results in more reward, then
this is showing preference owing to an alien matter, not linked to the soundness and
weakness [of a hadth].
202

Commentary
Continuing his discussion specifically on the isnd, Ibn Hajar introduces the term uluww,
which means elevated. When a hadth specialist possesses an isnd for a report, then it
is desirable for him to seek elevation for it. This means he seeks means by which he can
shorten the chain, and thus minimise the chances of error. Al-Uthaymin explains:

For instance, a reporter possesses a hadth in which there are two men between
himself and al-Imm Mlik. The reporter would then go to the furthest land to
ensure no reporter remained between himself and Mlik, by hearing the reporter
directly from him (2002, 302).

Ibn Hajar states the obvious when he indicates why the elevated chain is a matter which
carries great importance. If the isnd consists of five narrators, then the chance for error

attributes (sifa) and in terms of number. The former is where the narrators are marked by more accuracy
and a higher degree of memorization and integrity. The latter is simply where there are less reporters in the
chain compared to another (2002, 302).
202
A minority opinion exists from some scholars suggesting that the low isnd is better. Perhaps Ibn Hajar
implies the opinion of Ibn Khalld, who argued that the non-elevated chain is better (Ibn al-Salh 1986,
264). This is on the basis that more narrators in a chain requires more analysis and investigation, which
thus results in more religious reward. Ibn Hajar dismisses this opinion by saying that reward lies in
differentiating the sound from the weak, not in investigation and analysis per se. And if seeking an elevated
chain leads to more authenticity then there is no reason why a non-elevated chain should be accepted. Ibn
al-Salh voices the same sentiment when he writes: Indeed, we heard Al ibn al-Madn and Ab Amr al-
Mustaml al-Nsbr say, Lowness (in chains) is a calamity (1986, 264).

318
is much greater in an isnd for the same report that only contains three narrators. The
shorter the chain, then the less room for error. Here is an implicit indication from Ibn
Hajar that the discipline depends on men and can therefore never be totally soundproof:
reporters of even the highest calibre can make mistakes. The decreased chance of error is
the simple reason why hadth specialists occupied their time with seeking elevation over
other matters.
But was the purpose of seeking elevation purely for the sake of increased authenticity?
Seemingly not. This is shown implicitly in two parts of the Nuzhah. Firstly, Ibn Hajar
writes that the elevation can be of two types. The first is called uluww mutlaq and is
marked by an attempt to shorten a report that leads to the Prophet. The second, uluww
nisbi, is where the disciple attempts to shorten the isnd that leads to a renowned hadth
master, irrespective if the isnd thereafter (namely, from that imm to the Prophet) is
long (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 257). The existence of uluww nisbi suggests the idea that
prestige is more important that authenticity. This is because it leads to a closeness not to
the Prophet, but to one of these celebrated men of hadth like Shuba, and Mlik, al-
Thawr, al-Shfi, al-Bukhr, Muslim and other [highly-decorated] imms.
The second part where Ibn Hajar suggests that seeking an elevated isnd had a function
other than hadth authenticity is where he notes that certainly, the efforts of the earlier
reporters have been great in seeking the elevation (uluww) to the extent that this has
deviated them from more pressing matters. The pressing matters Ibn Hajar is referring
to here is hadth authenticity. But he acknowledges that past Muslims sometimes saw the
elevated isnd as the goal, not the means. This makes sense when we remember that the
isnd also provided a connection to the Prophet and established a person as part of the
319
Muslim scholarly class. As a result, ones proximity to the Prophet in the isnd and
access to reports that other scholars lacked served as marks of precedence in the scholarly
community (Brown 2009, 47). Owing to this prestige, seeking an elevated isnd became
a goal in its own right, rather than the goal of hadth authenticity. Brown observes:

As in any society, Muslim religious scholars and pious individuals established a
system of honors and valuable items that individuals could earn or attain; like
educational degrees. Muslim scholars sought out shorter and shorter isnds, rarer
and rarer hadiths, as a way to gain precedence, fame and respect in their religious
culture (2009, 47).

A prime example of someone who gave preference to elevated chains rather than hadth
authenticity was al-Tabarn (d. 360/971) in his three Mujams. Some of the isnds he
mentioned were unbelievably short, calling into question what the aim of his work
actually was. Whereas al-Bukhr only included twenty-eight instances that contained
three men in the chain, a hundred years later al-Tabarn regularly included chains with
four men (Brown 2009, 48). His entire intention is further questioned when we observe
that after each hadth, he would add a comment on how rare the report is, not how
authentic it was.
The desire for a direct link to the Prophet and the absurdity surrounding this quest is
perhaps best epitomised by al-Zabd (d. 1791). He claimed to have heard a hadth via an
isnd of two jinns (supernatural beings) from the Prophet (Brown 2009, 48).
320
This section suggests that not all Muslims that occupied themselves in hadth studies
were doing so for religious reasons. For some, it was a social pastime and a means of
gaining staus in society. This was also the reality in Mamluk Cairo too, as we shall
explain in section six.

5.46. Muwfaqa & badal- the Agreements and
Substitutions.
In it namely uluww nisb is muwfaqa. This is reaching one of the shaykhs of
compilations
203
through another [independent] means, namely the path that leads to
that specific compiler. Its example is that al-Bukhr has reported a hadth from
Qutayba from Mlik. If we narrate it through his means then there will be eight
[reporters] between him and Qutayba. And if we report that same hadth through
the means of Ab al-Abbs al-Sarrj, from Qutayba, for example, then there will
be seven [reporters] between him and Qutayba. So muwfaqa has been achieved
with al-Bukhr with his own shaykh, along with the elevated isnd to it.
Also in it namely uluww nisb is badal. This is reaching the shaykh of his shaykh
in a similar fashion. An example is the same isnd through another means to
Qanab, from Mlik. Thus Qanab will be in the substitute place for Qutayba.

203
This means the compilers of the six canonical compilations.
321
[The terms] muwfaqa and badal are mostly applied when it couples with elevation
(uluww). If it does not occur with elevation, then the term muwfaqa and badal is
still applied, [even] in the absence of elevation.
204

Commentary
The introduction of the terms muwfaqa and badal is directly related to the previous
section where uluww nisbi was outlined. Ibn Hajar here gives a practical example to
show how the terms are used. In this brief paragraph, one cannot ignore the fact that the
terms muwfaqa and badal are very similar (badal is like muwfaqa, except that the
elevation has been attained to the shaykh of the shaykh). The hadth scholars
introduction of such terms served to show the exactness of the discipline.
Additionally, no indication is given here as to how shortening the chain to a celebrated
imm adds to the authenticity of a report. Elevation is not a condition for sahih. This adds
to the suspicion as highlighted in the previous section that seeking an elevated isnd
(uluww nisbi) had a prestige attached to it which Muslims sought to gain.

204
Ibn Hajar notes that these two terms are usually applied when the process leads to an elevated chain. In
other words, muwfaqa and badal should be sought along with the intention of minimising the number of
reporters in the chain. If the elevation is not attained during this process, then the scholars do still refer to it
with these terms.
322
5.47. Muswh & musfaha- the Equivalent and the
Hand-Shaking.
In it namely uluww nisb is muswh. This is equalling the number in the isnd
from the reporter to its end, namely in the isnd of uluww nisb, with the isnd of
one of the compilers. Like for example, [al-Imm] al-Nas reports a hadth in
which between him and the Prophet are eleven people. The same hadth with
another isnd has come across us in which there are eleven people between us and
the Prophet . Hence we have equalled al-Nas in terms of number, in exclusion to
that specific isnd of al-Nass.
Also in it namely uluww nisb is musfaha. This is the equalling with the disciple
of that compiler in the aforementioned form. It is called musfaha because it is
usually a habit for two people to handshake when they meet. And we in this form
have almost met al-Nas; thus it is as if we have shook hands.
The opposite of uluww with its aforementioned types is nuzl.
205
So each type of
uluww has an opposite form from nuzl, as opposed to those who assume that
uluww does not have its contrasting type in nuzl.
Commentary
In theory, uluww mutlaq is of greater importance for the authenticity of a hadth than
uluww nisbi. This is because the former is an attempt to shorten the isnd to the Prophet
whereas the former is an attempt to shorten it to a renowned hadth master. In portrayal, it

205
In contrast to the uluww is the nuzl, or low. When referring to the actual isnd, the scholars apply the
term al-isnd al-li (the elevated chain) and the al-isnd al-nzil (the low chain).
323
seems uluww nisbi is more important for Ibn Hajar. Four additional terms have been
introduced related to uluww nisbi muwfaqa, badal, muswh and musfaha along
with practical examples to show how they work. In contrast, none of these four terms
relate to uluww mutlaq. This is an indication that the isnd was not merely a connection
to the Prophet, but membership to a scholarly elite. Additionally, it is a clue into how the
technical terms in the discipline were used. The terms were not just to define and
differentiate different types of prophetic reports. The terms also gave an indirect insight
into what scholars saw as more important in the field. Here, the fact that uluww mutlaq
have no related terms and that uluww nisbi have four suggests that a connection to a
renowned scholar was of greater importance than to the Prophet, perhaps more so in the
ninth Islamic century.

5.48. Aqrn- the Contemporaries.
If the narrator shares similarities with the one he reported from in a matter from
the matters pertaining to narration, such as age or taking reports from the same
shaykhs, then this a type which is called the narration of the aqrn, so called because
the narrator is of his like. Thus when each one from the contemporaries report from
the other, then this is mudabbaj this is more specific than the first as every
mudabbaj is aqrn and not every aqrn is mudabbaj.
Verily al-Draqutn has compiled [a book] on the latter
206
, and Ab al-Shaykh al-
Isbahn has compiled [a book] on the former.
207

206
This book is called al-Mudabbaj.
207
This book is called Riwyat al-aqrn.
324
When the shaykh reports from his disciple, it is true that each one has [now]
reported from the other. So is it called mudabbaj? In this is a debate. Apparently, it
is not [called mudabbaj] because it is [considered as] the reporting of the seniors
from the juniors. Tadbj is derived from the dbja (cheeks) of the face. So this
suggests that each one should be equal on both sides. So it does not appear as such
[with the case of the shaykh taking from the student].
208

Commentary
Aqrn and mudabbaj in essence is where similarities are to be found between two
narrators. As the Nuzhah indicates, this similarity can take on different forms. For
instance, they both can be of approximate similar age, which is then deemed as aqrn.
Likewise, the two can be similar in terms of the fact that both have often relied on one
particular shaykh.
At first it may seem that mudabbaj and aqrn are not directly related to the field of ilm
al-hadith and are merely an academic exercise of little worth. However, Muslim scholars
state there are cases where knowing the two can help us to differentiate the authentic
report from the non-authentic. Al-Uthaymin explains:

Sometimes, a disciple forgets a hadth that he took from his shaykh. His
contemporary may have better memory than him who has not forgotten the hadth.

208
Mudabbaj is where similarities are to be found between the two reporters and it is known that they have
reported from another. There is a dispute amongst the scholars as to whether the term mudabbaj is applied
when a shaykh reports from his disciple. Ibn Hajar believes that his comes under the reporting of the senior
from the junior, rather than mudabbaj. He argues from a linguistic perspective. Because the word
mudabbaj derives from dibja which means cheeks, then when a shaykh takes from the disciple, this
should not be referred to as mudabbaj, because they are not equal in terms of narrating from another, just
like the cheeks of the face are. In terms of rank, the shaykh is clearly greater than the disciple (in most
cases) and so the exact similarity has not been achieved. The narrations in the form of mudabbaj include
the reporting of Ab Hurayra from isha and vice versa, the reporting of al-Zuhr from Umar ibn Abd
al-Azz and vice versa and the reporting of Mlik from al-Awz and vice versa (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 309).
325
So the disciple can take the hadth from the contemporary, who has heard it from
the shaykh (2002, 312).

Moreover, when two contemporaries feature in the isnd, one after the other, then this
can give us assurance that they are not an addition in the isnd
209
, but rather have actually
narrated from one another (Tahhn 2001, 151). Also, knowing the mudabbaj and aqrn
can help us overcome difficulties in writings. If two narrators are mentioned in an isnd
and it is not known whether the report says from (an) or and (wa) in between them,
then information gained regarding the mudabbaj and aqrn can help us solve this
dilemma.
On a final note, the section here indicates the type of debate that existed in Ibn Hajars
time surrounding ilm al-hadith. One gets the impression that a radical overhaul of the
discipline or a serious critical evaluation of it was not on the agenda during the ninth
Islamic century. Rather, there were minor concerns like whether the shaykh reporting
from his disciple is termed mudabbaj or riwyat al-akbir an al-asghir.
5.49. Riwyat al-akbir an al-asghir- the Narration of
the Seniors from the Juniors.
If the reporter narrates from someone who is less than him in age
210
, or in terms of
[frequency of] meeting
211
or in terms of rank
212
, then this type is the narration of the

209
When this happens, it is called Ziydat al-ruwt.
210
This was the case with al-Zuhr and Yahy ibn Sad al-Ansr with Mlik (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 307).
211
For example, a disciple takes a hadth from someone who has stayed with his shaykh for two years,
though he himself has spent twenty years with the same shaykh (al-Uthaymin 2002, 313).
326
seniors from the juniors. This [application of the term] includes narration of the
fathers from the sons
213
, the Companions from the Successors
214
, the shaykh from
his disciple and its likes. The opposite of [these forms] is common
215
because this is
the overwhelming form of narration. The benefit of this is differentiation between
the different ranks and putting people in their place. Verily al-Khatb [al-Baghdd]
has written a book on the narration of the fathers from the sons
216
and has
dedicated a beautiful treatise on the narration of the Companions from the
Successors.

Commentary
Ibn Hajar here refers to the area in ilm al-hadith known as the narration of the seniors
from the juniors. This can take many forms, as highlighted in the Nuzhah.
One of the benefits of this identification is to prevent a person from assuming the isnd
has been swapped (qalb). Al-Uthaymin explains:

212
Ibn al-Salh cites the example of Mlik in his relation with Abd Allh ibn Dnr, and Ahmad ibn
Hanbal and Ishq ibn Rhawayh in their relation to Ubayd Allh ibn Ms (1986, 308).
213
For example, al-Abbs ibn Abd al-Muttalib took a hadth from his son al-Fadl regarding the combining
of two Prayers at al-Muzdalifa (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 313; al-Suyt 1972, 2: 254).
214
For instance, the Abd Allhs and other Companions took from Kab al-Ahbr (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 308).
Al-Suyt notes that prophetic reports were narrated by the Companions from the Successors, and not just
biblical and mawqf reports (1972, 2: 388).
Note: The Ibdalah refers to anyone whose name was Abd Allh from the Companions, which are
approximately two hundred and twenty in number (al-Suyt 1972, 2: 220). However, specifically it refers
to four prominent Companions who were called Abd Allh. According to Ahmad ibn Hanbal they are; (i)
Abd Allh ibn Umar (ii) Abd Allh ibn Abbs (iii) Abd Allh ibn al-Zubayr (iv)Abd Allh ibn Amr
ibn al-s. These four are prominent and famous because they passed away late and thus diffused
knowledge to the Muslims (Tahhn 2001, 155). Abd Allh Ibn Masd does not feature under this
classification because he passed away relatively quickly (Mighlw 2003, 528: al-Suyt 1972, 2: 219).
Other scholars have different opinions regarding the Ibdalah. Al-Imm Jawhar confined the Ibdalah to
three, omitting Abd Allh ibn al-Zubayr. Al-Nawaw classified Abd Allh Ibn Masd as one of the four
in the place of Abd Allh ibn Amr ibn al-s (Mighlw 2003, 529).
215
In other words, cases where the junior narrates from the senior, the Successor narrates from the
Companion and the son narrates from the father are common-practice and the normal, expected mode of
reporting (al-Uthaymin 2002, 314).
216
The name of this treatise is Riwyat al-b an al-Abn.
327

When a narrator reports a hadth and finds a narration of a father from the son,
then what will he initially think? He will assume that it has been swapped,
because normally the son narrates from the father (2002, 314).

A detailed list of people who have reported from their sons can help us to differentiate the
swapped reports from the un-swapped ones.
The other benefit, as Ibn Hajar notes, is to put people in their place. What this means is
that people do not automatically and arrogantly assume their elevated rank because they
are the more senior in narration. Rank stems from integrity and accuracy in the discipline
of ilm al-hadith rather than from age and academic rank. Ibn al-Salh reflects this
opinion when he writes:

It has been established that isha said: The Messenger of Allh ordered us to
put people in their proper place (1986, 307).

So in this short section, Ibn Hajar is making two statements, an academic one and a
religious one. The academic one is that the men in the chain took on all different forms,
with fathers sometimes reporting from their sons and the seniors narrating from the
juniors. Ibn Hajar is suggesting that this could only come about if the chains were
genuine. The religious one is that the men engaged in hadth transmission also had a duty
to uphold the teachings of the Prophet. This meant respecting the men of knowledge,
regardless of age, background and social esteem.
328
5.50. Riwyat al-Abn an al-b - the Narration of the
sons from the fathers.
From [the opposite of] this [form] is he who reports from his father, from his
grandfather. Al-Hfiz Salh al-Dn al-Al from the later scholars has compiled a
large volume in identifying those who reported from their father, from their
grandfather, from the Prophet
217
. He has divided them into types; that from
which the his in the statement from his grandfather refers to the narrator
218
, and
that from which the his in the statement from his grandfather refers to the
narrators father.
219
He has explained it and has evaluated it, as well as referred to
the hadth to be found in each form. Indeed I summarised the aforementioned book
and added many other variations. The most number to be found where there is the
continuous narration from the father to the son is fourteen fathers.
220

Commentary
In this straight-forward section, Ibn Hajar describes the common cases where the sons
narrate from their fathers.
221
This is following a theme reflected in the previous sections
where readers are informed of the novel factors which are shared between reporters.

217
The name of this book is al-Washy al-muallam fi man raw an abi an jaddihi, an al-nabi salla Allh
alayhi wa sallam.
218
For example, there is a sanad which reads: Bahz ibn Hakm from his father, from his grandfather, from
the Prophet. This means the report stemmed from Bahz ibn Hakm ibn Muwiya, from his father Hakm
and then from his grandfather Muwiya (al-Suyt 1972, 2: 259).
219
An example of this is the sanad Amr ibn Shuayb, from his father, from his grandfather. This means
the report of Amr ibn Shuayb ibn Muhammad ibn Abd Allh ibn Amr ibn al-s, from his father
Shuayb, from his grandfather Abd Allh ibn Amr ibn al-s (al-Suyt 1972, 2: 257).
220
This is the prophetic report Laysa al-khabar ka-al-muyana, from Al which al-Qr has quoted with
its full isnd in his commentary of the Nuzhah (1994, 644-5).
221
Al-Munw notes that also included in the category of narration of the sons from the fathers is the
narration of daughters from the mothers, though he admits this is extremely rare (1999, 2: 261).
329
Ibn Hajar suggests this issue is important for a variety of reasons. Firstly, as explained in
the Nuzhah, the isnd sometimes mentions a reporters name followed by the remark
from his father, from his grandfather. This can lead to ambiguity since it is not clear
whether the statement from his grandfather refers to the reporters grandfather or the
fathers grandfather (al-Suyt 1972, 256: Mighlw 2003, 550). So knowing this subject
area can create clarity.
Secondly, one of the primary reasons for the rejection of a hadth is the discontinuity of
the isnd. In numerous ways, a report sometimes faces rejection because it cannot be
proven that the disciple heard from whom he claims to have done so. To a large extent,
the family isnds help us overcome this problem. The researcher will find that if the
reporter is the father and the reported-to is the son, it is now difficult to reject such a
hadth on the basis of the non-meeting.
Thirdly, family isnds can mean more accuracy. Family members engaged in hadth
narration will enjoy extensive companionship and this prolonged company will mean
more opportunities to check and revise the hadth from the source.
Fourthly Ibn Hajar in this section is perhaps drawing on his own personal experiences.
He himself married a hadth scholar (al-Barr et al. 1995, 97), in 798/1395. nas Khtn
was the daughter of al-Qd Karm al-Dn Abd al-Karm ibn Abd al-Azz, and studied
under al-Hfiz Zayn al-Dn al-Irq just as Ibn Hajar did. Ibn Hajar had one son Badr
al-Dn Muhammad from a later marriage (al-Barr et al. 1995, 100). Ibn Hajar paid
utmost attention to his religious education and development. He memorised the Qurn
and lead tarwih Prayers in 826/1422. The book Bulgh al-marm min adillat al-ahkm
was written by Ibn Hajar as a dedication to his son (al-Barr et al. 1995, 101). This shows

330
that as Muslims passed on hadiths through the family in previous times, Ibn Hajar
continued this religious duty within his own family too.
This last observation shows that viewed in a religious light, the narration of sons from
their fathers was a reflection of the care and importance people took in the field of hadth.
Ensuring that their sons inherited knowledge and not just property and wealth was of
paramount importance to early Muslims.
Along with these positive notes related to the family isnds, there are some negatives.
In early times, it was used as a means of deceitfully enhancing the appearance of the
chain. Schacht writes:

There are numerous traditions which claim an additional guarantee of soundness
by representing themselves as transmitted amongst members of one family, for
instance from father to son (and grandson)whenever we come to analyse them,
we find these family traditions spurious and we are justified in considering the
existence of a family isnd not an indication of authenticity but only a device for
securing its appearance (1959, 170).

Goldziher shows distrust to the sahifa of Abd Allh ibn Amr al-s precisely because it
was passed down through his family (1971, 23). Even Azami accepted cases where
reporters used such chains to circulate forged traditions (1996, 197).
Overall, I believe that the observations of Schacht and others on family isnds does not
deter one from its significance. In fact, Schacht is actually acknowledging the security
331
surrounding it. By writing that forgers would use it to secure the chains appearance, this
proves that it was seen as rigid; otherwise forgers would not use family isnds.
Secondly, if a family isnd was a means of securing its appearance then surely we
would see the existence of such chains more widespread in hadth literature. The
relatively small ratio of family chains compared to conventional ones therefore does not
lend support to Schachts theory. Burton agrees when he notes that in terms of hadth text
statistics, the family isnds are of infrequent occurrence (1994, 111). Perhaps Robson
strikes the correct balance when he remarked:

Was the family isnd invented to supply apparent evidence for spurious traditions,
or did genuine family isnds exist which later served as models? It seems better to
recognise that they are a genuine feature of the documentation, but to realise that
people often copied this type of isnd to support spurious traditions. Therefore,
while holding that family isnds do genuinely exist, one will not take them all at
face value (1955, 23).

To conclude, this section shows that Muslims and non-Muslims do sometimes agree on
an issue in the discipline. Their view points on family isnds are not radically different,
as both agree it was used for fraudulent purposes and both agree on its strengths too.

5.51. Sbiq & lhiq- the Preceding and the Reaching.
If two reporters share [in reporting] from one shaykh, and ones death precedes the
others, then this is sbiq and lhiq. The most we have come across between two
332
reporters in terms of death is one hundred and sixty years. This is as such because
Ab Al al-Burdn heard a hadth from al-Hfiz al-Silaf who was one of his
shaykhs. He narrated from him and died in 500/1106. Then the last from the
companions of al-Salaf to hear from him was his grandson Ab al-Qsim Abd al-
Rahmn ibn Makk, who died in 650/1252. An older example is that of al-Bukhr
who heard from his disciple
222
Ab al-Abbs al-Sarrj some reports on history and
its likes. He died in 256/870. The last to hear from al-Sarrj was Ab al-Hasan al-
Khafff, who died in 393/1002.
The most common reason for this gap is that of the two reporters who have heard
from the shaykh, one lives for a considerable time after the other. Then in the final
days of the shaykhs life, the other reporter (of lesser age) hears a report from him
and lives for a long period thereafter. This results in the large time gap. And Allh
provides assistance.

Commentary
The terms sbiq and lhiq refer to when two disciples have narrated traditions from one
shaykh and there is a considerably large period in between. The one who dies first is
referred to as the sbiq and the one who dies later (and heard from the same shaykh) is
called lhiq. Through experience of narration, the largest gap between the sbiq and lhiq
to be found was one hundred and fifty years. In the Nuzhah, the example of al-Bukhr
and al-Khafff is given, with their shaykh, Ab al-Abbs.

222
Al-Munw writes that the text should read his shaykh and not his disciple (1999, 2: 265).
333
Another example is al-Zuhr and Ahmad ibn Isml, who both heard from Mlik. Al-
Zuhr died in 124/742 and Ahmad died in 259/872, a gap of one hundred and thirty five
years (Mighlw 2003, 553).
The last few sections of the Nuzhah seem to touch on novelty factors related to the men
of transmission in an isnd. Sbiq and lhiq seems to be following this same pattern. It is
difficult to justify such studies and how it helps hadth authentication.
But a closer analysis shows that sbiq and lhiq does have an academic function. The
benefit of this is to prevent the wrongful assumption that there is a drop in the chain (al-
Irq 1995, 385). It also touches upon the issue of older transmitters, which Juynboll has
analysed in detail and used to deduce the fraudulent nature of prophetic reports.
Juynboll draws attention to the frequent occurrence of transmitters reportedly blessed by
God with unusually advanced ages (1996, VII: 156), particularly in Kfa. These
muammarn served an important function; they were introduced, or invented, to span the
large gap between the common link reporters (present at the end of the first century) and
the alleged Companion the report was supposed to have stemmed from (1996, VII: 160).
Because this span would be for more than sixty years, and because it would be more
acceptable if the isnd was shorter, it made sense for the person to be one, old, solitary
person.
Juynbolls interesting findings do question hadth transmission activities in the first
century, particularly in Kfa. But there are several matters which he overlooks. Firstly,
his thesis is based on the premise that the majority of chains for the majority of prophetic
reports consisted of sole reporters. He writes that:

334
In other words, canonical Muslim tradition literature is first and foremost
characterised by the feature that the transmission of a particular saying allegedly
uttered by the Prophet travelled during the first sixty to one hundred and fifty
years or so of its existence along a path of consecutive single individuals. (1996,
VII: 172).

There are thousands of reports to be found in the canonical collection that are either
mashhr or aziz, namely where there are at least two transmitters in each generation.
Secondly, Juynboll explicitly writes that the common link transmitters would routinely
create false biographical information about the muammarn, and that there were a
number of muammarn who are invented, lock, stock and barrel, complete with their
miraculously advanced age of death. (1996, VII: 175). As it will be shown in 5.64, any
reporter in an isnd must be authenticated by at least two people according to many
hadth masters, or one reliable hadth master at the very minimum. If Juynbolls theory is
accepted, then it means that the hadth masters were authenticating imaginary figures, and
were all part of the mass collusion to fill the gaps of forged chains. No indication is given
from Juynboll as to how and why all the people in the field of sunn hadth literature, for
centuries, all kept quiet and did not feel the need to become whistle-blowers.
Thirdly, there is another explanation for the wide gap between reporters sharing the same
teacher. As the centuries progressed, the age at which reporters were allowed to sit in
hadth circles formally became younger (more will be said about this in section 5.67)
Fourthly and most importantly, Ibn Hajars analysis here shows that early Muslims did
not have to span the gap between two reporters that were parted by a large number of
335
years. This is because the concept of sbiq and lhiq could explain the large gap. So this
shows that to some degree at least, there was a justification to include a section on sbiq
and lhiq in the Nuzhah.
5.51.1. Conclusion.
Throughout his work, Ibn Hajars analysis of hadth classification has shown the wide
variety of forms the isnd would assume. As sbiq and lhiq clearly shows, the isnds
would sometimes feature two reporters who were divided in age by a number of years.
Elsewhere we have seen that the dispersed nature of the report means that there are
several people in each generation, like mashhr or aziz. Some chains did not follow the
conventional path of Prophet to Companion to Successor; his analysis of mursal has
shown that the chain can pass amongst several Successors before eventually reaching the
Companion.
223
Common sense dictates that the usual pattern would be that the juniors
would report from the elders, but riwyat al-akbir an al-asghir shows that this pattern
too can be broken.
224
In short, there was no typical pattern of an isnd. Juynboll gives the
impression that common link transmitters were persistent in creating an isnd in a typical
and common manner, and that is where the muammarn came in. But sbiq and lhiq
shows that there was no typical and common isnd, and that some justifiably took on the
form where there would be a gap of a hundred years between two reporters.

223
See Section 5.19.
224
See Section 5.49.
336
5.52. Muhmal the Obscure.
If a reporter narrates from two people who share the same name, or have the same
fathers or grandfathers name, or the same ascription and one cannot be
differentiated from the other; then if both are credible then it does not harm [the
authenticity of the hadth]. An example is that which occurred with al-Bukhr in
his narration from Ahmad who is not described further from Ibn Wahb. This
is either Ah mad ibn Slih or Ahmad ibn s. Or [the example of] Muhammad
who is not described further of the people of Irq. For this is either Muhammad
ibn Salmor Muhammad ibn Yahy al-Dhuhal. Verily I have encompassed these
[obscurities] in the introduction to the Commentary of al-Bukhr.
225
Whosoever
desires a comprehensive and accurate means by which one is identified from the
other and one from the two is specified, then muhmal [as a means] is required.
When one is not clear from the other in that the descriptions are shared by both,
then this [results] in severe difficulty. One then must resort to [external] factors and
overwhelming evidence.

Commentary
In ilm al-hadith, there are some technical terms which have a very close overlap with
other terms in the discipline and muhmal is one such example. There is only a subtle
difference between muhmal and mubham.
226
As explained earlier, mubham is where the
persons name in the chain has not been mentioned at all and instead the reporter merely
says such and such informed me or the credible one informed me. Muhmal is slightly

225
This is Fath al-Bri, Ibn H ajars detailed commentary on the compilation of al-Bukhr.
226
Section 5.36.
337
different in that the persons name has been mentioned but because there are several
people with the same name, it is still not clear who the reporter in question is.
Along with showing the close overlap with certain technical terms in the discipline, the
section also serves to indicate the nature of research in the ninth Islamic century. As Ibn
Hajar mentions, he included a section on muhmal in his introduction to Fath al-bri, thus
suggesting its importance. Knowing that Sulyman reported the hadth is not sufficient
for the scholar. If this refers to Sulyman ibn Dwd al-Khawln, then he is credible. If
however it refers to Sulyman ibn Dwd al-Yamm, then he is deemed a weak reporter
(Tahhn 2001, 165).This research will take on the form of analysing other reports where
the reporter and the one who he is reporting from is mentioned (al-Suyt 1972, 2: 343).
Muhmal therefore indicates more detail, intricacy and assurance. It aims to clarify any
vagueness in the reporters of the isnd.
However, muhmal also suggests that Ibn Hajar did not question the actual isnds
mentioned by al-Bukhr. His duty was to gather additional information on the reporters
who shared the same names so one could be clearly differentiated from the other. His
duty was not to question whether the isnds were actually fictitious.

Overall though, Muslim desired to show the exactness employed by their scholars and
muhmal for them performs this function well. Muslims believe that based with such
intricate levels of research on the reporters, it is perhaps difficult to believe that common-
link transmitters simply invented their authorities (Juynboll 1996, VII; 158). Ibn Hajars
analysis of muhmal shows that a person could not simply say Sulyman reported to me
and expect the report to gain acceptance. There would be extensive checks to identify
338
which Sulyman the reporter is. In many ways, Muslim scholars argue that it is the detail
which refutes the mass collusion argument, like muhmal highlights.

5.53. Man haddatha wa nasiya The one who narrated
and then forgot.
If the reporter narrates a hadth from a shaykh and the shaykh then denies
reporting it; then if he rejects it outright in that he says: he lied to me or I did not
report this to him, and a rejection occurs from him for that report, then this means
one of them has lied, not specifically [one of them]. [Moreover] this will not be
detrimental for any one of them, because of the contradiction [found in the
verification]. If he rejects it with uncertainty in that he says I do not remember
this or I do not know, then the hadth will be accepted according to the most
correct opinion. This is because the shaykh may have forgot. It is also said that the
hadth will not be accepted, because the peripheral (i.e. that the disciple took it from
the shaykh) follows the core (i.e. that the shaykh possessed the hadth originally) in
affirming the [authenticity of the] hadth. In other words, when the core (shaykh)
affirms the hadth, the reporting of the peripheral (disciple) is proven. Similarly, it
is therefore desirable that the same is applied in terms of verification. This opinion
is refuted by the fact that the credibility of the periphery (disciple) stipulates his
truthfulness, and the fact the core does not know of it will not negate it. Thus,
affirmation is preceded over negation.
227
As for analogy with the testimony, this is

227
Or, to rephrase it, the certain is preceded over the uncertain and conviction is preferred over doubt.
339
invalid because the testimony of the witness of the witness (periphery) is not heard
over the testimony of the original witness when he is able to do so, as opposed to
hadth narration. Hence they are different [cases].
228

In this discipline, al-Draqutn has compiled a book called Man haddatha wa nasiya.
In it is that which offers support for the correct opinion. This is because there are
many [cases mentioned in this book] where reporters narrated traditions. When
these traditions were presented to them, they did not recall [reporting them]. But
because of their trust with those who heard from them, they began to hear from
those they had reported to. [This is] like the hadth of Suhayl ibn Ab Slih, from his
father, from Ab Hurayra as a raised report in the story of the testimony and the
oath.
229
Abd al-Azz ibn Muhammad al-Darward said: Raba ibn Ab Abd al-
Rahmn informed me, from Suhayl. He said: I met Suhayl and asked him of it. He
did not know of it. I said to him, verily Raba informed me of it from yourself.

228
The line of argument purported by scholars who say the report will not be accepted is that in terms of
proving the hadths authenticity, the shaykh is the core and the disciple is the periphery. If the hadth
cannot be affirmed from the core, then surely it cannot be proven authentic from the periphery, namely the
student. The same applies to when declaring a report as non-authentic. The disciple here follows the lead of
the shaykh. When the shaykh is refusing to affirm the hadth, it is implausible to suggest that the disciple
can (Anwar 2003, 153).
Moreover, in a testimony, when the original witness expresses uncertainty regarding the testimony given,
then the witness of the witness too is put into doubt. For example, Zayd testifies that he witnessed a car
crash and Suhayl testifies that Zayd was there at the scene. If later, Zayd expresses his doubt or uncertainty
over whether he actually was there at the scene or not, this brings Suhayls testimony into dispute too. The
same analogy is thus applicable to the shaykh and the disciple.
Ibn Hajar refutes this line of argument by stating that the credibility of the disciple suggests that he must
also be truthful. This position cannot be overridden simply because the shaykh cannot remember whether
he reported it to him or not. When there is no clear denial from the shaykh, then the conviction of the
disciple is preferred over uncertainty of the shaykh (Anwar 2003, 153).
As for the testimony analogy, it is not applicable to the discipline of narration for several reasons. Firstly,
when the core witness is able to bear witness, then the witness of the witness is not even considered. This is
not the case with reporting prophetic traditions. Secondly, conventional testimonies can only be taken from
free individuals; narrating traditions can be taken from slaves too. Thirdly, the testimony of two women is
equal to one man in conventional testimonies; this is not the case with riwya. Fourthly, conventional
testimonies require two witnesses; riwya can be accepted from one (al-Munw 1999, 2: 276).
229
This is referring to the famous case when the Prophet accepted one testimony and an oath, rather than
the conventional two witnesses.
340
Thereafter, Suhayl used to say: Raba informed me that I reported it to him, from
his father. Examples as such are plentiful.

Commentary
This section refers to the cases where a disciple has taken a report from a shaykh, who
thereafter expresses doubt over the occurrence. The author explains that this can take on
two forms and outlines the rulings for each.
As a moral statement, this section is an acknowledgement from the hadth scholars that
no human is perfect, and that mistakes and forgetfulness can occur from anyone.
The task of the scholars is to accept this weakness and devise mechanisms to minimise its
effect on hadth literature. For Muslims, the rarity of such cases also points to the
authenticity of hadth literature. This is because it is liars who tend to forget, not the
truthful.

5.54. Musalsal- the Enchained.
If the narrators coincide with one another in a chain from the chains in terms of
words of delivery like I heard x who said I heard x or x reported to me who said
x reported to me and similarly other words of delivery or in terms of other verbal
forms like I heard x say I bear witness with Allh that verily x reported to me to
the end of the chain or in terms of an action like we entered upon x and he gave
us a date to eat to the end of the chain or in terms of the same words and actions
together like their saying x reported to me whilst holding his beard saying I
believe in fate to the end, then this is [called] musalsal. This pertains to the
341
description of the isnd. Sometimes the enchaining occurs in most of the isnd, like
the hadth with Awwaliyya.
230
The enchaining ends at Sufyn ibn Uyayna only.
Those who report [this tradition] enchained to its end have erred.
231

Commentary
Musalsal refers to when a similar attribute is to be found in all of the narrators of the
report, or most of them. Ibn Hajar shows that this can take on three forms: similar in
terms of words of delivery, similar in terms of action and similar in terms of words and
action.
Other than the ones mentioned by Ibn Hajar, musalsal can take on other forms. If all the
reporters share the same name for instance, all are called Muhammad then this too
will be referred to as musalsal (al-Suyt 1972, 188). Similarly, all the reporters can
originate from the same town or country or all can be renowned jurists.
Largely, musalsal simply adds to our knowledge of the reporters of the hadth. When the
isnd is musalsal in terms of action, it can lead to increased accuracy in the sense that one
can appreciate that the disciple did not merely hear the hadth, but also noted each and
every action of the shaykh. Similarly, when the isnd is continuous with jurists or
renowned scholars, this gives the impression of more accuracy (al-Munw 1999, 2: 286).
In fact, earlier in the Nuzhah, Ibn Hajar writes that a hadth which the expert imms
230
Literally, this means the firsts. Here, it means where all the reporters (or most of them) state that the
report was the first they heard from the shaykh in question (al-Munw 1999, 2: 285).
231
Some scholars such as Ab al-Muzaffar Muhammad ibn Al Tabr al-Shaybn have erroneously
assumed that the enchained report of Sufyn ibn Uyayna is musalsal throughout, from beginning to end.
This is not the case as the author points out (al-Munw 1999, 2: 285).
342
continuously narrate gives the benefit of al-ilm al-nazari, so long as the report is not
gharib.
232

Conversely, it could be argued that musalsal reflects less accuracy and authenticity, not
more. The continuous usage of haddathani (x reported to me) through the isnd may be
a sign of carelessness from a forger.

5.55. Siyagh al-ad- the words of delivery.
The words of delivery that indicate reporting are of eight stages. The first is samitu
and haddathan. Then akhbaran and qaratu alayhi and this is the second stage.
Then quria alayhi wa-ana asma and this is the third. Then anbaan and this is
the fourth. Then nwalan and this is the fifth. Then shfahan, namely with ijza,
and this is the sixth. Then kataba ilayya, namely with ijza, and this is the seventh.
Then an and its likes from the words of delivery that can possibly mean listening or
ijza, or [even] not hearing it. This is like with the words qla and dhakara and raw.
Thus the first two words from the words of delivery samitu and haddathan are
suitable for when he hears it alone from the words of the shaykh. The
[terminological] specifying of tahdth for what he hears from the words of the
shaykh (from memory) is famous amongst the people of hadth. Literally, there is no
difference between tahdth and ikhbr.
There is severe hardship in claiming a difference between the two (tahdth and
ikhbr). However, since they have become established [as being synonymous] in
terms of terminology, it has become a reality through customary use. Thus this

232
See section 5.7.1.3.
343
opinion is preceded over what they mean literally. Moreover, this terminology
[citing the difference between the two] has merely stemmed from the eastern
scholars and those who follow them. As for the majority of the western scholars,
they have not employed this terminology; rather for them tahdth and ikhbr have
the same meaning.
If the narrator uses the plural form namely he brings forth the first two words in
the plural sense by saying samin and haddathan then this is evidence that he
heard the hadth in the presence of others. Sometimes the nn is for respect [and not
to say he heard it with others] but this is seldom applied. The first of the two
(namely samin or samitu) is the clearest [word of delivery] to clarify the speaker
heard it, because it does not result in the possibility of an [additional] source [in
between], and because the word haddathan is sometimes said in ijza with tadls.
The highest [form of words of delivery] is that which occurs through iml, because
it entails [added] accuracy and memorisation.
The third and this is akhbaran is like the fourth which is qaratu alayhi for
whosoever reads himself to the shaykh. If he uses the plural form in that he says
akhbaran or qaran, then this is like the fifth, which is quria alayhi wa-ana smi.
It is known from this [analysis] that when he has read it [to the shaykh] referring to
it with qaratu alayhi is better than akhbaran, because it better indicates the actual
state.
Note: According to the majority [of scholars], reading in the presence of the shaykh
is one of the forms of receiving reports. Distanced [from the correct opinion] are
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those who have denied this, from the people of Irq.
233
Verily al-ImmMlik and
other scholars of Madna have vehemently refuted such an opinion to the extent that
some have ranked qaratu alayhi higher than samitu from the words of the shaykh.
A large group of scholars from them al-Bukhr [as mentioned] in the beginning of
his Sahh who cites from the imms have opted for the opinion that listening from
the words of the shaykh and recitation to him are equal in terms of authenticity and
strength. And Allh knows best.
Inb literally and terminologically is the same as ikhbr according to the earlier
scholars, though the later scholars use it for ijza (licensing) like an.
The scholars have referred to verbal licensing as mushfaha. Similarly, they have
referred to written licensing as muktaba; and this is common-practice in the texts
of the later scholars, as opposed to the earlier scholars. For they only call it
muktaba when the shaykh writes the hadth for the disciple, irrespective or
whether he permitted him to narrate it or not. They do not call it muktaba when
the shaykh writes to him with licensing alone.
The scholars have placed the condition of permission to narrate for the legitimacy of
a narration of munwala. When this is achieved, then it constitutes the highest form
of ijza (licensing), because it entails specification and [exact] personage. Its form is
that the shaykh gives his original manuscript or its equivalent to the disciple, or the
disciple is presented with the shaykhs original manuscript, and in both forms he

233
Some scholars from Iraq have actually questioned whether reciting to the shaykh constitutes a form of
reporting. Ibn Hajar expresses grave reservations about the validity of such an opinion. He cites al-Imm
Mlik and other scholars of Madna who vehemently refuted such an opinion. In fact some such as Ab
Hanfa and Layth went to the extent to rank qaratu alayhi higher than samitu from the words of the
shaykh (al-Munw 1999, 2: 295). Al-Bukhr, the scholars of Hijz, al-Sakhw and Zarkhash did not
rank qaratu alayhi higher than samitu but did suggest that they are at least equal in terms of authenticity
and strength (al-Munw 1999, 2: 295).

345
says: these are my narrations from x, so narrate them from me. Its [other]
condition is that he has control over the manuscript, either through ownership or
lease so that he may transfer it and study it. And if not, namely the student takes it
and it is taken back immediately, then this is no longer the highest form, though it
still has some distinction over the specified licensing (ijza muayyana); this is when
the shaykh grants permission to narrate a specific book of his and [also] specifies
the method to narrate them.
When the munwala is void of permission, then according to the majority of
scholars it will not be considered [worthy of narration]. Those scholars who have
permitted this have compared it to sending a book from one country to another.
Hence a group from the imms of hadth have deemed such a practice as correct,
even if this sending is not coupled with permission. It is as if the [actual] sending
itself of the books is an indication of permission. I do not see a strong difference
between the shaykh giving the book to the disciple and between sending the book
from one place to the other, when both are void of permission.

Commentary
Siyagh al-ad refers to the words employed by the hadth reporters to express how they
received their reports. Ibn Hajar offers a detailed section here on the words employed by
hadth transmitters and divides these various words into eight categories in terms of
strength. They are:
(i) Samitu (I heard x) and haddathani (x transmitted to me).
(ii) Akhbarani (x informed me) and qaratu alayhi (I recited to x).
346
(iii) Quria alayhi wa-ana asma (It was recited to x whilst I was listening).
(iv) Anbaani (x told me).
(v) Nwalani (x transferred to me).
(vi) Shfahani bi-al-ijza (x shared with me with licensing).
(vii) Kataba ilayya bi-al-ijza (he corresponded with me with licensing).
(viii) An (from), dhakara (he mentioned), raw (he narrated) and other words
which can indicate he actually heard it directly or not.

For a first-time reader, the section is an excellent overview of siyagh al-ad. The
grading is mentioned in order, along with a brief description of the disputed terms.
Certainly the extensive analysis given by the author suggests its importance. An
important question is why Ibn Hajar felt the need to discuss siyagh al-ad in such detail.
The reason is not because it still mattered greatly in the ninth Islamic century. The words
of delivery mattered more in the early period of Islam, before the documentation of the
prophetic reports into collections like the Sahih of al-Bukhr (Kamali 2005, pp.13-14).
As time progressed, it became less and less important. This is reflected by the fact that in
al-Mayynishs (d. 581/1185) treatise on ilm al-hadith, discussions on the words of
delivery come early on in the text (Librande 1982, pp.42-43). In Ibn Hajars Nuzhah, the
discussion comes near the end of the work.
Instead, it is plausible to suggest that the reason for the extensive coverage of siyagh al-
ad in the Nuzhah was to indicate the meticulous exactness and accuracy employed by
the early transmitters in recording the traditions of their Prophet. For Muslim scholars,
siyagh al-ad symbolised how hadth scholars covered all aspects of the field. They
347
were not content with a simple guarantee that x took the report from y. Rather, they
wanted assurances of how exactly that report was received; was it done individually or in
a group? Did the hadth master dictate it from memory or from his written records? Did
the disciple read the traditions back to the hadth master or did he simply listen? The rich
literature surrounding siyagh al-ad helped us to answer these important questions. The
extensive section in the Nuzhah therefore aimed to give comfort and assurance to the
reader of the exactitude of early Muslims in recording early hadth literature.
Indirectly, Ibn Hajars coverage of siyagh al-ad in the Nuzhah also indicates the
primacy of oral transmission. This is proven by the fact that transmission through written
forms alone is generally seen as inferior. More will be said on this in the conclusion of
this section.
The attention given by the early and later hadth scholars on siyagh al-ad cannot be
overlooked. For example, 16% of al-Khatb al-Baghdds al-Kifya is devoted to such
matters (1988, pp. 283-355). Despite this, there are inconsistencies that even Muslim
scholars admit to regarding siyagh al-ad. A few are mentioned below:

a. The hadth scholars noted the words of delivery for each part of the chain. The
exception was the Companions on how they took the report from the Prophet. Kamali
notes:

When a Companion narrated a hadth from the Prophet, he or she was not
normally faced with the question of how he or she actually received it from the
Prophet (2005, 14).
348

This indicates two possible things. Firstly, attention to siyagh al-ad did not exist in the
Companions time and it only developed later. Secondly, it supports the notion of the
adla of the Companions; that because Allh had vouched for their integrity and
truthfulness in the Qurn, there is no need for hadth scholars to scrutinise them. But
scrutiny is ideally required even for the Companions. Ab Hurayra only spent a short
time with the Prophet. As a result, most of his reports commence with the Prophet said
rather than I heard the Prophet (Brown 2009, 19). If such a word featured elsewhere in
the chain (after the Companions), it would have been questioned by the Muslim scholars.
Because it stems from a Companion here, it is not.

b. Perhaps the most pressing concern was that siyagh al-ad was a rough guide to how
the reporter actually took the hadth, not an exact description. There were too many
exceptions to the rule and inconsistencies for the area to be considered exact and
scientific. The Nuzhah implicitly too suggests this reality. A few examples will highlight
this fact:
i. Like other scholars before him, Ibn Hajar writes that haddathani is the strongest word
of delivery. However, it can still be misused according to the Nuzhah for fraudulent
purposes. Ibn Hajar writes that the word haddathani is sometimes said in ijza with
tadlis.
ii. There is no consistency with the grading of these words. According to Ibn Hajar,
saying qla and dhakara falls in the eighth category, indicating its relative weakness. It
was known of Ibn Jurayj (d. 150/767) that he did not narrate anything without directly
349
hearing it himself. Yet most of the reports from him simply state qla Ibn Jurayj. So
from these two opening observations, we see that the strongest word could be used for
fraudulent purposes and the weakest word could be used for certainty.
iii. There are lingual inconsistencies too. Anbaani stems from the Arabic word naba,
which means news. In this respect, there should be no difference between anbaani and
akhbarani, because the latter derives from khabar, which also means news. In fact, it
could be argued that naba is stronger than khabar since the former means news of grave
importance (Ibn Manzr 1988, iv: 8). Earlier scholars did hold the two as synonymous
but later scholars preferred anbaani to refer to cases where the report has been taken
through the means of ijza (licensing) (Anwar 2003, 159). So literally, anbaani and
akhbarani are at least the same but in practice, the latter is considered much stronger.

Based on these observations, siyagh al-ad could help to spot real forms of transmission
but it was not foolproof. It was a rough guide to how each person heard the report. At the
same time, the fact that siyagh al-ad mattered so much is an indication of the scholars
endeavours. At face level, it did indicate the hadth masters close scrutiny of matters
pertaining to the isnd.
5.55.1. Conclusion.
What is clear from this analysis is that samitu (I heard x) and haddathani (x transmitted
to me) are the highest words of transmission. The weakest forms of transmission are
where written manuscripts are void of permission from the shaykh. This indicates that
350
according to Ibn Hajar and hadth scholars, oral transmission holds a much greater rank
and worth than the mere written form.
For many observers the primacy of oral transmission has been difficult to comprehend.
The secure safeguarding of prophetic traditions seems difficult to argue when for at least
one hundred years, written transmission and records were rare to say the least, or in the
words of Muir, meagre, suspicious and contradictory (1858, I: XXXII). Sidqi writes:

It is evident in every era and in every nation that people find it hard to preserve
traditions, when they are lengthy or numerous and especially if they are reported
only once, without corruption of the words and the meaning and without changes,
additions or mistakes (in Brown 1999, 89).

In defence of oral transmissions, it must be noted that owing to their own experiences,
non-Muslim observers have not fully appreciated how oral transmission can actually be
viewed as more accurate rather than less. Certainly, the remarkable memory of the Arabs
has been under emphasised (Azami 1992, 20). As Brown admits, remarkable powers of
memory are common among illiterate peoples, and the ability to memorise large amounts
of information with precision was especially well developed among the Arabs (1999, 90).
Secondly, an assumption is made that written records are far superior and more immune
from forgery and change. This is not necessarily the case. Brown writes:

Regardless of whether reference was made to a written record, a report could only
be transmitted by direct contact between master and student. Just as in legal
351
matters documentary evidence carried little weight, so too in hadth transmission,
a written account was worthless without oral attestation (1999, 83).

Specific proof for Browns comments can be shown. In his analysis of the ard method
of transmission, Azami notes that the student would possess a copy of the traditions, as
provided by the teacher. Whenever a student finished the reading of a hadth he made a
sign in the circle or somewhere else to show that this hadth had been read to the teacher.
This was necessary because even when a student knew hadiths through books, he was not
entitled to use those materials for teaching or for his own compilation till he received
them through properly recognised methods of learning. If one did not follow this method,
he could be accused of stealing a hadth, (sriq al-hadith), which meant that a scholar
used material that he obtained through an incorrect manner (Azami 1977, 19). In other
words, a written form still needed oral authentication.
Sidqi doubted whether the exact words of the Prophet could be preserved especially when
they were mentioned only once. Along with his clear style of speaking, the Prophet did
not merely relay his dialogue once, but deliberately repeated his remarks thrice. isha
has been quoted to have said that the Prophet spoke in such a way that if one were to
count his words, they could be counted (Kamali 2005, 11). Anas observed that when the
Prophet spoke a word he repeated it three times until it was understood (Ibid.). Moreover,
Sidqi does not evaluate how the Companions took steps to memorise them. It is well
documented that the Companions set aside time for the oral memorisation of what they
had heard and seen from the Prophet. An example is that of Anas ibn Mliks statement:

352
We sat with the Prophet, maybe sixty persons in number and the Prophet taught
them hadth. Later on when he went out for any necessity, we used to memorise it
amongst us, when he departed it was as if cultivated in our hearts (Azami 1977,
13).

To conclude, when analysing the issue of oral transmission, because we see learning by
memory alone as a defect, it does not necessarily mean the same for the early Muslims. In
other words, a cultural gap exists which hinders us from understanding the issue entirely.
Even today, thousands of Muslims throughout the world memorise the Qurn and are
able to recite it on demand. In fact, Muslims who depended solely on their books were
actually viewed in a lesser light by hadth scholars. The lowly rank of wijda
234
proves
this point implicitly. Brown makes an interesting point which makes it easier for us in the
west to appreciate why the Muslims never felt the need for written records in the early
period:

[T]he Companions more often recounted their memories of the Prophet in oral
form only. Even to modern readers accustomed to writing everything down, this is
understandable to an extent; to them the Prophet was a contemporary figure
whose words and deeds lived on in their memories as freshly as we remember our
own teachers or parents. Only rarely do we put down these memories on paper
(2009, 21).

234
Section 5.57.
353
This remark from Brown indicates that non-Muslims have not understood how special
Muhammad was to his immediate followers. They did not need paper to register and
record his sayings and actions. Their love for him meant very little about him escaped
their memories.
Ibn Hajars work did not defend the practice of oral transmission over written reports to
any great lengths openly in the Nuzhah. The fact that the issue did not arouse questions
amongst early Muslims proves that oral transmission was a virtue and not a vice.

5.56. Muanan the continuous an.
235

The statement of an from the contemporary is deemed as an audible report (sam),
as opposed to a non-contemporary, as this is mursal or munqati. Therefore the
condition for deeming it as sam is the proof of being contemporaries, except from
the mudallis; this is not deemed as sam. It is said that the condition for deeming
the muanan as sam from the contemporary is evidence of the meeting between
the shaykh and the disciple, even if it is once. This is so immunity is achieved from
the report being mursal khaf. This is the chosen opinion, in compliance with Al
ibn al-Madn, al-Bukhr and the other scholars.

Commentary
Muanan is where an is used as a word of delivery throughout the chain, with no
clarification as to whether this delivery was through the means of sam, tahdith or

235
In the Nuzhah, this brief section appears between the discussion on inb and mushfaha.
354
ikhbr (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 214). Because of the lack of clarity in the word, the scholars
have long disputed as to whether it should be assumed the person heard the report
directly (sam) or not. Frequently, it has been the method of those who misrepresent the
isnd (mudallis) to give the impression of sam by employing words such as an.
Similarly, it has been used in mursal khafi reports.
236

In the Nuzhah, the author touches upon the dispute between al-Bukhr and Muslim on
this very issue. Al-Imm Muslim wrote in the introduction to his Sahih that when the
muanan report does not contain a mudallis reporter and each narrator could have
theoretically met the other, then it is accepted. He added that the requirement of proof of
meeting was something his predecessors had never asked for (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 215).
The opinion of al-Bukhr, (and Ibn al-Madn)
237
was that proof was needed to show the
two actually met. The detail of this debate has been meticulously explained by Goldziher
in his works (1971, pp. 228-9). This is certainly an indication that non-Muslims
understood the intricate details of the discipline excellently. The question then arises as
to why the Muslims are more sceptical to accept an opinion from the likes of Goldziher,
even when it is clear they have some credible input to offer and when they understand the
issue in question well. The answer is perception; because Muslims largely see the
endeavours of non-Muslims aimed at degrading Islam, they do not welcome their views.
To an extent, the Muslims do not focus on what is being said, but who is actually saying
it. And when it stems from a non-Muslim, their mindset and intention is automatically
questioned. Siddiqi shows this when he writes:

236
This is where a person narrates from someone who is a contemporary of his or whom he has met
something which he has not heard, with words of delivery which suggest that he could have heard from
him, like an.
237
It is said that al-Bukhr did not see this as a condition for a prophetic report to be deemed as sahih;
rather this is a requirement he adhered to alone for his own compilation (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 216).
355

We do not need Foucault to remind us that academic discourse is a product of
power relationships: Goldzihers diary gives us very adequate proof that scholarly
theories, especially those involve the assessment of one culture by a historical
rival, can easily be deconstructed into their psychological, historical and political
constituents. The point is often noted, too, that American scholars, whose
government has had no direct colonial involvement in Muslim countries, have in
the past been somewhat more sympathetic to Islamic culture and its scholarship
than their European colleagues (1993, pp.134-5).

5.56.1. Conclusion.
Muanan can be viewed in two contrasting ways. Firstly, the presence of an throughout
the isnd points to the weakness of it, because the reporter is avoiding words such as
akbarani (x informed me) which show conviction that he heard the report. An can be
thus seen as a loophole by which contentious and even fraudulent reporters can avoid
detection and forgery since the usage of this term suggests non-committal.
Secondly, a case could be made for the depth and rigidity of the hadth scholars
investigations. Not only is the reporter himself subject to analysis, but how exactly he
heard the report and which term is used to affirm this hearing. An is thus suspicious
because one cannot wholly establish the continuity of the isnd.
356
5.57. Wijda & wasiyya The Discovery and the Bequest.
Similarly, the scholars have laid down the condition of permission with wijda; this
is when he finds [the book] with the handwriting of one he knows. Thus he says: I
found with the handwriting of x. By finding it, he cannot merely say x informed
me (akbaran) except when he has permission to narrate from him. Some people
have used this term [of akhbaran when one finds the book] and by doing so have
erred.
Similar is the case with wasiyya; this is when the shaykh bequeaths the book or
books at the time of his death or at the time of travelling, to a specific person. Verily
a group from the earlier imms has allowed the narration merely by the means of
the bequest. The majority have not permitted the narration, except when it is
coupled with permission.

Commentary
The sequence chosen by Ibn Hajar here is crucial to appreciate because it allows us to
appreciate the development of siyagh al-ad. In section 5.55, the Nuzhah highlighted the
eight grades of words, which overall suggested the rigidity of the system. This section on
wijda and wasiyya suggests the relaxation that crept in to the system. Then the next
section on ilm highlights how the system became open to abuse and allowed some
absurd situations to arise. For this reason, Ibn Hajars Nuzhah and the section sequence is
useful in painting the gradual decline in the importance of siyagh al-ad.
Ibn Hajar indicates the weakness surrounding wijda quite openly. Whereas before (in
section 5.55), the importance of face-to-face transmission was applauded, wijda
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encourages a system where a reporter can take possession of reports without even sitting
with the shaykh. Instead, he merely needs to be able to identify the handwriting. More
worrying is the fact that Ibn Hajar states that some Muslims would use the highest word
of delivery akhbarani to indicate taking possession of reports through this means.
Again, like we highlighted in section 5.55, the strongest words were used to describe
transmission in the weakest form. The Nuzhah indicates the disliked nature of wijda but
it does not condone it outright. Interestingly, al-Suyt notes that there are many reports
to be found in the Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal which take on the form of wijda (1972,
2:61).
238

Wasiyya is where the shaykh gives his hadth manuscripts to a particular person as he
approaches death, or as he embarks on a journey. This too was problematic because it
was often void of permission. Some earlier scholars however argue that the shaykh would
only give the book if he wanted others to report it after his demise or disappearance. In
other words, the fact that the book has been handed over itself is a form of permission.
The majority of scholars which include the likes of al-Nawaw (Mighlw 2003, 570)
do not accept this argument; he may have bequeathed the book but he did not give
permission to narrate it (Tahhn 2001, 125).
In short therefore, it seems that according to the Muslim scholars, both wasiyya and
wijda are only legitimate when there is clear evidence of permission to narrate. Or to
rephrase, when there are more checks in place to ensure the bequeathed fully

238
Moreover, al-Suyt identifies three reports in the Sahih of Muslim where the isnd features wijda:
This isnd is Ab Bakr ibn Ab Shayba informed us who said, I found in the book of Ab Usma, from
Hishm, from his father However, al-Rashd al-Itr quickly points out that these three reports have also
been mentioned through another supporting isnd, through the means of Hishm and Ab Usma without
wijda (al-Suyt 1972, 2: 61-2).
358
comprehends what has been given to him. Again, this highlights the benefits of oral
transmission over written ones.

5.58. Ilm The declaration.
Similarly the scholars have specified the condition of permission in ilm; this is
when the shaykh informs one of his disciples that he has narrated book x from
person y. If this is coupled with permission, then it is considered. And if not, it is not,
just like the ijza mma (general permission) in which he says: I grant permission
to all Muslims or to everyone who is a contemporary of mine or to the people of x
territory or to the people of x country. [This last form] is closest to correctness
because of more restriction. Likewise [permission is required] for the ijza majhl,
in that he states an unidentified person or unidentified book. Similarly [permission
is required] for the ijza madm, in that he says: I give permission to whom shall
soon be born. It is said that specifying a living person is correct, in that he says: I
give permission to you and whoever you bore. The opinion closest to the correct
position is that it is not legitimate either. And similarly [permission is required] for
the permission to the present or non-existent which is dependant on the wish of
others, in that he says: I give you permission if x wishes or I give permission to
whomever x wishes, as opposed to when he says: I give you permission if you wish.
This is the correct opinion in all these cases [that it will not be considered]. Verily al-
Khatb has permitted all of these forms bar the [ijza] majhl when the person [or
book] is not specified. He has cited the permissibility from a group of his shaykhs.
From the classical scholars, ijza madm has been employed by Ab Bakr ibn Ab
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Dwd and Ab Abd Allh ibn Manda. The attached [form of permission] has
been used too, by Ab Bakr ibn Ab Khaythama. Many scholars have permitted
ijza mma (general permission); some of the hfizs have gathered these forms in a
book in alphabetical order due to their sheer number.
All of these forms, as Ibn al-Salh states, are a disliked leniency. This is because
there is a severe dispute in accepting the specified ijza, though the later scholars
accept this form. This is less than the audible (sam) unanimously, so how less in
rank will the aforementioned forms be? Verily, it will be much weaker. However,
these forms are still better than narrating them as mudil.
With this, the discussion on the words of delivery has ended.

Commentary
If anything, ilm indicates the end of any importance attached to siyagh al-ad. The
Nuzhah gives clear indication of the abuse it resulted in, statements such as I give
permission to whom shall soon be born I permit Abd Allh to report from me, (when
there is no clarification which Abd Allh is being referred to) and I give permission to
all my contemporaries to report from me. In fact, Ibn Hajar highlights how some
scholars actually agreed with such forms, like Ab Bakr ibn Ab Dwd and Ab Abd
Allh ibn Manda.
The problems with ilm are stark. When a shaykh gives universal permission to report
from him, one cannot expect this transmission to be void of shortcomings and
discrepancies. If the person receiving the report does not fully understand the hadth in
360
question, or cannot comprehend the text in the book, there is no real means of verification
available to him. Goldziher reports that Ibn Waddh said:

Abd al-Malik b. Habb visited me and brought a load of books which he put
before me saying, This is your contribution to scholarship. Grant me ijza to
teach it all in my turn. I granted his request, but he never himself has never heard
a word from me personally and I have never lectured to him (1971, 177).

Admittedly, the majority of scholars frowned upon such forms of transmission. Ibn Hazm
described reporting in these forms as a disallowed innovation (al-Munw 1999, 2: 315).
But the scholars rejection of this method simultaneously tells us that it did exist.

5.58.1. Conclusion.
Progressively, siyagh al-ad became less and less important. Early discussions held by
hadth scholars centred on how exactly the person received the report from the visible
shaykh. By the fifth Islamic century, ijza in absentia (ijza madm) had become
normal (Goldziher 1971, 177). The early period of hadth collection was marked by
zealous travels by eager disciples. Later, ijza was a factor in the decrease of such
journeys. Goldziher observes:

Ijza became a surrogate for those Muslims who were eager to obtain hadiths but
either did not think long journeys convenient or when they did go on talab travels
361
were not able to stay long enough in the home town of the carrier of the hadiths
to receive them directly from him (1971, 176).

In the early period, the disciples ability was assessed to see whether he was capable of
carrying and understanding the words of the Prophet. As time passed, seeking ijza
became a social pastime which enhanced a Muslims standing in the community. In fact,
others turned to the system to make material profit from it (Goldziher 1971, 178).

Ibn Hajar does not describe the abuses associated with siyagh al-ad in great detail, like,
for example, Goldziher does. But I believe he says enough in the section to reflect the
benefits and drawbacks of it. He is honest, even if it is only indirectly, about how siyagh
al-ad reached absurd stages with ilm and ijzat madm. And he is also clear about
how the system was an indication of the great care early hadth scholars took in recording
and preserving the hadth literature.

5.59. Muttafiq & muftariq- The homogeneous and the
non-homogeneous.
Then the reporters; if their names and the names of their fathers upwards are the
same and they are [in reality] different people regardless of whether two share the
same name or more and likewise when two or more share the same kunya and
nisba, then this is a type which is called muttafiq and muftariq. The benefit of this
[discipline] is to [prevent] the fear of assuming two different people being one.
362
Verily al-Khatb has compiled a vast book on this. I summarised this and added
much more.
This type is the opposite of the type which has passed called muhmal. With muhmal,
it is feared that one person is actually two. With this type, it is feared that two
people are really one.

Commentary
Muttafiq and muftariq refers to the case one name of the reporter is shared by two or
more different individuals. It is so called because it is agreeing (muttafiq) in terms of the
name and it is different (muftariq) in terms of the persons it refers two. The purpose of
this area is simple; to prevent people from seeing one name and assuming it only refers to
one individual when it reality it refers to two or more.
This type does share some similarity with muhmal.
239
The difference is subtle; with
muhmal there is a chance that one person is assumed to be two different individuals. With
muttafiq and muftariq, there is a chance that two people are assumed to be one.
An example of muttafiq and muftariq is the name Muhammad ibn Abd Allh al-Ansr.
This is the name of two individuals; Qd Ab Abd Allh Muhammad ibn Abd Allh
al-Ansr from whom al-Bukhr took reports, and Ab Salama Muhammad ibn Abd
Allh al-Ansr, who is considered a weak reporter (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 362).
The section is a reminder of how the hadth scholars coined technical terms for all types
of cases and scenarios where the need was actually minimal. With only a small difference
between muttafiq and muftariq on the one hand and muhmal and the other, there was
perhaps not a requirement to add more terms to the discipline. The section also points to

239
This has been mentioned previously in section 5.52.
363
the great care the hadth scholars took in ensuring each and every reporter could be
reasonably differentiated from another. The fact that Ibn Hajar wrote a separate book on
this topic area suggests that it was still deemed important, even by the ninth Islamic
century.

5.60. Mutalif & mukhtalif the similar and the different.
If the names are the same in terms of writing but differ in pronunciation,
irrespective of whether this difference is in terms of the dots or the form, then this is
mutalif and mukhtalif. Knowing this is one of the most important [parts] of this
discipline [of ilm al-hadth]. This is to the extent that Al ibn al-Madn said: The
most errors [in reading] occur in the names. Others have explained that [there is
severe difficulty in correctly reading the names] because identifying it cannot be
based on analogy, nor is there something prior or after the text to indicate [the
correct form].
Verily, Ab Ahmad al-Askar compiled a book on this field but he amalgamated it
to another book compiled on spelling errors (tashf). Then Abd al-Ghan ibn Sad
wrote an independent treatise on it and he included in it two books; one [mentioning]
the confusing names and one [mentioning] confusing ascriptions. Then the shaykh
[of Abd al-Ghan ibn Sad] al-Draqutn compiled a comprehensive book on the
topic. Then, al-Khatb [al-Baghdd] completed this book. Thereafter, Ab Nasr ibn
Mkl gathered all of the previous works in his book al-Ikml. In another treatise,
he gathered all of the obscure names not mentioned in previous works and offered
an explanation for each. His book is the most comprehensive [of the ones prior to
364
him] and thus is the depended source for hadth scholars after him. Names which
Ab Nasr missed out or the new names [of obscurity] were compiled in a large
volume of work by Ab Bakr ibn Nuqta. Then, Mansr ibn Salm with a fatha on
the letter sn completed this in an outstanding volume. Similarly, Ab Hmid ibn
al-Sbn also offered a completion of this work. Al-Dhahab also wrote a very brief
treatise on the discipline. He depended on mere indication when writing the exact
pronunciation and thus there are many mistakes and clear errors in it, which
therefore contradict the purpose of the book. Allh has enabled ease for us in
clarifying this in a book which I named Tabsr al-muntabih bi tahrr al-mushtabih.
This consists of one volume and I have arranged the names alphabetically in a
manner worthy of praise. In it, I added a considerable amount which al-Dhahab
did not include or did not come across. Praise is for Allh in this.

Commentary
According to the Nuzhah, mutalif and mukhtalif is certainly one of the most important
and difficult areas of ilm al-hadith to comprehend. It refers to when a name looks
identical in terms of writing, but differs in terms of pronunciation. For example, the name
Salm can also be read Sallm; when written they look identical (Tahhn 2001, 161).
Similarly, when it is written without the dots on the letters, the name al-Bazzr and al-
Bazzz look identical. As Ibn Hajar explains, identifying the correct pronunciation in the
names is made harder by two factors. Firstly, the names cannot usually be identified by
the means of analogy. In other words, one cannot exert his own thought to evaluate
whether the name is Salm or Sallm. Secondly, when there is an ambiguous word in the
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matn, one can examine the text surrounding the word and reach a reasonably-rigid
conclusion as to what the word is. However, the same cannot be done when there is an
ambiguous word in the isnd. Moreover, al-Uthaymin writes that the problem was more
severe in earlier times when the writings did not include the dots and harakas on the
letters (2002, 351).

There are some shortcomings in this section from Ibn Hajar. Firstly, he does not mention
the methods used by scholars to identify the correct pronunciation for unclear names. For
this, there are two main methods. Firstly, the scholars have analysed which names are
used for a particular compilation. For instance, it is said that the name Yasr has featured
as a reporter in all of the reports to be found in the two Sahihs and the Muwatta of Mlik
(Tahhn 2001, 162). Secondly, the scholars have identified the common and oft-used
pronunciation for a particular name and have then alerted the reader of the few exceptions.
For example, it is said that wherever it is found, the correct pronunciation is Salm; then
the reader is informed of the handful of exceptions where it is in fact Sallm (Tahhn
2001, 162).
Secondly, there are no examples given of mutalif and mukhtalif in the Nuzhah, which is
not typical for the author. In contrast, Ibn al-Salhs own analysis is littered with over
twenty examples (1986, pp. 344-358) Instead, Ibn Hajar uses the section on mutalif and
mukhtalif to provide a comprehensive historical list of books and compilations on this
topic. Perhaps the reason for this is so he could explain the literature background for his
own work on the topic, Tabsir al-muntabih bi tahrir al-mushtabih.
240
The way Ibn Hajar

240
(a) On this topic area, Ab Ahmad al-Askar wrote a book called Sharh ma yaqa fihi al-tashif wa- al-
tahrif. However, because this was an amalgamation with another treatise of his called Tashift al-
366
has done this in the Nuzhah indicates three things. Firstly, it highlights his humility.
Before highlighting his own literature, he acknowledges the endeavours of his
predecessors and their influence in shaping his own work. Secondly, it indicates how
literature on a particular topic area within hadth studies developed through the ages. Like
with so many other areas within the discipline, it was the fourth and fifth century scholars
who pioneered the research, and later scholars merely refined the works.
Finally, Goldziher remarked that: Nobody is allowed to say: because the matn contains
a logical or historical absurdity I doubt the correctness of the isnd (1971, 141). This
section, which highlights the preoccupation with the isnd, confirms what many non-
Muslim scholars like Goldziher believed.

muhadditin his work cannot be considered as an independent work on mutalif and mukhtalif exclusively.
(b) It fell on Abd al-Ghan ibn Sad (d. 409/1018) to write an independent book on mutalif and mukhtalif.
This work was split into two main parts; unclear names and unclear ascriptions (nisba). (c) Al-Draqutn (d.
385/995), who was the teacher of Abd al-Ghan ibn Sad, also wrote a book on this topic called al-
Mutalif wa-al-mukhtalif.
(d) The completion of this previous work was fulfilled by al-Khatb al-Baghdd (d. 462/1071) in his al-
Mutanif fi takmilat al-mutalif wa-al-mukhtalif. (e) All the previously-mentioned works were gathered by
Ab Nasr ibn Mkl (d. 475/1082) in his work al-Ikml, consisting of seven volumes. (f) Ab Nasr ibn
Mkl then wrote a second book called Tahdhib mustamirr al-awhm in which he included names that
had not been mentioned by his predecessors. As Ibn Hajar notes, this work became the basis upon which
later scholars based their works. (g) Ab Bakr ibn Nuqtas work Takmilat al-ikml served two functions.
Firstly, it covered the names left out by previous works and secondly, it included new names that had
become the source of ambiguity.
(h) Then Mansr ibn Salm and Ab Hmid ibn al-Sbn edited and completed the previous works.
Mansr ibn Salms work was entitled Dhayl kitb mushtabih al-asm wa-al-nasab al-muzil al kitb ibn
Mkl. Al-Sbns book was called Takmilat ikml al-ikml.
(i) Al-Imm al-Dhahab wrote a condensed version of this, which he called al-Mushtabih. Ibn Hajar singles
out this work for criticism; he writes that because he did not include the dots and harakas on the names, it
actually confused the matter rather than clarify it.
(j) Finally, Ibn Hajar wrote his own book on the topic called Tabsir al-muntabih bi-tahrir al-mushtabih. In
this one-volumed work, he corrected the mistakes of al-Imm al-Dhahab, as well as refined the order to
make finding the names simpler.
367
5.61. Mutashbih The Similar.
If the names resemble one another in [terms of] writing and pronunciation; and the
[name of the] fathers differ in terms of pronunciation though similar in writing
like Muhammad ibn Aql (with a fatha on the ayn) and Muhammad ibn Uqayl
(with a damma), the first being Nsbr and the second being Faryb who are both
famous and of the same generation or the opposite occurs; namely that the [actual]
name differs in terms of pronunciation and is different in writing, and the [name of
the] fathers is the same in pronunciation and writing like Shurayh ibn al-Numn
and Surayj ibn al-Numn (the first is read with a shn and h; he is a Successor
who reported from Al , and the second is read with a sn; he is one of the shaykhs
of al-Bukhr) then this a type which is called mutashbih. The same is said if the
name and fathers name is similar but there is difference in the nisba.
Verily, al-Khatb [al-Baghdd] has written an outstanding book which he called
Talkhs al-mutashbih. He then added that which he had previously not mentioned
[in a new book] which is of great benefit.
Many categories are generated from this type (namely mutashbih) and the one
before it (namely mutalif and mukhtalif). From these categories is when the
resemblance occurs in the name and the fathers name, for instance, except in a
letter or two. This is then of two types; either the number of letters in the names is
the same but there is difference in one or two letters, or the number of letters is not
the same in one name compared to the other. The example of the first type is
Muhammad ibn Sinn (with a kasra on the sn and two nns divided with an alif)
can refer to a group of [possible] individuals. From them include al-Awaq (with a
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fatha on the ayn and alif) who is the shaykh of al-Bukhr. From this type also
include Muhammad ibn Sayyr (with a fatha on the sn, a double y followed by a
r) who can also refer to many individuals, which include al-Yamm who is the
shaykh of Umar ibn Ynus. From this type includes Muhammad ibn Hunayn (with
a damma on the h and two nns, the first having a fatha, and divided with a y);
he is a Successor who reported from Ibn Abbs as well as others; and Muhammad
ibn Jubayr (with a jm, followed by a b and r) along with Muhammad ibn
Jubayr ibn Mutim, the renowned Successor.
Amongst these types include Muarrif ibn Wsil, the famous Kfan, and Mutarrif
ibn Wsil (with a t in place of the ayn), who is another shaykh from which Ab
Hudhayfa al-Nahd has reported. Also from this type is Ahmad ibn Husayn,
companion of Ibrhmibn Sad as well as others, and Ahyad ibn Husayn, which is
similar to the first name except there is a mm in place of the y. He is the shaykh of
al-Bukhr, from which Abd Allh ibn Muhammad al-Baykand has reported.
From these types is also Hafs ibn Maysara, the famous shaykh from the generation
of Mlik, with Jafar ibn Maysara, the shaykh of Ubayd Allh ibn Ms al-Kf.
The first is read with a h, f and sd and the second is read with a jm, ayn and
then a r.
And the example of the second type
241
is Abd Allh ibn Zayd, who can be [referring
to] many; of them from the Companions include the one who reported the hadth
regarding the call to Prayer (adhn) whose grandfathers name was Abd Rabbih,
and the one who reported the hadth on ablution whose grandfathers name was

241
Namely, where the number of letters are not the same in the names in question.
369
Asim. Both were Ansr
242
. [Then there is] Abd Allh ibn Yazd (with an extra alif
in the name of the father, and a kasra on the z), which too can refer to many
[individuals]. Of them from the Companions include al-Khatm, who was given the
kunya Ab Ms and whose hadth can be found in the two Sahhs. [The name Abd
Allh ibn Yazd also] includes al-Qr, who is mentioned in the hadth of Aisha.
Some have deemed him to be al-Khatm, in which there is doubt.
From this type include Abd Allh ibn Yahy, which again refers to many, and Abd
Allh ibn Nujayy (with a damma on the nn and a fatha on the jm and a double y);
he is a famous Successor who reported from Al .
[Also included in the category of mutashbi is where] there is similarity in terms of
writing and pronunciation, but there is difference and confusion in terms of
preceding and delaying. This is either in both names or its likes, in that the
preceding and delaying happens in one name in relation to some letters. The
example of the first
243
is al-Aswad ibn Yazd and Yazd ibn al-Aswad, and this is
apparent.
244
And [another example of this is] Abd Allh ibn Yazd and Yazd ibn
Abd Allh. The example of the second is Ayyb ibn Sayyr and Ayyb ibn Yasr;
the former is a famous resident of Madna who is not strong and the latter is
unknown (majhl).

242
This means they belonged to the group of Companions who did not migrate from Makka but originally
resided in Madina.
243
Namely where the name has been preceded and delayed.
244
The author means that it is apparent that al-Aswad ibn Yazd is referring to the Successor and that Yazd
ibn al-Aswad is referring to the Companion.
370
Commentary
In this detailed and self-explanatory section, the author refers to mutashbih. This is
where the names are very similar sounding and hence results in possible confusion. As
with the previous type, the problem is perhaps amplified when one remembers that earlier
works were void of the harakas and dots on the letters.
Four points are worthy of mention here. Throughout the book, Ibn Hajar has never felt
the need to mention numerous examples to explain a certain classification of hadth. In
fact, there are a handful of places where no examples at all are offered, such as with
munkar (section 5.26) and indeed the previous section. It is interesting to note that in this
section, Ibn Hajar offers more than one example for each of the different variations of
mutashbih.
It is apparent that this inconsistency in detail is quite deliberate from Ibn Hajar.
This is because this type of hadth is perhaps best described by real, practical examples
rather than an outline of how to spot such a hadth. Without actually showing how names
have been wrongly and rightly attributed to the actual person, it is difficult if not
impossible for the disciple to grasp the importance of mutashbih. Certainly, this
indicates Ibn Hajars maturity and originality in his teaching methods.
Secondly, Ibn Hajar shows here that mutashbih as well as mutalif and mukhtalif
implicitly supports the argument that oral transmissions amongst the hadth scholars were
preferred and more reliable. The difficulty in deciding whether it is Salm or Sallm is
amplified in the absence of a shaykh and it is solved in his presence. A written report is
only of worth and significance if it is backed up by oral transmission. The first revelation
to Muhammad in the Cave of Hir was done orally (from the Archangel Gabriel) and not
371
in written form. Symbolically this teaches Muslims that the true method of teaching and
receiving knowledge is through a shaykh, and not just mere dependence on a written
scripture. As mutashbih shows, the written form (without oral support) is sometimes
inadequate and creates more problems than it solves.
Thirdly, the difference between mutalif, mukhtalif and mutashbih is very nominal. One
could seriously question whether such an abundance of technical terms was really
required to cover such a narrow topic area. In the early period of the discipline, there was
a real need to standardise the terms; several examples have been offered of these types in
the Nuzhah already. But a time eventually appeared when terms were introduced for the
sake of it, not because of real requirement. For hadth scholars, this equalled development
and academic progress. By the time of al-Irq (d. 806/1403), (the teacher of Ibn Hajar),
the excessive technical terms became the goal per se, reflected by the fact that al-Irqs
book on ilm al-hadith was called Alfiyya, the Thousand. Judging by the title, the aim of
the book was to laud the state of the discipline with its thousand technical terms and
definitions, rather than subjectively and critically assess the field.
Fourthly, the detail and precision of this section may have been a product of Ibn Hajars
time and climate. There were hadth transmitters in the ninth Islamic century who had
sacrificed accuracy for elevation (Dickinson 2002, 500). The true carriers of hadth were
marked by the correct pronounciation of names, especially similar-sounding ones. The
depth of this section was thus a statement from Ibn Hajar that he belonged to the very
best of hadth transmitters of his era.

372
5.62. Conclusion; Knowing the generations of the
reporters, their birth-dates, their death-dates and their
places of origins and travels.
Important for the hadth masters is knowing the generations (tabaqa) of reporters.
The benefit of this [discipline] is immunity from possible confusion, the increased
chances of identifying the tadls and uncovering the essence of what is meant from
the anana. The tabaqa in the hadth masters terminology is used to refer to a
group who are similar in age and in meeting the shaykhs. Sometimes, one individual
belongs to two generations through two different factors, like Anas ibn Mlik. For
in terms of companionship with the Prophet he is regarded as the generation of
Ten.
245
And in terms of his young age [when he met the Prophet] he is classified as
from the generation thereafter. Thus whosoever views the Companions according to
companionship has made all of them as one generation, like what Ibn Hibbn and
others have done. And whosoever has viewed them in terms of additional factors,
like in terms of when they accepted Islm, or participation in the excellent events or
the Migration, has thus made the Companions into many generations. This is what
Ab Abd Allh Muhammad ibn Sad al-Baghdd has inclined himself to. His book
is the most comprehensive of all in this field.
246

The same applies to those after the Companions, and they are the Successors. Those
who have viewed them in terms of taking [reports] from some Companions have
made them one generation, as Ibn Hibbn has done. And those who have viewed

245
Namely, the ten Companions who were given glad-tidings of Paradise during their lifetime.
246
This work is called Tabaqt ibn Sad.
373
them in terms of meeting have divided them, as Muhammad ibn Sad has done. For
each one of them is a reason [for their particular methodology.]
Also important is knowing their birth-dates and their death-dates, because by
knowing this, the truth is achieved from the claim of someone that he met another,
when in reality, he did not. Also important is knowing their countries; the benefit of
this is safeguarding oneself from confusion in two similar names that are different in
terms of affiliation.

Commentary
Ibn Hajar offers a brief overview of tabaqt al-ruwt, or the generations of reporters. In
ilm al-hadith terminology, this is the area which looks to classify reporters according to
certain elements, mainly when they lived, when they died and which shaykhs they heard
hadth from (al-Suyt 1972, 2: 381).
It seems that here, Ibn Hajar felt the need to defend the rich literature compiled by his
Muslims predecessors on the reporters. He points out in the text that it serves many
important functions. Firstly, when an isnd features the consecutive an as a word of
delivery, then knowing which generation each reporter belongs to can help us identify
whether each part of the isnd is based on actual hearing or not. The same applies to
when a reporter attempts to misrepresent the hadth through the practice of tadlis.
Secondly, as the previous section has highlighted, the hadth scholars sometimes
experience difficulty in pinpointing which reporter is which when two or more share the
same name or similar sounding names. The discipline of tabaqt al-ruwt is a useful tool
in differentiating such individuals.
374
What Ibn Hajar does not defend is why the same type of work was duplicated several
times by his predecessors, albeit in slightly different form. The hadth masters fulfilled
the same purpose but merely presented the work in different ways. Ibn Hibbn, Ibn Sad
and al-Hkim all compiled works on the Companions, but presented it differently.
Whereas Ibn Hibbn treated all the Companions as one category, al-Hkim divided the
Companions into twelve sub-divisions (Mighlw 2003, pp. 530-1).
247
This is an
indication of the academic stagnation that unfortunately marked the discipline of ilm al-
hadith.
There is also a rare academic mistake from Ibn Hajar in the Nuzhah in this section. When
referring to Anas ibn Mlik, he writes that in terms of companionship with the Prophet,
he is regarded as the generation of Ten, namely the ten individuals given glad-tidings of
paradise during their lifetime. This is incorrect as Anas is not part of this group. The ten
Companions in question were in fact Ab Bakr, Umar, Uthmn, Al, Talha, Zubayr,
Abd al-Rahmn ibn Awf, Sad ibn Ab Waqqs, Sad ibn Zayd and Ab Ubayda ibn
al-Jarrh.
By using the example of Anas ibn Mlik and the Companions, Ibn Hajar gives the
impression that tabaqt al-ruwt mattered more for the early Muslims. The section also
indicates the academic reasons behind this area, which he states is immunity from

247
(i) The Companions who accepted Islam early on in Makka, like the four Rightly-guided Caliphs. (ii)
Those Companions who accepted Islam before the consultation with the Makkans in Dr al-Nadwa. (iii)
The Companions who migrated to Abyssinia.(iv) The Companions who accepted Islam on the occasion of
the First Aqba. (v) The Companions who accepted Islam on the occasion of the Second Aqba. (vi) The
Companions who migrated to Madina prior to the Prophets own migration there. (vii) The Companions
who took part in the Battle of Badr. (viii) The Companions who migrated to Madina between the Battle of
Badr and the Treaty of Hudaybiyya. (ix) The Companions who participated in the Pledge of Ridwn during
the Treaty of Hudaybiyya. (x) The Companions who migrated to Madina between the Treaty of
Hudaybiyya and the conquest of Makka. (xi) The Companions who accepted Islam on the occasion of the
conquest of Makka. (xii) The young Companions who saw the Prophet late in his life, as on the occasion of
the farewell pilgrimage (Mighlw 2003, 530-1).
375
possible confusion, the increased chances of identifying the tadlis and uncovering the
essence of what is meant from the anana. What he totally avoids here is how tabaqt
al-ruwt may have had social benefits, not for early Muslims, but Muslims of his time.
As this section in the Nuzhah has indicated, the classification of reporters was not
necessarily based on dates, but meeting shaykhs. Or to word it differently, what was
stressed was not which year a reporter was born in, but which place he occupied in the
chain in terms of elevation. Regardless of when a person was born or when he died, the
focus was on how many intermediaries existed between him and the Prophet and this
meant, as al-Irq indicated, using the isnd as the basis for deciding which generation a
person belonged to (Dickinson 2002, 504). In Ibn Hajars time, the earlier children could
attend hadth sessions and have their presence recorded officially in the registers, the
easier it was for them to be included in earlier tabaqas with fewer intermediaries.
Dickinson writes that:

It is interesting to note that the word used for generation, tabaqa, is the same as
the one most commonly applied to the document commemorating the audition of
a text (2002, 504).

This analysis shows that tabaqt al-ruwt in its simplest form was a means of gathering
information on reporters. In a more complex form, it perpetuated the obsession with
seeking elevation, particularly for later generations like Ibn Hajars era.

376
5.63. Martib al-jarh wa-al-tadl- The stages of
accreditation and dis-accreditation.
Also important is knowing the reporters state in terms of discrediting, accrediting
and [whether his actual state is] unknown. This is because either the reporter is
known for his integrity, for his lewdness or nothing is known about his state. After
knowing this, it is important to know the stages of discrediting and accrediting,
because the scholars sometimes defame a person with something that does not
necessitate rejecting all of his reports. Indeed we have explained the reasons for
defamation previously and have confined them to ten reasons, along with a detailed
commentary for each. The purpose here is to mention the words which indicate the
different stages according to the hadth masters terminology.
For discrediting there are stages. The worst is that word which indicates
exaggeration in the matter and features the word in the form of afal
248
, like akdhab
al-ns (the greatest of the people in lying), or when they say ilayhi al-muntah f- al-
wad (he is the last word in fabrication), or rukn al-kidhb (the pillar of lying) and its
likes. Then [words like] dajjl (compulsive liar), or wadd (excessive fabricator), or
kadhdhb (excessive liar). [These form the next stage] because even though they
contain indications of exaggeration, they are still deemed less than the first stage.
The most lenient words of discrediting is when they say x is layyin (lenient), or sayyi
al-hifz (bad memory), or fhi maql (in him is dispute). Between the first [which is
the worst] stage and the most lenient stage are [further] stages, like their saying

248
In Arabic, a word that features on the template of afal is called ism tafdil, or the noun of superiority. In
essence, it delivers the meaning of most or greatest. For example, asghar means smallest.
377
matrk (discarded), or sqit (dropped), or fhish al-ghalat (maker of blatant
mistakes), or munkar al-hadth (one whose hadth is rejected), which is more severe
in discrediting than when they say daf (weak), or laysa bi-al-qaw (he is not strong),
or fhi maql (in him is dispute).
Also important is identifying the stages of accrediting. The highest form is also the
one which indicates exaggeration and features the word in the form of afal, like
awthaq al-ns (the most reliable of people), or athbat al-ns (the most proven of
people), or ilayhi al-muntah f-al-tathbt (he is the last word in dependency). Then
[the next stage is] when an attribute of accreditation is stressed, or when then are
two attributes [mentioned collectively], like thiqa thiqa (reliable, reliable), thabt thabt
(proven, proven) or adl dbit (just, accurate) or its likes. The lowest form [of
accreditation] are the words which indicate leniency in accrediting, like shaykh, and
yurw hadthuh (his hadth is reported), yutabaru bih (he is considered) and its
likes. Between these two stages [of the highest and the lowest] are [other] stages.

Commentary
It is the task of the hadth masters to not only offer an in-depth account of each reporter
featured in a hadth, but to term them so that other scholars can readily understand the
strength of each person in question. This area is known as martib al-jarh wa-al-tadil, or
the stages of discrediting and accrediting which Ibn Hajar briefly highlights in this
section.
Certainly, this discipline has attracted considerable attention, most of which is
contentious. Firstly, Islam warns of the dangers of backbiting and the Qurn in fact
378
describes this evil trait synonymous to eating the flesh of ones dead brother.
249
The
practice of al-jarh wa-al-tadil will inevitably include referring to someone with
attributes they would condone or deny, which is what backbiting is.
Secondly, the practice of al-jarh wa-al-tadil seems too subjective. One hadth master
may deem a person credible and appropriate whereas another may have an entirely
different opinion of the same person. Is it possible that reporters can unanimously be
graded with one particular attribute?
In response, the hadth scholars however have allowed the practice of al-jarh wa-al-tadil,
purely because it serves a greater good; to protect the sayings of the Prophet from
inaccuracy and forgery. Though it may seem unfair to criticise individuals with terms
they would disapprove of, the scholars have overlooked this in favour of identifying what
can truly be attributed to the Prophet and what cannot. In fact, some have sought to
justify al-jarh wa-al-tadil from the Qurn directly, where believers are asked to verify
the report of a lewd person when he brings important news.
250

5.63.1. The stages of discrediting.
Ibn Hajar does not offer a comprehensive list of all of the terms used to discredit
someone; rather he mentions the worst stage and the subsequent one, and then suffices
with a few examples of the most lenient words used to discredit someone. The stages are
presented in a table, so that it can be easily compared with Ibn al-Salhs opinion.

249
The Qurn, 49:12.
250
The Qurn, 49:6.
379
Stage Ibn Hajar Ibn al-Salh, who took
the works of Ibn Ab
Htim al-Rz (d.
327/938) as his
foundation (1986, 121-7).
i. The worst stage. akdhab al-ns.
ilayhi al-muntah fi-al-
wad.
rukn al-kadhib.
dhhib al-hadith.
matrk al-hadith.
kadhdhb.
ii. The next stage in
terms of severity.
dajjl.
wadd.
kadhdhb.
daif al-hadith.
iii. The intermediary
stage.
matrk.
sqit.
fhish al-ghalat.
munkar al-hadith.
Laysa bi-al-qawi.
layyin al-hadith.
iv. The next intermediary
stage.
daif.
laysa bi-al-qawi.
fihi maql.
v. The most lenient
words of discrediting.
layyin.
sayyi al-hifz.
fihi adn maql.
380
The table highlights the discrepancies in the terms used to grade reporters. According to
Ibn al-Salh, matrk is considered the worse grade of al-jarh, whereas Ibn Hajar
classifies it in the third stage. Similarly, there is no agreement on which stage terms like
daif, layyin and kadhdhb belongs to. Owing to these differences, it is quite possible that
a researcher may choose to grade a report higher or lower than he actually is.
5.63.2. The stages of accrediting.

Stage Ibn Hajar Ibn al-Salh, who took
the works of Ibn Htim
al-Rz (d. 327/938) as his
foundation.
i. The highest stage. awthaq al-ns.
athbat al-ns.
ilayhi al-muntah fi-al-
tathbit.
thiqa.
mutqin.
thabt.
hujja.
hfiz.
dbit.
ii. The second stage. thiqa thiqa.
thabt thabt.
adl dbit.
thiqa hfiz.
sadq.
mahalluhu al-sidq.
l basa bihi.
381
iii. The intermediary stage. shaykh.
iv. The lowest form of
accreditation.
shaykh.
yurw hadithuh.
yutabaru bihi.
slih al-hadith.
Again, there is disagreement over which stage certain terms belong to and an observer
will experience considerable difficulties in understanding the grades.

5.63.3. Conclusion.
At the very least, there is a lack of consensus amongst the scholars regarding the terms
employed to accredit or discredit someone. In the worse scenario, it can lead to serious
confusion. For instance, Yahy ibn Man was asked to comment on someone whom he
had graded as laysa bihi bas (there is no objection with him). He explained that such a
comment meant the reporter is deemed thiqa (reliable). According to Ibn al-Salhs
grading, the two comments (laysa bihi bas and thiqa) belong to different stages (1986,
124). Similarly, sadq (very truthful) and mahalluh al-sidq belong to the same stage
according to Ibn al-Salh. Al-Dhahab believes that mahalluh al-sidq is lesser in rank
than sadq. This is because sadq is a noun of exaggeration whereas this quality is not to
be found in mahalluh al-sidq (al-Suyt 1972, 1: 344-5).
382
Nor are there are a set number of stages within either accrediting or discrediting. Al-
Dhahab classified them into four, al-Iraqi into five and Ibn Hajar into six (al-Suyt
1972, 1: 342).
Additionally, the rating also frequently does not make sense from an Arabic language
perspective. For example, akdhab al-ns (the greatest of the people in lying) is deemed
worse than dajjl (the anti-Christ) according to the hadth masters, though linguists may
actually deem the latter term as infinitely worse.
The other problem is agreeing on what is considered good grounds to accredit someone
or to discredit them. Again, this is a largely subjective exercise. Ibn al-Mubrak believed
that amongst other factors attendance to congregational prayer was pivotal in
establishing a persons credibility as a hadth reporter (al-Khatb al-Baghdd 1988, 79).
Similarly, Yah y ibn Man identified four qualities in an acceptable narrator, of which
one was refraining from the major sins. Depending on which verse is analysed, which
prophetic report is viewed and which scholars opinion is considered, there can be from
seven to seventy major sins. In one hadth for example, we are informed there are seven
major sins (polytheism, sorcery, murder, usury, devouring the property of orphans,
fleeing from Jihad and slanderous accusations), whereas others include disobedience to
parents (Kamali 2005, 86-7).
Then there are the excessive terms have been used within each stage. For instance, thiqa
(reliable), mutqin (firm), thabt (proven), hujja, hfiz and dbit (accurate) are all terms of
the highest stage according to Ibn al-Salh. Perhaps it would have been easier for the sake
of the researcher if steps had been taken to limit them to just one or two words in each
stage. This issue touches on a pattern which is seen elsewhere in the Nuzhah too (and will
383
be discussed in detailed in section six) that the technical terms in the discipline
sometimes did more than just define a type of report. In this section, the excessive terms
used within each stage did not add to our clarification in any way, and perhaps made the
area more confusing. They may have simply been introduced to give the impression of
development and progress in ilm al-hadith, the more terms equalled the more exactitude
of the discipline.

In defence of the terming, firstly, one must not forget the richness of the Arabic language
which may have played a part in the multiple terms in each stage. The fact that the
highest stage of accreditation can be described with so many different terms may simply
be down to the vast vocabulary available at the researchers disposal. Secondly, Ibn Hajar
does not venture into the possible geographical reasons behind the vast arrays of terms
used within each stage. It may well be that scholars of a certain locality for example,
Madna preferred to use thiqa as the highest stage rather than thabt.
Nevertheless, whereas a large portion of the field of ilm al-hadith terminology went
through a process of harmonisation as the discipline developed, the terms employed in al-
jarh wa-al-tadil have perhaps not been subject to the same uniformity.
In short, at best the terms give us a good but not a definitive guide to the rank of different
reporters. At worst, the vast array of terms used can lead to considerable dispute as to
whether someone is fit for reporting or not.

384
5.64. Other rulings relating to al-jarh wa-al-tadl.
These are the rulings pertaining to accrediting and discrediting. I have mentioned
[further detail] to complete the benefit and thus I say: the accreditation is accepted
from the one who knows the reasons [behind accrediting and discrediting], and not
from one who does not know of the reasons. This is to prevent one from accrediting
someone from the apparent state without expertise and analysis. [This is the case]
even if the accrediting stems from one creditor, according to the most authentic
opinion. This [opinion] contrasts with those who specify that the accrediting will not
be accepted except from two (men), like it is necessary in a [conventional] testimony.
The difference between the two is that accrediting is the same as a ruling (hukm)
and so therefore there is no condition of numbers for it. [Moreover] the testimony
occurs from the witness in the presence of a ruler (hkim) [and therefore it is not the
same as a ruling] and thus differs.
If it is said to differentiate between when the accrediting in the narrator stems from
the creditors own independent thought (ijtihd) and when it stems from ascribing
the accrediting to others, then there is a case [for dispute]. This is because in the
first form [where the opinion stems from the creditors own independent thought],
there is no condition of number, since it is the same as a ruling (hukm). If it is the
second form [where the creditor ascribes the opinion to another person] then there
is a difference of opinion. It is apparent however that in this second form, there is no
condition of number. This is because when the core did not require the condition of
385
number, the periphery should not require the condition of number either. And
Allh knows best.
251

It is desirable that the discrediting and accrediting is not accepted except from a
reliable and acquainted person. Therefore the discrediting is not accepted from one
who shows prejudice in the matter and thus criticises the muhaddiths hadth with
something that does not deserve rejection. Likewise, the accrediting is not accepted
from one who relies merely on the apparent state and decrees on this basis. Al-
Dhahab who is one of the people of outstanding competence in the criticism of
men said:

Two scholars from this discipline have never agreed on deeming a weak
reporter reliable and a reliable reporter as weak.

It is for this reason that the position of al-Nsa was not to discard the hadth of a
man until all the scholars [of this discipline] rejected him.
The agent in this field should be wary of leniency in discrediting and accrediting.
This is because if he accredits someone without due care, then it is as if he has
affirmed a disapproved ruling. It is then feared such a person will be considered in
the group of people who authentically report narrations, though in reality he thinks
of the hadth as false. [Conversely] if he discredits someone without precaution, then

251
If there are disputes, then it centres on how exactly the hadth master reaches his opinion. If he deems
someone weak on the basis of his own research and independent thought, then his situation is rather like a
judge in a court case: his hukm (ruling) will be accepted without a requirement of numbers (al-Uthaymin
2002, 362). If the hadth master deems someone weak not on the basis of his own analysis, but upon the
opinion of scholars prior to him, then this does not resemble a hukm (ruling) but ikhbr (informing). In
other words, he is merely relaying the opinion of others. According to some scholars, in such a case there
must be a minimum of two.

386
he has inflicted defamation on an innocent Muslim and has coloured him with an
evil trait that will remain with him forever.
Prejudice sometimes occurs [in accrediting or discrediting someone] due to ill-
behaviour or corrupt motives, [though] the opinions of the earlier scholars is mostly
free from this. Sometimes it occurs due to disagreement in Islamic creed, and this is
widespread in earlier and later times. It is not desirable to use this [alone] as a
means of discrediting; we have previously mentioned the discussion on the narration
of an agent of bida.
Discrediting is preceded before accrediting and a group [of scholars] have said this
is the case unequivocally. However [the correct opinion is that] discrediting is
preceded when it is explained in detail from one who knows the reasons of
defamation. This is because if the discrediting is without detail, it will not be
defamatory in someone whose integrity has been proven. Also, if the discrediting
stems from someone who does not the reasons for defamation, it will not be
considered.
According to the chosen opinion, if the defamed was void of accreditation before
being discredited, then the discrediting will be accepted [when expressed] in a brief
form without requiring the reasons for defamation, if the opinion stems from an
expert. This is because when he has not been accredited, he is deemed as one whose
state is unknown. And [then in such a case] acting upon the opinion of the one who
defames [the reporter in question] is better than ignoring the opinion. In this case,
Ibn al-Salh has inclined to pausing [on decreeing the state of the reporter].

387
Commentary
As a detailed addition to the discussion, Ibn Hajar refers to certain rulings and principles
related to al-jarh wa-al-tadil (discrediting and accrediting). In summary, he covers the
following important areas;
Who is permitted to decree whether a reporter is weak or reliable?
Is the opinion of one expert sufficient to accredit or discredit someone?
What guidelines should the scholars adopt when accrediting and discrediting someone?
What is the default state: al-jarh or al-tadil?
What factors sometimes lead to inaccuracy is accrediting and discrediting?

5.64.1. Who is permitted to decree whether a reporter is weak or
reliable?
Owing to the importance of the task, Muslim scholars have explicitly suggested that the
graders were men of utmost reliability and integrity. We are informed that the task of
accrediting or discrediting someone does not fall upon the shoulder of all hadth scholars
rather this duty is confined to the hadth masters who are comprehensively aware of the
different stages of narrators, the ranks used in ilm al-hadith terminology to grade
reporters and the reasons why a reporter can be discredited. Such masters must be marked
by integrity, fairness and must not be known to adopt unjustified leniency (al-Uthaymin
2002, 363). Siddiqi notes that of the Companions who became specialists in hadth
reporting and hadth criticism, all kept out of politics and thus were un-swayed by
political pressure from either the Umayyads or Abbasids. This includes the likes of Abd
Allh ibn Umar, Ibn Abbs, Abd Allh ibn Amr ibn al-s and Ab Dharr (1993, 39).
388

5.64.2. Is the opinion of one expert sufficient to accredit or
discredit someone?
In essence, the opinion of one is sufficient to accredit or discredit someone. This is the
position favoured by Ibn Hajar, mid, Ibn al-Hjib, al-Hind and al-Khatb al-Baghdd
(al-Munw 1999, 2: 358).
The quote from al-Dhahab on the matter suggests that the hadth masters worked
harmoniously with one another. He said:

Two scholars from this discipline have never agreed on deeming a weak reporter
reliable and a reliable reporter as weak.

At first sight, the claim seems to suggest that the hadth masters always agreed with one
another when declaring the status of a reporter. But the quote merely affirms that they
never declared a weak (daif) reliable (thiqa) and vice versa. Owing to the contrasting
grades within discrediting and within accrediting, this is not difficult to do. Within tadil
for example, a person can be thiqa, awthaq al-ns, thbit, hfiz, dbit, to mention but a
few grades. What al-Dhahab is claiming is that when declaring the status of one reporter,
the hadth masters have always kept within these parameters. What he is not claiming is
that when one hadth master declares someone thiqa, all the hadth masters have followed
suit and used the same grade for him. This would certainly then be a testimony to the
hadth masters accuracy and conformity.
389
Seen in another light, the statement of al-Dhahab could be interpreted as a sign of a loss
of vigour in the discipline. As time went on, hadth masters merely conformed to the
opinions given by their predecessors rather than embarking on fresh investigations on any
given reporter.

5.64.3. What is the default state: al-jarh or al-tadl?
If the situation arises where a particular reporter is accredited by some hadth masters and
discredited by others, then the opinion inclining to the reporters discrediting will be
accepted. However, as Ibn Hajar highlights, this is only the case when the master clarifies
the reason for his opinion. If he merely deems someone as weak, without offering an
opinion as to why, then such a statement carries no value. Al-Uthaymin explains why the
opinion discrediting the reporter will be preferred:

An example is a man called Abd Allh ibn Al al-Nsbr who one of the hadth
masters (hfizs) has criticised as possessing bad memory. None of the other hadth
masters have declared him good, or of good memory. Here we accept the opinion
of the one discrediting him. Why? Because since no one has accredited him, then
his state his deemed majhl (unknown). So when someone discredits him, it is
necessary to accept the opinion, because it is an opinion stemming from someone
who has the capability to make such a statement and it does not oppose the
opinion of anyone else on that reporter. Therefore we must give the statement
consideration (2002, 367).

390
5.64.4. What factors sometimes lead to inaccuracy in accrediting
and discrediting?
Despite an assurance from Ibn Hajar that only the most competent and impartial hadth
masters are permitted to perform al-jarh or al-tadil, he does warn of certain factors
which sometimes result in prejudice when declaring the rank of a particular reporter.
Firstly, a reporter is sometimes wrongly aspersed due to corrupt motives, namely that the
master has a personal grudge against the reporter he is accrediting or discrediting (al-
Uthaymin 2002, 366). Ibn Hajar believes this is a problem not usually associated with
the experts of hadth. However, al-Munw writes:

Al-Hfiz Ab Amr ibn Abd al-Barr narrates with his chain from Ibn Abbs
that he said: Listen attentively to the opinions of the scholars. But do not believe
them in opinions of one regarding another Mlik ibn Dnr said: The
opinions of the scholars and recitation experts are taken in everything except their
opinion on each other. And in Muin al-ahkm, by Ibn Abd al-Raf al-Mlik, it
states: It is not permissible for a scholar to bear testimony on his colleagues. For
indeed they are the most severe in terms of envy, hatred and animosity [for one
another] (1999, 2: 369).

Later, he cites the opinion of Ibn Daqq al-d who said:

391
The objecting of Muslims to one another is a pit from the pits of the Hell-Fire.
Two groups stand on its banks; the muhaddithn and the judges (hkims) (1999,
2: 375).

These two references certainly raise the question whether the opinions of hadth masters
should be entirely trusted.
Secondly, and more commonly, a reporter is judged in a prejudiced manner due to
differences in doctrine and denomination. This may be where the hadth master belongs
to the mainstream sunni denomination and the reporter in question is a sha (al-
Uthaymin 2002, 366).
Despite these objections, Muslims argue that the large majority of the hadth masters
conducted their research with impartiality and religious devotion. Yah y ibn Sad was on
his death-bed when he asked an attendee what the people of Basra thought about him.
They admire you, but they are only afraid of your criticism of the scholars. Yah y
replied: Listen to me. In the Hereafter I would prefer to be opposed by anyone rather
than have the Prophet saying: You heard a hadth attributed to me, and it came to your
mind that it was not true but you did not criticise it (Azami 1977, 47).

5.64. Conclusion.
Despite the best efforts of the hadth masters, the discipline of al-jarh wa-al-tadil has
many shortcomings, which have been exposed in classical and modern times. Ibn Hajar
largely steers clear of such aspects and instead attempts to highlight its worth and validity.
Sayyid Ahmad Khn questions whether a reliable and objective account of reporters can
392
be given, since it is difficult enough to judge the character of living people, let alone
those long dead (Brown 1999, 98). Opinions as to what exactly constitutes jarh vary
from person to person. When al-Imm al-Shfi learned that someone had discredited a
reporter because he urinated in the standing position, he asked why his prophetic reports
should be rejected as a result. He informed the imm that the urine would splash onto his
clothes and praying in such clothes became questionable. Al-Imm al-Shfi then asked
the man whether he had actually seen the accused in such clothes, to which the man
replied no. Al-Imm al-Shfi then remarked that a learned man would not discredit
another on such weak grounds (Kamali 2005, pp.93-94).
As the above quotes have shown (in 5.64.4.), we can seriously question the worth of the
scholars, no matter how esteemed, on what they had to say on fellow colleagues in the
field. Broadbridge showed that even Ibn Hajar himself had indifferent opinions of his
fellow scholars like al-Ayn (1999, pp. 99-103). In short, the hadth masters were given
the task of accrediting and discrediting the reporters, but who accredits the hadth masters?
Certainly, the grading differed from scholar to scholar. While some like Yahy ibn Man
and Yah y ibn Sad were strict in their assessment of the reliability of the narrators,
others like al-Tirmidh and al-Hkim were not strict (Kamali 2005, 82). In the same way
that actual prophetic reports were sometimes subject to forgery, there are not sufficient
assurances from Ibn Hajar that the biographical reports were immune to forgery.
But this shortcoming is not in any way specific to the field of ilm al-hadith. This is
because questions have always been raised whether a science of human behaviour is at all
possible. Can we quantify the behaviour of reporters in the same way we can with
conforming atoms in a cell, like positivists would perhaps argue? Thus, it could be argued,
393
that early hadth masters when they cast doubt upon their own opinions on others
were in fact acknowledging that a true science of humans was not possible.
On the other hand, however, one must not ignore the efforts of the hadth masters in
attempting to address the important area of reporter credibility. If Ibn Sad (d. 230/845)
had not compiled the Tabaqt consisting of the biographical detail of over four thousand
reporters, if al-Dhahab (d. 748/1348) had not investigated the state of eleven thousand
individuals in his Mizn al-itidl and if Ibn Hajar had not provided data on fourteen
thousand reporters in Lisn al-mizn, then certainly we would have more reasons to
doubt the credibility of prophetic reports. Even the most basic information on reporters,
like their birth and death dates, can help us identify whether the isnd is continuous or
not and whether a reporters claim of hearing a report from a person is feasible or not.
So despite the shortcomings highlighted above, the field of al-jarh wa-al-tadil
nonetheless is important in sifting the sound reports from the weak. This is because some
information about the reporters is better than none at all. What perhaps would be required
from the researcher in order to offset the discrepancies in the grades of accreditation
and dis-accreditation and the sometimes unreliable opinions of hadth scholars on
colleagues in the field is reliance on several biographical dictionaries rather then one.
This would be instrumental in identifying if the hadth masters had shown partiality based
on sectarian or geographical grounds when grading a particular reporter.

394
5.65. Knowing the paidonymics of the reporters and
other related matters.
Important in this field [of hadth] is knowing the paidonymics (kunya) of the named
[reporters], from those who are renowned by their names but they have a kunya.
One is not immune from the situation where in some narrations, he is mentioned by
his kunya, lest that one assumes he is someone else.
252

[Also important in this field is] knowing the names of those called by their kunya.
This is the opposite of the aforementioned case.
253

[Also important in this field is] knowing he whose name is his kunya. Such instances
are rare.
254

[Also important in this field is] knowing those reporters in which there is a
difference of opinion regarding the kunyas. Such instances are common.
[Also important in this field is] knowing the reporters who have several kunyas,
like Ibn Jurayj; he has two kunyas, Ab al-Wald and Ab Khlid or has several
descriptions (sifa) and several laqabs.
[Also important in this field is] knowing the reporters whose kunya is the same as
the name of their father, like Ab Ishq Ibrhmibn Ishq al-Madan, one of the
Successors of the Successors. The benefit of knowing this is to prevent mistakes
from one who ascribes it to his father and says: Ibn Ishq informed me and by

252
The author writes that there are certain cases where a reporter is known by his actual name, though he
does a semi-renowned kunya too. It is important to know by his name and his kunya in case he is
mentioned by his kunya in a particular report, which may lead to some assuming it refers to another person.
253
This case refers to when a person is usually called by his kunya, rather than his actual name. Again, one
must be acquainted with both to ensure the person is not assumed to be two separate individuals.
254
A rare case where this has occurred is Ab Bill al-Ashar, the son of Ab Ms al-Ashar (al-Munw
1999, 2: 386).
395
doing so makes an error; the correct form is Ab Ishq informed me. The opposite
case [should also be known where the name of the reporter is the same as the kunya
of the father] like Ishq ibn Ab Ishq al-Sab.
[Also important in this field is] knowing the reporters whose kunya is the same as
the kunya of the wife, like Ab Ayyb and Umm Ayyb who are two renowned
Companions.
255

[Also important in this field is] knowing the reporters whose shaykhs name
corresponds with the fathers name, like Rab ibn Anas, from Anas. This is how it
appears in some narrations. It is assumed [sometimes] that he is reporting from his
father, similar to what has occurred in the Sahh [of al-Bukhr]: from Amir ibn
Sad, from Sad who is his father. Anas, the shaykh of Rab, is not his father but
rather his father is Bakar and his shaykh is Ansr. The aforementioned Rab is
not from his children, [namely Anas ibn Maliks].
256

[Also important in this field is] knowing the reporters who are ascribed to someone
other than their fathers, like Miqdd ibn al-Aswad. He was ascribed to al-Aswad al-
Zuhr because he was his mutabanna
257
though his real name is al-Miqdd ibn Amr.
[Also important in this field is] knowing the reporters who are ascribed to their
mothers, like Ibn Ulayya. He is Isml ibn Ibrhmibn Miqsam, one of the reliable
[reporters]. Ulayya was the name of his mother and he became famous with this

255
Another example is Ab al-Dard and Umm al-Dard (al-Munw 1999, 2: 391).
256
The author here gives two examples from parts of a chain. In the first - from mir ibn Sad, from
Sad which is to be found in the Sahih of al-Bukhr - mir is the son of Sad, from whom he narrated.
The second example, Rab ibn Anas, from Anas, is not a case of the son narrating from the father. Rab
here narrates from the famous Companion Anas ibn Mlik al-Ansr and not his father who is Anas Bakar.
257
It was common for Arabs to informally adopt someone as their child, which is referred to making one a
mutabanna. Islam later put an end to this practice (Qurn 33:4).
396
name. He did not like being called Ibn Ulayya; for this reason, al-Shfi would say:
Isml who is known as Ibn Ulayya informed me.
[Also important in this field is] knowing the reporters who are ascribed to
something that does not make apparent sense, like [Khlid] al-Hadhdh
(shoemaker). Apparently, it seems it is a reference to his manufacturing or business,
though this is not the case. Merely, he used to keep the company of shoemakers and
so he was ascribed accordingly. Similarly, [the case of] Sulaymn al-Taym; he was
not from [the clan of] Ban Taym but rather resided with them.
Likewise [it is important to know] those who have been ascribed to their
grandfather so that confusion does not arise when a persons name and his fathers is
the same as the grandfathers.
258

[Also important in this field is] knowing the reporters whose own name, fathers
name and grandfathers name are the same, like Hasan ibn al-Hasan ibn al-Hasan
ibn Al ibn Ab Tlib, may Allh be pleased with them. Sometimes this similarity of
name occurs more frequently, and [thus] is a type of musalsal.
259
Sometimes the
name of the reporter and the name of his father is the same as the grandfathers,
like Ab al-Yumn al-Kind, whose full name is Zayd ibn al-Hasan ibn Zayd ibn al-
Hasan ibn Zayd ibn al-Hasan.
[It is important to know the cases where] the reporters name coincides with the
name of his shaykh and his shaykhs shaykh upwards, like Imrn, from Imrn
from Imrn. The first is known as Imrn al-Qasr, the second is Ab Raj al-

258
For example, Muhammad ibn Bishr and Muhammad ibn al-Sib ibn Bishr are two, separate individuals.
The former is deemed reliable whereas the latter is deemed weak (Anwar 2003, 184).
259
Musalsal is where an attribute is to be found in all or most of the reporters of the chain. It has been
discussed in section 5.54.
397
Utrid and the third is Ibn Husayn, the Companion . Likewise is the example of
Sulaymn, from Sulaymn, from Sulaymn. The first is Ibn Ahmad ibn Ab
Tabarn, the second is Ibn Ahmad al-Wsit and the third is Ibn Abd al-Rahmn
al-Dimishq, renowned with the name Ibn bint Shurahbl.
[The similarity between the reporters name and his fathers] sometimes occurs in
the reporter and his shaykh collectively, like Ab al-Al al-Hamadhn al-Attr,
known for narrating from Ab Al al-Isbahn al-Haddd. Both of them share the
name al-Hasan ibn Ahmad ibn al-Hasan ibn Ahmad ibn al-Hasan ibn Ahmad. They
are similar in this respect but differ in kunya, nisba to their country and occupation.
Ab Ms al-Madn has written a comprehensive treatise on this.
[Also important in this field is] knowing the cases where the name of the reporters
shaykh coincides with the one he reported from. This is a unique form which Ibn al-
Salh did not come across. The benefit of knowing this is immunity from assuming
repetition or swapping in the chain. From such examples is al-Bukhr, who
narrated from Muslim and also narrated to Muslim. Thus his shaykh is Muslim ibn
Ibrhmal-Fards al-Basr and the one who reported from him is Muslim ibn al-
Hujjj al-Qushayr, compiler of the Sahh. The same case occurred for Abd ibn
Humayd; he reported from Muslim ibn Ibrhmand Muslim ibn al-Hajjj narrated
from him in the Sahh with this exact chain [featuring the aforementioned Muslim
ibn Ibrhmal-Fards al-Basr]. From this [form] is [also] the example of Yahy
ibn Ab Ibn Kathr. He reported from Hishmand Hishmalso reported from him.
Thus his shaykh is Hishmibn Urwa who was from his generation and the one
reporting from him is Hishmibn Ab Abd Allh al-Dastaw. From this is also
398
[the example of] Ibn Jurayj; he narrated from Hishmand Hishmreported from
him. The higher (shaykh) is Ibn Urwa and the lower (disciple) is Ibn Ysuf al-
Sann. From this is also [the example of] al-Hakam ibn Utayba
260
; he reported
from Ab Layla and Ab Layla reported from him. The higher (shaykh) is Abd al-
Rahmn and the lower (disciple) is the aforementioned Muhammad ibn Abd al-
Rahmn [al-Dimishq]. Such examples are plentiful.
Also important to know in this field are the solitary names.
261
A group of scholars
have gathered [compilations] on this. Some have compiled them without
differentiation, like Ibn Sad in Tabaqt, and Ab Khaythama and al-Bukhr in
their Trkh, and Ibn Ab Htim in al-Jarh wa-al-tadl. From the scholars are those
who have singled out the credible [reporters who have solitary names], like Ijl, Ibn
Hibbn and Ibn Shhn. From the scholars are those who have singled out the
defamed [reporters who have solitary names], like Ibn Add and again Ibn Hibbn.
From the scholars are those who have singled out the reporters from a specific
compilation, like the reporters of al-Bukhr; done by Ab Nasr al-Kalbdh, and
the reporters of Muslim; done by Ab Bakr ibn Manjya, and the reporters of both
[al-Bukhr and Muslim]; done by Ab al-Fadl ibn Thir, and the reporters of Ab
Dwd; done by Ab Al al-Jayyn. Likewise the men of al-Tirmidh and the men
of al-Nas; which has been done by a number of western scholars, and the men of
the six canonical collection the two Sahhs, Ab Dwd, al-Tirmidh, al-Nas and
Ibn Mj done by Abd al-Ghan al-Maqdis in the book al-Kaml. This work was
then refined by al-Mizz in Tadhb al-kaml. I summarised this work and also added

260
In some scripts, this has been written as Uwayna rather than Utayba.
261
This refers to when reporters are known by a single, solitary name rather than x son of y and so on.
399
many new aspects to it, and I named it Tadhb al-tadhb. This is an additional one-
third to the original [aforementioned] work.
Also important is to know the unique names.
262
Verily, al-Hfiz Ab Bakr Ah mad
ibn Hrn al-Bardj compiled a work on this. He wrote many things in it which
were [later] criticised. From these criticisms is his mentioning Sughd ibn Sann,
one of the weak reporters. This is with a damma on the sd, changed from a sn, and
with a sukn on the ghayn, followed by a dl and a y similar to one used for nasab
(affiliation). This is a common [name] and is not unique. For in Ibn Ab Htims al-
Jarh wa-al-tadl there is a reporter named Sughd al-Kf, who has been deemed
credible by Ibn Man. Ibn Ab Htim has differentiated between him and [the
previously-mentioned] Sughd ibn Sinn, who he considers as weak. Also, in Trkh
al-Uqayl there is a Sughd ibn Abd Allh who reported from Qatda. Al-Uqayl
said of him: His reports are not preserved. I believe it is the same person which
Ibn Ab Htim mentioned. As for al-Uqayl and the fact that he mentioned him as
one of the weak reporters, it is because of the hadth he reported from him. The
weakness is not because of him; rather it is due to the reporter Unaysa ibn Abd al-
Rahmn [who is in the isnd]. And Allh knows best.
From such examples is that of Sandar, on the same template as Jafar. He is the
mawl (client) of Zinb al-Judhm, who has companionship [of the Prophet] and
narrations [from him]. He is known with the kunya Ab Abd Allh. This is a
unique name not to be found in others according to our knowledge but Ab Ms
has mentioned in al-Dhayl al marifat al-sahba by Ibn Manda a reporter called
Sandar Ab al-Aswad and has reported a hadth from him. This [opinion of Ab
262
Al-Asm al-mufrada means names that are rare and are not shared by others.
400
Ms] is refuted by the fact that he is the same Sandar mentioned by Ibn Manda.
Muhammad ibn al-Rab al-Jz has mentioned that same hadth in the historical
account of the Companions who took residence in Egypt, under the section
mentioning Sandar Mawl Zinb. I have clarified this in my book on the
Companions.
Likewise it is important to know the kunyas that are solitary and are unique, as well
as knowing the unique laqabs. This sometimes occurs with the name, sometimes
with the kunya, sometimes with a defamatory reason like al-Amash
263
and
sometimes with the occupation.
Similarly, knowing the nasab
264
is important. This sometimes occurs through the
tribes this is more common in the older names than the modern ones and
sometimes through the place; this is more common-practice in the later names than
the older ones. Nisba can refer to the town, rural area or temporary residence. It
can also occur through occupation, like al-khayyt (tailor) or trade, like bazzr (cloth
merchant).
The nasab can be subject to similarity and ambiguity like it does in names.
Sometimes the nasab is mentioned as a laqab, like Khlid ibn Makhlad al-Qatawn;
he was Kf and was given the laqab of al-Qatwn which he disliked.
Also important is to know the reasons for the nicknames and nasabs which are
contrary to the apparent. Also it is important to know the mawls (clients) in terms
of the higher and lower, by reason of slavery or by reason of clientage through

263
His real name was Sulaymn ibn Mihrn. Literally, amash means blear-eyed.
264
Nasab means a persons lineage.
401
alliance and protection, or by reason of accepting Islam.
265
Both forms are called
mawl and one cannot be identified from the other except through contextual
evidence.
[Also important in this field is] knowing the brothers and sisters. The classical
scholars have compiled works on this, like Al ibn al-Madn.
Commentary
This section is largely self-explanatory. Implicitly, what the section does do is perhaps
highlight the intended, target-audience for the work. By identifying these different areas
which Ibn Hajar feels one needs to know, it seems he is offering advice to the young
disciples intending to embark on a study of ilm al-hadith for the first time. His intended
readership was those students wishing to gain their first insight into the discipline.
The section also reflects the area of ilm al-hadith in particular that Ibn Hajar excelled in,
which is rijl literature. Not only is this section littered with many examples for each type
mentioned, but he often provides additional information on the reporter in question, like
his other names, where he resided and from whom he took reports from. There are certain
sections that are longer in the Nuzhah owing to their importance. This section could be
longer, not because of its importance, but because of the authors added expertise in it.
Inadvertedly, Ibn Hajar may have added more detail than he actually thought.
Alternatively, the extensive emphasis on the men in the isnd could be for a religious
reason. Ibn Hajar wanted to indicate that it is not just the matn which is sought in ilm al-
hadith but the men who carry it too. By virtue of carrying the words of the Prophet, these

265
For instance, Ab Al al-Hasan ibn s was a Christian who accepted Islam at the hands of Ibn al-
Mubrak. Thereafter, he was known as Mawl ibn al-Mubrak.
402
men now carry a spiritual blessing (baraka) that is of value too. This is what led Ibn
Wahb to comment that: What we acquired from the mannerisms of Mlik was greater
than what we learnt from his knowledge (al-Dhahabi 1985, 8: 113).

5.66. Knowing the etiquettes of the shaykh and disciple.
Also important is to know the etiquettes of the shaykh and disciple. Both share the
[requirement of] the correct intention, purity from the distractions of the world and
sublime morals. The shaykhs requirement [alone] is that he reports when he is
required to do so, he should not report when there is a more senior hadth master in
the town but rather should refer [the disciple] to him and he should not refuse to
relate prophetic traditions to anyone on the basis of a corrupt intention. [Moreover],
he should perform ritual purity (before relating the traditions) and sit with dignity;
he should not report whilst standing, whilst in a hurry or in the streets unless he is
compelled to. He should resign from reporting when he fears alteration and
forgetfulness, due to illness or old-age. When he reports in a gathering using
dictation, he should employ an alert mustaml.
266

The disciples requirement [alone] is that he respects the shaykh and does not
trouble him. He should inform others of what he has learned from the shaykh. He
should not cease deriving benefit on the basis of embarrassment or pride. He should
accurately record in writing what he has heard and take due care in recording the
harakas to it. He should revise the recordings often so it remains rigid in his mind.

266
A mustamli is employed in a gathering, particularly a large one. Such a person has the task to relay the
shaykhs words to those who cannot hear him directly (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 242).
403

Commentary
In the introduction of the Nuzhah, Ibn Hajar acknowledged the vast contribution of al-
Khatb al-Baghdd (d. 463/1071) to the field of ilm al-hadith. His works such as al-
Kifya on the rules of narration and al-Jmi li akhlq al-rwi wa db al-smi on the
etiquettes of narration became important, milestone works. Ibn Hajar praised him by
citing al-Hfiz Ab Bakr ibn Nuktas quote:

Every impartial observer knows that all hadth scholars after al-Khatb al-
Baghdd were dependant upon his books.

This small yet informative section on the moral requirements expected from the shaykh
and the disciple is based largely if not exclusively on the works of al-Khatb al-
Baghdd, thus showing the dependency of later scholars on the works of earlier ones. Ibn
Hajar touches on just a few expected etiquettes here that al-Khatb al-Baghdd otherwise
covers in great depth in al-Jmi. For instance, Ibn Hajar writes that both shaykh and
disciple require the correct intention; al-Khatb al-Baghdd includes a thirteen-page
section on this area in al-Jmi (1996, 1:pp. 123-136). Similarly, the need to adopt
sublime morals (1996, 1:215), to respect the shaykh (1996, 1: 271), to listen with the full
presence of the heart (1996, 1:354) and to revise the traditions (1996, 1: 363) are all
covered in considerable detail in al-Jmi. So this is the first function of this section; to
pay respects to the previous, hadth masters and their endeavours.
404
The second function is a religious point; that listening to prophetic traditions and then
passing it on to others was seen as a religious exercise, not just an academic or even
political one. The Muslims particularly the early ones saw indulgence in this
discipline as a form of worship. Hadth scholars often cite the example of al-Imm Mlik
as most worthy of mention to highlight this point: Ibn al-Salh writes:

When Mlik ibn Anas wanted to transmit prophetic traditions, he used to perform
his ablution, sit on the edge of his bed and comb his beard. He sat erect,
displaying gravity and reverence and then transmitted. He was asked about that
and he replied: I like to honour the hadth of the Messenger of Allh. I transmit
only in the state of ritual ablution and sitting up straight. He used to dislike
transmitting hadth in the street, while standing or in haste...It is also related that
he would perfume his beard before transmitting. If someone raised his voice in his
gathering, he would scold them saying: Allh said [in the Qurn], O believers!
Do not raise your voice over that of the Prophet.
267
Whenever someone raises
their voice during the recitation of the hadth of the Messenger of Allh, it is as if
he has raised his voice over that of the Messenger of Allh (1986, 240).

For Muslims, this attitude to the field was helpful in reassuring their faith in Mlik as a
scholar. If he treated in each and every hadth of the Prophet with such care and dignity,
it meant he would never include sub-standard and forged reports in his works. On the
other hand, a reporter with ill-motives would care less for understanding the words and
wisdom of the Prophet. Al-Hasan al-Basr reflected this point when he said:

267
Quran, 49:2.
405

When a man used to seek knowledge [of hadth] it was apparent in his
humbleness, his conduct, his tongue, his sight and in his hands (cited in al-Khatb
al-Baghdd 1996, 1: 216).

Ibn Hajar therefore wanted the Nuzhah to teach new disciples the etiquettes the previous
greats adhered to, in the hope they too adopt such morals. In the section on the forged
(5.24.), he did openly accept that piety is not a total guarantee of genuineness; after all,
some of the worst forgers were the pious Muslims. But this section was important in a
religious sense, that learning hadth meant applying its teachings and spiritual dimensions
too to ones faith and character.

5.67. The age of hearing and delivering reports, and the
reports of a non-Muslim and a Muslim wrong-doer.
Also important is to know the method of receiving and delivering [the reports]. The
most correct opinion on receiving it is at the age of differentiation. Verily, the
muhaddithn made it customary to bring their children to the gatherings of hadth
and recorded their attendance. It is necessary to seek permission from the shaykh [if
the child, after reaching the age of maturity, desires to narrate the reports].
The most correct opinion on seeking hadth himself is that he possesses the ability to
do so. The receiving of the non-Muslim is correct too when he delivers it after his
406
Islam.
268
The same therefore applies to the wrong-doer (fsiq) for sure, when he
delivers it after his repentance and his credibility is proven [once again].
269

As for delivering the hadth, for it has already been mentioned that there is no
specific age for it, but instead [the criteria is] his requirement to deliver it and his
ability to do so. This (age) differs from person to person. Ibn Khalld said: When
he reaches fifty [he is fit to deliver to others] and he cannot be criticised if he does so
as forty. This has been criticised as Mlik reported before this age.
270

Commentary
In this small section, Ibn Hajar outlines some of the conditions that pertain to the process
of taking and delivering prophetic reports. The terms used by the author are tahammul
which means taking the hadth by one of the established means and ad, which refers
to passing it on to others (Mighlw 2003, 558). In particular, Ibn Hajar refers to three
areas; (i) the age of competence for hearing reports (ii) the age when the reporter is fit to

268
Ibn Hajar affirms that a non-Muslim can hear prophetic reports before accepting Islam, so long as he
delivers them after accepting Faith. For instance, both al-Bukhr and Muslim have included the report of
Jubayr ibn Mutim in their Sahihs, in which he reported that the Prophet would recite Srat al-Tr in
Maghrib prayer. At the time of this actual event, he was a captive from the Battle of Badr (al-Qr 1994,
796).
269
Once the scholars have accepted the reports of a non-Muslim, there is little room for controversy in
accepting the reports of a Muslim who is a wrong-doer, after he repents from his mistakes and his
credibility is proven.
270
Ibn Hajar cites the opinion of Ibn Khalld, who believed the age was forty or fifty. Perhaps he is
implicitly referring to the Qurnic verse where the age of forty is referred to as the age of full strength
(46:15). But again, Ibn Hajar states that owing to the different ability of people, a definitive age cannot be
set. He then reminds the reader that Mlik ibn Anas was delivering prophetic reports at a very younger age;
according to Ibn al-Salh, at the age of seventeen (1986, 237). Ibn al-Salh too seems to agree that setting
an exact age is difficult when he writes:There used to be disagreement over the age when it becomes
suitable for a transmitter to take up teaching hadth and to be appointed to relate them. Our view is that
when the need arises for the hadth in his possession, it becomes desirable for him to take up relating and
spreading them, no matter what his age his...There is nothing wrong with his transmitting at forty because
that is the threshold of maturity and the zenith of perfection. The Messenger of Allh was informed of his
mission when he was forty. At forty, a persons resolution and strength reach their peak and his intellect
becomes abundant and his judgement is improved (1986, 236-8).

407
pass it on to others (iii) and whether the reports of a non-Muslim and a Muslim wrong-
doer are accepted. Owing to the controversy surrounding the age of competence, it is
certainly worthy of more analysis.

5.67.1. The age of competence for hearing reports.
In order to listen to prophetic reports, it seems that the many scholars seem to suggest
that a reporter can be very young in order to fulfill this task. Al-Qr writes that al-
Isbahn
271
himself explains that he memorised the Qurn by the age of five. When he
was just four, he was taken to the hadth gathering of Ab Bakr al-Muqr. Some attendees
objected to his presence. Ab Bakr al-Muqr asked him to recite Srat al-Kfirn which
he did so without error. Al-Muqr allowed him to remain in the gathering and took
responsibility for his presence (al-Qr 1994, 793). Al-Khatb al-Baghdd writes that a
child is permitted to learn prophetic reports once he can differentiate between a cow and
a donkey (1988, 64).
Perhaps with such cases in mind, Mighlw and al-Munw have suggested that the
person can be as young as five (2003, 559 & 1999, 2: 424) and implicitly, al-Bukhr
believes this age is suitable. This is because under the chapter When it is legitimate to
allow the minor to listen (al-Munw 1999, 2: 424-5), he includes the report of Mahmd
ibn al-Rab, who was four or five at the time when he heard traditions. Certainly, Ibn
Hajar too suggests a young age when he points out that hadth scholars would bring their
young children to such gatherings and then ensure their presence was formally recorded.

271
Al-Hfiz Abu Muhammad Abd Allh ibn Muhammad al-Isbahn.
408
However, allowing the hearing of reports at such a young age is not without its problems.
Firstly, it seems strange that a Muslim is not required to perform the obligatory prayers
until the age of puberty, yet he is permitted to listen to prophetic reports. Secondly, there
is a substantial difference between hearing reports and understanding them. For instance,
Ab Ms al-Anaz once said:

We are a privileged tribe. We are from Anaza. The Prophet read towards us
(Mighlw 2003, 467).

Ab Ms thought the report meant that the Prophet prayed for their tribe. In fact, Anaza
is a spear. The Prophet read Salh with a spear in front so people could pass by ahead
of him. If grown men can make such mistakes, then children certainly can.
Thirdly, it is also doubtful that children can fully appreciate the task they are involved in
and subsequently display maturity. Al-Qr mentions how one child was bought to the
gathering of Mamn. He recited the Qurn when requested but he would cry when he
felt hungry (1994, 793).
Fourthly, the customary order of seeking Islamic education does not begin with listening
to prophetic reports but in fact commences with mastery in other fields. Abd Allh al-
Zubayr disliked disciples seeking hadth before the memorisation of the Qurn and
before studying the farid (al-Qr 1994, 792). Azami notes that after the Quran,
students were expected to gain expertise in Islamic Law, religious practices and
grammar before indulging in hadth studies, typically at the age of twenty (1977, 23).
Al-Thawr went as far as to suggest that a person should worship Allh for twenty years
409
before seeking hadth (al-Qr 1994, 792-3). Ibn Hajars own experience also points to
this very fact. Before embarking on hadth studies, he memorised the Qurn, followed by
studies in jurisprudence, Arabic and mathematics. He studied the Mukhtasar of Ibn al-
Hjib on usl and took lugha from al-Frzabd (Ahmadayn 1958, 9; al-Wajd 1996,
13). In short, there are a number of disciplines that must precede hadth studies in order
for a disciple to fully comprehend the words and actions of the Prophet. By allowing
children as young as five to attend hadth circles, it either means the child must have
studied disciplines like fiqh and Qurn before this, or the child simply did not study
them at all.
Fifthly, we learn that seeking hadth at a small age resulted in some reporters being
branded weak. Azami notes that the likes of Amr al-Bayrut and Hishm ibn Hassn
were considered weak precisely because they took their reports from their teachers at too
young an age (1977, 23).
Sixthly, it could be argued that socially, hadth gatherings were the place to be seen.
People attached significance to scholarly circles, and tried to add to their rank in society
by taking their children to such gatherings. Al-Zuhr (d. 124/742), for example, noted that
the youngest student he came across was Ibn Uyayna, who was fifteen years old. Al-
Thawr (d. 161/777) identified twenty as the ideal age for commencing hadth studies
(Azami 1977, 23). But as time progressed, these restrictions were lifted so that infants
could attend these gatherings. By the late second century, people brought their children to
these circles for the social benefits rather than its academic one. This partially explains
why Ibn Hajar wrote the muhaddithn made it customary to bring their children to the
gatherings of hadth and recorded their attendance. Actually understanding the reports
410
from the shaykh was preceded by a desire to simply be counted as members of an elite,
scholarly circle. This bizarre situation reached its peak when, as Azami notes, the
attendance of a child to such lectures entitled him to a certificate which gave the name of
the child, if he was under five, as proof that he attended the lectures (Azami 1977, 23).
Despite all of these points, it must be noted that Ibn Hajar steers clear from explicitly
stating a minimum age. Rather, he states that the person must be at a stage of tamyiz, or
differentiation. In essence, this means that the reporter must be at such an age where he
now possesses sound intellect and understanding, by which he can clearly differentiate
between right and wrong. Moreover, it means he is at a stage where he can differentiate
between the words of the Prophet and ordinary, everyday talk and is able to record the
shaykhs words, either through memory or written records (Mighlw 2003, 559).
To evaluate the debate, it is clear that in order to avoid controversy and in order to reflect
the importance of the hearing prophetic reports, it is perhaps better to analyse each
individual case, rather than state a particular age at which he can attend hadth gatherings.
Al-Munw indicates towards this opinion when he writes:

When the person can understand dialogue and can reply competently, then his
listening to hadth is correct, even if he is at an age less than five. And if he does
not possess such qualities, then his listening is not correct, even if he is fifty (1999,
2: 425).
In other words, the minimum age debate should be deemed a relative exercise.
411
The scholars (such as al-Qr and al-Bukhr) who wished to highlight the certain cases
where children of a very young age were listening to prophetic reports chose abnormal
and exceptional cases. Otherwise for the majority of periods and places, the thought of
five-year olds sitting in hadth circles was un-entertained.
In defence of the social circle debate mentioned earlier, Azami notes that the awarding
of certificates to five year olds was not as bizarre as it seems, and in fact served an
important purpose. He writes:

The main use of this certificate was to mark the purity and authenticity of the text
itself. The graduates name was put in the certificate of reading which was not
written on a sheet of paper but either on the margin of the book or at the end of
the book. After growing up, he was not entitled to read any copy of the same book.
No, he must read from the same manuscript or from a copy transcribed from the
book which bore his name and which was checked carefully. Therefore by this
very mean, the scholars were able to safeguard the purity of the text while
keeping the isnd li, that is, the least number of scholars between the reader and
the Prophet (1977, 24).

This shows that the attendance of the infants was to protect the texts rather than teach the
children at that age. The attendance of infants served another purpose too, to keep the
chain as short with fewer intermediaries as possible. This proves that actually
understanding the reports was not the purpose for these infants.

412
To conclude, Ibn Hajars Nuzhah is in places timeless. He provides a clear definition and
example which makes sense for all readers in all ages. Other sections are influenced
heavily by the nature of hadth activity of his time. This section falls under the latter. We
know this because the young age of students that were coming to hadth circles was a
problem during his time (something which will be analysed in detail in chapter six). In
this exact section, he also highlights whether the report of a non-Muslim is accepted. This
too was a product of his era. Ibn Hajars student al-Sakhw noted that non-Muslims
attended the recitation of texts and their names were recorded with the Muslim auditors in
the hope they would one day accept Islam (Dickinson 2002, 503). So the Nuzhah, as far
as this section is concerned, is largely a product of its time.

5.68. Knowing the method of writing and recording.
Also important is to know the method of writing the correct letterings in the book,
and the method of recording it in it. This is that he writes the hadth clearly and
with explanation, adding the haraka to the difficult words and the dots. The
remaining text [when something has been missed] should be written on the right-
hand margin as long as there is space to do so; otherwise on the left margin.
He should know the correct means of presentation; this is reading the written text to
the shaykh, or with a reliable person or with himself bit by bit.
He should know the correct way of listening to reports, in that he does not occupy
himself with matters that distract him, like copying, talking and tiredness.

413
Commentary
Ibn Hajar tenders simple yet informative advice to the disciple on how exactly to record
the traditions he has heard from the shaykh. This includes writing the full vocalisation on
the words, particularly the difficult ones, revising the texts and expressing full awareness
when listening to the shaykh.
272
If the Nuzhah felt the need to ask students to avoid
distraction whilst listening to reports, then perhaps this is something which was a
problem during that particular period. Makdisi writes that because the hadth classes were
more crowded than fiqh ones, and because some students could copy the dictations to
paper quicker than others, distraction became a marked feature of hadth gatherings (1985,
115).

5.69. Travelling in pursuit of hadth.
Also important to know is the attributes of traveling for hadth, in that the disciple
commences with the reports of his town and encompasses them all, then travels to
acquire that which he does not already have. His desire for excessive reports should
outweigh his desire for excessive shaykhs.

Commentary
272
Interestingly, Ibn Hajar offers specific advice in that omitted comments should be added to the right
hand margin, and should only be written on the left if there is no space on the right. Ibn al-Salh elucidates:
The preferred method of including textual omission in the margins is for the student to make a line going
up from the spot of omission in the line of text and then curve it for a short distance between the two lines
of text in the direction of the spot in the margin where he will write the addition.let that be in the right
margin (1986, 193-4).
The advice to insert the addition on the right-hand margin can be interpreted in two ways; firstly, it may
simply be a reference to the Islamic teaching which encourages Muslims to prefer the right over the left in
their affairs. Secondly, as al-Uthaymin notes, it perhaps is because writing on the left may be unclear,
owing to the middle binding and stitching of the book (2002, 383).
414
As the Nuzhah draws to an end, Ibn Hajar reminds disciples that part of the expected
etiquettes from the hadth master is to possess a real and lasting desire to seek knowledge
from all the shaykhs available to him at his disposal. In a short paragraph of only a few
words, the Nuzhah indicates that traveling is important and also warns of the danger and
pitfalls associated with it. In this sense, Ibn Hajars description is very accurate, because
in reality traveling served good purposes as well as bad ones.
Religiously, rihla was important for Muslims. The Prophet amply highlighted the
importance of knowledge and the need for Muslims to gain it from all possible persons
and places (Goldziher 1971, 165). To hear prophetic reports first hand was also an
important reason for Muslims to travel. If a disciple wished to seek an elevated
273
isnd
for a hadth that he already possessed, then he was encouraged to travel (al-Khatb al-
Baghdd 1988, 2:333). Ab Ayyb, for example, travelled from Madna to Egypt in
order to refresh his memory of a hadth which he had already heard directly from the
Prophet (Siddq 1993, 40). Jbir ibn Abd Allh travelled for an entire month to Syria for
the sake of one hadth (al-Khatb al-Baghdd 1988, 2: 336-7, Pr Karam Shah 1973, 122).
In both cases, they could have perhaps heard the same report indirectly from the locals.
However, they chose to make the journey in order to hear the report first-hand.
There are no shortages of such eager-travellers. In fact, many became known precisely
for their extensive travels. Masrq (d. 63/682) travelled so widely for the sake of
learning that he was known as Ab al-Safar (Siddq 1993, 41).
The Nuzhah indicates the darker side of travelling too. The author warns that disciples
should seek knowledge, not a reputation. Travelling merely for the sake of travelling and
an interest in accumulating shaykhs rather than reports is fruitless. On this basis, he

273
This has been covered in detail in section 5.45.
415
advises the disciple not to travel until he has heard from the shaykhs that reside in his
own town. Also, his aim should be amassing different reports rather than amassing a
reputation of having heard from a variety of sources. Al-Uthaymin explains:

Some people have an interest in boasting that I have heard from the scholars of
Makka or I have heard from the scholars of Cairo. They begin to compete with
one another in numbers and in who has heard from the furthest place. This is a
great error on their part (2002, 375).

The early Muslim scholars certainly did learn from a variety of sources and places. Ibn
al-Mubrak (d. 181/797) had 1,100 teachers, Mlik ibn Anas had nine-hundred and
Hishm ibn Abd Allh leant from 1,700 teachers (Siddiqi 1993, 41). But for most part,
their primary intention was to seek knowledge, not to boast about the number of shaykhs
they acquired knowledge from. Of later generations, the same cannot be guaranteed. Al-
Khatb al-Baghdd lambasted those who travelled but had no desire to learn and
appreciate the Prophets message (1988, 3). Others who possessed exotic reports made a
paying business out of eager travellers who came to hear such reports (Goldziher 1971,
169). In short, travelling became a mere sport.
In the ninth Islamic century, was there still any function behind travelling? Like many
great scholars, Ibn Hajar himself travelled extensively to learn. For instance, he travelled
to Damascus and Jerusalem, where he studied under the likes of Shams al-Dn al-
Qalqashand (d. 809/1406) and Badr al-Dn al-Bals (d. 803/1400), as well as Yemen.
416
Up until the sixth century, disciples of hadth did have to travel extensively but the
appearance of new high schools for hadth put that to an end. Dr al-hadth Nriyya was
established in Damascus by Nr al-Dn Mahmd ibn Ab Sad Zeng (d. 569). This led to
the establishment of similar schools elsewhere in the Muslim world (Goldziher 1971,
174).
To conclude, rihla is an area where there was a convergence of views from Ibn Hajar
and Goldziher more than perhaps anywhere else. But by citing the example of Ahmad ibn
Ms al-Jawlq, even Goldziher acknowledged the dedication and sincerity which
drove these narrators:

Ahmad ibn Ms al-Jawlq from Ahwz (210-306), usually known as Abdn,
travelled to Basra every time he heard of a tradition transmitted by Ayyb al-
Sakhtiyn, in order to obtain these traditions from men who gathered them
immediately at the source. Altogether he made that journey eighteen times (1971,
167).

Elsewhere, he observes how rihla served corrupt purposes. In the Nuzhah, Ibn Hajar
follows a similar argument. He reminds readers of its importance and warns against the
pitfalls associated with it.

5.70. Types of hadth compilations.
Also important to know is the types of compilations. This can either be in [the form
of] musnads, in that the compiler gathers the reports of each Companion
417
individually. If he wishes he can then arrange them according to their precedence
[to Islam], or if he wishes, he can arrange them alphabetically, which is then easier
for reference purposes. Or [the compilation can be done] in chapters of
jurisprudence or its like, in that he gathers all the reports that affirm or negate a
certain principle. It is better to suffice on that which is deemed as sahh and hasan:
if he does include all, then he should explain the reason for the [inclusion of] weak
reports.
Or [the compilation can be done] through the means of ilal. He mentions the matn
with its path, along with the different variations [of the isnd]. It is best to arrange
them according to chapters so that it is easier for reference purposes.
Or [the compilation can be done] through the means of atrf: here he mentions part
of the hadth which is [sufficient] to indicate the remainder, and then gathers the
isnds for it, either comprehensively or particular for specific books.

Commentary
In the penultimate discussion, Ibn Hajar outlines the different forms the compilation of
hadth can take on. This includes: (a) musnad
274
(pl. masnid), sunan
275
(pl. sunna),

274
This is a compilation where the reports are gathered and arranged according to the top narrator, namely
the Companion (al-Munw 1999, 1:442) and can take on two contrasting forms, which Ibn Hajar clearly
highlights in the above text. Goldziher writes that this type of compilation is better suited for an individual
achievement, a repertory for private use (1971, 214). This therefore suggests that this not ideally suited for
public use.
275
This is where the compilation is according to the topic of the hadths text. In other words, all reports
relating to Prayer are recorded in one chapter, all the reports on ablution in a separate chapter and so on.
The Six Canonical Collection are all arranged in this format, with only slight differences in methodology.
Because the nature of such a compilation is also useful in acting as a book of jurisprudence, Ibn Hajar
writes that the compiler should try to avoid weak reports in such a compilation. This is because a daf
hadth cannot be used to prove or disprove principles relating to sharia. If he does include them, then he
must clearly label them as weak, and inform the reader the reason behind its inclusion.
418
ilal
276
(pl. illa) and atrf
277
(pl. taraf). Ibn Hajar only mentioned these four types of
compilations, though other forms do exist. The most common forms are: jmi (pl.
jawmi)
278
, mujam (pl. majim)
279
, juz (pl. ajz)
280
, mustadrak, mustakhraj
281
and
sahifa. This last type refers to collections marking the earliest period of hadth
documentation. At this stage, reports were simply put together in writing. Primarily, such
works pertain to the Prophets lifetime until the second Islamic century (Kamali 2005,
31). The authenticity of such works can be viewed in two contrasting manners. Firstly,
they can be viewed reliable because they originated from such an early period. Secondly,
they can be seen as suspect because of the absence of proper chains for them.

276
This is a less-established way of compiling prophetic reports. It involves recording the reports that have
some form of hidden weakness in them. Having mentioned the text of the hadth and the various chains
pertaining to it, the compiler then explains the reasons behind the weakness in them (Anwar 2003, 197).
Al-Uthaymin writes that one benefit of such a form of compilation is to allow disciples to systemically
study reports that contain hidden weaknesses, and understand the reasons behind their rejection (2002, 387).
Works in this format include the compilations of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, al-Draqutn and Ibn Ab Htim
(Ahmadayn 1958, 92).
277
Literally, this means part. It is where the compiler does not mention the full hadth but instead
abbreviates it to a shortened form. This abbreviation is then sufficient to allow the reader to understand
which particular hadth is being referring to.
278
This is where the compiler includes chapters on areas pertaining to Islamic doctrines, worship, dealings,
moral and social teachings, the exegesis of the Qurn, the biography of the Prophet, the virtues of
esteemed individuals, calamities and events relating to the Day of Judgement (Tahhn 2001, 129; al-
Munw 1999, 1:442). The most famous example of such is the al-Jmi of al-Bukhr. The difference
between this type of compilation and sunan is that the latter usually concentrates on sharia rulings, to the
exclusion of areas such as Islamic doctrines and the virtues of esteemed individuals.
279
This is where the compiler arranges the book in order of the names of his shaykhs, usually in
alphabetical order (Tahhn 2001, 129). The most famous example is the Mujams of Tabarn al-Kabir,
al-Awsat and al-Saghir.
280
This refers to smaller compilations where the compiler has recorded all the reports of one narrator, or
has gathered all the reports on a particular topic area (Tahhn 2001, 129). An example is al-Bukhrs small
treatise on raising the hands in Prayer.
281
Works on hadth literature have sometimes taken on the forms of mustadrak and mustakhraj. The
former is where the author includes reports that meet the conditions set down by an existing author for
example, al-Bukhr into a new compilation which the original author missed, such as the works of
Hkim on the two Sahihs (Tahhn 2001, 129). A mustakhraj is where the author compiles the same reports
mentioned by the original author, but with a different chain leading to the text. For example, the work of
Ab Nuaym al-Isbahn on the two Sahihs is in this format.
419
5.70.1 Conclusion.
The section is a simple and useful account for hadth disciples, informing them what type
of collections they are likely to come across and what benefit they can derive from them.
Where this chapter appears in the Nuzhah is also crucial: as his own book on ilm al-
hadith concludes, Ibn Hajar introduces other works of hadth for the disciple to explore.
This section is therefore a transitional introduction to the next steps in hadth studies
which the disciple should embark upon.
Despite its apparent simplicity, the section does raise important points. Firstly, Ibn Hajar
only mentions four types of collections and does not, for example, touch upon sahifas.
The fact that he chose to dismiss this type may be read as an indication that he does not
consider the authenticity of this type, perhaps because they lack proper chains.
Secondly, Ibn Hajar does not offer an historical account of how sunan and
jmi collections came about, which would have been most useful. Muslims would argue
that after the musnads, the sunans and jmis were a natural progression. The extent of
the hadth literature available in the third century meant it was now possible to categorise
them into different chapters in an all-binding treatise on the sunna of the Prophet. This
view contrasts with that of Goldziher. He writes that the musannaf type of collections
were preceded by works such as the Muwatta which depended on ray (opinion) more
than hadth material. Al-Bukhr and other members of the ashb al-hadith needed to
point to the importance of the hadth for religious and legal practice and to bring
practical proof that every chapter of the fiqh could be filled with clear hadth material.
(Goldziher 1971, 216). As evidence, he notes that al-Bukhr depended almost entirely on
hadth rather than ray, the latter being more prevalent in Mliks work (1971, 216).
420
Moreover, the first musannaf originated from Iraq, where the theoretical conflict was
most violent (ibid).
Thirdly, the text of the Nuzhah indicates that these types of compilations are for reference
and research purposes available to the disciple. Ibn Hajar is not advocating the production
of new material. The proof for this is the fact that he mentions sunan. As a form of
compilation, this had ceased five hundred years earlier and no new work appeared
thereafter. Goldziher comments:

The science of tradition also past its prime with its first classics. With the closing
of that literature which we have just described as the canonical one, boundless
compilation began to gain ground. It is true that hadth literature in its very nature
could be little else but the fruit of collection and compilation. (1971, 246)

In fact many of Ibn Hajars countless literary works were in reality improvements,
completions (takmila) and additions to famous, existing works. Al-Matlib al-liya min
riwyat al-masnid al-thamniya was a work compiled by him that merely gathered the
reports of eight famous musnad collections. Al-Qr, who himself wrote a commentary of
the Nuzhah, notes that a large bulk of Ibn Hajars works were nothing but completions.
Fath al-bri bi sharh sahih al-Bukhri too is a case in point; it is but a commentary on an
existing work.
So whilst this section can be seen as a useful guide to further reading and research in the
field of hadth, it also serves as a grim reminder of the academic drought that had set in
by the time Ibn Hajar appeared in the ninth Islamic century.
421
5.71. The reasons behind the hadth.
Also important is to know the reasons of hadth. On this, the shaykh of al-Qd Ab
Yal ibn al-Farr al-Hanbal has compiled a book, namely Ab Hafs al-Ukbar.
Shaykh Taq al-Dn ibn Daqq al-d said that some scholars of his generation began
writing on this topic area, perhaps because they were unaware of Ab Hafs al-
Ukbars existing work.

Commentary
In theory at least, knowing the reason why prophetic reports came about is of paramount
importance for Muslims. Firstly, it could assist in dispelling any doubts about the
authenticity of a hadth. Not only would Muslims possess the saying of the Prophet, but
they would be aware of the events that perhaps led up to the saying. Using sira literature,
the events and the characters involved could be verified. For example, the famous report
Actions are merely judged by intention stems from a story where a Companion wished
to migrate to Madina to marry a woman rather than to seek the reward of migration for
the sake of Islam (al-Suyt 1972, 2: 394). Knowing the name of the man and woman
involved in the story would certainly add weight to the authenticity of the story and the
actual hadth.
Secondly, knowing the background to the hadth can help us to overcome sectarian
differences between Muslims. The hadth He for whom I am his master (mawl), then
Al is his master is such an example.
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282
The Shas maintain that this prophetic report is the basis for the Immate of Al after the demise of
Muhammad. They cite the opinion of Ibn Abbs that Allh ordered the Messenger to openly publicise the
caliphate of Al. The Prophet was [supposedly] scared that people would criticise him for handing
422
Thirdly and perhaps most importantly, it would help Muslims to defend the charge from
western observers that hadth criticism ignored the matn almost entirely. Schacht, for
instance, noted that the criticism of traditions as practiced by Muhammadan scholars
was almost invariably restricted to a purely formal criticism of isnds on these lines
(1959, 3). Studies on the background to how a hadth came about would help refute this
charge, and show the sceptics that Muslims treated the matn with equal regard as the
isnd.
But having said this, this short section in the Nuzhah implicitly suggests that knowing the
reasons behind the report was not particularly important to Ibn Hajar. No explanation is
offered as to how this can help with the study of hadth. No examples are offered either.
Rather he simply refers to the existing literature on the topic area. Certainly, the practice
of investigating the reason behind the hadth has not received the same focus employed

leadership to such a close tie of his. So Allh revealed the verse O Messenger! Proclaim the message that
has been sent down to you from your Lord. And if you do not, then you have not conveyed His message
(5:67) on the day of Ghadr Khumm, after which the Prophet took the hand of Al and proclaimed: He for
whom I am his master (mawl), then Al is his master (ls, Part VI, 193).
The Sunnis give a very different background to this hadth. The Prophet was told that some Muslims had
criticised the heavy-handedness of Al in Yemen. Yazd ibn Talha reports that when Al was returning
from Yemen to meet the Prophet in Makka, he wanted to meet the Prophet urgently and so he parted from
his caravan and made one man the deputy of the group. This man adorned each person a garment that
belonged to Al. When Al met up with the group once more nearer to Makka, he saw the garments. Al
asked: What is the reason behind these garments? The man replied: I adorned the people with this so
they would look good when the people greet them. Al ordered them to remove the garments before the
Prophet reached them. So they removed the garments. In defence of Al, the Prophet said these words to
show his support to him. This was on the eighteenth of Dh al-Hijjah. (lus, Part VI. p. 193.)
Support for this version is to be found in the Musnad of Ahmad, from Ibn Abbs, from Burayda al-Aslam
that:
I took part in the military expedition with Al in Yemen, where I witnessed his heavy-handedness. Thus
when I came to the Prophet I mentioned Al and somewhat belittled him. I saw the face of the Prophet
change colour as he remarked: O Burayda! Am I not the closer to the believers than their own selves? I
said: Of course O Messenger of Allh! He then said: He for whom I am his master (mawl), then Al is
his master. (Musnad Ahmad. The Ahadth of Burayda al-Aslam, Hadth no. 21867)
This is further supported by the report of Zaynab bint Kab who was with Ab Sad al-Khudr from
Ab Sad that:
The people complained about Al. So the Prophet stood amongst the people ordering the people not to
complain about him. (ls, Part VI, p. 194)
These authentic reports clearly show that background to the famous saying He for whom I am his master
(mawl), then Al is his master was the events of Yemen.
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by the scholars on the Qurn (al-Uthaymin 2002, 389). There are several works
compiled by early scholars that examine the reason and story behind the revelation of
certain verses in the Qurn, called asbb al-nuzl.
The fact that Ibn Hajar largely dismissed the reasons behind the hadth may be simply
because of the nature of the Nuzhah. If this manual was indeed aimed at disciples
embarking on the study of hadth for the first time, then the basic classification and
grading of hadth is more important than knowing the reasons behind it. The latter is
investigated and studied after a student has grasped the fundamentals. Or to use the
correct terminology, students needed to fathom hadth riwya before dirya.
Alternatively, Ibn Hajar did not give this section extensive coverage because of the lack
of interest in it in his time. Muslims were not interested with the details of the hadth and
its background. They were more interested in elevation and the prestige attached to hadth
gatherings.

The scholars have compiled works on most of the types that we have touched upon
in this concluding [section]. We have merely introduced the types by defining them
and have not given their examples. Including them all [in this work] is difficult.
Therefore, one should refer to the more comprehensive treatises in order to
understand their true reality.

Commentary
Ibn Hajar asks the reader here to extend his sights to the countless books and treatises that
have been written specifically on the areas covered in the concluding section of his own
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works. Owing to the difficulty in highlighting them all with examples, he writes that he
has defined each type briefly, and that readers who require a fuller explanation should
refer to these works. For example, Ibn Hajar swiftly refers to the need for the disciple to
travel for the sake of hadth in a few lines. Al-Khatb al-Baghdd has written an entire
book on this subject, entitled Al-Rihla fi talab al-hadith.
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Again this implicitly suggests
that the Nuzhah acts as an introduction to the discipline of ilm al-hadith, rather than the
final word.

5.72. Final Supplication.
And Allh is the provider of religious-assistance, the Guide to the truth. There is no
God but He. Upon Him we trust, and to Him we return. Sufficient for us is Allh
and great is He as a Guardian. All Praise is for Allh, the Lord of the Worlds. And
salutations be upon the best of His creations, the Prophet of mercy Muhammad; and
salutations be upon his family, his Companions, his wives, his lineage till the Day of
Judgement.

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Travel in Pursuit of the Hadth.
425
6.0. The Findings.

In this thesis, I have presented a lucid translation of the Nuzhah, coupled with a detailed
and original commentary. Despite my sincere efforts, I acknowledge that there is a wealth
of material that has been neglected in this study, from both Muslim scholars and non-
Muslim ones. This has mainly resulted because of the limitations in terms of the length of
the thesis.
However, I believe the analysis has gone some distance in offering an original and useful
way of viewing the discipline of ilm al-hadith. In particular, there are certain general
findings that have become apparent in the course of the thesis. In brief, these findings and
reflections will be mentioned below. I have expressed these findings at the end of the
thesis because many of them relate to different areas of the discipline, not just one.
Therefore it made sense to express them collectively once an overview of the entire
Nuzhah had been presented. Collectively, these findings indicate why an appreciation of
the Nuzhah was so important. Ibn Hajars work can be viewed as merely a simple manual
on ilm al-hadith. But these points show that the work can be interpreted as an important
work that still has significance in todays academic field.

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6.1. Matn criticism.
By observing Ibn Hajars Nuzhah, one can allude to the general criticism that has always
haunted the discipline; that hadth criticism is largely focussed on the isnd to the
exclusion of the matn. In the Nuzhah, this is apparent in many ways. The conditions of a
sahih report (section 5.9.) largely centre on the men transmitting the report, not the actual
message itself. The rejected traditions are such because, as Ibn Hajar identifies, there is a
drop in the isnd or some defaming attribute in the reporter (section 5.17.). In section
5.11., Ibn Hajar refers to shdhdh al-isnd but totally avoids a mention of shdhdh al-
matn. Of the seventy-two sections in the Nuzhah, only two can be viewed as being
entirely matn-centred, muhkam (5.14) and the reasons behind the hadth (5.71). The lack
of matn criticism is perhaps the primary reason why the likes of Muir dismissed the
methods of early hadth criticism methods (1858: lxxxvii). To many western observers,
the absence of attention given to the text gives the impression that the early hadth
masters methodology was not entirely adequate.

However, there is a limit, religiously, to how far matn criticism can go, and in my opinion,
that is why the Muslims did not indulge in it too much. They faced a very serious
dilemma; to what extent could they decide whether the Prophets words were contrary to
reason or not? Under which criteria could they assess the possibility of the words
emitting directly from the Prophet? Owing to the Prophets rank, who were the humble
Muslims to decide whether the matn was worthy of acceptance or not? Certainly Muslims
are encouraged to resort to their own reason, but does this extend to the Holy Prophet too?
427
In a field where seniority means so much, which Muslim would want to question the
Prophets gilt-edged words?
A prime example of the difficulty in matn criticism is the laughing in Prayer report.
Tabarn reports that after some Companions laughed loudly in congregational prayer,
the Prophet instructed them to repeat their prayer and ablution. Ab Hanfa acts upon this
report and declares that laughing in prayer invalidates the ablution. Al-Imm al-Shfi,
on the other hand, criticises this report on the basis of the matn (al-Jazr 2001, 54). Some
form of bodily discharge is the primary reason why the ablution breaks, so how can
laughing in prayer invalidate the ablution?
Brown cites the example of the Muslim Khwja Ahmad Dn Amritsar, one of the
originators of the Ahl al-Qurn movement, who began to show scepticism towards the
authenticity of hadth when he came across a report suggesting that Moses knocked out
the eye of the angel of death (1999, 95). If the Muslims dismiss such hadiths because
they defy logic, it pushes them down a slippery slope where they begin to question all
areas of religion. The miraculous night journey of the Prophet (al-Isr wa-al-mirj)
should also then be rejected, as this seems even more unlikely and contrary to common
sense. Are we in a position to correct the Prophet, who came as a teacher and guide from
his Lord?
So perhaps because of the sensitivity of matn criticism, Muslim scholars have avoided the
area or at least indulged in it with great care. Criticising the reporters of the hadth in
question does not have wider implications on ones faith. Questioning the matn does.
Westerners, who are oblivious of Muslim sensitivity on the issue, have then assumed that
hadth criticism was only centred on isnd criticism.
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Though the Nuzhah of Ibn Hajar has very little to say on matn criticism the exception is
perhaps in the section on mawd where we are informed of means by which a fabricated
report can be identified by the weak wording of the text there is at least some indication
in the works of other Muslim scholars that matn criticism did exist in some form. In fact,
some reports in the universally-accepted works of al-Bukhr and Muslim faced criticism
because of the matn, not because of weakness in the isnd or the unreliability of the
reporters. There is a hadth in al-Bukhrs works which state that the verse of the Qurn
And if two parties of the believers fall to fighting, then make peace between them (49: 9)
refers to the conflict between the sincere Companions and the followers of Abd Allh
ibn Ubayy. Ibn Battl points out that the verse actually refers to a quarrel between two
groups of Muslims, whereas Ibn Ubayy had not accepted Islam when the verse was
revealed (Siddiqi 1993, 115). Similarly, a hadth in the works of Muslim in which the
Prophet instructed Ab Hudhayfas wife to allow the fully-grown man Slim to suckle
her has been severely criticised by scholars for the contents of the matn, not because of
any doubts surrounding the isnd (Kamali 2005, 208). Forged reports regarding the
superiority of certain chapters of the Qurn were detected by the matn, not the isnd
(Azami 1977, 69).
But such examples are sporadic and relatively rare. And more crucially, there is a pattern
found in the reports that are criticised on the basis of the matn. In the rare instances where
hadth scholars have rejected a report on the basis of the matn, they have interpreted it in
such a way that it still protects the dignity of the Prophet. Or to word it differently, the
Muslims were carefully selective in which types of reports could be criticised on the basis
of the matn and which could not. Abbott reached the conclusion that Muslim scholars
429
dealt with reports on al-targhib wa al-tarhib with much more leniency than reports on
sharia (1967, 77). What this shows that if they had genuinely wanted to, they could have
looked into matn criticism for all types of reports. Their piety prevented them from doing
so.

Or was the isnd over-emphasised?
The above analysis has approached the matter suggesting that the Nuzhah did not give
enough attention to the matn. This same matter can be approached differently which
involves asking: why too much emphasis on the isnd? So rather than observing the
limited emphasis given to the matn, we can instead ask why a substantial emphasis was
given to the isnd. What did Ibn Hajar see in the isnd which made it such an integral
part of his Nuzhah? Four theories of proposed:

His personal position.
Ibn Hajar was an expert in rijl literature and he allowed this proficiency to manifest
itself in the Nuzhah. Al-Isba fi asm al-sahba, Tahdhib al-tahdhib, al-Durar al-
kmina fi ayn al-mia al-thmina and Lisn al-mizn are all, well-known literary works
by Ibn Hajar. All relate to ilm al-rijl. It is quite natural for an author to over-expand a
certain area in a book because he has more expertise in it. As an expert in rijl literature,
Ibn Hajar did exactly that. The longest section in the Nuzhah is devoted to knowing the
paidonymics of the reporters and other related matters (5.65). Other extensive sections in
the Nuzhah such as mutashbih (5.61) again relate to the isnd and the men in them. So
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therefore Ibn Hajars academic actuality affected his Nuzhah in many ways and led to the
extra emphasis on the isnd.
New research.
Ibn Hajar gave considerable emphasis to the isnd in the Nuzhah because he genuinely
thought that new research still could be done in this area. Admittedly, this new research
took on the form of correcting the mistakes of his predecessors. For instance, in section
5.65, Ibn Hajar felt the need to correct al-Hfiz Ab Bakr Ahmad ibn Hrn al-Bardj
over the issue of whether Sughd was in fact a unique name or not. Nevertheless he saw
gaps in the field which had not been addressed by those before him. This is proven by the
fact that of the ten completely original sections found in the Nuzhah and not to be found
in the influential Muqaddima of Ibn al-Salh, eight of them relate to rijl literature. These
are: (i) knowing the reporters whose kunya is the same as the name of their father (ii)
where the name of the reporter is the same as the kunya of the father (iii) knowing the
reporters whose kunya is the same as the kunya of the wife (iv) knowing the reporters
whose shaykhs name corresponds with the fathers name (v) knowing the reporters
whose own name, fathers name and grandfathers name are the same (vi) knowing where
the reporters name coincides with the name of his shaykh and his shaykhs shaykh
upwards (vii) knowing the cases where the name of the reporters shaykh coincides with
the one he reported from (viii) knowing the reporters whose name is their kunya (ix)
knowing when the name of the reporter and the name of his father is the same as the
grandfathers.
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Ibn Hajar saw this new addition as important, shown by the fact that with form vii, he
adds the words This is a unique form which Ibn al-Salh did not come across. This
suggests that maybe Ibn Hajar was not underselling the matn; rather he was addressing
areas that needed modification and introduction, of which many did still relate to the
isnd.
A continued tradition.
Previous hadth masters continued to rate and review reporters to people living in their
own time too. Al-Khatb al-Baghdd (d. 463/1071) reviewed reporters belonging to
generations before him, as well as people occupied in hadth during his own time. Ibn
Askir (d. 571/1176) too reviewed the men of the discipline until his own era, as well as
al-Dhahab (d. 748/1348). Ibn Hajar continued the tradition by showing interest in
transmitter evaluation, just like his predecessors had.

The isnd as a means of ittisliyya.
There is another theory, voiced by William Graham
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, which can answer why Ibn Hajar
gave so much attention to the isnd, but it requires us to step back for a moment from the
idea that the isnds only function is to support the hadths authenticity.
Graham commences with the observation that for the Islamic world, traditionalism has
played a much greater role than in largely industrialized and developed countries. All
great figures that are highly regarded in Islam made a similar call; a return to the early
Islam, the abhorrence of bida and a desire to protect the early heritage. As we get to the
end of time, this is the time when Muslims will find it harder to practise their religion, it

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Traditionalism in Islam: An Essay in Interpretation (1993).
432
is the time when fasd will set in. In all this, the isnd helps immensely to create a sense
of belonging to the earlier times. Graham writes:

One particular element of this Islamic traditionalism is pervasive, even
indispensable: a sense of connectedness, or to coin an Arabic neologism for this,
ittisliyyah the need or desire for personal connection across the generations
with the time and the personages of Islamic origins something that has been a
persistent value in Muslim thought and institutions over the centuries (Graham
1993, 501).

Graham asks us to entertain the possibility that the isnd was much more than just a chain
of men reporting an incident. We must remember that hadth was not just an authoritative
maxim used to elaborate Islamic law and dogma; it was also a form of connection to the
Prophets charismatic legacy (Brown 2009, 15). The Quran and Sunna may provide the
fundamental basis of Islam, but it is the isnd system of documenting the authenticity of
all transmission of knowledge that provides the specific model for various forms of
unbroken connection with the first generation of the Salaf, the idealized Muslim
Ummah (Graham 1993, 506).

This idea of ittisliyyah therefore focuses on touching the previous greats and the men of
learning via the means of the isnd. Clearly, the matn is of pivotal importance to the
Muslims, particularly when it is ascribed directly back to their Prophet. But the men who
carried that message also hold something for us too. Graham writes:
433

What is crucial here is the fundamental presupposition that truth does not reside in
documents, however authentic, ancient, or well-preserved, but in authentic human
beings and their personal connections with one another. Documents alone,
without a line of persons possessed of both knowledge and righteousness to teach
and convey them across the years, are useless as instruments of authoritative
transmission (Graham 1993, 507).

The fact that early hadth works were in the form of musnads suggests the importance of
this connection because this type of collection concentrates on whom one heard from, as
well as what one heard.
This observation of Graham can only be worthy of mention here if we can link it to Ibn
Hajar and prove that he believed in ittisliyya, and thus that is why the isnd was the
focus of so much attention in his Nuzhah. There is sufficient evidence that indicates that
the isnd did have more than an academic function to him. For instance:

a. It was noted in chapter two that Ibn Hajar taught in a number of institutions in Mamluk
Cairo. He did not teach in most of these places for an extended period of time. However,
the exception was the sf lodges of Baybars in Cairo, where he taught for over twenty
years. Perhaps the prolonged period here was a result of his love for the sf mystics and
their way of life. This point is crucial because the sf attach great importance to the
isnd, not so much in the hadth authenticity sense, but more in its spiritual sense. After
the first three centuries, Sufism began to develop into discreet teaching traditions, or
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paths (tariqas), all of which could be linked back to a grand teacher. These paths
themselves then could be ascribed back to the Prophets Companions, most notable Al.
Therefore at the centre of the Sufism lied the key concept of an initiatory isnd of
spiritual guides or masters that is most commonly referred to as a chain or silsilah
(Graham 1993, 515). Brown writes that Sufism believed in two types of isnds; isnd al-
tazkiya (also called isnd al-suhba) and the isnd as a vehicle to transmit and pass on
esoteric knowledge (2009, pp. 188-9). Either way, the fact is that for the sfs, the isnd
was all important and from what we know about his life, Ibn Hajar was close to Sufism.
b. Ibn Hajar spent approximately ten years studying hadth with al-Irq (d. 806/1404)
(Ahmadayn 1958, 9; al-Barr et al. 1995, 96). His teacher was known to conduct
occasional amli sessions (Brown 2009, 46). The reason why this took place is answered
by Brown when he writes:

It is evident from these developments that by the eleventh century the
transmission of hadiths and books via a living isnd possessed little practical
value. Why then did it continue? Simply put, the foundational principle of the
Islamic tradition, that authority comes through a connection to God and His
Prophet, still dominated Muslim scholarly culture. The isnd was that chain that
connected a scholar to the Prophet and allowed him to act as an authoritative
interpreter of Islam. Hearing a hadth or a book of hadiths by an isnd, even if by
ijza, breathed a soul into otherwise lifeless pages and rendered the book legally
compelling (2009, 45).

435
Academically speaking, there was little point in such sessions conducted by al-Irq. It
was done more for the sake of the spiritual benefit, or to use Grahams terms, to give a
sense of ittisliyya to the earlier times. Perhaps such sessions made Ibn Hajar realise that
the isnd held a special place in his religion.
c. Ibn Hajar dedicated a whole section in the Nuzhah appealing to students to adopt the
correct outlook and etiquettes when engaged in hadth studies section (5.66). The section
was in essence an appeal to understand that studying hadth was more than just the
science of it. Rather, it involved immersing oneself in the religious and spiritual benefit to
be derived from it, and becoming part of a long chain of pious men dedicated to
preserving Islams heritage.

Grahams theory is important because it bridges the cultural gap that is otherwise
sometimes missing in the works of non-Muslim academics (this will be referred to later
on in this section). For our analysis here on the Nuzhah, it supports the idea that perhaps
Ibn Hajar did not give too little emphasis on the matn, but too much emphasis on the
isnd. Grahams essay answers why someone like Ibn Hajar would choose to adopt such
a stance. Because he was further away from the Prophets time than, for example, Ibn al-
Salh, it allows us to appreciate why the Nuzhah concentrated on matters related to rijl
literature more than the Muqaddima. It also allows us to appreciate why dr al-hadiths
had limited success during that period than compared to schools related to fiqh. In short,
hadth was about the shaykhs, his personality and his baraka and not the places he taught.
Additionally, Grahams observations allow us to answer why Ibn Hajar dedicated so
much of his literary efforts on rijl-related literature such as Tahdhib al-tahdhib and al-
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Durar. For Graham, such literature is important to highlight how much emphasis
Muslims gave to not just to knowledge, but the carriers of it too. It was not just a matter
of creating a whos who account for the sake of it. Rather, the idea behind such works
was to show that the history of the Islamic community is essentially the contribution of
individual men and women to the building up and transmission of its specific culture
(Gibb in Graham 1993, 509). Finally, it shows that the isnd meant authority in the ninth
Islamic century just as much as it did in the fourth Islamic century. Even today, the isnd
gives Muslims a sense of attachment. The twentieth century scholar Ahmad al-Ghumar
(d. 1960) recited hadiths with full chain of transmissions back to the Prophet in dictation
sessions in Cairos al-Husayn mosque (Brown 2009, 46). Such a practice would only
make sense if the isnd is a timeless mechanism that allows Muslims of all times to
connect to the best of generations.

6.2. The technical terms.
The technical terms served many functions in ilm al-hadith. First and foremost, they
existed to differentiate one type of hadth from the other, with the aim of creating ease for
the reader. In the early period of hadth studies, there was less harmonisation between the
terms and so this need was felt more. Sometimes, the lack of clarity could matter dearly.
Like it has been shown in 5.43., there was no clear dividing line between maqt and
munqati early on, two terms which are quite different since one pertains to the isnd and
the other to the matn. Sometimes, these variations were small and trivial. For instance,
some treatises used the work saqim in the place of daif, like al-Mayynishs (d.
580/1184) work, M l yasau al-muhaddith jahluh (Librande 1982, 39). This also
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suggests that the terms did not always follow common-sense; literally speaking, saqim is
more correct than daif because the opposite of sahih is saqim, and the opposite of qawi
is daif.
With this function in mind, the Nuzhah was not so pivotal. Most observers would agree
that the Nuzhah was not instrumental in laying down the technical terms used in ilm al-
hadith. That honour fell to the Muqaddima, which led to agreement on the meaning of
each term by hadth specialists (Librande 1982, 34). Even Ibn Hajar had accepted that
Ibn al-Salh had cemented the foundation and basis for the technical terms. This is
evident because:
a. He did not question his technical terms largely, except in a handful of places. Even
then, the difference could hardly be described as devastating. For instance, Ibn Hajar
indirectly criticised Ibn al-Salh for suggesting that shdhdh and munkar were
synonymous (section 5.12).
b. Ibn Hajar did not introduce any new term that had not mentioned in the Muqaddima.
The lone exception is muhkam (5.14.).

However, I think the thesis has indicated other purposes the technical terms served, many
which relate to the ninth Islamic century. The analysis of the Nuzhah has shown the
following in relation to the terms:

1. The vast array of technical terms was used to display the exactitude of the discipline.
Certainly in the Nuzhah, Ibn Hajar used this tactic to highlight the rigid, scientific and
complex system painted by his predecessors in ilm al-hadith. Both muhmal (5.52) and
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mubham (5.36) refer to when the name of the reporter is unclear and one term perhaps
would have been sufficient. But giving each situation its own name and definition served
to show the complexity of the field. The difference between mutalif, mukhtalif (5.60) and
mutashbih (5.61) is hardly noticeable yet each one is meticulously differentiated from
the other. Even when a type lacked objectivity, like with muallal, it was given a
scientific and objective feel to it. For someone reading ilm al-hadith for the first time,
this theme suggested that the hadth scholars were aware of all the differences and
variations they came across in their research, and possessed the correct tools to analyse
them.

2. The use of technical terms indicated what area was considered more important than
others. In the Nuzhah, the prime example of this was explained in section 5.47. For terms
relate to uluww nisbi muwfaqa, badal, muswh and musfaha, and none to uluww
mutlaq. It seems that by the ninth Islamic century, the social and scholarly rank
associated with an isnd was more important than the main and underlying purpose of the
isnd: to prove the authenticity of a hadth.

3. Following on from the above point, it seems that in some form, the technical terms
became the goal per se by the time of Ibn Hajar. Just prior to him, his teacher al-Irq
penned the Alfiyya, a poem-based work lauding the thousand terms and rulings related to
the discipline. In the sixth century, al-Mayynishs influential work which Ibn Hajar
mentions in the introduction to the Nuzhah only mentioned fourteen; sahih, saqim
(weak), hasan, mashhr, shdhdh, gharib, mudil, musnad, mawsl, mufrad, mawqf,
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munqati, mursal and maqt. This indicates that an appreciation of ilm al-hadith was
possible minus the plethora of terms. Judging by the attention given to the terms in the
Nuzhah, Ibn Hajar preferred the use of as many terms as possible.
The stagnant nature of ilm al-hadith by the eighth and ninth Islamic centuries may have
well been the catalyst to this. The scholars saw few fresh, innovative and original avenues
to explore as far as research was concerned. In this academic drought, scholars such as al-
Irq and Ibn Hajar turned their attention to fine-tuning established terms and praising
their predecessors exactness.

4. One final aim of the technical terms, in my opinion, was to extend the pool of material
that hadth scholars could work from. The deliberate use of certain words gave the
impression that the scholars had a wide source of sound, acceptable traditions to work
from. This was highlighted clearly in section 5.39. Ibn Hajar could have used a different
word for hasan li-ghayrih, but doing so would mean suggesting that it was different to li-
dhtih, and therefore should be treated differently in terms of ruling. On the other hand,
using the same term would give the impression of a close resemblance to sahih and hasan.
The term hasan li-ghayrih was deliberately used and introduced to conceal the fact that in
essence, it was weak and rejected.

Undoubtedly, the technical terms coined and employed by the hadth masters were
wonderful and a testimony to their hard work. For most part, the terms were clear,
concise and eventually harmonised by the time of Ibn Hajar. But my analysis here has
avoided this portrayal entirely, purely because it was been voiced and promoted by
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Muslim scholars for centuries and needs no repeating here. What does need to be
evaluated is the other implicit and covert functions behind the terms, which has been the
purpose of this overview here. This is missing in the analysis of Muslim scholars
classic and contemporary ones. The four points I have elaborated above show that by the
ninth Islamic century, there were more to the terms than meets the eye.

6.2.1 The use of the technical terms in Fath al-br.
The previous section on the technical terms suggests they were used in different
circumstances to serve different purposes. Just as important as this discussion is whether
the technical terms had any practical importance. The Nuzhah offers a comprehensive
account of the technical terms, their usage and for most part, examples for each. But was
this just merely an academic exercise? Did Ibn Hajar felt bound to define the terms
because they were part of the tradition? Or did he elaborate on the terms in the Nuzhah,
knowing and expecting them to be useful to critics and readers in his own time and after?

In order to answer these questions, the following section is an analysis of the technical
terms employed in Ibn Hajars Fath al-bri bi sharh sahih al-Bukhri. The first eight
chapters of the Fath have been observed (kitb bad al-wahy, kitb al-imn, kitb al-ilm,
kitb al-wud, kitb al-ghusl, kitb al-hayd, kitb al-tayammum and kitb al-salh until
kitb sujd al-Qurn) to note the frequency, reasons and purpose behind the usage of the
terms that have been outlined in the Nuzhah.
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From the analysis I have conducted, the ten oft-used technical terms in Fath al-bri bi
sharh sahih al-Bukhri (that can be found in the Nuzhah too) are:

1. Sahih
2. Marf
3. Mawsul
4. Muallaq
5. Daif
6. Hasan
7. Mursal
8. Mudallas
9. Muallal
10. Musahhaf.

After offering an analysis of some of these terms specifically, the section will conclude
with some general observations on the use of technical terms in Fath al-bri.
Sahh
Owing to the fact that Fath al-bri is a commentary of Sahih al-Bukhri a work
dedicated to gathering the sound reports it is no surprise that the term sahih has featured
the most.
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Interestingly, the term is often used to describe the isnd rather than the entire hadth. So
for example, Ibn Hajar will alert the reader of other variations of the report listed by the
words bi sanad sahih. This could suggest two things. Firstly, the report in question has a
sahih isnd, not necessarily a sahih matn. Secondly, and perhaps more plausibly, because
the conditions of a sahih report mainly pertain to the isnd, he has used this phrase.

Mursal
Typically, Ibn Hajar highlights the other reports to be found (in other compilations) to
support the existing one to be found in the Sahih of al-Bukhr. There are several places
where these supporting narrations are mursal. Importantly, this suggests that though
mursal is in essence rejected, Ibn Hajar believes they do carry weight in the sense they
can be used to support existing sound reports. Explicitly, he voices this opinion in Fath
al-bri when he writes:

The mursals are suitable for evidence according to the opposition (in this case, the
Hanbalis) and according to us too (Shfis), when it is supported (by other chains)
(2004, 1:310).

In the chapters related to fiqh in Fath al-bri, the term mursal is more frequent than the
chapter on faith. Practically, this supports the general observation made by many
researchers that prophetic traditions in the fiqh genre are frequently mursal. I have
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already noted this in the thesis on the section on mursal (section 5.19). For instance, the
term mursal has been used in kitb al-imn six times. In kitb al-wud alone, the same
term has been used thirteen times. Perhaps more significantly, there are three places in
kitb al-wud where Ibn Hajar clarifies the ruling of mursal in some detail (2004, 1: 310,
351 & 387).

Muallaq and mawsul

The term muallaq too has featured often in the Fath and again for understandable
reasons. This thesis has already highlighted (section 5.18) how muallaq is usually
rejected though the scholars have made an exception when such reports feature in a
compilation dedicated to the sound, like the Sahih of al-Bukhr. It is well documented
that the Sahih of al-Bukhr contains many muallaq reports. In the chapter on knowledge
alone, onehundred and two reports are included, of which eighteen are muallaq (2004,
1: pp.172-280).

Ibn Hajar therefore uses the term muallaq (and taliq) to alert the reader of the places
where al-Imm al-Bukhr has included such reports in his compilation. Coupled with
this is the frequent use of wa-sa-la when Ibn Hajar wants to show where the full,
uninterrupted report is to be found. In this regard, wa-sa-la may be different to the
technical noun (and not verb) mawsl.
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Marf
Marf is used often too. However, I think there is sufficient evidence to suggest that
Ibn Hajar did not always mean the technical term per se, but rather a means of short-
handing the text. For example, Ibn Hajar writes:

It has been proven in Sahih Muslim through another chain, from isha marf:
I did not see him namely Jibrl in the form that he was created in except on
two occasions (Ibn Hajar 2004, 1: 30).

Ideally, he should have written from isha, from the Prophet (peace and blessings of
Allah be upon him)
There are only a handful of places where it seems he has used marf in its correct,
technical usage. For instance, he writes:

Salm ibn mir said: I saw Ab Bakr, Umar and Uthmn consume [food] that
had been touched by fire and they did not perform the minor ablution [after it].
We have reported this from many paths, from Jabir as marf and as mawqf
(2004, 1: 371).

Here the term has been used correctly, namely a report that stems from the Prophet, as
opposed to a report stemming from the Companions (mawqf).

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Muallal

In the Nuzhah, Ibn Hajar chooses the term muallal to refer to a hadth that has a hidden,
defamatory weakness in it (section 5.27). However, in his Fath al-bri he uses the term
mall instead, and for the verb he uses aalla.
The scholars of the discipline have for long discussed which term is more suitable; mall
or muallal. Ibn al-Salh begins his section in the Muqaddima with the title marifat al-
hadith al-muallal, but immediately points out that the experts of hadth also call it mall
(1986, 89) and that this is more appropriate from a linguistic perspective. Al-Suyt too
discusses which term is more suitable from a grammatical perspective and also indicates
which hadth scholars use the term mall (1972, 1: 251).
In my opinion, there are two possible reasons why Ibn Hajar used mall rather than
muallal in Fath al-bri. Firstly, he preferred the term that had more resonance with
experts and non-experts in ilm al-hadith, and that was mall. Fath al-bri was aimed at
a more universal audience and therefore it made sense to use terms that could be
understood more easily from a grammatical perspective.
Secondly, al-Suyt writes that al-Bukhr, al-Tirmidh, al-Hkim and al-Draqutn
preferred mall rather than muallal (1972, 1: 251). Perhaps because Fath al-bri was a
commentary of al-Bukhrs work, he deemed it appropriate to use the term al-Bukhr
preferred.
In short, this is an example where his opinion in the Nuzhah on the terms differs from his
choice of terms in his other written works.

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General observations
Overall, the use of technical terms in Fath al-bri is infrequent. Therefore, I do not
believe that a reader who has little or no knowledge of ilm al-hadith will find his
ignorance is a major hurdle to understanding Fath al-bri. The reason for this opinion is
two-fold:
a. Firstly, the presentation skills employed by Ibn Hajar in Fath al-bri are exemplary.
After each hadth, he includes the relevant information and commentary in a systematic
order. Typically, he (i) why al-Imm al-Bukhr has included the hadth in the relevant
section (ii) provides information on the men in the isnd, like important biographical
information and their rank in hadth reporting (iii) a word by word analysis of the words
in the matn (iv) the derived rulings and observations from the hadth as a whole. In
addition to this, each kitb ends with an overview of the type of reports (in terms of ilm
al-hadith terminology) found in the section. For example, the chapter on adhn which
also features prophetic reports on congregational prayers and imamate concludes with
the title fidah, under which Ibn Hajar writes:

The chapters on congregational prayers and imamate consist of one hundred and
twenty-two marf hadiths. Of them, ninety-six are mawsl and twenty-six are
muallaq. The repeated reports (elsewhere) are ninety and the non-repeated are
thirty-two. [Al-Imm] Muslim has recorded the same reports [in his Sahih] except
for nine of them (2004, 2: 252).

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Owing to this good ordering, a reader can quickly and effortlessly refer to the section
which he needs for his research or reading. A person who is not versed with ilm al-
hadith simply does not have to read the section relating to the isnd or the concluding
section analysing the type of reports featured in the chapter.
b. Secondly, Fath al-bri is a work of dirya rather than in riwya. In other words, it
concentrates much more on the message of the hadth rather than the science behind it.
For instance, the commentary provided in the chapter on Friday prayers (2004, 2: pp.
407-491) concentrates more on the ruling, principle and method of this prayer, rather than
the ranking and strength of each prophetic report.

There are rare places where Ibn Hajar does not just mention technical terms but
explains the detail of some of the rulings related to ilm al-hadith in Fath al-bri. Overall,
this has happened for two reasons.
a. In places, there is an obvious need for it. For example, there are several sub-sections in
kitb al-ilm where discussions on ilm al-hadith are totally unavoidable in the
commentary, precisely because the section pertains to ilm al-hadith rulings specifically.
Al-Imm al-Bukhr has included sub-sections in kitb al-ilm such as
the saying of the hadth master haddathana or akhbarana or anbaana (Ibn Hajar 2004,
1:175), al-qira and al-ard upon the hadth master (Ibid. 1: 181) and when it is
legitimate to allow the minor to listen (Ibn Hajar 2004, 1: 208). Naturally, the
commentary from Ibn Hajar in these sections was centred around discussions on ilm al-
hadith almost entirely.
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b. There are other instances where he offers an elaboration of ilm al-hadith rulings in
order to prove or disprove a certain opinion, particularly when it relates to the ikhtilf
between the different schools of judicial thought. A prime example is on the discussion
on whether the head needs to be wiped once or thrice during the minor ablution (Ibn
Hajar 2004, 1:313). Ibn Hajar cites the opinion in the commentary of al-Imm al-Shfi,
who believes it is better (mustahabb) to perform the wiping thrice. As a follower of the
Shfi school, Ibn Hajar too gives preference to this opinion. He writes:

Ab Dwd has reported from two variations Ibn Khuzayma and others have
verified one of them as sound the hadth of Uthmn [which supports the]
wiping of the head thrice. And the addition from a thiqa is accepted (2004, 1:313).

The last sentence is a rule of ilm al-hadith which Ibn Hajar has expanded on in the
Nuzhah (section 5.10.2). The only purpose of mentioning in the section of wiping is to
support the practice of wiping the head thrice and thus supporting the opinion of his
madhhab. So the rules of ilm al-hadith have been mentioned in the Fath sometimes for
reasons other than explaining the inner-workings of the actual discipline.

Another example is that of mursal. Ibn Hajar in the Fath deems it important to outline
that mursal can be used as evidence (2004, 1: 310). The reason why he explained this
ruling here is owing to the rich debate between the different schools of thought on what
can and cannot be used for istinj. The same ruling regarding mursal is mentioned again
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(2004, 1: 351) on the discussion on what part of the head needs to be wiped during the
minor ablution.

Ibn Hajar does sometimes deviate from conventional ilm al-hadith terms in favour of
simpler ones. We have noted this already with his preference to mall rather than
muallal. The reason for opting for simpler terms is so the appeal of Fath al-bri extends
beyond the reader of ilm al-hadith specifically and reaches a far wider audience. In the
section on marf in the Nuzhah (section 5.40), Ibn Hajar uses terms such as tasrih and
hukm to explain the different forms marf can take on. In a much simpler manner, he
explains the same idea in Fath al-bri (2004, 1: 358). When describing the isnd, terms
such as h asan, daif and sahih are standard practice. There are instances in Fath al-bri
where he used unconventional words like sqit and slih to describe the isnd. This, in
my opinion, is for the purpose of ease for the average reader.
In the same manner the excellent arrangement of Fath al-bri favours a universal
audience, the language and terms employed too sometimes portrays the work as a non-
elitist and accessible commentary. As a writer, this shows the skill Ibn Hajar possessed.
He could express the same idea in different ways, depending on the intended audience.

To conclude the analysis of the technical terms in Fath al-bri, for most part they are rare.
The terms that have been used frequently are for most part famous, such as sahih. To
understand ilm al-hadith through a manual such as the Nuzhah before reading a detailed
commentary like Fath al-bri is ideal and commendable. However, in my opinion, it is
not an essential prerequisite and it is not a major deterrence.
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6.3. Over-protectionism.
For early Muslim hadth literature to be taken seriously by non-Muslim scholars, it must
move from the over-protectionism shown to certain individuals and groups related to the
discipline. The Nuzhah is a simple manual on ilm al-hadith but there is still indication of
prejudice and partiality in places. Just by evaluating the Nuzhah, we have shown that:

a. The works of al-Bukhr and Muslim have been given semi-divine status in the Nuzhah.
Ibn Hajar devotes an entire section on the esteemed works of these scholars. Only a
passing mention is given to the fact that their works do contain sub-standard reports
(section 5.7.1.).
b. Muallaq (section 5.18) is rejected. But when featured in the exemplary works of al-
Bukhri, the scholars defend his inclusion of them, rather than question whether the
reports are of acceptable standard or not.
c. The likes of Mlik are described as truthful in the Nuzhah (5.7.1.) without a full
explanation why. The likes of Schacht, on the other hand, view him as a mass fabricator.

d. Ibn Hajar informs us that there is a slight difference between mursal khafi and
mudallas. In mudallas, the narrator has met the narrator, whereas in mursal khafi the
narrator is a contemporary of the missing person, but he has not met him (section 5.22.1.).
The reason why this opinion is to be accepted, Ibn Hajar writes, is that al-Imm al-Shfi
said so.
e. In section 5.36.1.2, majhl al-ayn was defined and explained. This is where the
narrators name is mentioned, but only one person narrates from him. Its principle is that
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it will not be accepted, until he is authenticated. But Ibn al-Salh does highlight the fact
that al-Imm al-Bukhr has included the reports of those from whom only one has
narrated in his Sahih. Only Qays ibn Ab Hzim has reported from Mirds al-Aslam. The
same can be said of al-Imm Muslim in his Sahih; only Ab Salama ibn Abd al-Rahmn
has reported from Raba ibn Kab al-Aslam (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 113). Again, we see that
a report should ideally be rejected or seriously questioned at the very least, but because it
features in the Sahih of al-Bukhr and Muslim, it is conveniently overlooked.
f. The Companions are above criticism in hadth transmission, because Allh and His
Messenger have vouched for their honesty and integrity. As I have shown in section 5.41,
their religious outlook and honesty can be seen as something entirely different to their
academic ability.
g. In section 5.27 on muallal, we are ordered to trust the hadth masters intuition when
he declares a report as defective, even if he does not explain his decision.

These seven examples from the Nuzhah show that there are certain individuals and
groups that Muslims see as above criticism. Religiously, one can appreciate the difficulty
for Muslims in indulging in open criticism of such esteemed figures. Who will want to
impugn al-Bukhr when he claimed he saw the Prophet in his dream instructing him to
write his Sahih? (Saidi 1977, 195) How can we question the sincerity of al-Bukhr when
he would perform istikhra prayer for every hadth he included in his compilation? (Pr
Karam Shah 1973, pp.163-4). If Muslims begin to seriously question the integrity of the
Companions, then it means they are seeking a second opinion after Allhs.

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In order to portray their efforts as an impartial and neutral assessment, Muslim scholars
must identify whether the celebrated figures, like al-Bukhr, Mlik and the Companions,
are such because of their religious piety or because of their outstanding ability. If they
believe that they are unique because of their piety, then this is not sufficient to warrant
their immunity from criticism. This is because piety alone is not a safeguard against
forgery and mistakes. The worse fabricators were the pious, something which even
Muslim scholars, including Ibn Hajar, admit to (section 5.24.4.a.). In fact, Goldziher
makes this one of the central pillars of his works; that the tension between the pious
traditionists and the rulers was the reason for the appearance of fabrications.

Therefore, in order to add weight to their detailed contribution to the field of ilm al-
hadith, Muslim scholars need to move away from this over-protectionism and instead
they need to stress that the reputation of certain individuals is due to ability and potency.
They need to show that Mlik is respected in the discipline because of his ability to sift
the sound from the unsound. The fact that he saw the Prophet every night in his dreams is
a religious quality (Pr Karam Shah 1973, 152). Many Muslims see the two as intricately
related, but for non-Muslim academics, piety means much less.

I am not suggesting that criticism is totally absent in Muslim works. The Nuzhah shows
partial criticism of al-Bukhr and warns that not all reports in his Sahih are of the highest
stage of soundness (section 5.7.1.). Al-jarh wa-al-tadil is akin to backbiting but the
Muslim scholars have allowed it because it serves a greater good (5.63).
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But generally, Muslims have to write sometimes with their minds and not their hearts.
They have to detach themselves from their religious background and behave like
impartial observers. Only then can they be taken seriously by the non-Muslim academic
world.

6.4. The Nuzhah; between stagnation and development.
In section 4.3, we presented two theories regarding the Nuzhah. The first suggested that
like the Muqaddima of Ibn al-Salh (d. 643/1245), the Nuzhah of Ibn Hajar became a
milestone work that left a lasting impression on the field right up until this very day. The
second theory suggested that ilm al-hadith largely depended on the endeavours of the
earlier scholars, and that the later middle ages marked slight modifications and alterations,
but no serious development and originality. After an analysis of the Nuzhah in section
five, we are now in a better position to assess which observation is closest to the truth.

There are indications that up until the ninth Islamic century, the field of ilm al-hadith did
develop and continue to advance to some extent. Many of the terms took on a more
definitive and exact meaning. We saw in section 5.20 how munqati had a very loose
application early on, but took on a very specific meaning later. The Nuzhah of Ibn Hajar
provided much more detail, explanation and examples for types of reports that his
predecessors had merely outlined. Certainly, the later works like the Nuzhah provided
readers with more accessibility as a result of these changes and modifications.
Overall however, it is extremely difficult to maintain a strong argument for the continued
development of ilm al-hadith up until the ninth Islamic century. Scholars like Ibn Hajar
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displayed the late-medieval tendency to refine earlier knowledge, not to enquire into
epistemological questions of importance. Goldziher observed that:

In the fifth century of Islam, the literature, especially in the religious field al-
Ghazl is the last author with independent ideas shows few original concepts or
independent attitudes; compilation and writing of commentaries and glosses is in
full swing. (1971, 245)

Specifically in the field of hadth, he noted that the period of compilations like the
canonical collections quickly gave way to dry and lifeless compilation (1971, 245).

By analysing the Nuzhah, we can understand his viewpoint. What follows is just a small
indication of how Ibn Hajars work reflected the stagnant nature of the discipline.

a. In section 5.9, I amply highlighted how the definition of sahih has never really been
questioned. From the fourth Islamic century onwards, it has been mildly refined but never
questioned. Moreover, the variations of sahih to be found from the few scholars who
question it are viewed to be no different to the standard, accepted version.
b. After an excellent account of siyagh al-ad in section 5.55, the Nuzhah refers to
wijda (5.58) and ilm (5.59). Ibn Hajars account of these three clearly indicate how the
importance of this area did not develop at all, but rather declined drastically until hadth
reporting became more of a social pastime.
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c. In section 5.62, Ibn Hajar reviews the various works pertaining to tabaqt al-ruwt
written by his predecessors. He refers to Ibn Hibbns work as well as Ibn Sads on the
Companions. In almost explicit terms, the Nuzhah indicates that scholars duplicated
works on this area, and that only the arrangement and sequence of these works differed.
d. In section 5.70, Ibn Hajar outlines the different forms of compilation that disciples can
refer to. He does not advocate the need for new, original material.
e. In fourteen sections of the Nuzhah, Ibn Hajar informs the reader of other more-detailed
works on the particular type being discussed. For example, in the section on mudraj
(5.28), he refers to his own work on the subject, a treatise called Taqrib al-manhaj bi-
tartib al-mudraj. In five of these fourteen sections, he specifically asks readers to
consider the works of al-Khatb al-Baghdd (d. 463/1071) on the relevant subject matter.
In fact, Ibn Hajars work on mudraj is nothing but a slight improvement on al-Khatbs
al-Fasl li-al-wasl al-mudraj fi-al-naql. This implicitly suggests that Ibn Hajar is
admitting that even by the ninth Islamic century, the best works available were written
five hundred years earlier. If there had been better, more developed and improved works
on mudraj, maqlb, mursal khafi, jahla, mutashbih and riwyat al-akbir an al-
asghir, Ibn Hajar would have asked the reader to refer to them. Not once in the Nuzhah
does he ask readers to refer to the works of his teacher al-Irq. Instead, the stagnant
nature of the discipline meant the best works belonged to the likes of al-Khatb al-
Baghdd five hundred years earlier.
f. Of the commentaries that were written on the important works like the Muqaddima of
Ibn al-Salh, all of them felt the need to explain the text, not to critically assess it. The
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authors of these had accepted the endeavours of their pious ancestors and geared their
effort towards explaining their work in a better manner.
This pattern is more of a concern in the modern period. During the thesis I utilised the
writings of recent Muslim scholars like Ahmadayn, Anwar, Mighlw and al-Uthaymin,
all notable experts in ilm al-hadith. None showed a desire the question the methodology
of the earlier works in the field. In Diy ilm al-hadith (2003) Mighlw offered his own
account of the discipline, which included an explanation of all of the technical terms and
a brief biographical account of the early hadth masters. Almost all of the definitions
were taken from the Nuzhah directly, word by word.
In this sense, this is precisely what I feel differentiates my commentary on the Nuzhah
from the many available ones in the Arabic and Urdu language. Whereas others have
merely repeated and re-phrased works like the Nuzhah, I have asked more engaging and
critical questions that tell us more about the discipline and the era these works were
produced in.

Based on these observations, it is clear that the Nuzhah did indicate a decline in academic
activity in hadth studies at that period. The Nuzhah itself is an indication of that decline
in so many ways. Once we have established the relative stagnancy of ilm al-hadith at
that time, we need to ask why this happened. A few plausible explanations are offered
below:

a. Ilm al-hadith declined because hadth declined. Bayhaq (d. 458/1066) declared in his
time that all the prophetic reports that could be reliably attributed to the Prophet had been
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documented, and thus any previously unrecorded reports should be considered de facto
forgeries (Brown 2009, 42). This was the case by the fifth Islamic century. By the eight,
not even the greatest hadth scholars of their day such as Shams al-Dn al-Dhahab (d.
748/1348) and Jaml al-Dn Mizz (d. 742/1341) would dare to claim that they were in
possession of a hadth reliably said by the Prophet that had gone unnoticed until their
time (ibid.). If there was no new material to classify, study and comment on, then there
was no need for a radical overview of ilm al-hadith either. So by the ninth Islamic
century, ilm al-hadith scholars like Ibn Hajar had no choice but to follow and adhere to
their pioneers in the field. They genuinely believed that they could not add anything new
to the field.
Related to this is the way hadth were gathered and compiled after the six canonical
collection. The emphasis shifted away from unearthing new reports, to simply
categorising existing ones for easier access. Al-Nawaw (d. 676/1277) gathered the
prophetic reports on different times and forms of supplications in Adhkr. He also
compiled Riyad al-slihin, a collection of hadiths aimed at encouraging pious and ethical
conduct. There were no new prophetic reports in this collection, but instead drew its
sources mainly from the Shaykhayn. Other scholars concentrated on gathering hadiths in
the shamil genre, like al-Iyds al-Shif and al-Suyts al-Khasis al-Kubr. In all of
these works (and indeed others that have not been mentioned here), the material was not
new. Rather it had been re-arranged for easier access. Novelty, not originality, was the
key essence.
Ilm al-hadith went through a similar process. After the sixth Islamic century, the
scholars succumbed to presenting the same material, but in a different arrangement. Al-
458
Irqs Alfiyya was merely the Muqaddima of Ibn al-Salh, but in poem form. The
Nuzhah, even by Ibn Hajars own admission in his introduction, was a brief overview of
the Muqaddima (section 4.0).
In contrast, the fields of fiqh and tafsir continued to develop during this same period.
Fiqh developed because new scenarios and circumstances continuously arose which
required original thinking from the fuqah. Tafsir too continued to show originality. In
the area of tafsir bi-al-athar, there was little room for manoeuvre, areas where the
explanation of a verse could be directly linked to a saying of the Prophet on the matter.
But through the avenue of tafsir bi-al-ray, the Qurn experts could write commentaries
based on the climate they resided in.
b. Like discussed in section 5.10.1, the lack of copyright laws meant that an academic
climate prevailed that did not frown upon plagiarism. It was perfectly acceptable to copy
the views and findings of other scholars. In the Nuzhah (section 5.10), we saw how Ibn
Hajar explained al-Tirmidhs complex terminology using the precise answer that Ibn al-
Salh, Ibn Daqq al-d and Ibn Kathr had given previously. When explaining a certain
type of hadth, the Nuzhah often gives the same example that al-Irq gave in his Alfiyya.
Then al-Suyt after Ibn Hajar simply copied large pieces of text from the Nuzhah for his
Tadrib. If a climate existed that viewed plagiarism as a major academic crime, we may
have witnessed fresh thinking during the later middle ages of Islam. But the absence of it
meant apathy and laziness. Goldziher is right when he observes:

When an Arab critic points to the tenth century as the period in which there are
hardly any more authors but merely copyists he is too lenient towards the
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preceding five hundred years. Al-Muqaddas (fourth century) was already able to
say that some of his predecessors were but compilators (1971, 245).

c. The above two points indicate why ilm al-hadith struggled to develop after the golden
period in the fifth and sixth Islamic century. In my opinion, the biggest factor was what I
have described in detail in the previous sub-section, the seniority and over-protectionism
that marked the discipline. Even if they wanted to, the later scholars like Ibn Hajar knew
their reputation would be smeared if they chose to critically assess and re-evaluate the
work of Mlik, al-Bukhr and Muslim. Sahih al-Bukhri and Sahih Muslim transcended
from being a book of academic significance to being a book of ritual relevance. Brown
writes:

In cities from Damascus to Timbuktu the Sahihayn would be read in mosques as
part of celebrations culminating in the month of Ramadan. Al-Bukhrs Sahih in
particular was read as a cure for illness from Egypt to India, and the great
Moroccan conqueror Mawl Isml (d. 1727) had a copy of the Sahih carried in
front of his army like the Ark of the Children of Israel (2009, 40).

With such an esteem attached to the early works, critical assessment became impossible.
More damaging would be the choice to question the adla of the Companions, a well-
established cornerstone of hadth studies. The only alternative therefore was to toe the
line. The victim in this climate was ilm al-hadith.
460
To conclude this section, the seniority attached to certain individuals and groups made it
difficult for the discipline to evolve. Ibn Hajar at least tried to circumvent that by
developing areas that would not lead to religious and social outcry. The rijl literature is
an example of that. Other than the three reasons cited above, there is a simpler reason
why the discipline did stagnate to a large extent. Quite simply, the further away one is
from the time of compilation, the more difficult it becomes to add something new.
Kamali touches upon this fact when he writes:

There is clearly little scope for any new methodology or research that would add
anything substantial and useful to the work that has already been done by people
who were better positioned and qualified for what they attempted and achieved
(Kamali 2005, 202).

Seen from this viewpoint, we must commend Ibn Hajar for writing a book in a dull
climate that led to universal acceptance, up until this very day.

Additionally, we should remember that what we see as development and progress in the
field of ilm al-hadith may not have been what Ibn Hajar saw as development. In fact, it
may have been decline for him. For example, modern scholars may ask for a
reassessment regarding the adla of the Companions. As the author of al-Isba and after
an extensive section on the Companions in the Nuzhah, I cannot see how Ibn Hajar would
see that as fruitful and an indication of development. This links in with the idea of
traditionalism that Graham referred to. The Islamic world was one where greater value is
461
still placed upon continuity with perceived traditional norms of great antiquity (1993,
499). What non-Muslims see as development and re-assessment is not the same as what
the Muslims see them to be. Therefore when we talk about development and stagnancy in
ilm al-hadith, we have to analyse such words more carefully and ask what they mean to
non-Muslim academics on the one hand and traditional scholars like Ibn Hajar on the
other.

Finally, we should also remember Ibn Hajars position in Mamluk Cairo too. As a senior
member of the religious elite, there was no need to display radical and therefore possibly
controversial ideas in his Nuzhah. His commentary on the Sahih of al-Bukhr became
famous before he had even completed it. He had become a leading authority on the
biographies of others, including men of his own generation. He occupied some of the best
posts in Cairo. This fame meant he did not have to present something radical in his
Nuzhah that would lead to fame and attention; he already had this in abundance.
Therefore the status quo was ideal for him.

6.5. Islamic and non-Islamic thought on hadth; between
convergence and divergence.

The analysis of the Nuzhah in section five has undoubtedly shown that Muslims are no
strangers to ikhtilf in the field of ilm al-hadith. Independent treaties on the discipline
first appeared in the fourth Islamic century. Five hundred years later, a large degree of
harmonisation for the technical terms and their rulings did exist, but by no means did it
462
reach a consensual stage. Of these differences, some were major whereas others were
petty. The Muslim hadth scholars only disagreed on the name for the case when the matn
and isnd had been swapped with the purpose of testing; for some it is called maqlb and
for some it is mudtarib (section 5.29 & 5.31). Areas such as mursal (5.19) show a much
wider degree of difference, in both definition and ruling. Throughout the Nuzhah, Ibn
Hajar mentions the majority opinion as well as outlining other views. We saw this clearly
with aziz (section 5.5.), ziyadt al-thiqa (5.10), mursal khafi (5.22), bida (5.37) and
musnad (5.44). In fact, right from the onset of the book, Ibn Hajar defines khabar
according to his understanding, and also entertains two other variations of it according to
others.
The fact that Ibn Hajar does mention the ikhtilf in the field is important. He shows in the
Nuzhah that they deserve an audience, even if he personally does not agree with them.
Throughout the Nuzhah, the author attempts to offer a consistent opinion on terms and
rulings, but he does accommodate the view of others. In short, Ibn Hajar did believe in
ikhtilf.
But what is the result when a difference of opinion stems from a non-Muslim academic?
In the same manner Ibn Hajar at least acknowledges the opinions of others in the Nuzhah,
have Muslims in the past two centuries accommodated the views of westerners? Largely,
they have not. Their views have been treated differently and in a less-appealing light. For
instance, Schachts observations on Mlik have been totally dismissed by Muslim
scholars as bordering on the insulting. If a rich tradition of ikhtilf can and has existed
between Muslims like the Nuzhah highlights why is this now rejected when it stems
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from non-Muslims? Three gaps in my opinion exist which at least begin to answer why
the Muslims are less accommodating to the views of non-Muslims in the field of ilm al-
hadith.
The cultural gap.
Muslims assert that there are certain practices, norms and values associated with their
lifestyle that have not been truly appreciated by the west. They have not been able to step
into the shoes of Muslims to fully grasp their viewpoint. In the discipline of ilm al-
hadith specifically, there are certain areas that do not arouse suspicion amongst Muslims,
but are seen in a very different light by western academics.
A prime example is the primacy of oral transmission, which the Nuzhah touches upon
indirectly (section 5.32, 5.55 & 5.61). Many non-Muslim academics, mainly western
ones, studying hadth view oral transmission by narrators as insufficient and saw it as a
reason to cast doubt over the authenticity of hadth literature. Because common practice
in the West was to give preference to written testimony over oral testimony, western
academics assumed that Muslims too should follow suit. Westerners have totally ignored
the fact that in the Middle East, oral transmission was actually preferred. Brown writes:

Classical scholarship portrays the process of hadth transmission as primarily oral,
or at least through the first century. Even after written collections of hadth were
compiled, oral transmission remained the ideal. Orality, in this system, was a
virtue rather than a vice. Just as Islamic jurists belittled documentary evidence,
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preferring direct oral testimony, so the scholars of hadth insisted on the
superiority of direct, personal, and oral transmission of hadth (1999, 88).

Western scholars dismissed the accuracy of oral transmission because they saw it as
inadequate. They did not appreciate its value and rank in Arab society. For Muslims, this
is the case with the vast majority of Orientalists studying Islam and thus a reason to reject
their findings outright. Their own methods and approaches are described as advanced
civilized and modern, whilst others, particularly Eastern ones, are backward
primitive and traditional (Tucker in Munck & O Hearn (eds.) 1999, pp. 5-6). If the
practice or approach does not originate from the west, it is automatically declared as
inadequate. This is reflected in the way Juynboll rejects how the mustamlis
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could
dictate traditions to thousands of people at a time, not on the basis that there is no record
of such events happening, but because his own intuition says it was impossible. Juynboll
observes:

Visualising sessions such as this with many dozens of mustamlis moving about,
shouting the traditions down to the last rows of eager hadth students may lift the
reader into the realm of 1,001-night fantasies, but in whatever way you look at it,
it is difficult to take accounts like that seriously (cited in Siddiqi 1993, 133).

Whether Juynboll is right or not here is almost irrelevant. Muslims like Siddiqi argue that
it is the evidence of of an impairing cultural distance (1993, 133) that is more worrying.

285
A mustaml is employed in a gathering, particularly a large one. Such a person has the task to relay the
shaykhs words to those who cannot hear him directly (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 242).
465
The academic gap.
For Muslims, studying Islam is their prerogative, to the exclusion of all others. In
particular, Muslim hadth scholars based in the Middle-East (like al-Sib) have shown
utmost disbelief and dismay that English-speaking and European scholars have embarked
on hadth studies. Their inability to even understand Arabic is sufficient for the Muslims
to reject their findings. How can Goldziher be taken seriously, when he cannot
differentiate between tadwin and kitba, asks al-Sib?
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(1998, 237)

The religious gap.
Even if the non-Muslims can overcome the academic and cultural hurdles, the religious
ones still remain. Put simply, the Muslim scholars argue that the westerners writings on
Islam cannot be taken seriously because they have never really understood Muhammad.
This is the reason why their views are inadequate. Specifically in the field of ilm al-

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Muslims assert that the Companions did write down the sunna of the Prophet during his time. As
Siddq points out, Abd Allh ibn Amr would write the sayings of the Prophet, and the same has been
proven from Al, Samura ibn Jundab, Jbir ibn Abd Allh, Abd Allh ibn Ab Awf and Ibn Abbs
(1993, 24). Pr Karam Shah too cites several examples of writing during this period (1973, pp.107-110) as
does Guillaume (1924, 16).
It was the Umayyad Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Azz who implemented the project of compiling and
gathering these scattered works, during his reign between 99-101/717-19. In 100, he wrote a letter to Ab
Bakr ibn Hazm, the governor of Madina, asking him to find the traditions of the Holy Prophet, and gather
them systematically (Karam Shah 1973, 140). In response, numerous scholars answered his call and began
this divine project to protect the second source of Islam. They included Imm Muhammad ibn Muslim al-
Zuhr, al-Imm al-Awz, Mamar ibn Rashd, Hammd ibn Salama (d. 167/783), Abd Allh ibn al-
Mubrak (121/738- 181/797) and Jarr ibn Abd al-Hamd (d. 188/803) (al-Mahd 1989, 122).
Al-Mahd, along with several other scholars, classified this period as the period of tadwn (1989, 120).
Some non-Muslim scholars such as Goldziher (1971, 195) have misinterpreted this word and assumed it
means the same as writing. As a consequence, they understand that al-Zuhr was the first to write the
hadiths of the Prophet. The word tadwin actually means to gather. The famous linguist Ibn Manzr offers
a detailed account of the word. A diwn (which derives from the same root word) for instance, is a
compilation of papers. However, of the various ways the word can be used, he does not include writing as
one of them (1988, 4: pp.451-2). Other reports use the word to describe al-Zuhr as the first to initiate
tasnif. Ibn Manzr defines this as differentiating one element from another. To do the tasnif of something
is to place them in groups and orders (1988, 7: 423). Again, the word does not mean writing. In this
context, it means that al-Zuhr was the first to compile the hadth systematically, not to write it. Guillaume
too implicitly accepts that Umar ibn Abd al-Azz was the first to collect traditions, not write them (1924,
18). He writes: The earliest date which Muhammadans give for the collection of hadith (my italics)
(1924, 18). Writing took place in a much earlier period, in the time of the Prophet.
466
hadith, Muslims state that once an observer has truly understood Muhammad, only then
can one appreciate the high and protected rank of the Companions. These are the men
who followed every step of their Messenger, who loved him immensely and recorded
each and every aspect of his life. They knew precisely how many white hairs he had in
his beard. How can we now accuse these men of neglecting his sunna, to the extent that
they had no real idea in the first century how to implement his law-based rulings? When
al-Imm Mlik wanted to transmit prophetic traditions, he used to perform his ablution,
sit on the edge of his bed and comb his beard. He used to dislike transmitting hadth in
the street, while standing or in haste (Ibn al-Salh 1986, 240). How can we now believe
that he was a mass-fabricator? A faqih is an honourable title given to those who spend
their life studying Islamic law and applying it themselves in practice. Would it be feasible
to suggest that mere story-tellers developed into fully-fledged faqihs? (Juynboll 1996, XI:
159-170). Muslim observers are outraged by such a remark and have viewed this as a
sufficient reason to dismiss Juynbolls writings outright. On the one hand, he portrays the
jurist Mlik as a forger and on the other, he suggests money-seeking street-entertainers
developed into effective jurists, with some sort of general expertise (1996, XI:191).
Muslim scholars have never really accepted the findings of non-Muslims because they
feel they have never fully comprehended the exalted status Muhammad and his
immediate followers hold in their religion.

These are the stumbling blocks that exist for Muslim academia that prevent a fair,
impartial and realistic appreciation of the non-Muslim views in hadth studies. What I
have tried to show in the analyst of the Nuzhah is that if Muslims are open to ikhtilf
467
within their own circles, then they should be open to it from others too. In short, that
these gaps mentioned above may not be as vast as depicted. The starting point for such an
acceptance is to acknowledge two facts, both of which can be related to the Nuzhah.
Western academics are skilled and competent.
It is nave for Muslims to think that the westerners are not capable enough to study hadth,
owing to an academic gap. This is precisely why in section 5.56, I deemed it important to
mention that Goldziher had explained the dispute between al-Bukhr and Muslim over
muanan reports quite brilliantly. In fact, it is a much better attempt to understand this
complex argument than many Muslim experts. Muslims who reject the input of all
westerns needs reminding of the translation of several classics by Western scholars from
Arabic into English, which has helped Muslims living in the west immensely, such as
James Robsons Mishkt. One of the greatest contributions has been the Concordance
and Indices of Muslim Tradition. This is an easy reference guide to all the prophetic
reports to be found in the six most prominent collections, together with the Sunan of al-
Drim and the Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal. More recently, Juynbolls translation of
Muslims introduction to his Sahih is quite simply phenomenal.
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It is proof that
western scholars can understand even the most difficult of classical Arabic texts. If there
are a few cases of prejudice in the writings of western scholars, Muslim scholars should
not see this as a reason to reject every comment and analysis that stems from the west.

287
1996, III, 263-311.
468
Western academics are studying the same area.
Admittedly, there are certain areas in the discipline which arouse suspicion for the
Muslim scholars. They feel that non-Muslim academics are deliberately studying their
religion through the wrong spectrum, which has then affected their conclusions. For
instance, Muslims argue that:

a. Muir (1858) is seen as a pioneer of hadth criticism but according to Siddiqi, his main
aim was to slander Mahomet, rather than criticise hadth specifically. It was in essence,
he says, a biographical account of the Prophet, which was rather hostile and a now
outclassed biography of the Prophet (1993, 124).
b. Schacht made it abundantly clear that he intended to concentrate as much as possible
on the legal sphere (1959, v), though his work looks at isnds (which is related to the
sphere of hadth) in detail.
c. Daniel Brown acknowledged the importance of defining the position of sunna but his
methodological approach seems to defy this objective. In his studies, he deliberately
chose sources that were mostly connected with a handful of controversies over sunna
(1999, 5).
d. Schacht himself accepts that maghzi and sira lacks proper isnds (1959, 139), as does
Goldziher (1971, 192), but this is the source which many western scholars, particularly
Juynboll, have based their works on. Muslims argue that the study of isnds is best
appreciated in ilm al-hadith manuals such as the Nuzhah, not in sira and fiqh papers.

469
Whilst acknowledging these instances, my analysis has also reminded Muslims that the
non-Muslim academics have looked at the same issues which the likes of Ibn Hajar have
analysed in his Nuzhah. For example, Ibn Hajar writes that the mubtadis report is
accepted if he does not propagate his bida (section 5.37). I have shown that this is
exactly the same area that Leites analysed via the Shooting Stars traditions (5.37.2) and
made some very commendable observations. There is overlap between the non-
terminological type of mashhr and the idea of the living tradition (5.4). If western
academics have called into question the meaning and usage of sunna in early Islam, Ibn
Hajar did exactly the same thing (5.40). Burton showed a deep understanding of nsikh
and manskh (5.16), an area which Ibn al-Salh writes is so difficult that it wears out
legal scholars (1986, pp.276-7).
This is the reason why in many places during the commentary of the Nuzhah, I have
presented the views of the non-Muslim academics. The purpose has not been to compare
and contrast the views with the intention of concluding which view is correct. The
purpose has not been to analyse the authenticity debate per se. My aim has been to show
that Muslims should appreciate the ability of the western scholars and understand that
they are interested in exactly the same area. In short, that their input is of value too.

Then why the distrust?
If the non-Muslim academics are skilled and are studying the same area, then why the
distrust? Earlier, I mentioned the cultural, academic and religious gap that acts as hurdles
which all play a part. The biggest gap however, in my opinion, is the gap in terms of
perception. The way that Muslims define Orientalists and Orientalism, coupled with the
470
history of Islam and the west means that they find it very difficult to accept the views of
westerners.
Take, for example, the definition of Orientalism, as defined by Edward Said. He writes
that:

Taking the late eighteenth century as a roughly defined starting point Orientalism
can be discussed and analysed as the corporate institution for dealing with the
Orient- dealing with it, making statements about it, authorising views of it,
describing it, by teaching it, settling it, ruling over it: in short, Orientalism as a
Western style for dominating, restructuring and having authority over the Orient
(1995, 3).

The definition is biased and makes a negative sweeping judgement about all western
studies.
Shhn (1998, pp.75-7) shows his distaste for non-Muslim studies on Islam when he
clarifies the main aims and objectives of Orientalists.

a. To give a wrong impression of everything related to Islam, its goals and intentions.
b. To give a false impression of Muslims in general, and of the scholars and renowned
figures in particular.
c. To portray the Islamic community throughout history in particular the first generation
of Muslims as a disassembled community who often killed one another.
471
d. To portray the Islamic civilization negatively, to belittle its status, to insult its heritage
and ignore its contribution to human development.
e. To propagate ignorance of the nature of Muslim society, and to perceive it according to
what the Orientalists know of their own culture and norms.
f. To intentionally distort the Islamic texts, by creating a feel of uncertainty and doubt.
g. To have their own way in choosing the sources they wish to use. For example, they use
sources of Arabic Literature (adab) as a basis to judge the sunna of the Prophet, or they
use historical sources to judge matters of judicial law.

Some of this ill-feeling is justified. For example:
i. In the commentary, I highlighted in section 5.33 that Goldziher distorted the text
regarding al-Zuhr and his relationship with the state.
ii. The coverage of ilm al-hadith by western academics is uneven and disproportionate
sometimes. Both Schacht and Juynboll criticise the family isnds to considerable depths,
but they are rare, as even Burton admits.
iii. Burton notes that the language employed by Goldziher in Muslim Studies bordered on
the insulting. He writes:

Serious issuemust be taken with his generous use of emotive, not to put too fine
a point upon it, pejorative language. Consider the frequency with which he
interlards his most penetrating analyses with vocabulary of deception and
conspiracy, using, for instance, such terms as fraud, fabrication, invention,
falsification even lies (1994, xii).
472

Similar remarks have been made about the tone Juynboll adheres to in his works (Siddiqi
1993, 134). For Muslims, this is an indication that the aim of the Orientalists interest in
Islam is to degrade the religion, not to study it.
iv. Goldzihers key findings were that the hadth does not tell us anything about
Muhammad, but the political, social and theological context that it appeared in during the
first and second Islamic century. Muir deemed traditions to be untrustworthy if the text
furthered a common bias to all Muslims and if the narrator appears to have a special
interest or prejudice (Muir 1858, liii). But Muslims say that surely this same argument
can be turned on its head and used to criticise the context Muir and Goldziher found
themselves in. Both were writing in the nineteenth century, a time of colonialism,
enlightenment and the academic ascendancy of the west, coupled with a general decline
in the east. If a hadth narrator cannot detach himself from a special interest he holds,
theological or political, it also means we can dismiss the works of Muir because he
worked as a Christian missionary in India, and the works of Goldziher, because he was
the secretary at the Hebrew Congregation in the Hungarian city of Pecs.

On the other hand, a large proportion of this ill-feeling is not justified and this is what I
tried to show in the commentary of the Nuzhah. Merely because the view stems from
them and not us, it is refuted, rejected, rebuked and dismissed by Muslims. And this is
where we return to the very first comment in this particular section; that Muslims do and
can accept dispute, and are no strangers to ikhtilf. The Muslims own research shows
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doubt, uncertainty and difference of opinion. If they can accept it from within, they must
learn to accept it from others too.
With reference to the Nuzhah, take the example of al-Tirmidhs innovative terminology
(5.10). Ibn Hajar suggests some degree of weakness in his reports and this is the same
conclusion that Goldziher reached. The Nuzhah indicates how some Muslims travelled
for the sake of fame and fortune and again, this is not radically different to the
conclusions Goldziher made (5.69). Ibn Hajar warns of the problems associated with
riwya bi-al-man and so have non-Muslim academics (5.33).
Precisely because treatises like the Nuzhah indicate a variety of opinions on any given
issue, there is room for more of a convergence between Muslims and non-Muslims. It
does not have to be viewed as them versus us. This is not an argument that they both
agree entirely; rather once the perceptions and presumptions are put to one side, there is
room for better dialogue. At the moment, the polemics is a result of perception more than
it is facts. I deemed it important to note that on the issue of asahh al-asnid (5.9), the
debate between Muslims and non-Muslims were based more on empirical facts than it
was perception. There is no reason why other areas too can be treated similarly. Brown
too makes a similar call to base findings on facts rather than perception when he calls for
a more accurate approach of hadth studies that accepts:

the hadth tradition is so vast and our attempts to evaluate its authenticity so
inevitable limited to small samples, that any attitudes towards its authenticity are
necessarily based more on our critical worldview than on empirical fact (2009,
198).
474

Unfortunately, it seems that often, one empirical data is producing two very different
conclusions. In the Nuzhah (5.24.4.e.), the author mentions how some Muslims forged
reports in pursuit of pleasing some leaders, citing the example of Ghiyth. Azami is
adamant that this was a one-off occurrence, proved by the fact that almost all ilm al-
hadith scholars have used the same example. Goldziher too cites the story of Ghiyth.
But he reaches the conclusion that this story was typical of the era and pointed to an
endemic problem (1971, 74). Brown sums up the contrasting conclusions from one event
when he writes:

Sunni hadth critics reviled Ghiyth b. Ibrhm as a forger and referred to the
incident as an example of how one person forged a hadth and how the network of
critics immediately caught it. Goldziher, on the other hand, uses a story to
illustrate an exception to represent the rule (2009, 209).

To conclude, how does all this relate to this thesis on the Nuzhah? There are areas where
Ibn Hajar does explain an issue which can help us to understand it better, in light of the
writings of westerners. I showed this in section 5.51 with sbiq and lhiq, in light of what
Juynboll observed with regard to the muammarn. But as I have already stressed, the
Nuzhah helps because it shows that ikhtilf is customary in this discipline. It is irrelevant
whether its stems from Cairo or Berlin, because knowledge is the prerogative of all, not
just Muslims. And Muslims need no better way to believe this than the saying of their
Messenger:
475

Hikma is the lost-property of the believer. So wherever he finds it, he is most
worthy of it.
288

The key word in this hadth is wherever. When knowledge stems from a non-Muslim,
then at the very least, it deserves to be entertained and appreciated. If it is appreciated,
then this will result in benefits in another area which we have brought up during the
analysis of the Nuzhah, the stagnation of the discipline by the ninth century. A
convergence of thought between Muslims and non-Muslims will perhaps spark a real,
new development in the field for Muslim scholars which, otherwise, has been largely
missing since the time of Ibn Hajar.

6.6. The pedagogical nature of the Nuzhah.
Though the Nuzhah is only one book of the hundreds written by Ibn Hajar, the
commentary has allowed us to some extent to reflect on the teachings methods of the
ninth Islamic century, as well as indicate the nature of authorship at that particular period.
So in this section, we will highlight the pedagogical nature of the Nuzhah.
6.6.1. How did the Nuzhah come about?
Importantly, we need to first establish whether Ibn Hajar actually wrote the book. What
this means is to enquire whether the Nuzhah was the result of his lectures and the
subsequent notes from his students, or whether he actually dedicated time to pen the book

288
Sunan Ibn Mja, Book of Zuhd.
476
personally. There is no explicit indication from Ibn Hajar himself or later scholars
commenting on the Nuzhah that provides an answer to this question, and therefore our
own investigation is required.

There are clues to suggest that the Nuzhah was the direct result of him teaching hadth in
the various institutions, rather than direct authorship. For instance:

a. In section 5.3.1, we first entertained this possibility, upon the observation that the
section on mutawtir was muddled, repetitive and excessively detailed. In short, the
wording in the Nuzhah suggested that it had been dictated rather than hand-written
personally.
b. He is not uniform in detail. For instance, at the beginning of the Nuzhah, he
meticulously defines tariq, isnd and matn, including the grammatical background to the
word. The same attention is not given later during the book. In section 5.65, he gives five
to six examples in detail where the name of the reporters shaykh coincides with the
disciples. In the same section, the other variations are not given the same attention.
c. There is precedence for such methodology in the work of Ibn Salh, Ulm al-hadith.
In the introduction to the Nuzhah, Ibn Hajar notes that Ibn Salhs book came about:

When he took over teaching at al-Madrasa al-Ashrafiyya. He refined the fields of
hadth (in this piece) and dictated it bit by bit. For this reason, its order was not
achieved in a suitable manner.

477
In other words, Ibn Salh did not intend to write Ulm al-hadith per se; rather it was
gelled together from his lectures. Ibn Hajars own Fath al-bri came about from public
teaching sessions.
289
It is quite possible that the Nuzhah was formed in a similar manner.
d. It would have been easier and more time-saving to produce the books from lecturing.
In chapter two, it was shown how Ibn Hajar wrote over one hundred and fifty books and
treatises (al-Munw 1999, 1: 123), including the lengthy Fath al-bri. He also spent
much of his adult life teaching in various institutions and fulfilling judicial duties. Rather
than lecturing and writing on hadth, he merged the two duties with the help of some
students.

My own opinion is that Ibn Hajar did actually intend to write the Nuzhah as a book per se,
based on the following observations:
a. Certainly the section on mutawtir is muddled and repetitive, but the same cannot be
said for the remaining book. The rest of the book does follow a set pattern, with little
deviation from the subject matter.
b. Ibn Hajar clarifies in the introduction of the Nuzhah (section 4.0) that his friends
approached him, requesting a brief overview of the discipline. This first resulted in the
Nukhbah, which only consists of a few pages. The significantly short-length of the
Nukhbah, I believe, made it impossible for it to have resulted from lectures.
c. The lack of uniformity in the Nuzhah is largely justified. The decision to define tariq,
isnd and matn meticulously at the beginning made sense because these were terms that
would be repeated often throughout the rest of the Nuzhah. Therefore it made sense to
clarify their meaning and usage early on, to create ease for the reader for the rest of the

289
The Encyclopaedia of Islam, III: 778.
478
book. Certain sections are longer than others. But for the most part, this was due to the
importance of the subject area, not because of inconsistency. The sections on sahih, bida,
riwya bi-al-man and mawd are longer but they are also more important.
d. Certainly, Ibn Hajar was a busy man and must have found it difficult to find quality
time to pen the Nuzhah individually. But he was also known to work fast. For example,
he finished al-Mujam al-saghir of Tabarn in one sitting between Zuhr and Asr (al-
Qari 1994, 52).
e. The precedence of Ibn Salhs Ulm al-hadith as a book written from lecture notes is
questionable, despite Ibn Hajars insistence on it. According to Ibn Hajar, because Ibn
Salh dictated it bit by bit he feels its order was not achieved in a suitable manner. But
I believe that the order and sequence of Ulm al-hadith has few shortcomings and rarely
does the work suggest it came about due to lecture notes. Dr. Eerik Dickinson reached the
same conclusion. He translated the entire Ulm al-hadith into English and wrote articles
on Ibn Salh. He believes that it is unclear to me what evidence Ibn Hajar had at his
disposal indicating that Ibn Salh wrote the book in the Ashrafiyya (2002, 484 (footnote
19). On this basis, Ibn Hajar may have been mistaken. Only the timing may have
coincided between Ulm al-hadith and teaching at al-Madrasa al-Ashrafiyya.

This debate may be seen as trivial, but it perhaps gives an insight into early Muslim
academia and methodology. It indicates that the scholars of that period felt the need to
provide education not only to their contemporaries through lectures, but for future
generations too in the forms of books and treatises. Religiously, we can say that Ibn Hajar
wanted to leave sadaqa jriya for later generations, an act during his lifetime that would
479
bring him benefit, reward and indeed fame after his lifetime. Politically, Ibn Hajars
climate meant that he could not depend on teaching and high-profile posts to enhance his
reputation alone. He did occupy respected posts in Cairo, but the competition between
fellow religious scholars and the changing hands in power at state level meant a lack of
continuity and real success (Broadbridge 1999, pp. 87-8). Writing books gave him a
sense of independency, where the success would lie in his own hands, not in the hands of
the ruling elite.

6.6.1. The target audience of the Nuzhah.
During the Mamluk period, hadth studies was still important. There were many notable
seats of learning during this period in Cairo, such as al-Madrasa al-Shaykhniyya, al-
Madrasa al-Jamliyya, al-Madrasa al-Salhiyya and al-Madrasa al-Kmiliyya. Ibn Hajar
taught hadth to large crowds in all of these places. The list of renowned scholars that
were produced under the guardianship of Ibn Hajar the likes of al-Sakhw (d. 902) for
example suggests his success as a teacher.
290

However, like it was shown in section 5.67 and 5.45, there was also an interest in hadth
studies for social reasons. Hearing hadth from esteemed scholars was the path to upward
social mobility in an otherwise rigid class system.
Of the two, it seems the Nuzhah was aimed at the madrasa crowd, rather than the general
public who saw only the social benefits of the discipline. This is mainly, I believe,
because of the depth of the book. Admittedly, it is a foundational book in the discipline

290
Al-Qr (1992) provides a detailed list of his most famous students (pp. 33-37).
480
but in many places, the text seems to appeal to an audience who will go on to develop a
long-term and real interest in hadth. This is why:
In approximately a fifth of the topic areas he covers in the Nuzhah, Ibn Hajar asks
readers to refer to additional books and treatises on that particular type. Implicitly, the
Nuzhah is suggesting that the book is the first step on the road, not the end destination.
Two sections refer to balgha terms like jins and fasl, section 5.9., on the definition of
sahih and in section 5.41., on the definition of Sahbi. Understanding this requires added
proficiency in other fields of knowledge too. Similarly the section on khabar (5.2) covers
matters pertaining to Arabic grammar, which again suggests the Nuzhah targeted a higher
calibre of an audience.
Some sections required a good, retentive memory. This is particularly the case for the
concluding sections that mention different aspects of the narrators. The section Knowing
the paidonymics of the reporters and other related matters (5.65) contains dozens of
narrator names that require learning.
Perhaps the biggest indication that he did not aim the Nuzhah at laymen is that he
indirectly criticizes them in his book. When highlighting the difference between al-ilm
al-nazari and al-ilm al-qati, he writes that laypersons do not have the ability of
contemplation (nazar). Elsewhere in al-Durar, Ibn Hajars writings as a biographer did
show some dismay towards commoners. Muhammad ibn Al, a low class commoner, did
not impress Ibn Hajar at all. In al-Durar, he shows his feelings towards him when he
describes his death in 823. And in this year, God freed us from him, he wrote (Perho
2011, 32).

481
In the ninth Islamic century, Muslims were interested in hadth studies for different
reasons. The Nuzhahs sequence and excellent layout suggests it was aimed at the
genuine students of hadth, not the ones who saw the financial and social benefit in the
practice. Had it been aimed at the commoners, it may have been much shorter in length
and certainly less detailed. In section 5.66, Ibn Hajar mentions the etiquettes the shaykh
and disciple should adopt when studying hadth. Again the section appeals to the genuine
seekers, not the ones seeking fame and fortune through hadth. In his work Talbis Iblis,
Ibn al-Jawz (d. 597/1201) was critical of the hadth students who spent as much as fifty
years on writing, memorizing and collecting hadiths without understanding their contents
(Makdisi 1981, 212). The Nuzhah aimed to eradicate this lack of understanding, not
perpetuate it.

To conclude this sub-section, there is sufficient indication in the Nuzhah to highlight the
good authorship undertaken during the ninth Islamic century. It was written for a public
audience, not a private one. In the past, hadth scholars were required to write for
dignitaries and kings. For example, al-Hkims al-Iklil on hadth was written for an amr.
The Nuzhah was not written with such an audience in mind. In terms of length, the
Nuzhah shows wisdom and care. It is not long and over-detailed like the Muqaddima of
Ibn al-Salh, nor is it too short like al-Mayynishs M l yasau al-muhaddith jahluh.
Rather it strikes a good balance between accessibility and required detail. The book
indicates that hadth studies in the ninth Islamic century was arranged well and structured
logically. In the Nuzhah, all the rejected traditions are mentioned together, the accepted
together and all the matters related to the isnd are mentioned together too. Where there
482
is an apparent lack of sequence, it is justified. I indicated in section 5.39 how the
discussion on hasan li-ghayrih was delayed by Ibn Hajar for a legitimate and very good
reason.
The fact that the Nuzhah is still used today in Islamic seminaries throughout the world as
an introduction to ilm al-hadith tells us two things. My feeling is that this is a testimony
to the Nuzhahs clarity, good arrangement and its balanced length. Alternatively, it could
be an indication of apathy from Muslims after Ibn Hajar to re-think and re-structure ilm
al-hadith.
6.7. The climate of Ibn Hajars time and its influence on the
Nuzhah.
The aim of this thesis is to analyse the Nuzhah, not Ibn Hajar himself. If the intention was
to analyse him personally, then certainly a biographical account would have been the
better option, a thesis that enquired into his life, works and personality in detail. Rather
my aim has been to focus on one particular work of his, and ask what this indicates of the
ninth Islamic century. Was the Nuzhah reflective of the type of material being produced
during that period? Who was the target audience of this important work? Was it his own
people or did he intend the work to be a universal treatise on ilm al-hadith for all people
living in all times? So in this sub-section, an overview will be presented of the climate of
Ibn Hajars era and how this may have affected his Nuzhah.
483
Before we proceed, there is a degree of precaution that needs to be considered.
Methodologically, there are two problems that we must keep in mind as we commence
this section:

a. Ibn Hajar lived to a ripe age of seventy-nine. He was known to be swift in teaching and
writing. Shh Abd al-Azz wrote that he was known to have completed the teaching of
Sunan Ibn Mja in just four sittings (al-Wajd 1996, 14). When we combine these two
facts, then it means that the Nuzhah as a literary project made up only a very small part of
his life in particular, and his era in general. Therefore we must show precaution in
making sweeping generalisations about him and his era, based on the Nuzhah alone.

b. Ibn Hajar wrote over one hundred and fifty books during his lifetime. Larger projects
such as Fath al-bri took up a large amount of his time. Other works of his were much
shorter in length. Therefore it is difficult to make statement x about Ibn Hajar and his
time on the basis of statement y in the Nuzhah. The Nuzhah was only one of many books
he penned.

Despite these two constraints, an attempt will be made to highlight how the Nuzhah gave
us an insight into the Mamluk period during the ninth Islamic century. At the same time, I
will be cautious, owing to the two points mentioned above. Also, I will not in this
particular section indulge in what the Nuzhah told us about the academic climate of the
ninth Islamic century. The reason is because this has been covered in section 6.4 (The
Nuzhah: between stagnation and development).
484

In my opinion, the Nuzhah indicated the following about the ninth Islamic century:

2. The Nuzhah indicates that the isnd was used as a social tool during that period.
In section 6.1 of this chapter, it was mentioned how the Nuzhah like so many other ilm
al-hadith works did not give the matn its due attention. The section also entertained the
possibility that rather than underselling the matn, the Nuzhah oversold the isnd.
Different reasons were given for the possible over-emphasis of the isnd, including the
idea of ittisliyya. This idea looked at the isnd as a religious and spiritual tool. Here, we
view the isnd as a social tool.

The first point to note is that during the Mamluk period in Cairo, upward social mobility
was very difficult (Perho 2011, 19). Using Ibn Hajars own al-Durar to assess the climate,
Perho suggested that a commoner (mma) only rarely reached the status of a notable
(2011, 19). Elsewhere he describes the commoners ascent as difficult and infrequent
(2011, 21). However, there was an exception to this general rule. If there was any class of
people who could shatter the glass ceiling, it was the transmitters of traditions, the
muhaddiths, whose fame rested in their ability to memorize hadiths and pass them onto
others (Perho 2011, 21). In his conclusion, he observes that most of the commoners
who gained prestige in scholarly circles were muhaddiths (2011, 34).
It was not only the social status at stake. Hadth was also lucrative for the fortunate few.
Transmitters who possessed a rare hadth or a shorter, elevated isnd could charge
substantial fees to transmit in esteemed seats of learning. Ibn al-Salh asserted that a
485
hadth master possessing elevated isnds that wished to teach at al-Ashrafiyya would be
given two dirhams every day, and upon completion, would receive thirty dinars, each
worth seven dirhams (Dickinson 2002, 490).
For the majority of the Muslims in that era, it was the elevated chain (uluww) that
became the social pastime. Certainly the pursuit of elevated chains was not something
unique to the Mamluk period, but in fact it had been a problem for many centuries. It was
a precious commodity even in the third Islamic century (Dickinson 2002, 491). Al-
Rmahurmuz (d. 360/970) wrote about it in detail in his hadth manual al-Muhaddith al-
fsil. The fact that it had now become a means of social upward mobility during Ibn
Hajars time suggests it had become more endemic than ever before. The masses were
interested in hadth for a very superficial reason and had neglected its religious value.
The purpose was no longer to serve the primary function of the isnd, which is the matn.
Owing to this climate where seeking elevation became a social pastime and where
hadth studies became undermined Ibn Hajars Nuzhah was a plea for the Muslims to
take the discipline seriously once again. There are many sections which implicitly at least,
tell us that the Nuzhah tried to mute those who viewed hadth in a social pastime. For
example:

i. One of the enduring practices of Muslims throughout the middle and later medieval
period was to bring their children to hadth circles and then to ensure their attendance was
duly recorded. The problems associated with this practice have been amply highlighted in
section 5.67. The reason behind it was so that the child could enjoy the highest degree of
elevation (Dickinson 2002, 498). Taking the children to such circles meant there were
486
fewer intermediaries in the isnd. Hardly no consideration was given as to whether the
child could understand what he was participating in and whether, in fact, he knew what
was being recited. Dickinson cites Ibn al-Salh in giving one appalling case where a
student tells of attending a class without even knowing which of those present was
granting the audition (2002, 498).
Owing to the depth in which Ibn Hajar covered this in the Nuzhah, the attendance of
absent-minded children was still a persistent problem during his period too. Interestingly
he does not prohibit it outright, most probably because it had become such a common
feature during his time that outlawing it would lead to controversy and outcry. Discreetly,
he reminds the reader that reports that a child takes in his youth still requires the shaykhs
permission when he eventually passes it on. In a similar fashion, he steers clear from
providing a definitive age after which a child can attend hadth gatherings, though he
does ask Muslims to enable youngsters to reach an age of tamyiz, or differentiation. Were
it not for the prevailing practice of taking young children to hadth gatherings for the
purpose of elevation, it is seriously questionable whether this discussion would have been
even mentioned in the Nuzhah. In the early period of collection and compilation, children
attending such hadth circles was unheard of and certainly unproductive. The great-
grandfather of Ab al-Qsim al-Baghaw (d. 241/829) started to take the latter to hadth
classes when he was ten and a half, which for that period was seen as the youngest age
(Dickinson 2002, 498). Early hadth masters ensured that their attendees had mastered
disciplines like Islamic Law, religious practices and grammar before sitting in hadth
gatherings (Azami 1977, 23). It is only because of it developing into a social practice did
487
it now warrant a mention in the Nuzhah. Therefore, the discussion in the Nuzhah on the
age of reporting was a product of its time.
ii. Ibn Hajars section on siyagh al-ad (5.55), wijda (5.57) and ilm informs us how
the practice of hearing a report and passing it on to others started as a very rigid system,
only for it to develop into a farce. In the early days, hearing a hadth from an established
shaykh and reciting it to him for verification purposes was the lauded practice. Anything
else was frowned upon. The Caliph Umar was reported to have said:

Whenever one of you finds a book containing knowledge that you did not hear
from a scholar, place it in a container of water and soak it in there until the black
ink [of the pen] becomes mixed with the white [of the paper] (Dickinson 2002,
488).

By the seventh Islamic century, ijaz from a teacher took on a very vague form
(Dickinson 2002, 488) and by Ibn Hajars time, a ridiculous one. This is shown by the
fact that in the Nuzhah, he discusses the ruling for when someone says I give permission
to whom shall soon be born I permit Abd Allh to report from me, (when there is no
clarification which Abd Allh is being referred to) and I give permission to all my
contemporaries to report from me. Ibn Hajar would have only felt the need to discuss
these forms of ijaz if they existed in the first place. And there are sufficient examples to
show that these absurd for permission did prevail in his time. Again, this shows how the
contents of the Nuzhah were shaped by the sorry state of affairs during that period.
488
iii. Ibn Hajars section on travelling in pursuit of hadth (5.69) is admittedly short. But it
is still indicative enough to criticise those who sought excessive shaykhs rather than
excessive reports. Again, it suggests that the Mamluk period was one where hadth
studies was in demand for the wrong reasons. Ibn Tln (d. 953/1546) acknowledged this
when he commented:

The young and old, the poor and rich, and the ignorant and the learned all
participate in it [though] the study of hadth [had become] something other than
hadth (Dickinson 2002, 489).

Rather than the disciple travelling to seek the shaykh, the shaykh would sometimes travel
extensively to seek the largest and most-lucrative crowds (Dickinson 2002, 495). Again,
it shows how hadth had become a sport in the later medieval ages.
iv. Near the end of the Nuzhah, a section is included which outlines the required
etiquettes of the shaykh and disciple (5.66). Undoubtedly, this advice was tendered from
the very early beginnings of hadth reporting and collection and so in this respect, Ibn
Hajar continued this important teaching. But the exact nature of the advice given in the
Nuzhah suggests that he was criticising his contemporaries who had lost the religious
value attached to hadth. As it was mentioned in section 5.66, Mlik attached great
importance to his gatherings and ensured he and his audience were fully aware in the
importance of the subject material. Acts like applying perfume and performing ritual
ablution before hadth reporting was standard practice back then. By Ibn al-Kathrs (d.
774/1373) time, the gatherings were occupied by Muslims falling asleep and talking to
489
one another (Dickinson 2002, 498). Based on the fact that Ibn Hajar in the Nuzhah
reminds readers to sit with dignity and not to report whilst standing or in the streets,
it would be accurate to say that standards had declined drastically by his era.
This was the case with the students of hadth and in some cases, the state of the teacher
was no better. Ibn Hajars student al-Sakhw complained of inept readings from
uncollated texts stemming from incompetent teachers during his time. But he also adds
that it was tolerated in order to perpetuate the custom of the using the isnd (Dickinson
2002, 501).
v. The section on knowing the method of writing and recording (5.68) could be
interpreted as an appeal to the masses to pay due attention to the hadth circles. In this
part, he asks readers to avoid distractions like copying, talking and tiredness. In earlier
times, Muslims went to hadth gatherings to learn. It seems that by the ninth Islamic
century, Muslims went to be seen. Ibn Hajars advice in the Nuzhah attempted to correct
this feature.
vi. The section on itibr (5.13) too can be viewed as reflective of Ibn Hajars time. Here
was an appeal to engage in finding corroborations for existing reports and to actively
engage in cross-checking different reports. This, for Ibn Hajar, was the real purpose of
hadth studies in the ninth Islamic century. It was not a social pastime that attracted the
ignorant and short-sighted.

To conclude, the pursuit of elevation during the era of Ibn Hajar had resulted in some
damning repercussions on the discipline. Undoubtedly, this was not specific to his time,
but it had become an unhealthy obsession for many centuries prior to him. The
490
justification for it was sought on religious and spiritual grounds since there was no means
by which it could be justified academically. Al-Sakhw voiced this sentiment when he
said that those who acquire an elevated isnd as children hope in their old age to belong
to a generation better than the one they are in or the one after it and following it
(Dickinson 2002, 504).

2. Forgery and weak reports were still a problem during that period. This is due to the
fact that a large proportion of his work was dedicated to the rejected traditions and the
reasons behind them. The added emphasis and clarification from Ibn Hajar on this area
suggests that the public still did not fully understand what constituted a rejected report
and why they could not be used for evidence. In al-Durar, Ibn Hajar includes the entry of
Waddh who in 753, claimed that he was a Prophet (Perho 2011, 33). This shows that in
the eight and ninth century, there was a degree of religious turbulence and indeed
ignorance. One of the tricks of such imposters was to justify their claims through
prophetic traditions. An example was the forged report:

I am the last Prophet. There is no Prophet after me. Unless Allah wills.

Within the section on the rejected in the Nuzhah, extensive emphasis is given to bida.
Ibn Hajars feeling on bida is one of tolerance and leniency. He suggests that in spite of
sectarian differences, Muslims should collectively take transmissions from one another
for the sake of a common goal, namely the protection of hadth literature. In a similar
style, the presence of different sectarian groups during his time may have been
491
encouraged to put aside their differences for the sake of a common goal, a harmonious
society. Ibn Hajar displayed this attitude of tolerance himself; he took knowledge from
the Zhirs (literalists) (al-Barr et al. 1995, 87).

After the documentation of hadiths centuries earlier, is it possible that forgeries still
presented a problem and a matter for grave concern for the likes of Ibn Hajar? In my
mind, absolutely. In fact, it is still a major problem for Muslims within themselves in this
day and age. Different denominations refute and counter-refute the beliefs of their
counterparts by frequently deeming reports as forgeries. A good example of this is the
practice of kissing the thumbs and placing them on the eyes upon hearing Muhammads
name, based on a hadth which reports that Ab Bakr did this in the presence of the
Prophet. The hadth does have some authenticity to it, as declared by al-Sakhw in al-
Maqsid al-hasana. But because it is a practice which today has become a means of
differentiating the Sufi Muslims from their Wahhabi counterparts, the latter have declared
the report has a blatant forgery (Zaheer 2011, pp. 140-1).

3. Particularly in the early parts of the Nuzhah, there was a marked absence of fiqh-
related matters. Three possible reasons behind this were outlined in the section on mursal
(5.19). Of these reasons, it is possible that Ibn Hajars own personal experience in fiqh-
related matters was the main catalyst behind its absence in the Nuzhah. In short, fiqh
became a source of embarrassment for Ibn Hajar. The manner in which he was recruited
for judicial positions only then to be ousted was disruptive at even comical. At the very
least, there was no continuity whatsoever. The Encyclopaedia of Islam informs us that:
492

A judgeship, which he did not accept, was offered to him in the Yemen in his
early years. Reluctantly, he had been holding an associate judgeship in
conjunction with Jall al-Dn al-Bulqn when his great opportunity came on 27
Muharram 827. He was dismissed for the first time less than eleven months later,
but the office of Chief Judge of Egypt (and Syria) remained his for a combined
total of about twenty-one years. He was reinstated on 2 Rajab 828; dismissed on
26 Safar 833, and reinstated on 26 Jamda I 834; dismissed on 5 Shawwl 840,
and reinstated on 6 Shawwl 841; dismissed in Muharram 844, and reinstated on
26 Safar 844; dismissed on 15 Dh al-Qada 846 and reinstated after two days
(followed by another even briefer period out of office in Rab I 848); dismissed
on 11 Muharram 849 (after the collapse of a minaret with much loss of life, when
attempts were made to hold the office of the Chief Judge responsible for the
safety of the structure), and reinstated on 5 Safar 850; dismissed in Dh al-Hajja
850, and reinstated on 8 Rabi II 852. He lost the office finally on 25 Jamda II
852. A few months later he died. (vol. III, 777)

This experience contrasts widely with the discipline of hadth. Beginning with al-
Shaykhniyya in 808/1405 until Zayniyyah in 851/1447, Ibn Hajar had a trouble-free
time in teaching hadth. At the sf lodges (khanqah) of Baybars in Cairo, he taught
hadth for over twenty years. His most prized work was Fath al-bri, a product of
teaching hadth. This brought him unparalleled fame and fortune, even before he had
completed it. The kings and dignitaries of the time requested his Fath al-bri for their
493
scholars to learn and teach. It is said that it was then sold for three hundred dinrs. When
it was finally finished in 842/1438, a great celebration was held in Cairo, in the presence
of leading Cairean dignitaries, scholars and judges (al-Wajd 1996, 15).

Thus this love for hadth and distrust of the judiciary (and not necessarily fiqh per se, as
he did write many books on fiqh-related topics) may have seriously affected the contents
of the Nuzhah and shaped its final form. This theory has weight when we observe the
lengthy praise he directs to al-Bukhr and his Sahih in the Nuzhah.
4. There are other instances where Ibn Hajar as a person influenced the Nuzhah. The
above point regarding the judiciary centres more on his experiences. Upon analysing his
personality, character and outlook, there are indications that these traits found themselves
way into the Nuzhah.
To a considerable extent, Ibn Hajar was a man of good traits. In al-Nujm al-Zhira, al-
Atabk described him with words such as dignity, radiance and deliberation. He added
that:

He rarely spoke to a person in a manner that would be disliked by him. In fact he
would behave well and forgive the one who was evil towards him (1992, 15: 259).

His student al-Sakhw noted his excellent manners and his veneration of the elderly (2:
39). The Nuzhah too has won admirers for displaying similar traits. It is largely non-
confrontational and not provocative. When he disagrees with an opinion, he refutes it
494
mildly and with respect. In fact, there are places where he mentions the actual criticism
minus the person who advocated it. In this respect, it did differ from earlier works of the
same genre. Dickinson writes:

Almost all of the works in the genre of usl al-hadith begin with condemnations
of the sorry state into which hadth scholarship had fallen. The Muqaddima [of
Ibn al-Salh] does too (2002, 485).

Rightly so, Dickinson also points to al-Khatb al-Baghdds al-Kifya as an example of a
treatise bemoaning the moral outrage of his time in hadth affairs (2002, 485). There is no
indication of such condemnation in the Nuzhah. In fact, his work commences with praise
of the efforts his predecessors exerted in the discipline.

5. Related to the above point is the political climate he resided in. Undoubtedly, it was a
turbulent time, when a scholars success depended on his proximity to the state. His
character was key in overcoming these hurdles and focussing on religious matters as
much as possible.

495
7.0. Conclusion.
At the beginning of this thesis, I set out to provide an accessible and accurate translation
of the Nuzhah, coupled with a critical commentary. The translation, I believe, is an
accurate rendition of the original Arabic. The benefit and result of the commentary has
been outlined clearly in the previous chapter. The themes that I referred to there matn
criticism, the technical terms, seniority, between stagnation and development, the
convergence and divergence of Muslim and non-Muslim thought, the pedagogical nature
of the Nuzhah and the climate of the ninth Islamic century could only have been
unearthed by mostly reading between the lines of the Nuzhah. They were all intricate and
hidden points that needed close attention and analysis. With confidence I can say that this
is what differentiates my commentary from the many produced by Muslim scholars on
the Nuzhah. The likes of Ahmadayn, al-Munw, Mighlw, al-Qr, al-Uthaymin and al-
Wajd all wrote highly-coveted works specifically on the Nuzhah. None really
questioned the material in front of them but merely set about directing undiluted praise at
the work. I too agree that it is a brilliant piece of work. But reading between the lines and
setting the work within its climate tells us show much more about Ibn Hajar, the field of
ilm al-hadith and why the work has stood the test of time academically. In comparison to
non-Muslim works on ilm al-hadith, again I believe my work shows a fresh outlook and
originality. This is because this work has analysed ilm al-hadith in a holistic manner that
covers all aspects of it, not just on a particular area like the forged reports or rijl
literature.

496
I will admit that in many parts of the main section, I have been overtly critical of the
Nuzhah. In many of these places, Ibn Hajar is not at fault. He merely outlined a discipline
that he inherited from his ancestors. If seeking elevation distracted Muslims from the real
purpose of hadth in his time, then this was also a problem in centuries before him. The
respect for senior figures in hadth studies (and then the subsequent acceptance of their
findings without question) had existed from the early period of hadth collection. If Ibn
Hajar openly praised the brilliance of al-Bukhr, then so did al-Iyd, Ibn al-Salh and
al-Hkim before him.

In spite of these shortcomings and criticisms, the Nuzhah does offer a brilliant, holistic
account of the discipline. We know that the Nuzhah is not a true reflection of Ibn Hajars
knowledge of hadth; he wrote separate treatises on countless areas of the discipline
which are only mentioned briefly in the Nuzhah. But he showed great skill as a writer to
condense his vast expertise and authority in the field into one, accessible and relatively-
brief book, which is perfect to this very day as an introduction to ilm al-hadith. Most
observers will agree that it is easier to expand, harder to shorten and summarise. On this
basis alone, Ibn Hajar deserves praise for providing such a clear guide to the discipline in
a short work. Deliberately, I presented three diagrams that (i) summarised how the
reports reached us (section 5.8.2.) (ii) summarised the maqbl reports (5.16.3) (iii)
summarised the rejected traditions (5.38.2). The purpose was to show how simple the
Nuzhah is. Over 70% of the book can be easily condensed into three brief and clear
diagrams. This is a sign of good authorship (especially for a book that is five hundred
years old) and indicates why from London to Lahore, the Nuzhah is still in demand in
497
Muslim seminaries. Perhaps this is the primary reason why Ibn Hajar himself was proud
of the Nuzhah. He wrote hundreds of books during his lifetime, but according to his
disciple al-Sakhw, he only showed pride towards a handful; Sharh Sahih al-Bukhri, its
introduction al-Mushtabih, Tahdhib al-tahdhib, Lisn al-mizn and the Nuzhah (al-
Munw 1999, 1: 27).

The tone of the Nuzhah too is worthy of mention too. It is straight-forward and un-
confrontational. His criticism of the field in general or certain individuals is rare. In this
sense, it has some similarities with the M L Yasau of al-Mayynish (d. 581/1185),
which Librande says presents no controversy or variant or opposing points of view for
his readers (1982, 39). Primarily, I think this has come about because of his character
and good personality, which then trickled itself into his works.

Every work, even if it is to the smallest extent, is a product of its time and place. This
thesis itself would have been different in contents had it been written three hundred years
ago or in modern-day Cairo. The same can be said of the Nuzhah too. Undoubtedly, he
did live in a politically turbulent time. But Ibn Hajars outlook and character was pivotal
in dealing with the state in a largely fruitful manner and more importantly for our purpose,
allowing little of this to affect his writings in the Nuzhah. We learn a substantial amount
about the era in which the Nuzhah was produced, socially and certainly academically and
less so about the political climate from the Nuzhah alone. Perhaps a work like al-Durar
would have been more useful for this purpose.

498
Personally, the thesis has been a great learning curve. In particular, I have appreciated
that good authorship requires a person to step-back from his own actuality in order to
produce a fair and impartial piece of work. Many Muslim scholars have showed great
scepticism towards the non-Muslim literature on hadth, because it is quite critical. This
is understandable. A Muslim believes wholeheartedly in the truth of Muhammad and the
religion he bequeathed. This certainly affects his/her academic judgement as it becomes
difficult to hear anything that in any way lessens his God-given stature.

I have tried to overcome these hurdles and work as a researcher first and foremost. And I
truly believe that Muslims can benefit immensely from non-Muslim interest in hadth.
This thesis has gone a long way in persuading me that knowledge is important, produced
from Muslims and non-Muslims equally.

At the moment, Muslims to a large extent find this a hard pill to swallow. Many Muslim
scholars argue that the western academics only intention is to belittle Islam, not study it.
But the Muslim academics only want to refute the western works on Islam, and not
appreciate and digest it. In short, if a case is to be made for the importance of Orientalism
in the study of ilm al-hadith, then the presence of Occidentalism must also be accepted.
If the western academics are guilty of using derogative language against the Muslims, so
are the Muslims. Siddiqi writes that Goldzihers thesis on early hadth was in many ways
a characteristic product of his troubled and instinctively polemic mind(1993, 125). This
view itself is difficult to prove and it seems that Siddiqi misunderstood the text.
291
If

291
The assertion from Siddiqi is that Ignaz Goldziher 'privately acknowledged the superiority of Islam'
while remaining a synagogue official. I contacted Professor Gordon Campbell (International Office, the
499
Azami is to be wholly believed, then Schacht misunderstands the text he quotes (1996,
3), he quotes out of context (ibid.) and is guilty of frequent methodological errors
(1996, 17). The name of his book (On Schachts Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence)
suggests his intention is only to rebuke him.

Non-Muslims too can learn. By observing the Nuzhahs coverage, it can also be deduced
that Muslim hadth masters accepted their own fallibility and that of early transmitters.
Nowhere do we find a suggestion of perfection. Quite the contrary, the Nuzhah
extensively refers to reports that have some form of imperfection in them, and how they
can be identified. There are twenty categories of the rejected. We are informed of how
reports were either mis-spelt or misread. Ibn Hajar devotes a large part of his work
explaining how to avoid confusion over the names of different reporters. This shows that
Muslim hadth masters were critical of the discipline centuries before the appearance of
serious western interest. And this point also thus amplifies the need for a work like the
Nuzhah to be taken seriously by western scholars.

University of Leicester) regarding this. He believes Siddiqis view is a hostile oversimplification. Campbell
explained that:
The point could usefully be asserted by reference to the famous passage in his Tagebuch:
Ich lebte mich denn auch whrend dieser Wochen so sehr in den mohammedanischen Geist ein, dass ich
zuletzt innerlich berzeugt wurde, ich sei selbst Mohammedaner und klug herausfand, dass dies die einzige
Religion sei, welche selbst in ihrer doktrinr-offiziellen Gestaltung und Formulirung philosophische Kpfe
befriedigen knne. Mein Ideal war es, das Judenthum zu hnlicher rationeller Stufe zu erheben. Der Islam,
so lehrte mich meine Erfahrung, sei die einzige Religion, in welcher Aberglaube und heidnische Rudimente
nicht durch den Rationalismus, sondern durch die orthodoxe Lehre verpnt werden.
Here it is in English:
In those weeks, I truly entered into the spirit of Islam to such an extent that ultimately I became inwardly
convinced that I myself was a Muslim, and judiciously discovered that this was the only religion which,
even in its doctrinal and official formulation, can satisfy philosophic minds. My ideal was to elevate
Judaism to a similar rational level. Islam, as my experience taught me, is the only religion, in which
superstitious and heathen ingredients are not frowned upon by rationalism, but by orthodox doctrine.
This is a complex position, but I think that he is saying that Judaism could be enriched by drawing on the
insights of Islam; Siddiqi's suggestion of hypocrisy is misplaced.
500
My final word is on Ibn Hajar and his Nuzhah. At the beginning of the thesis, I explained
how Nuzhat al-nazar was an expansion on another work of his, Nukhbat al-fikar fi
mustalah al-athar. In my mind, the relationship between the Nuzhah and the Nukhbah
captures what the discipline went through as a whole. In the same manner the Nuzhah
simply added detail to the Nukhbah, the later scholars merely added detail to the work of
the earlier ones. Ibn Hajar marked the terminal end to this process, as his life work
constitutes the final summation of the sciences of hadth
292
And on this point, it is only
befitting we remind Muslims of one of the titles associated with Ibn Hajar, Khtam al-
huffz (the seal of the hadith masters). This title is a great compliment to Ibn Hajar
because it reflects his expertise in hadth. But for subsequent Muslims, the title is
anything but complimentary. This is because it suggests that after Ibn Hajar, the
discipline of ilm al-hadith resigned itself to apathy and passiveness.

292
Encyclopaedia of Islam, III:776.
501
8.0. Appendix A; Ibn Hajars Literary Works.

What follows is a list of his known literary works (al-Barr et al. 1995, 106-111);

1. Al-yt al-nayyirt li-al-khawriq al-mujizt.
2. Ittib al-athar fi rihlat Ibn Hajar.
3. Ithf al-mahara bi-atrf al-ashara.
4. Al-Itqn fi fadil al-Qurn.
5. Al-Ajwiba al-mushriqa al al-asila al-mufriqa.
6. Al-Ihkm li-bayn m fi al-Qurn min ibhm.
7. Asbb al-nuzl.
8. Arban hadith.
9. Al-Asila al-fiqa bi-al-ajwiba al-liqa.
10. Al-Istibsr al al-tin al-muthr.
11. Al-Istidrk al al-Hfiz al-Irqi fi takhrij ahdith al-Ihy.
12. Al-Istidrk al al-Kfi al-Shfi.
13. Al-Isba fi asm al-sahba. This is a highly-used and respected biographical
dictionary of the Companions of the Prophet.
14. Atrf al-mukhtra.
15. Atrf al-Sahihayn.
16. Atrf al-musnad al-mutali bi atrf al-Musnad al-Hanbali.
17. Al-Ijb bi-bayn al-asbb.
18. Al-Ilm bi man dhukira fi al-Bukhri min al-alm.
19. Al-Ilm bi-man Wall Misr fi al-Islm.
20. Al-Ifsh bi-takmil al-nukat al Ibn al-Salh.
21. Al-Afnn fi riwyat al-Quran.
22. Iqmat al-dalil al marifat al-awil.
23. Al-Alqb.
24. Amli Ibn Hajar.
25. Al-Imt bi al- Arbain al-Mutabyina bi Shart al-Sam.
26. Al-Inra fi al-ziyra.
27. Inb al-ghumr fi anb al-umr.
28. Al-Intif bi-tartib al-Draqutni.
29. Intiqd al-itird. In this book, Ibn Hajar answers certain objections made by Ayn in
his commentary of the Sahih of al-Imm al-Bukhr.
30. Al-Anwr bi-khasis al-mukhtr.
31. Al-ns bi-manqib al-Abbs.
32. Al-Bidya wa-al-nihya.
33. Badhl al-mn bi-fadl al-tn.
34. Al-Bast al-mabthth fi khabar al-Barghth.
35. Bulgh al-marm min adillat al-ahkm. This relates to Shfi Fiqh.
36. Bayn al-fasl bi-m rujjiha fihi al-irsl al al-wasl.
37. Tabsir al-muntabih bi-tahrir al-mushtabih.
38. Tabyin al-ajab bi-m warada fi fadl Rajab.
39. Tajrid al-tafsir.
40. Tahrir al-mizn.
502
41. Tuhfat ahl al-hadith an shuykh al-hadith.
42. Tuhfat al-zurrf bi-awhm al-atrf.
43. Takhrij ahdith al-Adhkr li-al-Nawawi.
44. Takhrij ahdith al-Arbain li-al-Nawawi.
45. Takhrij ahdith Mukhtasar Ibn al-Hjib.
46. Takhrij al-Arbain al-Nawawiyya bi al-asnid al-aliyya.
47. Al-Tarij al al-tadrij.
48. Tarjamat al-Nawawi.
49. Tasdid al-qaws fi Mukhtasar Musnad al-Firdaws.
50. Al-Taswiq il wasl al-muhimm min al-taliq.
51. Tashih al-rawda.
52. Tajil al-manfaa bi-riwyat rijl al-aimma al-arbaa.
53. Al-Tarif al-Awhad bi Awhm man Jamaa Rijl al-Musnad.
54. Tarif li al-taqdir bi-martib al-mawsfin bi-al-tadlis.
55. Tarif al-fia bi-man sha mia.
56. Taaqqubt al al-mawdt.
57. Taliq al-taliq.
58. Taqrib al-taqrib.
59. Taqrib al-tahdhib.
60. Taqrib al-manhaj bi-tartib al-mudraj.
61. Taqwim al-sind bi-mudraj al-isnd.
62. Al-Tamyiz fi Takhrij Ahdith al-Wajiz.
63. Tahdhib al-tahdhib. This is an encyclopaedia of hadth narrators.
64. Tadhhib al-mudraj.
65. Tawli al-tasis bi-mali Ibn Idris.
66. Tawdih al-mushtabih li-al-azdi fi al-ansb.
67. Al-Tawfiq bi-taliq al-taliq.
68. Al-Jawb al-jalil an hukm balad al-khalil.
69. Al-Jawb al-shfi an al-sul al-khfi.
70. Al-Khisl al-mukaffara li-al-dhunb al-muqaddama wa-al-muakkhara.
71. Al-Khisl al-wrida bi-husn al-ittisl.
72. Al-Dirya fi takhrij ahadith al-Hidya.
73. Al-Durar.
74. Al-Durar al-kmina fi ayn al-mia al-thmina. This is a biographical dictionary of
leading figures of the eighth century.
75. Diwn shir.
76. Diwn manzr al-durar.
77. Dhayl al-durar al-kmina.
78. Radd al-muhrim an al-Muslim.
79. Al-Risla al-izziya fi al-hisb.
80. Raf al-isr an qudt Misr.
81. Al-Zahr al-matll fi bayn al-hadith al-mall.
82. Al-Zahr al-nadir fi anb al-khadir.
83. Al-Saba al-nayyirt fi saba asila an al-sayyid al-sharif fi mabhith al-mawd.
84. Salt thabat kalt.
85. Sharh al-Arbain al-Nawawiyya.
503
86. Sharh Sunan al-Tirmidhi. He never completed this work.
87. Sharh mansik al-minhj.
88. Sharh minhj al-Nawawi.
89. Shif al-ghilal fi bayn al-ilal.
90. Al-Shams al-muthira fi marifat al-Kabira.
91. Tabaqt al-huffz.
92. Aris al-uss fi mukhtasar al-ass.
93. Ashriyt al-ashykh.
94. Ashara ahdith ashriyya al-isnd.
95. Ishrat al-shir.
96. Fath al-bri bi-sharh Sahih al-Bukhri.
293

97. Fadil shahr rajab.
98. Fihrist marwiyyt.
99. Fawid al-ihtifl fi bayn ahwl al-rijl al-mazkrin fi al-Bukhri.
100. Al-Fawid al-jumma fi man yujaddid li-hdhihi al-umma.
101. Qadh al-Ayn min nazm gharib al-bayn.
102. Al-Qasra fi al-hadith.
103. Al-Qawl al-musaddad fi al-dhabb an al-musnad.
104. Al-Kff al-Shff fi tahrir ahdith al-Kusshf.
105. Kashf al-sihr an hukm al-salh bad al-witr.
106. Ladhdhat al-aysh bi-jam turuq hadith al-aimma min Quraysh.
107. Lisn al-mizn.
108. Al-Majma al-muassas fi al-mujam al-mufahris.
109. Mukhtasar al-Bidya wa-al-Nihya li-Ibn Kathir.
110. Mukhtasar tahdhib al-kaml.
111. Al-Marjama al-Ghaythiyya fi al-Tarjuma al-Laythiyya.
112. Mazid al-naf bi m rujjiha fi hi al-waqf al al-rafa.
113. Al-Musalsal bi al-awwaliyya bi-turuq aliyya.
114. Al-Musnad al-mutali bi atrf al-Hanbali.
115. Al-Mushtabih.
116. Al-Matlib al-liya min riwyat al-masnid al-thamniyya.
117. Al-Matlib al-liya fi zawid al-thamniyya.
118. Al-Muqtarib fi bayn al-mudtarib.
119. Al-Maqsid al-ahmad fi man kunyatuh Ab al-Fadl wa-ismuh Ahmad.
120. Al-Mumti fi mansak al-mutamatti.
121. Al-Minha fima allaqa bi-hi al-Shfii al al-sihha.
122. Mansik al-hajj.
123. Al-Naba al-anba fi bin al-Kaba.
124. Nukhbat al-Fikar fi mustalah ahl al-athar.
125. Nuzhat al-albb fi al-ansb.
293
This is perhaps the magnum opus of his literary works, a detailed commentary on the Sahih of Imm al-
Bukhr. He began this project in 817/1414, as he taught the Sahih to his Hadth students in Cairo. His
disciples would record his dictations and soon the works took on the form of a book. Fifteen years after he
began this work, the Mamluk Sultan al-Ashraf Barsby requested a copy of the works, and the first three
volumes were duly sent to him by Ibn Hajar. When it was finished in 842/1438, a great celebration was
held in Cairo, in the presence of leading Cairene dignitaries (al-Wajd 1996, 15).
504
126. Nuzhat al-qulb fi marifat al-mubdal an al-maqlb.
127. Nuzhat al-nazar fi tawdih nukhbat al-fikar.
128. Al-Nukat al-hadithiyya al kitb Ibn al-Salh.
129. Nihyat al-taqrib wa-takmil al-tahdhib bi-al-tahdhib.
130. Al-Nayyirt al-sab diwan Ibn Hajar.
131. Hidyat al-ruwt il takhrij al-masbih wa-al-mishkt.
132. Hady al-sri li muqaddimat fath al-bri.
Al-Munw in addition to the aforementioned works has also ascribed the following
to Ibn Hajar (1999, 1: pp. 123-46);

133. Nuzhat al-smiin fi riywat al-sahba an al-tbiin.
134. Tabayyun al-ajab fim warada fi siym Rajab.
135. Zawid al-adab al-mufrad li-al-Bukhri.
136. Tartib al-mubhamt al al-abwb ma al-asnid.
137. Al-Ilm bi-man summiya Muhammad qabl al-Islm.
505
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