D.J.Dunn Material supplied from www.freestudy.co.

uk 1
EDEXCEL MODULE

STRENGTHS OF MATERIALS - H2

OUTCOME 2 - TUTORIAL 3

INTERMEDIATE AND SHORT COMPRESSION MEMBERS


On completion of this tutorial you should be able to do the following.

Define an intermediate compression member.

Derive and use the Rankine Gordon formulae.

Solve the loads at which members fail.

Define a column.

Calculate the stresses in a column with an offset load.

Calculate the position of the neutral axis in a column with an off
set load.



It is assumed that students doing this tutorial already familiar with the concepts of
second moments of area, bending stress, bending moments and deflection of
beams. Students should study the tutorial on struts before starting this one.

INTRODUCTION

You should recall that compression members fall into three groups, long (struts) intermediate and
short (columns).

First we need to now that a material may fail due to exceeding the ultimate (maximum)
compressive stress. This is often referred to as the crushing stress. If this was the only factor
causing failure the load that produces it would be given by the formula F
u
=
u
A
F
u
= Ultimate compressive load

u
= ultimate compressive stress
A = cross sectional area.

It is bad practise to apply a load at a point on brittle columns
because high local stress results in that region. A steel plate
should be used to spread the load over the section. Ideally the
load is applied at the centre of area and it is assumed that the
compressive stress spreads out evenly over the section. If the
load is F and the cross sectional area is A then the direct
(compressive) stress is

D
= -F/A (compression is negative)
Figure 1
In reality, there is often bending associated with the failure and this is especially true with
intermediate members.

1. INTERMEDIATE COMPRESSION MEMBERS

It is found that steel struts with a slenderness ratio of 80 to 120 fail at smaller loads than predicted
by Euler. These are intermediate compression members in which compression and bending have an
effect on failure.

1.1 RANKINE - GORDON THEORY

GORDON suggested that for such members, an empirical formula be used (based on experimental
data). RANKINE modified Gordon's formula. The following shows the reasoning for this formula.
F
E
= Euler's critical load.
2
2
L
EI
and this applies to struts.
F
u
= Ultimate compressive load =
u
A and this applies to columns.

u
= ultimate compressive stress.
A = cross sectional area.
Rankine suggested that an intermediate compression member fails due to both buckling and
compression to more or less degrees.

Based on experimental data, it is found that a reasonable prediction of the load at failure is given by
the reciprocal formula.

u E R
F
1
F
1
F
1
+ =
This rearranges to
u E
u E
R
F F
F F
F
+
=
F
R
= Rankines Critical load.
D.J.Dunn Material supplied from www.freestudy.co.uk 2

The formula indicates that for slender members F
E

dominates and for short members F
u
dominates.

FURTHER DEVELOPMENT

Consider the further development of Euler's formula for struts.
) 1 .....( .......... ..........
L
Ek
k
L
E F
stress critical s Euler' called
stress nominal a into force e convert th we area sectiuonal cross by the divide we If

k
L
EA
k
L
L
EAL
F
this. nto I for formula above the Substitute
L
EI
F is struts for load critical s Euler'
k
L
AL
(S.R.)
AL
I
I
AL
(S.R.)
subject the I make to Rearrange
A
I
L
k
L
S.R. Ratio s Slendernes
2
2 2
2
2
E
E
E
2
2
2
2
2 2
E
2
2
E
2
2
2
2 2
2
=

=
=

= = =
= = =
A

If we plot this stress against slenderness ratio we get the result shown on figure 2. The graph is
called Euler's Hyperbola.

Next we consider the further development of the Rankine formula. Substitute the following into
Rankines formula.
F
u
=
u
A F
e
=
2
EI/L
2


( )
( )

=
+
=
u
e u
e u
R
A
k
L
EAn
k
L
F F
F F
F

2
2 2
2
2 2
u
n EA A


( )
E
where
) 2 .....( ..........
1
A
E
1
A
n EA A
2
u
2
2
u
2
2
u
2
2 2
2 2
u

+
=

+
=

+
=
a
n
k
L
a
k
L
F
A
k
L
EA n
F
u
R
u
R

D.J.Dunn Material supplied from www.freestudy.co.uk 3

Although there is a theoretical value for the constant a based on material properties, it is usual to
determine it from experiment. The experimental value varies slightly from the theoretical. Typical
values of a are

Material
u
MPa a
Mild Steel 325 1/7500
Wrought Iron 247 1/9000
Cast Iron 557 1/1600
Timber 35 1/3000

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

The diagram shows
E
(equation 2) and
R
(equation 1) plotted against slenderness ratio. The
ultimate compressive stress is marked on the stress axis. The result shows how
R
tends to
u
as the
member becomes short and tends to
E
as the member gets longer. The region of interest is around
the S.R. = 80 point where the correct stress lays between the other two values.

Figure 2


WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

Find the Rankine critical load for a strut with an I section as shown given

u
= 325 MPa, E = 205 MPa and L = 16 m. The strut is built in rigidly at each end.

Figure 3

D.J.Dunn Material supplied from www.freestudy.co.uk 4


SOLUTION

The strut will bend about the axis of minimum resistance and hence minimum I so we must
determine which is the minimum I.

HORIZONTAL N-A
The section is symmetrical so subtract I for the two cut outs from the value for the outer
rectangle. Remember that for a rectangle I = BD
3
/12 about its centre line.
For the outer rectangle I = 250 x 320
3
/12 = 682.67 x 10
6
mm
4
For one cut out I = 120 x 300
3
/12 = 270 x 10
6
mm
4
For the section I = 682.67 x 10
6
2 x 270 x 10
6
= 142.66 x 10
6
mm
4

VERTICAL N-A
Treat this as three rectangles and add them together.
Two ends I = 2 x 10 x 250
3
/12 = 26.04 x 10
6
mm
4
Middle I = 300 x 10
3
/12 = 25000 mm
4
Add together I = 26.06 x 10
6
mm
4

The minimum I is about the vertical axis so use I = 26.06 x 10
6
mm
4
A = (250 x 10) x 2 + (300 x 10) = 8000 mm
2
.
k = (I/A) = (26x10
6
/8000) = 57 mm
mode n = 2
a = 0.00016

kN
x x x
n
k
L
a
F
R
2 . 626
2
057 . 0
16
00016 . 0
1
10 325 10 8000
1
A
2
2
6 6
2
2
u
=

+
=

+
=

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1. A strut is 0.2 m diameter and 15 m long. It is pinned at both ends. Calculate Euler's critical load.
(Answer 706.25 kN)

2. A strut has a rectangular section 0.2 m x 0.1 m. It is 8 m long. The bottom is built in and the top
is free. During a test, it buckled at 164 kN. Given the ultimate compressive stress of the material
is 345 MPa :

Calculate the Rankine constant "a". (0.000133)

A second strut made of the same material has a rectangular section 0.3 m x 0.2m. It is 6 m long
and pinned at both ends. Using the constant a found previously, find the Rankine buckling
load. (Answer 8.5 MN)

D.J.Dunn Material supplied from www.freestudy.co.uk 5

2. COLUMNS

A column is a thick compression member. Struts fail due to bending but columns fail in
compression. Columns are usually made of brittle material which is strong in compression such as
cast iron, stone and concrete. These materials are weak in tension so it is important to ensure that
bending does not produce tensile stresses in them. If the compressive stress is too big, they fail by
crumbling and cracking

Figure 4
OFFSET LOADS

Columns often support offset loads and these produce bending stresses that combine with the
compressive stress. This is illustrated in figure 5.

Figure 5

If a load is applied on the centre of the section, the stress in the column will be a direct compressive
stress given by
D
= - F/A
Remember that compressive stresses are always negative.

When the load is applied a distance 'x' from the centroid, a bending moment is induced in the
column as shown. The bending moment is M = F x where x is the off set distance.

D.J.Dunn Material supplied from www.freestudy.co.uk 6

D.J.Dunn Material supplied from www.freestudy.co.uk 7

From the well known formula for bending stress we have
B

= My/I

y is the distance from the centroid to the edge of the column.
The stress produced will be +ve (tensile) on one edge and -ve (compressive) on the other.

On the compressive edge this will add to the direct compressive stress making it larger so that
=
B

+
D
= -My/I - F/A

On the tensile edge the resulting stress is =
B

+
D
= My/I - F/A
Substitute M = F x = = Fxy/I - F/A



WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

A column is 0.5 m diameter and carries a load of 500 kN offset from the centroid by 0.1m.
Calculate the extremes of stresses.

SOLUTION

F = 500 kN x = 0.1 m y = D/2 = 0.25 m

Tensile Edge

=
B
+
D
= Fxy/I - F/A
= 500 000 x 0.1 x 0.25 /( x 0.5
4
/64) - 500 000/( x 0.5
2
/4)
= 1.528 MPa (Tensile)

Compressive Edge

=
B
+
D
= -Fxy/I - F/A
= -500 000 x 0.1 x 0.25 /( x 0.5
4
/64) - 500 000/( x 0.5
2
/4)
= -6.621MPa (compressive)


NEUTRAL AXIS

The neutral axis is the axis of zero stress. In the above example, the stress varied from 1.528 MPa
on one edge to -6.621 MPa on the other edge. Somewhere in between there must a value of y which
makes the stress zero. This does not occur on the centroid but is by definition the position of the
neutral axis. Ideally this axis should not be on the section at all so that no tensile stress occurs in the
column. The position of the neutral axis can easily be found by drawing a stress distribution
diagram and then either scaling off the position or calculate it from similar triangles.


WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

Determine the position of the neutral axis for the column in example 2.

SOLUTION

Drawing a graph of stress against position (y) along a diameter we get the figure shown (not
drawn to scale). If it is drawn to scale the position of the neutral axis may be scaled off.

Figure 6

Using similar triangles we arrive at the solution as follows.
A + B = 0.5
A = 0.5 - B
A/1.528 = B/6.621
(0.5 - B)/1.528 = B/6.621
3.3105 - 6.621B = 1.528 B
B = 0.406 m


D.J.Dunn Material supplied from www.freestudy.co.uk 8

MAXIMUM OFFSET

If a column must not go into tension, then the maximum offset may be calculated. Consider a
circular section first. The combined stress due to compression and bending is:
A
F
I
Fxy
=
If the edge must not go into tension then the maximum stress will be zero so:
y
Z
Ay
I
x) x(ma 0
A
F
I
Fxy
= = =

For a round section A = D
2
/4 I = D
4
/64 and y = D/2 If we substitute we get
8
D
D/2 D 64
D 4
x(max)
2
4
= =

The load must be no more than D/8 from the centroid.

If the column is a rectangular section I = BD
3
/12 A = BD and the critical value of y is D/2
6
D
D BD 12
BD 2
Ay
I
x(max)
3
= = = when the offset is on the short axis.
When the offset is on the long axis x(max) is B/6 . This means the offset must be within the middle
1/3 of the column and this is called the middle third rule. The shaded area on the diagram shows
the safe region for applying the load.

Figure 7

For any standard section such as those in BS4, the maximum offset is easily found from x = Z/y
although for steel sections some tension is allowed.



WORKED EXAMPLE No.4

A column is made from an universal I section 305 x 305 x 97. A load of 2 MN is applied on
the x axis 200 mm from the centroid. Calculate the stress at the outer edges of the x axis.

If the column is 5 m tall, what is the slenderness ratio?

D.J.Dunn Material supplied from www.freestudy.co.uk 9


SOLUTION

The offset is x = 0.2 m and the load F = 2 MN

From the table I = 22249 x 10
-8
m
-4
A = 123 x 10
-4
m
2
y = h/2 = 0.154 m
MPa 439
10 x 123
10 x 2
I
54) )(0.2)(0.1 10 x (2
A
F
I
Fxy

4 -
6 6
c
= = =
MPa 114
10 x 123
10 x 2
I
54) )(0.2)(0.1 10 x (2
A
F
I
Fxy

4 -
6 6
T
= = =
There are two radii of gyration. k
x
= 0.134 k
y
= 0.0769 m
Slenderness Ratio about the x axis is = I/ k
x
= 37.3
Slenderness Ratio about the y axis is = I/ k
y
= 65
These are well below the limit of 120 for steel but the bending might cause collapse and would
be worth checking.





SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

1. A column is 0.4 m diameter. It has a vertical load of 300 kN acting 0.05m from the centroid.
Calculate the stresses on the extreme edges.
(Answers 0 MPa and -4.77 MPa).

2. A column is 0.3 m diameter. Calculate the offset position of the load which just prevents the one
edge from going into tension. (Answer 0.038 m).

3. A column is made from a rectangular block of concrete with a section 600 mm x 300 mm. What
is the maximum offset of a point load that just prevents the edge going into tension.
(Answer 50 mm).

4. A column is made from cast iron tube 0.4 m outside diameter with a wall 40 mm thick. The top
is covered with a flat plate and a vertical load of 70 kN is applied to it. Calculate the maximum
allowable offset position of the load if the material must always remain in compression.
(Answer 0.082 m)

5. A hollow cast iron pillar, 38 cm outside diameter and wall thickness 7.5 cm, carries a load of 75
kN along a line parallel to, but displaced 3 cm from, the axis of the pillar. Determine the
maximum and minimum stresses in the pillar.

What is the maximum allowable eccentricity of the load relative to the axis of the pillar if the
stresses are to be compressive at all points of the cross section?

6. A column is 4 m tall and made from an universal I section 152 x 152 x 23. A load of 60 kN is
applied on the x axis 110 mm from the centroid. Calculate the stress at the outer edges of the x
axis.
(35.2 MPa tensile and 45 MPa compressive, SL = 61 about the x axis and 108 about y axis)


D.J.Dunn Material supplied from www.freestudy.co.uk 10

D.J.Dunn Material supplied from www.freestudy.co.uk 11

SAMPLE OF TABLE FOR UNIVERSAL COLUMNS WITH I SECTION

Thickness of Second Moment
Area
Radius
of Gyration
Elastic
Modulus
Plastic
Modulus
Designation
Mass
per
m
Depth
of
Section
Width
of
Section
Web Flange
Root
Radius
Depth
between
Fillets
Area
of
Section Axis
x-x
Axis
y-y
Axis
x-x
Axis
y-y
Axis
x-x
Axis
y-y
Axis
x-x
Axis
y-y
M h b s t r d A Ix Iy rx ry Zx Zy Sx Sy
kg/m mm mm mm mm mm mm cm
2
cm
4
cm
4
cm cm cm
3
cm
3
cm
3
cm
3
356x406x634 633.9 474.6 424 47.6 77 15.2 290.2 808 274845 98125 18.4 11 11582 4629 14235 7108
356x406x551 551 455.6 418.5 42.1 67.5 15.2 290.2 702 226938 82671 18 10.9 9962 3951 12076 6058
356x406x467 467 436.6 412.2 35.8 58 15.2 290.2 595 183003 67834 17.5 10.7 8383 3291 10002 5034
356x406x393 393 419 407 30.6 49.2 15.2 290.2 501 146618 55367 17.1 10.5 6998 2721 8222 4154
356x406x340 339.9 406.4 403 26.6 42.9 15.2 290.2 433 122543 46853 16.8 10.4 6031 2325 6999 3544
356x406x287 287.1 393.6 399 22.6 36.5 15.2 290.2 366 99875 38677 16.5 10.3 5075 1939 5812 2949
356x406x235 235.1 381 394.8 18.4 30.2 15.2 290.2 299 79085 30993 16.3 10.2 4151 1570 4687 2383
356x368x202 201.9 374.6 374.7 16.5 27 15.2 290.2 257 66261 23688 16.1 9.6 3538 1264 3972 1920
356x368x177 177 368.2 372.6 14.4 23.8 15.2 290.2 226 57118 20529 15.9 9.54 3103 1102 3455 1671
356x368x153 152.9 362 370.5 12.3 20.7 15.2 290.2 195 48589 17553 15.8 9.49 2684 948 2965 1435
356x368x129 129 355.6 368.6 10.4 17.5 15.2 290.2 164 40246 14611 15.6 9.43 2264 793 2479 1199
305x305x283 282.9 365.3 322.2 26.8 44.1 15.2 246.7 360 78872 24635 14.8 8.27 4318 1529 5105 2342
305x305x240 240 352.5 318.4 23 37.7 15.2 246.7 306 64203 20315 14.5 8.15 3643 1276 4247 1951
305x305x198 198.1 339.9 314.5 19.1 31.4 15.2 246.7 252 50904 16299 14.2 8.04 2995 1037 3440 1581
305x305x158 158.1 327.1 311.2 15.8 25 15.2 246.7 201 38747 12569 13.9 7.9 2369 808 2680 1230
305x305x137 136.9 320.5 309.2 13.8 21.7 15.2 246.7 174 32814 10700 13.7 7.83 2048 692 2297 1053
305x305x118 117.9 314.5 307.4 12 18.7 15.2 246.7 150 27672 9059 13.6 7.77 1760 589 1958 895
305x305x97 96.9 307.9 305.3 9.9 15.4 15.2 246.7 123 22249 7308 13.4 7.69 1445 479 1592 726
D.J.Dunn Material supplied from www.freestudy.co.uk 1

Thickness of Second Moment
Area
Radius
of Gyration
Elastic
Modulus
Plastic
Modulus
Designation
Mass
per
m
Depth
of
Section
Width
of
Section
Web Flange
Root
Radius
Depth
between
Fillets
Area
of
Section Axis
x-x
Axis
y-y
Axis
x-x
Axis
y-y
Axis
x-x
Axis
y-y
Axis
x-x
Axis
y-y
254x254x167 167.1 289.1 265.2 19.2 31.7 12.7 200.3 213 29998 9870 11.9 6.81 2075 744 2424 1137
254x254x132 132 276.3 261.3 15.3 25.3 12.7 200.3 168 22529 7531 11.6 6.69 1631 576 1869 878
254x254x107 107.1 266.7 258.8 12.8 20.5 12.7 200.3 136 17510 5928 11.3 6.59 1313 458 1484 697
254x254x89 88.9 260.3 256.3 10.3 17.3 12.7 200.3 113 14268 4857 11.2 6.55 1096 379 1224 575
254x254x73 73.1 254.1 254.6 8.6 14.2 12.7 200.3 93.1 11407 3908 11.1 6.48 898 307 992 465
203x203x86 86.1 222.2 209.1 12.7 20.5 10.2 160.8 110 9449 3127 9.28 5.34 850 299 977 456
203x203x71 71 215.8 206.4 10 17.3 10.2 160.8 90.4 7618 2537 9.18 5.3 706 246 799 374
203x203x60 60 209.6 205.8 9.4 14.2 10.2 160.8 76.4 6125 2065 8.96 5.2 584 201 656 305
203x203x52 52 206.2 204.3 7.9 12.5 10.2 160.8 66.3 5259 1778 8.91 5.18 510 174 567 264
203x203x46 46.1 203.2 203.6 7.2 11 10.2 160.8 58.7 4568 1548 8.82 5.13 450 152 497 231
152x152x37 37 161.8 154.4 8 11.5 7.6 123.6 47.1 2210 706 6.85 3.87 273 91.5 309 140
152x152x30 30 157.6 152.9 6.5 9.4 7.6 123.6 38.3 1748 560 6.76 3.83 222 73.3 248 112
152x152x23 23 152.4 152.2 5.8 6.8 7.6 123.6 29.2 1250 400 6.54 3.7 164 52.6 182 80.2


D.J.Dunn Material supplied from www.freestudy.co.uk 2