RITUAL CALENDAR.

CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE

BY
SHINGO EINOO
1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
Between the Vedic and the post-Vedic rituals we can observe a num-
ber of changes. The whole system of the Vedic srauta rituals almost dis-
appeared and instead of them there emerged a new ritual calendar
according to which many Hindu annual ceremonies were performed
(Kane 1974b: 81-462; Einoo 1994: 137-140). The method of worship-
ping gods is shifted from offering oblations into the sacred fire usually
called ahavaniya to presenting oblations like flowers etc. before the
image of a deity, this method being usually called puja (Einoo 1996).
The daily morning and evening offering of heated milk which is called
agnihotra, one of the srauta rituals, was replaced by the daily ceremony
called sadhyopasana which had been, in the Vedic period, performed
only by the young students of the Vedas but in the post-Vedic period
became the duty of the householder (Einoo 1992; 1993).
As is well known, the Vedic rituals are described by two groups of the
ritual texts, namely the srautasutras and the ghyasutras. The srautasutras
lay down detailed rules for performing a number of the srauta rituals,
that is, solemn sacrificial rites in which many officiating priests partici-
pated to worship the gods in order to obtain, for the sake of the patron of
the ritual, benefits such as offspring, increase of cattle etc. These works
are closely connected with the older Vedic literature in the way that
most of the srauta rituals are interpreted in the sahitas and the
brahmaas, and that most of the ritual formulas originated again from
these latter texts. The ghyasutras, on the other hand, are ritual manuals
of the head of the family who performs many kinds of simpler domestic
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
rites and ceremonies, such as, e.g. the marriage ceremony, the rite for a
new-born child, the house construction, some rites concerning agricul-
ture and cattle feeding, and so on. It is hardly possible, however, to date
each srauta- and ghyasutra exactly, but compositions of the srautrasu-
tras are roughly assigned to several centuries before the middle of the
first millennium B.C. and the ghyasutras are usually regarded as later
than the srautasutras
1
.
On the other hand, the post-Vedic rituals or Hindu rituals are mostly
described in the puraas which, according to R. C. Hazra, belong to the
second stage of their development and are supposedly composed from
about the beginning of the sixth century A.D. (Hazra 1940: 188-189).
The proposed dates of the srauta- and the ghyasutras on the one hand
and the puraas on the other show a gap of time of less than one thou-
sand years. From my earlier studies of the formation and the develop-
ment of the post-Vedic rituals I came to know a group of ritual texts that
seem to have played an important roles in the formation of the Hindu rit-
uals. They are mostly the supplementary texts (parisias) to the several
ghyasutras and in this article I sometimes call them the texts belonging
to the ghyaparisia level. Among them there are two texts that are espe-
cially to be mentioned; they are the Vaikhanasa Ghyasutra and the
Agnivesya Ghyasutra. Even if they are titled Ghyasutra, they contain
many elements which are clearly post-Vedic
2
. It is impossible for me to
date these texts exactly, but most of them can presumably be assigned to
any time between the latest date of the ghyasutras and the beginning of
the sixth century A.D.
In this article I examine the changes which occurred between the
Vedic and the post-Vedic rituals by selecting two instances which con-
cern the conceptions of time and space, namely the correlation between
the tithis and their deities on the one hand and the idea of presiding
deities of the eight directions which are usually known as guardians of
the directions (dikpalas) or guardians of the worlds (lokapalas) mainly
by consulting the texts belonging to the ghyaparisia level.
100 S. EINOO
1
For the general survey of both the srauta- and the ghyasutras see Gonda 1977.
2
See Einoo 1993: 62-64.
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
2. TITHIS AND THEIR DEITIES
There is a unit of time called tithi or the lunar day. This corresponds
to one-thirtieth of a lunar month or one-fifteenth of a half lunar month
3
.
One month is divided into two fortnights, the bright fortnight (sukla
paka) or the half month of the waxing moon and the dark fortnight
(ka paka) or the half month of waning moon. Each fortnight is fur-
ther divided into fifteen tithis. The first tithi of both fortnights are usu-
ally called pratipad or the beginning day. The fifteenth tithi of the bright
fortnight is purima or the day of full moon and that of the dark fort-
night is amavasya or the day of new moon. The rest of the thirteen tithis
are named with the ordinal numbers like the second (dvitiya), the third
(ttiya) etc. In the post-Vedic periods continuing into even today there
are a number of religious festivals and ceremonies which are named
after the names of the tithis adding before them the names of the deities
to be worshipped. They are, for example, the kajanmaami or the
eight (tithi) of the birth of Ka (Kane 1974b: 128-143), the gae-
sacaturthi or the fourth (tithi) of Gaesa (Kane 1974b: 145-149), the
nagapancami or the fifth (tithi) of the Serpents (Kane 1974b: 124-125;
Einoo 1994b), and so on. So it is clear that in the post-Vedic rituals the
use of the various tithis for determining the day of performance of
deities is common phenomenon. But the situation in the Vedic ritual is
very different.
In the srauta rituals the day of the performance of a rite is in principle
limited to the full moon or new moon day, with the exception of the
agnihotra which should be performed twice daily, in the morning and
evening
4
. Apart from the full moon and the new moon days, from the
CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 101
3
The tithi is a unit of time, astronomically defined as a period during which the elon-
gation of the Moon from the Sun increases by 12 degrees' (Pingree 1981: 44).
4
In the srautasutras I could find only several places where reference to the tithis is
made, viz., BaudhSS 24.20 [205,4-8] where it is said that the half month consists of 15
parts, ManSS 5.1.1.1 where the ninth tithi is excluded from the days of performance of the
simple sacrifices of the srauta ritual (iis) and KatySS 15.10.2 where the fourth tithi of the
bright half month of asvina is prescribed as the day of the performance of an animal sacri-
fice. I must naturally admit that there must be other occurrences of the word tithi in the cor-
pus of the srautasutras. There is another rather indefinite expression of the day of the per-
formance such as on an auspicious day in the half year from the winter to summer solstice,
in the half month from the new moon to full moon day' (udagayana apuryamaapakasya
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
time of the Taittiriya Sahita, an older Vedic text belonging to the black
Yajurveda, a certain importance has been attached to the aaka, namely
the eighth or the middle day of the half month, in that on the aaka days
in the dark fortnight of the months in winter a rite named after this day
has to be performed according to the ghyasutras
5
, and these three or
four aaka rites can be reduced to one day which is called ekaaka and
coincides with the winter solstice
6
. It is worth noticing that this eighth
day is called aaka, not aami as in the post-Vedic period.
In the ghyasutras we come across more cases in which the word tithi
or an ordinal number indicating a certain tithi is employed to denote the
day of performance of a rite. For the day of setting up of the fire for the
ghya ritual, GobhGS 1.1.13 prescribes as follows:
In this way, on the coincidence of an (auspicious) tithi and an (auspi-
cious) lunar mansion (nakatra), (or of such a lunar mansion) and the day
of new or full moon (parvan).
7
The date of the performance of the ceremony of the tonsure (cuakar-
man) is prescribed in the ManGS 1.21.1 as follows:
When the third year (after the birth of the child) is almost over, he should
cut (the hair of the boy) so that a single lock of the crown of the head
remains; (this ceremony of the tonsure takes place) during the northern
course of the sun, in the bright half of the month, under an auspicious lunar
mansion, except on the ninth tithi.
8
There are other cases of the ritual employment of the tithi in which
the tithi itself or the presiding deity of a tithi becomes the object of the
102 S. EINOO
puyahe) (BaudhSS 5.1 [128,2-3]). For the same or similar expressions see, e.g. BaudhSS
21.1 [69,16-17]; ApSS 15.1.1; HirSS 13.7.33; VaikhSS 8.3 [80,12].
5
For the description of the aaka rite see Gonda (1980: 450-453). For the relevant
literature see ibid., p. 450, n. 24. See further, e.g. Weber (1862: 337), Apte (1939: 245-
251), Gopal (1959: 414-418).
6
See Falk (1986: 144-153).
7
GobhGS 1.1.13 tatha tithinakatraparvasamavaye. In translating this passage I fol-
low the interpretation of H. Oldenberg (Oldenberg 1892: 15).
8
ManGS 1.21.1 ttiyasya varasya bhuyihe gate cua karayet / udagayane jyaut-
sne puye nakatre nyatra navamyam /1/ For similar cases where a certain tithi is men-
tioned as the day of performance of any ritual rite see further, e.g. KausS 22.8; SankhGS
2.11.7; 4.6.1; 5.2.2; AsvGS 3.5.3; GobhGS 2.8.1; KahGS 48.1; ManGS 2.1.2; 13.2;
18.1; BodhGS 1.11.2; 2.6.29; 11.2; 4; 3.8.1; BharGS 1.19 [19,7]; ParGS 2.10.2. See
Gonda (1980: 241-243).
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
worship. In prescribing the rising of the mother from childbed SankhGS
1.25.5 and 10 says the following:
5. Having made oblations to the tithi of (the child's) birth and to three lunar
mansions
9
with their (presiding) deities. 10. And having made oblations in the
same way every month to the tithi of (the child's) birth.
10
In prescribing the standard procedure of the ghya ritual, KahGS
47.12 say One should worship the presiding deities of the seasons,
tithis, and the lunar mansions.'
11
From the time of the Vedic literature
we have much information about the lunar mansions (nakatras) and
their presiding deities. The correlation between the twenty-seven or
twenty-eight lunar mansions and their presiding deities is so well-known
that its detailed discussion can be here overlooked
12
.
On the contrary, the information about the presiding deities of the sea-
sons is very scarce. Brahmaabala, a commentator on the Kahaka
Ghyasutra, flourishing perhaps before the 11th century A.D.
13
, collects
mantras to be used in the worship of the deities of the seasons. Accord-
ing to this collection of mantras given by Brahmaabala on KahGS
47.12 [211,25-212,3], the presiding deities of the seasons are as follows:
spring (vasanta), Agni; hot season (grima), Indra; rainy season (vara),
CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 103
9
These three lunar mansions may be the later trijanmanakatra that P.V. Kane
explains by quoting the Nirayasindhu: The lunar mansion on the day of which a child is
born and the lunar mansions that precedes and follows it are called three lunar mansions
of the birth (janmanakatra tatpurvottare ca trijanmanakatram ucyate) (Kane 1977:
765). The word trijanma also appears in BodhGSS 3.11.1 and HirGSS 1.6.17 [86,6-7] as
one of the dates for the performance of the mtyujayakalpa, a ceremony to ward off an
untimely death.
10
SankhGS 1.25.5 janmatithi hutva trii ca bhani sadaivatani /5/ evam eva masi-
masi janmatithi hutva /10/
11
KahGS 47.12 tutithinakatradevatas ca yajeta /12/ For the cases in which the tithi
or the presiding deity of a tithi is worshipped, see further, e.g. GobhGS 2.8.12; 20;
ManGS 1.10.9 = 2.2.15; VarGS 1.24. See Gonda (1980: 243).
12
See Weber (1862: 367-376). Weber gives a list of passages where the enumeration
of the nakatras together with their deities appears in note 2 on p. 367. Nakatrakalpa 37-
41 can be now found also in the AVPS 1.37-41. See further Kane (1974b: 501-504), Dep-
pert (1977: 377-381), and Modak (1993: 209-231). We can also find other lists of this
kind in JaimGS 1.19 [17,12-18]; AgnGS 1.2.3 [18,14-19,10]; VaikhGS 3.20 [50,5-14].
13
Brahmaabala is regarded as older than Devapala, another commentator on the
KahGS (Gonda 1977: 599). Devapala is, in his turn, supposed to live in the 11th century
A.D. (Dreyer 1986: XXX).
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
Maruts; autumn (sarad), Visve deva; winter (hemanta), Mitra; cold
season (sisira), Varua
14
.
Now we turn to the subject of the presiding deities of the tithis,
which is the main topic of this paper. The same commentator, Brahma-
abala, again gives a collection of mantras to be used in the worship of
the presiding deities of the tithis in his commentary on KahGS 47.12
[212,3-10]. Bhaanarayaa, a commentator of the GobhGS of unknown
date, also gives a collection of mantras for the worship of the presiding
deities of the tithis in his commentary on GobhGS 2.8.12 [419,4-6].
According to both commentaries we have the following list of presiding
deities of the tithis: 1. Brahma, 2. Tva, 3. Viu, 4. Yama, 5. Soma,
6. Kumara, 7. Sages (munis), 8. Vasus, 9. Goblins (pisacas), 10. Dharma,
11. Rudras (according to Bhaanarayaa, Rudra), 12. Adityas (accord-
ing to Bhaanarayaa, Vayu), 13. Kama, 14. Ghosts (bhutas) (accord-
ing to Bhaanarayaa, yakas, a class of demigods), new moon day
(amavasya), Ancestors (pits), and full moon day (purima), Visve
deva. But here it is necessary to be ascertained that, even if the
concept of the presiding deities of the tithis exists in the ghyasutras
themselves, we do not know which deity is correlated with which tithi.
Our information so far is derived only from the commentaries on the
ghyasutras.
Almost the same list, however, has already been handed down in
the Bhatsahita, a technical text on divination written by Varahamihira
in the sixth century A.D.
15
In a succinct description in Bhatsahita
98.1-2a we have the following statement: 1. Kamalaja (= Brahma),
2. Vidhat (= Tva), 3. Hari (=Viu), 4. Yama, 5. Sasanka (= Soma),
6. avaktra (= Kumara), 7. Sakra, 8. Vasus, 9, Serpents, 10. Dharma,
11. Isa (= Rudra/Siva), 12. Savit, 13. Manmatha (= Kama), 14. Kali;
104 S. EINOO
14
Among the Vedic sahita see e.g. MS 3.11.12 [159,1-12] where Vasus, Rudras,
Adityas, bhus, Maruts, and gods are related with spring, hot season, rainy season,
autumn, winter, and cold season respectively. For further references see Bloomfield's
Vedic Concordance, s.v. vasantena tuna. For the discussion of this group of mantras and
the order of the gods see Gonda (1980b: 188). Cf. also Whitney's note on AV 3.10.9.
15
For the date of Varahamihira see Pingree (1981: 11) and for the detailed analysis of
the contents of the Bhatsahita and its influence on the later texts see Pingree (1981: 71-
78).
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
purima, Visve deva; amavasya, pits
16
. From this it is clear that there
has been a tradition of presiding deities of the tithis. As will be seen
later, this tradition handed down by the Bhatsahita and two commen-
taries on the ghyasutras, however, does not correspond exactly to that
recorded by the puraa texts.
When we read the puraas, we come across a number of passages
where this correlation is described. The tithis and their presiding
deities are enumerated in the following puraic passages: Bhaviya
Puraa 1.102.11-15ab; Garua Puraa 1.116.3-8; Padma Puraa
6.96.15cd-19; Skanda Puraa 1.1.33.79cd-82ab; Varaha Puraa 19-
36
17
. P.V. Kane adds Garua Puraa 1.137.16cd-19 (Kane 1974b: 70).
Nilamata 842-846 contains a similar list, even though that list does not
contain all the fifteen tithis (Einoo 1994: 158). We can further add
to this list, for example, Agni Puraa 33.2-3a; Bhaviya Puraa
1.102.19-34; Devi Puraa 61; Kalika Puraa 59.39-43ab; Vamana
Puraa 17.6-13
18
.
When we compare the statements in above texts we have the follow-
ing list of the tithis and their presiding deities. (In this list Roman
numerals represent the tithis and the numbers given after the names of
the deities show the number of the passages in which they stand for the
presiding deities of the tithis.)
I: Agni 4, Brahma 4, Kubera 4, Asvins 1, Sri 1.
II: Sri 5, Asvins 3, Yama 2, Agni, Brahma, Narayaa, Siva,
Uma, Visvakarma 1.
III: Uma/Parvati 7, Sakara 2, Vighnesa 1, Yakaraja 1, Radha 1.
IV: Gaesa 11, Caturvyuha
19
1, Dhanada 1, Mahadeva 1
CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 105
16
According to P.V. Kane, Viudharmottara Puraa 1.83.22-23ab and Naradiya
Puraa 1.56.133cd-135 give similar lists (Kane 1974b: 69-70).
17
According to the Subject-Concordance of the critical edition of the Varaha Puraa,
p. 1351, s.v. tithayas taddevatas ca (The Titihis and their presiding deities).
18
See further Bhaviya Puraa 4.134.65cd-69; 193.1-66 (dealing with rules for the
donation on each tithi); Viudharmottara Puraa 3.221.9-94ab; Skanda Puraa 5.3.26.
102cd-127.
19
Garua Puraa 1.116.5a caturthya ca caturvyuha and on the fourth tithi the
Caturvyuha.' The Caturvyuha is a group of four gods in the doctrine of the Pancaratra, a
Tantric school of Viuism. They are Vasudeva, Sakaraa, Pradyumna and Aniruddha.
See, e.g. Gupta (1971), Gonda (1977b: 60-61) and Colas (1996: 114).
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
V: Serpents 7, the Moon, Sri 2, Yama, Parvati, Sarasvati,
Varua, Viu 1.
VI: Skanda 12, the Sun 1.
VII: the Sun 12.
VIII: Durga 5, Siva 4, Mats 3, Indra 1.
IX: Durga 6, Mats 4, Gayatri 2, Directions, Takaka 1.
X: Yama 4, Serpents 3, Directions 2, the Moon, Brahma,
Dhanada, Indra 1.
XI: Munis 4, Rudra/Siva, Visve deva 2, Bull, Dhanada, Viu 1.
XII: Viu 11, Serpents 1, Kama 1.
XIII: Kama 7, Yama 3, Mahesvara 1.
XIV: Siva 8, Pits, Brahma, Kali, Yakas 1.
XV: Brahma 4, Pits 2, Directions, Indra, Siva, the Moon 1.
Even if the deities assigned to each tithi vary more or less widely in
the enumerations in the puraa texts, we can observe that particular
deities are statistically more often associated with certain tithis. When
we pick out deities that are associated with certain tithis most often, we
have the following artificial list of the presiding deities of the tithis
extracted from the materials gathered in the puraas: 1. Agni or Brahma
or Kubera, 2. Sri, 3. Uma/Parvati, 4. Gaesa, 5. Serpents, 6. Skanda,
7. the Sun, 8. Durga, 9. Durga, 10. Yama, 11. Sages, 12. Viu, 13. Kama,
14. Siva, 15. Brahma. A comparison with the presiding deities given in
the Bhatsahita and with those found in this artificial list, shows that it
is only the presiding god of the sixth tithi, Skanda, and that of the thir-
teenth tithi, Kama, who appear in both lists. The list of the presiding
deities in the puraas is so different from that of the Bhatsahita that
we can rather safely assert that there have been at least two traditions of
presiding deities of the tithis, the one handed down through the astro-
logical texts represented by the Bhatsahita, and the other recorded in
many puraa texts, though showing some variations
20
.
106 S. EINOO
20
In my artificial list Brahma together with Agni and Kubera appears for the first tithi
as in the list of the Bhatsahita. The Moon is listed in two passages of the puraas in the
statistical table as the deity of the fifth tithi just like in the Bhatsahita. Rudra for the 11.
tithi and Yakas for the 14. tithi in the list of Bhaanarayaa are recorded in the statisti-
cal table of the puraa twice and once for these two tithis respectively. So when we take
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
The texts belonging to the ghyaparisia level contain, as far as I have
seen, twenty-eight instances of the relationship between tithis and
deities. In the following I list them in accordance with the number of ref-
erences to the deities.
Viu
7th and 12th tithis (bali-offerings to Viu in BodhGS 1.11.2, AgnGS 2.5.7
and HirGSS 1.3.15 [34,19-20]).
11th tithi (bali-offerings to Narayaa in AsvGPS 3.15)
11th and 12th tithis (installation ceremony of the image of Viu in Bod-
hGSS 2.13.1)
12th tithi (worship of Viu for obtaining offspring in AgnGS 2.5.6 and
gvidh 3.26.1, bali-offerings to Narayaa in AgnGS 3.11.4 and
BodhGSS 3.20.1, worship of Viu in BodhGSS 3.7.1, AVPS 18b.8.1
and gvidh 3.26.4)
Rudra
4th, 8th, and 14th tithis (installation ceremony of the image of Rudra in
BodhGSS 2.16.1)
8th tithi (worship of Rudra in BodhGS 3.8.1 and BodhGSS 3.15.1)
8th and 14th tithis (a rite to avert an untimely death in AgnGS 2.5.4)
14th tithi (worship of Rudra in HirGSS 1.5.9 and gvidh 1.30.4cd-31.2ab)
Skanda/Dhurta
6th tithi (worship of Dhurta in AVPS 20.1.3)
7th and 13th tithis (bali-offerings to Dhurta in BodhGSS 4.2.1)
the Sun god
7th tithi (in BodhGSS 2.5.1)
Upasruti
4th, 8th, and 14th tithis (worship of Upasruti in BodhGSS 3.4.1)
Durga
9th tithi (festival of Durga in AVPS 18b.2.4)
Serpents
5th tithi (bali-offerings to the Serpents in AsvGPS 3.16)
Yama
8th and 14th tithis (in gvidh 3.7.1-2)
CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 107
these facts into consideration, it is true that the degree of variations between two kinds of
list decreases a little more.
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
Vinayaka
4th or 5th tithi (worship of Vinayaka in BodhGSS 3.10.1)
Sri
5th tithi (worship of Sri in BodhGSS 3.5.2)
Sarasvati
13th tithi (worship of Sarasvati in BodhGSS 3.6.1)
Most of the passages regard the twelfth tithi as that belonging to
Viu just as do the puraa texts, but two texts connect the eleventh tithi
with Viu. In the puraa texts, when the presiding deities are enumer-
ated it is always the twelfth tithi which is presided over by Viu. But,
as P.V. Kane discusses in great detail, the eleventh tithi is said to be dear
to Viu and fasting on this day is highly meritorious especially for the
followers of Viu (Kane 1974: 95-117), so it can be supposed that in
the course of time the shift from the twelfth to the eleventh occurred
regarding the tithi of Viu.
The determination of Rudra/Siva's tithi is more uncertain. The choice
is left to us between the eighth and fourteenth tithis. The same choice
between these two tithis is given also in the case of Upasruti, a goddess
of the night
21
, and Yama, the god of death. The fourteenth tithi of the
dark half of the month is determined for a rite performed with the inten-
tion of destroying the enemy in gvidh 2.3.5-4.4, Samavidh 2.6.16 and
3.6.12. The apamtyujayakalpa, a rite to ward off the fear of an
untimely death, is performed either on the eighth or the fourteenth tithi.
Thus these eighth and fourteenth tithis show an association with such
ominous things as death, night, sorcery, etc., and this aspect of these two
108 S. EINOO
21
The ominous character of Upasruti can be understood from her appearance in the
mantra used at the offering of mustard seeds into the fire of childbirth, e.g. in JaimGS 1.8
[8,1]; HirGS 2.3.7; AgnGS 2.1.3 [47,8]; ParGS 1.16.23 where she is mentioned among
many demons threatening a newly born child. Upasruti is a goddess to be worshipped in
the upasrutikalpa described in BodhGSS 3.4 and HirGSS 1.6.10 [81,11-25]. Regarding
the object of this ceremony P.N.U. Harting says: I do not understand the real meaning of
the interesting but enigmatic ceremony which is described' (Harting 1922: XXII). On the
basis of the Vasantaraja, P.V. Kane suggests the connection of Upasruti with a rite of
prognostication and refers to the Padmapuraa, Patalakhaa chap. 100 verses 62-166'
where in verse 79 the word upasruti appears (Kane 1977: 809-12). For Upasruti in the
Mahabharata, see Hopkins (1915: 130-131).
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
tithis brings them into a relationship with two dreadful deities, viz.,
Rudra/Siva and Durga/Kali in the puraa texts.
Besides the 7th and the 13th tithis, the sixth tithi is assigned to
Skanda/Dhurta as in the Bhatsahita and the puraas.
Apart from the tithis connected with Viu, Rudra/Siva and
Skanda/Dhurta, we have here in the texts belonging to the Ghyaparisia
level a single source of information for the relation between other pre-
siding deities and tithis. Besides Sarasvati, whose rite is to be performed
on the thirteenth tithi, other deities are assigned almost to the same tithis
as in the puraa texts
22
. As we have ascertained above, there is no men-
tion of the presiding deities of tithis by name in the ghyasutras proper,
so we can perhaps safely conclude that it is in the texts belonging to the
ghyaparisia level that we have the first mentions of the presiding
deities of the tithis, which, though not containing the complete fifteen
tithis, correspond more or less exactly to the descriptions in the puraa
texts.
It is necessary, however, to point out several facts that show the float-
ing situation of the tradition of the presiding deities of tithis in the tran-
sitional period from the time of the ghyasutras proper to that of the
ghyaparisias. For instance, BodhGS 1.11.1-14, AgnGS 2.5.7, and
HirGSS 1.3.15 prescribe the seventh and twelfth tithis as dates of per-
formance of the bali-offerings to Viu (viubali), but the BodhGS
1.10.13-17, that is, in a passage just before that mentioned above,
describes the viubali succinctly mentioning only that this rite is to be
performed in the eighth month after the pregnancy. It means that Bod-
hGS 1.11 describes the same rite repeatedly or in an additional way
again after BodhGS 1.10.13-17. Moreover, this additional BodhGS 1.11
is the last chapter of the first book of the Bodhayana Ghyasutra, and it
contains several elements of the puja ceremony, a newly developed,
CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 109
22
The fifth tithi that is associated with Sri in BodhGSS 3.5.2 is assigned also to Sri
two times in the puraas. In several puraas we have the description of an annual festival
called sripancami or the fifth (tithi) for Sri. P. V. Kane (1974b: 432-433) describes four
kinds of sripancami. He refers to Bhaviya Puraa 4.37.1-58 for the first kind of this fes-
tival. For the third one we can add Bhaddharma Puraa 1.15.41 and for the fourth one
Bhaddharma Puraa 1.16.1-2, Nilamata 644-646 and Viudharmottara Puraa
3.221.42cd. The first type of the sripancami is referred to in Kalika Puraa 88.21 and
Skanda Puraa 7.1.132.8 and 290.40.
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
post-Vedic method of worshipping gods
23
. So we can assume, with
P.N.U. Harting (1922: XVIII), that this BodhGS 1.11 is a later interpo-
lation belonging to the same milieu as the AgnGS 2.5.7 and HirGSS
1.3.14, namely to the ghyaparisia level. By the way, this viubali is
also prescribed in VaikhGS 3.13 without any reference to its date of per-
formance, it means that the viubali in VaikhGS 3.13 still belongs to
the older tradition of the ghyasutras proper.
A rite called vinayakakalpa or worship of Vinayaka is described in
Manava Ghyasutra 2.14, Santikalpa 2.4-9 and Yajnavalkyasmti 1.271-
294
24
. As the first description of the vinayakakalpa is that of the Manava
Ghyasutra, a text of the ghyasutra proper, it is natural that we do not
find any mention of tithis for the date of its performance. BodhGSS 3.10
and HirGSS 1.6.16 also describe the vinayakakalpa. The name of this
rite is the same with that of the Manava Ghyasutra but its ritual proce-
dure is greatly different and these two texts mention either the fourth of
fifth tithi of the bright half of the month as its day of performance, the
fourth tithi being later regarded as the tithi of Vinayaka/Gaesa. Thus
the determination of the day of performance of worship of certain deity
according to the tithi assigned to this deity can be observed only in the
texts belonging to the ghyaparisia and the later texts like many
puraas
25
.
AgnGS 2.4.11 describes the ravikalpa, the worship of the Sun god,
BodhGSS 1.21 and HirGSS 1.6.5 the Yamayajna, BodhGSS 3.3 and
HirGSS 1.6.9 the durgakalpa, but in their prescriptions there is no men-
tion of the tithis as a date for performance, even though these works
belong to the ghyaparisia level.
110 S. EINOO
23
For the formation and development of the puja ceremony, see Einoo (1996: 73-87).
24
See Gonda (1980: 438-439). For further references see Gonda's note 72 on page
438. See further Kane (1977: 748-749).
25
So it is easily understandable that the festival of bathing of Vinayaka on the fourth
tithi (vinayakasnapanacaturthivrata) in Bhaviya Puraa 1.23.1-31 and 4.32.1-30 is to be
performed on the fourth tithi of the bright half of the month, even if this festival reflects,
according to Kane (1974b: 409), the influence of the rite described in the Yajnaval-
kyasmti. On the other hand, the bathing of Vinayaka (vinayakasnana) in Viudhar-
mottara Puraa 2.105.1-26, which also has many elements common to that of the Yaj-
navalkyasmti, has no mention of the tithi as its date of the performance, even if it appears
in the puraa.
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
Thus, the concept of the presiding deities of the tithis had not perme-
ated thoroughly among the ghyaparisias, but it is sure that in the
ghyaparisias we can find some first sporadic references to the rela-
tionship between the tithis and their presiding deities, and in some cases
this relationship plays a decisive role in determining the day of perfor-
mance of a rite for a certain deity.
3. GUARDIANS OF THE DIRECTIONS
In today's India, we sometimes come across the idea of the eight
guardians of the directions (dikpalas) or the eight guardians of the
worlds (lokapalas). According to it the east is protected by or associated
with Indra. The deities which are assigned to the remaining seven direc-
tions are as follows: Agni to the southeast, Yama to the south, Nirti to
the southwest, Varua to the west, Vayu to the northwest, Soma or
Kubera to the north and Isana to the northeast. They play a very impor-
tant role in the post-Vedic rituals. In the second part of this article I will
trace the development of the idea of the eight guardians of the directions
by consulting the Vedic and post-Vedic ritual texts.
From the time of the Atharvaveda there have been handed down
mantras that are used in ritual actions performed repeatedly to all direc-
tions. In these mantras we see correlations between the gods and the
points of the compass. These correlations are far from being unanimous,
however. The number of mantras is either six or five. In the case of six
mantras, they are dedicated to the gods presiding over the four cardinal
points and the upper and lower directions; in the case of five, the mantra
for the lower direction is omitted. Below are some examples of the cor-
relations between the directions and the deities.
AV 3.27.1-6 TS 5.5.10.1-2 KS 7.2 [64,11-16]
East Agni Agni Agni
South Indra Indra Indra
West Varua Soma Soma
North Soma Varua Mitra/Varua
Upper Bhaspati Bhaspati Bhaspati
Lower Viu Yama Aditi
CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 111
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
TS 1.8.7.1-2 MS 1.5.4 [71,9-14] MS 4.9.5 [125,4-9]
East Agni Agni Agni, Vasus
South Yama Indra Pit, Pits
West Savit Maruts Savit, Adityas
North Varua Mitra/Varua Mitra/Varua, Maruts
Upper Bhaspati Soma Bhaspati, Visve deva
In these examples the god of the east is always Agni, the god of the
upper direction is, with one exception, Bhaspati, and the south is mostly
dedicated to Indra. One mantra given in AV 19.17.1-10 deals with the
ten directions, namely the four cardinal and four intermediate directions
and the upper and lower ones. The four cardinal directions are indicated
by proper terms but the four intermediate directions are indicated only
by etasya disa from this direction'. The relationship between the direc-
tions and the gods given there is as follows: east, Agni and Vasus;
southeast, Vayu and Antarika; south, Soma and Rudras; southwest,
Varua and Adityas; west, Surya and Heaven and Earth; northwest,
Waters and Herbs; north, Visvakarma and Seven Seers; northeast: Indra
and Maruts; upper, Bhaspati and Visve deva; lower, Prajapati. Many
other passages further indicate the relationship between the directions
and gods but they vary largely
26
.
In sections 91 and 92 in his Epic Mythology E. W. Hopkins discusses
the problem of the World-Protectors and summarizes his discussion as
follows (Hopkins 1915: 152):
There are then the following groups of epic Lokapalas:
East Agni Kubera Agni Kubera Indra
South Yama Yama Yama Yama Yama
West Varua Varua Varua Varua Varua
North Indra Indra Soma Soma Kubera.
112 S. EINOO
26
In V 10.131.1 the four cardinal points are enumerated in a prayer for protection
(Gonda 1980b: 48). For other examples see further, e.g. AV 4,40; 12.3; 15.2; 4; 5; 6;
14; 18.3.25-35; 19.17; 18. TS 1.2.12.2; 6.5.1-2; 4.4.2.1-3; 6.1.5.1; 2.7.4-5. MS 2.13.21
[166,13-167,13]; 3.6.1 [60,1-3]; [60,7-16]; 4.1.10 [13,14-14,2]. KS 23.8 [83,16-20]. VS
9.35. TB 1.6.3.7-8; 3.11.5.1-3. SB 1.2.5.17; 3.1.1.6-7; 5.4.1.3-7; 8.3.1.2; 13.5.4.24;
14.2.2.28. See further, e.g. Heesterman (1957: 31), Gonda (1980b: 48-49), Kuiper (1979:
52-58), and Kuiper (1983: 47-48).
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
The representatives of South and West are constant. Agni and Kubera
and Indra are assigned to the East; Indra, Kubera, and Soma to the
North.
Just at the beginning of his discussion, however, he speaks of the
eight gods presiding over the eight directions as follows (Hopkins 1915:
149):
The eight gods discussed above are grouped in later literature as
guardians of the four chief and four subsidiary directions, the Sun-god of
the South-West, the Moon-god of the North-East, the Wind-god of the
North-West, the Fire-god of the South-East, and for cardinal points, Yama
of the South, Varua of the West, Kubera of the North, and Indra of the
East. The exact district assigned to each is not specified so early as are the
names. Thus the eight are found as Lokapalas in Manu 5,96, but without
indication of the localities assigned to the individuals. On the other hand
some late authorities make Nirti the guardian of the South-West, instead
of the Sun; and Pthivi or Siva Isana the guardian of the North-East,
instead of the Moon-god.
W. Kirfel, in his Die Kosmographie der Inder, p. 95, gives the fol-
lowing list of the guardians of the directions: east, Indra; southeast,
Agni; south, Yama; southwest, Virupaka (Kurma Puraa., Linga
Puraa.: Nirti); west, Varua; northwest, Vayu; north, Soma (Varaha
Puraa.: Kubera); northeast, Isana (Linga Puraa.: Rudra, Kurma
Puraa.: Sakara). Thus in later literature, such as the puraas, it is an
established fact that there are eight guardians of the cardinal and inter-
mediate directions, and lists of them show only minor variation
27
.
In the ritual texts from the ghyasutras onwards we can trace a devel-
opment of the concept of these eight deities of the directions. In the
ghyasutras there are many occasions where a ritual action is performed
repeatedly towards the directions. In his Vedic Ritual, J. Gonda dis-
cusses this point by collecting many passages from various ghyasutras
and other texts (Gonda 1980: 57). In his discussion he refers to twenty
passages. Of these passages quoted by Gonda it is only in AgnGS 2.5.1,
CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 113
27
According to D.C. Sircar The earliest epigraphical reference to the Brahmanical
Dikpalas (guardians of the quarters) or Lokapalas (protectors of the worlds) is found in
the Nanaghat inscription of queen Naganika of the Satavahana dynasty, who seems to
have flourished about the close of the first century B. C.' (Sircar 1971: 239).
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
AVPS 25.1.3ff., and Samavidh 3.3.5 that reference to the eight
guardians of the directions is made. In other cases there is no mention of
them. And these three texts are, in my opinion, texts belonging to the
ghyaparisia level. From this we can, at first, certainly conclude that in
the ghyasutras proper, the concept of the four or the eight guardians of
the quarters was not fully established
28
.
In describing an ceremony performed on the occasion of annual sus-
pension of a Vedic study in autumn (utsarjana), BodhGS 3.9.3 mentions
five kings, Indra, Yama, Varua, Soma, and Vaisravaa as follows:
I arrange (a seat) for Brahma, for Prajapati, for Bhaspati, for Agni, for
Vayu, for the Sun, for the Moon, for the lunar mansions, for the seasons,
for the year (savatsara), for the king Indra, for the king Yama, for the
king Varua, for the king Soma, for the king Vaisravaa, for the Vasus,
for the Rudras, for the Adityas, for the Visve deva, for the Sadhya
deva'
29
. It is doubtful that here Indra, Yama, Varua, Soma, and Vais-
ravaa are referred to as deities of the directions. It is worth noticing,
however, that here five candidates of the four presiding deities of the
directions are enumerated at one place in the same order of the positions
which they later take over
30
.
In the ghyasutras proper, however, we have a distinct reference to the
four guardians of the cardinal points together with a fifth god related to
the centre in the description of the vaisvadeva, a daily offering of por-
tions of food to the various gods in different places in a house twice in
the morning and evening
31
. The text of AsvGS 1.2.5-6, for instance,
reads as follows:
114 S. EINOO
28
As cases where a certain ritual action is performed repeatedly towards the directions
without mentioning the four or eight deities of the directions, we can add further, e.g.
KausS 49.7-8; AsvGS 1.23.14-15; 4.9.21-22; SankhGS 4.6.5; KahGS 24.12; ManGS
2.15.1; BharGS 2.22 [55,12-14]; HirGS 1.4.5; 7.10; 2.6.7.
29
BodhGS 3.9.3 brahmae kalpayami prajapataye bhaspataye agnaye vayave
suryaya candramase nakatrebhya tubhya savatsaraya indraya rajne yamaya rajne
varuaya rajne somaya rajne vaisravaaya rajne vasubhya rudrebhya adityebhya
visvebhyo devebhya sadhyebhyo devebhya.
30
The same enumeration of these five kings is given also in BharGS 3.9 [76,10-12]
and HirGS 2.8.19.1 in the same context of the description of the utsarjana.
31
See SankhGS 2.14.6-7, AsvGS 1.2.5-6, ManGS 2.12.12-16, and KahGS 54.11-
16.
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
5. To Indra and Indra's men, to Yama and Yama's men, to Varua and
Varua's men, to Soma and Soma's men these (oblations he makes) to
the different quarters (of the horizon, of which those are the presiding
deities). 6. To Brahman and Brahman's men in the middle. (Oldenberg
1886: 161)
In order to have a full list of the eight guardians, it is first necessary
to have certain gods assigned to the intermediate directions of the hori-
zon. In the rite for the building of a house GobhGS 4.7.36 enumerates
gods of the ten directions, viz., the eight directions and the lower and
upper directions. They are, beginning with the east, Indra, Vayu, Yama,
Pits, Varua, Maharaja, Soma, Mahendra, Vasuki, and Brahma
32
. Here
the four gods related to the four intermediate directions, viz., Vayu,
Pits, Maharaja, and Mahendra, are wholly different from those in the
later standard list.
It is again in the description of the vaisvadeva that a reference of the
gods of the intermediate regions is found, viz., BodhGS 2.8.36-37:
36. Now to the cardinal points: To the eastern direction, svaha.' To the
southern direction svaha.' To the western direction, svaha.' To the north-
ern direction, svaha.' To the upper direction, svaha.' To the lower direc-
tion, svaha.' 37. Now to the intermediate directions: To Yama, svaha.'
To Nirti, svaha.' To the Rakas, svaha.' To Isana, svaha.'
33
In the mantras uttered in the offerings to the four cardinal points there
is no mention of the names of the god, but in the offerings to the inter-
mediate directions, four gods, viz., Yama, Nirti, Rakas, and Isana, are
allotted perhaps to the south-east, south-west, north-west, and north-east
respectively, of which already Nirti and Isana occupy the same posi-
tions as in the late list of the eight guardians of the directions.
CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 115
32
As S. Konow suggests, the same list of these ten gods appears also in the Samavidh
3.3.7 [169,7-12] (Konow 1893: 69). gvidh 4.26.3 gives a slightly different list: suryo
vayur yama pitaro varuo nirtis tatha / somo mahendra ity ete diku vai devata smta
//'; Surya (the Sun), Vayu (Wind), Yama, the Forefathers, Varua and Nirti (Destruc-
tion), Soma (the Moon) and the great Indra, these are the divinities who are traditionally
held (v.l.: praised) as (presiding) in the quarters of the sky.' (Gonda 1951: 123)
33
BodhGS 2.8.36-37 atha diku pracyai dise svaha, dakiayai dise svaha, praticyai
dise svaha, urdhvayai dise svaha, adharayai dise svaha iti /36/ athavantaradiku yamaya
svaha, nirtyai svaha, rakobhyas svaha, isanaya svaha /37/
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
In the description of the vaisvadeva BharGS 3.13-14 [81,5-17] enjoins
a curious usage of the mantras as follows:
13. Now he pours down the bali offering clockwise: To the eastern direc-
tion, svaha.' To the southern direction, svaha.' To the western direction,
svaha.' To the northern direction, svaha.' To the upper direction, svaha.'
To the direction of Agni, svaha.' To the direction of Nirti, svaha.' To
the direction of Vayu, svaha.' To the direction of Isana, svaha.' To
Brahma, svaha. To Prajapati, svaha.' Thus in the middle. 14. In the east:
To Indra, svaha. To Indra's men, svaha.' In the south: To Yama, svaha.
To Yama's men, svaha.' In the west: To Varua, svaha. To Varua's
men, svaha.' In the north: To Soma, svaha. To Soma's men, svaha.' In the
east: To Agni, svaha.' In the south: To Yama, svaha.' In the west: To
Varua, svaha.' In the north: To Soma, svaha.' In the north-eastern place:
To the seven Seers, svaha. To the all beings, svaha.'
34
What is remarkable here is that in the latter half of sutra 13, four
offerings are prescribed by using the names of the gods of the interme-
diate directions and these four names, namely Agni, Nirti, Vayu and
Isana, correspond perfectly to the names of the standard list of the eight
guardians of the directions. Moreover, BharGS 3.13-14 seems to lay
down the employment of three groups of mantras: the first group of
mantras are those given in sutra 13; the second, those given in the first
half of sutra 14; and the third, those given in the second half of sutra 14,
beginning with To Agni, svaha.' The second group corresponds to
those mantras given, e.g. in AsvGS 1.2.3, as mentioned above, and the
first group has its counterpart in the mantras given in BodhGS 2.8.36.
The third group of mantras seems to belong to the more archaic tradition
according to which the east is related to Agni. This part of the prescrip-
tion of the vaisvadeva of the BharGS seems, thus, a compilation of three
different traditions, and the four mantras used in the offerings to the four
116 S. EINOO
34
BharGS 3.13-14 [81,5-17] atha pradakia bali ninayati pracyai dise svaha
dakiayai dise svaha praticyai dise svahodicyai dise svahordhvayai dise svahagneyyai
dise svaha nairtyai dise svaha vayavyai dise svahaisanyai dise svaha brahmae svaha
prajapataye svaheti madhye /13/ indraya svahendrapuruebhya svaheti purastad
yamaya svaha yamapuruebhya svaheti dakiato varuaya svaha varuapuruebhyas
svaheti pascat somaya svaha somapuruebhya svahety uttarato gnaye svaheti purastad
yamaya svaheti dakiato varuaya svaheti pascat somaya svahety uttarata
saptaribhya svaha sarvabhutebhya svahety uttarapurve dese /14/
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
intermediate directions are probably a further, later addition to this com-
pilation of the three traditions.
The mantras prescribed by AgnGS 1.7.2 and VaikhGS 3.7 for the use
in the vaisvadeva are more easily explainable. They read as follows:
AgnGS 1.7.2 [41,18-20] To Brahma and Brahma's men, to Indra and
Indra's men, to Agni, to Yama and Yama's men, to Nirti, to Varua and
Varua's men, to Vayu, to Soma and Soma's men, to Isana.
VaikhGS 3.7 [40,19-41,3] Homage to Indra, homage to Indra's men,
homage to Yama, homage to Yama's men, homage to Varua, homage to
Varua's men, homage to Soma, homage to Soma's men, homage to Agni,
homage to Nirti, homage to Vayu, homage to Isana
35
.
Both of them make use of the mantras handed down, e.g. by AsvGS
1.2.3. The AgnGS 1.7.2 intersperses the mantras for the four gods of the
intermediate directions into the whole collection in their due order,
whereas the VaikhGS 3.7 adds them after the mantras dedicated to the
gods of the four cardinal points.
Now we have good reason to believe that already in these two ghya-
sutras the tradition of the eight guardians of the directions are fully
established: in AgnGS 1.5.1 [26,11-12] there is a collection of mantras
using these gods: Homage to Inra, homage to Agni, homage to Yama,
homage to Nirti, homage to Varua, homage to Vayu, homage to Soma,
homage to Isana'
36
, and these mantras are used in AgnGS 1.6.3 [39,12-
13] in the description of the wedding ceremony. VaikhGS 1.4 [5,6-9]
has a set of mantras: I satisfy Indra, I satisfy Yama, I satisfy Varua, I
satisfy Kubera, I satisfy Agni, I satisfy Nirti, I satisfy Vayu, I satisfy
Isana'
37
. In these two texts the directions are indicated by using the
names of these deities
38
.
CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 117
35
AgnGS 1.7.2 [41,18-20] brahmae brahmapuruebhya indrayendrapuruebhyo
gnaye yamaya yamapuruebhyo nirtyai varuaya varuapuruebhyo vayave somaya
somapuruebhya isanaya. VaikhGS 3.7 [40,19-41,3] indraya nama indrapuruebhyo namo
yamaya namo yamapuruebhyo namo varuaya namo varuapuruebhyo nama somaya
nama somapuruebhyo namo gnaye namo nirtaye namo vayave nama isanaya nama.
36
AgnGS 1.5.1 [26,11-12] indraya nama / agnaye nama / yamaya nama / nirtaye
nama / varuaya nama / vayave nama / somaya nama / isanaya nama /
37
VaikhGS 1.4 [5,6-9] indra tarpayami yama tarpayami varua tarpayami
kubera tarpayamy agni tarpayami nirti tarpayami vayu tarpayamisana tarpayami.
38
See, e.g. VaikhGS 1.9 [10,3-4]; 4.13 [65,14-15]. AgnGS 2.4.11 [73,16-19]; 5.1
[77,5-9]; 3.4.4 [137,13-14].
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
I would like to mention only a few examples of references to the eight
guardians of the directions found in the ghyaparisia texts
39
. BodhGSS
1.8.3 [199,14-15] and HirGSS 1.4.7 [42,19] give a definition of the eight
guardians of the directions: Indra, Agni, Yama, Nirti, Varua, Vayu,
Soma and Isana are eight deities of the directions
40
. AVPS 25.1.3-8
refers to the fire altars (kuas) of these eight gods. There are collections
of mantras for these eight dikpalas, e.g. in ManSS 11.7.1.7; AVPS
36.1.5-11; BodhGSS 1.16.30; 4.18.5; 4.20.5 [377,9-14]; HirGSS 1.2.11
[15,13-16]; AsvGPS 2.7 [157,14-20]; 2.8 [158,9-12]
41
.
We thus can conclude that in the ghyasutras proper the tradition of
the eight guardians of the directions is not yet established, but a list of
the gods of the four cardinal points is already known. We can find ritual
application of the gods of the four cardinal points, however, only in the
case of the description of the vaisvadeva in five or, if the BharGS is
included, six ghyasutras; in other cases where a certain action is per-
formed repeatedly to the different directions, mantras that have nothing
to do with these guardians of the directions are used. The tradition of the
118 S. EINOO
39
In the texts belonging to the ghyaparisia level there are cases where the four
intermediate directions are not mentioned. See, e.g. a collection of five mantras of invo-
cation for Brahma, Indra, Yama, Varua and Soma in BodhGSS 4.18.5 and a collection
of mantras of Indra, Yama, Varua, Kubera, Vasuki (the lower direction), and Soma (the
upper direction) in AVPS 36.1.6-11. There is another example showing that the four
intermediate directions do not come to the fore. AVPS 67 classifies various adbhutas or
ominous phenomena into ten groups which are then related to ten different gods, viz.,
Indra, Varua, Yama, Agni, Vaisravaa, Viu, Vayu, Soma, Rudra, and Surya, and AdB
3-12 and AsvGPS 4.12-18 further associate these ten gods with ten regions, viz., Indra,
east; Varua, west; Yama, south; Agni, earth; Vaisravaa, north; Viu, the highest sky
(AsvGPS, all regions); Vayu, atmosphere; Soma, sky (AsvGPS, night); Rudra, the lower
region; and Surya, all regions (AsvGPS, sky). Regions besides the four cardinal points
are earth, atmosphere, sky, the highest sky, and all regions, so there is no assignment of
gods to the subsidiary directions. See also Santikalpa 6.5-19 where mention of eight gods
presiding over the eight directions is made: east, Indra; south, Yama; west, Varua;
north, Soma; fixed direction, Viu; intermediate direction, Vayu; all directions,
Brahma, but in the mention of the directions the four intermediate directions and their
associated deities do not appear.
40
BodhGSS 1.8.3 [199,14-15], HirGSS 1.4.7 [42,19] indragniyamanirtivaruavayu-
somesana aa digdevatyam.
41
In the puraas we find collections of the mantras of the eight guardians of the direc-
tions, for example, in Agni Puraa 56.17cd-31; Linga Puraa 2.48.18-25, and Matsya
Puraa 266.19cd-29ab; 274.42-49.
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
eight guardians of the directions is fully introduced for the first time in
the texts belonging to the ghyaparisia level, beginning with the
AgnGS and VaikhGS.
4. CONCLUSION
In the present paper two conceptions of time and space are discussed:
the idea of the correlation between the tithis and their presiding deities
on the one hand and the idea of the eight guardians of the directions on
the other. Both of them share a common feature that they are not known
in the Vedic ritual texts but fully established in the post-Vedic ritual
texts like the puraas. Between the Vedic and the post-Vedic ritual texts
there are a group of ritual texts most of which are supplementary
(parisia) to the Vedic ghyasutras. These ghyaparisia texts can be
dated very roughly between several centuries B.C. and the sixth century
A.D. And it is in these texts belonging to the ghyaparisia level that
both the correlation between the tithis and their presiding deities and the
idea of the eight guardians of the directions appear for the first time.
SELECTED LIST OF SANSKRIT TEXTS
AdB: Adbhuta Brahmaa.
See Weber 1859.
AgnGS: Agnivesya Ghyasutra.
Agnivesyaghyasutra edited by L. A. Ravi Varma. Trivandrum Sanskrit
Series, No. CXLIV. Trivandrum: University of Travancore. 1940.
ApGS: Apastamba Ghyasutra.
Apastamba-Ghya-Sutra with the Anakula' Commentary of Sri Haradatta
Misra, The Tatparyadarsana' Commentary of Sri Sudarsanacarya and
Notes in Sanskrit, ed. by Umesh Chandra Pandey. Varanasi, The Chow-
khamba Sanskrit Series Office. 1971.
ApSS: Apastamba Srautasutra.
The Srauta Sutra of Apastamba belonging to the Taittiriya Sahita with
the Commentary of Rudradatta. Edited by R. Garbe. Vol. I. Prasna 1-7.
Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1882.
CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 119
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
AV: Atharvaveda.
Atharva Veda Sanhita. Herausgegeben von R. Roth/ W. D. Whitney. Bonn:
Ferd. Dmmlers Verlag. 1966.
AVPS: Atharvaveda Parisia.
The Parisias of the Atharvaveda. Edited by G. M. Bolling and J. von
Negelein. Parts I and II. Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz. 1909 and 1910.
AsvGPS: Asvalayaniya Ghyaparisia.
Asvalayanaghyasutram. Ananda Ashrama Sanskrit Series, No. 105,
pp. 141-183.
BaudhSS: Baudhayana Srautasutra.
The Baudhayana Srauta Sutra belonging to the Taittiriya Sahita. 3 vols.
Calcutta: The Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1904-1924.
BharGS: Bharadvaja Ghyasutra.
The Domestic Ritual according to the School of Bharadvaja, ed. by H.J.W.
Salomons, Leiden. 1913.
BodhGS: Bodhayana Ghyasutra.
Bodhayanaghyasutram of Bodhayanamahari. Edited by L. Srinivasachar
and R. Shama Sastri. Mysore: Oriental Research Institute. 1983.
BodhGSS: Bodhayana Ghyaseasutra.
Bodhayanaghyasutram of Bodhayanamahari. Edited by L. Srinivasachar
and R. Shama Sastri. Mysore: Oriental Research Institute. 1983, pp. 187-
400.
GobhGS: Gobhila Ghyasutra.
Gobhilaghyasutram with Bhaanarayaa's Commentary. Critically edited
from original Manuscripts with Notes and Indices by Chintamani Bhat-
tacharya. Metropolitan Printing and Publishing House, 1936. (Repr. New
Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1982)
HirGS: Hirayakesi Ghyasutra.
Satyaahaviracita Srautasutram. Ananda Ashrama Sanskrit Series, 53-8.
1929.
HirGSS: Hirayakesi Ghyaseasutra.
Satyaahaviracita Srautasutram. Ananda Ashrama Sanskrit Series, 53-8,
pp. 1-126 after p. 654. 1929.
HirSS: Hirayakesi Srautasutra.
Satyaahaviracita Srautasutram. Ananda Ashrama Sanskrit Series, 53-1.
1907.
JaimGS: Jaimini Ghyasutra.
The Jaiminighyasutra belonging to the Samaveda with Extracts from the
Commentary edited with an Introduction and translated for the first time
120 S. EINOO
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
into English by Dr. W. Caland. Lahore: The Punjab Sanskrit Book Depot.
1922.
KahGS: Kahaka Ghyasutra.
The Kahakaghyasutra with Extracts from three Commentaries, an Appen-
dix and Indexes. Edited for the first Time by Dr. Willem Caland. 1925.
Lahore: The Research Department, D. A. V. College.
KatySS: Katyayana Srautasutra.
The Srautasutra of Katyayana with Extracts from the Commentaries of
Karka and Yajnikadeva. Edited by A. Weber. Varanasi: The Chowkhamba
Sanskrit Series Office. 1972.
KausS: Kausikasutra.
The Kausika Sutra of Atharva Veda. With extracts from the Commentaries
of Darila and Kesava. Edited by M. Bloomfield. (Rep. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass. 1972.)
ManGS: Manava Ghyasutra.
Manavaghyasutra of the Maitrayaiya Sakha. With the Commentary of
Aavakra. Edited with an Indtroduction, Indexes, etc. by Ramakrishna
Harshaji Sastri. New Delhi: Panini. 1980.
ManSS: The Manava Srautasutra belonging to the Maitrayai Sahita. Edited
by Jeannette M. van Gelder. New Delhi. 1961.
gvidh: gvidhana.
gvidhanam. Edidit cum Praefatione. Rudolf Meyer. Berlin: Ferd. Dmm-
lers Verlagsbuchhandlung. 1878. See also Bhat 1987.
Samavidh: Samavidhana Brahmaa.
Samavidhana Brahmaa with Vedarthaprakasa of Sayaa and Padarthama-
travtti of Bharatasvamin. Critically edited by B. R. Sharma. Tirupati: Ken-
driya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha. 1964.
VaikhGS: Vaikhanasa Ghyasutra.
Vaikhanasasmartasutram, The Domestic Rules of the Vaikhanasa School
Belonging to the Black Yajurveda critically edited by Dr. W. Caland.
Calcutta: The Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1927.
VaikhSS: Vaikhanasa Srautasutra.
Vaikhanasa-Srautasutram. The Description of Vedic Rites according to the
Vaikhanasa School belonging to the Black Yajurveda. For the first Time
critically edited by W. Caland. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal. 1941.
VarGS: Varaha Ghyasutra.
Un Ritul Domestique Vdique. Le Varahaghyasutra. Traduit et annot par
Pierre Rolland. 1971. Publications Universitaires de Lettres et Sciences
Humaines d'Aix-en-Provence.
CHANGE IN THE CONCEPTIONS OF TIME AND SPACE 121
Journal Asiatique 293.1 (2005): 99-124
Santikalpa.
The Santikalpa of the Atharvaveda. By. G.M. Bolling. Journal of the
American Oriental Society, Vol. 33, 1913, pp. 265-78.
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SUMMARY
In the present paper two conceptions of time and space are discussed: the idea
of the correlation between the tithis and their presiding deities on the one hand
and the idea of the eight guardians of the directions on the other. Both of them
share a common feature that they are not known in the Vedic ritual texts but
fully established in the post-Vedic ritual texts like the puraas. Between the
Vedic and the post-Vedic ritual texts there are a group of ritual texts most of
which are supplementary (parisia) to the Vedic ghya sutras. These ghya
parisia texts can be dated very roughly between several centuries B.C. and the
sixth century A.D. And it is in these texts belonging to the ghya parisia level
that both the correlation between the tithis and their presiding deities and the
idea of the eight guardians of the directions appear for the first time.
Key-words: Post-Vedic ritual, ghya parisia, jour du calendrier lunaire (tithi),
gardiens des directions (dikpala), changes in Hindu ritual.
RSUM
Lauteur confronte ici deux conceptions du temps et de lespace. Dune part
lide de corrlation entre les jours du calendrier lunaire (tithi) et les divinits
qui les prsident et, dautre part, lide de gardiens des huit directions de le-
space. Inconnues des textes du rituel vdique, ces deux conceptions sont bien
tablies dans les textes rituels post-vdiques, tels les Puraa. Entre les textes rit-
uels vdiques et post-vdiques lon trouve une collection de textes dits suppl-
mentaires (parisia) qui sont une sorte douvrages annexes au ghyasutra
vdiques, remontant approximativement la priode comprise entre quelques
sicles avant notre re et le sixime sicle aprs. Cest dans ce groupe de textes
que lon trouve les deux conceptions analyses ici.
Mots clefs: Rituel post-vdique, supplment aux ghyasutra (ghya parisia),
jour du calendrier lunaire (tithi), gardiens des directions (dikpala), changement
du rituel hindou.
124 S. EINOO
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