335TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE EUROPEAN SOCIETY FOR THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE

Scientific cosmopolitanism and local cultures: religions, ideologies, societies

BOOK OF ABSTRACTS
ATHENS, 1-3 NOVEMBER 2012

Edited by

Gianna Katsiampoura
Published by

Institute of Historical Research/National Hellenic Research Foundation

Logo designed by

Nefeli Papaioannou
ISBN 978-960-9538-13-8

Committees
International Programme Committee
Chair Sona Strbanova Vice-Chair Efthymios Nicolaidis Members Fabio Bevilacqua, University of Pavia, Italy Maria Teresa Borgato, University of Ferrara, Italy Olivier Bruneau, Laboratoire d'Histoire des Sciences et de Philosophie LHSP - Archives Poincar, France Robert Fox, Museum of the History of Science, Oxford, United Kingdom Hermann Hunger, University of Vienna, Austria Helge Kragh, University of Aarhus, Denmark Ladislav Kvasz, Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia Maria-Rosa Massa-Esteve, Universitat Politcnica de Catalunya, Spain Erwin Neuenschwander, (Universitt Zrich, Switzerland Raffaele Pisano, Cirphles, cole Normale Suprieure, France/Research Centre for the Theory and History of Science, Czech Republic Maria Rentetzi, National Technical University of Athens, Greece Antoni Roca-Rosell, Universitat Politcnica de Catalunya, Spain Felicitas Seebacher, Alpen-Adria-University of Klagenfurt, Austria Milada Sekyrkov, Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic Ida Stamhuis, Vrije University, Netherlands va Vmos, Hungarian Museum for Science and Technology

Local Organizing Committee

Efthymios Nicolaidis, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens Constantine Skordoulis, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Aristeides Baltas, National Technical University of Athens Yanis Bitsakis, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Efthymios P. Bokaris, University of Ioannina Krystallia Halkia, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Gianna Katsiampoura, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens Eugenia Koleza, University of Patras Demitris Kolliopoulos, University of Patras Evangellia Mavrikaki, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens Kostas Nikolantonakis, University of Western Macedonia Christine Phili, National Technical University of Athens Maria Rentetzi, National Technical University of Athens Fanny Seroglou, University of Thessaloniki Vassilis Tselfes, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens George Vlahakis, Hellenic Open University, Patras

Conference Secretariat
Avgeri Danai Bakou Ersi-Eleni Balampekou Matina Chrysochou Polina Darmou Maria Exarchakos Kostas Kontotheodorou Kostas Koumanzelis Kostas Makrinos Kostas Oikonomidou Fani Skordoulis Dionysis Skoufoglou Manos Skoufoglou Nicholas Tampakis Kostas Vitsas Christos

Introduction
Welcome to the 5th International Conference of the European Society for the History of Science "Scientific cosmopolitanism and local cultures: religions, ideologies, societies"
Science as practice and culture has an international and ecumenical dimension. The Science of the Ancient Greek world dissipated in the Roman Empire and later in the Islamic world and Medieval Europe, the Science of the Islamic world was spread over Medieval Europe and Asia and in turn European science all over the world. The diffusion of scientific ideas is associated with scholars mobility. Scholars travel to teach, to learn or exchange ideas, often during periods when their homelands are in war with those visited. Byzantine astronomers were found in caliphs courts and Arab astronomers to Byzantine emperors courts during the Arab-Byzantium wars, Arab scientists travelled all over the Iberian Peninsula during the Islam-Christian conflicts, Catholic and Protestant scientists travelled all over Europe during the Religious Wars, French and British scientists maintained contacts during the wars between France and Britain etc. From the birth of science and all over its history, scientists in their majority seem to feel members of an international community. They seek for interlocutors without consideration of nationality or religion beliefs. This scientific cosmopolitanism often comes in conflict with local cultures. Greek science was considered as a vector of paganism by certain Fathers of Christian Church, European science was faced with suspicion in China, Japan or Eastern Europe. Traditional societies came often in conflict with new scientific ideas, originating mainly from Europe. Despite its cosmopolitan character, nationalism is not absent from science. Byzantine scholars felt proud to be the inheritors of Greek science, Chinese astronomers promoted their methods as part of the tradition, German, French or British scientists debated for the parentage of scientific discoveries. The theme of the 5th International Conference of the European Society for the History of Science aims to discuss all these topics from an interdisciplinary point of view. It is organized jointly by the National Hellenic Research Foundation and the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, two prominent scientific institutions that fostered the development of History of Science in Greece in the last decades. The logo of the Conference represents the Antikythera mechanism, this almost mythical instrument considered as the first computer in human history. During the Conference, an exhibition takes place at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens about the Antikythera shipwreck and an important section is devoted to the Mechanism. It is our pleasure, in our capacity as local organizers of this important event, to welcome all the participants in the city of Athens. Just opposite the National Hellenic Research Foundation are the ruins of the Lyceum of Aristotle, found some years ago by Greek Archaeologists. We wish you a nice and productive stay and many cosmopolitan contacts! On behalf of the LOC and all the colleagues who participated in the organization of the Conference,

Efthymios Nicolaidis and Constantine Skordoulis

Plenary lectures
The Reception of Darwin in Greece
Costas B. Krimbas, Academy of Athens, Athens, Greece

Cosmopolitan Education and Training of the Engineers in the 18th and 19th centuries
Robert Halleux, Universit de Lige, Lige, Belgium
At the time of the Industrial Revolution, the term engineer covers a very mixed environment. Here one finds ingenious workers skilled by practice as well as graduates of the top mining schools in Central Europe, former military men trained at the "coles d'application" and - later - the polytechnic institutes, as well as university engineers. This environment is cosmopolitan in its origin (both for students and teachers) due to study trips, missions of espionage, and practical experiences at sites scattered throughout the world. All who belong to it share a body of technological doctrine in which innovation diffuses rapidly.

Einstein as a Cosmopolitan
Jurgen Renn, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin, Germany

Fifty Years since Kuhns Structure: Professionalization in a Period without Tranquility

Fabio Bevilacqua, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
Born from Big Science and Two Cultures, History of Science today faces at least two main challenges: the shrinking of the humanities and the expansion of the digital domain. Trying to escape irrelevance implies adopting brave strategies: conservation of primary sources; greater interaction between the fewer historians; stimulating the interest of scientific faculties; availability of open access results to a wider public; commitment to international graduate studies programs and to preservice and in-service teacher training; developing cooperation and funding within the EU frameworks. We can argue that European cultural identity is shaped by the history of science, but our discipline can play an even more important role showing that science is a truly cosmopolitan activity and that Chinese, Indian, Islamic cultures gave and give an enormous contribution to its evolution. We can attempt to overcome quantification and Culture Wars with qualification and cosmopolitanism.

SYMPOSIA

SYMPOSIUM 1

Ancient Astronomy and its Later Reception

Organizers Alena Hadravova, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic Alexander R. Jones, New York University, New York, USA The Symposium will be devoted to the studies in the history of astronomy in ancient cultures, especially in Greece and the whole Mediterranean region, as well as of the later development of the ideas in medieval and early modern science. The astronomy is commonly said to be the oldest science because it ever led mankind to search for laws of nature and their quantitative formulation. Astronomy thus became a prototype of exact sciences. Based on earlier Babylonian roots, astronomy was advanced a great deal in ancient Greece, from where the first theoretical models of planetary system based on geometry are known. A dissemination of these ideas in Arabic and Christian cultures and their boost from Renaissance resulted in the development of contemporary science and technology. It is thus of general importance for the history of science to study this development in time, to follow the spreading of ideas to different cultures and to compare their mutual influences with the cultures of the societies. These topics are to be subject of the proposed Symposium. The contributions will be based on studies of both the preserved texts and artifacts. A traditional example of relevant problems are the roots of Copernican revolution in the ancient planetary theories. Another related subject is the development of astronomical instruments, e.g. the astrolabes dated back to Ptolemy's Planisphaerium or the recently revived study of the Antikythera Mechanism and its analogies in medieval astronomical clocks. Yet another example worth to deal with, is the development of Greek textual tradition in treatises on astronomy, e.g. on stars and their influence on the globe-making.

The Rising Times of the Zodiac in Babylonian and Later Astronomy

John Steele, Brown University, USA The rising times of the 30 degree stretches of the ecliptic defined by the signs of the zodiac provide a method for calculating the length of daylight. Neugebauer (1953) has shown that rising arc schemes underlie the calculation of the length of daylight in the Babylonian System A and System B lunar theories. A separate group of Babylonian texts, studied by Schaumberger (1955) and Rochberg (2002), describe another scheme for calculating the length of daylight using rising arcs whose beginning and end are defined by the culmination of certain stars. In this paper I will discuss the various rising arc schemes in Babylonian astronomy on the basis of new textual evidence from currently unpublished cuneiform texts. Finally, I will discuss the legacy of these schemes for the rising times in later astronomy.

The Antikythera Mechanism: the Structure of the Mounting of the Back Plates Pointer and the Construction of the Spirals
Magdalini Anastasiou, J.H. Seiradakis, C.C. Carman, K. Efstathiou, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece The Antikythera Mechanism, the ancient mechanical computer of unique technical sophistication, dated to the 2nd century B.C., was housed in a wooden case and had dials at its front and back side as well as lots of inscriptions covering its front and back sides and doors. Its back side displayed two main spiral dials. Only the pointer of the upper dial has partially survived, with a few remains of the mechanism that supported it and transferred to it the rotation of the main shaft. Using these remains we have reconstructed the skilful mounting of the pointer. The reconstruction fits perfectly the inscription at the back door of the Mechanism describing the pointer mechanism of the upper dial. From the two back spirals, about one third of the upper dial is nowadays preserved on one fragment (fragment B) while the lower dial is preserved in three fragments (fragments A, E and F), forming about half of the initial lower spiral. Using these existing parts, the type of the spirals was also investigated: were they constructed as Archimedean spirals or as Half Circle spirals? Our results show that both spirals were Half Circle spirals, drawn from two different centres. The two centres of the upper dial are the pointer centre and an upper centre while the two centres of the lower dial are the pointer centre and a lower centre. The structure of the mounting of the back plates pointer and the construction of the spirals amaze with the intelligence that they have been constructed. The mechanics way of thinking and working is ingenious.

An Hipparchian Astronomical Papyrus : P. Fouad Inv 267A

Anne Tihon, Universit Catholique de Louvain, Louvain, Belgium The Papyrus Fouad inv 267A discovered by Jean-Luc Fournet in the papyrological collection of the IFAO (Cairo) is a document of exceptional interest for the history of ancient astronomy. It is a fragment of a codex, written recto /verso. The text contains an example dated A.D. 130 Nov 8, at Alexandria : it is thus directly contemporary with Ptolemys astronomical activity. It is a fragment of a treatise, but more a matter of a draft or notes taken from an oral teaching rather than a finished text, with some important errors such as a confusion between sidereal and tropical year. The substance of the document concerns the Sun. The author begins by distinguishing the different years for which he gives precise values : the sidereal year (365d + 1/102), the ordinary year of 365d , and the tropical year (365d - 1/309). The author then considers the precession of the equinoxes and refers to a Syntaxis which is based of Hipparchus observations, especially an observation of the Summer Solstice otherwise unknown, B.C. 158 June 26. The calculation of the Sun implies a model with an eccentric and a correction, like in Ptolemys tables. The theory is followed by an example taken A.D.130 Nov 8. The recto of the papyrus ends with tables of the three calculations. The verso of the papyrus is much more damaged than the recto. It deals with the correction of seasonal hours into equinoxial hours, the readjustment of the solar longitude for the corrected time and the obliquity of the Sun. The document reveals a very sophisticated Syntaxis, made by an unknown author and based on Hipparchus observations. We are now able to present the edition of the text with a French translation and explanation.

Ptolemaic Eccentricity of the Superior Planets in the Medieval Islamic Period

Seyyed Mohammad Mozaffari, Research Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics of Maragha, Maragha, Iran

The medieval astronomy remained within the framework of the planetary models and the mathematical and astronomical methods established by Ptolemy in his Syntaxes. The structural parameters defining the geocentric orbit (Deferent) of a planet are eccentricity and the longitude of apogee. The Ptolemaic eccentricity of a planet is the sum of the two vectors: its heliocentric eccentricity projected on Earths orbit and Earths eccentricity. Its value thus depends on the two eccentricities, the inclination of planets orbit, and the angle between the apsidal lines of the orbits of planet and Earth. Since all the heliocentric quantities are changed with the passage of time, it is expected the new values for Ptolemaic parameters would have been obtained around a millennia elapsing since his day. The calculations show that from AD 1 to 1600 the geocentric eccentricity of Mars was changed from 5.95 to 6.00, Jupiter, 2.70 to 2.87, and Saturn, 3.62 to 3.31 (Deferents Radius = 60). From the medieval Islamic astronomy, only Muhy al-Dn al-Maghrib (Maragha 12601283) gave his dated observations and measurements. He obtained the near to Ptolemaic values for the eccentricities of Jupiter and Mars (2.75 and 6) and a new value for that of Saturn: 3.25. The other results are: Ibn al-Alam (Baghdad d. 985): Sat: 3.04 Jup: 2.90. The Iranian astronomers working in China (after 1270): Sat: 3.31 Jup: 2.66. Ibn al-Bann (Marrakech 12501320): Jup: 2.98. An astronomer working in central Iran ~ mid-13th c. (a certain Abul-Hasan, Raz Zj, or a Muntakhab alDn, Muntakhab Zj, both of Yazd): Mars: 6.25 (also applied to Ulugh Begs Sultn Zj, 1450). The most critical change during the millennia is the case with Saturn; thus, the values contemporarily obtained by al-Maghrib and Iranian astronomers in China should be taken as the improvements over Ptolemys. But, in the case of the two other planets (esp. for Mars whose eccentricity was not so varied in this period), all new values are out of range and so adopting the Ptolemys ones remains a better choice.

Jbir b. Afla on the Order of the Spheres

Jos Bellver, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain The aim of this paper is to describe Jbir b. Aflas most famous criticism of Ptolemys Almagest present in his main work, the Il al-Majis. This criticism deals with the order of the planetary spheres. Even though Jbir b. Aflas criticisms have attracted some interest in recent scholarship, his main criticism for which he came to be known in later sources remains to be studied in depth. Jbir b. Afla was an Andalusian mathematician and astronomer, probably from Seville, known in the Latin world as Geber. He was active during the first quarter of the 12th century. His most notable work was the Il al-Majis orCorrection of the Almagest, in which he rewrote the Almagest to simplify its mathematics and introduced some criticisms from a mathematical perspective. The Il al-Majis was an astronomical handbook in circulation until the 18th century, above all in the Latin world. It was translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona (1114-1187) and published in 1534 by Petrus Apianus (1495-1552), a copy of which was given by Rheticus to Copernicus, who annotated it. Ptolemy considered the order of the spheres in the beginning of Book V of his Almagest. He also considered it in hisPlanetary Hypotheses, although Jbir b. Afla seems to be unaware of this second discussion. Ptolemy pointed out that the most ancient authorities believed that the spheres of Mercury and Venus were below the sphere of the Sun, while a group of later authorities believed that they were above it, on the basis that no solar transits were observed. He supported the first group by adducing that transits may never take place and added parallactic and physical arguments to his discussion. Jbir b. Afla demonstrated that, according to Ptolemys models, in case the spheres of Mercury and Venus were below the Sun, transits would take place. He also answered Ptolemys parallactic and physical arguments. Therefore, Jbir b. Afla concluded that the spheres of Mercury and Venus were actually above that of the Sun. 10

Jbir b. Aflas arguments were extensively quoted by later authors becoming a matter of discussion up to Copernicus. This paper is therefore devoted to discuss Jbir b. Aflas criticism of Ptolemy and to follow his influence upon later astronomers.

On the Sphere of Anaximander

Radim Kocandrle, University of West Bohemia, Pilsen, Czech Republic Diogenes Laertius reported that Anaximander of Miletus had, also fashioned a sphere. Unfortunately, the meaning of the term a sphere is not clear. Was the sphere a model or a drawing? We know that Diogenes Laertius had anachronistically ascribed to Anaximander the concept of a spherical earth, so the term can mean an earth globe. However, Anaximander conceived the earth as cylindrical and flat. Another possibility is that a sphere is a celestial globe. Although this is disputable since the universe of Anaximander was not probably spherical at all due to his notion that in the greatest distance from the earth is the wheel of the sun. Was then the sphere an artificial model of the armillary sphere? We know that Anaximanders conception of cosmology supposed a flat earth at the centre of the concentric wheels of the celestial bodies the sun, moon and stars. It can be surmised that term sphere is only due to an anachronism of later authors. Contrarily, the term sphere is used in the description of cosmogony as a sort of sphere of flames around the air. In my talk, I will speak on the slight possibility of Anaximander fashioning a three-dimensional model since it could lead to revision in his conception of the universe. Mainly I will focus on the analogy between Anaximanders map of the earth and the map of the universe which can be that sphere. I will also discuss some problematic points in the Anaximanders conception of cosmology which can be solved by the supposition that Anaximander made a map of the universe.

A Map for Aratus

Anna Santoni, Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa, Italy This paper aims to investigate the characters and the different versions of a type of celestial map preserved in some of the manuscripts of the Greek and Latin Aratean tradition (mss. Vat. Gr. 1087; Basil. AN IV 18; Harl. 647; Bern. 88; etc.); the map includes all the constellations of the Aratean sky from the North Pole to the Tropic of Capricorn; it is easy to prove that it could be used as the simplest iconographic support to the comprehension of the first part of the poem, since it allows an overview of all the constellations introduced by Aratus in his description of the sky (Phaenomena, vv. 26.454): the reader can move his finger on the map according to the instructions of the poet and follow the path of his verses through the starried sky. Two versions of the map are preserved in our manuscritps: the first one contains the archaic Zodiac with eleven figures, perfectly consistent with the sky of Aratean-Eratosthenic times. The second version of the map, probably originated in the context of the Latin tradition of Aratus, contains an up-dated version of the sky with the twelve Zodiac figures, in consequence of the introduction of the Libra from the first century a.D. onwards (in place of the Claws of the Scorpio). Despite the presence of other more detailed types of celestial maps in these manuscripts, the permanence of the earliest kind can be considered a piece of evidence of its value in the tradition of the Aratean text. The role of the illustrations in the Greek poem will also be discussed in relation to the structure of the Phaenomena and in relation to the influence of the Eratosthenic extracts.

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Reflection of Ancient Greek Tradition in the 13th c. Premyslid Celestial Globe Saved in Bernkastel-Kues
Alena Hadravova, Petr Hadrava, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic In 1444 Nicolaus Cusanus bought a collection of astronomical instruments and manuscripts belonging formerly to Czech Kings from Premyslid and Luxembourg dynasties. One of the instruments was a wooden celestial globe of about 27cm in diameter dated to the 2nd half of the 13th century, saved until now in Bernkastel-Kues (Germany). Letting aside several Arabic globes, the Premyslid globe is, after the three preserved ancient globes (Atlas Farnese, Mainz-globe, Kugelglobe), the oldest one originating in the Christian Europe. All fourty eight Ptolemaic constellations are marked on this globe with most of the stars from the Ptolemys Star catalogue. The relations between the constellations and their parts as well as positions of the stars within them correspond with the ancient textual tradition known from the works by Aratos, Pseudo-Eratosthenes and Hyginus. Provenience of the globe is unknown (Prague or Germany are speculated in the literature). The lack of an Arabic influence in the iconography of the globe sugests that it has not originated in the Toledan court of Alfonso X the Wise. We assume that the globe is probably connected with the Sicilian court and cultural centre of Friedrich II of Hohenstaufen, known by the direct continuation of the ancient Greek tradition.

Mathematical Investigation of the Premyslid Celestial Globe Saved in Bernkastel-Kues

Petr Hadrava, Alena Hadravova, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic Regarding the uniqueness and importance of the Premyslid celestial globe and also the deteriorating state of this fragile artifact, it deserves a careful investigation and documentation. For this purpose we perform measurements of scanned photographs taken almost a century ago as well as of recent digital photographs. Spherical coordinates of the marks of stars and of drawn lines are then fitted by least-squares method. The Premyslid globe was constructed as the universal precession globe which is described in the Ptolemys Almagest, i.e., in ecliptical coordinates. According the results of our measurements, the positions of most of stars correspond with those given in Almagest with rootmean-square error of a few tenths of degree, i.e., within about one millimetre. It reveals that the globe was not a mere decoration but remarkably precise instrument.

Almagest's Star Catalogue and First Celestial Maps

Giancarlo Truffa, Milan, Italy The star catalogue contained in the Almagest has been the standard star catalogue for European astronomers and astrologers from the Roman Empire until the end of XVI cen. when the Landgrave of Hessen and Tycho Brahe made new observations of star positions and created new star catalogues. I will analyze the transmission of the Ancient star catalogue and the other star catalogues derived from it between the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Based on these star catalogues, "scientific" celestial maps were created, the first dating from the end of XIV century. I will examine some of these maps preserved in manuscripts, in engravings and on one astronomical instrument.

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An Arabic Ephemeris for the Year 1026/1027 CE. in the Vienna Papyrus Collection
Johannes Thomann, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland The Vienna Papyrus Collection (Papyrussammlung) forms part of the Austrian National Library (sterreichsiche Nationalbibliothek) and is one of the largest collection of its kind. It is famous for its 70000 Greek documents from Ancient Egypt. There is an even greater number of Arabic documents, approximately 75'000. From these, less than 2000 pieces are published. In an ungoing survey of Arabic astronomical documents in the Vienna Collection a number of datable texts were discovered. Among them are horoscopes for the years 1007 (or 1210?), 1044 and 1058 (or 1117?) CE.. Further, a fragment of an astrological almanach for the year 991 CE. was found. An ephemeris for the year 931/932 CE has been edited in Kaplony, A. /Roemer, C. (ed.) , From Nubia to Syria (forthcoming). Another ephemeris for the year 994/995 is in process to be published. During the last research visit in 2011 a fragment of an ephemeris was found which derserves special attention (A.Ch. 25613). It contains the top left corner of the recto and top right corner of the verso of a leave. On the recto the last three column headings are preserved. They are jawzahar ([ascending] lunar node) and below al-aqrab (scorpion), al-irtif (rising [of the sun at midday]) and sat al-nahr (hours of the day). In the last column the three first values for the day-lenght indicate to the month of April. On the verso the names of the four calendars are frs (Persian), ynn (Greek), qif (Coptic) and arab (Arabic). In a fifth columns the days of the week are indicated. Three lines of the chronological columns are preserved. The best fitting year for these synchronies is 1026 CE. It is corrborated by the position of the lunar nodethe. The recalculated value is SCO 28 for April 9, 1026 CE, the date corresponding to the first line of data on the recto.

From Oxyrhynchus to Nrnberg: Ancient and Modern Ephemerides

Alexander Jones, New York University, New York, USA The term "ephemeris," often loosely applied now to any table of positions of heavenly bodies computed for a series of dates, referred specifically at two widely separated periods to calendrically structured tables of daily positions directed towards astrological predictions. The ephemerides preserved in papyri from Greco-Roman Egypt from the late first century BC through the fifth century AD show remarkable similarities to the printed European ephemerides of the fifteenth century and after. If there was a historical connection linking these practices, what was it? Two possibilities deserve consideration: a medieval Arabic tradition that has only recently come to light, and a set of anonymous texts embedded in Byzantine astrological manuscripts.

The Doctrine of the 3rd, 7th and 40th day of the Moon in Ancient Astrology
Stephan Heilen, University of Osnabrck, Osnabrck, Germany The doctrine of the importance of the third, seventh, and fourtieth day of the Moon after a persons birh is attested in more than a dozen texts from the first century CE through the Byzantine period to the Latin Middle Ages. We find it in Greek and Latin manuals of astrology such as those of Dorotheus of Sidon, Antigonus of Nicaea, Vettius Valens, Firmicus Maternus, the astrologer of Emperor Zeno, Rhetorius of Egypt, in the Liber Hermetis, Theophilus of Edessa, and Hugo of Santalla. In addition, there are some references to it in orginal horoscopes found on papyri. The doctrine certainly goes back to the early stage of Hellenistic astrology in Ptolemaic Egypt, probably to the pseudepigraphic manual of Nechepsos and Petosiris (2nd c. BCE). The relevant sources have never been collected and analyzed systematically. I plan to investigate the connection between this doctrine and the lunar 13

cycle, its debt to old number speculations and to Greek medical especially embryological theories, and the astrological significance attached to it.

Tables, Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos, and Medieval Latin Astrological Texts

Richard L. Kremer, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA The Latin translation of Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos is extant in about 20 manuscripts, all of which present the text in a prose format, divided into chapters, without any images or diagrams. Only at the end of Book I do several tables appear, in which the "terms" of each zodiacal sign are presented in rows and columns. These tables have twelve rows for the signs, and 6 columns, displaying the number of degrees within the sign and the planet for each "term" of that sign. As far as I know, Ptolemy was the first self-reflexive table-maker. In the Almagest, he presented much material in a tabular writing format and at several points discussed in considerable detail how and why he made the tables. He also introduced a Greek term (kanonion), used earlier to describe rulers, small beams, rods, or a monochord, to depict the tabular format, a term that subsequently would become widely used in Greek literature for "regularity, according to a rule." In this paper, I want to think about the place of writing formats, especially tabular formats, in medieval Latin astrological texts. Even though Ptolemy's Tetrabiblos is filled with information that might, to our thinking, be more efficiently presented in tables rather than prose (e.g., properties of planets), in that text Ptolemy used only one table. Yet by the time the twelfth-century translators began bringing Greek and Arabic astrological texts into Latin, tables start appearing more frequently in these materials. Why the shift from prose to tabular formats? What might have been gained (or lost) in such shifts? Can other self-reflexive table makers be found among the astrological authors or their scribes? On the basis of a survey of writing formats in some of the major Latin astrological texts from the thirteenth through the fifteenth centuries, I hope to draw some conclusions about the epistemological consequences of pushing astrological content, especially from the Tetrabiblos, into rows and columns.

Religion in the Cosmological Ideas in Ukraine (from XI to XVII century)

Oksana Yu. Koltachykhina, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine In Ukraine in the early XIth century, a great authority, and the spread had a Byzantine texts. Ukrainian chronicles (beginning with the XI-XII) described the structure of the world. There were several options: Christian topography by Cosmas Indicopleustes, Shestodnev by John the Bulgarian, Chronicle by George Hamartolus. The astronomical interpretation of cosmological ideas, a system of Ptolemy, was stated in Izbornyk treatise. Courses of philosophy which were read in Ukraine in the first half of XVIII century were saturated with religious influence. Innocent Gizels philosophy course The work of the whole philosophy taught at the Academy in the 1645-1647 includes knowledge about all directions of philosophy. Chronologically, this work was the first course of philosophy, read at the Academy. Besides geocentric world system, Gizel I. studied the system of Copernicus. It was the first mention of the name of M. Copernicus in Ukraine. Theophane Prokopoviches work Physiophilosophy or physics defines the notion world. According to him, the world is the structure that consists of heaven, earth and other elements that are located between the heaven and earth. In other words, the world is the order and location of all that is saved God. Prokopovich acquainted with all common theories about the universe of that time. At the beginning, he taught the world system of Ptolemy. Then, he taught Copernicans system and the theory of Tycho. Despite the fact that in his course Th. Prokopovich taught various systems of the world, he believed that the world had been created by God. He mentioned that according to Holy Scripture, the world did not exist forever, Heaven and Earth were originally created'. So, Ukrainian schools

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gave students information about all existing at the time cosmological theories, but at the same time, religion had a big impact.

The reception of ancient astronomy in the early histories of astronomy

Daniel Spelda, University of West Bohemia, Pilsen, Czech Republic Considering the fact that in the history of astronomy there is a missing entry a history of the history of astronomy my contribution concerns the reception of ancient astronomy in the early histories of astronomy which began to appear during the 18th century. In particular, I will focus on the way the first historians of astronomy evaluated the historical importance of ancient astronomy. Some questions arise: How did they imagine the origins of astronomy? How did they assess the persuasiveness of ancient heliocentrism (e.g. Pythagoreans, Aristarchus)? Did they think that the history of astronomy ran in cycles of success and decline, or did they assume the existence of continual linear progress in astronomical knowledge? The answers of the early historians of astronomy to these questions will be commented upon by looking to the philosophical, anthropological, economical, and cultural ideals of the Enlightenment. My attention will focus particularly on these works: Bailly Histoire de lastronomie ancienne (1781); C. G. F. (anonymous) Geschichte der astronomie (1792); Cassini De loriginie et du progress de lastronomie (1699); Costard The History of Astronomy (1764); Esteve Histoire de lastronomie (1755); Heilbronner Historia matheseos (1741); Montucla Histoire des mathmatiques (1758); Weidler De ortu et progressu astronomiae (1741).

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SYMPOSIUM 2

Around Henri Poincars Centenary: physics, mathematics and philosophy

Organizers Christian Bracco, UMR Artmis, Universit de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, OCA, CNRS, Nice, France (associate researcher in the team Histoire de lastronomie, Syrte, Observatoire de Paris) Enrico Giannetto, Universit Degli Studi di Bergamo, Bergamo, Italy Year 2012 will celebrate the centenary of the death of Henri Poincar (April 29th 1854 in Nancy, July 17th 1912 in Paris), who was one of the last great universal scientists. Not only Poincar has made important contributions to mathematics, celestial mechanics and mathematical physics, but he was also interested in philosophy, in diffusion of science and (less known) in science teaching. If everyone agrees to praise Poincars works in the field of mathematics, the situation appears to be more contrasted in the field of theoretical physics, due in part to an underestimation of the conceptual role of mathematics in physics and to an abusive recourse to conventionalism so as to specify his philosophy. We propose to focus this symposium on Poincar's last works in physics (the dynamics of the electron and the gravitation in 1905, and the quanta in 1911) on which he comes back, with a more philosophical point of view, in Mathematics and Science: Last Essays (1913). Poincars late contribution to the theory of quanta is not well known and his attitude towards relativity theory has suffered from repeated misconceptions concerning, either the Palermo Memoir and its logic, or his scientific popularizing texts which reproduce principally Lorentz approach with some additional pedagogical remarks, bearing no relation with the Memoir. In this text, the role of the electromagnetic conception of Nature needs to be clarified. More generally, this symposium aims to associate an analysis of the contents of Poincar's contributions to modern theoretical physics with a discussion of his scientific methodology, emphasizing his aptitude to operate unexpected relations between e.g. precise mathematical results or concepts and paradigmatic changes in physics.

Poincars 1905 Palermo Memoir: analysis of its logic and comparison with secondary texts
Christian Bracco, UMR Artmis, Universit de Nice-Sophia Antipolis, OCA, CNRS, Nice, France (associate researcher in the team Histoire de lastronomie, Syrte, Observatoire de Paris)The analysis of La dynamique de llectron (The Palermo Memoir, submitted 23th July 1905, published January 1906), has been renewed recently . Although Poincar starts from Lorentz electromagnetic conception of matter, his approach, which is more intelligible through his letters of May 1905 to Lorentz, is quite original and modern, although different from Einsteins one: introduction of active Lorentz Transformations to account for the contraction of the electron (without any change of reference frame); call for a group condition restricting to Mechanics (by elimination of dilatations) the invariance properties of electromagnetism; emphasis of the role of action and its invariance to derive the relativistic Lagrangian; discussion of electron models in order to get an existence theorem. Due to the technical difficulty of the Memoir and for the sake of simplicity, many discussions on Poincars point of view on relativity rely on his conferences for large audiences. Unfortunately, such discussions may lead to misinterpretations because Poincar adopts there an historical Lorentzian approach (without quoting his own contribution) and because he

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usually concludes them by the necessity to keep Newtonian Mechanics (only in the perspective of teaching). This talk aims to present the content and the logic of the Memoir and to compare it with his secondary writings.

Principles of Physics in Poincars thinking: from history to philosophy of science

Isabel Maria Serra, Maria de Paz, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal In his paper The Principles of Mathematical Physics Poincar presented a historical overview of physics, describing its evolution from the physics of central forces to the physics of principles. Despite the crisis of physics in the late 19th Century, Poincar had great confidence that the principles could be preserved. He based this confidence in the historical evolution of physics in earlier centuries. It was precisely his knowledge of the history of physics which led him to hold some philosophical positions, such as conventionalism. However, Poincar was not the only philosopher-scientist to use the historical significance of the physical principles to support a philosophical conception. That is the case of Mach, who in his critical positivist insight, affirmed that Poincar was right in asserting that the mechanical principles are conventions. Taking into account the development of the history of science and its relevance for philosophy, we aim to compare Machs and Poincars views in the light of the role played by the physical principles. We also want to put forward how the use of the principles as a guide for theoretical research, led Poincar to important discoveries in science, such as the new mechanics in which he reveals the essential character of the relativity principle. As a result, our purpose is to show the success of his historical-philosophical methodology. Finally, we will reveal that in the year of the centenary, his ideas are still inspiring.

Poincars Space and Time Conference and his Attitude towards Relativity
Jean-Pierre Provost, University of Nice-Sophia Antipolis, Eze, France The conference Space and Time (in Mathematics and Science: Last essays) held by Poincar at the London university, May 4th 1912, two months before his death, is particularly interesting from the point of view of the Maths-Physics relation because it illustrates the influence of the new theory of relativity (to which he contributed in the 1906 Palermo Memoir) on his conception of geometry (formulated for example in Science and Hypothesis). For the first time, Poincar makes in this conference a comparison between geometry and Lorentz relativity. It leads him to modify his past point of view on geometry, the invariance of physical laws with respect to Lorentz group replacing now the role of Helmholtz solids for the definition of motions. Making a clear cut between what he calls psychological relativity (possibility of simultaneous deformations of objects and instruments known today as diffeomorphism invariance) and physical relativity (Lorentz one), he raises the question of the true convention which lies behind the principle of relativity. For him, this convention is the independence of local observers, a formulation which could be considered as insignificant (or axiomatic), if one forgot that it is precisely this independence which will be abandoned in the future gauge theories of interactions. These not well known positions of Poincar with respect to relativity may also enlighten what could have been Poincars attitude towards Einsteins geometrical formulation of relativistic gravitation.

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Poincar and the Negative Results: an Attitude of Deconstruction

Thierry Paul, France Twice at the two extremes of his life Poincar presented as negative two important results concerning first celestial mechanics and then quantum theory. In the (well known) first case Poincar let emerge the new paradigm of chaotic dynamical systems out of precise and tedious readings of astronomys computations. In the (much less known) second one Poincar not only proves the mathematical impossibility to obtain Plancks law of blackbody radiation from continuous energy exchanges but also the necessity of Plancks hypothesis. In both situations this aptitude of Poincar to associate paradigmatic changes in physics by a deep technical analysis of failures of reasoning seems to be one of the original signatures of his scientific methodology. The purpose of this talk will be to show how Poincars attitude with respect to negative results, especially his deep analysis of writings of the formulae, can be truly seen as a deconstruction of negative.

Scientific Generalization, Order and Compatibility between Disciplines in Poincars Thinking

Anne-Franoise Schmid, Universit de Lyon, Lyon, France The philosophy of Poincar is usually analyzed discipline by discipline and not in its systematicity. So that it is difficult to understand exactly the limits of his conventionalism and its so called "inductivism". It has sometimes been told that Poincars positions with respect to Newtons or Einsteins mechanics were examples of his conventionalism (considered as a mark of his philosophy of science). In fact, paradoxically, although a convention is out of the reach of experiment, it seems that in Poincars mind a necessary condition for an assertion to become a convention is its confirmation by experiment. The convention becomes the philosophical link between science and reality. More generally, one might wonder whether Poincars attitude with respect to science (pragmatism, structural realism, reticence to axiomatism, conventionalism, continuity of ideas in an historical perspective) is part of a general philosophy. Poincar operates unexpected relations between scientific disciplines: it is the heuristic side of what he calls "decomposition" between the observed fact and the language chosen for its scientific generalization. Rather than a philosophy looking for classical criteria of scientificity, the posture of Poincar is the one of a thought which looks for compatibilities between different disciplinary languages (for example mechanics and algebra), on the condition of respecting an order between them. This talk aims to present the Poincars criterion of scientific generalization and his thinking about the value of science.

Poincar's Relativistic Dynamics and the Electromagnetic Conception of Nature

Enrico Giannetto, University of Bergamo, Bergamo, Italy The revolution in xxth century physics, induced by relativity theories, had its roots within the electromagnetic conception of Nature, yielding that light (electromagnetic field) is the only physical reality. It was developed especially by Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1853-1928), Joseph Larmor (18571942), Wilhelm Wien (1864-1928), Max Abraham (1875-1922) and Henry Poincar (1854-1912), through a tradition related to Bruno and Leibniz physics, to the German Naturphilosophie and English xixth physics. Electromagnetic conception of Nature was in some way completely realised by relativistic dynamics

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of Poincar on 1905, even if Poincar said relativistic dynamics could be indipendently true. Einstein, on the contrary, since 1907 linked relativistic dynamics to a mechanistic conception of Nature. Here, a comparison between these two conceptions is proposed to understand the conceptual foundations of special relativity within the context of the changing world views. A short look to Poincars electromagnetic quantum relativistic mechanics is presented.

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SYMPOSIUM 3

Byzantine and post-Byzantine Alchemy: Principles, Influences and Effects

Organizers Gianna Katsiampoura, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens, Greece Jennifer Rampling, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK Rmi Franckowiak, Universit des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, Lille, France Historical research has traced the first written documents of alchemy back in the 3rd century AD. From the 1st to the 4th centuries, alchemical practice develops itself into an art of metallic transmutation and two distinct alchemical schools seem to emerge: the one, represented by Ostanes, is still based on the practical knowledge of craftsmen, blacksmiths and dyers, although a shift is being accomplished from chrysosis (giving to a base metal the appearance of gold) to chrysopoeia (transforming a base metal to gold); the other, represented by Zosimos and Maria the Jewess, assumes a religious, Gnostic orientation, putting the emphasis on the elaboration of distillation techniques. The period of Byzantium is a turning point, not only because there are many commentators of the ancient alchemical texts, but for the attempt, during the 10th century, to collect these texts and to articulate them in a coherent corpus, the surviving manuscript copies of which comprising, to our days, the main evidence for the emergence and the historical development of Greek alchemy. During the last decades, historians have shown that from the Renaissance onwards a field of knowledge concerning chemical phenomena begun to crystallize itself and to be differentiated from traditional chrysopoeia, in the sense that it implies more an experimental research of how physical bodies are composed or decomposed than a quest for the proper process of metallic transmutation. We may denote this field of knowledge by the term Chymistry. Key role in the articulation of chymistry played a kind of occultism which has developed at the end of the 15th century in Florence by Marsiglio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. What we may call Renaissance Occultism is the outcome of piecing together the fragments of many different ancient and medieval traditions. The whole construction, though, is a consistent one, aiming at the knowledge of nature in terms of becoming, and thus at the unfolding of the occult life of God, who permeates nature and is regarded as an emanative cause, tending, more and more, to be an immanent cause. Chymistry seems to emerge when this occultism gives an epistemic horizon to the late medieval, and especially Geberian, alchemy, in a way that henceforth the empirical knowledge of substances properties and natural principles has to be developed into the theoretical knowledge of material transformations. In this context, we will try to explore in this symposium the relationship between Greek, Byzantine and post Byzantine alchemy, as well the transformation of alchemical principles from Eastern to Western Europe.

Les traits techniques du corpus des alchimistes grecs

Robert Halleux, Universit de Lige, Lige, Belgium Dans sa collection des Anciens Alchimistes Grecs, Marcellin Berthelot a regroup sous le nom de traits techniques un ensemble htrogne qui rassemble des fragments dauteurs connus (Zosime), des recueils de recettes anonymes et des traits darts et mtiers. Une analyse codicologique des

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manuscrits M (Marcianus Graecus 299), B (Parisinus Graecus 2325) et A (Parisinus Graecus 2327) permet de dfinir exactement le contenu du corpus et den dater les lments qui schelonnent du IVe sicle au XVe sicle et refltent lvolution de la technique byzantine.

Which Kind of Alchemy is Handed down by the ms. 67 of the Aghios Stephanos Monastery of the Meteors?
Matteo Martelli, Humboldt Universitt zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany This paper would like to focus on a recently discovered alchemical manuscript, copied down in the 1503/504 and kept in the library of the Saint Stephen Monastery (Meteors), which has been not yet either fully described or taken into account in the recent studies concerning Greek and Byzantine alchemy. I would like to present a general introduction to its content, by focus my attention on the possible criteria used by the complier for selecting specific passages or specific texts from the precedent alchemical tradition. Particular attention will be paid to an interesting recipe book (ff. 180202), for which the codex is one of the most important testimonies.

John Kanaboutzes Commentary on Dionysios of Halicarnassus: A Perception of Alchemy in a late Byzantine Text
Sandy Sakorrafou, Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece Gerasimos Merianos, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens, Greece The so-called Alchemical Corpus does not exhaust the references on alchemy in Byzantine literature. Other texts of various literary genres designate Byzantines familiarity with what they considered to be an art. In this paper we study John Kanaboutzes reference on alchemy in his commentary on Dionysios of Halicarnassus. He wrote the commentary in the first half of the 15th c., and dedicated it to Palamede Gattilusio, the Genoese lord of Ainos and Samothrace. Kanaboutzes owned, among other, a manuscript containing the Testament of Solomon. Thus, his interest in alchemy was probably a manifestation in occult knowledge. Whether he practiced it or not is unknown. Kanaboutzes defines alchemy as (art of chymia). By the term (or any of its different spellings) Byzantines ascribed to what we call alchemy a certain philosophical and practical system. As his commentary is addressed to a Latin ruler, he shows interest in clarifying the etymology of the Latin-derived term (archymia), which is analyzed into arte and chymia. Accordingly, he defines the subject matter of the alchemical study in practical terms of the dissolution of metals. Throughout the passage in question he repeats that is a mystical, secret and sacred art. A notion that probably reflects the belief that alchemy has a ritual and occult character, identified with the subjection of supernatural forces in controlling nature, a knowledge which cannot be accessed by anyone. Yet, as the key-concept that penetrates the commentarys prooimion is , the relation of with the theoretical natural philosophy is revealed. Probably this judgement echoes the Byzantines attempt to connect alchemy with Greek philosophy, or the Latin approach, which considers alchemy as a science among others in the hierarchical structure of natural knowledge. For Kanaboutzes, the emphasis is given to the primary object of alchemical study, the transmutation of metals and minerals, which occurs with the aid of the lapis philosophorum. It is this knowledge of transmutation, often received as a result of divine inspiration, which places alchemy as a part of natural philosophy. It is noteworthy that the use of Latin terms is most likely related to Kanaboutzes dedication to Gattilusio, but still implies Western influence on Byzantine scholars at that time.

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Ex Oriente Ignis: Incendiary Weapons Technology between Byzantium and Islam

Christos G. Makrypoulias, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece Of all the weapons in Byzantiums arsenal, Greek Fire is perhaps the best-known. Its appearance at the end of the seventh century is thought to have saved the empire from the Arab onslaught and its composition was regarded as a state secret not to be divulged to barbarians. The aim of this paper is to put the myth of the Greek Fire in its proper perspective, shifting through the various references in the sources in order to give an accurate picture of the incendiary weapons used by both Byzantines and Arabs, as well as of the scientific knowledge that was necessary to produce this level of military technology.

Athanasius Rhetor: a Greek in Paris, a Priest in Alchemy

Remi Franckowiak, Universit des Sciences et Technologies de Lille, Lille, France Athanasius Rhetor, born in Cyprus in 1571 and died in Paris in March 1663 was certainly a particular and obscure personage among those who contributed to the intellectual life of the French capital in the second third of the seventeenth century. Greek priest of the Church of Constantinople who attended a Jesuit school before owing allegiance to the pope, settled by his love of learning in Rome in the 1610s, then in Paris in the 1620s Athanasius became the protg of the French Chancellor Sguier. He contributed to the development of his library (and of the Mazarins one too) by spending 10 years in acquiring hundreds of manuscripts in Mount Athos, Meteora, Constantinople and Cyprus, and by selecting manuscripts to be copied from the French royal library. He had an extensive knowledge of Greek philosophical and patristic literature, and published a series of philosophical works, one of which was against Campanella. He wrote other texts remained unpublished and based on Aristotles, Platos and especially Neo-Platonism inspired writings. Sguier appropriated Athanasius manuscripts and papers left behind at his death (remnants of his library went to the library of the Abbey of Sainte Genevive). Among these papers there were alchemical papers. It is certain that Athanasius writings have not received the interest which they deserve from the researchers, and they still remain quite ignored. But it is equally certain that his alchemical papers have never been studied nor even really read. These papers, most of them in Greek, represent a completely striking account, even unique, about a man whose classical and religious culture did not exclude an unquestionable interest for the alchemical subjects. We discover here a man who was being trained in a Western and Paracelsian alchemy particularly from Italian and French handwritten sources, who was encountering difficulties to translate in Greek some terms of substances and processes and was reluctant to take up a certain alchemical editorial style, who was carrying out operations of transmutation, who was in touch with Capuchins chemists, and who wrote down even a few Levantine alchemical receipts.

Cosmopoiesis as a Chymical Process: Jean d'Espagnet's Enchiridion Physicae Restitutae and its Translation in Greek by Anastasios Papavassilopoulos
Vangelis Koutalis, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens, Greece The anonymous work Enchiridion Physicae Restitutae was first published in 1623 (according to some sources, there may have been an edition of 1608, but no copies of it are preserved). Its authorship is attributed to Jean dEspagnet (1564-1637), president of the parliament of Bordeaux, whom Pierre

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Bayle, in his Dictionnaire historique et critique, calls one of the 17th century savants (Rotterdam 1695, p. 1095; 3rd edition, Rotterdam 1715, Vol. 2, pp. 1117-1118). It is a book exemplifying a strong conjunction between occult or Neoplatonist philosophy and empirical knowledge: natural phenomena are explained by recourse to the agency of certain primary chemical substances, while the order of nature is represented as following the pattern of Gods emanation, and Hermes Trismegistus, as well as the Scriptures, are considered as equally, if not more reliable authorities than Aristotle or Plato, in decoding the secrets of nature. Charting a middle course between David Gorlaeus atomism and van Helmonts chemical philosophy (according to the analysis of Lasswitz, Geschichte der Atomistik vom Mittelalter bis Newton, Hamburg, 1890, Vol. I, pp. 335-339), Espagnets restored physics is highly indicative of the way Renaissance occult philosophy (as developed by Mirandola, Ficino, and Agrippa) was utilised, during the 17th century, both as a theoretical background and as an epistemic horizon for the transformation of early modern alchemy into a new kind of philosophy, a renovated philosophy on nature. As an index of its influential role in the articulation of such a new philosophy, we will examine its manuscript translation into Greek by Anastasios Papavassilopoulos (middle of the 17th c. middle of the 18th c.), surviving in three copies, and dated 1701. This translation, which had been already preceded by translations into French, English, and German, was also the first, as far as we can tell, compendium of modern, nonAristotelian natural philosophy rendered available in Ottoman Christian communities.

Chemical Medicine in 16th and 17th c. Europe: Remarks on Local, Religious and Ideological Connections
Georgios Papadopoulos, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece Although the roots of chemical medicine could be traced back to the alchemy of the Middle Ages, its expansion during the 16th and 17th centuries was based to a great extent on the writings of Paracelsus. During this time its exponents formed a quite separated group that seemed to have connections to Protestantism although Paracelsus was never committed to the Reformation and e.g. Van Helmont remained a catholic until the end of his life. Although chemical medicine spread quickly over many European countries (France, England, Denmark etc.), a great deal of related activities seem to have been connected to German-speaking countries as documented e.g. by the appearance of publications or by the fact that the first chair for chemical medicine was established in a German university. On the other hand, it should be taken into account that a, so to say, hard core of exponents of chemical medicine (in which one should include Paracelsus, Van Helmont etc.) formed, by its own right, a separate group in view of their ideological (better: world view) background. This had possibly to do, to a certain extent, with their alchemical (or hermetic) roots or, in other words, with esoteric aspects of religious ideas; in this respect it is interesting to consider more closely the connection of their ideas with those of such personalities as Jacob Boehme. On the other hand many religious people not sharing these ideas were in fact their opponents. These conflicts and their ideological basis seem to have significant consequences for the further development this scientific domain. The paper aims to discuss the roles played by the mentioned connections and relationships and by their interactions on the development of chemical medicine in 16th and 17th centuries Europe.

Byzantine and post-Byzantine Alchemy: a Research Project in Progress

Gianna Katsiampoura, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens, Greece In this presentation we report on recent progress and future work of a research program mainly concerned with the development of a digital archive of the works of and about alchemy in Byzantium

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and in the Greek-speaking communities of the Ottoman Empire and its educational as well as its cultural utilization. This project aims to address a significant gap in the current historiography of sciences, by exploring and carefully mapping a vast unknown territory: that of Byzantine and postByzantine alchemy. The principal objective of the project is to reconstruct the history of alchemy in the Medieval and Early Modern Greek-speaking world, through the creation of a comprehensive, open access, digitized, and searchable archive of texts relevant to alchemy, written in Medieval or Modern Greek, from the period of Byzantium to the 18th century. More specifically the project aims to: a) Identify, collect, digitize, and classify all surviving manuscript primary sources relevant to the study of alchemy during the periods of Byzantium and of the Ottoman Empire. b) Identify, collect, digitize and classify the printed primary sources that are found to be relevant to alchemy. Thus, texts or passages extracted from texts, whose content is alchemical or at least refer explicitly or implicitly to alchemical practices, will be articulated in a coherent corpus of texts, so as the penetration of alchemical knowledge in different disciplines or arts to be illustrated. c) Collecting and classifying the secondary bibliography. d) Create biographical entries for every identifiable author, so as to map the actors of the history of alchemy, their roles in this history and the subjective positions pertaining to these roles. e) Evaluate, on the basis of the collected primary sources, the modifications or even transformations which Byzantine alchemical tradition has undergone through the passage of time, and to ascertain its relations with Hellenistic, Arabic, or (after the 10th century) Latin alchemy. f) Determine what twists in the development of alchemy have taken place after its introduction in the cultural context of Greek-speaking communities under Ottoman domination, from the 15th to the 18th century. Additional objectives of our project are the following: i) The enrichment of the history of Byzantium, drawing lines of connection between the historiography of Byzantine alchemy and that of the natural sciences in South-Eastern Europe. ii) The production of a historical material that is both profitable in terms of educational applications and suitable for activities tending to promote public awareness of the different temporalities that having been merged in the history of science and render the written monuments of this history tokens of a common cultural legacy. The project is under the patronage of the International Academy of History of Science.

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SYMPOSIUM 4

Cartesian Physics and its Reception: between Local and Universal

Organizers Delphine Bellis, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium Mihnea Dobre, University of Bucharest, Bucarest, Romania In our symposium, we would like to address one of the most important receptions of a system of natural philosophy in the seventeenth century. Namely, we shall focus on how Descartes physics has been commented and developed in a number of places, including France, Switzerland, the Low Countries, and England. The various ways in which Descartes philosophy influenced the seventeenth-century thought can hardly be overestimated. However, most of the studies on the reception of Cartesian philosophy in the second half of the seventeenth century focus on Descartes metaphysics. Our symposium aims at providing a fresh perspective on the reception of Cartesian physics and its development against various backgrounds throughout Europe. After Descartes death, new followers of his philosophy began to print their own thoughts; contributing to something that Dennis Des Chene notoriously called Cartesiomania. Yet, general Cartesian ideas became fertile in particular contexts which clearly influenced the way Descartes physics was understood, discussed, adopted, and modified, some of its dimensions being highlightened and some others being left in the shadow. Our team will explore several physically oriented Cartesians in an attempt to discern the influence of particular philosophical, political, institutional, and religious ideas upon the evolution of the new physics. For many of Descartes own contemporaries, his physics was considered as built upon the atomist theory. Alexandra Torero-Ibad will expose the various contextual reasons for this reception of Cartesian physics as atomism. Ren Sigrist will discuss the context of Calvinist Geneva, where Cartesian physics came to be adopted in its Acadmie. The diffusion of Cartesian physics in England through Rohaults Trait de physique and its association with Newtonianism will be presented by Mihnea Dobre. However puzzling this association may seem, it will be better understood if other earlier episodes are taken into account. For this, our symposium will discuss two other important contexts: Leibnizs early critique of Cartesianism (by Epaminondas Vampoulis) and Regius inner development of a more empirical approach to natural philosophy (by Delphine Bellis).

Descartes' Laws of Motion and Rules of Impact

Ricardo Lopes Coelho, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal The foundations of Descartes theory of motion consist of the law of conservation of the quantity of motion, three laws of nature and seven rules of impact (1644). As usually presented in the history of science, the first two laws form together the law of inertia and the third one is wrong. Only one of the seven rules of impact is correct. Due to this, Descartes has been criticised for decades by historians of science and philosophers as well (Tannery 1926, Dubarle 1937, Dugas 1954, Blackwell 1966, Costabel 1967, Hbner 1976, Szab 1977, Clarke 1979, Gabbey 1980, Jammer 1990, Garber 1992, among others). Moreover, the connection between the laws of motion and the rules of impact is a standard question of the literature (Garber 1992). The equations for the rules of impact (Coelho 2005) show, however, that Descartes theory of impact is mathematically coherent. Furthermore, this enables us to understand the role of the laws of 25

motion in founding the rules of impact. Understanding the laws in this way, it follows that the two first laws of motion do not form together the law of inertia. Nevertheless, they play a role within Descartes theory of motion, which is analogous to that which is played by Newtons first law in classical mechanics or Hertzs fundamental law in his mechanics (Coelho 2010). The link between the laws of motion and the rules of impact, based on the equations referred to, as well as the interpretation of the first two laws will be presented in this paper. The main topics of the criticism of Descartes physics will be addressed.

Spinoza and Cartesian Physics

Filip Adolf Buyse, CHSPM, Universit Paris 1 - Panthon / Sorbonne, Paris, France Spinoza (1632-1677) was not a physicist in the strict sense of the word. There is no doubt, however, that he was very interested in Cartesian physics, especially during the early 1660s. Moreover, according to a letter of C. Bontekoe, the Dutch philosopher tutored several students of the University of Leyden in Cartesian physics during that period. Spinozas interest in physics is very relevant for his philosophy and its development, but is underestimated in the secondary literature. It is well known that Spinoza wrote an interpretation of Descartes Principia: the Principles of Cartesian Philosophy (PPC). The PPC had started with an interpretation of the second part of Descartes Principia the part Descartes often called ma physique. We will demonstrate via several examples that Spinozas text differs from Descartes, albeit in ways that are not obvious. Furthermore, we will show also that Spinoza applies the Cartesian physics in a much more radical way than does Descartes (1596-1650) himself. Spinoza dealt with physics again in the second part of his main work, the Ethics, in the so-called Short Treatise on Physics. We will examine this treatise in comparison with the PPC. As we will see, the physics in The Ethics is different and less Cartesian than the physics in the PPC. There is thus an evolution in Spinozas physics. We will concentrate on the principle of inertia to illustrate this. Furthermore, we will argue that Spinoza very probably changed his physics under the influence of Hobbes De Corpore, which had been published in Amsterdam by Joannem Blaeu between the publication of the PPC and the redaction of the Ethics.

Leibniz and Descartes' Physics

Epaminondas Vampoulis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece Studying Leibnizs attitude towards Descartes physics means having to deal with a complicated issue. This is so mainly because this relation is a relation between two different kinds of thought. What makes things even more complicated is the fact that Leibnizs relation with Cartesian physics is closely related to the evolution of his own philosophy. One can quite easily trace back the steps of Leibnizs initiation to Descartes physics by following his correspondence. Additionally, any researcher of our times who wants to examine this issue in every detail is in possession of sources which are even more precious from the point of view of their content, sources revealing Leibnizs thoughts concerning the principles of Descartes physics: we have Leibnizs own remarks on Cartesian texts of great importance. Thus, we are in possession of two sets of remarks on Descartes Principia Philosophiae, remarks written during two different periods of Leibnizs career. While examining these remarks one can approach Leibnizs critique of Descartes through the lens of a comparative study which will reveal the points on which Leibnizs critique focuses as his thought evolves. In this paper we will try to shed some light on Leibnizs positions concerning the major issues developed in Descartes texts on natural philosophy. These issues include the problem of the nature

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of matter and the reduction of matter to extension; the problem of the definition of force; the problem of the laws of collision between bodies; the problem of the limits of mechanical philosophy. Concerning all these issues the principles Leibniz chooses as a starting point for his thought are very different from those proposed by Descartes. But at the same time his writings are in a constant dialogue with Descartes natural philosophy and the basic premises underlying Cartesian physics. This dialogue serves, in fact, as the ground upon which Leibniz has built his own physics.

The Reception of Descartes Physics as an Atomism in 17th century Natural Philosophy

Alexandra Torero-Ibad, Paris, France Descartes strongly opposes atomism, and especially the indivisibility of atom and the existence of void. However, his philosophy has been compared to atomism by some of his contemporaries, not only in the 1630s, but throughout the 17th century. Indeed, such assimilation comes from distortions and misinterpretations. It can also be explained by the controversial nature of some of these readings whether this comparison being malevolent or benevolent. However, such a reception has something to tell us about Cartesian natural philosophy. Without forcing Descartes into an atomist, it leads us to pay attention to some actual common points. Beyond, and in the very transformations and distortions, it can offer new keys to enter Descartes system itself. The posterior attempts to bring closer Descartes and atomists, such as Cordemoys and Boyles, can also bring to light some possibilities offered by the system, as well as some major internal tensions. Putting aside the assimilation of Descartes to atomism which belongs to religious controversies, I will focus on the philosophical reception. I will consider both the interpretations of Descartes as an atomist, and the uses of Descartes physics in an atomistic perspective. Beyond the question of the truth and the falsity of these interpretations, I will pay attention to the mechanisms of displacements, cuttings and reorganizations. Besides, I will try to study these receptions in the perspective of an interrogation on Descartes physics itself: what is at stake is to understand how the contrasted relation of Descartes physics to atomism (with consideration to both what opposes them and what brings them together) could be constituent of its elaboration and of its own legacy.

The Role of the Dutch Context in the Function Ascribed to Experience in Cartesian Natural Philosophy (the case of Regius)
Delphine Bellis, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium Regius was one of the first followers of Descartes and was mainly interested in natural philosophy and physiology. Nevertheless, the collaboration between the Dutch and the French philosophers ended up in 1646 when Regius decided to publish his Fundamenta physices. In the Conversation with Burman, Descartes reproaches Regius with his unwillingness to provide a demonstration of the way the organisation of the cosmos can be deduced from the first principles of physics (that is essentially extension and movement), contrary to what Descartes attempts to do in the third part of his Principia philosophiae. According to Descartes, this theoretical attitude is linked to Regius rejection of any metaphysical commitment. But this difference in the attitude of both philosophers also originates from a different understanding of experience. To a certain extent, Descartes does not fully understand the contextual reasons, political, academic, and above all religious, that play a role in Regius approach to natural philosophy. These have specific consequences on the function ascribed to experience for the constitution of natural philosophy. Indeed Orthodox Calvinists such as Voetius, while downplaying to a certain extent the power of reason, insist on the use of the senses in the constitution of knowledge as a way to counter some dissident reformed (sometimes seen as enthusiast) movements. They particularly stress the empiricist elements in Aristotles theories. The

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senses are therefore a source of knowledge, but also a way to control the validity of any theoretical statement. Whereas for Descartes, experience has no value independently from the possibility to be linked to all the phenomenal aspects of the world through a series of demonstrations, Regius elaborates an empiricist psychology and epistemology and considers experience as a source of factual information on nature. For Regius, nature is a set of facts which can be considered independently and accounted for from mechanical principles. My aim will therefore consist in tracing empiricist elements in Regius natural philosophy back to the specific context that can account, at least in part, for them.

Aboa Aristotelico non-Cartesiana. Cartesian Physics and Strategies of Stability in the 17th-century Sweden
Maija Kallinen, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland Ren Descartes died at the court of Queen Christina in Stockholm in February 1650. His philosophy did not, however, land to Swedish seats of learning through his actual presence. Cartesian philosophy was imported to the flagship of Swedish universities, the University of Uppsala, by medics such as Olof Rudbeck in the 1660s. Disputes on the validity of Cartesian principles and the right to teach non-Aristotelian views were conducted in Uppsala in the 1660s and especially in the 1680s. Whether the teaching of Cartesianism should be allowed was not debated within the walls of the academia only, but the matter escalated into a power struggle between Faculties at the University of Uppsala, the Church of Sweden, and the estates convening at the Diet and no lesser authority was required to settle the dispute but the King of Sweden in 1689. On the other side of the Bothnic Gulf, at the University of bo (Turku in Finnish), such blatant disputes were carefully avoided. This was not due to ignorance of Cartesian philosophy, for theologians from bo were in fact active in discussing Cartesianism at the Diet in Stockholm. Moreover, Cartesianism was very thoroughly and cleverly attacked in a dissertation published in bo in 1661, about a year before any disputes began in Uppsala. My paper discusses the strategies of stability used by bo scholars to maintain their Aristotelianism intact from Cartesian or any other infection. Despite outspoken hostility towards novelties, I will show how bits and pieces of Cartesian physics were nevertheless introduced at bo, and integrated into the otherwise overtly Aristotelian natural philosophy. My paper discusses the question how and why it was possible, in an intellectual culture otherwise hostile to Cartesianism, to favor Cartesian physical theories without causing any argument about it.

Mixing Cartesianism and Newtonianism: the Reception of Cartesian Physics in England

Mihnea Dobre, University of Bucharest, Bucarest, Romania In 1671, Jacques Rohault published his Trait de physique, a textbook on physics relying on his weekly conferences held in Paris. A good mathematician and at the same time a curious experimenter, Rohault was one of the main Cartesian figures of his time. His natural philosophy was quickly disseminated through translations of his book. The first was issued in Geneva, in 1674, when Thophile Bonet made a Latin translation, which was later used in various European universities, including Louvain, Leiden, and Cambridge. The importance of disseminating Cartesian ideas reveals important themes in the history of science and Bonets translation pictures an important lineage between Cartesian and Newtonian ideas. This Latin edition was used in England up to the end of the century and some of the first-generation Newtonians were learning physics from it. Not only that Rohaults physics has become an important textbook in Cambridge, but also, in 1697, a fresh translation was made by the celebrated Newtonian, Samuel Clarke. What is of great historical

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interest in Clarkes new translation is that he commented the text, making a mixture of Newtonian and Cartesian ideas. This edition was published a number of times in both Latin and English surviving up to the 1730s despite the increased Newtonian context. In my paper, I shall explore this puzzling fusion of Cartesianism and Newtonianism. A particular attention will be devoted to Rohaults experimental approach of some problems and to how Clarke commented on them. The experimental culture of the Royal Society will play an important role for this reception, as I shall argue in the case of some experiments; for instance, the ones with airpumps, which, at that time, were very fashionable on both England and the continent.

Cartesianism in a Calvinist Context: Geneva (1670-1720)

Ren Sigrist, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium Because of the orthodox character of the 17th century Calvinism in Geneva, the teaching of Cartesian philosophy was not introduced in the local Acadmie before 1669. Yet, given the strong connexions between theology and natural philosophy within this institution since the time of Thodore de Bze (1519-1605), Cartesianism had to fulfil the role devoted so far to Aristotelian scholasticism: that of providing a physical worldview compatible with the word of the Bible. Jean-Robert Chouet (16421731), the first Cartesian professor of philosophy at the Acadmie, had therefore to remain careful about the potential implications of his teaching for Calvinist theology. Yet, his defence of the libertas philosophandi took the form of weekly public lectures where current physical topics were examined through the means of experimentation. In academic teaching as well, a growing number of Cartesian explanations and principles had to be abandoned in favour of physical concepts borrowed from Leibniz, or later from Newton. After 1686, the crisis of Calvinist dogmatic theology opened new perspectives to Cartesianism and to natural philosophy in general. If some theologians remained seduced by the deductive and systematic character of the Cartesian method, others thought that the best means for fighting deists, sceptics and atheists was to develop the rational side of theology with the help of the critical methods of natural philosophy. Jean-Alphonse Turrettini (1671-1737), for instance, considered the Cartesian method expressed in the Discours de la mthode as containing the best precepts to guide human reason and to enlarge the capacities of the mind; he also saw in geometry the best means to convey clear and distinct ideas and to give exactness and precision in the conduct of investigations. These principles guided the 1703-04 reforms of the Acadmie curriculum, whereby natural philosophy and mathematics were introduced as the basis of intellectual training of pastors and magistrates. Inspired by Boyle, Genevan natural philosophers had themselves developed a tendency to insist on the harmony between faith and reason and to underline the usefulness of philosophy to prove Gods existence. The hypothetico-deductive method, as illustrated by Nicolas Fatio de Duilliers theory of zodiacal light, remained their favourite tool of investigation, although Chouets successors also introduced some experiments in their teaching of physics and a few observations of the heavens in their astronomy courses. By applying the Cartesian method of systematic doubt to the Cartesian principles themselves, they finally prepared the way to their gradual abandon in favour of a complete acceptance of Newtonian science (1718-1723). The aim of my presentation will be to analyse the methodological impact of Cartesianism in its various methodological interpretations (deductive, hypothetico-deductive method, critical), and the significance of experimentation within each of these different options. A concluding section will be devoted to the persistence, among a few scholars, of a mechanistic mentality of a Cartesian type even after the acceptance of Newtonian science in the early 1720s.

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SYMPOSIUM 5

Cultural Identity and Trans-Nationality in the History of Science

Organizers Kapil Raj, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris, France Kenji Ito, Graduate University for Advanced Studies (Sokendai), Kanagawa, Japan Studies in the history, sociology and anthropology of science have in recent decades increasingly and convincingly shown that scientific research is based not only on logical reasoning but, like in the practical crafts, at least as much on locally specific and historically contingent pragmatic judgment. Local circumstances and cultures are thus as crucial to the understanding of scientific practices as are the wider shared values and transnational connections that make it possible for these spatially specific ideas, texts, practices, norms, instruments, procedures, protocols, personnel and materials to travel beyond their site of invention to cross and transcend national boundaries to other parts of the globe. Indeed, the very construction of these shared values and transnational connections is itself an integral part of scientific practice and its history as also is the seemingly contradictory strategy of simultaneously seeking to construct national and cultural identities through the very same objects, theories and practices. Although this question of the mobility of locally shaped knowledge has been the object of much work in recent history and sociology of science, the focus of these studies has been limited preponderantly to Western Europe and North America. Besides, their studies have tended by and large to seek in the objects, practices and norms certain inherent qualities such as fluidity or the appropriate mix of plasticity and robustness that ensure their transnational capacities and cultural specificities. This symposium will eschew this idea of intrinsic qualities that favour circulation. Based on individual case studies from across a wide range of spaces within and beyond the West, it is aimed at bringing out the methodological and historiographical issues involved in the problematic of circulation, while at the same time attempting to deparochialise the debate. This symposium is planned and supported by the International Association for Science and Cultural Diversity (IASCUD) and joined by the International Commission on Science and Empire.

Towards a History of the Historiography of Circulation of Knowledge

Karine Carole Chemla, REHSEISSPHERE, University Paris Diderot, CNRS, ERC Advanced Grant SAW "Mathematical Sciences in the Ancient World", Paris, France In his research on the history of science in China, most notably in Science and Civilisation in China, Joseph Needham gave the issue of the circulation of knowledge a key role. He made his motivations explicit in the authors note that he inserted at the beginning of volume V.4 (1980, p. xxxvi), where we read: There is a danger to be guarded against, the danger of () denying the fundamental continuity and universality of all science. This could be to resurrect the Spenglerian conception of the natural sciences of the various dead (or even worse, the living) non-European civilisations as totally separate, immiscible thought-patterns, more like distinct works of art than anything else, a series of different views of the natural world irreconcilable and unconnected. Such a view might be used as the cloak of some historical racialist doctrine, the sciences of pre-modern times and the non-European cultures being thought of as wholly conditioned ethnically, and rigidly confined to their own spheres,

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not part of humanity's broad onward march. However, it would leave little room for those actions and reactions that we are constantly encountering, those subtle communicated influences which every civilisation accepted from time to time" (my emphasis). These lines capture the issues at stake for Needham, when he chose to lay emphasis on questions of circulation of knowledge. They also illustrate a specific way of approaching these questions. The talk sketches Needhams practice of the history of science on this point. It more generally outlines a research program on the history of the historiography of the circulation of knowledge from the 18th century on, paying attention to specific issues, such as: What motivations can we identify that various practitioners of the history of science of the past had, when they addressed such questions? What was their historiographic practice in this respect? In which terms, with which concepts have they framed their inquiries?

Questioning the Transfer

Aleksandra Majstorac-Kobiljski, CECMEC, CNRS/EHESS, Paris, France In 1895, Shimomura Ktaro quit his job as professor of chemistry and the head of the Harris School of Science at a missionary college in Kyoto and started learning French. Five years later, using Belgian technology he successfully set up Japan's first by-product coking plant in Osaka. What looked like a simple technology transfer was in fact a very creative process as he had to do far more than order sixteen coke ovens in Bruxelles and have them assembled in Japan. In fact, the imported ovens were useless for his purpose because they were made with good quality coal in mind, a luxury Japan did not have. Thus, rather than import Belgian technology, Shimomura had to bend it and use the ovens to do what his European colleagues were telling him was impossible, to produce good quality coke for steel industry using impure Japanese coal. Shimomura disagreed and went on to bend the rules of coking. By examining a specific case, within the context of transfer of coal technology, this paper productively complicated the notions of transfer and Japan's places on the map of circulation of technical knowledge in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.

Circulations and Innovations in Soviet Union during Interwar Period

Grgory Dufaud, Universit Paris 1 Panthon-Sorbonne; Centre d'tudes des mondes russe, caucasien et centre-europen, Paris, France Larissa Zakharova, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris, France Focusing on two specific fields, psychiatry and telecommunications, this paper aims to understand the politics and uses of innovations coming from abroad in Soviet Union. This state distinguished itself by permanent and direct intervention of the political authorities in the field of sciences, as well as by its pretention to achieve an autarkic model. We will identify circuits of circulations and mechanisms of innovation through following procedures: 1) paying attention to the changes of actors interests during controversies; 2) evaluating the role of repressions of the end of the 1930s on the conception and realization of innovations; 3) putting aside the vision of the progress elaborated a posteriori by the actors as well as the oppositions between politics and sciences, sciences and society. In the field of telecommunications, the controversies emerged concerning the types of telephone systems: Swedish stations Ericsson taken as the model for the Soviet production in 1926 were criticized in the beginning of the 1930s and some Soviet researchers were punished in 1937 for the choice of this model. The accusations impeded innovations and complicated borrowing from abroad. In the field of psychiatry, mental hygiene and local (district) psychiatry (care in the community) were promoted in Soviet Union in the end of the 1920s, in the beginning of industrialisation. They were

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supposed to limit mental and nervous troubles of which workers could suffer because of the works intensification. These new approaches were not able to become dominant and the psychiatrists who defended them were denounced for the mechanical borrowing of ideas from the West without an effort to found authentic Soviet psychiatry. We will compare the two cases in order to conclude on the specificities of circulations of ideas and technologies through the USSR borders.

The Fiocruz Minas -Brazil Heritage and Scientific Education Centre

Benedito Tadeu Oliveira, Fundao Oswaldo Cruz, Ouro Preto, Brazil The Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), affiliated with the Brazilian Ministery of Health, is one of the most important scientific and technological institutions in the health field in Latin America. Its affiliate in the State of Minas Gerais is the oldest in Fiocruzs network of regional centres distributed around the country. From 1907 onwards and throughout the twentieth century, Fiocruz has been present in a variety of ways. Of particular interest are the discoveries made by Carlos Chagas (1878 1934) in the community of Lassance. Working under extremely primitive conditions, this scientist succeeded in 1909 in achieving a coup considered unique in medical history, a triple discovery: a new type of human disease (Chagas disease), its active agent ( the protozoa known ad Trypanosoma cruzi, in homage to the scientis Oswaldo Cruz), and the insect that transmitted it (triatomineo, known as the barbeiro or bed bug). In 2007, the governing body of Fiocruz took the decision to locate the institutions future installations in Minas Gerais within the Technological Park of Belo Horizonte - BHTec, so as to improve working conditions, upgrade processes in scientific output, and maintain its policy of physical and territorial expansion. The nature of the programme has led to the adoption of a concept of an architectural complex comprised of well defined volumes corresponding to specific functions and the necessary division by function: a large entrance hall, an administrative block, a teaching and research pavilion, a block designed to house production and multiple usage spaces, among which will be located the Centre for Heritage and Scientific Education. The Centre is to be responsible for the preservation and dissemination of the following collections: architectural, that of material and immaterial culture, archival and iconographic, videos and CDs, and scientific collections composed of phlebotominae (sandflies), mollusca and triatominea. The Heritage and Scientific Education Centre, the subject of this abstract, is to be responsible for organizing scientific congresses and educational activities such as workshops, theatrical presentations etc., promoting interaction between scientific, cultural and artistic fields. These activities will address teachers, students in the primary education system, and the general public, using the appropriate means for organizing and enabling universal access to the history of Fiocruz Minas and its scientific output.

Behavior Analysis in Brazil in the 1960s: Shaping the Laboratory as a Pedagogical Tool
Sergio Cirino, Rodrigo Lopes Miranda, Eustaquio Jose de Souza Junior, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil In this work, we present an introduction to the history of behavior analysis in Brazil at the beginning of the 1960s. Behavior analysis is a branch of the experimental psychology. It is a school of psychology based upon the foundations and principles of the philosophy of radical behaviorism proposed by the North American psychologist B. F. Skinner. One of the core principles of behavior analysis is the inductive and data-driven investigation of functional relations related to the behavior of organisms. Behavior analysis can also be characterized by its emphasis in the laboratory as the main locus for empirical and systematic observation of measurable behavior. 32

Among the goals of the current historians of psychology is to understand how it became a legitimate form of knowledge in various countries. From this point of view, contemporary history of psychology focuses on the comprehension of how different paths of psychology were established by a varied of contextual aspects. This perspective points out a range of cultural, social, and institutional milieus in which psychology was produced. We discuss the way that the laboratory of behavior analysis was received in Brazil. Our time frame is the 1960s and it includes the establishment of the first behavior analysis laboratory in Brazil by the North American Fred S. Keller in 1961. As the main result of this investigation we found out that the behavior analysis laboratory was shaped as a pedagogical tool for the teaching of psychology. This appropriation was grounded on two major aspects, the Brazilian higher educational debate and the context of psychology in Brazil. To address this issue we present: the zeitgeist of Brazilian higher education and psychology at the beginning of the 1960s; the background of Fred Kellers arrival in 1961; and the reception of the behavior analysis laboratory as a pedagogical tool.

Beyond Orientalism: A Case in the East Asian STS

Ryuma Shineha, Masaki Nakamura, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Kanagawa, Japan When discussing the possibility of a new research framework based on the unique experiences of particular regions, we should avoid a-priori assumptions about the differences between regions such as the Western and the Orient. In this talk, we would like to discuss this point through case of science & technology studies (STS). Currently STS researchers in East Asian regions have tried to establish fresh framework based on the unique experiences of Asian context. However, at the same time, we think we should look at our perspectives reflexively to avoid falling in self-orientalism. In our opinion, to consider this, we need to grasp diversity of context/interest of STS. In order to fully understand the diversity of interests within the STS community, one first needs to grasp the themes and frameworks to which research communities are attracted. In grasping the current/actual status of expert communities, an important unit for analysis is the journal community, because the standards of the journal community, which is configured through trial and error concerning the submission and review of articles, define the norms of expert communities (Fujigaki 2003). Although individual researchers may belong to several journal societies, and although individual STS journal communities necessarily bear complete similarity to the STS communities in their countries, visualizing the interests of each journal community will not teach us more than a little about the current/actual activities of STS experts. We have to re-think the current/actual status and role of STS, based on journal communities interests. Thus, as a first step, we conducted analysis of commonalities and differences between topics in five domestic/international STS journals, including journals published in Asian regions, and found a diversity of interests within each journal community. In our opinion, it is necessary to re-think the meaning of research and practice within local contexts/experiences.

"Samurai science" Revisited: Modern Science in Japan and its Cultural Origins
Kenji Ito, Graduate University for Advanced Studies (Sokendai), Kanagawa, Japan This paper addresses the problem of overemphasizing a certain cultural particularity in an attempt to understand science in the Non-West. It examines some arguments that characterize science in Japan after the Meiji Restoration as related to "samurai" in some way (which I call "samurai science" theses), and discusses to what extent such arguments are valid. It argues that relevance of "samurai" to science in Japan after the Meiji Restoration was much more limited than some studies seem to suggest.To show this, I make the following points. First, although many Japanese scientists after the Meiji Restoration were indeed of samurai origin, that did not necessarily affect their scientific 33

practices in a way to justify calling them "samurai scientists." To show this, this paper examines some of scientists whose ancestors had samurai status. Second, there were important leading scientists who were not of samurai origin. As examples, I examine two leading Japanese physicists, Honda Ktar and Nishina Yoshio. They were extremely important physicists in Japan, not only in terms of their scientific contributions but also as leaders of a productive research group as well as because of their influential status in the scientific community. I show that their leadership styles and behavioral/relation patterns indicate those of other social strata than the ones described by classics of samurai ethics, or perceived so by their contemporaries. Third, while terms related to samurai worked as cultural resources to shape scientific practices in Japan, I show that tropes used to conceptualize scientific practices were not always related to samurai. Hence, if "samurai" provided cultural resources for Japanese scientists, such cultural resources constituted only a part of the cultural resources available and/or utilized by them.Then, the paper turns to a discussion of the methodological issues to the "samurai science" theses. While the "samurai science" theses can be refuted by their factual flaws, their fallacies suggest their methodological problems. I argue that the problem originates from of cultural particularities.

Colonizing the Underwater. Engineering and National Identity in Singapore

Sulfikar Amir, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore In 2010, a group of engineers at Nanyang Technological University embarked on an unusual project to solve one of the most acute problems in Singapore: lack of space. Funded by the prestigious National Research Foundation, the engineers were about to initiate a large-scale endeavor in extending the limited space of Singapore to the sea by building what is referred to as the Underwater City. This groundbreaking approach will make use of the underwater space in the sea to be used for residential, commercial, and public purposes. Focusing on the extended space of Singapore, this paper discusses the socio-technical dimensions of Singapores future underwater city as a venue to construct a new identity. Specifically, the paper examines the symbolic meaning engendered by the construction of this marvelous infrastructure and how it is related to the history of Singapore as a nation eager to catch up with advanced countries in the field of science and technology. Examining the Underwater City illuminates what makes Singapore suddenly obsessed with science and technology and the logic that drove the Weberian technocratic state of Singapore to resort to engineering for solving its problems. Two crucial aspects are examined. First, it looks at the arrangements of technoscientific institutions involved in the Underwater City project that reflect the role and location of technoscience in Singapores developmental logic. It sheds light on interconnectedness that globally links Singapore to numerous technoscientific centers around the globe. Second, the paper explores the symbolic meaning that underlies the state's ambitious endeavor in the pursuit of technoscientific progress. The paper will contribute to our understanding of the history and sociology of engineering science in the Southeast Asian context.

Layers of the Past. Hrdlika Museum of Man between trans-Nationality and Racial Identity
Marco Stella, Toman Petr, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic The still existing Hrdlika Museum of Man was founded in 1937. Less than a year before the Munich Pact was signed, border areas of the state with a German majority were connected to the Third Reich, leaving Czechoslovakia unprotected from a Nazi military invasion, which came in March 1939. The museum was financially supported and its concept developed by Ale Hrdlika (1869-1943), a prominent US physical anthropologist with a Czech origin. The museum and its displays were practically realized by the Czech anthropologist and Charles University official Jindich Matiegka (1862-1941), Hrdlikas close collaborator. In return, Hrdlika furnished Czechoslovak anthropologists 34

with anthropological materials from North and South America. Placed in the premises of the Institute of Anthropology of the Charles University in Prague, it was the first Czech museum dedicated solely to human evolution, ontogeny, racial variability and pathology. It was Hrdlikas and Matiegkas personal dislikes towards German anthropology and the political situation at the time when the museum was founded that shaped the final contents of the museum. While similar museums in Germany after 1933 became still more engaged with the ideological pillars of the Nazi ideology, such as narratives of German racial superiority or state-supported Rassenhygiene, Hrdlika and Matiegka fought back with a mixture of anthropologically, archaeologically, geographically and ethnographically supported displays of Slavic racial superiority. They used the same ideological weapons to achieve a reversed meaning. Based upon newly discovered materials and archival and visual materials stored in the museums depositories and preserved fragments of the former exhibit, the paper attempts to reconstruct the looks and contents of the display of the museum between 1937-1939, when it emerged as an unusual combination of transnational cooperation and nationalism supported by Slav-centered racial theories.

Christian Astronomy against the Heathen: Remarks on Jacobo Fenicio's "Livro da Seita" (c. 1609)
Thoms Santoro Haddad, University of So Paulo, So Paulo, Brazil The long process of "invention of Hinduism" to early-modern European audiences (which was to be completed only in the eighteenth-century British Orientalist movement) was informed, from the start, by travel narratives, historical chronicles of the exploits of Western nations in several parts of India, and, evidently, by missionary literature in various genres (letters, relations, grammars, treatises, maps etc.). Seventeenth-century sources of these kinds abound in expositions of customs, rituals, "mythologies" and denunciations of idolatry (especially when it comes to missionaries' writings), and they even give some useful information on local natural-historical knowledge, but they are scant in representing local cosmological traditions. In this regard, the Jesuit Jacobo Fenicio's treatise "Livro da Seita dos Indios Orientais", written in the first decade of the century (but only published, partly, in the 1930s, although having circulated in manuscript quite widely until the eighteenth century), is a notable exception. The book already starts with the presentation of cosmological conceptions of Malabari Brahmins (whom the author calls "the natural philosophers of those parts"), and proceeds to their refutation on the basis of contemporary European astronomy, which is taken as self-evidently correct. Natural knowledge is thus clearly identified as a key cultural trait and, concomitantly, as a cultural weapon to be deployed in the representation of the other, which is the main function of the book. Here we examine the details of Fenicio's exposition and the place he accords to European and Indian cosmologies in wider Jesuit policies and worldviews, reflecting also on the uses of science to reinforce cultural and religious identities and divides in earlymodern contact zones.

Scientific Cosmopolitanism and Local Cultures: Reactions to Symbols, Icons and Advancements of Science in the the Reconcavo Territory, Bahia, Brazil
Fabihana Souza Mendes, Amilcar Baiardi, Alex Vieira dos Santos, Januzia Souza Mendes de Arajo, Wellington Gil Rodrigues, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Feira de Santana BA, Brazil The cosmopolitanism of science clashes with the reality of the territories in different ways, depending on their culture, values, religiosity etc. The Reconcavo territory, State of Bahia, Brazil, has become an emblematic case of this phenomenon. For historical reasons this territory, which was in the colonial period Bahias the most important commercial center and also its largest producer of sugar cane and cotton, have its population constituted by descendants of landowners sugar 35

producers and their skill workers belonging to white ethnicity and by former slaves, Afrodescendants, that belongs to black ethnicity. Over the centuries these populations consolidated their Christian beliefs on modalities, such as Catholicism and Protestantism, their African modalities such as Il Ax Ogunj and Candombl Nag and Mal, with Islamic influence and as their mixed modalities, involving Catholicism and African religions, type Boa Morte, "good death", sect and the Ubanda. This wide spectrum of religions has showed different reactions to symbols, icons and advancements of science. Subjects such as genetic modification, use of stem cells, cloning, etc. are seen differently, with greater tolerance or resistance of these belief systems. This paper proposes to make a systematization of symbolic elements of these religions with straights implications for full acceptance of the canons of modern science.

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SYMPOSIUM 6

Engineers, Circulation of Knowledge, and the Construction of Imperial and PostImperial Spaces (18th-20th c.)
Organizers Darina Martyknov, University of Potsdam, Germany Ana Cardoso de Matos, University of vora (CIDEHUS), Portugal Irina Gouzvitch, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris, France The circulation of knowledge and the construction of modern structures of government have been identified as key forces that shaped modern profession of engineer. In this session, we would like to take a step further and test the role of engineers as mediators in the transnational circulation of knowledge and skills in a specific political framework: the imperial powers in the margins of Europe. Ruling elites of these empires systematically encouraged the transfer of specific knowledge and skills as they strove to maintain and strengthen the geo-political position of the empire. They framed this effort in the discourses of rattrapage and modernization. Similar discourses and practices were developed by the leaders of political movements that challenged the established regimes, although the territorial unit and the community to be saved and modernized could differ. By the 19th century, the very legitimacy of these empires was challenged and, in the 20th century, at the latest, they had disintegrated and/or transformed into Nation-States. Besides the states, there were other important frameworks for the engineers practice: 1) the companies; and 2) the intellectual/expert communities, both being transnational entities that could not be easily linked to a particular country. In these complex settings of highly fluid power structures, the engineers had to negotiate their professional identities and their practice. How was the construction and reconfiguration of professional identities and practice shaped in the changing political and economic frameworks? How did technical knowledge and professional discourses shape the economic and political structures, institutions and practices? Is there a relation between specific patterns of domination and governance, on the one hand, and the construction of modern engineering, on the other? We are particularly interested in late patrimonial empires of the European periphery (Portugal, Spain, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Russia) and the Nation-States that emerged from them (Brazil, Mexico, Cuba, Greece, Serbia, Egypt, etc.). The participants will include comparative and/or transnational perspective. The time span is from the 18th to the 20th century. The papers will be presented in English and French. The session should provide material for an analysis that would combine history of science and technology, political and economic history as well as sociology of professions.

The Rise of the State Technical Corps and the Building of Imperial Technical Regime in Russia
Dmitri Gouzevitch, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris, France The technical corps arose from the felt need to settle the activity of a numerous and heterogenous professional group which was that of engineers at the 17th century. Once launched, this form of 37

professional organization turned out effective enough so that a large set of countries would adopte it during the next two centuries. It knew, at first, a rapid extension in the military field: most of the national armies appointed themselves with military technical corps, those of artillerymen and military engineers. Contrastingly, the technical corps acting independently of the armed forces knew only a moderated expansion with regard to their military counterparts. One find them, however, in most of the European countries: in Spain and in Sweden, in German and Italian States, in Portugal and in France, this former being considered as classic champion of these organizations. The history of diverse European technical corps seems studied rather well. By contrast, in the Russian historiography this field has been explored in a very sporadic and fragmented way, and this in spite of the fact that the process of "corps buillding" in the Russian Empire had met a spectacular dynamics during the 18th century. The subject is, doubtlessly, very complicate, both from the factual and methodological points of view. Aware of all the inherent difficulties, we tempted to meet this problematic by privileging a synthetic aproache which leans on a mass of primary and secondary sources analyzed in a critical way. Our study is focused at the genesis and the evolution of technical corps in Russia during the "big 18th century", a decisive period of their stake in system on the scale of the State. We also want this study to be systematic and contextual. Because we wish, on one hand, to investigate the archetypes of these administrations, elaborated according to the groving experiences and the emerging needs conditioned by both the legacies of past and the synthesis of the imported prototypes, and on the other hand, to inscribe this specific process of administrative creation in a wider sociopolitical and historico-cultural frame. Finally, even if the systematic comparison with the similar European administrations still remains a work to be made, the last researches allow to apply this aproach to some specific scenarios, and our study will take it into account.

Engineers for the Brazilian Empire

Silvia Fernanda Figueiroa, University of Campinas, Campinas-SP, Brazil The first institutions of military education in the Portuguese colonies date from late seventeenth century, products of the political and military contexts of the Portuguese Restoration, and of disputes with Spain. In Portuguese America, military schools were founded in Bahia (1696), Rio de Janeiro (1698), So Luis do Maranho (1699) and Recife (1701), as well as in other parts of the empire: Goa (1699), Angola (1699) and Viana do Castelo (1701). Since the transfer of the Court to Brazil, in 1808, the number of institutions dedicated to professional engineering education expanded, due to the needs of the new Metropolitan center, and to the perception of the gap between Portugal and its time. Besides the creation of the Marine Guards Academy, the Royal Military Academy was founded in 1810, later changed into the Military School (1839), the Central School (1855), and finally, into the Polytechnical School (1874). However, the training of engineers, military or civil, was not restricted to local institutions: as already mentioned in other works, between 1825 and 1903 (79 years), almost 90 Brazilians went to Paris to study engineering at the Grandes coles namely, Polytechnique, Mines and Ponts-et-Chausses , as well to Portugal, at the Polytechnico of Lisbon. This paper presents and discusses this community of engineers in its time and space, aiming at contributing to the understanding of the social roles Brazilian engineers played, and the marks they left in the historical process.

Describe to Design. A Comparative Analysis of Two Models of Technical Reports for the Development of Public Works in the Transition from Colony to Republic. Chile, 1780-1850
Jaime Parada, Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Chile, Santiago, Chile

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This presentation compares two models of technical analysis for the development of infrastructure works in Chile during two historical moments. The objective is to reveal the processes that led to the appearance and evolution of engineering as a new form of scientific thinking in a country with absence of early disciplinary tradition in the fields of technical science. The kinds of reports discussed in this presentation are the so called feasibility reports, which contain a great deal of information capable of illustrating a new way of thinking, a scheme of work and the status of this science in a specific context and time, specifically during the XVIII and XIX centuries. This type of source has not been remarked or studied sufficiently, even though it contains different discursive levels that range from complex decoding to more literal contents. These sources become extremely useful for the understanding of the social and scientific reality in Chile in the described area. In this sense, the chilean case is very particular: on the one hand, it was a country that presented one the poorest displays of Spanish imperial engineering during the XVIII century, which was a century of splendour for the Royal Corp of Engineers. On the other hand, during the republican times, Chile became one of the first Latin American nations to design a policy for the recruitment of foreign engineers and technical science professors that could influence and assist the future material development. Both phenomena explain why Chile tended to a particular engineering identity, which is partly reflected in the reports that we will discuss in this presentation.

On the boundaries of systems and countries - Jozef Cieszkowskis contribution to the development of european mining
Andrzej Wojcik, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Polish miner and mining geologist Jzef Cieszkowski (1789 1867), having finished grammar school, took up further education at the Academy of Mining in Kielce. In 1820 Cieszkowski was employed as an assistant engineer and from 1823 he worked in the zinc mines. The abilities he showed must have been noticed by his superiors as he was sent to study abroad in England, France and Belgium (18261827). Cieszkowskis reports on his education have preserved only in manuscripts and are kept in Mining Institute in Saint Petersburg (Russia). Miner and mining geologist was promoted over the years in ministerial mining from assistant engineer to the position of stationmaster of mines. In 1834 he became the Chief stationmaster of mines and from 1841 until 1861 he was the head of the West Mining District, Division of Mines. Cieszkowski is also the author of several terms that were published in H. abckis Mining dictionary (1868). He defined, inter alia, overburden, reconstruction (coal bed exploitation), incline, cross-cut and outcrop. He explained Polish term Zagbie (coal basin) too. Cieszkowski understood it as a soil concavity of different capacity where beds of fossils are located or in other words a place where mineral beds are hutch-shaped. So, in this definition, Cieszkowski put emphasis on description of geological structure that is characterized by synclinal arrangement of sedimentary-rock-beds. This definition was gradually introduced into Polish mining terminology, beginning from 1840.

Engineers and Circulation of Knowledge - the Case of Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria (18601914)
Alexandre Kostov, Institute for Balkan Studies, Sofia, Bulgaria The paper is devoted to the to the migration of qualified labour force from Western Europe to the Balkans and especially in the European part of the Ottoman Empire and in Bulgaria during the period 1860-1914. From the from 1860 onwards there were Western engineers who were taking part in the building activities in the Ottoman empire, which were occupied in the construction of the first

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railways in its Balkan provinces for. ex. Ruse Varna railway and the first segments of the famous Eastern railways. The second field, in which Western construction specialists were taking part, was the building of roads and bridges. After the Congress of Berlin (1878) foreign engineers played in important role in the construction of the railways in the newly liberated Bulgaria and in European Turkey ( for ex. Dedeagatch Salonica Monastir). Besides the railways Western engineers actively took part in other fields of public building - bridges and roads, water-supply networks, tramways, gas and electricity lighting etc. Western engineers contributed to the transfer of technological knowledge and to the modernization of European part of Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria in the mentioned period.

Evolution of education programmes of Engineering Schools during the formation of modernity from Ottoman to Republican Period of Turkey
Cemil Ozan Ceyhan, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey Modernity formation attempts in Turkey began in military. Since the 18th century, modern military schools have also been the roots of modern engineering education. Engineering Schools were the fundamentals of both modern civil and military engineering activities. Besides engineering, modernization of education also brought new ideologies which had an important impact on Turkish intelligentsia. While the history of Ottoman Empire was coming to an end, a new, educated class aroused which was going to shape the new modern Turkey. Firstly French, then German type of modernity affected Turkey in all areas including education. These education models shaped republican and nationalist movements as well. Until the second half of 19th century, Engineering Schools had included both civil and military engineering education and afterwards they were separated. This situation also resulted with an affect of military intervention to politics; because modern education was held in these modern engineering schools and the modern needs of the country were supported by these new educated elite. Engineering education is the root of Istanbul Technical University which is one of the leading engineering universities in Turkey since 1944. Three people, who had been graduated from Istanbul Technical University, became prime minister in Turkey, two of which had also become the president of republic. This study mainly focuses on the evolution of education programmes of Engineering Schools in terms of lectures, teachers, exams and other activities. The importance of Engineering Schools, which has also shaped the new ideologies of Modern Turkey, is aimed to be examined.

Spanish Engineers and the Regeneration of a Peripheral European Country after the Disaster of 1898
Francisco A. Gonzlez Redondo, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Francisco Gonzlez de Posada, Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain After the Spanish Empire decomposed in 1810s-1820s, the remaining colonial possessions (Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, etc.) acquired high symbolical value. Therefore, their loss after the defeat in the war against the USA in 1898 was experienced as the Disaster. That former transoceanic imperial Spain was to remain since then practically confined to the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal excluded) and small territories in Northern and Central Africa, reduced to the category of a peripheral southern European country. But the overall decline in terms of geopolitical relevance of Spain and the final loss of the colonies overseas gave rise to a process of what became to be known as Regeneration. Under these premises, in this work: :1) The same concept of Regeneration is characterized, not only as an intellectual attitude (from the Institucin Libre de Enseanza -Institution for Free Teaching- to Jos Ortega y Gassets personal

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appeal), but as a movement full of social-political-economical aspirations (Joaqun Costa), through even scientific materialisations of international significance (Santiago Ramn y Cajal, Blas Cabrera, and their respective disciples) and significant realisations in the realm of Civil and Industrial Engineering (specially by means of Leonardo Torres Quevedos works). 2) The role of our most significant engineers in the Regeneration process-movement, from Eduardo Saavedra (1900) to Lorenzo Pardo and Clemente Sanz (1930) is detailed: Ministry of Public Works, development of an ambitious plan for large hydraulic works widespread along all Spanish geography, design and construction of road and railway networks, re-design and upgrading of obsolete sea-ports to 20th century requirements, erection of bridges, etc. 3) The relevant role played by Leonardo Torres Quevedo is also analysed, not only as an individual genius, but also for the institutions conceived around him, all of them consecrated as remarkable milestones in the Regeneration process: the Centro de Ensayos de Aeronutica -Centre for Aeronautical Research-, Laboratorio de Mecnica Aplicada -Laboratory of Applied Mechanics-, the first period of the Junta para Ampliacin de Estudios e Investigaciones Cientficas (JAE) -Council for Studies Extension and Scientific Research-, JAEs Asociacin de Laboratorios -Association of Laboratories-, Laboratorio de Automtica -Laboratory of Automatics-, Instituto de Material Cientfico -Institute for Scientific Material-, the Fundacin Nacional para Investigaciones Cientficas y Ensayos de Reformas -National Foundation for Scientific Research and Reform Studies-, etc. 4) And, finally, a brief survey is undertaken of the international presence of Spanish Engineering through two of the most outstanding personalities, Leonardo Torres Quevedo and Juan de la Cierva Codorni: opposite to the widespread rhetorical discourse inside the country, with both of them the Regeneration fulfilment is seen materialized in their respective international recognition as significant Engineers of universal scope.

From Railways to Politics: The Portuguese Pink Map Project and the British Empire
Maria Paula Pires dos Santos Diogo, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal In this paper I argue that one of the most important diplomatic incidents between Portugal and Great Britain was the result of the technology-driven colonial policy of the late nineteenth century. The Berlin Conference (1885) and its new policy of effective occupation of colonial territories changed the nineteenth century imperial map. The aggressive policies of Disraeli and Cecil Rhodes for the British Empire, of Leopold II of Belgium over Congo, of France towards their African colonies and Bismarcks colonial expansion clearly threated Portuguese historical rights. Portugal, being a peripheral country within Europe, is suddenly aware that its presence in Angola and Mozambique must be strongly visible. Technical infrastructures, mostly civil engineering works, are chosen to show the great European powers that Portugal was indeed able to master its African empire, within the civilizing missions rationale. To oppose Livingstone, Stanley and Cameron expeditions that bordered dangerously Portuguese territories. Portugal supported Capelo and Ivens' scientific journey across Africa, from the western coast of Angola to the eastern coast of Mozambique. At the same time, the Portuguese government ordered its engineers to step into Africa and start the construction of the first railway lines both in Angola and Mozambique. The purpose was to link eventually the two main Portuguese colonies from Luanda to Lourenco Marques, creating the socalled Pink Map. This project clashed Cecil Rhodes's Cape to Cairo railway line, thus opening a period of strong tensions between Portugal and Great Britain which culminated with the 1890 British ultimatum. Saving the Empire: Attitudes of Ottoman Engineers and Officials towards Foreign Investment and Modernization of Public Works during the Electrification of Istanbul Ulas Duygu Aysal Cin, Bilkent University, Istanbul, Turkey 41

This paper focuses on Ottoman officials and engineers who worked in Istanbuls electrification project in the late 19th and early 20th century with a special focus on the ideas and attitudes of Ottoman officials and engineers towards foreign investment and modernization of urban infrastructure. The attempts for the lighting of Ottoman Istanbul with electricity began in the 19th century as early as 1870s. Since then, leading European and American multinational companies backed by international financial institutions, made various offers to the Ottomans in order to electrify Istanbul. Ottoman officials were in the aim of modernize urban infrastructure as well. However, the Empire needed foreign investment and personnel for the realization of Istanbul's electrification since it had to transfer the appropriate technology of electrification and it lacked necessary capital for the project. Therefore, the modernization of the urban infrastructure -the electrification of Ottoman Istanbul- was realized by foreign investment within the leading role of Ottoman officials and engineers in the early 20th century. In order to locate the local dynamics of the issue, this paper seeks to analyse the role of Ottoman officials and engineers in the electrification project of Istanbul while drawing a special focus on their attitudes towards foreign investment modernization of urban infrastructures, their national concerns when applying the technology and the degree of their technical knowledge. Additionally, it should be remembered that the electrification process of Istanbul, the 1870s and 1910s were the period in which the Empire was transformed into the Turkish Republic and disintegrated. And, this paper argues that the Ottoman bureaucrats and engineers acted for the sake of the Empire as if it would not come to an end.

Ferroconcrete and the Professional Regulation of Architects and Engineers in Brazil

Roberto Eustaaquio dos Santos, Univerisdade Federal de Minas Gearais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil Although there had been higher education in architecture and engineering in Brazil since the early nineteenth century, these professions were regulated only in 1933, when a Vargas government decree created the Federal Council of Engineering and Architecture. Parallel to professional regulation, this government also promoted a major educational reform. Architecture and engineering curricula acquired a technicist bias based on mathematical calculation. After that, the diploma had become mandatory to professional practice. The Vargas industrialization policy formalized construction activities, gradually transforming them into a building construction industry. The systematic employment of ferroconcrete, at the expense of brick masonry and imported steelwork, was crucial to this reorganization. Since the knowledge related to ferroconcrete was monopolized by graduated architects and engineers, the new technology enabled them to take charge of building construction against its former controllers: the master builders. Moreover, this change converged with Vargas cultural policy of nationalization. The mathematical systematization of empirical methods, namely the foreign patents of Monier and Hennebique, produced an extraordinary development, later known as "Brazilian School of [Ferro]Concrete". Furthermore, the Brazilian architecture of that time, in line with the Modern Movement, achieved unusual and audacious expressions. Who did benefit from this new productive arrangement? The State was strengthened as such; the new professional group legitimated its authority in building construction, and, mainly, the portland cement industry increased production. In contrast there was a general lowering of working conditions on construction sites, because the concrete is less demanding with regard to skilled labor.

Hydraulic Engineers of Czech Ethnicity Between the Empire, the Nation and the Third Reich
Jiri Janac, Czech Republic

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At the end of the 19th century, Czech hydraulic engineers found themselves in the midst of conflict they did not initiated. Growing ambitions of the Czech national movement started to collide with the development policy of the multiethnic Habsburg Empire. While Modernization was a common goal shared by both sides of the controversy, opinions on the best way to achieve it differed significantly. Solutions promoted by imperial authorities often met with criticism from national circles. Czech hydraulic engineers actively participated in the national movement. Leading personalities, professors at Technical Universities in Prague and Brno Antonin Smrcek and Jan Vladimir Hrasky, represented national political parties in the imperial parliament. However, they did not perceive national and imperial perspectives as inevitably contradictory. In their opinion modernization of water management in Bohemia and Moravia formed a crucial part of modernization of the monarchy. In their activities, they tried to align conflicting views. Smrcek and Hrasky promoted even broader frame for transnational cooperation and actively supported plans for the establishment of Central European waterway network. After the First World War and creation of independent Czechoslovak state, Smrcek retired from political life and limited his service to the nation to his own field of expertise. Together with Hrasky they acted as experts of Czechoslovak delegation at the Paris peace conference in 1919 and later in the interwar international river commissions. However, their vision of the Czechoslovak waterway and water management policy was inconsistent with the geopolitical view of the official political representation. In the eyes of Smrcek and his colleagues, such attitude of Czechoslovak government resembled that of Austrian imperial authorities and posed a threat to the Modernization of the Nation. Growing dissatisfaction with such national policy led Smrcek to welcome the Nazi initiative to build the Grossraum waterway network and re-organize water-management in Bohemia and Moravia on principles of Grossraum planning. Smrcek`s limited allegiance to the national political representation contrasted with his faithful dedication to the idea of progress. In his case, the belief in Modernization was epitomized by his tireless support for the construction of the artificial waterway connecting the Danube with the Oder and Elbe. The project was launched by the Austrian Waterway Act of 1901, but the construction works were not started until the Nazi took control over Central Europe in 1939. In this paper, Smrceks efforts at realization of the Canal project vis--vis changing political configurations serve as a case study of the negotiation of the professional identity of an engineer and his practice in the process of disintegration of the Austrian Empire.

Science - for the Glory of the German People. Construction and Destruction of Scientific Cosmopolitanism by National Ideologies at the Academy of Sciences in Vienna
Felicitas Seebacher, Alpen-Adria-University of Klagenfurt, Austria Since 1893, the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna was connected with some German academies in a powerful "cartel, presenting 'German' Science internationally. To strengthen its position in the international scientific community, it became a member of the International Association of Academies in 1899. Joint projects, e.g. with the Royal Society, constructed new imperial spaces and allowed a transnational circulation of knowledge. After World War I, the Academy of Sciences in Vienna lost its scientific superiority in Europe. With the rise of the national socialist party, scientific cosmopolitanism diminished step by step and the cartel was replaced by an imperial association. National ideologies, praising the glory of 'German' Science, concentrated on research to serve the 'German people'. Scientific exchange with foreign institutions, especially of hostile countries, had to be cancelled at the Academy of Sciences in Vienna at the beginning of World War II. Herbert Matis sees the loss of academic freedom as the "severest restriction. Nevertheless, members of the Academy in Vienna were involved substantially in this repression. Physicians, worshipping a racialist image of man, contributed to the fact that internationally approved scientists and Nobel Prize Laureates had to leave the Academy. Following Adolf Hitlers 43

order, new statutes of a German Imperial Academy of Sciences were drawn up in Berlin in 1940, in cooperation with the Academy in Vienna. The idea of an Imperial Academy, a centre for the Nazi research, teaching and education", and the idea of an International Union of Academies of Sciences under German leadership failed. The glory of 'German' science was over, as soon as World War II ended. This paper examines, if the Academy of Sciences in Vienna was able to preserve its autonomy and internationality in the "cartel of German academies and learned societies" before 1938. It wants to find out the influence, it had on the idea and implementation of a German Imperial Academy. The paper raises the question, whether the era of National Socialism was an "era of adjusted survival", as Edward Seidler states, or whether the Academy of Sciences in Vienna found possibilities to resist the totalitarian science policy of the Nazi regime. Here a comparative perspective between the Czech ethnicity in Jir Jancs paper Between the Empire, the Nation and the Third Reich and the German ethnicity in this paper will be most useful.

Engineers, Circulation of Knowledge, and the Construction of Imperial and Post-Imperial Spaces (18th- 20th century). A Theoretical Approximation
Darina Martyknov, Irina Gouzvitch, Ana Cardoso de Matos, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris, France During the last few years, we have analyzed the configuration of engineers professional identities in a national framework or, at maximum, comparing two or three national settings. Sharing the results of our work has made us aware of the existence of certain common patterns and processes and we have begun to enquire ourselves about how to interpret these similarities. While we have identified some traits as being part of transnational processes and discursive frameworks, we have also seen the important shaping power of the legal and institutional frameworks defined at the level of existing political units, be them patrimonial or colonial empires or Nation-States. In order to check our initial impressions and develop them into more specific hypotheses, we have organized this symposium focused on the empires in the margins of Europe. We would like to take a closer look at this specific context: 18th-century patrimonial empires -with or without an old colonial tradition- in the margins of Europe, in close contact with the dominant powers of the period, empires where the ruling elites interiorized the discourse of rattrapage and developed projects of modernization, empires that became questioned and transformed into one or several Nation-States by the beginning of the 20th century. Taking to consideration the analyses presented by our colleagues at the symposium, we will outline preliminary answers to the following questions: How was the construction and reconfiguration of professional identities and practice shaped in the changing political and economic frameworks? How did technical knowledge and professional discourses shape the economic and political structures, institutions and practices? Is there a relation between specific patterns of domination and governance, on the one hand, and the construction of modern engineering, on the other?

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SYMPOSIUM 7

Exact Sciences in Habsburg Monarchy in 18th century (on 300th Anniversary of Boscovich's Birthday)
Organizers Stanislav Juznic, University of Oklahoma, Norton, USA Bruno Besser, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Graz, Austria The physics and astronomy lectures following the introduction of Boscovichs aspects of Newtonian physics in Habsburg Monarchy will be described. Boscovich personally visited Mid-Euroipean Towns at least three times on his way from Vienna to Venice and back. Boscovich traveled in early April 1757 on his way to Vienna where he took care for the first edition of his main work. On his return trip to Italy he was kindly welcomed in Ljubljana Jesuits house and slept there on March 9, 1758. T In early June 1763 Boscovich visited Mid-European towns again just before he was appointed mathematical chair of Pavia in November 1763. The high Nobles were frequently extremely interested in Boscovich know-how because Boscovich was always welcomed in their meetings. The Counts Cobenzls (Kobencl) from Ljubljana and Brussels were Boscovichs personal friends and helped him a lot, acting from their influent positions in Brussels where Johann Karl Philip Count Cobenzl was the Empress omnipotent minister for Habsburg Belgium. The development of Mid-European Jesuit physics and astronomy did not suffer much after the suppression of the Jesuit order because just the Jesuit theology professors lost their positions, but the chairs connected with mathematical sciences were occupied by Jesuits for next three decades. There were just no other professors to replace the former Jesuits. After the introduction of Boscovichs way of Newtonian physics in Mid-European higher studies the local professors there were among the greatest promoters of Boscovichs views in their physics and mathematics lectures. Boscovich was very popular among the Mid-European Jesuits, and his fame did not fade in the early 19th century. The Franciscans also liked Boscovichs work. Boscovichs popularity amongFranciscans went hand in hand with Boscovich collaboration with French Franciscan teaching in Italian colleges, as were Thomas Le Seur of Roman La Sapienza in Parma or Franois Jacquier who got the former Boscovichs chair of mathematics in Collegio Romano in 1773. Joseph Xavier Liesegang, Karl Scherffer, Paul Mako von Kerek-Gede, and other Boscovichs Mid-European Jesuit friends books were also widely read among Franciscans and Capuchins. The Ljubljana Rector and later Viennese Professor Anton Ambschell promoted Boscovich in his textbooks which were famous for Ambschell and his teacher Herberts very first comparatively exact measurement of the water compressibility. The suppression of the Jesuit order obstructed the development of Boscovichs ideas but in no way removed them from the scientific or students scene. The Boscovichs followers and their students were able to develop strong high-schools supporting of Boscovich, who kept his great influence in 19th century and paved the way for the modern use of Boscovichs ideas in Faraday-Maxwells electromagnetism, Kelvins atomism, and Bohr-Heisenbergs quantum mechanics. Boscovichs ideas were never forgotten somewhat northern in Mid-European textbooks. Boscovich legacy also became strong among the Beijing Jesuits. The suppression of the Jesuit order prevented Boscovichs physics from becoming the standard textbook frame worldwide, but at least second 45

generation of his students still followed Boscovichs ideas in the 19th century. Therefore Boscovichs ideas did not need any reintroduction via John Robisons Scottish university students into MidEuropean milieu of 19th century because Boscovich fame never faded among the Mid-European scientists.

Boscovichs North Italian Predecessors and his Followers in Ljubljana

Stanislav Juznic, University of Oklahoma, Norton, USA Boscovichs fame was endorsed in his Florentine, Venetian, Pavia, Milanese, and Slovenian headquarters before Boscovichs Venetian or Viennese publications. To provide some insight on Boscovichs predecessors, two late 17th century North Italian manuscripts were studied. The manuscript authors opinions on vacuum and recent Athanasius Kirchers works show the North Italian scholarship of late 17th century. The more accurate date of production of Florentine astronomical-astrological manuscript Spherae, formerly owned by Valentino Paolitto, was put into the limelight. The author of other manuscript on Aristotle-s physics was later Archbishop of Treviso, Augustino Zacco. The Venetian Treviso was near the border of Habsburg province of Carniola, now central Slovenia, where soon after Zaccos death Boscovich met in person his later influential followers. The examination themes publicly defended, the books acquired, and the manuscript experimental instruments catalogues of Ljubljana and Novo mesto Philosophical schools in second half of 18th century mirrors the influence of Boscovichs natural philosophy, while the list of Boscovichians among the professors at the schools of philosophy in now Slovenian territory at the time includes several important names from the Jesuits, Franciscans, and laic milieu. Boscovichs early Jesuit followers emerged after his three personal visits in Ljubljana (1757-1763). High nobility of Ljubljana supported Boscovich including Boscovich personal friend count Cobenzl who was Empress minister for Habsburg Netherlands in Brussels, the Barons Erbergs who provided several important Jesuit professors, professors from the Slovenian Viennese family of Gruber, and, last but not least, Anton Ambschel, the Ljubljana rector and later Viennese Professor. Their Ljubljana students Franc Ksaver (Samuel) Karpe and Jurij (Georg) Vega carried Boscovichan flag to Viennese headquarters with the famous Boscovichs curve appearing in several Vegas textbooks. Also Jesuits opponents in Franciscan or laic milieu including Gabrijel Grubers profane enemy Balthasar Hacquet also endorsed Boscovichs ideas while upgrading Boscovichs descriptions of the Carpathians. After the suppression of the Jesuit order in 1773 and similar problems of Franciscans a decade later Boscovichs tradition continued unbroken because Gabrijel Grubers younger brother Anton continued to teach for next three decades in Ljubljana, and Bavarian Teofil Zinsmeister (OFM; 1817) continued with Boscovichan teachings in Ljubljana and in Novo mesto public Franciscans Philosophy School as proves the famous Boscovichs curve indorsed in Zinsmeister's manuscripts.

"Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich and his Giornale di un viaggio da Costantinopoli in Polonia". A travel diary through Eastern Europe with original scientific observations
Marco Martin, Liceo Classico A D'Oria, Genoa, Italy This original travel report describes the stops of an adventurous back journey, from the Turkish capital to Polish borders, carried out by Boscovich from May to July 1762 with English ambassador in Constantinople William Porter. We can read this book as an historical document with many interesting information about countries in Eastern Europe not so much known for western travellers, as Boscovich was in the middle of XVIII century. So through Thracia, Rumelia, Bulgaria and Moldavia, Boscovich analyses an hidden part of great Turkish Empire and becomes eye-witness of Turkish vilajet, slavic villages, Greek orthodox churches, the country of Moldavia until the coasts of the Black Sea with its interesting international trade; during his travel he tries to understand words and 46

realities very different from Western Europes customs. In fact this report shows in particular a deep interest on linguistic matters and, above all, accurate descriptions about survey of latitude and longitude and the telescope of Dollond. Actually, the reason of this journey was the observation of the passage in the sky of Venus. So Boscovich, thanks to this report, can be fit into the rich Italian tradition of travel writers in the Eighteenth century, because his bright observations must be underlined for precision and sharpness. In short, the scientist from Ragusa of Dalmatia wrote a little description about the archeological ruins of the town of Alexandria in Troade even 110 years before Schliemann.

Joseph Liesganig Astronomer by Education, Passionate Surveyor in Austrian-Hungarian Empire

Bruno P. Besser, Hans U. Eichelberger, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Graz, Austria Joseph Liesganig, born in 1719 in Graz, joined the Jesuit college in Graz (Styria, province of Austria) in 1734, and was educated with special emphasis on mathematics and astronomy. End of 1744 he was commanded to study theology at the Jesuit college in Vienna. After his ordination to priesthood in 1749 he first served as preacher in Komorn, Hungaria (today: Komrno, Slovakia) and in 1751 as mathematics professor at the Jesuit college of Kaschau, Hungary (today: Koice, Slovakia). After returning back to Vienna in 1752 as mathematics professor at the Jesuit college, he was also responsible for the observatory (praefect under the head of the Viennese astronomical observatory Maximilian Hell) till the abolition of the Society of Jesus in 1773. Liesganig then left Vienna for Lemberg, Galicia (today: Lviv, Ukraine), where he served as director of the state survey of Galicia and Lodomeria. He died in 1799 in Lemberg. Already in 1761/2 Liesganig received orders of the empress Maria Theresia to perform an arc measurement in Austria. He chose Brnn (today: Brno, Moravia, Czech Republic) as starting point and Warasdin (today: Varadin, Croatia) as end point. The triangle network touched Vienna and his native country Styria. For this major undertaking he made contact to French geodetic authorities and arranged for a local copy of the standard French measure of length. From 1762 to 1767 the angles of 22 triangles were measured, the latitudinal differences of the survey points determined astronomically, and two basis triangulations in Lower Austria (Marchfeld and Neunkirchen) made. His measurements were scathed by his contemporary Baron Franz Xaver von Zach, but in general they were fairly accurate (except for two reasons, not (well) known at his time: perturbations of the vertical in the Alpine region and the spherical excess). After the meridian triangulation in Austria he was asked to perform another one in Hungary, which he took place in 1768-1769 (triangle chain from Kistelek to Czurok (today: urug, Vojvodina, Serbia). The talk serves as late tribute and commemoration to Franz Allmer (1916-2008), geometer and geodesy historian, who introduced us into the subject, and collected a vast amount of material over years on Liesganig.

The Problem of Inertia in the Work of Leopold Biwald

Max Lippitsch, Sonja Draxler, Austria Leopold Biwald (1731-1805) was a Jesuit scientist, working for decades in the University of Graz, Austria. He is most well-known for his works Physica generalis, Physica particularis, and Institutiones physicae, that were officially appointed as standard text books for universities in the Habsburg countries by Emperor Joseph II. Biwald in his text did not claim much scientific originality. Nevertheless he critically scrutinized the modern scientific ideas of the time and never hold back with his personal view. This can be seen especially in his position towards the notion of force in

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comparison to Newton and Boscovich. His ideas on inertia will be discussed and their influence traced down over the following generations up to Ernst Mach and Albert Einstein.

The Reception of Boscovich's Natural Philosophy at Croatian Philosophical Schools from 1770 to 1834
Ivica Martinovic', Institute of Philosophy, Zagreb, Croatia On the basis of systematic research into the examination themes publicly defended at Croatian philosophical schools between 1745 and 1844, the influence of Boscovichs natural philosophy has been established in fifty-one of them, while the list of Boscovichians among the professors at the Croatian schools of philosophy at the time includes nineteen names: three Jesuits, two Paulists, nine Franciscans, a professor of the Rijeka Academy, and four professors of the Zagreb Academy. Boscovichs first Jesuit follower was Antun Pilippen in Zagreb in 1770, the first among the Paulists was Kandid oteri in akovec in 1774, the first Franciscan follower was Aleksandar Tomikovi in Baja in 1776, Luigi de Capuano at the Rijeka Academy in 1776, and Antun Kukec at the Zagreb Academy from 1780 at least. The first thesauri reverberating with Boscovichs theory of forces was published by Antun Pilippen in 1770, the last by Antun uflaj in 1829. uflaj had published as many as nineteen thesauri with Boscovichs theses. The influence of Boscovichs theory of forces is regularly present in the thesauri dealing with general physics, and to a lesser degree in those concerned with particular physics. Metaphysics, in concordance with Boscovichs doctrine on the principles of bodies and on space, was expounded by three professors only: Mirko Mihalj in Zagreb in 1772, Terencijan Buberle in Poega in 1781, and Kerubin Csepregy in Varadin in 1809. Two traditions of the expounding of Boscovichs theory of forces were broken by the authorities decisions: among the Jesuits at the Zagreb Collegium in 1773 and among the Franciscans in the St. John of Capistrano Province in 1783. With regard to continuity in teaching Boscovichs natural philosophy at Croatian schools of philosophy the Zagreb Royal Academy of Sciences (Regia Academia scientiarum Zagrabiensis) took precedence, while the state school founded in Zagreb in 1776, at which Antun Kukec, Juraj ug, Gabrijel Valei, and Antun uflaj maintained an unbroken fifty-year tradition of teaching physics that included Boscovichs two fundamental philosophemes: the doctrine on nonextended substances or beings as the metaphysical principles of bodies, therefore avoiding Boscovichs original terminology, and the law of mutual forces.

From Boscovich to Faraday

Arcangelo Rossi, Universita' del Salento, Lecce, Italy The impact is underlined of the well known point-atoms theory proposed by the Jesuit priest Roger Joseph Boscovich since 1745, on the development of the 19th Century European physical thought. Originally it was a brilliant escape from the difficulties linked to the 18th Century philosophicalscientific atomism/conservation controversy. Boscovichs point of view was in fact mainly developed between the 18th and the 19th Centuries by British chemists and physicists who were dissatisfied with the dominant Newtonian paradigm and rather linked to the Continental Conservation Theory. Anyway, the most creative use of Boscovichs conception was made only some decades after by the great physicist Michael Faraday, who progressively radicalized and extended Boscovichs point-atoms theory to a purely dynamistic world view, explaining the gravitational, electromagnetic, chemical and optical phenomena by a unique web of physical lines of force acting by contact, so even eliminating Boscovichs residual unextended cores of matter (the point-atoms themselves!), not only the atomic extended poles of action-at-distance theories of electricity and magnetism. Faradays great follower J. C. Maxwell reduced Faradays claims in his electromagnetic field theory by coming back to a conception of a material ether endowed with a polar structure, even sharply re-distinguishing 48

between electromagnetic (including optical) and gravitational phenomena. It was then necessary to wait for the following century to have a full execution of Faradays legacy by Einsteins Relativity Theory.

Role of Boscovich's theory in modern physics and chemistry

Dragoslav M. Stoiljkovic, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia Nobel laureate Werner Heisenberg wrote in 1958 that Boscovich gave a "key to understand the structure of mater". This statement was repeated in 1993 by another Nobel laureate Leon Ledermann who wrote that Boscovich's theory is a "key for entire modern physics". The aim of this work is to present what the "key" looks like and how it can be used in modern physics and chemistry. Structure of fluids: Modern physics can not describe trustfully the structure of fluids (i.e. liquids and real gases). That is a huge problem, since many physical, chemical and other processes are preformed in them. According to Boscovich, the interaction between particles in fluids can be described by a curve "force-distance" that has two cohesion limits and one non-cohesion limit. Some particles are at nearer, but some at more separated limits. Hence, fluids are the mixtures of two phases, having different densities. Each phase contributes to the overall properties of liquid proportionally to its quantity. But, what that phases look like and what their quantities are? We proved for 143 substances that cohesion and non-cohesion limits correspond to some well know characteristic states of matter, from an ideal gas up to solid phase at absolute zero temperature. We described the structure of fluids in that states and developed a mathematical expression to calculate the densities and the fractions of the individual phases in fluids. Hence, we have applied this concept to solve the following problems. Ethylene polymerization: It was discovered in 1933 that gaseous ethylene can be polymerized only if it was compressed above 1000 bars. Thus, a very useful plastic material, i.e. polyethylene, is produced. Why extremely high pressure is necessary? It was proposed that compressed ethylene molecules were regularly arranged. But, how? In spite very extensive researches, there were no answers. We answered them at late 1970 applying the cohesions and non-cohesions limits suggested by Boscovich. Polyethylene melting: By knowing how compressed ethylene molecules were arranged, we used the law of continuity published by Boscovich in 1754 to predict the effect of pressure on melting temperature of polyethylene. Methylmethacrylate (MMA) polymerization: Using Boscovich's Theory and the mentioned mathematical expression, we interpreted the structure of liquid MMA, theoretically predicted and experimentally confirmed its polymerization. Density of solar planets: According to Boscovich, there are different forces in the nature, but they are changed by a unique law, described by Boscovich's curve. Hence, it can be proposed, by analogy, that the same mathematical expression should be applied to calculate densities of fluids as well as densities of solar planets. We have confirmed that proposal.

Scientific Cosmopolitanism in Boscovichs Collected Works and Correspondence

Daniele Macuglia, University of Chicago, Chicago, USA Considered the forerunner of the Theories of Everything, Roger Joseph Boscovich (1711-1787) is the scientist credited for having developed the first scientific description of the atomic theory by means of a continuous force law which unified all natural forces thus far discovered. His tendency to propose a unitary description of nature is indeed connected to specific aspects of his own life-style. Author of a huge correspondence, Boscovich traveled all around Europe and forged bonds of intellectual discourse between scientific and intellectual practitioners throughout the whole 49

continent. As John Heilbron has recently maintained, we can see him as a Jesuit mathematician at loose in the Republic of Letters. Transcending mere national boundaries, Boscovich was a cosmopolitan of his time who showed a deep interest for differences in religion, ideologies and social customs. This point is supported also by Germano Paoli in one of the most complete and detailed sources in the scholarly literature on Boscovichs studies. Nevertheless, as many authors have maintained, one of the reasons why Boscovich didnt succeed in becoming a giant of his time was in part due to his cosmopolitan approach to life. His frequent travels, diplomatic appointments and his curiosity to approach different people and cultures is seen by these authors as a source of continuous distraction, an interruption of his very scientific and philosophical enterprise. This assertion, well-established in the current literature, constitutes a crucial point for any historical investigation, but put in this way it looks somehow problematic. This paper will show that the rubric of cosmopolitanism helped Boscovich create a medial space between relativism and universalism, with a cosmopolitan ideology resulting in a nexus of social, ethical and scientific values that favored the formulation of distinctive traits of his natural philosophy. By means of extensive analyses of Boscovichs correspondence and diaries, a study of Boscovich Cosmopolitan helps us reread his life and scientific works, offering new venues of research to critically approach, from a mostly unexplored perspective, the nature of international scientific exchange in the eighteenth century Europe.

The Boscovichean concepts of space and time in the Supplements to Philosophiae Naturalis Theoria
Barbara Villone, Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica, Torino, Italy Starting from the analysis of the Supplements to Philosophiae Naturalis Theoria, I discuss the concept of space and time in Boscovich. Among results of my research, I will present: - The relation between both space and time, by attempting a diachronic perspective. - The Boscovichean paradigmas : real mode of existence and imaginary mode. In the Boscovichean perspective, they represent, in some sense, the concept of existence and possibility of existence, pertaining space and time. - the connection of such concepts with phase space, a powerful tool developed by Gibbs in the XX century. I examine also the interesting point of no communication between spaces (and times), which incidentally was brought up by Boscovich in the Supplements. In my talk I will also present a review of literature on the space-time in Boscovichean perspective.

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SYMPOSIUM 8

From Cameralism and Natural Philosophy to Applied Biology: Agriculture and Science in the 19th-20th c.
Organizers Marina Loskutova, St. Petersburg Branch of the Institute for the History of Science and Technology, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation Staffan Mueller-Wille, University of Exeter, UK Anastasia A. Fedotova, St. Petersburg Branch of the Institute for the History of Science and Technology, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation Some scholars in science policy studies have recently argued that late twentieth and early twentyfirst century research is distinctive from preceding forms of knowledge production, as it is typically driven by particular problems arising in the context of applied research. These problems, emerging in the real world, require multidisciplinary approaches, they define the agenda of research, and the type of specialists assembled to solve them. However, it can be plausibly argued that historically this type of research was the original mode of science before its academic institutionalization and professionalization in the nineteenth century. At the same time, it was never extinct even in the period when pure academic research fragmented along disciplinary divisions that strove to establish themselves as science par excellence. It is rather the dominant ways of writing the history of life sciences that has been focused on their progressive disciplinary diversification and therefore has obscured the actual operation of the life sciences within society. The symposium aims to re-examine the history of life sciences by exploring the history of complex relations between science and agricultural practices in modernizing societies of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It will explore the role of economic, political and cultural contexts in the making and unmaking of distinctive disciplinary fields and their institutional infrastructure, the circulation of ideas and practices among academic communities, governmental boards, local authorities, voluntary societies, landlords, farmers and peasants, the professionalization of research, and the connections between material aspects of agricultural practices and scholarly ideas about nature and its cultivation. We are also interested in the transfer of ideas across national cultures, and in the role of local milieu in the scientization of agriculture and related fields.

Revisiting the history of the life sciences in the long 19th century
Staffan Mueller-Wille, University of Exeter, UK Historiography, especially in English-speaking countries, has so far been preoccupied with the history of evolutionary theory, neglecting other important topics like the rise of biochemistry, experimental physiology, cell theory, and microbiology. The history of 19th-century biology, moreover, has mostly been framed as the history of a discipline and its internal differentiation into sub-disciplines. I will suggest that it is more promising to look at biology as a particular perspective that arose at the intersection of disciplines largely belonging to three groups: classical natural history (botany; zoology; microbiology), the medical sciences (physiology; medical statistics), and agro-industrial research (mining; biochemistry; plant and animal breeding). Opportunities for such intersections 51

arose within new, often state-funded institutions and the networks they formed (research universities like Imperial College; marine biological stations; industrial laboratories; agricultural stations) that have yet been little studied. Revisiting the history of biology from this point of view reveals that mode 2 research, often considered as characteristic of late twentieth century biotechnology, has a long prehistory. It also lends itself to a comparative approach on a European level (Britain, France, Prussia, Austria, Russia), with prospects of revealing distinctive, national styles.

Between the Coast and the Sertao. The Naturalist Travel of Auguste de Saint- Hilaire and the Integration Politics of the Southeast of Brazil at the Beginning of the XIX century
Alda Heizer, Instituto de Pesquisas Jardim Botnico do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil The French naturalist Auguste de Saint- Hilaire was in Brazil between 1816 and 1822, eight years after the Portuguese crown was installed in Rio de Janeiro. The record of his trip is present on field notes, reports and exsicatas and contain informations about Brazil moments before its independence. The naturalist saw and recorded plants, their network and social spaces where they belong to. Apart from that, his observations about Brazil are current and allow us, nowadays, to interfere on threatened plants and its locations. Researchers with different backgrounds have been dedicated to the mentioned issues, however, there are no works in Brazil relating records of the different places the naturalist has been and the integration politics of the southeast at that moment in time, through the donation of major extension of land and incentive for population and colonization. Regardind this, it is intended to consider the result analysis of the French naturalist trip to Brazil at the beginning of the XIX century, his descriptions of the use of the land, approaching two aspects that can not be separated of the landscape of that moment: the enviromental and political aspects.

Mapping and Planting Forests in the early 19th century Russia: Russian Forestry between Economic Considerations and Environmental Concerns
Marina Loskutova, St. Petersburg Branch of the Institute for the History of Science and Technology, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation An early history of scientific forestry has been often cited as a case that illustrates the emergence of new mechanisms of social and ecological control based on a close interaction between government and science in the late 18th early 19th century Europe. In particular, the rise of scientific forestry and the introduction of forest management planning in Germany in the early decades of the 19th century have been closely examined by scholars who emphasize their links to cameral science and considerations of financial efficiency. It was only from the 1870s onwards when German forestry experts began to relate large-scale reorganization of forests that had been carried out in the preceding decades with their increasing vulnerability to forest pests, storms and draughts. By the late 19th century Germany forests began to be considered within a broader framework of other environmental factors; scientific forestry was re-oriented towards life sciences and their methodology. The paper aims to complicate this picture by exploring an early history of Russian scientific forestry: its conceptual framework, its practices, as well and its social, cultural and political context. We will identify the key figures in the emerging community of specialists in scientific forestry, their academic background, and agenda they pursued in scientific forestry. We will analyze the sources of their credibility, both in terms of their disciplinary allegiances and socio-political alliances. In particular we will explore the contacts of Russian scientific forestry with Germany and France: we will examine the transfer and reception of ideas and practices. In this way we hope to address a key issue: to what 52

extent cameralist thinking and fiscal considerations shaped the early history of scientific forestry in the eastern periphery of Europe. How the peripheral position of the Russian empire affected the early history of forestry science in this country? Were there any other ways of conceptualizing the interaction between humans and their natural environment available to Russian forestry experts? How was the emerging discipline related to natural history and philosophy in Russian context?

Gregor Mendel between Naturphilosophie and Positivism

Ji Sekerk, Moravian Museum, Brno, Czech Republic The way of Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) to his famous discovery of particulate inheritance has been a good summary of his consuming knowledge gathered from cameralism to experimental and applied nature science. Mendel's discovery has been connected with the Association for the Improvement of Agriculture, Nature Science and Knowledge of the Country (henceforth Agriculture Association) and the breeding and hybridization of ornamental plants carried out by Moravian gardeners. The Agriculture Association was a practically oriented society of Moravia that originated through unification of private initiatives of feudal landlords and farmers concerning the improvement of their farming estates. The word Nature Science in the name of the Agriculture Association symbolizes a new approach to studying and understanding nature as a real world. Mendel was named a member of the Natural Science Section of Agriculture Association on January 1855. According to the statutes its task was to investigate and spread knowledge on botanical, zoological, mineralogical and geological conditions of Moravia. At that time Mendel was a substitute professor of physics and nature science. In teaching physics and nature science he supported the modern trend of implementation of real subjects into the educative process. The Agriculture Association underwent structural reform after the 1848. Mendel took active part in the transformation of the youngest natural science section into the Nature Research Society in 1861 that organised his famous lecture in 1865 and published his discovery lecture in 1866. The word research in the Nature Research Society title stressed the novel role of experimentation of the material substance of Nature. Mendel was best equipped for experimental research as a student of Doppler's practical courses at the Institute of Physics at the University of Vienna.

Inoculation of Cattle Plague in Russia: the Case between Veterinary Practices and New Laboratory Science, 1800-1900
Natalia Beregoi, St.Petersburg Branch of the Institute for the History of Science and Technology, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation The relationship between people and agricultural animals are traditionally considered in respect of food history, however in some cases they have direct influence on social, economic and political history of the country, and the history of science. Fighting against cattle plague in the 19th century is a case which shows that all these aspects appear closely bound with the forming scientific veterinary in Russia. Cattle plague had been considered one of the most terrible disasters for people and their cattle since ancient times. By the end of the 19th century cattle plague, after the intensive flash in the central Europe in 1870-s and in Russia in 1880-s, was finally limited to the far corners of Russia the TransCaucasian and Central Asian regions. In the first half of the 19th century many scientists believed that the steppes of the Southeast Russia were the native land of cattle plague. In 1830-50-ies a few scientists approached the government with the idea of inoculation of cattle plague as a mean of prevention of epizooties. The government concerned it seriously and in 1853 set up a commission to look into the question of inoculation of cattle. However it had many opponents. As a result, despite rather promising projects on inoculation of cattle plague which had been checked up in many experiments, the government closed the 53

commission and refused to finance any of the further research. But ongoing epizooties made harm not only to cattle owners but also to the state as a whole because it affected a foreign cattle trade. The paper aims to show how the advance of veterinary science was determined by the economic and political demands, and how the case of cattle plague inoculation appeared in the controversy between traditional veterinary practices and new laboratory science.

Soil as a Natural Resource Transfer and Conflict of Scientific Concepts between Germany and Russia (1840-1910)
Jan Arend, Gibraltar By looking at the example of an episode of the history of science in the second half of the 19th century, namely the reception of German Agrikulturchemie in Russia and the formation of Russian Soil Science (Pochvovedenie), the contribution will ask, how scientific understandings of the concept natural resource develop. Both German Agrikulturchemie and Russian Soil Science conceptualized soil as a natural resource. This was true in the very general sense, that soil was regarded as a good, which constitutes a precondition for value-adding processes (mainly in agriculture). Beyond this common ground the understandings of natural resources differed. While Agrikulturchemie focused on human influence on soil (soil as a refinable commodity), for Russian Soil Scientists the soil constituted one of the riches of nature. The presentation will first explore Russian reception of Agrikulturchemie and then identify contexts, which can explain why in Russia different concepts of natural resource became prominent. Two explanations can be offered. First: Unlike in Western and Central Europe, in the second half of the 19th century in Russia natural scientists could still explore in large measure soils which were in a natural state, not altered by human activities. This helps explaining why they were first and foremost interested in this natural state, and not in the techniques of influencing soils with practical goals. Secondly: Soil Science developed in the context of descriptive geographical sciences (for example landscape science and regional science). One of the tasks of these sciences was describing the homeland and the nature of the fatherland. The understanding of natural resources as riches of nature fitted well to this task of producing nationally encoded imaginations of nature.

From "Pure" Science to Practical Science: the Difficult Journey of the Belgian State Botanic Garden (1870-1914)
Denis Diagre, National Botanic Garden of Belgium, Meise, Belarus The State Botanic Garden of Belgium was founded in 1870. From its very inception, it was supposed to do research primarily on floristics and taxonomy, which were then regarded as pure activities more or less devoid of practical applications. The reason being, that the founder of the Garden was an old-fashioned botanist, who also was a conservative and influential member of the Chamber of Representatives. Another reason was that Barthlemy Dumortier was the chairman of the Socit Royale de Botanique de Belgique, whose members largely dedicated themselves to floristics and systematics. The Society provided him with the first State botanists, even though none of them had graduated in science. It did not take long before the Belgian political context began to impact the activities of the national institution. From 1884 onwards, the then almighty Catholic Party wanted to impose the Botanic Garden with new missions that would interfere with the aforementioned activities of the State botanists: discourses on horticulture, pruning, grafting, growing crops etc. Another symptom of the changing statute of the Botanic Garden, in the mind of the politicians, was it being suddenly removed from the Home Office to the newly created Ministry of Agriculture (1884). As a consequence, in the course of three decades, the (at first) reluctant State botanists were asked to pay more and more attention to either applied research or laymans activities, such as horticulture, fruit production, market gardening and forestry. This last activity related to the 54

Catholic need to seduce people (voters) living from agriculture sensu lato and to the shortage of wood for Belgian coal mines. Those strategies also took place in a context of growing democracy, and reluctance towards modernity and urban ideologies (socialism and liberalism) in the Belgian Catholic milieu. Owing to local political pressure and in order to deserve state financial support, the Botanic Garden had progressively switched to less noble (more applied) activities. The only pure research field that was left to the State Botanic Garden studies on the Flora of the Congo had, anyhow, highly political issues.

The Special Expedition and the Making of Experimental Forestry in southern Russia in the 1890s
Anastasia A. Fedotova, St. Petersburg Branch of the Institute for the History of Science and Technology, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation After the disastrous drought of 1891, the Forestry Department funded a new large-scale research project proposed by Vasiliy Dokuchaev. Within a short period the Special Expedition (The Expedition of the Forest Department for testing and accounting of different methods and techniques of forestry and water management in the steppes of Russia) was sent to southern Russia where it established three forestry stations in three different provinces. In actual fact, the stations that the expedition apparently established had existed earlier as model steppe forestry districts with qualified foresters as their chiefs, with nurseries and primary forest schools. The foresters published their recommendations on afforestation methods. However their publications were focused on practical advice; they had little to do with science. No systematic research and experimentation in the modern sense of the word were carried out. As the head of the Veliko-Anadol Forestry explained in 1889, the Forestry had been created to improve steppe climate by means of afforestation, but even after 45 years of successful work it was not yet possible to determine whether the afforestation could actually ameliorate local climate or not, as no regular observations on this matter had been accumulated. In my presentation, I am going to discuss the conceptual shift that occurred in the 1890s. The hit and miss approaches in forestry were replaced by modern scientific methodology: the collection of observational data sets on habitat conditions constituted the first step in research, and then these data were analysed to provide the basis for subsequent experiments with all their standard attributes. The primary task of a forester in the experimental forestry districts was not so much a successful afforestation, but developing, testing and describing afforestation techniques that could be used in other sites.

Outline of the Plant Physiology Development in the second part of XIX century and the first part of XX century in Poland
Izabela Krzeptowska-Moszkowicz, ukasz Moszkowicz, Cracow University of Technology, Cracow, Poland Genesis and developing modern plants physiology in the world is strictly connected with Juliusz Sachs (1832-1897) and his laboratory in Wrzburg. His scholar Emil Godlewski Senior (1847-1930) was pioneer of this scientific discipline in Poland. Godlewski after six month period in Sachs laboratory started his own researches on many physiological problems in Krakw. He create own large school which developed numerous distinguished scientists. It was estimated that Godlewski directed work of 40 scholars, most of them in his laboratory in Agriculture Studies of Jagiellonian University. Physiological researches had practical applications in agriculture that time. Many of Godlewskis scholars became professors of universities. Part of them create their own scientific schools of plants physiology and microbiology in the scientific centers in Independent Poland. Among most distinguished Godlewskis scholars should be mentioned: M. Korczewski (1889-1954), S. Krzemieniewski (1871-1945), H. Krzemieniewska (1878-1966), W. Vorbrodt (1883-1940), A. 55

Pramowski (1853-1920), S. Jentys (1860-1919), W. Bereza (1884-1932). Some Polish young scientists studied or spent short period grants abroad, among others in Wilhelm Pfeffer laboratory. One of them was Bronisaw Niklewski (1879-1961), plant physiologists and microbiologist educated in Germany. He was an author of first Polish academic book of plants physiology. Kazimierz Bassalik (1879-1960) also studied and worked abroad. In Warszawa he taking up mainly microbiology. He organized his own scientific school. Except mentioned scientific schools, research of plants physiology were leading by scientists whose activity mostly concentrated in other branches of botany. This group of scientists included: M. Raciborski (1863-1917) - enzymes of higher plants (oxidizes), W. Rothert (1863-1916) - heliotropism, T. Ciesielski (1846-1916) - root geotropism, E. Janczewski (1846-1918) - seeds germination, A. Wodziczko (1887-1948) - plants oxidize enzymes, in vitro tissues cultures. Important researches on the most important green pigment - chlorophyll led L. Marchlewski (1869-1946). Before World War II began scientific activity of significant plants physiologist F. Grski (1897-1989). He led researches on photosynthesis and optical isomers in living organisms.

Conceptualisations of Natural Physical Systems and Natural Resources amongst Russian Geographers during the late Tsarist Period
Jonathan Oldfield, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK The Russian natural sciences developed strongly during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, driven forward by the expansion of Russias higher education system and associated advances in both conceptual and applied work. These broad developments had a substantial influence on the subsequent unfolding of Russian geographical thought and practice, which had gained a foothold in the university system during the 1880s, stimulating debates concerning the object and method of geographical science and establishing influential themes which would remain evident within the discipline, in varying degrees, during the course of the twentieth century. This paper is concerned with exploring one particular theme in more detail, namely, the way in which natural systems and natural resources came to be understood and conceptualised by Russian geographers during this period. In order to open up this area for greater scrutiny, the paper is structured around the three following interconnected areas, (i)An exploration of the link between emerging geographical practice in the late nineteenth century and the establishment of a complex understanding of natural resources/natural systems linked to the work of the soil scientist V.V. Dokuchaev and his school. (ii)An evaluation of the developing body of work concerning the influence of human activity on natural resources, paying particular attention to the writings of the climatologist and geographer, A.I. Voeikov (1842-1916). More specifically, Voeikov published a series of papers during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries evaluating societys influence on a range of natural resources as well as reflecting upon the links between climate and agricultural activity. (iii)An examination of strategic conceptualisations of natural resources linked to the expeditionary work of natural scientists and geographers as well as the more formalised activities of initiatives such as the Permanent Commission for the Study of Natural Productive Forces (KEPS) during the early part of the twentieth century. The research on which this paper is based was funded by the UKs Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC), Reference No. AH/G011028/1. The Real Solution to the Agricultural Problem: Nature as Culture in Land Grant University

Outreach Programs, 1887-1915

Kevin C. Armitage, Miami University, Oxford, USA

56

Among the most profound cultural and public policy questions in the United States during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was the question of generational retentionkeeping kids down on the farm, in the parlance of the day. This question preoccupied social thinkers who were worried that urbanization undermined the independence and self-reliance that, at least in myth, characterized rural America. But how could farm life compete with the cultural attractions of the city? Attempts at rural scientific education remain one of the most important, yet most overlooked, responses to this vexing concern. Reformers argued that educating farmers would not only improve agricultural efficiency, but also, through greater appreciation of the workings of nature, give them the cultural and intellectual resources that would counteract urban attractions. The scientific study of nature, then, was meant to solidify rural society at the same time as it was modernizing the countryside. For many reformers, it was agricultural science that would revitalize rural America.

Natural Science and Agrobiology in Soviet Secondary Schools (1918-1933)

Anna V. Samokish, St. Petesburg Branch of the Institute for the History of Science and Technology, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation The first years after the revolution in Russia and then the USSR were a time of teaching experiments. Old prerevolutionary programs and techniques were recognized as incompatible with the new ideology. They were replaced by new ones, which were focused not on theoretical issues, but on the practical application of knowledge. They were to raise citizens of the new country. The 1920s were the time of discussions between two groups of educators: the young and the youngest. In the late 19th early 20th cc. a new generation of teachers came to Russian schools. They had a university background and were committed to the idea of bringing science to a wider public audience and making the science more applied. To achieve this objective they used new approaches like research projects or excursion. After the October Revolution of 1917, the Bolshevik state supported these ideas. It was the time of new forms of science popularization and a new relationship between the state and scientists. However as time passed, the state policy on science and education became more and more utilitarian, while the utopian ideas of this generation, which stressed the civic activity of scientists, were increasingly out of touch with the dominant state-sponsored ideology. The youngest generation of teachers came with new ideas of replacing natural science with agrobiology. They rejected the lessons of individual subjects and all of fundamental science and encouraged students to go into the field and to get real experience. Most of these teachers had not special education and work experience, but their new ideas were extremely suitable for the new authorities and new practical curricula were adopted in schools. However, this pedagogical experiment was unsuccessful. The quality of the students knowledge was completely unsatisfactory. In the early 1930s the old system of teaching returned back to schools with a renewed serious theoretical basis.

Nikolai Vavilov: Unity of Theory, Practice and Politics (Commemorating 120 Anniversary of a Great Traveller and Biologist)
Eduard I. Kolchinsky, St. Petersburg Branch of the Institute for the History of Science and Technology, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation There is a vast and ever expanding literature devoted to Nikolai I. Vavilov, his life and contribution to science (Esakov, 2008; Pringle, 2008, Argueta, Argueta, 2011; Nabhan, 2011). Most studies still focus principally on Vavilovs opposition to Lysenko and Lysenkoism. In the last few years we have witnessed a certain revival of Lysenkoism in Russia: a few books have been published that glorify Lysenkos achievements in applied biology and blame Vavilov for his alleged failure to focus on real problems of agriculture. Vavilov is portrayed as a scholar who was engaged in useless theorizing, a person, who politicized academic debates. The paper aims at establishing a socio-cultural context of 57

the recent revival of criticism against Vavilov in Russia. We argue that all Vavilovs work, from his early research on plant immunity (1913) to his work on systematics of cultivated plants (1940) the last publication, which appeared in his lifetime, aimed at mobilizing biospheres genetic resources for increasing crop yields and thus overcoming famines. Vavilov took an active part in the debates that had been waged in Russian biology from the 1920s; he demonstrated: it was only a good theory based on vast empirical data produced by field and laboratory research that was able to find solutions for these global problems. His position has been justified by the history of his own concepts about plant immunity, homologous series of inherited variation (1920), and the centres of origin of cultivated plants (1925). These theories formed the basis, on which bio-geographical and geneticecological rationales emerged for the choice of source material in selection. At the same time, Vavilovs tragic fate demonstrates the extent, to which practical application of a scientific theory depends on support given by the state and society to a scholar.

Science and Environmental Control: Soviet Geographers and the Great Stalin Plan for the Transformation of Nature, 1948-1953
Denis J. B. Shaw, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK The Great Stalin Plan for the Transformation of Nature was a grandiose, Communist Party and Soviet government-sponsored scheme for the amelioration of climatic conditions across the foreststeppe and steppe vegetation zones of the European USSR and, in its broadest manifestation, across adjacent parts of south-western Siberia and Central Asia. The immediate historical context was provided by the food shortages of the post-war period which were exacerbated by drought and climatic fluctuations. The region which was the object of the scheme was in essence the USSRs breadbasket and it was believed that by planting a whole series of shelter belts and attendant environmental measures a significant and reliable increase in agricultural production might be secured. The entire plan was to be put into effect within fifteen years. Whilst a considerable amount of academic research has been done on the politics surrounding the plan and on its generally negative environmental consequences, less attention has been paid to the role of scientists in its design and implementation. This paper seeks to make a contribution to our understanding of that role by focusing on one group of scholars, namely the geographers. Though by no means central to the scientific input into the plan, and indeed having considerable uncertainties over the value of their efforts, the geographers nevertheless played an important role, aided by the broad interdisciplinary nature of their subject. For example, the forest botanist V N Sukachev, who was director of the State Forestry Institute, also headed the department of biogeography in the Faculty of Geography at MGU. Geographers also looked back to the earlier work of V V Dokuchaev and A I Voeikov as progenitors of their work on the plan. The paper will consider some of the scientific, political and practical problems which geographers faced in their attempts to realise the Stalin Plan.

The Birth of Rational Fertilization: the Establishment of the Soil Service of Belgium (SSB) in 1946
Hanne Laure De Winter, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium The scientific branch of soil science was worldwide firmly established at the beginning of the 20th century. In this period, it developed strongly in various countries. During the thirties, interest in soil science and its subfields ( plant nutrition, soil hydrology, soil microbiology,) grew even more strongly, which can be demonstrated by the rapid growth of soil research institutions all over the world. In Belgium, it was professor priest Joseph Baeyens (1885-1990) who established the first chair of Soil Science in 1935 at the Catholic University of Louvain. He can be considered as a Belgian pioneer in 58

soil fertility research. After having done prospective soil research in the Belgian Congo, he started doing the same for the Belgium soils. It was financed by the Belgian government. This innovative soil fertility research was done at the Soil Science Institute of the University of Louvain, which was established and lead by Joseph Baeyens himself. His goal was to determine the fertility norms of the Belgian farmlands. After this large-scale study was done, the fertility norms and associated fertilizer needs could be presented to farmers all over the country. The overall goal was to increase crop production and to minimize fertilizer costs. When Joseph Baeyens started to spread his knowledge to the farmers, it would not take long before the demand for his knowledge grew significantly. This lead in 1946 to the erection of the Soil Service of Belgium: an independent laboratory, analyzing soil samples in order to customize fertilizer recommendations for farmers. This paper discusses the establishment and-development of the SSB. It covers the period between 1930 and 1950.Following questions will be addressed: How unique was the development of SSB on a national and international level? How did research take shape at the SSB? How did the SSB obtain its place in the Belgian agricultural network? What was the role of the government in all this? And finally, how did the institution generate and disperse its scientific knowledge?

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SYMPOSIUM 9

Gender and the Cosmopolitan Character of Science

Organizers Annette B. Vogt, President of the Women's Commission of the DHST/IUHPS Maria Rentetzi, Anne-Sophie Godfroy, Members of the Board of the Women's Commission of the DHST/IUHPS It is indubitable that local cultures played an important role in the development of science. Exchange of knowledge and expertise among scientists of several countries stand on the top of their agenda. This session investigates the historical process that gave rise to the spread of practices, skills, and knowledge, as well as the exchange of instruments and materials among different local scientific cultures. The session wants to confront the tension between the local and the global focusing on the gender dimension of cosmopolitanism in science. How might the rubric of cosmopolitanism help reformulate our understanding of gender differences in science, technology and medicine? Through comparative and contextual approaches we want to examine the process of cosmopolitanism in science from a gender perspective. We aim to bring together case studies ranging from the seventeenth to twentieth centuries that examine - the development of local cultures in science and the role gender played in this process - the scientific personae, both female and male, and the ways that it has been constructed either as a cosmopolitan or a provincial character - traveling as a process of becoming cosmopolitan in science and how this affected differently womens and mens opportunities from scientific work - gender differences in the methods of knowledge exchange Proposed by the Commision on Women in Science and Gender Studies (Women's Commission) of the DHST/IUHPS

Cases of Forced Cosmopolitanism: Women Academics and Researchers in France during World War 2
Anne-Sophie Godfroy, CNRS-ENS-Universit Paris 1 & Universit Paris Est Crteil, Paris, France What happened to women scientists and academics in France during WWII has been very little documented even if very famous figures as Hannah Arendt, Simone Weil or Hlne Metzger were in France during that period. The case of men has been well studied by Jean-Franois Sirinelli in Gnration intellectuelle, Khagneux et Normaliens dans l'entre-deux-guerres, and by Stephane Isral in Les Etudes et la guerre: les Normaliens dans la tourmente (1939-1945). Sirinelli devotes only 8 pages (page 208-215) on 700 to women, and Isral never mentions them although a few women had studied at the Ecole Normale rue d'Ulm during the '30s and many at the women's Ecole Normale in Svres. Through the study of selected biographies and research in the archives of the Ecole Normale Suprieure, we propose to investigate how women academics coped with WWII, how it affected their careers and in some cases forced them to move either to other countries or culture, or to other occupations or disciplines, or to political engagement, or brutally ended their life because of deportation or assassination by the nazis.

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What did they bring, as researchers, to those new places or fields? In return, we will try to assess how this forced cosmopolitanism has affected their work as scientist. What did the war make to a generation of women scientists? How the war forced them to cross the borders, literally and figuratively? Finally, we will compare the situation of men and women academics facing the same events, and determine to what extent gender played a role in the choices they made or were forced to make, and changed the conditions for the cosmopolitan researcher.

An Unusual Case: the Role of Marlies Teichmller (1914-2000) in Internationalizing the Field of Coal Petrology
Barbara Mohr, Museum of Natural History, Berlin, Germany Annette Vogt, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin, Germany During the 19th and first half of the 20th Century coal, especially hard coal, mined in open cut or underground mines, was the main source of energy. Major efforts were made to improve the methods to find, mine and valuate coal seams all over the world. Several scientific working groups developed methods to make better use of the varieties of coal, a mixture of organic and inorganic components, and improve their usage in technical and/or industrial processes. This scientific work had been mostly done in Europe and the U.S.A., and to a minor degree in Australia and Japan. In Germany the Prussian Geological Survey, in combination with the Technical University of Berlin, set up a working group who developed the study of coals organic constituents, combined with palaeobotanical work and the development of coal classification systems. In the U.S.A. mainly the Bureau of Mines in Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania) furthered the field of organic coal petrography. All these laboratories worked independently and to a certain degree in isolation. Mining and related fields have been traditionally in Europe and the U.S.A. a domain for men (in Japan miners were women!). After the late Middle Ages mining and related work aspects were not more a field in which women had a say. Ironically it was a woman, Marlies Teichmller (1914-2000), who in the 1930s was able to internationalize the field of coal petrology and break the barriers between scientific traditions that had developed between Europe and the U.S.A. How and why did this happen? Hard work, intelligence, support of her teachers and luck granted this success. Marlies Teichmller was an ardent student. Thus she passed the entrance hurdles easily that had been erected in 1933 by the Nazi-Government to hinder womens access to universities. She had decided to study geosciences at the Berlin university at the time the most prominent one in Germany - and soon was attracted to the applied aspects of geology. She found a committed teacher in Erich Stach (1896-1987) who himself had written a text book on coal petrology. Her intellect and diligence were acknowledged and she was given a stipend to study the differing characterization methods of coal at the Pittsburgh Institute of Mines, with the aim to compare European with the American ways of categorization. After WW II M. Teichmller became the head of a working group on coal petrology in Germany and the main author of an internationally appreciated text book.

A Comparative Study of Lives of First Female University Graduates in Prague

Milada Sekyrkova, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic In my study, I compare the lives of first female graduates of the Czech university and the technical university in Prague, who completed their studies in early 20th century. The opportunity to study at a university and to pursue a scientific career was for centuries open only to men. At the end of the 19th century, however, the lecture halls of some faculties at some universities in the Habsburg monarchy welcomed their first female students and the WWI brought women also to technical universities. 61

Their student life and subsequent careers were, in great majority of cases, not easy. The students came from different social and religious backgrounds, achieved different academic results, and found employment in different professions. I follow the fortunes of the following women who studied in Prague: Anna Honzkov (18751940), the first female physician who graduated in 1902, Olga rmkov (born 1876), a philosophy student who graduated at the Czech Faculty of Arts on June 3, 1902, Marie Vvrov (born 1877 or 1878), the first Protestant woman to graduate, also at the Czech Faculty of Arts, Alice Masarykov (18791966), the first female doctor of history at the Czech Faculty of Arts, and Milada Petkov-Pavlkov (1895 1985), the first female architect who graduated in 1921 at the Czech Technical University in Prague. Some of these women had successful careers in their fields and became part of the Bohemian and Czechoslovak public life. Others married, abandoned professional ambitions, and devoted their lives to their families and children. Society was at that time only getting used to the idea of female university graduates. Opinions and views of them ranged from strongly negative and disapproving to very positive and supportive, and advocates of these positions tried to argue for their views. The lives of female graduates we follow lend, in varying degrees, support to all contemporary societys views.

Cosmopolitism and Science: Female and Male Scientists in Exile between 1933 and 1945 Or, how to Become Cosmopolitan?
Annette Vogt, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin, Germany Research on emigration of scientists, on scientists in exile, has been part of the field of the history of science for decades of years. Several surveys have investigated the life and fate of scientists who had to emigrate, those who were forced to leave their countries because of the Nazi regime, first from Nazi Germany and, later from countries occupied during World War II. Fewer investigations have explored the contributions of scientists in exile to the development of science and technology in their adopted countries. How did this process rely on cosmopolitism in different academic institutions, and different countries? What was the role played by the gender dimension of cosmopolitism? What was the significance of local scientific cultures - as opposed to global ones - and issues of gender in local culture? On the basis of the author's research on female and male German-Jewish scientists in the Kaiser Wilhelm Society and at the Berlin University, who were forced to emigrate from 1933 onwards, these questions will be discussed. I will describe the difficulties faced by scientists in exile and clarify the different modes of emigration and the different strategies which were adopted. When they moved to other countries with different local scientific cultures, emigres were forced to become cosmopolitan. Did this process affect men and womens opportunities differently? What does it mean for a scientist to encounter other scientific cultures and styles of thinking? There were several "lost scientists" who had to quit their scientific work and to go to other locations as well as the "success stories" of those who took their chances and made a new and even better career in the scientific community of their adopted homeland. What were the reasons for these differing fates?

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SYMPOSIUM 10

Global Phenomena and Local Specificities: Conduits between Scientifically Minded Elites and Holders of Artisanal Knowledge between the East and the West
Organizers Simona Valeriani, London School of Economics, London, UK Liliane Hilaire-Prez, Universit Paris 7 Paris Didero, Paris, France Histories of science and technology tend to underline the importance of local contexts for the production and diffusion of Useful and Reliable Knowledge. Nevertheless the importance of interactions between different localities and of so called contact zones has been recognised (Roberts 2009). Critical discussions of established geographical scales of enquiry have proliferated: Perez & Verna (2006) suggested, for example- that the local and the international -rather than the national- are adequate scales of enquiry for discussions of the production and diffusion of Useful and Reliable Knowledge. Sivasundaram (2010) recently proposed to concentrate on crosscontextualization and to go beyond the dichotomy between colonial and national/ local. But what are the methodological approaches that will enable us to go all the way from a micro analysis to a meta-narrative on a global scale? In recent times we have witnessed a strong movement towards a history of connexions and networks (Bala 2010, Sivasundaram 2010). However, despite all the methodological difficulties, a comparative approach could be heuristic analysing in detail specific localities while considering the global context. The symposium will try to do this by offering a comparative analysis of the institutions, networks and mechanisms established in different cultures for the production, accumulation and circulation of scientific and technical knowledge. Particular attention will be paid to methods and processes set up in different world regions for the codification of knowledge and to the major actors involved including the state and local governing bodies, as well as private and corporate firms. The papers will analyse the conduits and connexions between artisans, thinkers and learned people, wealthy patrons and investors in innovation in different world regions in early modern times. Much work has been done in recent years by scholars of European history on this problem. They have been investigating different mechanisms that affected the relationship between learned elites and craftspeople but also the relationships between those possessing the knowhow and potential investors (Ash 2004, Smith 2004, Fox 2009, Mokyr 2002 and 2010). The symposium will tackle the problem of how such interactions compare across cultures.

Artisans and Labour Rationalisation in the West: the Case of George Willdey, Toyman in London c. 1700-1737
Liliane Hilaire-Prez, Universit Paris 7 Paris Didero, Paris, France A trend of recent studies has identified both in Europe and in China has tended to analyse the forging of technological culture within a similar framework, that is by enhancing the part played by literati

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(together with experts coming from trade and crafts) and administration in the process of codification and standardization of technology. We would like to stress another path towards the rational understanding of labour by focussing on entrepreneurs records in XVIIIth century-England, showing a close relation of technological knowledge with markets and consumption. Cross-skills and technological convergences were actually reshaping the world of trades, hence transforming crafts work into trade and enterprise. It is this curious story, of useful knowledge within a Smithian growth that we would like to enhance by focusing on one artisan-entrepreneur of the beginning of the XVIIIth century, George Willdey, who set up a fruitful international trade in toyware and optics in London, where he died in 1737. He was led into that trade by his former specialization in optical instruments which he sold in large amounts, even into pieces, suggesting a high degree of coordination between entrepreneurs and the development of fitting skills across trades. Not only optical instruments and toyware were connected as curious commodities, but they all belonged to assembling trades that were reshaping crafts activities. As his records reveal, the London context for toyware, was fostering the rise of operative skills, that is the burst of a technological culture based upon the understanding of work as a process, of work as a sequence of operations. Although this is more frequently associated with mechanics, with engineering sciences and with the philosophy of manufactures, it seems that the idea of work as a process was already a reality in the world of artisans-entrepreneurs at the beginning of the XVIIIth century. Beyond the boundaries of crafts, a sectorial economy was developing, fostering the growth of markets of production for pieces and components, which did not fit with any traditional craft but which were relying on high fitting skills among artisans. Within the economy of products, comprehensive firms were reshaping urban activities into labour processes. Our study, which will rely on Willdeys business ledgers, finally suggests that we can interpret commercial archives as sources for the history of technology and technological thought, not only of trade and commerce. They illustrate that artisans-entrepreneurs invented a technological language even more sophisticated than the learned elites although they did not mean to build any science of their arts.

The Role of in-between Objects in the Creation of New Knowledge in Europe in early Modern Times: 3-D models, Technical Drawings, Maps and Instruments
Simona Valeriani, London School of Economics, London, UK The coming together of two kinds of knowledge - the theoretical and the experiential - was an important factor in the emergence of a new culture for investigating nature that underpinned the development of the new empirical sciences in early modern Europe. The sharing of both working locations and practices by people with conceptual and applied skill sets allowed for the exchange of their factual and methodological expertise and their knowledge creation practices, facilitating the developement of new ways of investigating nature and producing knowledge about natural phenomena. This theme has been elaborated in recent years under different labels, such as the Mindful Handand the Enlightened Economy as well as, more latterly, in Pamela Longs development of the concept of Trading Zones. The argument put forward in this paper focusing mostly on three dimensional models is that a range of in-between objects played an important role in the coming together of such categories as theory/praxis, intellectuals/artisans, speculative knowledge/skill - that had been seen as distinct in the Middle Ages. Artefacts such as maps, scientific instruments, technical drawings, three dimensional models etc. were in between objects -important loci where practically minded intellectuals, and speculating artisans, navigators, geographers etc. could meet and shared their different knowledges. In so doing they created something new that could not have been produced by either of the two groups independently. While, obviously, these objects already existed and were 64

in use before the Early Modern times, their importance - in both general terms, and specifically their significance as instruments for knowledge production - increased in the period under consideration. Analysing the role(s) played by such objects can help us understand the ways in which knowledge was created and accredited changed in early modern Europe.

Reverse-engineering of Enamel in China: Jesuit Science and Chinese Technology

Xiaodong Xu, Palace Museum, Beijing, China In the 23th year of emperor Kangxi reign (1662-1720), painted enamel artifacts were brought to China for the first time by Jesuits from Italy and France. The Emperor showed great enthusiastic in this exotic art as other west science and technology of that time. Requests for skilled west painted enamel artists were delivered intensively from then on via Jesuits in Beijing. Furthermore, appointed representatives, both Chinese and Jesuits in Beijing, were sent by the emperor to France just to look for the enamel specialists. Not until the 35th year of Kangxi reign (1695) when Father Kiliam Stumpf came to Beijing from German. A glass factory was soon set up near the Forbidden City. Though Jesuit Kiliam Stumpf is only an expert in glass, he was also asked to practice enamel production. Books on enamel were also demanded by Jesuits in Beijing. The lack of professional supervising from enamel specialists always troubled the emperor. Though the body of painted enamel is metal while that of porcelain is fired kaolin mud, porcelain makers at Jindezhen, famous porcelain production center, were sent to the Imperial Workshop to practice enamel painting on metal. While in the meantime, enamel pigments made in the Glass Factory in Beijing were sent to Jindezhen and began to apply on porcelain in stead of traditional glazes. Muffle kiln from west was also introduced to Jindezhen after it was practiced at the Imperial Workshop for years. The combination of Jesuits science and porcelain knowledge of Chinese craftsmen resulted in great success of painted enamel making in the late years of Kangxi, and reached its peak during Yongzheng period (1721-1735). Painted enamel on metal (including gold, silver, bronze), glass and porcelain continue flourishing in Qianlong reign (1736-1785). Managing Energy in the Industrial Enlightenment : Gas Technologies in European Towns, between Scientific Theories and Micro-inventions Marie Thebaud-Sorger, University Paris Diderot, CNRS, Paris, France This paper deals with two main issues, first of all the role of mediating places where inventions are displayed under the eyes of various audiences- and secondly the very stimulating field of the chemistry of gases, steam and heat, which fostered a set of innovative devices during the second half of 18th century. This field seems particularly relevant to grasp how the public is called to examine and judge inventions independently from scientific authorities such as academies. Through contests, prices, public events, an autonomous milieu of improvers, craftsmen, entrepreneurs, amateurs, encounters new emerging forms of expertise offered by the societies for improving the arts, or societies mixing teaching and sociability, or various kinds of technical, agronomical or natural history societies, which are not restricted to an elite. I will focus mainly on London and the Society of Arts, created in 1754, which openness of knowledge against the habit of secrets or exclusive patents systems: therefore the society develops complex processes which requires the deposit of models (exhibited afterward for a large audience), proceeds to experiments, and even later publishes the noticeable inventions. Then I will emphasize upon calls to a wider audience through periodicals and advertising, in order to attend some shows which occurs in museums or repositories, linked to craftsmen workshops, but also takes place in parks or banks of rivers (for trials of pumps for instance). All these interaction devices allow us to sketch out the complexity of the circulation of a body of knowledge from a place to another, from an audience to another. However, academies seem 65

to play a minor role, while a new understanding on these fluids develops through numerous paths deriving from curiosity habits, consumption culture, or patriotic and utilitarian expectations. The analysis seeks to put public mobilization at the heart of the dissemination process of innovative knowledge, in urban locations across Europe.

Models, Sketches, Artefacts during the Qing Era

Dagmar Schaefer, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK Models, sketches and artefacts are substantial sources for the procedural character of technological development. My contribution to this volume looks at the range of materials produced while making technology happen for the question of when and how conceptual awareness about technology becomes manifest. Technology I herein understand as a complex socio-technical system about which people reflected (this is basically the definition of F. Bray). Models, sketches and artifacts from the samples to the end-product relate to a planning phase during which technology is still negotiable, and execution and implementation is tested. Within the process of planning, people negotiate and weigh diverging ways of how-to and how-to-do practical matter and thus unfold how they see specific techniques and complex actions, ethics, social issues and politics in general related to each other. Connections or competitive agendas and aims in fields of knowing and doing come to the fore. A socio-material system emerges and its intellectual embedding. Research on these materials in the Chinese context is still in its infancy. Studied have been those of a quintessential character and style, that is synergetic materials, and arbitrary bits of this range of secondary materials finally enter official accounts or printed books (see the exceptional volume by Bray/Metaill/Lichtmann, The warp and the weft). The way in which Chinese actors used these sketches, models, tools, samples etc. which I subsume under the rubric storage devices to communicate needs and desires in the transitory phase of planning is still open to debate. Individuals and approached these materials quite different from the state. In this article I will discuss how the Qing monopolized and reconfigured the landscape of practical knowledge communication to control production, establish standards of validity or channel (or are unable to channel) creativeness and originality, and juxtapose these with individual artisanal approaches in the field of silk production (and bridge construction). Storage devices display a far more diverse picture of the interaction: power relations between artisans and elites were not only much more complicated; artisans often emerge as forceful agents. Storage devices hence give a more balanced view of the artisan-elite relationship than the one-sided reports of official and elite writing. Additionally through their choice of storage devices actors display a varied conceptual awareness of what technology was and what it was for and which of these claims required further substantiation through the realm of the written word.

Between Global and Local: Antiquarianism in early Colonial India (c. 1750-1830)
Anne-Julie Etter, Universit Paris Diderot - Paris 7, Paris, France An essay on the architecture of the Hindus was published by the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland in 1834. Its author was Ram Raz, a native of Tanjore in the employ of the East India Company (EIC), who translated some ancient Sanskrit architectural treatises. In order to understand the technical terms that are used in these texts, Ram Raz addressed not only scholars (pundits), but also artisans. Ram Razs essay can be considered as being part of the large set of Orientalist works that had been published from the end of the 18th century onwards, both in India and Britain. Documentation of Indian monuments developed parallel to the rise of British rule. Civil and military employees of the EIC set about studying monuments during their leisure time and collected statues, inscriptions and coins. These administrators-turned-antiquarians got assistance from a wide range of Indian guides, interpreters and scholars. The EIC as an institution also played an important role. 66

Though documentation relied mainly on individual initiative, the EIC tried to encourage its servants scholarly activities, while providing them with networks through which objects and data could circulate. Much has been written about colonial knowledge. It has led to contrasted analyses of the nature of knowledge deriving from interaction between British administrators and their local informants, as well as its finalities. Rather than focusing on colonial knowledge, this paper aims at exploring the articulation between the global and the local in the making of antiquarian knowledge. It will do so by examining conduits and connexions between the different groups engaged in the production and diffusion of knowledge and underlining the importance of commercial networks. It will also detail the modalities of knowledge making on the spot, taking into account the necessity to negotiate access to monuments and information but also the impact of the nature and function of collected materials, such as inscriptions which mainly record grants of lands. Lastly it will insist on the reciprocal influence of the study of British and Indian antiquities. If British administrators in India were guided by topics and methods of antiquarianism as it had developed in Britain, investigation of Indias past and material remains also influenced the study of British antiquities, thus enriching the relationship between global context and specific localities.

The Conflict of Professional Identity in the Scientific Definition of Aptitude. The Case of the Psychotehcnics Laboratory of French Northern Railways
Marco Saraceno, Universit di Pisa, Pisa, Italy The psychotechnics appears, in the first decade of the century, as a science of work. This scientific study of work is not only the study of the muscular energy, as the psycho-physiology did, but also the explication of reasons of the productivity of professional act. The scientific paradigm of psychotechnics analysis assumes that science could better understand the professional act than worker themselves. The scientific practice of psychotechnics has a complex position between the employers, who had to fund the research, and workers, who should be the beneficiaries. The purpose of this paper is to clarify which conception of "professionalism" has produced by the psychotechnics, to justify its activities in relation to a particularly innovative company and to a particularly "professionalized" group of workers. We will study the case of the first laboratory of Industrial Psychology of French Northern railways created by Jean-Maurice Lahy in 1931. The French physiologist obtains the permissions to implant his laboratory convincing: the company of the importance of professional selection, and the workers of the rules of science in the improving of conditions of work. The concept of professionalism is well developed between the company need of a work-force efficient and responsive to technological innovation, and the trade-union necessity to defend a practical knowledge not reducible to a simple execution of gestures. The analysis of this case shows the role played by science in the definition of savoir-faire at the intersection of productivity conception of work and the romantic idea of professionalism as an expression of the person.

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SYMPOSIUM 11

Historical Narratives of Cold War Science

Organizers Simone Turchetti, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK John Krige, Georgia Institute of Technology, USA Xavier Roqu, Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Jahnavi Phalkey, Kings College, London, UK Gisela Mateos, Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mexico, Mexico Alexis De Greiff, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Colombia During the last twenty years the historiography on Cold War science has developed substantially. Following the pioneering work of Paul Forman, historians of science have discussed the cogency of the distortionist hypothesis coming to a variety of interpretations and broadening the analysis further. In particular, the geopolitical and diplomatic components in the shaping of Cold War science have come to the fore suggesting that while military interests existed, the promotion of science created important synergies within the Western and Eastern blocs and beyond. Several scholars have argued that scientific collaborations allowed the Superpowers to administer relations with Cold War allies in Europe. The implications of using science in international relations with a number of countries especially in Latin America and Southern Asia- have been revealed. The critical role of science in the colonization and administration of Polar Regions has also been investigated. Thus traditional studies of Cold War research as a national endeavor consistent with military goals have coupled with new work focusing on science as a tool to gain influence internationally, transnationally and globally. Episodes of international scientific collaboration have been singled out as particularly revealing. Often depicted as the result of openness and tolerance allowing a freewheeling debate amongst participants, they embedded national ideologies and interests. This collaboration entailed the sharing of values and the definition of cultural commonalities. It was consistent with the effort to better integrate defence alliances (e.g. NATO). It had implications for control of distant territories and entailed the appropriation and re-appropriation of strands of knowledge consistently with the ambitions of governmental agencies. This symposium aims to explore the richness and variety of narratives discussing Cold War science and answer to sets of related questions including: what factors were decisive in shaping Cold War science? How can we frame the role of prominent scientists in the new funding regime that the confrontation between Superpowers defined? Does the analysis of international scientific work help to appraise dominant views? Are we satisfied with the existing narratives and periodization of Cold War science or should we strive for new interpretations? A Cold War Science? Myths about Computing in postwar Czechoslovakia Helena Durnova, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic In his essay "You and the Atom Bomb" [published in Tribune, 19 Oct 1945], George Orwell expressed his opinion that if both blocs, with their implacable ideologies, would soon posses a weapon that could potentially wipe out the mankind, the only mode of co-existence would be the state of "peace that is no peace, or 'cold war'". This notion of 'cold war' is more fitting for the case of Czechoslovakia than the notion of Cold War as something intrinsically invoking connections between scientists

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(scientific agenda) and the military. On the other hand, it is a common belief today that in Czechoslovakia, the field of computing technology was the place to be for subversive elements. This view is probably best illustrated by a poster mentioning Charta 77 signatories working at the Research Institute for Mathematical Machines, a top computing technology research and development institution in Czechoslovakia, and is often supported by members of the community who frequently stress their anti-communist sentiments. Current historiography of computing in Czechoslovakia consists mainly of articles written by the actors themselves. Looking at these actor accounts and contrasting them with archival evidence and published material calls for a broader discussion of history of computing in Cold War Czechoslovakia. Recent trend among Czech historians shows a move towards a less black-and-white perspective. Most notably, this can be seen in the works of Michal Pullmann and Martin Franc, who study political history and history of consumption in Czechoslovakia, respectively. In my talk, I aim to show a more sober perspective on history of computing in Czechoslovakia --- one that would allow me to explain the contradictions between oral history and archival sources, as e.g. the received view that borders were closed, but computer scientists travelled a lot, even to the West. This way, I hope to tackle the question of the communist government allegedly slowing down the development of computing in Czechoslovakia on the basis of the connections of the Czechoslovak computer pioneer Antonn Svoboda with MIT during WWII.

Detente and the Changing Pattern of International Collaboration

John Krige, Georgia Institute of Technology, USA Most scholarly attention to science in the Cold War is concentrated on the period up to 1970. Little has been done regarding the period of detente, when the US and the USSR agreed to 'normalize' relations. Trade was increased between the US and the eastern bloc, along with closer scientific and technological collaboration (including the famous Apollo-Soyuz 'handshake in space'). Tensions rose again in the 1980s. This paper wll discuss the new measures taken in the US to constrain scientic and technological collaboration with the USSR as the Soviet Union, capitalising on the previous decade of openness, began to rapidly close the technological gap with its rival. The measures taken by Washington at that time were but the first steps in an expanding regulation regime that now penetrates to the core of international face-to-face encounters between American researchers and foreign nationals.

The Atomic Push: Prospecting Uranium and Phosphates in the Spanish Sahara (1945-1975)
Simone Turchetti, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK Nstor Herran, UPMC, Paris, France Lino Camprub, UAB, Barcelona, Spain In 1945, geologist Manuel Ala Medina conducted a series of geological studies in the Spanish Sahara. Radioactive deposits and phosphates reserves immediately called his attention. In 1948, Medina produced a report on Saharan phosphates for the state mining company Adaro and he published in 1952 the first geological map of the Spanish Sahara. The state-founded Junta de Energa Nuclear (Spanish Board of Nuclear Energy), as part of its program for uranium prospection, appointed Medina as chief of its Geological Service in 1953. From this position, he proposed a research program on the possibilities of obtaining uranium from the fabrication of superphosphates. He also collaborated with the private company Fosfatos del Bucraa, whose president was also the president of an association of private companies promoting nuclear energy founded in 1962. Constantly navigating between civil and military interests, and between the needs of agriculture and

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of nuclear energy, Medina led until the 1970s a number of prospection expeditions to the Spanish Sahara, trying to emulate French efforts in Algeria, a site for phosphate extraction and, from 1960, nuclear bomb testing. In our paper, we use the focus on the Spanish Sahara to deepen into the relationships between nuclear, geological and agricultural sciences in the Cold War, as well as to illuminate the colonial dimension of these undertakings and its overlapping with national security concerns.

The Pontecorvo Affaire Reappraised. Five Decades of Cold War Spy Stories (1950-1998)
Stefano Salvia, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy In March 2011, on the occasion of the 14. Physikhistorische Tagung Physik im Kalten Krieg in Dresden, I gave the talk From Russia with Love. The Pontecorvo Affaire (to be published in the volume Physik im Kalten Krieg, Vieweg-Verlag, Berlin). Aim of that paper was to provide a general overview of the whole 1950 affaire and of its political implications both in the West and in the East until the the 1990s. Who was Bruno Pontecorvo, beyond his scientific achievements? A model of socialist science or a utopian scientist? A pacifist like Robert Oppenheimer or a communist traitor who contributed to pass strategic information to the East, like Klaus Fuchs? Did he really work only on non-strategic subjects in Dubna, where most of Soviet secret nuclear laboratories were concentrated? Did he actually spy on the Anglo-Canadian atomic programme before moving Russia? I already discussed how the perception of Pontecorvos case changed in the public opinion from 1950 to the early 1990s, as a mirror of the global tensions between the two blocks. The affaire was object of harsh political confrontation in Italy, very close to the Iron Curtain, where the strongest and the most heterodox communist party in the West was excluded from the national government since 1948 but maintained its cultural hegemony in the country until 1990. In this paper I will focus on such a local 50-year long debate (especially on the role played by the Italian communists in Pontecorvos defection to the USSR and its real motivations), which reflected the history of post-war PCI from Stalinism to anti-Soviet euro-communism until the social-democratic turn of the late 1980s. My primary sources will be newspaper articles (in particular those appeared on Il Corriere della Sera, La Stampa, La Repubblica, Il Tempo, and L'Unit from 1950 to 1998), as well as essays, interviews, records, documentaries, and related materials recently published on the Web.

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SYMPOSIUM 12

History and Historical Epistemology of Science. Conceptual Streams and Mathematical Physical Objects in the Emergency of Newtons Science
Organizers Jean Jacques Szczeciniarz, REHSEIS University Paris 7, Paris, France Marco Panza, IHPST/CNRS University Paris 1, Paris, France Raffaele Pisano, Cirphles, cole Normale Suprieure, France/Research Centre for the Theory and History of Science, Czech Republic In Principia Newton wrote: Since the ancients (according to Pappas) considered mechanics to be of the greatest importance in the investigation of nature and science and since the modernrejecting substantial forms and occult qualitieshave undertaken to reduce the phenomena of nature to mathematical laws, it has seemed best in this treatise to concentrate on mathematics as it relates to natural philosophy. (Preface. Cambridge Trinity College May 8, 1686). Newton offered a new approach to science establishing a standard in the treatment of mechanics. The latter is divided in a pure part, essentially mathematical in nature, and an applicative part, where mathematics becomes the tool for account for physical (mainly celestial) phenomena. In studying Newtons science, one may then focus on mathematics and study the way it allow one to treat with physical phenomena. This requires studying the relation between mathematical and physical quantities: how time as occurring in geometrical arguments is related to time understood as a physical magnitude, for example? The evolution of Newtons setting resulted from the middle of 18th and during the 19th c. in new scientific approaches also involving interplay between pure mathematical developments (differential and integral calculus) and the study of physical phenomena (of different sorts). Thus a new relation between mathematical structure and physical quantities emerges. The debate: 1. Relationship physics and mathematics both in the Newtonian and the posterior settings: physical and mathematical objects. 2. Heritage of Newtonians science: Newtonian foundations in others sciences in the history.

The Mathematics of Newton's Principia and its Influence on Newton's System of the World
Paolo Bussotti, Edizione Nazionale Opere Federigo Enriques, Livorno, Italy The mathematical tecnique used by newton in his principia can be undestood only analyzing in detail the proofs of the most significant propositions he dealt with in his text, especially in the first book. The basic problem is that generally newton follows a synthetic reasoning (one could say la euclid or la apollonius), but, at the end of the reasoning, he uses the concept of limit making to converge two point or two lines in order to obtain the results he was looking for. The literature on newton's mathematics is abundant, but not so abundant are the specific examinations and explanations of the individual propositions in the principia. in this sense, a fundamental reference point is the edition of 71

the principia edited by thomas le seur and francis jacquier in 1739-1742 and reprinted in 1822, where newton's text is annotated and commented. However, to reach the full comprehension of the mathematics newton used in the principia, it is necessary: 1) to make the historical references more profound they are in le seur's and jacquier's edition; 2) to avoid the use of analytical concepts in the cases in which newton did not use them. In the first part of my talk, i am going to propose, as examples, a complete mathematical explanation of two significant propositions in the first book of the prinicipia, the demonstrations of which are extremely elliptic in newton's text. No method is neutral in respect to the results obtained: newton is one of the inventor of calculus and he framed his mathematical physics in the above outlined way, that is using many elements of the classical synthetic geometry in a new manner. How did this influence his physics and his system of the world? is there a connection bewteen the extensive use of synthetic methods we find in the principia and newton's physics of forces? Why is the recourse to synthetic geometry in newton still so important and pervasive? From a methodological point of view, did newton think that euclidean, and in general synthetic, geometry is more perspicuous than calculus and, hence, it is better to use it as far as possible? In the second part of my talk, i am going to deal with these difficult questions with the intention to pose the problems rather to solve them. In fact, only a collective, historical scientifical work could answer such difficult questions.

Newton as a Cartesian
Ladislav Kvasz, Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia The aim of the paper is to argue that the most suitable background for understanding of Newtonian physics is the Cartesian system. In particular it tries to show that some of the fundamental principles as well as of the basic concepts of Newtonian physics have Cartesian origin. The Cartesian system is viewed not as a mere metaphysical physics, as many interpreters view it, but as a truly mathematical physics, which introduced the first universal natural lawthe law of conservation of the quantity of motionin history of western science. Newtons description of interaction of bodies, as action of forces, can be best understood on the background of the Cartesian description of interaction, based on the concept of conservation of the quantity of motion. The Cartesian context puts the whole Newtonian system into a new perspective.

Can We Reassert the Influence of Mercators Logaritmotechnia (1668) on the Invention of Calculus by Newton and Leibniz?
Jean Dhombres, Centre Koyr, Paris, France Since history of mathematics was created as a separate domain during the 18th century, almost every historian of mathematics has tried to comment about the invention of differential and integral calculus. For sure, as there is plenty of documents, an emphasis has been put on the priority quarrel between Leibniz and Newton which lasted long after the death of the two protagonists. Due to the existence of what we may call the Newtonian and the Leibnizian sects, it is certainly the most celebrated case for social studies on science, far before social studies on science were precisely defined in opposition to what was called either traditional, or internal, and even sometimes positivist history of mathematics. Most historians insist on the intellectual isolation of the two protagonists, and also on the apparent oblivion of their own results which were revitalized only with the appearance of Leibniz famous paper in October 1684 in Acta Eruditorum. My aim is to reassert the role of so-called minor actors in the process, and precisely of Nikolaus Mercators Logarithmotechnia, published in 1668, where integration of a very special function is provided by a power series, using what we may call two different Riemann sums, with equidistant and non equidistant steps. They are clearly seen on the geometrical figures which were used in the analysis provided that same year and somewhat transformed by John Wallis in the Philosophical Transactions in London, and by Christiaan 72

Huygens at the Academy of sciences in Paris. Using various recent works, and I think some new interpretation, my aim is to try to recognize what can be understood from the year 1668 in the Principia eleven years later, in the Leibniz papers in the Acta up to 1686, and in the Meditationes of Jacob Bernoulli around these years. And I wish to take into account what may be said about a general knowledge on quadratures at the time.

Newton, Gravity, and the Mechanical Philosophy

Hylarie Kochiras, New Europe College, Bucharest, Romania Although the mechanical philosophy is frequently characterized as having a requirement of material contact action as its sine qua non, this paper defends a different characterization, and argues that Newtons natural philosophy qualifies. A mechanical philosophy of the seventeenth century may be understood as a natural philosophy that retains the realists goal of discovering causes of natural phenomena, while also drawing upon the simple machine tradition, putting aspects of that tradition to work toward the end of discovering causes. Newton crafts his mechanical philosophy by reconfiguring the relationships among geometry, mechanics, and natural philosophy. He does this in such a way that gravity becomes part of mechanics, and mechanics ceases to be a mixed science, instead becoming part of natural philosophy. Pace the presumption of rational mechanics, Newton wants us to realize that there is exactness in the divinely created machine of the world. Thus the objects of mathematical methods are not confined to abstract mathematical entities, and mechanics should no longer be thought to be a mixed mathematics, that is, a branch of mathematics. Pace the longstanding presumption that practical mechanics, with its restricted domain, legitimately represents the science of motion, Newton wants us to realize that the science of motion fundamentally includes the natural powers, notably gravity, levity, elastic forces, resistance of fluids, and forces of this sort, whether attractive or impulsive. We should no longer allow our understanding of the domain of mechanics, the science of motion, to be determined by practical mechanics, which traditionally restricted its gaze to the imperfect machines of human creation, and the powers associated with them. Newton then claims to have discovered the gravitational force through mechanical principles, which he identifies with the mathematical principles of natural philosophy that provide the title for his treatise, these mathematical-mechanical principles being the element he draws from the simple machine tradition.

On the historical epistemology of the Newtonian principle of inertia and Lazare Carnots Premire Hypothse
Raffaele Pisano, Cirphles, cole Normale Suprieure, France/Research Centre for the Theory and History of Science, Czech Republic Generally speaking, a principle may be considered one of the first elements in the development of a scientific theory and it cannot be mathematically confuted or experimentally demonstrated. On the other hand, it is possible to read both physical principles and mathematical principles in many scientific books where the role played by observation, measurement and mathematics modelling depends on also the physics mathematics relationship in theory adopted by the author to investigate a certain phenomena. In my talk I will speak about on the physics mathematics relationship expressed by Isaac Newton (16421727) in his first Principle ("Principia", 1687) and by Lazare Carnot (17531823) in his First Hypothesis of the "Principes fondamentaux de l'quilibre et du mouvement" (1803). The two different uses of conceptual streams in the physical and mathematical reasoning will be discussed.

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The development of Newtonian Gravitation from Kant to Fries

Erdmann Grg, Philosophie und Pdagogik, Bochum, Germany My talk explores the development of the law of gravitation from Newton over Kant to Jakob Friedrich Fries a philosopher, mathematician and physicist in the tradition of Kant, but with strong empiricist leanings. I will focus on the motivation of Kant and Fries for incorporating the law of universal gravitation in their natural philosophies and on their justification of this law. My aim is to highlight the rarely considered connections between these three authors: Even though the links between Newton and Kant are well known, I will enlarge the picture by taking Fries ameliorations of Kantian fundamental forces into account. Newton denies that gravity is essential to matter and confines himself to outlining possible causes of gravitation. He merely shows by induction that universal gravitation does in fact exist but does not elaborate on its possible cause. Kant picks up the concept of universal gravitation and expands on its meaning in his Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science. He criticises Newton for his empirical derivation and tries to deduce the attractive force a priori. Kant considers the attractive force as one of the two fundamental forces constituting matter. In pointing out the essential character of attraction, Kant deems it even more universal than Newton does. Fries aims at revising the Kantian foundation of Newtonian physics. Unlike Kant, Fries goal is not to derive the existence of any fundamental force a priori. The apriorical status of gravity (even the prime example for a fundamental force) is relativised by him. His idea is rather to deduce the apriori conditions which actually existing fundamental forces have to meet. Hence, Fries concept of possible fundamental forces is open to absorb new, yet undiscovered connections. His a priori-approach is largely heuristic, i.e. it is meant to help empirical science in discovering new fundamental forces by experimentation.

The Role of Planning and Analyzing Experiments in Elaborating a Scientific Theory. Historical Reflections on Optiks by Newton
Maria Gentile, Italy Generally speaking the contribution of Newton in Optics has been pointed out as a corpuscular theory of light with respect of later wave theory (e.g., Huygens, Hooke ). Its treatise Optiks - Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections and Colours of Light (1730), which is written in English, does not present hypothesis-thesis-proof typical of mathematical work, but is centered in concepts and experiments. In the history of science, Newtonian optical theory is blurred since its investigation on the spectrum easily suggested a two-sided nature of light, in which coexists both properties that can be explained by particles and properties peculiar of wave propagation. In my talk I will discuss the Newtonian nature of light, which can be interpreted into a mathematical formulation, and how the informal justifications of the assertion he does can be set into the statistical framework of design of experiments. The wide and varied set of experiment planned and conducted by the scientist reveals an underlying scheme of sequential analysis, factorial analysis, optimal design, and, further, it remarkable is the treatment of experimental errors.

Gauss Differential Geometry as a Heritage of Newtonians Science

Marie Vetrovcova, University of West Bohemia, Pilsen, Czech Republic In the beginning of 19th century, differential geometry was established by Leonhard Euler and Gaspard Monge and his students. Their conceptualization was based on an idea of a surface as a circumference of a given body, a finite, closed, bounded, irregular solid. Euler conceived a notion of curvature of a curve and took elements of curved surface theory by differentials. The French school

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developed Eulers ideas. Monge described special classes of curved surfaces using second order PDEs. In this time, astronomy still had an important role of the exact science for which mathematics was a servant for the celestial mechanics. But, after the Napoleon wars in German speaking lands, there was a requirement of new cartography. So, there were founded new observatories and set out associated meridians as a base to strict mapping of lands. In 1820s, Carl Friedrich Gauss and Heinrich Christian Schumacher made land surveying of Hannover, Holstein, and Denmark with a goal of the pan-European (geodesic) triangulation network. Note that Gauss was a director of the Gttingen observatory and Schumacher founded the observatory in Altona. As a side-effect, geodesy needed a new theoretical and mathematical background by another approach than Euler had offered. In that new one, a surface is an unfinished surrounding landscape. The paper deals with discovering of Gauss' differential geometry in the boundary between a pure mathematics in nature and applicative aspects for which mathematics becomes the tool for physical and natural phenomena, in particular in geodesy. It is concentrated on the important parts from the correspondence between Gauss and his students (Schumacher, Encke) those illustrate moments of an influence of pure mathematics on geodesic practice and vice versa, and historical conditions and backgrounds of publishing of Gauss' memoirs on differential geometry (story of the Copenhagen Royal Society of Science Prize).

Change of the Newtonian Paradigm in the Theory of Elasticity of the 19th century
Danilo Capecchi, Universit di Roma La Sapienza, Roma, Italy The scientists of the early nineteenth century felt the need to quantitatively characterize the elastic behaviour of bodies and gave rise to the mathematical theory of elasticity. It was essential for an accurate description of the physical world, in particular to better understand the phenomenon of propagation of light waves through the ether. The choices were strongly influenced by the mathematics in vogue at that period, i.e. the differential and integral calculus. It presupposes the mathematical continuum and therefore has some difficulty in getting married with the discrete particle model, which had become dominant. Most scientists adopted a compromise approach that can now be interpreted as a homogenization technique. Material bodies, with a fine particle structure following Newtons model of matter, were associated with a mathematical continuum. The displacement variables were represented by sufficiently regular functions, which assume significant values only for those points which are also positions of particles. Internal forces exchanged between particles, initially thought as concentrated, are replaced by their average values that are attributed to all points of the mathematical continuum, thus becoming stresses. This models gave results not validate by the experience and aroused doubts on the validity of some Newtonian assumption about forces. Other scientists gave up keeping particle physics model. They founded their theories directly on continua, all points of which now had all physical meaning. Some scientists oscillated between the two approaches, among them Augustin Cauchy who, while studying the distribution of internal forces of solids, was systematizing mathematical analysis, comparing the different conceptions of infinity and infinitesimal, the discrete and continuous. His oscillations in mathematical analysis were reflected on his studies on the composition of matter.

A Few Doubts and Objections against NewtonSystem

Arnaud Mayrargue, CNRS / REHSEIS from the SPHERE Laboratory University Paris-Diderot Paris 7, Paris, France

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In his first published work about optics, entitled Doubts about Optics questions (1761), dAlembert expressed his doubts about the Newtons theory. These doubts about the Newtons light theory are also present in the third volume of the third set of the Opuscules mathmatiques, which is dated from 1764, and more precisely in the 20th memoir of this corpus. DAlembert was interested in understanding the question of aberrations, notably chromatics aberrations. After having discussed the means of reducing or suppressing these distortions, it led him to question the validity of the Newton emission system. He started notably for that reason, in the framework of the mathematical physics, a deep analysis of the two laws of light dispersion expounded by Newton in his Opticks, one following a linear form and the other a quadratic form. Indeed, he questioned the connection between experiment and theory, none of these laws being able to impose itself by only using theoretical presupposition. What explains his doubts and objections.The Newtons law of dispersion was refuted by John Dollonds works, who managed, contrary to what Newton used to deduce from his law what Vasco Ronchi called Newtons mistake , to experimentally make achromatic system of lenses or prisms. Coming to the quadratic dispersion law, it appeared that it was incompatible with the signs value of the flingt-glass and crown-glass glasses used by Dollond in the realization of achromatics systems. With his works, dAlembert used the results of mathematical physics. His attitude toward Newtons optics was critical, even if he didnt reject it, as we will see it through the analysis of his works, especially through the Emission article that he wrote in the 5th volume of the Encyclopedia, which was published in 1775 and that we will also present here.

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SYMPOSIUM 13

History and Philosophy of Science in EU Secondary Curricula? New Proposals Wanted

Organizers Efthymios Nicolaidis (GR), Peter Heering (D), Michael Matthews (AUS), Raffaele Pisano (F/CZ), Constantine Skordoulis (GR), Inter Divisional Teaching Commission of the IUHPS/DHST It is recognized that science is an important component of the EU cultural heritage and provides the most important explanations of the material world. Recently fewer youths seem to be interested in science and technical subjects. Does the problem lie in wider socio cultural changes, and the ways in which young people in the EU countries now live and wish to shape their lives? Or is it due to failings within science education itself? Generally speaking current school science curricula was constructed for preparing students for university and college scientific degrees. Such education does not meet the needs of the majority of students who will not pursue tertiary studies in science or even science related fields. These students require knowledge of the main ideas and methodologies of science. What about of cultural process? It seems that the didactics of scientific disciplines across Europe failed to solve the crisis between scientific education and EU social economic development. Reports (e.g., Rocard, et al) suggested new teaching methods, changed new curricula and purposes. A special debate multi disciplinary dialogue exchanging new ideas proposals between different cultural approaches is auspicated: a) ESHS Historians in EU Institutions, scientific education and secondary school. b) Hypotheses and perspectives of history and philosophy of science discipline(s) EU secondary schools curricula. c) How history and philosophy of science can assist in solving the crisis in science both education and foundations in Europe? d) How new science education produce reliable knowledge and the limits to certainty? e) A proposal would be presented to charged EU Parliament Commission.

Introduction to Symposium: on the Emergency to Discuss H&PS Teaching and Curricula in EU Schools
Raffaele Pisano, Cirphles, cole Normale Suprieure, France/Research Centre for the Theory and History of Science, Czech Republic An outline to be discussed: Appeal to students for a scientific culture through the culture of history and philosophy, regardless of the sterile dichotomy between human and scientific disciplines. Physics in the 20th century changed both the fundamentals of classical physics (and of science as well), and lifestyle (for better and for worse). A reflection based on a program, according to the spirit of research and interdiscipline, and pedagogicallyoriented, is always to be regarded as a topic of interest, never obvious. Invite a motivated and interested study of physics and mathematics through a wider historical and philosophical knowledge of epistemological criticism. 77

Try to rebuild the educational link between philosophy and physicsmathematics: philosophy, from the end of the XIXth century, seems to have no longer found a steady link with physics whose interpretation of a phenomenon is sometimes based on the involvement of an advanced and elaborate mathematics. Dissemination and sharing of difficult theoretical and experiential works. Make the students understand that the history of scientific ideas is closely related to history of techniques and of technologies; that is why they are different from one another. Show the real breakthrough of scientific discoveries through the study of the history of fundamentals, not yet influenced by the (modern) pedagogical requirements: understanding the historical turnover of the principles of classical thermodynamics into the usual teaching of physics. Let the students experiment discoveries with enthusiastic astonishment through a guided iter reflection on the fundamental stages of progress and scientific thought. A proposal: Revolution in Science Education[?]: Put Physics First (Lederman 2001. Revolution in Science Education: Put Physics, Physics Today, 54/9, 44). All of us put a professional teacher first: teachers that teach, research and publish.

A European Textbook on The Development of Science in Europe. Questions and Prospects

Constantine Skordoulis, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece Efthymios Nicolaidis, National Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens, Greece This paper discusses the idea of a European textbook on the Development of Science in Europe for students of the upper secondary schools in Europe and also for the broad public. The textbook, written by a pan-european team of experts in History of Science and Science Education, will focus on the development of modern science as an important factor in the formation of a new European 'space' based on science rather than what is promoted by a number of cultural and political historians promoting a monolithic view of Europe (as defined by "Christian roots" or any other single factor). A component of this project is the intention to promote greater understanding and a more positive identification with 'science' among European young people, in the hope that this will motivate more of them to pursue scientific studies and careers. Far from being Eurocentric, the textbook should give also a voice to the contribution of noneuropean peoples in the formation of the european scientific outlook and the elaboration of tools including the Arab contribution to the dissemination of ancient Greek scientific knowledge to western Europe, emphasizing european connections and ability not only to create, but also to gather, develop and disseminate knowledge and original ideas. Another feature of the textbook will be the emphasis in the study of the dissemination to once "peripheral" regions of Europe, such as the Balkans and eastern Europe, of scientific knowledge which, in due course, was incorporated into the fabric of local cultures.

A Proposal to Analyse the Representation of the Nature of Science Conveyed by Science Teaching and to Elaborate New Pedagogical Proposals
Laurence Maurines, Magali Gallezot, Daniel Beaufils, Marie-Jolle Ramage, DidaScO, University Paris-Sud, France The French curricula at the secondary school level have changed recently. The underlying stake is not only to attract more students towards scientific careers but also to give all students a cultural and scientific background that allow them to become responsible citizens. Science programs recommend inquiry-based teaching with methods and skills to be acquired and attitudes to be interiorized. Emphasis is also put on knowledge about the nature of science and scientific activity. 78

Our main issue is to analyse the representation of science conveyed by the science programs, implicitly or explicitly, in order to identify which features of the NoS are taken into account and which are not and consequently to help to define and elaborate innovative pedagogical proposals consistent with the current issues of science education. We adopt here a broad definition of the acronym NoS: it refers for us not only to the nature of scientific knowledge and process but also to the psychologica and social aspects of the development of sciences. We begin by demonstrating how our analysis based on various disciplines (philosophy, history, sociology and psychology of science; science education research) led us to distinguish different features about NoS and to elaborate a matrix, which can constitute a reference framework to which compare teaching programs, pedagogical materials and teachers practices. We then show how we use this matrix when analyzing the programs of two subject matters (biology-geology/ physicschemistry), of two streams (scientific and literate) and of three school levels (grade 10 to 12). Finally, we discuss the characteristics of this matrix compared to the various categorisations proposed in the NoS science education research field and advance some proposals about the programs in order to enhance the image of NoS among students

The Role of the History and Philosophy of Technology in Secondary Education

Christopher Bissell, UK If the history and philosophy of science is seen as a useful approach in secondary education, then the history and philosophy of technology has an equal claim. The history of technology has often been seen as the poor relation of the history of science, yet its study can not only support the learning of scientific principles, but also engage students in a debate about contemporary and often contested technological issues from the information revolution to climate change. From this point of view, technology is much more than applied science. Certainly, scientific principles are involved, but even in its purest form, technology is more about designing artefacts and systems than understanding the natural world. This significant difference is reflected in the sort of models that technologists use for design. Even where the underlying mathematics of a technological model may be identical to a related scientific one (differential equations, Fourier transforms, for example), the way the models are elaborated and used within a technological or engineering culture is very different from the comparable scientific context. In recent years the historiography of technology has been greatly influenced by science and technology studies (STS) and social construction of technology (SCOT) approaches, both of which can be used albeit in a fairly elementary manner to contextualise school studies in this area. As far as the philosophy of technology is concerned, it is certainly less well established as a discipline than the philosophy of science, and its major concerns determinism, social construction, design, sustainability, tacit knowledge, and so on are perhaps less easy to define than those of the philosophy of science causality, scientific method, the mind-body problem, scientific revolutions, for example. Clearly, however, the two fields merge when considering a number of theoretical and practical issues, in particular the social context of science / technology. This paper will develop the above themes with suggestions for the secondary school curriculum.

Philosophy of Science and Intercultural Dialogue: Rethinking Education

Arun Bala, Singapore It is widely acknowledged that the growth of scientific knowledge has been facilitated by intercultural dialogue across many civilizations. In particular the dialogue of civilizations across the Eurasian continent and exchanges between them have advanced scientific knowledge in Europe, the Islamic world, China and India. Civilizations have drawn upon each other not only in terms of material practices, techniques and technologies, but also theoretical, epistemological and philosophical ideas 79

in order to advance science in their respective civilization contexts. However, the methodological insights of philosophers of science have yet to be extended to understand how they can contribute to strategies of critical and creative thinking able to exploit such intercultural exchanges. E.g. can civilizations serve as reservoirs of ideas for Bacons inductive principles, Whewellian hypotheses, Popperian conjectures, Lakatosian research programmes and Kuhnian paradigms in science? How can these ideas from different cultural sources be critically evaluated by adopting the various, albeit divergent, strategies recommended by leading philosophers of science. Based on approaches used in teaching comparative philosophy of science in the National University of Singapore and the University of Toronto in Canada this paper examines how education designed to teach critical and creative thinking strategies based on the teachings of philosophers of science can be extended to exploit different reservoirs of cultural traditions in natural philosophy.

History and Philosophy of Science in Science Education

Maria Elisa Maia, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal In the last decade, all secondary school students in Portugal have a compulsory discipline of philosophy, in the 10th and 11th grades, whichever the areas of study they may choose. The introduction of this discipline in the official curriculum, following national and international orientations is mainly intended to assume an education for values and attitudes, contributing for the formation of the civic conscience of the youth, reinforcing the sense of citizenship, inside a community and in the global world where we all live. Logics, ethics and esthetics are strong points but philosophy of science, although mentioned in the program is only very superficially covered, as usually philosophy teachers have a very limited knowledge of scientific disciplines. Moreover, is not articulated with scientific disciplines because science teachers have no philosophical attitudes towards science. General history is studied at a basic level but history of science is not specifically studied in any discipline at basic and secondary level. However, the importance of history and philosophy of science in scientific education has been gradually recognized. Actually, besides allowing students to get a more general perspective of science, they can be useful didactic tools for the teaching and learning of several topics of the different sciences taught in basic and secondary schools. The justification of fundamental concepts which are on the basis of the knowledge in those areas requires a philosophical and historical approach, which although proposed in the programs, is almost always ignored in practice, due to the lack of training of teachers in those subjects, and the absence of good materials for teachers to use in classes. In this communication we intend to discuss the use of an historic and philosophical approach of some physics and chemistry topics, that may also allow to clarify the meaning of the duality theoryexperimentation that accompanies the development of science and also, necessarily, the initiation to scientific knowledge. This can be the basis for a larger discussion of how to introduce history and philosophy of science in science education. A Naturalist who Became a Pioneer of Experimental Marine Oceanography in Portugal. Assets for Science Education Cludia Faria, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal In this work we present a set of science activities informed by the history of science. The central theme of the activities was the work of D. Carlos de Bragana, king of Portugal, a pioneer oceanographer. The activities were addressed to Biology secondary students and were designed in order to run both in class and in a science museum located near Lisbon, the Vasco da Gama Aquarium. Activities include a pre-visit orientation, two workshops performed in the Aquarium and a 80

follow-up learning task. In the pre-visit class, students analysed two excerpts of the kings diary related to the 1897 oceanographic campaign, in order to discuss different forms of scientific reporting and to deal with different methods of collection of biological specimens in comparison with present ones. In the Aquarium, students actively participated in two workshops. In the first one, students were introduced to the kings scientific work and zoological collection. Furthermore, they compared present classification methods with those developed by the king and classified a group of marine organisms with a dichotomous key. In the second one, students were introduced to the King's work as an illustrator and to biological drawing techniques. In addition, they draw some marine organisms present in life exhibition of the Aquarium. In the follow-up activity, students analysed excerpts of texts of a contemporary Portuguese oceanographer about the kings scientific work and reflected about the nature of scientific work. Collecting procedures were designed in order to assess students performance, perceptions and attitudes. Students considered the project popular and relevant, highlighting its practical nature and its innovative characteristics, namely the drawing task and the historical approach. The results of this work suggest that engaging students in an activity that involves a field trip to a science museum, extending it by adding a historical dimension, can constitute a compelling context for learning about scientific practices and concerns over time. One fundamental aspect that emerged from this study is the importance of the use of science museums as an excellent context to develop activities embedded by history of science, since many of them possess historical collections that represent unique resources, rarely available in schools.

A teaching proposal on 20th century Physics

Vincenzo Cioci, Secretary of A.I.F. Napoli 2, A.I.F. Associazione per l'Insegnamento della Fisica, Napoli, Italy This teaching proposal offers an in-depth analysis in the contribution given to Physics by four eminent scientists (Albert Einstein, J. Robert Oppenheimer, Franco Rasetti and Leo Szilard). These scientists especially distinguished themselves for their way to view the relationship between scientific vision of the world, technology, ethics and society. I have already experimented with this teaching proposal in scientifically-oriented secondary schools in Italy. In contemporary society it is of primary importance to know the potential and the problems connected with the development of science. The proposed path responds to this need and starts from the fundamental concepts of the twentieth century Physics: relativity, quantum mechanics and nuclear Physics. All it is presented in its historical context. The context of time in which they were formulated. The work considers also digressions in the latest frontiers of Physics. In my opinion, the issues presented are fundamental supports to the youth cultural education. Especially those youth who are preparing to complete the cycle of secondary education.

Historical Tools for Teaching Physics: a Practical Proposal

Francesco Bevacqua, Ricerca & Didattica, Bottega Scientifica, Castrolibero, Italy With this short paper we will present a working proposal for the use of historical instruments preserved in collections of technical - present in universities, science museums, and schools. The meeting includes a brief description of the state of the art technical and scientific collections, from their establishment until the advent of information technology. During the conference-show will be shown and used some tools that allow you to perform mechanical measurements (Atwood's Machine, set of tools for the introduction to the study of mechanics). The instruments used are replicated copies of antique instruments for physics education.

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Implementation of the History of Mathematics in Catalan Secondary Schools

M Rosa Massa Esteve, Iolanda Guevara Casanova, Ftima Romero Vallhonesta, Carles Puig Pla, Universitat Politcnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain The History of Mathematics, as an explicit and implicit resource (Massa, 2003) in the classroom, enables the learning of mathematics to be improved. Through the analysis of significant texts from the historical evolution of mathematical concepts, the History of Mathematics Group of the Barcelona Association for the Study and Learning of Mathematics (ABEAM) develops historical materials to be used in the classroom (Massa et al., 2011). In Spain, each autonomous community is in charge of its own secondary and university education, so we deal only with education in Catalonia. In fact, the new Catalan mathematics curriculum for secondary schools, published in June 2007, incorporates historical contexts in its mathematics syllabus. Therefore, during recent years many teachers have developed materials and implemented them in the classroom. Our aim in this communication is to discuss through these tried and tested historical materials how in some cases the analysis of mathematical proofs can produce reliable knowledge. In addition, we discuss the criteria for preparing these historical materials for the classroom, as well as the conditions for using them as a powerful tool for understanding mathematics.

On Joule's experiment: How the historical experiment can improve the understanding of energy
Ricardo Lopes Coelho, Mnica Baptista, Ana Maria Freire, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal Some physicists have pointed out that we do not know what energy is. Research literature about students misconceptions is ample. Modern approaches to the energy conservation principle in highschool and university textbooks are the object of our research. Many textbooks present a schema of the 1850 Joules experiment and use this to explain energy. It will be shown that some of these schemas are neither historically nor physically acceptable. Furthermore, they lead to an understanding of energy as somewhat mysterious. The presentation of the historical origins of the typical characterisations of energy (indestructible, transformable, forms of energy, capacity of doing work) enables us to overcome this situation. This topic is corroborated by means of an empirical research carried out in the following terms. Two researchers designed, in collaboration with schoolteachers, a set of inquiry activities that were implemented in their classroom. These activities were related with Joules experiment and aimed at allowing students to understand the concept of energy. Taking this into account, the empirical research intended to describe students explanations about the historical origins of the typical characterisations of energy, to identify students difficulties about the concept of energy and to characterize students conceptions about it, after the implementation of activities. This qualitative research adopted an interpretative orientation and two kinds of data collection methods were used: students written documents and interviews of the students and teachers carried out by the researchers after the implementation of the inquiry activities. Consistent with a naturalistic research paradigm, the analysis of collected data was inductive, consisting of uncovering salient patterns, singularities and themes associated with research objectives.

Pythagoras' Theorem and the Resolution of the Second Degree Equation in the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art
Iolanda Guevara-Casanova, INS Badalona VII & ICE de la UPC, Badalona, Spain 82

In the XXIst century, computers and calculators solve second degree equations, but this subject is only dealt with in the compulsory secondary education curriculum. Perhaps some features of the history of this equation can explain to our students why it is still necessary to study this subject. The introduction of diverse procedures to solve problems in the mathematics class fosters the connection between contents and it favours the students' learning process because it does not limit them to a closed and finished vision of the problem brought up. The use of historical texts in the classroom is a good resource to show this variety of procedures that enrich the learning process and fosters a wider vision of mathematics as a science in continuous evolution. In this presentation we propose a sequence of activities for secondary education that connect the resolution of the second degree equation with the Pythagorean Theorem.The activities have been designed from three historical texts: the Elements of Euclid, The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art and Hisab al-jabr w'al-muqabala. The aim of the proposal is to present the connections between geometry and algebra in secondary education using the following historical contexts: Euclides, Liu Hui and Al-Khwarizmi.

Science/Chemistry Methodology in Education in the Course of Ages from Alchemy to Information Society
Martin Bilek, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic The orientation of natural science instruction (including chemistry) towards methodological tools in natural science cognition, i.e. empirical methods (e.g. observation, measurements, school chemical experiment), and theoretical methods (e.g. modelling), originates not only from its basis and subject of chemistry as a scientific discipline, but mainly from the characteristics of the methodology. The methodology of chemistry was developed in long-time period starting in alchemy, continuing through iatro-chemistry and chemistry to modern chemistry in computer technology equipped laboratories. Certain results have been received from the works which deal with the position and functions of current chemistry methodology elements and other natural sciences in their didactic systems. Following aspects and approaches may appear, e.g. relation between the problem-solving principle and the system of experimental activities in chemistry instruction; mathematics and logic in the methodologically run chemistry instruction (mathematics as a methodological tool in the process of natural reality cognition); modelling and models in teaching chemistry and other natural science subjects; the issue of the development of material didactic means for methodologically oriented chemistry instruction etc. This area also includes innovations of material didactic means. Attention is paid e.g. to those supporting school experiments with data administered by computer, to computer simulations in the form of web applets, or to remote and virtual laboratories etc. The computer and other information technologies can be used as useful supporting means towards emphasizing methodological aspects of natural science instruction. They are mainly as follows: the support to running experiments and modelling, the support to directing empiric and theoretic hypotheses defining and the support to forming empiric and theoretic items of knowledge.

The Use of Science Museums and Historical Scientific Instrument Collections Offers New Perspectives for the Design of the Secondary Education Science Curriculum
Flora Paparou, 1st High School of Chios, Chios, Greece Recent international science education research points out the facts that, in the developed countries, the students express low interest in school science and do not want to become scientists. On the other hand, during the last decades, science museums and other non formal science education institutions proved able to make science popular again and reveal it as a socio-cultural enterprise. 83

Within this framework, the integration of museum exploration programmes in science teaching attracts the interest of the educational community. Even at the level of national curriculum design, there exist initiatives that propose the collaboration between schools and science museums, as a means to enhance interest in science and cultivate positive attitudes towards the scientific enterprise. Many of such school and science museum collaboration projects designed at local or national level focus on teaching science through the exploration of historical scientific instruments and experiments. As an example of this recent trend, we will present how we managed to integrate into the school life of a small region of Greece the educational programme of a school-museum. We proposed the exploration of a 19th and early 20th century historical scientific instrument collection through stories and experiments. The evaluation data, which concerns the opinion of 4000 students who participated in the educational programme during the period 2003-2008, proves the positive attitude that the participants expressed towards the lessons at the museum. These lessons had various forms, such as lecture demonstrations, in situ experimental activities and student-centered projects. Throughout our educational intervention, we led the students to understand science as culture. The nature of scientific instruments, the nature of experiments and the links between science and society were widely highlighted through the educational material we developed. Furthermore, by using methodology of science issues as design axes of the activities we weaved, we tried to enhance metacognitive skills. Finally, helped by the intensive study of historical experiments, we particularly worked out how we can redesign the teaching of experiment, and introduce important experiments as manifold processes that include intellectual, practical, and socio-cultural aspects.

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SYMPOSIUM 14

History of Slavic Science Cultural Interferences, Historical Perspectives and Personal Contributions
Organizers Aleksandar Petrovic, University of Belgrade; President of the Serbian Society of History of Science, Belgrade, Serbia Witold J. Wilczynski, Pedagogical University of Krakow, Poland Slavic Science, in spite of its numerous well known scientists and their contributions of crucial significance to the European and global science, was not formerly a subject of frequent historical and cultural analysis. Considering the state of world science without the contributions of Copernicus, Boscovic, Lobachevsky, Mendeleyev, Lomonosov, Tesla, Mohorovicic, Milankovic and others would be an impossible task. Besides them, there are many Slavic scientists who, although having made important scientific contributions, are not well-known outside of their respective countries and cultures. Strangely enough, even on Wikipedia, the most prominent and non-dogmatic source of knowledge today, there is no entry for "Slavic Science", or "History of Slavic Science". It seems that the concept itself, Slavic Science, is not yet established and widely recognized. There are different concepts such as Slavic cultural studies, Slavic languages, Slavic science fiction, etc, but there is no mention of any generalized approach to Slavic Science. Contrary to that, on the Web there are multiple entries for Islamic Science, Latin American science, and the like... There are numerous important scientists of Slavic origin and cultural background. It is without doubt that they gave contributions of the utmost magnitude for science in general. But the precedent question still exists - the dilemma of whether their fundamental endowments could be studied also within the framework of Slavic Science, or is there nothing specifically Slavic in their scientific contributions. Of course, many cultural and scientific essays should be undertaken in order to get an appropriate answer to that query. Slavic Science is subject to many (one could say innumerable) cultural and scientific influences which made its profile as it is known today. In any case, it is not low profile science; contrary to that, it bears a powerful capacity to revolutionize the ruling scientific paradigm. It is not necessary to mention Copernicus, Boskovic, Mendeleyev, Tesla to understand what it means. Because of all of that, we think that it is worthy of efforts to call European historians of science, as well as scientists from other disciplines, to reconsider the possibility of Slavic Science and to expose various examples and case studies which show interrelations among Slavic and non-Slavic scientists; to research patterns of influences which made a significant impact on Slavic scientists; and to find historical routes of circulation of scientific ideas which affected Slavic and European science in general.

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Antonin Wurm, a Student of ancient Geography

Dmitriy A. Shcheglov, St. Petersburg Branch of the Institute for the History of Science and Technology, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation Antonin Wurm (1.1.1887 ? 15.4.1941), a Czech scholar, is almost unknown. His works were extremely rarely cited even in his lifetime and now they become forgotten and turn out to be a bibliographic rarity. For the most part of his life, A. Wurm taught in the gymnasiums at different cities of Czechia. As far as I know, A. Wurm never wrote papers for academic journals, but published six small monographs: Rozbor Ptolemeiovy osm mapy Asie (1926), Marinus of Tyre (Some Aspects of His Work) (1931), Marinus and Posidonius (1936), Mathematick zklady mapy Ptolemaiovy (1937), Hannonuv periplus (1937), O vzniku a vvoji mapy Ptolemaiovy (1940). All books issued in Chotbo in a limited number of copies. Probably it is due this circumstance that his works passed almost unnoticed by a wide scholarly society. However one should admit that A. Wurm was one of the most insightful researchers in his field. The focal point of his investigations was Ptolemys Geography and early stages of its formation. One of his central and most fruitful ideas is that the earliest traceable layer of Ptolemys map was based on the Eratosthenian estimate of the circumference of the earth, rather than on that of Posidonius which was Ptolemy adopted for the last version of his Geography. The works of A. Wurm are full of other stimulating observations and conjectures. The museum of Chotbo keeps an extensive archive of A. Wurms documents (about 200 units), including two of six monographs, which are not preserved in the libraries that I know, necrologies and his diary for 1938 1940 in English. I hope that further investigation of these documents will shed some light on life and work of A. Wurm.

F. I. Jankovic dMirievo - Director of Saint-Petersburg Major Public School

Elena Igorevna Krasikova, The St. Petersburg Branch of the Institute for the History of Science and Technology, Russian Academy of Science, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation Fedor Ivanovich Jankovic dMirievo (1741-1814), representative of an ancient Serbian family, was invited to Russia during the reign of Empress Catherine II. He had studied law, social and economic sciences at Vienna University, and he was an excellent teacher. In Austria Jankovic dMirievo participated in reforming the system of public education. It was aimed at improving the training of teachers, enhancing efficiency of teaching, establishing special education administration. After successful establishment of the new educational system in Austria, Catherine II decided to take it as an example and to introduce it in Russia. Soon one of the authors of the new system Jankovic dMirievo was introduced to the Russian Empress by Austrian Emperor Frantz Joseph. In 1782 F. I. Jankovic dMirievo came to Russia. He became a member of the Commission on public schools establishment. The task of the Commission was to organize public schools and teachers training, to prepare textbooks. Jankovic dMirievo actively participated in these undertakings. He was director of Saint-Petersburg Major Public School (Glavnoye Narodnoye Uchilische), where teachers were trained. On his initiative researchers from St Petersburg Academy of Sciences and Moscow University were invited to the School as tutors for would-be teachers. N. Ya. Ozerovetsky, V. M. Severgin and other famous scientists and scholars gave lectures there. Thanks to such a high standard of teaching and new methods of research the School became one of the most advanced educational establishments of Russia in the XVIII century. Fedor Ivanovich participated in drafting the curriculums for Land, Artillery, Engineering Corps. He worked out programmes for the Society of Education for Noble Girls and School for Middle Class Girls. The system built by the Serbian enlightener was in use in Russia for many years. In 1783 F. I. Jankovic dMirievo was elected a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The same year he was engaged in compiling the first thesaurus of the Russian language. In 1784 and 1786 he 86

was awarded the Order of St Vladimir (of the 3 and 4 degree). F. I. Jankovic contributed much to the re-editing, enlarging and republishing of the Comparative Dictionary of All Languages and Dialects Alphabetically Arranged. In course of the work on this dictionary which he carried out on the order of Empress Catherine II in 1790-1791 he compared 279 languages, among them 171 Asian, 55 European, 80 African and 23 American. The dictionary was an important step in the generation of Russian linguistics. A Serbian by birth, he, worked a lot for the good of Russia. He died in 1814 and was buried at the Alexandre Nevsky Laura memorial cemetery in St Petersburg.

Friendship between Nikola Tesla & Mark Twain

Dragoljub Aleksandar Cucic, Regional Center for Talents "Mihajlo Pupin", Pancevo, Serbia Aleksandar S. Nikoli, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia Bratislav Stojiljkov, Nikola Tesla Museum, Belgrade, Serbia Mark Twain and Nikola Tesla were friends. The first one of the best writers, the second the biggest inventor both of them dreamers. Nikola Tesla has made numerous discoveries and inventions in the field of electric power, lighting techniques, radio technology, wireless control, and a number of high frequency current applications in industry, medicine, mechanical engineering and aviation. Two world-renowned and recognized personalities: Tesla a scientist and inventor, Twain a writer and satirist, lived and worked during the period that includes the 19th and 20th century. Although their creative orientation was different, there were great friends and they had deep respect of each other's work and contribution. In Tesla's legacy, among many surviving archival documents, personal and technical, monographs and serials were found several letters od correspondence these two giants exchanged. The aim of this study was to examine the caracter of their friendship, to present details of their friendship, which denominators were discovered together and offer a new saved documents, lessknown details from the life stories of two deserving people, who through their knowledge and were trying to create a new and better world.

Victor Conrad and his Interrelation to Slavic Science and Scientists

Christa Hammerl, Zentralanstalt fuer Meteorologie und Geodynamik, Wien, Austria In 1901 Victor Conrad (1876-1962) became employed as University Assistant at the ZAMG where he found himself confronted with research tasks of Physical Meteorology. In 1904 the ZAMG became responsible for the seismic monitoring of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy territory, and Victor Conrad was appointed Head of Department. During this time Conrad developed an own small version of a seismograph the Conrad-pendulum, capable of recording stronger ground motions. From 1910 until the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in 1919 he was appointed as Professor for Cosmic Physics at the University of Czernowitz. From 1915 on during war service (Feldwetterdienst, Feldwetterstation Belgrad), Conrad established a meteorological network from the Save and Danube to the Osum river in South Albania. This several years lasting work and many journeys in more or less unknown areas of Montenegro and Albania culminated in a well functioning network and Conrad could later use the data for a comprehensive description of the climate of this area. After the occupation of Serbia by the Central Powers (Mittelmchte) during the WWI Victor Conrad became commander of the Meteorological Observatory Belgrade between 1916 and 1918. After the breakdown of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy Conrad again served at the ZAMG. After the Nazi takeover of power in Weimar Germany in January 1933 Conrad tried to find a new job in one of 87

the meteorological institutes in Europe. He contacted among others also the Serbian geophysicist and civil engineer Milutin Milankovi, but all attempts were in vain. After the Anschluss of Austria to the German Reich in 1938, Conrad, Jewish descent, left Europe. Beno Gutenberg a student of Emil Wiechert assisted him when settling down in the USA. Conrads scientifically lifework comprises more than 240 papers concerning Meteorology, Climatology and Seismology.

Hidden Cycles of the Revolution - Milankovic, Wegener and the New Earth Sciences
Aleksandar Petrovic, University of Belgrade; President of the Serbian Society of History of Science, Belgrade, Serbia Milutin Milankovic (1879 1958) and Alfred Wegener (1880 1924) have revolutionized the Earth sciences. Milankovic, with background in Civil Engineering, revived astronomical theory of climate, dethroned geocentric causality in explanation of climate dynamics and defined climate change as a general cosmic problem, the same for all the planets with a solid crust. Alfred Wegener, who got his PhD in astronomy, and performed his research in meteorology, renounced ruling geological concept of sink bridges between continents and established theory of continental drift. Despite the fact that Milankovic and Wegener were very close collaborators since 1921, and that their research forced rewriting of all textbooks in the Earth sciences there is no single comparative study since devoted to the work of two most prominent scientists. The aim of this paper is to find out striking similarities between their biographies and scientific work. Especially it will be analyzed significance of the year 1912 when Milankovic published Mathematical theory of climate and Wegener delivered a lecture The Origin of Continents.

Slavonians between Non-Slavonians (Infancy of the School of Slavonic and East European Studies in London)
Milada Sekyrkova, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic At the beginning of the autumn term of 1915 the annual calendar published by Kings College announced the formation of a "School of Slavonic" was originally to consist only of four posts in the Russian and Serbian languages. The lecture, entitled "The Problems of Small Nations in the European Crisis" was given by the distinguished Slav savant, Prof. T.G. Masaryk. The paper has been focused on the relations between Slavonian and Not-Slavonians staff of the School namely on director Sir Bernard Pares (1867 - 1949). Based on the correspondence of some Slavonian lecturers (e.g. Otakar Odloilk) is it trying to recontruct the feel at school in the 20th of the past century.

Scientific activity of Bulgarian S.N.Vankov in Russia and the USSR

Boris I. Ivanov, St. Petersburg Branch, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation Semen Nikolaevich Vankov, native Bulgarian, a prominent scholar, manger in science and industry, and public figure, lived, mostly, Russia and the USSR. The young talented Bulgarian officer as well as a passionate supporter of Slavic co-unity idea, S.N.Vankov, one of the leaders of pro-Russian party in Bulgaria, was urged to emigrate from Bulgaria to Russia, where he was welcomed and for prosperity of which he did a great deal indeed. Apart from Vankovs merits for Russia, here, we take attention to his scientific activity. It involved his literature heritance. His fluent pen gave tens of scientific publications: books, articles, papers, speeches and so on. Breadth of their themes were overwhelming: explosives, and turbines, metal piles and refrigerators, refined iron and electric equipment of metal rolls, projects of water pipelines and electric power stations, projects of military 88

plants and Dnieper aluminium integrated works, problems of sciences management and research, problems of development of ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy, metal-working industry and so on. Special features of his works are widely known reference books, useful for broad masses of engineers, technicians, workers. Vankovs scientific works were distinguished by their actuality, they made their appearance at the very moments when the urgent themes came into being. Vankovs scientific works enriched the engineering thought of his contemporaries, promoted their scientific and, especially, practical activity. Being a scholar, effective manager of science, technology and practice, S.N.Vankov was outstanding person. He was a man of versatile knowledge and interests, of a vast energy, target-oriented and consecutive. A characteristic of him was scientific and business courage, he feels the need of epoch, so, advances the actual problems. But, he was viewing the future, being distinct in his outlook for perspective, so, he was unmistaken in his decisions. S.N.Vankov was a person of large scale, of wide thought and wide-ranging enterprise.

Art and Literature in the Context of Slavic Science

Danko Kamcevski, Kragujevac, Serbia In this paper we shall examine the fusion of science and literature in "Through Universe and Centuries" and "Through the Realm of Sciences" written by the Serbian scientist, Milutin Milankovich, viewed in the context of Slavic science. It is well known that Russian philosophy is contained within its national literature. Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, and Bulgakov were philosophers as well as writers. Alexander Borodin, a distinguished doctor of chemistry, was also a renowned composer of classical music. Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian polymath, wrote poetry. Rudjer Boskovic, a physicist and astronomer, also wrote philosophical works and poetry. Nikola Tesla translated Serbian epic poetry, and wrote his own poetry as well; he also discovered rotating magnetic field while reciting an excerpt from Goethes Faust. Mihajlo Pupin won a Pulitzer award for his book From Immigrant to Inventor. This tradition is reminiscent of Platos poetical dialogues, Parmenidess philosophical poems or Heraclituss mystical fragments, evocative of Taoist writings. Hence, the Slavic approach could lie in reviving and reaffirming this approach, and could serve as a bridge between ancient and modern, science and art. From there on we shall focus on Milutin Milankovich's works, analyzing them both as so-called popular-science and as literary pieces. Milankovich's books, while an introduction to science for non-specialist readers, also recommend themselves to a lover of literature by the virtue of their style, meditative, spiritual, and poetic. Scientific developments of the future may render some Milankovich's views obsolete, but, could the strength of his approach lie in the fact that, long after his findings are superseded, his book shall still remain a classic of literature? Could Milankovich be a Dostoyevsky of Science? With joining the scientific and literary spheres does Milankovich represent a holistic way of thinking about nature, as opposed to compartmentalizing and specialization in modern science?

Russian Influences on Physics Education and Research in Romania after the Second World War: a Case Study on the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna
Gabriela Eugenia Iacobescu, University of Craiova, Craiova, Romania As it is well-known, science and art in the Soviet Union were under the strict ideological control of the communist party. But despite that it could be discerned certain positive elements, for instance the fast progress of what the party named ideologically secure fields of research, due to the free of charge education and the scientific research supported by governmental founds. However, in some cases, the consequences of ideological pressure were dramatic, the most famous examples being those of "bourgeois pseudo-science", like genetics and cybernetics. At the end of the fifth decade, were also attempts to suppress special and general theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, considered idealistic. But, the Soviet physicists said, firmly, that 89

without using these theories, they wouldnt be able to make a nuclear bomb. Scientific research in almost all areas was hindered by the fact that many scientists were sent to labor camps, or were executed. They were persecuted for being real or imaginary dissidents, or for their politically incorrect researches. However, there were significant discoveries during Stalin regime both in Soviet Union and in Romania. Starting with the 60s, the Soviet influence on the education and research in physics in Romania, brought many benefits, mainly due to the available literature in the field of physics and due to the joint research projects. A good example of cooperation and intercultural influences was and remains the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna. JINR has at present 18 Member States: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bulgaria, Cuba, Czech Republic, Georgia, Kazakhstan, D. P. Republic of Korea, Moldova, Mongolia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam. Participation of Germany and Hungary in JINR activities is based on bilateral agreements signed at the governments' level. Besides that, the aim of this article is also to present a study of these documents which could bring another approach of the role of Slavic culture and science on the Romanian ones. In June 2010, the Library of the Socio-Humanistic Research Institute "CS Nicolaescu Plopor" from Craiova received an important donation of books, manuscripts and scientific records from the family of the historian and researcher Damian P. Bogdan, author and coauthor of several books of translations of the Slavic documents.

The Achievements of F. Patricius and R. Boscovich to the Notion of Force in the Philosophy of Nature
Tomislav Petkovic, Faculty of Electical Engineering and Computing (FER), Zagreb, Croatia Frane Petri (Franciscus Patricius; April 25, 1529, Town of Cres February 6, 1597, Rome) was a philosopher and scientist at the fall of Renaissance. A short review of the Patricius theory of tides developed in the three books of Pancosmia in the "Nova de Universis Philosophia" will be emphasized in the presentation. A hierarchy of the more than 20 tidal causes was investigated by the Patricius unique philosophical-scientific method. He identified the attraction of the Moon and Sun as the first two general tidal causes. In the book "Concepts of Force" (M. Jammer, Dover, 1999; First ed. 1957), the name of F. Patricius and his treatise on tides were mentioned on page 83. In his Letter to H. von Hohenburg (1607), Kepler also quoted the work of Patricus. However, Patricius found neither epistemic meaning of gravity (a force due to the masses of celestial bodies) nor the true physics causes for the rise and fall of the sea surface. He rather ascribed tides to be caused by light and heat (lux and calor), consistent with his philosophical system. Ruer Josip Bokovi (Rogerius Joseph Boscovich; May 18, 1711, Dubrovnik - February 13, 1787, Milano) was one of the great scientists and philosophers of all time. He used for the first time a method of thinking of Newton, Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz, to synthesize them into his new original method of thinking of Nature. His "Theory of Natural Philosophy" (Vienna 1758, Venice 1763) was based on points-atoms as the ultimate building blocks of matter, whose interactions were synthesized and unified by the single law of forces that exists in nature (universe). Boscovich is the father of the pictorial representation of the atomic dynamism which was crucial for the modern subsequent concepts of subatomic and subelementary particles: starting by electrons, protons, neutrons, till quarks today. Therefore, N. Bohr, W. Heisenberg, R. Feynman, and L. Lederman have 'ad hoc' occasionally brought the Boscovichs "Theory" in the limelight, along the road of Boscovich's legacy or/and development of physics. A historico-epistemic compatibility of the Boscovich's notions on the ultimate elementary entities in nature with the parton-quark physics that come up more than two centenaries later, will be elaborated in the presentation. Perhaps, that might be particularly imporant today for the epistemic challenges of the 'new experimental physics' at the high energies.

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Portraits in Historical Context: the Princess Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova and Mikhail Vasilevich Lomonosov
Galina Ivanovna Smagina, Institute for the History of Science and Technology St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation The princess Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova (17431810) and Mikhail Vasilevich Lomovosov (1711 1765) occupy a prominent position among many famous Russian statesmen and public figures. Princess Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova, who served as the director of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1783-1794, deserves a special credit for being able to understand the place of a scientist, poet and educator Mikhail Lomonosov in the history of Russian culture. Upon her initiative the Academy of Sciences engaged in a number of commemorative undertakings devoted to Lomonosov and his legacy. Thanks to Dashkova and her efforts, the Academy produced the first sixvolume academic edition of his works; it began to study his correspondence and produced the first scholarly biography of Lomonosov. She commissioned one of Lomonosovs best portraits the one that was painted for the Academy of Sciences Conference Hall. Thus Princess Dashkova was one of the figures who were indispensable for the rise of research on Lomonosov.

Inspired by Russia: Leibniz's Ideas about the Organization of Science in St. Petersburg
Irina Borisovna Sokolova, The St. Petersburg Branch of the Institute for the History of Science and Technology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation The history of the slavic science counts quite a few examples of close and productive contacts and bonds with scientists, science schools and institutions in Western Europe countries. The XVIII century became a period of change for the russian culture. At that time a change of scientific rationality was fixed. The success of such sociocultural transformations became possible in many respects because of ideas developed by foreign scientists; inter alia G.W. Leibniz, a germane philosopher and illuminator. In the period 1697-1716, Leibniz watched closely the events taking place in Russian Empire. He met Peter the Great several times, developed the draft of the structure of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg and a number of directions concerning institution and development of universities. Working out these advices and instructions, Leibniz relied not only on the experience of organization and work of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, but also on ideas and directions for the unrealized projects in Vienna and Dresden. The philosopher saw the prospect of the development of science, culture and education only in their synthesis and close cooperation. To assure the fullfledged functioning of an Academy of Sciences it is necessary to prepare the cultural soil of the country, that is to rear, through the renewed system of schools and universities, a generation of educated persons, to reexamine the complex of cultural institutions libraries, botanical gardens, observatories, cabinets of antics etc., to make them generally accessible, arousing interest in science and education. The main link of the future system would be "The General Directorate", the highest authority managing education and science in Russia. Leibniz saw a great potential in Russian culture, stressing that it was essential "to collect, spread and promote" science, education and arts, exactly with which views his system was developed. Peter the Great has highly appreciated the recommendations of the philosopher and used lots of them organizing the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

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The International Networks of Finnish Slavists and the Re-establishing the International Scientific Relationships with Russia in 1921-1923
Jussi-Pekka Hakkarainen, University of Turku, Helsinki, Finland In early 1920s, Russian scholars were sidelined by the Great War and by the Bolshevik regime from the international academic debate. Scientific relations with the Western countries started reborn in the course of the relief programme for the Russian scholars organized by the Academic Relief Committee of Finland (ARCF) in 1921. In March 1921, famous Maxim Gorky published his appeal on food relief for the Russian scholars in the Finnish press. The living conditions in Russia had drastically weakened during past two years and the members of the House of the Learned ( ) in Petrograd, led by Gorky and , were next to perish. His plead led to an action and a group of Finnish scholars took the initiative by establishing the ARCF for aiding the Russian colleagues. The ARCF was not any rough conglomerate since its executive group was led by many academic Finns who had had close ties with Russian culture, society and academic life during the years before the Great War. The key figures were Andrey Igelstrm (18601927), the head of the Russian Library at the University in Helsinki, ethnographer-slavist Viljo Johannes Mansikka (18861947) and professor of the Slavonic languages, Jooseppi Julius Mikkola (18861946). These men had collaborated in past decades with the Russian academic world closely and they were aware of the prevailing conditions in Russia. In May 1921, the front members of ARCF, Igelstrm and Mansikka, negotiated with Commission for Improving the Living Conditions of Scientists in Petrograd ( , PetroKUBU) over the terms on the relief for the scholars of the House of the Learned. The outcome of negotiations was a plan on the aid and its agenda was mainly twofold: 1) the arranging the materialistic relief (food, clothes etc.) and 2) the exchange of Russian scientific publications that could reconnect Russian scholars to the academic debate with the foreign colleagues after a long period of stagnation. In this presentation, I will examine how the ARCF executed the agenda on relief in co-operation with PetroKUBU, managed to organize a Europe-wide relief programme for the Russian scholars in need and managed to re-establish the scientific relationship between the European and Russian scholars again with the help of international book exchange.

The Russian Academy and the rise of Slavic studies in Russia

Vladimir Semyonovich Sobolev, The St. Petersburg Branch of the Institute for the History of Science and Technology, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation The Russian Academy at St. Petersburg (1783-1841) functioned in the period that coincided with the rise of national liberation movement among Slavic nations, oppressed by two empires, the Ottoman Empire and the Hapsburg Empire. The activists of Slavic awakening considered national languages and literatures, their development and codification, as a powerful tool for consolidating their nations. Therefore they ascribed particular attention to their interaction and contacts with the Russian Academy the leading centre for research on Slavic languages and cultures in the Russian empire. The links between the Russian Academy and Slavic intelligentsia were particularly strong in the early decades of the 19th century. They exchanged academic literature, carried out joint research projects, produced dictionaries, studied Old Slavic texts, etc. The Academy provided financial support to Slavic scholars, funded their academic publications, bestowed awards and honorary titles on them. The Academys Statute of 1818 provided ample room for this type of assistance. 92

A number of large-scale joint academic projects that were initiated by the Academy are particularly interesting for historians of science: the production of Comparative Slavic Dictionary, attempts to establish a Slavic Centre at the Academy, extended academic trips of young Russian scholars to Slavic countries in order to study languages, dialects, compile ethnographic collections. In those years the Academy established close and fruitful contacts with a number of eminent Slavic scholars Czech scholars Dobrovsky and Safarik, a Viennese librarian Kopitra, a Serbian scholar Vuk Karadzic, a Croatian scholar Ljudevit Gaj, and a few others. These multifaceted projects laid the foundations for Slavic studies in Russia, and opened up scholarly research on a number of problems in Slavic philology and history.

Serbian Theologian and Philosopher Vladyka Nikolai (Velimirovich): Returning the Lost Legacy
Diana Nikolaevna Saveleva, The St. Petersburg Branch of the Institute for the History of Science and Technology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation Vladyka Nikolai (Velimirovich), Bishop of Ochrid and Zhiche, theologian, philosopher, D-r Honoris causa of the Columbia University, is of poor knowledge for the present-day Russian reader, being the most famous author in Serbian spiritual literature of XX century. His works of various genres were issued in 15 volumes. In 1902, Nikola graduated from the Seminary and continue his studies in the Old Roman Catholic Theological Faculty at the University of Berne, Switzerland. He graduated, supporting two dissertations: in History, and Theology. In 1909, Nikola prepared his Doctorate in Philosophy at Oxford, England, and, in Geneva, Switzerland, wrote his second doctoral dissertation, entitled The Philosophy of Berkeley. In 1910, monk Nikolai was sent to Russia, in Saint-Petersburg Holy Academy. In May, 1911, he was urgently recalled in Motherland by a cablegram from Belgrade to be consecrated Bishop. He rejected firmly this proposal and became a lecturer of philosophy, logic, psyhology, history, and foreign languages in Belgrade Theology. During WWII he was jailed in Dachau (Germany) on September 15, 1944. On May 8, 1945, the prisoners were released from Dachau. When Titos regime obtained a full power in his Motherland, Vladyka moved on to America. He continued his missionary and literary activities. In 1951, beloved Bishop Nikolai moved to St. Tikhons Russian Orthodox Monastery in South Canaan, Pennsylvania. Here he spent the last five years of his earthly life as a professor, dean, and eventually rector of the Seminary. Despite of the world-wide glory, the works of Vladyka Nikolai Velimirovich were banned in his Motherland (also, in Russia, till 1991). Now, the very fact is that St, Nikolai is an epoch in Serbian Theology, Poetry, and Literature of all genres. It is out of question that his works attract many Serbian scholars as well as the Russian ones.

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SYMPOSIUM 15

Humanities, Mathematics and Technics at Renaissance Courts

Organizers Martin Frank, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy Veronica Gavagna, University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy The humanist manuscript collectors of the Quattrocento were responsible for assembling in Italy an almost complete corpus of Greek mathematical writings, where the term 'mathematical' has to be intended in the wider Renaissance meaning: the arts of quadrivium - arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music - as well as optics and mechanics. In this sense, for example, artists and architects, too, were mathematicians inasmuch as they depended on principles of perspective, harmony and proportion; not to mention that astronomy and astrology had a strong influence on such studies as medicine and poetry. The courts libraries that generally reflected the patron's intellectual interests on the one hand provided the raw material for a mathematical reawakening, offering access to Latin and Greek texts of Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius, Diophantus, Proclus, Heron, Pappus and so on. Furthermore, the patrons could see to the financial security of their protgs and thus permit the development of mathematics outside the institutional framework of the universities. Actually, mathematics immensely benefited from the humanists eagerness to rediscover, translate and let circulate Greek manuscripts. Recently, many studies have been oriented to reconstruct the intellectual life of the courts in the fifteenth and sixteenth century. The recovery of classical mathematical tradition went hand in hand with the tendency to apply mathematics to disciplines like architecture, hydraulics, the science of fortification and military engineering, which had matured in the environment of the abacus-schools. Through the encounter of the humanistic culture on the one hand and that of the engineers on the other, the Renaissance courts thus became one of the focal points of different knowledges and techniques which generated a new approach to science and to technics. The aim of this symposium is to investigate the significance of this culture emerged from the Renaissance courts for the so called "Scientific Revolution".

Architectura est scientia La constitution du savoir architectural dans l'humanisme vnitien du cinquecento (de Fra Giocondo Vincenzo Scamozzi)
Pierre Caye, INSHS, CNRS, Paris, France L'incipit du chapitre 1 du premier Livre du De architectura de Vitruve, telle du moins et cette prcision est importante que le vitruvianisme de la Renaissance en tablit l'dition, dfinit l'architecture comme une science ("Architectura est scientia"). Nous essaierons de comprendre ce qu'il faut entendre ici sous le terme de science quand il sert dfinir l'architecture humaniste et nous verrons en quoi cette "science nouvelle" contribue grandement la gense de la technique moderne.

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Mechanics, Mathematics and Architecture: Guidobaldo dal Monte at Urbino and Giovanni Battista Benedetti at Turin
Martin Frank, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy Renaissance courts were important focal points of cultural and intellectual life. Amongst others, they offered the possibility for studies on the mathematical disciplines and for the scientific exchange between various scholars. Further, they became the place of a fertile interaction between theoretical mathematical studies and technical problems related to mathematics, like in architecture, hydraulics and fortification. In the present talk, we want to analise this interaction in the cases of two major exponents of sixteenth-century mechanics, Guidobaldo dal Monte and Giovanni Battista Benedetti.In fact, as recent studies reveal, Guidobaldo dal Monte was closely connected with the ducal court of Urbino. The Duke conditioned both his scientific work and his activity as engineerarchitect, by exhorting him to compose certain mathematical treatises and by charging him with tasks to head or supervising various construction sites. Corrispondingly, several writings of Guidobaldo show the influences of his interaction with the intellectual life at court, as well as of his contacts with engineers, architects and technicians. Giovanni Battista Benedettis situation was in a certain extent similar to Guidobaldos. Amongst his extant works there are manuscripts on scientific instruments and on gnomonics, apparently composed for the Duke of Savoia. Further he, too, was active as architect or technical consulent of the Duke. Recent studies have moreover shown the close interaction with his scientific environment, composed by mathematicians, engineers, architects and philosophers. The talk will be dedicated to the presentation of these aspects, and to the analysis of the convergences and divergences of their roles at the respective courts, as well as of the possible influences on their scientific work.

Federigo Bonaventura (1555-1602), Physics and the Scientific Context in the Duchy of Urbino between XVIth and XVII c.
Giulia Giannini, Centre Alexandre Koyr, Paris, France Federico Bonaventura (1555-1602) was above all a courtier. Being left an orphan by father, in 1564 he was taken in Rome and educated by the Cardinal Giulio Della Rovere (1532-1578), brother of the Duke of Urbino Gudobaldo II (1514-1574). In 1573 Bonaventura arrived in Urbino as a court servant and he soon found the favor of Francesco Maria II, the new Duke that succeeded his father in 1574. Author of erudite and ponderous works, Bonaventura is undoubtedly an important figure in the last phase of the Duchy of Urbino a short time before the end of the Della Rovere family and the assignment of the Duchy to Papal States (that was signed by Francesco Maria II in December 20th 1624 and became effective on his death in April 23rd 1631). Federico Bonaventura is mainly known for his political writings. In particular, his Della Ragion di Stato et della Prudenza Politica (1601) commissioned by the Duke in contrast with the homonymous text of Giovanni Botero (1544-1617) made him a child of the ratio status, mentioned by Benedetto Croce (1866-1952) and Friedrich Meinecke (1862-1954) among others. Despite being quite celebrated for his political activity, the information about his philosophical and scientific interests is very scanty. It is known that he wrote some very meticulous and erudite works on various ancient astronomical and meteorological texts and a long treatise on premature births. Nevertheless, these works are largely unknown, they never were re-edited and they remained substantially unsold. The study of these astronomical works and the analysis of the manuscripts preserved in the Oliveriana Library in Pesaro and in the archives of Urbino, will, for the first time, allow us to assess and clarify the extent of Bonaventuras contribution in the physical debate of his time while at the 95

same time contributing at a deeper understanding of neglected aspects of Urbinos scientific context between XVIth and XVIIth century.

A Mathematician and Scholar of ancient Mechanics at Court: Bernardino Baldi at Guastalla, Sabbioneta, Roma and Urbino
Elio Nenci, Universit degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy Bernardino Baldi was a very important representative of the so-called Urbino school of mathematics. For a long time he was employed as mathematician by the little court of Guastalla. Also he spent about two years in Rome by the Cardinal Cinzio Aldobrandini. Finally at the end of his life he came back to Urbino in service of the Duke Francesco Maria II. Very little is known about the studies and discussions concerning science and technical knowledge carried out at these courts. The paper will try to throw light on this topic, rereading all Baldis scientific works from this particular point of view.

How Does the Weight of a Body Change along an Inclined Plan? Tartaglia and Del Montes Answers, between Technical Problems and Theorical Settlement
Fabio Zanin, Liceo ginnasio "G.B. Brocchi" - Bassano del Grappa (VI), Fonte (TV), Italy The discussion on the variation of the weight of a body along an inclined plan, due to the speed it goes or to the position it has on the plan itself, held an important place in Physics during 16th century. It played also a crucial role in arranging the conceptual devices and the experimental data that made the Scientific Revolution possible. At that time, at least two different answers to the question: How does the weight of a body change along an inclined plan? were given: by Tartaglia (Iordani opusculum de ponderositate, 1565, posthumous), based on the Medieval studies of Jordanus de Nemore, and by Guidubaldus Del Monte (Mechanicorum liber, 1577), who revised the ancient solution of Pappus of Alexandria (Mathematical Collections, beginning of IV cent. A.D.), based on the principles of levers. Tartaglia and Del Monte were involved in the analysis of the same technical problems, especially those of ballistics. In fact, the former was for a long time military consultant of the Republic of Venice, while the latter was for a couple of years at war in Hungary against the Turcs. But their cultural training was very different. Tartaglia was a self-taught scientist, while Del Monte was an influential professor, who learned mathematics under Commandinos guidance. And finally, Del Montes solution was well included in his systematic science of mechanics, while Tartaglias one was, as usual, only a part of his totally unsystematic studies on motion and weight. In spite of these preconditions, Tartaglia prevailed, as Stevins proof of the impossibility of the perpetual motion, and Galileis law of acceleration of falling bodies would have shown. Why did it happen? Maybe Del Monte depended too stricly on his science of mechanics, whose conceptual framework was that of statics, being any dynamical analysis of motion and weight laid aside. On the other hand, Tartaglia solution gave more possibilities to develop many lines of research in Physics. In other words, even if they started from the same technical problems, Tartaglias attitude appeared to be the right one for a time, in which Science was changing but couldnt be already enclosed in a systematic theory.

Rediscovering Classics: Humanists, Artists, Techinicians

Pier Daniele Napolitani, Dipartimento di Matematica, Universit di Pisa, Pisa, Italy The purpose of this paper is to point out the interplay between different cultures in the restoration of Greek Mathematics. This topic was long time ago addressed by the book "The Italian Renaissance

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of mathematics" of. P.L. Rose. Rose, however, considers near only the humanistic aspect of the problem. The present paper would be a call for a more comprehensive vision.

The Euclidean Tradition at the Renaissance Courts: the Case of Federico Commandino
Veronica Gavagna, University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy In the first decades of the Sixteenth century the editions of the Elements available to the scholars were essentially the editio princeps, printed in Venice in 1482 by Erhard Ratdolt and based on the medieval version of Campanus from Novara, and the Venetian edition of 1505, based instead on the translation of a Greek code, made by the humanist Bartolomeo Zamberti. The medieval recensio showed additions, changing of definitions or differences in numbering propositions, whereas the humanist translation, very careful to the linguistic aspect, mercilessly highlighted the very poor geometrical talent of Zamberti. Numerous editions followed -- among the others the remarkable editions of Faber Stapulensis (1516), Grynaeus (1533), Fin (1536), Tartaglia (1543), Scheubel (1550), Peletier (1557), Daypodius (1564), Candalle (1566) but none of them had the features to become a shared and trustworthy edition of the Elements, the reference point for the European scholars. Actually, most of the Sixteenth century Elements simply embraced Campanus or Zambertis approach. This situation completely changed in 1572, when the Commandinos edition appeared. Federico Commandino (1509-1575), the founder of the so-called Urbino School, lived under patronage of important Renaissance families, as della Rovere and Farnese which permitted him to get access to the most valuable libraries, to maintain close contact with humanists circles and pursue a great programme for the renaissance of mathematics. He published the works to mention the most important ones -- of Apollonius (1566) , Archimedes (1558), Pappus (posthumous 1588) and Euclid, both in Latin (1572) and in vernacular (1575). Commandinos edition of the Elements, that soon became the reference edition up to the XIXth century, combines philological rigour and mathematical exactness. The Euclidean text, based on Greek sources, is enriched of comments and addictions (in italic type, clearly distinct from the critical text) based on both classical and contemporary sources: this edition, actually, represents Commandinos idea of restitutio or reappropriation of Classics in the light of an integrated scientific knowledge. Commandinos edition is addressed to the past only concerning its faithfulness to the Greek text, but is undoubtedly a typical renaissance text in outlining a particular vision of mathematical knowledge.

The Archimedean Tradition and the Humanistic Courts of Quattrocento

Paolo d'Alessandro, Universit di Chieti, Pescara, Italy Archimedes was first rediscovered in the Latin West at the Papal court of Viterbo, when in the XIII century William of Moerbeke did his translation of the Archimedean corpus. The second important step was the new translation made by Iacopo da San Cassiano by 1450. The Iacopo's translation was extensively revised by Regiomontanus and eventually became the basis of the Archimedean revival of the XVI century. The aim of this paper is to investigate the role held by the court of Gonzaga in Mantua, of Nicholas V, of cardinal Bessarione, of Federico Montefeltro in Urbino, in this recovering process.

Between Germany and Great Britain: Renaissance Scientists at Reformed Universities and Courts
Pietro Daniel Omodeo, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin, Germany A thorough study on scientific production at northern European universities and protestant courts during the Renaissance is still a desideratum in the history of science and institutions. This papera 97

contribution to this complex historical issuepresents the results of archival and bibliographical research on three late-Renaissance mathematicians-physicians who made their lives alternately as university professors or as courtiers in the German Empire and Great Britain: 1. John Craig of Edinburgh (died in 1620), who studied in England and Germany, made a brilliant career as professor of logic, mathematics and medicine at the University of Frankfurt Oder and later became a court physician to King James VI of Scotland and I of England; 2. Duncan Liddel of Aberdeen (1561-1613), who studied at Frankfurt Oder and Rostock, entered the circle of Dudith in Wroclaw, became acquainted with Brahe in Denmark, taught lower and higher mathematics as well as medicine at Rostock and Helmstedt before he returned to Scotland with his scientific library and endowed the University of Aberdeen with a chair of mathematics; 3. Magnus Pegel of Rostock (1547-ca. 1618), who studied at Rostock and had international connections including Brahes Denmark and Keplers Prague. He worked as a professor of mathematics at Helmstedt and Rostock, and as an engineer and physician in several courts, among them Wolfenbttel, Prague and Szczecin. A case study on these scholars permits to highlight institutional conditions of scientific production during the Renaissance, as well as forms of cosmopolitanism and cultural-transfer in a northern European protestant environment.

Leonardo on Hydrostatics: a Research Engineering Approach?

Paolo Cavagnero, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy As evidenced by many scholars, hydraulics was one of the main interests of Leonardo da Vinci; his manuscripts are full of drawings and projects on water, accompanied by a variety of notes, subtle meditations, and some remarkable considerations. Leonardo's expertise in this field surely comes, first of all, from the well-established technical tradition of his time. But the particular approach that he often adopts to study and solve the problems encountered in his activity as an engineer sometimes led him to revise or innovate some aspects of this tradition. This approach, that today reminds us the methods of research engineering, is effectively resumed by Hunter Rouse in his volume 'Engineering Hydraulics': Practically every problem in engineering hydraulics involves the prediction by either analytical or experimental methods of one or more characteristics of flow. There are, in brief, three different bases for such prediction. The first is that of "engineering experience" gained in the field by each individual engineer. The second is the laboratory method of studying each specific problem by means of scale models. The third is the process of theoretical analysis. The most effective solution of almost any problem will be obtained by combining the best features of all three methods of approach. Examples of this kind of method are given by Leonardo's personal experiences, laboratory studies and theoretical analyses on hydrostatics (especially on pressure and buoyancy) that were stimulated by the necessity of solving specific problems in the field of navigation or in the construction of canals, banks, reservoirs and scales.

The Way of the Schlick Family towards Silver Mining in Joachimsthal

Michal Novotny, Technical Museum, Prague, Czech Republic The Count Family of Schlick is seemingly a familiar topic in the mining history of the Czech Lands. The history of the Familys silver mining and minting of coins (Thaler) in Joachimsthal (Jchymov, Western Bohemia) has been relatively well processed. While the history of the mining town of Joachimsthal (Jchymov) starts as late as 1516, the well-known history of the Schlick family can be followed as early as the late 14th century. However, before the Schlicks became prominent mining entrepreneurs, they had to go a long way: at its beginning stood a townsman of Eger (Cheb, Western 98

Bohemia) Hans Schlick, substantiated after 1390. The proposed contribution will be focused on the development of the economic and social rise of the Family during the 15th and 16th centuries. Because a beginning of the political career of Kaspar Schlick, the Chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire, was substantially connected with the town of Eger (Cheb), particularly the relations of the Schlick Family to this powerfull town will be presented in the paper. The services to the Emperors changed the property and social status of the Schlick Family and enabled their rise, which was completed with the foundation of the town of Joachimsthal. This mining town was a significant cultural and economic centre in the 16th century and became a truly crossroad of the technological (mining and metallurgy), cultural (Georg Agricola, Johan Mathesius) and religious (Protestant Reformation) influences of this time period. The proposed contribution attempts to emphasize the important milestones of the way of the Schlick family towards silver mining in Joachimsthal.

Arithmetization of Syllogistic
Jana Roztoilov, Mgr. David Pelikn, University of West Bohemia in Pilsen, Czech Republic The paper investigates the conception of arithmetization of inferences performed by Leibniz. Namely, it concentrates on the arithmetization of Aristotles syllogistic. The objective is not only to present the way how Leibniz implements the arithmetization but also to examine the usefulness and practical applicability of the process. The authors analyze the Leibnizs arithmetization of syllogistic to illustrate the fact that Leibniz formed an important turning point in the development of logic, namely, in case of deduction and logical calculi. Through the arithmetization of syllogistic Leibniz showed that it is possible to use mathematical procedures in logic as well as in human reasoning at all. His effort in this case is good example of his overall effort to introduce rigorous methods used in mathematics into other disciplines. And that effort was an important inspiration for the further development of logic. This Leibnizs reformatory research program of mathematization of logic inspired a number of successors who tried to fulfill his proposal. It is the first use of mathematical methods for sake of inferences. The use of mathematical apparatus in reasoning, however, opened new perspectives in the construction of logic tools. By his attempt of mathematization of logic Leibniz inspired not only his direct successors, but indirectly also the later generations of logicians and mathematicians. His idea was an inspiration for constitution of the algebraization of logic (Boole) which is used in logic and in mathematics up to now. Due to the algebraization, however, the whole arithmetization has become outdated.

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SYMPOSIUM 16

Mathematical Courses in Engineering Education in the 17th and 18th c. in the Iberian Peninsula
Organizers M Rosa Massa Esteve, Universitat Politcnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain Antnia Fialho Conde, University of Evora, Evora, Portugal The idea of combining theory and practice in mathematics was forged in the seventeenth and eighteenth century as a result of different influences. Several mathematical courses published through the seventeenth century offered extensive material for teaching pure and mixed mathematics, such as pure geometry, practical geometry, optics, statics, mechanics, artillery, and fortification. In the eighteenth century, these textbooks were the fundamental source for engineering courses. In particular, we would like to focus our analysis on relevant mathematical courses developed in the Iberian Peninsula by authors such as Luis Serrao Pimentel (1613-1679) and Manuel de Azevedo Fortes (1660-1749) in Portugal, and Sebastin Fernndez de Medrano (16461705), Jorge Prspero Verboom (1667-1744), Pedro de Lucuce (1692-1779), Toms Cerd (17151791), and Pedro Padilla y Arcos (f.1753) in Spain. Most of these courses were designed for the training of military officers. References to them appeared in several treatises produced in Spain, France, or Germany. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the works of Bernard Forest Blidor (1698-1761) were particularly influential. We aim to determine the central subjects for engineering education. Two parts are recognized as essential for the training of an engineer: practical geometry and fortification. Practical geometry consists of trigonometry, logarithms, trigonometric and logarithm tables, instruments and their application in the field. Fortification consists in describing the building of defence lines, fortresses, and bastions. However, analysis of the contents of these treatises raises other questions for discussion related, for example, with the role of pure mathematics. What was the interpretation or the version of Euclids Elements used in these textbooks? Does the use of the geometry of Port Royal have any significance? One could also consider other aspects such as to what extent these mathematical courses spread or appropriated the new knowledge in that time, like algebra or infinitesimal calculus. In addition, an international network of mathematical works was assembled to provide a better education for engineers. The communications on these aspects of mathematical courses will offer new insights into the kind of knowledge available to engineers in the eighteenth century and in consequence its influence on the society. The education of engineers gives us an outstanding example of how international cosmopolitan- knowledge becomes a local culture, the engineering culture, purportedly national in many cases, as explicitly suggested by the title of the notable textbook by Manuel de Azevedo Fortes (The Portuguese Engineer).

The Art of Fortifying and the Mathematical Instruments: Tradition and Innovation in the Training of Military Engineers in the 17th c. in Portugal
Antnia Fialho Conde, Department of History, University of Evora, Evora, Portugal The beginning of the modern period, confronted by new discoveries and interrogations regarding scientific knowledge, marks the emergence of new languages. The question of images and scientific 100

illustrations as copies of reality, of representation of instruments as complements of the written discourse, had been gaining strength since the sixteenth century. The alert given by the Jesuits in relation to the deceit created by the senses appears within this context, appealing therefore to the use of mathematical concepts and scientific instruments (such as the telescope) and wagering in the practical dimension of these same instruments (beyond the symbolic dimension they already had). It was the Jesuits that gave Mathematics the responsibility to explain/demonstrate the physical world, countering the Aristotelic primacy of Natural Philosophy; for them, the principle of all sciences should be as evident and universal as the Euclidian postulates. One of the strongest examples of the application of mathematical knowledge is situated at the level of military engineering, which reveals, in its engineers, excellent mathematicians, some of them with a Jesuit education. Starting from the book Disciplinae Mathematicae traditae anno institutae societatis Iesu secularie (Louvain, 1639-1640) and from the representation of the mathematical instruments included in this work by Jan Ciermans (1602-1648), a Jesuit, we shall try to appraise the influence of this work in the interventions of its author as chief engineer and superintendent of the fortresses in the South of Portugal, contextualizing both Author and book in the scientific production of their time. In this work, which illustrates the diversity of mathematical disciplines (mixed and pure) we shall highlight the chapters dedicated to Fortification and to the Machines of War, as well as the whole ensemble of illustrations, and we shall look for both continuity and innovation in terms of military engineering treatises (which call upon mathematical instrumentation) in Portugal in the seventeenth century.

Contents and Sources of Practical Geometry in Pedro Lucuces Course at the Barcelona Royal Military Academy of Mathematics
M Rosa Massa Esteve, Antoni Roca-Rosell, Universitat Politcnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain The Barcelona Royal Military Academy of Mathematics (1720-1803) represents a singular example for engineering education in the eighteenth century. In 1739, an Ordinance of the Royal Academy established a general course of mathematics to train military engineers and artillery officers. This course was prepared by its director Pedro Lucuce (1692-1779) according to the reports made by the General Engineer Jorge Prspero de Verboom. We focus on one subject recognized as essential for the training of an engineer in the eighteenth century: practical geometry. Since Verboom signalled the sources on which the course of the Academy should be based, and quoted the Mathematical Course of Bernard Forest Blidor (16981761) for practical geometry, the aim of this communication is to compare the practical instructions and contents of this part of mixed mathematics in both mathematical courses. This analysis allows us to know better the knowledge required for engineering education in eighteenth century Spain.

Traveling from the Center to the Periphery: Manuel de Azevedo Fortes and the Renewal of Portuguese Engineering Education
Maria Paula Pires dos Santos Diogo, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal The creation of a well-defined professional consciousness relies largely on its corpus of knowledge. The initiated receive a unique training, which allows them to deal with the theoretical and practical questions of a specific professional field. Therefore textbooks and schools play a decisive role in shaping the profile of each profession. From the 16th to the beginning of the 19th century Portugal was a rich country, where gold and silver, pepper and silk, allowed the ruling classes to linger on an easy, non-productive existence. It was easier to import than to produce: machines, goods, scholars, teachers were paid to come to Portugal. The process of creation and sedimentation of a local intelligentsia was thus delayed, as there wasnt any true local appropriation of knowledge. There were, however, some exceptions. Manuel de Azevedo Fortes was one of them. Himself an 101

estrangeirado (European oriented intellectuals), Azevedo Fortes tried to build a strong national community of engineers, using both his personal network of contacts and his personal experience in several European countries and shaping it to the Portuguese reality. His two volume book O Engenheiro Portugus (The Portuguese Engineer), published in 1728-29, became the main engineering textbook for those who studied at the Military Academy and the keystone for building a local expertise on this area. In this paper I will analyse the role of Manuel de Azevedo Fortes as one of the builders of the modern Portuguese engineering community, by focusing on his written work and mainly on the O Engenheiro Portugus.

Pedro Padilla and his Mathematical Course (1753-1756): Views on Mixed Mathematics in eighteenth-century Spain
Monica Blanco, Carles Puig-Pla, Universitat Politcnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain In 1717 the King Philip V established the Royal Guards Headquarters (Cuartel de Guardias de Corps), mirroring the French garde du corps du roi. Intended mainly for noblemen, it was an elitist institution, all its members having the rank of officers and benefitting from huge privileges. Towards the end of 1750 an Academy of Mathematics (Academia de Matemticas) was created within the Royal Guards Headquarters, under the direction of Captain Pedro Padilla (1724-1807?). This academy was ruled by the same regulations as the Military Academy of Mathematics of Barcelona. Attendance was not mandatory, it was only devised for those interested in getting a deeper mathematical knowledge. In fact, rather than its real practical use for the Royal Guards, mathematics was studied as a mark of prestige. Padilla held the position of Headmaster up to the closure of the Academy of Mathematics in 1760. In 1753 Padilla started publishing his Curso Militar de Mathematicas, sobre partes de esta ciencia, para uso de la Real Academia establecida en el Cuartel de Guardias de Corps (1753-1756) [Military Course of Mathematics, about some parts of this science, for the use of the Royal Academy established in the Military Academy of the Royal Guards]. Of the twenty mathematical treatises that Padilla originally intended to develop, only five were finally published. Yet, from the preface of his first volume it is evident that Padilla aimed to show the basic principles of each branch of mathematics, useful enough for military training, in general, and for engineering training, in particular. Besides, Padillas approach to the general division of mathematics, elaborated in the preface, is similar to that of DAlemberts tree of knowledge in the Discours prliminaire of the Encyclopdie (1751), including of course the division of Mathematics into pure and mixed. Therefore Padillas classification illustrates the reception and circulation of the ideas of the Encyclopdie in Spain. The aim of this contribution is to explore the connection between theory and practice in Padillas mathematical course and to examine this course to understand what Padilla regarded as useful mathematics for engineers.

The Mathematical Courses of Toms Cerd in eighteenth-century Spain

Joaquim Berenguer, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Toms Cerd was a Jesuit, mathematician, and teacher in Barcelona and Madrid during the late eighteenth century. Cerd translated English authors into Spanish and was a teacher in a Jesuit school in Barcelona, where his students were not only from an aristocratic background but also the citys craftsmen. Like many other scientists at that time, Cerd was concerned about transmitting both pure and mixed mathematics. He published two treatises on Arithmetic and Geometry respectively. He aimed at publishing a whole course which as well as Arithmetic and Geometry, would also include Differential and Integral Calculus (Calculus of Fluxions), the Application of Algebra to Geometry and 102

Curves, Treatises on Mechanics, Optics, Astronomy, Hydrostatics, Hydraulics and Pneumatics. Most of Cerds works remained unpublished, although they have been preserved as manuscripts; his main concern was for linking both applied and higher mathematics. In addition to being a teacher who helped some craftsmen with their education, Cerd was also regarded an introducer of new scientific trends from Europe, particularly Newtons viewpoint. In fact we believe he was one of the first mathematicians who taught Newtons Theory of Astronomy, as well as bringing the application of Algebra to Geometry and divulging the new Differential Calculus. We know that the founder members of the Academy of Science some years later to become the Royal Academy of Natural Sciences and Arts had been Cerds pupils, and we also recognize the influence of Cerds courses on master builders in Barcelona. But did Cerds Treatise of Fluxions, the Algebra applied to Geometry, or his works in general in the purest field of mathematics have any ascendancy on the professional aims of his pupils? The purpose of this communication is to clarify these influences which we attempt to do by studying the following curricula and practices.

Jorge Juan and the Institutionalisation of Mathematics in Spain along 18th century
Francisco A. Gonzlez Redondo, Facultad de Educacin (UMC), Madrid, Spain Francisco Gonzlez de Posada, Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain The outstanding figure of Jorge Juan y Santacilia (1713-1773) emerges in the frame of a preCopernican Spain, intellectually and scientifically auto marginalized in the periphery of a manifestly post-Newtonian Europe. From the standing point of Juans contribution to the institutionalization of Mathematics in 18th Century Spain, in this work we provide a detailed account on: 1) The process of mathematisation of the studies undertaken at Cadizs Academia de la Real Compaa de Caballeros Guardiamarinas -Academy of the Royal Company of Gentlemen Midshipmen-: Jorge Juans work (the transition from the interest upon the study of the manoeuvres of the ships, the effects of winds and tempests, to the recourse to mathematically founded scientific theories). The role played by the Marquees of la Ensenada, Jorge Juan and Louis Godin. 2) The own concept of process of mathematisation along 18th Century: a) the development of new Mathematics; b) the newly born mathematical formulation of physical conceptions; c) Astronomy; d) model experiences on the careenage of ships, etc. 3) The most significant scientific text books published by the own Academy of Midshipmen: Compendio de navegacin (Jorge Juan, 1756) and Curso de Matemticas (Louis Godin, 1758). 4) Juans and Godins direct disciples at Cadizs Asamblea Amistosa y Literaria Academy of Friendship and Literacy-, the first Spanish scientific Academy. In particular, its most significant figures: Vicente Tofio and Celestino Mutis. 5) Juans indirect disciples: a) Benito Bails (his presence at and from Madrids Real Academia de Nobles Artes -Royal Academy of Noble Arts-, and his impressive mathematical legacy, his Elementos de Matemticas in 11 Volumes published between 1772 and 1783); and Gabriel Ciscar (Director of Cartagenas Escuela de Guardiamarinas -School of Midshipmen-, who prepared the 2nd edition of Jorge Juans Examen Martimo -Maritime Examination-, and his presence at the Bureau International es Poids et Measures after French Revolution, as Member of Spanish Regency during the Cortes de Cdiz and the Trienio Liberal, etc.).

Bernard Forest de Blidor and the Circulation of Knowledge in Europe during the 18th and beginning of the 19th c.
Antnia Fialho Conde, Ana Cardoso de Matos, University of Evora, Evora, Portugal The concern regarding the education of engineers and officials in Portugal had one of its most significant moments under Count William de Schaumburg-Lippe who, having studied in Genebra, Leiden and Montepellier came into contact with the teaching methods and treatises that were being 103

used in these countries most important institutions of military teaching. He deepened this knowledge during his later voyages throughout Europe, greatly facilitated by his understanding of different languages (German, French, English, Latin, Italian and later Portuguese). Following his nomination in 1761 as supreme chief and reformer of the Portuguese army, Count de Lippe created classes in some military regiments. The ensemble of treatises used in these classes was almost entirely French, and a particular importance was given to the works of Hispano-French engineer Bernard Forest de Blidor. The importance acquired by Blidors oeuvre in the teaching of engineering in Portugal determined the translation of the Nouveau Cours de Mathmatiques, (French edition of 1757), a book that would be printed in two volumes respectively in 1764 and 1765. This manual, dedicated specially to teaching, was adopted in Portugal for at least a quarter of a century. With the reform of 1772, the University of Coimbra established in the Faculty [College?] of Mathematics, a course in Mathematics, leading to the translation and publication of some other works, also of French origin, by tienne Bzout and Charles Bossut, whose several editions lasted until the last quarter of the 19th century. In 1779, a course in mathematics resulting from ngelo Brunellis the translation of Elementos de Euclides [Euclides Elements] (in Federico Commandinos version) of 1768 (with several later editions) was taught in the Academia Real da Marinha [Royal Marine Academy]. The 19th century prolonged the tendency to translate French authors from the fields of mathematics and engineering, such as Mr. Abb. De La Caille, A.M. Legendre and Lacroix, while the compendia of Bezout continued to be recommended in the Colgio das Artes [College of Arts] during the 1830s. The adoption of foreign works, mostly French, often translated into Portuguese, in the Portuguese schools of engineering exemplifies the mobility of experts and the spread of technical and scientific knowledge in the European space, as well as Portugals openness to this same body of knowledge.

Mathematical Course for the Education of the Gentlemen Cadets of the Royal Military College of Artillery of Segovia
Juan Navarro-Loidi, San Sebastin-Donostia, Spain The Spanish artillery officers had a good practical training, during the 18th century. They had to fight in many wars in Europe, Africa and America. However, they had a poor theoretical basis until the last quarter of the century. Academies opened for the king to educate officers did not work well for them. The most successful centres for military education, such as the Military Academy of Brussels, directed by Fernndez de Medrano (1675-1705) or the Military Academy of Mathematics of Barcelona (1720-1803), were devoted to fortification. Mathematics was an important part of the curriculum, but they did not include differential and integral calculus, necessary to study Newtonian physics and its application to ballistics or other fields of the artillery. When Carlos III became King of Spain (1759), he brought with him from Naples the count Gazzola, who had been the head of his artillery in Italy. Gazzola organized a Gentlemen Cadet's Military College of the Royal Artillery of Segovia (1764) and tried to improve the teaching of mathematics. He appointed as head of the professors of mathematics the Jesuit A. Eximeno. When the Jesuits were expelled from Spain, he looked for a competent mathematician and he finally appointed for the post P. Giannini a disciple of Vincenzo Riccati. Giannini wrote for the College of Artillery a Mathematical Course (1779-1803, 4 v.). In that treatise elementary geometry, trigonometry, conics, arithmetic, algebra, equations, curves defined by equations, and differential and integral calculus are explained. The fourth volume is about static, hydrostatics and mechanics. He printed also a practical book entitled Practices of Geometry and Trigonometry (Segovia, 1784) that was used for a long time in the Academy of Artillery. Even if this treatise is not so well known as the work of Proust for the Spanish artillery, the Course of Giannini deserves some consideration as the beginning of the teaching of Newtonian physics in the Spanish military education. 104

The Mathematics in the Royal Academy of Navy and Trade Affairs of the City of Porto, the Predecessor of the Polytecnic Academy of Porto
Helder Pinto, Portugal The Royal Academy of Navy and Trade Affairs of the City of Porto (Academia Real de Marinha e Comrcio da Cidade do Porto [ARMCCP]), created in 1803 by the Prince Regent D. Joo VI, is the first institution of higher education in Porto. Although classes of higher education already existed in the city of Porto (the Nautical Class was created in 1762 and the Sketching and Drawing Class in 1779), it was only in 1803 that a structured academy with several disciplines and courses was established. As its name implies, the main objective of ARMCCP was the training of skilled sailors and merchants since the commercial activity with the north of Europe and with Brazil were of vital importance to the city. In that way it was necessary to implement a Mathematical Course of three years at all similar to what was practiced at the Royal Academy of Navy (Academia Real de Marinha) located in Lisbon, thus beginning the (higher) instruction of Mathematics in the city of Porto breaking the exclusivity of Coimbra (more theoretical education at the University) and Lisbon (more practical and essentially military teaching). The existence of this institution was brief thus it was substituted, in 1837, by the Polytechnic Academy of Porto (Academia Politcnica do Porto [APP]), an important and influent school of engineering in the Portuguese context intended to form civil engineers of all classes, such as mining engineers and engineers of bridges and railroads. The ARMCCP, unlike the other existing academies in Portugal, still had the particularity of being an institution controlled by private initiative in particular, by the General Company of Alto Douro Viticulture (Companhia Geral de Agricultura dos Vinhos do Alto Douro) and whose expenses were paid by the own city of Porto. In this work, it will be presented the curriculum, the professors and others aspects of the mathematics of the ARMCCP, as well as its transition to the APP.

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SYMPOSIUM 18

Physical Sciences between Europe and the USA before WWII

Organizers Marta Jordi Taltavull, Max Planck Institute for the history of science, Berlin, Germany Shaul Katzir, Tel Aviv University and Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel This symposium re-visits the question of the existence and extent of differences between American and European approaches to physical sciences by comparing research of the same fields in the two continents, the production of knowledge in both places, the transfer of knowledge and travel of scientists. We concentrate on the first half of the 20th century, marked by the growth in size and importance of American science, but when Europe was still the centre. Consequently, we often look at the transfer of knowledge, theoretical as experimental, problems and people from Europe to the US. Still, the circulation of knowledge was by no means unidirectional, as shown in a few of the talks. We examine how American scientists employed techniques that originated in Europe and integrated them into their own agendas. These include theoretical techniques as with celestial and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism and quantum physics, and experimental methods as in piezoelectricity, X-ray crystallography, and spectroscopic analysis. We pay special attention to differences in the use and development of these techniques and in their further reception in Europe. At the same time the transmission of knowledge and problems was often coupled with other factors that contributed to the differences between American and European research , e.g. the relationship of the field to technology or the disciplinary identity of specific research techniques. Another way to explore the relationships between European and American physical sciences is by looking at the transfer of embodied skills. These moves include visits of well-known European scientists to the US, whose analysis here is used to highlight differences between the scientific communities. The American custom of higher studies in Europe as well as the emigration of European scientists to the US are further encounters that provide us a glimpse on the differences, as well as the similarities, between the physical sciences in the two locations and the mechanisms of transmission, and often integration of methods across the Atlantic.

The American Small Boy who never Grew up: Robert Woods Research on Physical O ptics
Marta Jordi Taltavull, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin, Germany American small boys love to invent and make things (). The essence of Robert Williams Wood is that he is a superendowed American small boy who has never grown up. With these words William Seabrook began his biography of one of the best-known American physicists in the beginning of the 20th century: the ingenious and versatile experimenter Robert Williams Wood. But what does it mean exactly being an American small boy when it comes down to knowledge production? In order to answer this question, I will analyze Woods research agenda between 1901, when he got the professorship of experimental physics at Johns Hopkins University, and WWI. I will focus especially upon his studies of resonance spectra, which were of remarkable significance for the development of atomic physics and eventually became a challenge for the quantum theory in the 1920s. 106

Wood certainly took advantage of the increasingly good conditions of research in the USA, where the emphasis in physics was placed on experimental activity. Embodying this American experimental spirit, Wood used to travel to Europe each summer to set collaborations and to get new insights. In 1910-11 and 1913-14 he made two extended pre-war visits with long stays in London, Paris, and Berlin. He became so well known there that he was the first American who took part to a Solvay Conference, where he made direct acquaintance with the new quantum theory. I will draw special attention upon the way in which Wood, driven by his experimental agenda on resonance spectra and its relation to atomic constitution, was able to deploy several insights coming from his European colleagues and from very different contexts, appropriated them and finally integrated them into his own research project. From this perspective, Wood provides us with a good example of knowledge production by Americans between the two sides of the Atlantic at the beginning of the century.

A British Physical Corpuscle Travels to American Chemistry. J.J. Thomsons 1923 T rip to Philadelphia
Jaume Navarro, Universidad del Pas Vasco/ Ikerbasque, San Sebastian, Spain The discovery of the electron came as an immediate solution to problems in physics at the end of the nineteenth century. Cathode rays, radioactivity, the Zeeman effect and the conduction of electricity through gases were the first in a long series of physical phenomena where the electron first found an explanatory task to perform. Its appropriation by the chemists was a complex process linked to the very history of chemical atomism and the nature of chemical bonding, as well as the development of the new discipline of physical chemistry and, eventually, quantum chemistry. The process has been studied by historians of physics and of chemistry from their respective points of view, often resulting in different, almost unconnected, stories. In this paper I pay attention to J.J. Thomsons visit to Philadelphia in 1923. Invited by the Franklin Institute, Thomson was introduced to the public as one of the founding fathers of physical chemistry, an honour he had never received in Britain. Although his scientific career had often been in the borders between the territories of physics and chemistry, he was widely regarded only as a physicist. I suggest exploring the reasons behind these diverging perceptions of Thomsons role within the phyisico-chemical sciences between Britain and the US, paying special attention to two specific aspects: the way American chemists appropriated the electron, and the different institutional settings of physical chemistry of the two sides of the Atlantic.

A Tale of Two Problems or How US Joined Together What Europe Had Put Asunder
Massimiliano Badino, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin, Germany Vienna, Austria, 1866; Paris, France, 1890; Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1931. These are the stations of the complex conceptual journey subject of this talk. In 1866 the young Ludwig Boltzmann realized that, in order to treat a gas as a mechanical system and to apply to it probabilistic methods, he had to resort to a more general concept than a periodic trajectory. He assumed that the gas molecules do not simply fly around along closed paths like planets, but tend to visit all allowed states. The notion of an ergodic trajectory was born. For the first time the treatment of a mechanical system was separated from the classical ideal of periodicity so popular in celestial mechanics. The statistical mechanics construed by Boltzmann remained tightly connected with the issue of the existence of ergodic trajectories, what came to be called the ergodic problem. But celestial mechanics proceeded as well. In 1890 Henri Poincar turned the periodic trajectory from an ideal into an effective mathematical tool to attack the venerable three-body problem. In his researches, Poincar rediscovered formal results that had a bearing on Boltzmanns statistical mechanics, but the two disciplines remained separated, divided by a fully different understanding of the trajectory. It was in 1931, that George David Birkhoff reunited these two branches of mechanics under a more 107

general mathematical perspective. Birkhoffs achievement was possible thank to a combination of two characteristic factors of the American mathematical culture. First, the important tradition of celestial mechanics as a field of research for mathematicians. Second, the tendency of American mathematicians to abstract the formal meaning of physical problems . These factors provided the cultural environment to set an overarching mathematical theory and to overcome the historical separation between celestial and statistical mechanics.

From Physical Chemistry to Chemical Physics, from Germany to the USA

Jeremiah James, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin, Germany John Servos made clear, some twenty years ago, the pivotal importance of the exchange of students (and professors) between the United States and Germany in establishing physical chemistry not only as a distinct discipline in the US in the early 20th century, but also as the countrys leading chemical discipline. By the early 1920s, the predominance of physical chemistry in America was secure, but the field itself was in the throes of transition. The traditional problems of the field, revolving around solution chemistry and reaction equilibria, were losing ground to investigations of structure (molecular and crystal), spectra, and reaction kinetics. The term chemical physics gained currency as a means to distinguish these new interests from more traditional aspects of physical chemistry, and in 1933, the Journal of Chemical Physics was established as a home for these new aspects of physical chemistry, often shunned by more senior physical chemists. As with the initial institutionalization of physical chemistry, the roots of this transition and the research practices upon which it relied lay mainly in the German speaking scientific community. However, they did not necessarily originate in its institutes for physical chemistry, e.g., x-ray analysis and applications of wave mechanics to molecular phenomena. Hence the rapid transfer of these practices to the physical chemistry community in the US (and elsewhere) typically involved crossing simultaneously, or in rapid succession, both national and disciplinary boundaries. There were at least two routes for such transfers. Likely the best know was through the activities of junior scholars using NRC fellowships or similar third-party funding to perform postdoctoral research outside their official field of study, e.g., Linus Pauling and Robert Mulliken. However, a less touted but nonetheless well-trafficked route was through exchanges with a handful of German research centers where this disciplinary transformation was already underway. The collapse of several of these centers and the emigration of many of their active scientists, or the marked redirection of their research efforts, during the 1930s would contribute crucially to the apparent Anglo-American dominance of fields like quantum chemistry and chemical dynamics in the post-war era. In my talk I will examine both these routes of exchange with respect to their effects on the development of academic chemistry and the chemical disciplines in America.

Solving European Problems in the USA: The Infrared Divergence

Alexander Simon Blum, Max Planck Institut fr Wissenschaftsgeschichte, Berlin, Germany The so-called "infrared divergence problem" - that the probability for emitting a low-energy photon tends to infinity in quantum radiation theory - lay dormant for 15 years after first appearing in 1922 in the work of Friedrich Hund, even before the advent of quantum mechanics. It was long dismissed by physicists as a harmless theoretical anomaly, and has consequently been neglected by historians. I investigate how the problem finally came to be solved in 1937: After the infrared divergence reappeared almost simultaneously in the work of Werner Heisenberg in Leipzig and of Felix Bloch, German migr in Stanford, it was the young American Arnold Nordsieck who pushed for its solution. He first encountered the problem while visiting with Heisenberg's group on a Rockefeller scholarship and then solved it, upon his return to the USA, together with Bloch. The solution of Bloch and Nordsiecks solution was, however, not the final word, and its implications were debated in an 108

ongoing transatlantic dialogue. Wolfgang Pauli in Zurich discovered that the Bloch-Nordsieck solution led to novel anomalous infinities, a difficulty with which Pauli confronted Bloch, when the latter returned to Europe for a short visit. Bloch, in turn, upon his return to Stanford, addressed these new difficulties with his Californian research group. The history of the infrared divergence thus provides an interesting example of how not only the transfer of knowledge played an important role in the dynamic generated by the scientific interaction between the USA and Europe, but also, and in this case more importantly, the transfer of problem awareness. It also reveals an interesting back-andforth pattern of theoretical anomalies appearing in Europe and then being systematically studied and (partially) resolved in the United States, an exchange aided both by post-doctoral scholarships for study abroad and the ties of migrs to their old home.

Piezoelectric Research between Pure and Applied, Europe and America

Shaul Katzir, Tel Aviv University and Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel American scientists began studying piezoelectricity in their military-related research of WWI. In the Wars aftermath a few of them continued examining the phenomenon, making the US the centre of its study. American scientists learnt about the phenomenon and its applications from their European colleagues, through publications and personal visits. Still their research differed in a few characteristics from the prior European study of the phenomenon. Most of these differences relate to the new proximity between physical research and technological development. While this proximity is often associated with American science, one should be cautious in ascribing the change in the way piezoelectricity was studied to the move from the Old to the New World. European scientists, rather than American, first utilized the effect to practical ends. The transformation in the study of the effect, which includes among others the main phenomena under study (a move from static to dynamic cases), thus, followed its novel usefulness, rather than its travel across continents. Yet, historically the American research began with the technological applications, and at least partly continued due to its further relevance to technology. In other words, while the turn to studies relevant to technology did not result from the move of the centre of research to the USA, the American interest in it originated, to a large extent, in its application. Moreover, in the 1920s American scientists were often more pragmatic in their use of theory and experiment alike, than there European colleagues. Walter Cadys and Max von Laues theories of the piezoelectric resonator exemplifies these attitudes. Arguably this pragmatic attitude characterises American versus European research more than the interest in application.

The Revival of the Larmor-Lorentz ether Theories: Herbert E. Ives Opposition to Relativity between 1937 and 1953
Roberto Lalli, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA Between 1937 and 1953, US highly respected industrial physicist Herbert E. Ives (1882-1953) tried to challenge the acceptance of Einsteins special relativity theory creating an alternative theory which empirical consequences were the same than those predicted by SRT. Ives main criticisms were directed towards those which he considered the paradoxical consequences of the principle of the constancy of the velocity of light on the concepts of space and time. Consequently, he based his theory on the real existence of a luminiferous ether and of the absolute simultaneity, explicitly stating that his research was the continuation of the research programmes of Lorentz and, above all, Larmor. Ives epistemological opposition to relativity were, hence, based on bodies of knowledge of the late nineteenth century European physics tradition, which were related to universal concepts, as space, time, and ether. On the other hand, he linked these elements to national and local knowledge in two ways: first, explicitly affirming that his theory conformed Bridgmans operationalism; and, second, implicitly referring to the intuitive concept of reality that was embodied in his daily work as 109

electro-optical researcher at Bell Laboratories. The presence of these factors makes Ives work highly original and a revealing example of adaptation and translation of unrelated concepts and methodologies coming from different backgrounds. Even though Ives theory and his criticisms towards relativity generated some interest in physicists and philosophers of science, there are no historical studies about them. The aim of this talk is to address this shortcoming with the analysis of Ives published papers and unpublished letters showing the way in which Ives, on the one hand, was embodying different cultural traditions and, on the other hand, was referring to universal epistemic elements that often underlay the criticisms towards the novelties of Einsteins SRT in the first part of the 20th century.

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SYMPOSIUM 20

Science and Scandal: Scientific Controversy in the Public Space

Organizers Markian Prokopovych, University of Vienna, Wienna, Austria Katalin Straner, Central European University, Budapest, Hungary The relationship of science and urban space, and the ways in which scientific knowledge and the city have shaped and influenced each other, have received increasing attention by historians of science in recent years. While the city as an environment for science production and dissemination has proven to be a fertile field of study, much of the existing research on the reception and perceptions of science in the urban context has focused on the study of the re/localization of scientific knowledge and practices in terms of traditional, institutional places of knowledge: universities, laboratories, botanical or zoological gardens. The papers in this symposium will engage with cases that highlight an aspect of the urban turn in the history of science that has received somewhat less focused attention: cases when science leaves the institutional boundaries of these places of knowledge. The examination of science as a controversy, or even scandal, makes it possible to examine the interactions of the scientific community and urban society due to the heightened reactions on both sides elicited by the different expectations, perceptions and concerns about the role of science in society. Public space, of course, is not only and not exclusively urban, but by focusing on specifically urban context the most interesting, revealing and coherent formulations of the explosive nature of the scientific discovery and its greater social significance can be found. The session will address the formative effect of the urban press and its readers on the popularization of science: instead of being perceived as a stabilizing force, science increasingly becomes a source of danger in the eyes of the public to the moral, mental and physical health of the city and its inhabitants. On the way from the scientific institution to the scandal sheets, science as perceived by the popular imagination can easily turn into a bad influence on traditional morals, or even a physical threat, that could possibly even destroy an entire city. Through the examination of the reactions of the public to foreign or dangerous science in various European cities in the long nineteenth century, this session will engage with the ways scientific debates leave the institutional context and enter the public sphere, reaching and moving a wide audience.

Monkeys, Magyars and Men of Science: The Carl Vogt Lectures in Pest, 1869
Katalin Straner, Central European University, Budapest, Hungary In December 1869, Carl Vogt gave a series of well publicized and well attended lectures on The History of Man in Pest. Considered a controversial figure already during his lifetime due to his engagement with radical scientific and political agendas, Vogts personality and lectures were expected by various leaders of public opinion to draw a wide audience and cause popular uproar in the scientific community and the wider public as well. Vilified in the scientific and popular press for vulgarizing, misusing and corrupting science, Vogts lectures filled the lecture hall with members of a variety of social and political groups of the population of Pest. Through the case of the Vogt lectures, the talk will examine the context of public lecturing in the public sphere, where such events are not limited to the speakers and their audience on specific occasions in a particular place, but provide cause and inspiration for increased engagement with 111

science over a period of time before and after the actual lecture(s). Individuals/groups that experienced these events could be convinced, converted, but also disappointed or incensed after confronted with thoughts and theories often viewed as controversial by a large part of society and in many cases the scientific community itself well before and after the event due to the influence of the urban press. The very different concerns expressed by the communiqus of the scientific community and the articles and caricatures published by the popular press can be taken as a good indicator of how much effect the urban press had on the popular perspectives of science, and how much these pervaded the public opinion.

Scandals around Moscow Scientific Exhibitions (second half of the 19th c.)
Galina Krivosheina, S.I. Vavilov Institute for the History of Science and Technology, Moscow, Russian Federation The end of the 18th19th saw appearance of a new form of traditional fairs and art exhibitions large-scale exhibitions, presenting national and international developments in trade, industry, agriculture, science and technology. These exhibitions were held in different cities and usually special pavilions were constructed for them, e.g. the famous Chrystal Palace for the Great 1851 Exhibition in London. They were a new event and no wonder caused concern and dismay among population, only to remember a proverbial Colonel Sibthorp, who before the Great Exhibition frightened Londoners with awful financial, social, and aesthetic outcomes of the exhibition and advised persons residing near Hyde Park, where the exhibition was to be held, to keep a sharp lookout after their silver forks and spoons and servant maids. Great Moscow scientific exhibitions (Ethnographical, 18674 Polytechnical, 1872; Anthropological, 1879), organized by Society of Friends of Natural Sciences, Anthropology and Ethnography and its leader, professor of zoology of Moscow University Anatoly Bogdanov, were accompanied by similar scandals. But while Colonel Sibthorp in his struggle against Prince Alberts project expounded views of ultra-protestants and protectionists, in Russia the situation was quite reverse: Bogdanov belonged to the right-wing university professors and criticism of his exhibitions, aimed at popularization of scientific knowledge, was often initiated by liberal intelligentsia. In the present paper I want to analyze scandals around Moscow scientific exhibitions, especially the Anthropological one (Bogdanov is considered to be the founder of physical anthropology in Russia) and to reveal the reasons why in this case liberals had changed places with conservatives.

Scientists on the Streets: British Association Delegates and the Urban Populace in British Provincial Towns, 1831-1884
Louise Miskell, Swansea University, Swansea, UK The great annual congresses, or parliaments of science, of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ranked among the major events of the scientific calendar in mid and late nineteenth-century Britain. Held in a different town each year, these were week-long conferences which provided the Association and its members with their main opportunity to meet and exchange ideas. But far from being confined to the lecture halls and meeting rooms of the host location, these annual congresses were major urban events. To the towns in which they were held, they were eagerly anticipated occasions which brought a large influx of visitors and generated press attention, commercial opportunity and festivity. Streets were decorated, guidebooks printed and excursions organised to entice the delegates out into the streets and public spaces of the host town. The debates and discussions they engaged in also permeated well beyond the confines of the meeting rooms and were reported to the wider, newspaper-reading public in lengthy reports and special supplements published by local newspaper editors. There was ample opportunity, through these means, for the scientific visitors and the wider urban populace to encounter one another during the 112

course of the meeting week. This paper examines some of these encounters between delegates at British Association meetings and local people in the host towns. Often only fleetingly recorded in diary accounts and private correspondence it is nevertheless possible to gauge some of the reactions of visitors and locals to one another. As well as assessing their responses, this paper also considers the means employed by local organisers to try to control these encounters, from the role of the press in exhorting good behaviour to the occasional use of policing and more robust crowd control measures to enforce order and decorum.

Science, Conflict and the Victorian Urban Cemetery

Paul A. Elliott, University of Derby, Derby, UK British writers and naturalists from Thomas Gray and Gilbert White to William Wordsworth had long celebrated the melancholy beauty and richness of churchyards and they continued to be important green spaces in many towns. Faced with the problems of severe overcrowding and multiple interments due to population expansion and industrialisation and the belief that this was detrimental for public health, new commercial and governmental cemeteries were created as part of the Victorian municipal revolution. Despite ecclesiastical resistance to change, horrified descriptions of multiple burials and casually discarded human remains shocked society and the improvement of burial grounds and foundation of new municipal cemeteries became an important objective for reformers such as John Claudius Loudon and Edwin Chadwick. This paper explores how scientific ideas were utilised by reformers to reinforce fears concerning public heath and to shape the design and management of the new commercial and municipal cemeteries and to reinforce messages about urban improvement and rational recreation. The botanical and arboricultural sciences, for instance, were invoked to justify the design and planting of garden cemeteries, whilst considerable attention was given to problems of drainage, geology, soil composition and even meteorological factors. It was claimed that science demonstrated how trees were essential to facilitate healthy decomposition and dissipate noxious emanations. As established symbols of death, sacredness, venerable antiquity, vitality and renewal, trees also embodied and imported the idealised tranquillity of rural burial grounds, inducing uplifting moral and religious feelings and tempering the stark modernity of industrialised commercial and municipal cemeteries. Particular kinds of trees and shrubs came to be favoured for burial grounds for cultural and aesthetic, and scientific reasons, whilst the acceptance of cremation and subsequent promotion of the woodland burial reinvigorated tree planting within burial grounds and crematoria just when interment density and rigid grid patterned municipal schemes had seemed to spell its demise. However, the invocation of scientific ideas to determine the design of cemeteries became the subject of intense debate involving social reformers, clergy, politicians, architects, municipal engineers and landscape gardeners who proffered rival planting schemes. Reformers such as Loudon were attacked for being excessively rationalised, cold and unfeeling in their attitudes towards death and religious sensibilities.

Tyranny of Compassion? The Moral Economy of Vaccination in Britain, 1867-98

Rob Boddice, Freie Universitaet, Berlin, Germany Why were the means of enforcing small-pox vaccination on a reluctant population only successfully implemented in Britain in 1867, given that small pox vaccine had been discovered in 1796? There are manifold political and institutional explanations, ably discussed in a thoroughgoing historiography, but the essential moral cause of medical science remains somewhat enigmatic in the two story forms typically deployed to account for the high-Victorian vaccination controversy. Small-pox vaccination in Britain in the nineteenth century has been described either as a prototypical triumph of State-driven public health, or as a tyrannical imposition of the State upon the bodies of the working classes. The 113

historiography concerning anti-vaccination in particular has highlighted the inadequacies of knowledge and method among the pro-vaccination medical community, and has asserted that vaccination was an exercise of power that implicitly politicised the body. Yet in between the State and the body politic(al) is a missing story of moral motive. As an explication of the immediate postDarwinian scientific moral economy the scientific Gefhlskollektiv, in Lorraine Dastons words this paper will ascribe the public-health initiative to an emerging form of compassion that behoved innovative forms of moral practice. To approach the history of public health as a history of compassion helps to make sense of vaccination as an expression of power, and finds a Victorian justification for the symbolic and physical violence of this mode of care. This power and violence, I will argue, inhered not in the proto-liberal State, but in medical science itself, for the sake of a secularised greater good. The widespread hostility to vaccination, especially in large urban centres, forms the emotional context from which medical science aimed to set itself apart. This was a humanist compassion, embedded within evolutionary moral theory, and its employment can account for both the will to enforce, as well as the controversial reception of, compulsory vaccination.

Austrian Wahrmund Affaire and Polish Zimmermann Affaire: Configurations of scholarly peripheries and cities in the late Habsburg Empire between Cracow and Innsbruck
Jan Surman, Universitt Wien, Wien, Austria Between 1907 and 1911, Habsburg Empire experienced two controversies concerning sciencereligion entanglement. In 1907, Ludwig Wahmund criticised the new antimodernist and antiscientific trends of Catholic science, causing semester-long protests, fights, universities closure, parliament debates etc.; antagonised in Innsbruck, Wahrmund was relocated to Prague; this controversy, however, united students from across the monarchy in Wahrmund's defence. In 1910, a mirror-inverted conflict arose in Cracow, as Kazimierz Zimmermann was appointed professor of Catholic sociology. This time the protest, although intensive, did not transgress Galician boundaries, neither brought any substantial changes or discussions. My talk seeks to understand the difference between protests against Wahrmund and Zimmermann from a spatial perspective. The Austrian jurist, ignited a conflict not only in a periphery of the Empire, but also in a city which was decidedly coded as having a Catholic majority, it was thus a quest of defending him the against urban public as both Wahrmund's supporters and the ministry claimed. The Polish sociologist was antagonized in a conservative city, thus protests against him were seen as an excess of a minority. What a majority and minority is, was here clearly neither statistical nor reliable, but city images inculcated in the public understanding. This perception was however decisive for both scholars careers and for the discussions over scholarliness in the Habsburg Monarchy in the next decade. Moreover, the medial coverage of the conflict sheds light on how Habsburg scientific community functioned at the time and which trans-cultural over-regional networks were mobilized for similar cases from Tirol and Galicia.

The Paris Commune and the Struggle for Darwinism

Eric M. Johnson, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada Darwin's theory of natural selection was infused with political meaning for both naturalists and social commentators in the late nineteenth century. The industrial revolution and growth of the laissez faire capitalist state resulted in vast inequalities and a growing population of urban poor. For many in positions of privilege, Darwins vision of species adapting to an environment in constant flux gave support to the growing workers movement and threatened the stability of the status quo. These fears culminated in the Paris Commune, a workers uprising that controlled the French capital from March to May 1871, beginning just one month after Darwins publication of The Descent of Man. 114

The ensuing urban crisis provoked an international scientific controversy that exposed the political interpretations of Darwins theory. Opponents of natural selection saw the Commune as a breakdown in social stability that Darwins theory was chiefly responsible for promoting. In response, leading advocates were pressured to reject any connection between Darwinian theory and socialist ideas. What emerged was a politically acceptable Darwinism, one that justified the status quo and promoted a competitive ethic of individual vs. individual and nation vs. nation with the most "fit" rising to the top of the hierarchy. In this way, the Paris Commune reveals in microcosm how political crisis gave rise to scientific interpretations based on ideological rather than empirical grounds.

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SYMPOSIUM 21

Scientific archives, unpublished manuscripts in private or public corpuses: historiographical and methodological approaches
Organizers Evelyne Barbin, Laboratoire de Mathmatiques Jean Leray (UMR 6629), France Ivana Gambaro, Universit di Genova, Genova, Italy Christian Gerini, Universit du Sud Toulon Var GHDSO (Groupe dHistoire et de Diffusion des Sciences dOrsay), France Irne Passeron, Laboratory SYRTE (UMR 3630), France Norbert Verdier, Universit Paris Sud 11 Orsay, France GHDSO (Groupe dHistoire et de Diffusion des Sciences dOrsay), France Many historians of science develop detailed studies of inedited documents (or sets of documents): letters, unpublished manuscripts (public or private archives), drafts, communications addressed to academies and learned societies that have just been mentioned in a note of a report, documents published in full in the internal reports or journals of these societies but never communicated outside the restricted circle of its members, notebooks of laboratories or notes taken by students, etc. The contents of those works enrich or transform our historical knowledge of the disciplines involved and often modify the historiography itself. In this symposium it seems interesting to encourage the exchange of experiences between researchers working individually or in teams on such corpuses. Will be welcome: First: the contributions which show how the study of such documents can supplement (or understand better or even correct) studies based solely on published literature, and can also complete the biographies and bibliographies of the authors of the original documents, or the scientists quoted in those papers. Secondly: the original studies of these texts (contents analysis in scientific and historical perspectives).Third: the contributions dealing with research programs (individual or collective) focused on some corpuses of archives or unpublished scientific papers: circumstances of their rediscovery, purposes of the researchers, forms of communication of the results of those studies (theses, analysis and editing of texts, online websites dedicated to them, etc.). Fourth: the description or inventory of such corpuses of archives and all kinds of related information. For example: what has been preserved, by whom, where and why? These archives are they from a single source or have they been established through national or international exchanges? Etc. And finally, of course, all contributions that will show how such researches have contributed to enrich the historiography and to support the work of historians of science. It will also be interesting to compare the methodologies used by researchers or research teams. Conferences on these methodologies will therefore also be welcome.

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On Some Manuscripts of Louis Poinsot: Contributions to the Understanding of his Work and his Approach to Mathematics
Jenny Boucard, Institut de mathmatiques de Jussieu, Rez, France Louis Poinsot (1777-1859), who is rather famous for his work in mechanics and geometry, published very few articles in algebra and number theory. Those papers contain results directly related to the Disquisitiones Arithmeticae by Gauss (1801) and Poinsot develops there a special approach to algebra and number theory, based on what he calls the theory of order. The goal of this talk is to show how the study of some manuscripts of Poinsot provides additional informations on his research in both areas, and on this approach to mathematics based on the notion of order. We started our review of the archives of Poinsot available at the Library of the French Institute in Paris by looking for a manuscript corresponding to a memoir about the theory of permutations read in 1813 at the French Acadmie des Sciences but not published. We found this text, which gives an accurate and original view of the approach of the theory of permutations by Poinsot. But these archives also contain other documents related to algebra, number theory and theory of order, including research on topics not appearing in publications of Poinsot and a few pages containing more general thoughts about mathematics. We will analyze these three types of manuscripts: in each case, we will examine the issues they raised, explain how we were (or were not) able to determine the context in which they were produced and we will consider the different contributions of each of these documents to understand Poinsot's work by comparison to what we knew only of existing publications related to Poinsot. About a Manuscript of Emile Borel Martha Cecilia Bustamante, REHSEIS, Universit Paris 7, Paris, France In December 1912, the physicist Paul Langevin started at Collge de France a series of lectures entitled "Difficulties of the theory of radiation. The Collge de France required that courses serve as the introduction and development of the newest scientific guidelines in France. Langevin therefore proposed a series of lessons on the new quantum physics. He talked about the thermodynamics of radiation: the contributions of M. Planck, A. Einstein, P. Ehrenfest and H. Poincare. Important was how Langevin considered the work developed by D. Hilbert during the summer of 1912 about the axiomatic theory of thermal radiation. That was the topic addressed by Langevin during the sessions in December 1912 and January 1913. Langevins public at the Collge consisted, among others, of members of the Parisian intellectual and scientific elite, to which he belonged, of his collaborators at the Collge and of students at the Ecole Normale Sprieure and at the Ecole de Physique et Chimie Industrielle of Paris. His close friend, the mathematician Emile Borel, especially followed the course of 1912-1913. From Borels participation we still have a recently discovered notebook. It is around this manuscript that I shall focus the proposed presentation. This manuscript is the only trace we have of these Langevins lectures. I am preparing the publication of the entire manuscript provided with all its contextuality. Nevertheless, the nature of the work necessary to give full meaning to the notebook requires new relevant historical issues and thereby new methodological tools. These aspects will be developed in detail. The work around the manuscript shows the relevance of the history of science that has already incorporated in its epistemological and historical field the study of scientific texts as well as the "material practices such as note-taking.

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Discovery of a Manuscript on the History of Astronomy from ca. 1830

Thomas Siegfried Posch, Gnter Bruhofer, Karin Lackner, Isolde Mller, Franz Kerschbaum, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria In 2010, a hitherto unknown manuscript on the history of astronomy has been discovered at the Archive of the Department of Astronomy at the University of Vienna. The original manuscript, written in German, comprises 819 pages and has been written in the first half of the 19th century, probably around 1830. The transliteration, which is complete by now, comprises about 220 pages. The manuscript seems to be one of the earliest compendia on the history of astronomy written in German. It has never been published in printed form, but obviously was supposed to be published as a book. The author who did not sign the manuscript is most probably the famous Johann Joseph von Littrow (17811840), who became professor of astronomy in Vienna in 1819 and published several essays on the history of science. We will present our arguments for his authorship in our contribution. In addition, our presentation has the following aims: - Demonstrate the significance of the manuscript within the historiography of science - Discuss the sources which the author of the manuscript used (e.g. Lalande, Delambre, Weidler) - Introduce the topics covered by the manuscript, which range from the astronomical knowledge of the ancient civilizations to Newtons celestial mechanics (see below) - Highlight individual passages which prove the high quality of the manuscript with respect to linguistic and historiographic criteria The manuscript consists of the following books and chapters: Book 1: Astronomy of the Ancients Chapter 1: India Chapter 2: The Chaldaeans Chapter 3: Greek Astronomy Chapter 4: The Alexandrinian School Book 2: Astronomy of the Arabs and in Medieval Europe until 1500 Chapter 5: The Arabs Chapter 6: The Persians Chapter 7: Medieval Europe Book 3: Modern Astronomy Chapter 8: Copernicus and his contemporaries Chapter 9: Tycho and his contemporaries Chapter 10: Kepler and his contemporaries Chapter 11: Newton and his contemporaries As mentioned above, the manuscript is a part of the Archive of the Department of Astronomy. In view of this, we shall also give a brief overview of the general content of this archive in our presentation.

Manuscript 2294 from the Library of Salamanca University

Fatima Romero Vallhonesta, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain The study of unpublished manuscripts can help us to acquire a different perspective on the development of science. Although many manuscripts about mathematics have been disseminated, not many have been studied from a historiographical point of view. One of these manuscripts is the 2294 from the library of Salamanca University, which I intend to analyze in my talk. Its author is Diego Prez de Mesa (1563-ca.1633) who was born in Ronda (Mlaga) and studied Arts and Theology in the aforementioned University. He occupied the chair of 118

mathematics and astronomy in Alcal de Henares University and later the chair of mathematics in Sevilla, probably by invitation from King Felipe II. He wrote interesting works about nautics, astrology, astronomy and mathematics, some of which may not have been published. Manuscript 2294 consists of 100 double-sided pages and is titled "Libro y tratado del arismetica y arte mayor y algunas partes de astrologia y matematicas compuestas por el eroyco y sapentisimo maestro El Licenciado Diego perez de mesa catedratico desta Real ciudad de Sevilla del ao de 1598". The first part is devoted to arithmetics and the second to algebra. The latter starts on page 60 and consists of an introduction and 23 chapters. In my analysis I will focus on the algebraic part of this manuscript and I will also make reference to other works from the Iberian Peninsula that are of relevance in the second half of the 16th century. The purpose of this research is to contribute to the knowledge about the status of algebra, and also to provide new clues that will increase understanding of the process of global algebraization of mathematics in Western Europe.

Leibnizs Manuscripts on Perspective

Valrie Debuiche, University of Paris 7-Denis Diderot, Paris, France In 1677, Leibniz wrote his first essay about geometric characteristic, a new geometry of situation and space, without magnitudes, figures or quantities. Although it is mathematically and philosophically central, the geometry of situations is nonetheless not so accurately known, because of the lack of the editions of it, during Leibnizs life and after it. However, the published texts of the Analysis Situs between 1676 and 1682, in the French edition and translation of J. Echeverra and M. Parmentier in 1995, reveal that its invention could be connected to Leibnizs discovery of the perspective works of Pascal and Desargues. The issue is then to determine the nature of the relation between perspective and geometric characteristic, in order to clarify the true origin of the Leibnizian invention, to define the nature of that space presented as the object of the new geometry, and to decide wether perspective is for Leibniz a particular example of a more general science, or a general model for more particular geometrical specimen. This last question becomes really problematic when we consider that Leibniz himself wrote some texts about perspective. This set of six mansucritps conserved at the Leibniz-Archiv in Hannover (which are almost all in latin and present a compact and crossed out texts with annotated margins and drawn shapes) is totally unpublished, except for a transcribed paragraph (by J. Echeverra). However, we suppose they might contain some answers to the previous questions and perhaps even some other important elements to shed light on Leibnizs general theory of geometry. Then, my purpose is, first, to develop the reasons why the understanding of the published texts of the Leibnizs invention of the geometry of situations necessarily requires the reading of the manuscripts of perspective. Secondly, I will present the relationship between this reading and a possible new understanding of Leibnizian mathematics as well as of Leibnizian metaphysics, since geometry and perspective play a central role in the general Leibnizian doctrine. Third, I will conclude by exposing the theorical and methodological conditions of a possible transcription of these uneasily readable mansucripts.

The Correspondance of Emile Clapeyron to Gabriel Lam (1833-1835), to Analyze of Social Networks
Evelyne Barbin, University of Nantes, Nantes, France Ren Guitart, Universit Paris Diderot, Paris, France Emile Clapeyron and Gabriel Lam were students of the cole Polytechnique in the same years 1816-1818 and became engineers of the cole des Mines of Paris in 1820. Together, they went to Saint-Ptersbourg in 1820 to teach in the cole des voies de communications and also to work on 119

suspension bridges. They came back in Paris ten years later, but the life separated the two friends. While Lam was professor of the cole Polytechnique , Clapeyron arrived in Saint-tienne in January 1833 as teacher of the cole des mineurs . From January 1833 to May 1835, Clapeyron wrote regularly to his friend to obtain news about what it happens in the world and to comment on scientific results or academic facts. The correspondance continued when Clapeyron left SaintEtienne to Arras. The three years of the correspondance is a historically important moment, specially because it is surrounded by the Vues politiques et pratiques sur les tableaux publics en France, which is written by them and the Flachat brothers (1832) and the Chemin de fer de Paris Saint-Germain (1835), written with Stphane Mony and directed by Emile Pereire. Moreover this period is rich of many scientific results. This correspondance reveals also the tensions between the twins about their scientific association , which mix theoretical and industrial works but has not the same institutional impact for each of them.

Reconstructing the Development of Physics in Italy after World War II: the Role of Correspondences and Archives
Ivana Gambaro, Universit di Genova, Genova, Italy In the latter part of the 20th century several archival and manuscript collections, oral history interviews, and other primary sources have been collected at the Department of Physics of the University La Sapienza in Rome. The richest and most fruitful collection among them is the Archivio Amaldi which includes documents related to the scientific and didactic activity of Edoardo Amaldi (1908-1989) and to his commitment to the popularization of science and to civic and social engagement. The presence of his diaries and of his huge correspondence sheds further light on the real state of the physical research in Italy after WWII, on the organization of groups of researchers and on their training. Other archival materials have been collected thanks to donations by the physicists themselves or their heirs, giving birth to several Fondi: Mario Ageno (1915-1992), Nicola Cabibbo (1935-2010), Marcello Conversi (1917-1988), Enrico Persico (1900-1969), Giorgio Salvini (1920- ), Bruno Touschek (1921-1978) etc., which together represent the main documentary source for the history of 20th century physics in Italy. Their description, a classification and the analytical filing of part of the holdings have been accomplished for scholarly use by the group of researchers at the Department of Physics of the University La Sapienza in Rome. In this communication Ill provide some examples which show how these holdings have played a significant role in the historical reconstruction of the development of physical research in Italy after the Second World War.

To Write the Biography of a Scientist today: Using Photo Archives

Natalia Knekht, Moscow Institute of Electronic Technology (Technical University), Moscow, Russian Federation There is a growth of interest to biography as a historic genre. The space of a scientists activity as a historic subject is becoming a subject of research of different schools and methods the history of commonness, gender and social history, historic anthropology or micro-history. Biography sometimes is provided with a number of photos, which are used as a supplementary material of an ordinary application to a scientists biography. However, the cognitive potential of photographic materials opens new perspectives for research. Photography archives must help to a historian to understand the structure of a scientists biography as possibilities of reading and interpretation are included implicitly. At the same time this type of interpretation is wider than just historic explanation. Photos represent reality instantly, providing facts details of lifestyle and interior, 120

samples of changing fashion fragments which allow a researcher to recover the life history. In this case the conversation is not only about the consequence of external events organized in the linear story, but about original print of a personality embodied in memory as its existence demonstration. Memory-history through photographic archives doesnt give us a set of chronographic events, but a material that provides meeting past and present through perception of a historian interpreter. Past takes place (becomes alive) in present and this event is called into being by the critical position of a person who tries to conceive it. Work with archives including photographic ones initially involves a researchers definite cognitive position. Photography coinciding with the definite form of the world cognition sets a methodological range: from phenomenological witnessing to deconstructive scheme. A photo is a direct analogue of the reality fragment and a source of visual information perceived by an eye. Our eyes can distinguish shapes and recognize them placing the received data in a definite set of cultural coordinates. The essence of photography is connected with loss and authenticity is recovered simultaneously every time while reading photos. Any biography aspires to be represented like a set of photos. The information unexpressed in biography can be represented as a set of separate photos.

Les recherches de Jai Singh II (1688-1743) sur lastronomie non classique (siddhntas), daprs des lettres et manuscrits conservs Lisbonne, Goa et Jaipur
Jean Michel Delire, Universit Libre de Bruxelles - Haute Ecole de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium At the beginning of the XVIIIth century, Jai Singh II, a Rajput king vassal of the great Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah, was a passionate astronomer. After founding his new capital city, Jaipur, he began to erect there a large observatory and was charged by Muhammad Shah to build another observatory in Delhi. These celestial laboratories were aimed at improving the precision of the observations, in order to compare them with the results of the calculations made with the help of the algorithms given in the classical Indian astronomical treatises, the siddhntas. Already before 1720, Jai Singh II had been informed about other astronomico-mathematical traditions and had at his disposal the translations into Sanskrit of the Arabic versions, made by Nar ad-dn at-s, of Euclid's Elements and Ptolemy's Megal Syntaxis (Almagest in Arabic) under the titles of Rekhagaita et Siddhntasamr. Around the end of the same decade, thanks to his encounter with Manuel de Figueiredo, Rector of the Agra Jesuit mission, Jai Singh learned about European astronomy. After sending the same Jesuit to Lisbon, to find treatises, instruments and informations in order to check his methods against those of the Portuguese King Joo V's court, Jai Singh wanted to complete his astronomical staff by a European astronomer. Unhappily, this was achieved only in 1740, three years before Jai Singh's death. We will follow the eventful moments of Jai Singh's astronomical evolution, from his initiation to the siddhntas until the arrival of a European astronomer in Jaipur, in various documents, of which many are still unedited : letters in Latin, Portuguese, French and German; Persian and Sanskrit manuscripts, that we had the opportunity to consult in Lisbon, in the Goa archives or in the Library of the Man Singh II Museum of Jaipur.

W.H.F. Talbot (1800-1877) Mathematician: the Handwritten Notebooks, the Drafts and the Correspondence with the French Mathematician J.D. Gergonne (1771-1859)
Christian Gerini, Universit du Sud Toulon Var GHDSO (Groupe dHistoire et de Diffusion des Sciences dOrsay), France During the 1830's the scientist and inventor William Henry Fox Talbot (1800-1877) discovered the chemical and optical properties of silver iodide and its optical properties under the effect of heat, which have been essential in the invention and progress of photography. The British National Library owns many unpublished handwritten notebooks and drafts written by W. H. F. Talbot throughout his life and that we have read and studied. They contain scientific reasoning, 121

chemical and mathematical formulas and calculus, etc. dealing with many sciences. In most of them, even in the years when Talbot devoted his work mainly to chemistry and optics, one can see him here and there solving an equation, giving references to books of mathematics, copying extracts from Euclids Elements, etc... He has been interested in mathematics throughout his whole life and he really began his research by doing mathematics. He published for example when he was 22-23 years old some articles in the first French Journal of Mathematics: the Annals of Pure and Applied Mathematics of the French mathematician Joseph Diez Gergonne (1771-1859). In those Talbots papers, one can see he was an attentive reader of the Annals. And some of those articles were in fact letters he sent to Gergonne from different towns of Europe (and especially from Italy). This talk intends to give first a brief description of those Notebooks - which show his precocious education and his interest in sciences - and of his works in mathematics one can find in those handwritten papers and drafts. In a second step, we propose a comprehensive review of the correspondence between Talbot and Gergonne in order to better understand the texts published in the Annals. We will end our presentation by giving an idea of the contents of those articles and by showing how interesting was the principle of the "questions - answers" that Gergonne proposed in his journal to the international community of mathematicians.

Scientific Archives, Unpublished Manuscripts for New Interpretation of the Scientists Biography
Elena Zaitseva , Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation Biographical genre, which is regarded by us as a method, got recognition and is considered essential for understanding of psychological atmosphere of the epoch, personal aspect of development of the science. Application of this method allows to study and interpret spheres that did not attract attention of researchers earlier. This is also important , it allows to overcome limitation of history of science only by cognitive history, allows to find specific historical mechanisms of connection between cognitive part and social micro groups, to expose connection between intentions of a specific researcher and formation of a research program. W.F.Louguinine (1834-1911), the physical chemistry scientist, is reputed for his research in sphere of thermochemistry. In Russia his name and scientific achievements are recorded in all encyclopedic and biographic reference books; abroad in the well-known issue Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Having unexpectedly discovered the Louguinines manuscript Memoirs about my life in the Archive of International Institute of Social History (Amsterdam) and also correspondence with famous French chemist M.Berthelot (that was not published earlier) in a number of French state and private archives, having got acquainted in detail with the whole correspondence W.F.Louguinine professor A.I.Kablukov from the Archives of Russian Academy of Sciences, I have decided to turn to the creative heritage of this scientist again. The aggregate of these various sources provides new facets of life and creativity of this outstanding scientist. The manuscript and mentioned correspondence gave us priceless material on value preferences of Louguinine both in scientific and social life. On their basis it became possible to define more precisely many earlier mentioned facts and dates in the biography of our hero and what is not less important to trace back the genesis of the scientists choice of research object and methods; transformation of his scientific and pedagogic views in the light of personal contacts with leading representatives of French and Russian scientific schools etc. In the present work is showed the importance of such sources as memoirs, correspondence for reconstruction of professional activity of concrete personage.

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Toward a Complete Biography of Henri Brocard

Pauline Romera-Lebret, Universit de Nantes, Nantes, France At the end of the XXth century, Henri Brocard took a mean part in the revival of interest in triangle geometry. Brocards name is known for Brocard points or Brocard angle but only few of his personnal or professional life has been studied. We propose to present a detailed biography of Henry Brocard based on inedited documents in one hand and very restricted diffusion documents in another hand. Our aim is to supplement the few and brief current biographies, especially to point Brocards multiactivities (mathematical and astronomical research, bibliography, teaching, textbooks writing, popularization...) which surpass the ones (multiple enough) due to his position of Engineer in the French Army as a meteorologist. Our study will be based on the Bibliographic Notice written by Brocard in 1895. It relates in a very detailed way 30 years of the prolific scientific activity of a non-academic position researcher. His Legion dHonneur personal file will provide us with administrative documents that had never been consulted before we do. Finally, the study of inedited letters from his correspondence with Maurice dOcagne will complete our Henri Brocards portrait. This research is in line with those we made for two working groups we belong to : Networks of scientists in the XIXth century (supervised by E. Barbin, Universit de Nantes) and Press and Periodical (supervised by H. Gispert, GHDSO, Orsay).

Andr Cholesky's Personal Archives and their Exploitation by Historians

Dominique Tournes, Claude Brezinski, University of La Reunion, Sainte-Clotilde, France The archives recently submitted to the cole Polytechnique by members of his family have renewed in-depth our knowledge of the life and work of Andr-Louis Cholesky (1875-1918), a French artillery officer, topographer and mathematician. Manuscripts and notebooks contained in these archives have clarified the context of geodetic work in which Cholesky conceived his famous algorithm for solving systems of linear equations. Moreover, letters and manuscripts of partially unpublished treatises of topography and graphical computation written for the ESTPBI (cole Suprieure des Travaux Publics, du Btiment et de l'Industrie), a school founded by Lon Eyrolles, are valuable to better understand the teaching by correspondence offered by this school, and to analyze the mathematical and scientific training of engineers and technicians in the early 20th century.

Hertzs Mechanics and Schrdingers Equation by Means of Schrdingers Manuscript On Hertzs Mechanics and Einsteins Theory of Gravitation
Ricardo Lopes Coelho, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal There has been much historical research on Schrdingers 1926 series of papers founding wave mechanics. The first of these starts with Hamiltons differential equations and the second, generally considered the foundational one (Jammer 1966, Mehra and Rechenberg 1987), begins with Hamiltons Principle. Historians of science have understandably looked for routes from Hamilton to Schrdingers equation. The traditional historical line (Hamilton 1828, 1834-5, Sommerfeld and Runge 1911, Epstein 1916, Schwarzschild 1916, Einstein 1917, etc.) omits one seminal work: Hertzs Principles of Mechanics (1894). Even though Heinrich Hertz is mentioned in Schrdingers foundational paper and some connections between this paper and Hertzs Mechanics can be inferred from the text itself, many other striking connections only become apparent through an examination of Schrdingers manuscript On Hertzs Mechanics and Einsteins Theory of Gravitation, tentatively 123

dating from 1918-19. Mainly by means of this manuscript, a connection between Hertzs mechanics and Schrdingers foundational paper will be established. A table of translation, enabling the comparison between the two texts and facilitating further research on the relation between them, will be provided. The significance of Schrdingers manuscripts for his 1926 series of papers has been pointed out by several historians of science (see Joas and Lehner 2009). Mehra and Rechenberg 1987 presented the most detailed reading of the manuscript referred to above. However, to our knowledge, the connection between this manuscript and Hertzs Mechanics has never been addressed. This connection sheds some light on the role of the Hamiltonian optical mechanical analogy regarding the route to Schrdingers equation (Kragh 1982, Wessels 1983, Mehra and Rechenberg 1987, Mehra 1987, Moore 1989, Joas and Lehner 2009, among others).

Meteor Archives of the post-Soviet States

Svitlana Volodymyrivna Kolomiyets, Kharkiv National University of Radioelectronics, Kharkiv, Ukraine Meteor archives stored in the meteor centers (or by individual scientists) of post-Soviet countries have great scientific value. They accumulated a powerful layer of meteor knowledge of the 20th century. During this period the meteor science in the Soviet Union had a significant development in the result of impetus from the International Geophysical Year program. We say about the knowledge in Russian. These archive materials, in Russian, have limits in their integration into the world of science. There is the global problem as concerns integration into the world science all the Russianlanguage meteor knowledge gained in the second half of the 20th century in the Soviet Union. There are difficulties due to that research results were published in the special collections, such as (e.g.) "Meteor research," the publication of which was discontinued with the collapse of the Soviet Union. At the same we know about disintegration of the administrative structure in framework which meteor science had evolved in the Soviet Union. Now many archives of active meteor centers of the Soviet Union (and scientists) are dormant, as the active carriers of the knowledge - scientists either died or have dramatically changed the scope of their activities. A new generation of scientists isnt knows the whole structure of the scientific tree. There arent available even published sources in full for the modern scientists, as young scientists simply do not know about them. In this situation the collections, archives and other ones of individual scientists or research groups can provide a link between the past and the modern science. A good example is the private library of well-known meteor researcher V. Fedynsky from Moscow. The study of the Fedynskiy special collections allowed the Kharkiv modern scientists to understand value of the International Geophysical Year program 1957 in the development of meteor research.

The Kunstkameras Archive: an Attempt of Historical Reconstruction of its Earliest Collections

Ekaterina Yurievna Basargina, Archive of Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation The Kunskamera, established in St.-Petersburg in 1714 was the first state public museum in Russia and one of the oldest world museums. After the founding of the Academy of Sciences in 1724, the Kunstkamera was put under the Academys supervision. The museum possessed unique collections in the areas of natural history and ethnography. During a century of its history the Kunstkamera went through a lot of serious changes. In 1747 it suffered great damage from a terrible fire: a great part of the museum collections was completely destroyed. In the beginning of the 19th century, as the result of differentiation of scientific knowledge, several specialized academic museums were established on the basis of the encyclopedic Kunstkamera collections. New museums inherited some items of once a single collection and started their 124

independent research work. The Kunskamera may be said to terminate with the creation of new museums. The only academic institution which presently is keeping the memory about the Kunstkamera as a whole collection is the Saint Petersburg branch of the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The Archive is a depository of manual catalogues of the Kunstkamera and the drawings of its earliest items, which are the only evidence of the initial period in the history of the Kunstkamera. The splendid enthomological watercolours by Maria Sibylla Merian, which were part of the Kunst-cabinet form the collection of global scientific and cultural importance. While the museum accumulated items from the academic expeditions, the expeditions iconographical materials were added to the depository of the Archive and now they have great importance for the history and origin of the museum collection. Today the Saint Petersburg branch of the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences is working on goal-oriented identification, registration, record keeping and scientific description of all graphic materials devoted to the history of the first state museum of Russia. Just as the collections of the Kunstkamera served a valuable source of scientific research materials on the natural history for several generations of scientists, so do the unique collections of the Saint Petersburg branch of the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences serve the main source of materials for studies of the Kunstkameras history and heritage.

Finding a Place to Sit

Aleksandra Majstorac-Kobiljski, CECMEC, CNRS/EHESS, Paris, France Sometime in the early 1970s, if it is to be judged by the newspapers in which the papers were wrapped, a son of an important Japanese chemical engineer Shimomura Ktaro deposited 25 boxes of documents in an archive of the University of Dshisha in Kyoto, Japan. It was a logical choice for the deposition because Shimomura was a graduate, a teacher, and finally the president of Dshisha. But the "university archive" is a somewhat misleading translation of where the documents ended up. In fact, the boxes were left in a storeroom of an office called shashi () which is a short for shashi shiryou sent (). Many corporate entities, such as a business or a university, has such an office which is mostly a depository of institutional memory and occasionally produce institutional histories. Yet, the most important difference between a shashi and an archive is that archives, how ever limited, at least nominally assumes a degree of openness to the public and service to the historical profession. Shashi, on the other hand, have no such ambitions and thus often have very limited physical capacity to accommodate researchers. It is often quite difficult to find a place to sit and place one's notebook. Staff, while very kind, has limited training in archival techniques. Shashi is usually headed by a senior administrator who distinguished himself in his service to the corporation and comes to shashi to wait out his last pre-retirement years. Outsiders, regardless of their academic credentials, have a very delicate position on shashi premises, between an impostor. This paper proposes to examine what happens when papers of an important scientist, discovered in an university sashi, launch a researcher into several years of negotiations over access, conservation, and digitizing of the Shimomura collection. Why were these documents preserved? How were they discovered and how preliminary findings can changes the way we think about the history of technology in Japan at the turn of the 20th century?

Against their own Recollections: Archival Evidence versus Community Folklore in 20th c. Italian Physics
Giovanni Battimelli, Universit Sapienza, Roma, Italy

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Writing history requires relying on different kind of sources, and among them a prominent place is taken, when dealing with contemporary science, by the historical actors reminiscences and memories. Historians cannot avoid dealing with these documents, while being aware at the same time of their relevance as much as of their unreliability, unless checked against independent evidence. The dominant picture of Italian 20th century physics has been up to now largely shaped by the narration that has been consigned to fellow physicists and to posterity by some of its main protagonists, and a sort of community folklore has emerged, building up an image of the development of the discipline in the country that is widely spread and accepted, with its highlights and its low moments. In recent times a great effort has been done in Italy to collect, preserve and make available to researchers personal and institutional archives, providing scholars with a wealth of unpublished documents. Relying mainly on the physicists personal papers collected at the Physics Department of the University Sapienza in Rome, I will show how in some relevant instances the evidence gathered from these sources allows and requires to put under scrutiny the received versions of the story, raising issues that either had escaped the protagonists perception or were altered and misrepresented in their later reconstructions.

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SYMPOSIUM 22

Scientific Cosmopolitanism
Organizers Eberhard Knobloch,Technische Universitt Berlin, Berlin, Germany Suzanne Debarbat, Observatoire de Paris, Paris, France George N. Vlahakis, Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece We wish to propose a session on what we call scientific cosmopolitanism. The proposal grows from a group of papers that were presented at the Barcelona congress on the movement of scientists and of scientific knowledge and practices within Europe since the sixteenth century. In Barcelona, the papers focussed on travels between countries and relatively brief stays abroad. The Athens congress provides the opportunity for developing a rather different perspective, focussing on scientists who have chosen to settle away from their own countries, either permanently or for extended periods. The cases of Tycho Brahe and Kepler, both of whom resided in Prague, are well known. So too are those of Herschel in England and Burkhardt de Gotha in Paris. And there are many other instances. The motives that led to such decisions to work abroad might include, among others, congenial living and working conditions or difficulties of a religious or ideological kind. The purpose of the papers in this session will be to discuss key examples, with a view to determining the similarities and differences between them and whether or not the decisions reflected a free choice or pressures that made expatriation a necessity.

A Place to Live, a Recognition to Attain J. H. de Magellan and his Friends Ribeiro Sanches and Jean Chevalier
Isabel Maria Coelho de Oliveira Malaquias, Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal A Portuguese characteristic had been, at least since late 13th century, spreading and settling all over the world in a Diasporas that accompanied religious, political or simply adventurous motivations. Eighteenth century Portugal faced an absolutist monarchy sharing much of the same character as Teresinas Austria, Catherines Russia, and Louis XIV to XVI in France. We will focus on three eighteenth century men with crossed lives mainly after they have moved away from their original country. They have in common a good scientific visibility in what concerns the places abroad where they lived, although attaining different fame. J.H. de Magellan (1722-1790) got notoriety in different matters concerned with chemistry, nautical and physical instruments and in the dissemination and scientific network through a vast correspondence maintained all along decades after he settled in London in late 1763. The physician Antnio Ribeiro Sanches (1699-1783), having studied philosophy in Coimbra, got a degree in medicine in Salamanca, and then, also in Leiden. After Boerhaaves recommendation he went to Russia where he stayed for almost thirty years, having been physician to the Army and to Elisabeth Petrovna. Later he moved to Paris where he also became famous, having written to the Encyclopdie. Jean Chevalier (1722-1801?), known for his astronomical and meteorological observations, was a Portuguese that at a certain stage in his life also was compelled to move away from his country land to get Brussels and settle there as the first librarian of the Imperial and Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences and later as its director. While always missing Portugal, at last he had to move away from Brussels in the Austria direction after the French domination. In this presentation we will give attention to the reasons that led these three personalities to move 127

and settle elsewhere from their motherland, enlightening their distinctive importance in the scientific cosmopolitanism. Athanasius Kircher S.I.: A German Jesuits Almost Involuntary Expatriation to Rome Gerhard F. Strasser, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA USA Since the posthumous 1684 publication of Kirchers Vita and its recent translations the Jesuits account of his forced expatriation has been well known and accepted at face value. We learn that the Jesuits flight from marauding Protestant troops in Germany led to his reassignment to southern France, where he met Nicolas Claude Fabri de Peiresc in Aix in 1631. A learned man in his own right, Peiresc was a mycaenas of many scholars and became interested in Kirchers early attempts at deciphering hieroglyphs. In 1633 Kircher was called back to his homeland to assume the position of mathematician at the imperial court in Vienna. At this pointKircher reportsPeiresc used his connections in Rome to have the young scholars assignment changed. After a last visit with Peiresc in Aix Kircher set out for Germany by boat from Marseilles via Genoawithout the slightest suspicion that Peiresc was negotiating with Cardinal Barberini for my journey to take the opposite direction. During the last decade, a number of publications along with electronic access to his voluminous correspondence at the Jesuit University in Rome and the edition of Peirescs letters have cast a different light on this change of Kirchers assignment. Contrary to the Jesuits account of a cordial last visit to Peiresc, the Frenchman was greatly disappointed by what he considered Kirchers superficial knowledge of matters hieroglyphical, as he noted in a personal memoir of this visit. It is now clear that Kircher hastily left his sponsor without even taking along the letters of recommendation Peiresc had prepared for him for Romehe was that ashamed of his performance and sought salvation in the mathematical assignment to Vienna. Fate would have it otherwise: After several disastrous boat trips he ended up in Civitavecchia (instead of Genoa)and made his way to Rome, where he was most cordially welcomed as Peirescs recommendations had reached Barberini and the Pope by mail. They wereand this shows the other, calculating side of Peireschighly commendatory as he nonetheless felt that Kircher was the only person he knew who could solve the riddle of the hieroglyphs with the help of his studies of Coptic, where he had indeed made some decisive progress. Kirchers reassignment to Viennaan escape from the burden of proof, so to speak, from deciphering the hieroglyphs? His hasty departure from Aix points in that direction although the Jesuit found research opportunities in Rome so unique that he soon developed his own problematic reading of these Egyptian symbolsand spent the remaining 36 years of his life there as a reasonably comfortable expatriot.

Dawn of a New Enlightenment

Peeter Mrsepp, Epi Tohvri, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia The so-called postnonclassical approach to science introduced by Ilya Prigogine has created a fresh foundation for a culturally holistic world view from the solid basis of natural science. By this approach we mean the world view that strictly adheres to the unidimensionality of time specified by Prigogines time operator. This innovation in the methodology of natural science has made it possible to create a unifying solid foundation for both natural and social science as well as the humanities for the first time. By bringing the humanities into the picture we create the chance to view the whole human culture as a united enterprise, perhaps even restoring the spirit of the Enlightenment. A New Enlightenment is definitely needed in the science scene of today. Here, the goal is to initiate a turn in science by shifting the basis of scientific research. The idea is changing physics for the humanities as the focus of academic knowledge. This is an idea advocated by Nicholas Maxwell. The 128

new Enlightenment has to be overwhelming and will embrace the whole human knowledge. The dawn of the New Enlightenment creates the methodological basis for taking a novel view on an important period in the Baltic region when Tartu University was re-established in 1802 as the result of active academic policy of G. Fr. Parrot, a representative of the French Enlightenment who moved to Livonia in late XVIII-th century. Parrot did not have the methodology of self-organization at his disposal. His achievements, however, justify the idea that an individual can achieve a lot if he manages to make reasonable moves in a situation where the environment is open for implementation of novel ideas. Himself a physicist, Parrot was very keen on promoting most advanced humanitarian ideas, i.e. concerning a new type of statutes for the newly re-established university and designing the campus according to the most innovative architectural ideas.

The Role of Expatriates in the Dissemination of Leibnizs Differential Calculus

Charlotte Wahl, Leibniz-Forschungsstelle Hannover der Gttinger Akademie der Wissenschafte, Hannover, Germany Through their interaction with the local scientific communities the expatriates Johann Bernoulli (1667-1748) and Rudolf Christian von Bodenhausen (~1640-1698) played an important role in the dissemination of the calculus in Holland and Italy, respectively. A more infamous role in the success story of the calculus before 1700 was played by the Swiss Nicolas Fatio de Duillier (1664-1753), who in 1699 accused Leibniz of borrowing ideas from Newton. The brachistochrone problem, posed by Johann Bernoulli in 1696, connects these three figures with each other. Johann Bernoulli stayed in Groningen for ten years (1695-1705) before finally getting a professorship in his native city Basel. These years were crucial for his career and the dissemination of the differential calculus, which were closely connected. Little is known about the biography of Bodenhausen who had left Germany for Florence. He was eager to learn the calculus and to spread it among the Galileisten. His letters to Leibniz, in which he reports in detail the responses to the brachistochrone problem, are full of ironic comments about the local scientific community. Fatio de Duillier lived in England most of the time from 1687 to 1700. He became very close to Newton before their apparent breakup in 1693. When he vindicated Newtons fluxional calculus in his solution of the brachistochrone problem in 1699, he was not supported by English scientists. Having had contact to Leibniz, and Huygens too, he could have been an intermediary between the mathematical communities around Leibniz and Newton. Instead, he ended up in isolation. An important source for the presentation will be Leibnizs correspondence. The edition of the correspondence with Bodenhausen has only recently been completed while the publication of the exchange with Fatio de Duillier is continuing.

Stephen A. Ionides, a Typical Example of Scientific Cosmopolitanism

John Kougeas, Athens, Greece George N. Vlahakis, Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece Stephen A. Ionides, was an engineer of Greek origin who worked in the United States of America. He had a deep interest in Astronomy, especially the ancient and medieval astronomical theories. he was among others the author of several articles in journals including ISIS where he published his work Caesars' Astronomy' (Astronomicum Caesareum) by Peter Apian, Ingolstadt 1540. He was also a collector and capable constructor of sundials. He had designed among others a sundial placed in Cranmer Park at Denver, Colorado, based on a small Chinese antique sundial, which he possessed. He is more widely known by his book, Stars and Men, written in collaboration with his daughter Margaret. Ionides is a typical example of what is called Scientific Cosmopolitanism as his family started from Constantinople in the early 19th century, went to London where it played a central role 129

in the upper class as patrons of the letters and arts and assisted also greatly the formation of the scientific education in the newly independent Greek state. Up to now Stephen Ionides contribution to the popularization of astronomy in the pre-WWII period has remained unknown. The present paper aims to discuss his work in relevance with the context of scientific cosmopolitanism and brings to light unknown or forgotten aspects of his life and work. Especially we are going to discuss the acknowledgment of his work by the international community and the reasons it remained practically unknown in his homeland.

Remarkable Greeks in Egypt in the 19th and early 20th c. A Case Study
Vasileios Chrysikopoulos, The Acropolis Museum, Athens, Greece The concept of Scientific Cosmopolitanism introduced in the symposium entails, among other things, notions of time, space and movement. To this, one could add the exchange of information and the desire for progress. The present study considers 19th and early 20th century Greeks who left Greece at a young age and settled in Egypt. in this respect, this paper presents personalities closely linked with scientific developments in their field of practice.Thus, Alfieris contributed to the study of insects and was the first to identify the Egyptian beetle, attributing to it the name Scarabaeus sacer; Dimitsas created a normative platform for the science of geography. In 1881 he was honored by the International Congress of Geography for his work Periodeia tes Aigyptou for his systematic approach and accurate description; Apostolides made a career as a medical doctor and archaeologist. The Gazette Medicale dOrient featured his major contribution to medicine, a cure for cataract that was translated into many other languages. Subsequently, he published a two-volume treatise on meningitis that caused the death of many people in Egypt around 1877; Oikonomopoulos, another medical doctor, like Neroutsos, left his mark on the progress of knowledge in medical science thanks to his work on cholera and its treatment. Neroutsos equally set a framework to the newly established science of archaeology; Pentakis was the first translator to have translated the holy book of Islam, the Koran. His translation is still a work of reference today; Tsanaklis at the beginning of the 20th century established the west fertile road in the desert parallel to the road that led from Alexandria to Cairo. He established a very innovative and expensive enterprise in Egypt called the road of the grapes using modern technologies for the production of wine. Earlier, other Greeks such as Demetriou had established themselves in the cotton industry. Moreover, different names were given to different qualities of their Greek inventors. On the other hand, in Alexandria, the cosmopolitan city par excellence, the renowned scientific society Athenaion was founded in 1892, where important scientific discoveries were announced and where the scientific elite had the opportunity to converse about their latest achievements. The same holds true for the Institut dEgypt, the headquarters of which unfortunately burned in the recent uprising in Egypt. Here, legendary debates took place about critical modern theories in the history of science. The material of this paper is methodically elaborated and categorized in this context. The results for the history of science in its different disciplines are impressive and offer the opportunity for some interesting conclusions.

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Achilles Papapetrou (1907-1997): A Greek Physicists Journey through Civil War and the Cold War
Dieter Hoffmann, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin, Germany George N. Vlahakis, Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece The Greek physicist Achilles Papapetrou is today almost forgotten, although he belongs to the top ten of Greek physicists of the twenty century and he had an unusual life story. Born in North Greece he was educated as engineer in the Technical University of Athens. In 1934 he moved with a fellowship to Germany, where wrote a PhD thesis in cristallography with Peter Paul Ewald at the TH Stuttgart. Later his research interests moved from cristallography to Einsteins theory of relativity and he was engaged with its studyd as Professor ofPhysics at the National Technical University in Athens. As a leftist he was soon troubled by Greeks odyssey and tragic in the 1940ies the German occupation, and Civil War , lost his job and finally he was forced to immigrate in 1946. With the help of his mentor Ewald he could get fellowships in Dublin and Manchester, before East Germanys Academy of Sciences offered him a promising job in 1952. There he worked until the erection of Berlin Wall in 1961, when he moved to Paris. There he could continue his research on gravitational physics at the CNRS, becoming finally director of the Institute Poincare. This presentation will give a report of Papapetrous life and work in the social and the political context of the second half of the twentieth century.

Johann Karl Burckhardt, a German Student from Gotha to Paris

Suzanne Virginie Dbarbat, Simone Dumont, Observatoire de Paris, Paris, France Burckhardt (Leipzig 1773, Paris 1825) was from 1796 at the Seeberg Observatory then under "le baron" Franz Xaver von Zach (Pest 1754 - Paris 1832), an important cosmopolitan scientist reknowned all over Europe. Burkhardt, being clever in maths, Zach wanted him to achieve his studies in France and in England. He sent him first to Paris, in 1797, to follow Joseph-Jrme Lefranois de Lalande's (Bourg-en-Bresse 1732 - Paris 1807) courses at the "Collge de France". There Burckhardt found lodging for several years, performing observations, computations,... Having decided to stay in France, he became French in 1799 under the first name Jean-Charles, and obtained the position of "astronome adjoint" at the "Bureau des longitudes" just created (1795). Beside his astronomical works at the "Collge" he also observed at the "Observatoire de l'Ecole militaire" to participate with other colaborators of Lalande to his 50 000 catalogue of stars. In parallel, this incredible scientific worker, translated from German into French, or the opposite, numerous texts, ephemerides,... He also collaborated with Pierre-Simon Laplace (comte puis marquis de, Beaumont-en-Auge 1749 - Paris 1827), translating into German the first two volumes of his "Mcanique cleste" as soon as the proofs were available, helping Alexis Bouvard (Les Contamines 1767 - Paris 1843) to check numerical data for these books. Lalande's catalogue was achieved in 1801 and Burckhardt went, in 1804, to have his lodging at the "Ecole Militaire" observatory. The same year he entered the "Acadmie des sciences", then included in the "Institut national" and, in 1817, he replaced Charles-Joseph Messier (Badonvillier 1730 - Paris 1817) as a "membre du Bureau des longitudes". He lived at the "Ecole MIlitaire", working on different astronomical fields of research, up to his death in 1825. Burckhardt, as a German-French astronomer, is an example of those who can be considered as being an efficient link to make astronomical works from one country better known in another one.

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Oscar Buneman (1913 - 1993), Pioneer of Computational Plasma Physics

Rita Meyer-Spasche, Max-Plank-Institut fr Plasmaphysik, EURATOM Association, Garching, Germany Oskar Bnemann (*1913 in Milan, Italy - 1993 at Stanford, USA) was born to a mercantile family of Hamburg, Germany. He crossed many borders of states: forced by political circumstances first (WWI, the Nazis, WWII), and by his own decisions later on. Change to British citizenship in 1943 and change of name some years later. He also crossed borders between scientific disciplines: he started as a student of mathematics and physics in Hamburg, with exams in (applied) mathematics and theoretical physics in Manchester. For several years he worked as a university lecturer in mathematics at Cambridge U and became a Professor of Electrical Engineering at Stanford U later on, heading an Institute for Plasma Research there. He spent sabbatical years at plasma research institutes in Italy and in Japan. Like a mathematician he used particle simulation for various different problems of engineering and physics, extending it and making it more mature that way. But he also changed techniques and methods of investigation like a physicist when this was required by the problems considered. He was avant-garde w.r.t. the development and the implementation of algorithms and the usage of computers (from mechanical desk-top calculators and analog computers to super computers). Also several of Buneman's students crossed borders of disciplines: Roger Hockney (19.. - 1999) is known for work in numerical analysis, computational physics and computer science. John Holdren (*1944) focussed on various problems of science and technology policy. He served as one of President Clinton's science advisers and is the director of the "Office of Science and Technology Policy" under President Obama. Buneman's four children live in four different countries on two continents.

Scientific Cosmopolitanism from a Swiss Perspective: Migration from and to Switzerland before and after World War II
Erwin Neuenschwander, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there were very few university positions in Switzerland. Swiss scientists were forced to emigrate if the sparse chairs were occupied. Famous examples include Johann Bernoulli, who had to go to Groningen before he could, after the death of his brother Jakob, take over the only chair in mathematics at the university in Basel. The same is true for Leonhard Euler, who went to Saint Petersburg and Berlin. Saint Petersburg attracted in these years many other Swiss scientists, for example Jakob Hermann, Daniel Bernoulli, Eduard Regel, Heinrich Wild, etc. (see Mumenthaler 1996). Other famous Swiss emigrants were Jost Brgi, Jakob Steiner and from the French speaking part of Switzerland Jean-Andr Deluc, Louis Agassiz, and Charles-douard Guillaume. The reasons for emigration were in most cases better career possibilities. After the mediation period and the creation of the federal state in 1848 the employment opportunities for scientists started to improve significantly. The former local academies were successively transformed into the universities of Zurich (1833), Bern (1834), Geneva (1873), Fribourg (1889), Lausanne (1890) and Neuchtel (1909). With the foundation of the Swiss Polytechnic Institute (later ETH Zurich) in 1855 ca. 35 new chairs were created immediately. Several of them served as a springboard for leading young scientists on their way to top positions in Germany. The first chair in higher mathematics was initially occupied for three years by the Austrian-Swiss mathematician Joseph Ludwig Raabe. Later followed in short intervals such famous mathematicians as Richard Dedekind (1858-1862), Elwin Bruno Christoffel (1862-1869), Hermann Amandus Schwarz (18691875), Georg Ferdinand Frobenius (1875-1892), Hermann Minkowski (1896-1902) and the German132

Swiss Arthur Hirsch (1903-1936) from Knigsberg, who remained in Zurich. At the newly created chair of theoretical physics at the University of Zurich one finds a series of four young future Nobel Prize Winners following each other shortly: Albert Einstein (1909-1911), Peter Debye (1911-1912), Max von Laue (1912-1914), Erwin Schrdinger (1921-1927). They all used Zurich as a springboard for a first-rate position in Germany. After World War I and World War II the situation changed radically. With the breakdown of the Austro-Hungarian empire and Nazism many well-known scientists fled from Eastern Europe and Germany to America and some of them also came to Switzerland, for example Leopold Ruzicka, Tadeusz Reichstein, Vladimir Prelog; Paul Bernays, Hermann Weyl, Heinz Hopf; Walter Heitler, Wolfgang Pauli, etc. In postwar years it became common practice that Swiss post-docs had to complete a USA-stay before getting a university position in Switzerland. Several of them remained in the USA, for example Fritz Zwicky, Felix Bloch and Armand Borel, a fact that has quite often been discussed under the catch phrase "brain drain". The paper tries to give an overview of scientist migration to and from Switzerland. However, in reality many of these scientists were really cosmopolites as Einstein and are difficult to be attributed to a specific country. For further information see G. Rasche and H.H. Staub, Physik und Physiker an der Universitt Zrich 1833-1948, Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zrich 124 (1979), 205-220; R. Mumenthaler, Im Paradies der Gelehrten. Schweizer Wissenschaftler im Zarenreich (1725-1917), 1996; G. Frei and U. Stammbach, Mathematicians and Mathematics in Zurich, at the University and the ETH, 2007; E. Neuenschwander, Botanik, "Mathematik", "Physik", etc., in: Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz (also at: www.hls.ch).

Scientific Cosmopolitanism and Loneliness in the Work of Copernicus, Kepler and Tycho Brahe: Regressive Routes for the Interpretation of Heavens
Manolis Kartsonakis, Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece The evolution of Astronomy during the 16th and 17th centuries has been inspired by the scientific cosmopolitanism due to the inspiration of Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler and Tycho Brahe within the social processes and the scientific evolution that took place in main European cities and royal courts. When Copernicus left his frosted homeland and studied for almost several years in the flourishing Italy it was only fifty years after the capture of Constantinople by the Ottomans. The scientific and philosophical ideas of the Hellenic delegation at the Council of Ferrara/Florence which have spread were still living in Ferrara where he got his Doctoral Thesis. There, in Italy, he reached the key points of his idea of changing the central point of Cosmos onto the Sun as part of his study on Hellenistic texts and the neoplatonism being active at that time. On the other hand, Johannes Kepler and Tycho Brahe had lived their lives in completely opposite ways, one at poor rural areas in Germany and the other one within the royal courtyard in Denmark, but their contributions for the evolution of Astronomy have been inspired by the cosmopolitanism that was arisen at the places either they were educated or had worked in central and northern European territories during that era. We intend to trace the influence, in various levels, of the social and scientific environment on their distinguished works and focus on specific incidents of them.

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SYMPOSIUM 23

Scientific Expeditions: Local Practices and Cosmopolitan Discourses

Organizers Marianne Klemun, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria Ulrike Spring, Department of Social Sciences, Sogn og Fjordane University College, Norway The term "scientific expeditions" commonly refers to group travel aiming at the controlled acquisition and widening of specific knowledges. The expedition is also characterized by a clear division of work. This way of organizing scientific work has been popular since the 18th century and has been part of an increased competition among European states in the fields of progress and knowledge. Furthermore, this expedition form encourages co-operation between different social and cultural forces. Typical for scientific expeditions is that they serve and inscribe both cosmopolitan discourses of science and local cultural and ideological practices simultaneously. They aspire to global-cosmopolitan utopias, in other words, claims to civilisation, while being located within specific cultural contexts and -- this being the case in the 19th century in particular -- within discourses of national scientific achievement. We will ask how these mixings manifest themselves in the expectations, management, legitimation strategies and reception of expeditions. The session will open up different fields of knowledge with a focus on scientific expeditions as a means of acquiring insight, but it will also inquire into the intersecting mechanisms and patterns of local and cosmopolitan constitutions of meaning and their realisations.

From a Chinese Reading Cabinet to the Paris Academy: an eighteenth-century French Jesuits Translation Concerning some Curious Chinese Craft Knowledge
Huiyi Wu, Universit Paris Diderot-Paris VII, Paris, France / Istituto Italiano di Scienze Umane, Florence, Italy The French Jesuit mission in China (1685-1773), with an umbilical link to the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris, defined itself as an expedition with two objectives, a religious one and a scientific one: bring China both into Christendom and into the universalistic realm of knowledge that Parisian savants were building. This paper will focus on one particular method Jesuits used in their investigation, namely translation, and take as a test case two letters about some curious Chinese craft knowledge written from Beijing in 1734 and 1736 by Franois-Xavier Dentrecolles (1664-1741). First, we will address the status of translation as a means of knowledge and the epistemological questions posed in the process, by comparing the French texts to the Chinese originals that we have identified. We will see how, in the absence of on-the-spot observation, which a foreign priest was unable to make, Dentrecolles used various indirect human and intellectual means embedded in the local context to make sense of Chinese technical language and to convert it into intelligible information for his correspondents at the Academy of Paris. More importantly, we will analyze the problem of the credibility of knowledge. Indeed, what makes these Chinese texts worth translating was that they deal with knowledge unknown in Europe; this very fact also makes them suspicious to European rationality. They also rest on a theoretical framework about the nature of things that is incommensurable with European natural philosophy. We will analyze Dentrecolles rhetoric in favour of openness to such unverified curious or extraordinary knowledge, which calls upon both the usefulness of the objects in the context of 134

European expansion, and the margins of uncertainty in European sciences at that time. This paper aims to reflect on the complex schemes of cross-cultural knowledge transmission, which involves a continuous negotiation about the limit between science and wonder.

Fishermens Knowledge in the Academic Salon How Jean-Andr Peyssonnels Studies of Marine products at the Coasts of Barbary and Guadeloupe Influenced Debates on the True Nature of Coral in Eighteenth-Century Europe
Jan Vandersmissen, Universit de Lige, Lige, Belgium The scientific work of the French explorer, naturalist and physician Jean-Andr Peyssonnel (16941759) is little known. However, in 1726 he sent a series of memoirs to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris that have become key elements of a debate on the true nature of some marine products like coral. The question was: is it a stony structure, a plant, or an animal life form? This debate has mobilized bright minds in the whole of Europe. The concepts of the early eighteenth century, based on knowledge of the Ancients (Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny the Elder) or the Moderns (Imperato, de Peiresc, Boyle) have evolved through direct observations at sea combined with chemical experiments carried out in laboratories. Thus, during an expedition at the North African coast Peyssonnel found that coral flowers were in fact parts of insects housed within a stony structure. Peyssonnel was the first to demonstrate the animal nature of coral, but the academic world did not yet share his opinion. In this contribution we will explore the intellectual tensions between, at one side, a scholar who travelled around the world, getting influenced by fishermens local knowledge traditions (first in his native Marseille, then during a royal expedition along the coasts of Barbary, finally on the island of Guadeloupe), and, at the other side, scientific authorities in Paris and London who evaluated, approved but also denied new concepts constructed on knowledge gathered through exploration. These controversies will be described against the background of a discipline in motion. When Peyssonnels ideas were finally accepted in the 1750s, his work in far away Guadeloupe was about to be exceeded by research carried out by a new generation of naturalists (Ellis, Solander) who integrated the knowledge of coral in a broader framework which took as its basis Linnaeuss binomial classification. This study is based on an analysis of sources preserved in Paris, London, Aix-en-Provence, Montpellier, Marseille, Bordeaux, Rouen and Avignon.

The Triangular Relationship between Science, Politics and Culture Expressed by the Idea of Progress and Implemented through the Expedition to Egypt
Marie Dupond, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece Even if the frontispiece of Francis Bacons book, Novum Organum published in 1620 constitutes a famous evocation of a naval expedition sent to promote science and the acquisition of progress, one of the most famous and decisive scientific and naval expeditions realised is the Expedition to Egypt that began from four harbours of Mediterranean sea in the end of may 1798. This expedition gathers a all world as wrote the French geometer Gaspard Monge (1746-1818) to his wife during his crossing to Egypt. Sailors from Greece, Turkey, Algeria, Sweden and Netherland, militaries, scientists, pupils of the young cole polytechnique are led by the young and seducing chief Bonaparte. He is not only a victorious general armed with his triumphs in Italy few months ago, he is also a distinguished man of science with his recent election at the first class of the Institut national at Carnots seat in December 1797. Already in October 1797, a specific association between science and army appears when Monge, the geometer, and Berthier, the general, present the peace treaty of Campo Formio to the Directoire in Paris. In Egypt, its not the first time that Monge collaborated with Bonaparte nor that a military conquest, a political aim and a scientific purpose are associated and mixed. The two 135

men already experimented this kind of collaboration in Italy during the first military campaign from may 1796 to october 1797, when Monge was member of the Commission des Sciences et des Arts. The activities of the Commission totally depended on Bonapartes policy of military conquest. I would develop an historical and lateral perspective on the Expedition to Egypt focusing on their first experience in Italy and on the elaboration and preparation of the Expedition to Egypt with the study of the relations between Monge and Bonaparte exploring their correspondence. The issue of my presentation is to precisely determine the modalities of the collaboration between scientists, military and political power, the nature of their relations and their goals through the historical study of the idea of progress. The frame of my research on the idea of progress and on Gaspard Monge is the study and the edition of his correspondence in the second part of the French Revolution during his missions for the young republic in Italy and Egypt from 1795 to 1799. The aim of my study is to find the axis of coherency in the diversity of Monges actions during the French Revolution by determining the correlations between scientific identity and public action. Monge is not only a geometer involved in the French Revolution, he portrays a new kind of scientist who extends the field of his scientific investigation and practice through his involvement and his institutional action. That leads to examine the conditions of the extension of the geometers sphere of activity and to define strictly the characteristics of the scientific practice of a mathematician in the 2nd part of 18th century.

Russian Scientific Expedition in Japan in the Early 19th Century: Achievements in Ichthyology by the Krusenstern Expedition
Yuko Takigawa, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan Since the late 18th century, the Russian Empire tried to make contact with isolated Japan when they returned Japanese drifters with missionaries. At that time Japan had closed herself to European countries except for the Holland. Although the primary purpose of the Russian Expedition was to establish trade with Japan, scientific investigation in and around Japan was also involved. With such missions, the first Russian round the world expedition was conducted under the command of Captain Krusenstern from 1803 to 1806. Waiting to get a reply from Bakufu (Japan's feudal government), the Russian missionaries had to stay in Nagasaki, for half a year from 1804 to 1805. This is also where the trading port for the Dutch East India Company existed, . They were not allowed to act on their own. While there, Langsdorff and Tilesius, who were both German, became successful in negotiating with the food suppliers, so they could obtain many kinds of fish, which were made into stuffed specimens. The Russian expedition failed to establish trade between Japan, but those fish specimens were thus brought to Europe. However, partly due to the varying nationalities of the natural scientists, not all of these scientific materials, such as fish specimens and drawings, were stored in the Russian Imperial Cabinet. For this reason, the scientific materials brought back by the expedition, were scattered. Today, they are stored in some academic institutions throughout Europe. In this paper, I would like to discuss the role of the Russian expedition in the progress of science, especially in the field of ichthyology, and how the expedition contributed the biological classification process in the 19th century by providing Japanese natural history objects to European countries. I would also like to evaluate how local knowledge, i.e., Japanese knowledge and information on fish was integrated in the international progress of ichthyology.

Ethnic Elements on the Expeditions of the Russian Academy of Science of the first half of the XIXth c.
Tatiana Yurievna Feklova, IHST St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation

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The first half of XIX-th century for the whole world is the period of formation of the capitalist relations. At this time the Russian science has came to a new stage of their development. Industry development puts the other purposes and problems before a science. The XVIII-th century was a century when enormous territories of the Russian empire practically have not been studied. Before scientists have been put the problems of more purposeful approach to the researches. Expeditions were an integral part of activity of the Academy promoting its further development and prosperity. First of all, the expeditions gave the wide opportunities for carrying out the researches in the field of geography, biology, zoology, ethnography, etc. Secondly, expeditions allowed improving scientific methods and helped to create the data-base for the development of the science. Huge territory of the Russian empire it was impossible to study forces 21 academicians who were registered in staff of Academy of Sciences. Some ceremonies, for example, have been closed for nonlocal inhabitants. These and other motives induced scientists to address for the help to representatives of local tribes. As examples of interaction of local population with the academic expeditions it is possible to result A.J. Kupfer and E.H. Lenz travel 1829-1830 to Caucasus and I.G. Voznesensky 1839-1849 in Russian possession in America. The Academy of Sciences was the organizer of many expeditions. Through employment by a science there was a latent association of various ethnic groups to the uniform Russian empire. Russian scientists with the collaboration of the local inhabitants had made the further science progress.

Reception of Latin American Volcanoes and its Related Activities in European Geological Works (1735 - 1832)
Jose Julio Zerpa Rodriguez, , Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Seville, Spain Natural Sciences endured, during European Enlightenment, a previously unknown reform and widening on its scopes and research methods. Geological theories at the time started to be challenged with a previously unknown intensity: ancient theories on the Genesis and later course of Earth, reshaped during the Renaissance and Early Baroque periods, were now progressively confronted with progressively better well contextualized and described geological evidences. New cartographic measurements, the development of a systematic geological explorations of defined areas, the recollection of mineralogical specimens, from European and extra European places, as the establishment of revolutionary chemical process, were a concomitant part. The diffusion of the set of new geographical systematical descriptions, and physical components of Earth between individuals and organizations, were allowed, and increased, thanks to the new frequently State or Crown sponsored, scientific societies, and a melange of associated journals. Making use of information and data from an array of sources, taking in special consideration some cases from former Spanishs colonies, new independent republics, volcanic phenomena had a crucial role in Charles Lyells (1797 1875) Principles of Geology (1830 1833) argumentation. Until this moment, there has been was a progressive European reception, and understatement, of information (geographical, mineralogical, assorted data) regarding volcanic activity, and its associated phenomena; mainly, from American Spanish Empire possessions. European mineralogists and early geologists could contrast with this new wealth of information the lessons on volcanism obtained so far, mainly, from Italy, Iceland and Central France. It could be considered that the inclusion of Latin American volcanoes in the main geological works up to 1830, or in encyclopaedic works, followed an exclusive logic that, progressively, minimized the local practices and geographical descriptions of Latin American miners, engineers or specialists alike. The purpose of this paper is to take in account the process of incorporation of new geographical data and the processes associated, making some proposals on how the chain of knowledge operated.

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A Quest for Desireable Results: The Habsburg Monarchys Sanitary Mission to the Ottoman Empire in 1849
Marcel Chahrour, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria After having kept up a costly and inefficient quarantine along the land borders with the Ottoman Empire for more than a hundred years, the Habsburg Empire was about to change its sanitary policy around 1850. As trade and other commercial and social communications with the Ottoman Empire were increasing, the quarantine measures kept up in the harbours of the adriatic and along the Militrgrenze turned out to be an impediment endangering the Habsburg monarchys position as a turntable for trade with the Ottoman Empire. In 1849, political leaders decided to send a mission of physicians to the Ottoman Empire in order to clearify the danger, that diseases suspected to be endemic there were still posing to the Habsburg monarchy. This medical expedition undertook a three months journey to Greece, several cities of the Ottoman Empire and Egypt. The paper argues, that by choosing the ambitious and very liberal minded Carl Ludwig Sigmund as a reporter, the Austrian Administration made its ambitions clear from the very beginning. While scientific debates on the merits of quarantine institutions were still not settled in the years before the departure of the mission, Sigmund had been a harsh critric of quarantine measures for years. Thus, the sanitary mission became a scientific expedition with results clearly defined well in advance: Gathering the necessary arguments for a redefinition of Austrian sanitary policy towards a more liberal system.

Missing Internationalisation: the Schlagintweit Mission to India and High-Asia (1854-1857)

Bernhard Fritscher, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitt Mnchen, Munich, Germany In September 1854, the German geographers and geologists Hermann (1826-1882), Adolph (18291857), and Robert Schlagintweit (1833-1885) set off from Southampton for a three-year mission to India and High Asia. Their expedition was a British-Prussian joint enterprise, organized and funded by the Royal Geographical Society, the British East India Company, Alexander von Humboldt (17691859), and Friedrich Wilhelm IV., King of Prussia; i.e., contrary to the majority of 19th century (national) scientific expeditions, the Schlagintweit mission was an international enterprise. Consequently, it might be expected to have been an early approach to scientific internationalism; actually, however, it shows numerous aspects of 19th century scientific nationalism. And this is particularly due for the heterogeneous reception of the expedition, and the results of the Schlagintweit brothers: while, on the German side, it has always been highlighted for the multitude of its geological, botanical, astronomical, ethnographical, etc., results, and also as a striking example of the practice of Humboldtian science, at the same time it is (until recently) as already deplored by Humboldt - more or less neglected by the British side. Nevertheless, it was not alone political nationalism which made this British-Prussian enterprise incompatible. Rather, it was also a problem of inconsistent (national) styles of science. Actually, the Schlagintweits implicitly brought a particular German program - i.e., a particular local practice - of earth sciences to India (characterized, for instance, by an emphasis on visual representations, and instrumental observations), which they had developed in the Alps, and which now should equally work in India and the Himalayas. Thus, the paper asks if the contradictory reception of their Indian expedition might also be interpreted as a failed attempt to internationalize this local practice of earth sciences.

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Using Science to Negotiate Local and Global Identities: the Receptions of Austro-Hungarian Polar Expeditions in 1874 and 1883
Ulrike Spring, Sogn og Fjordane University College, Norway When in August 1883 an Austro-Hungarian polar expedition came back after more than a year in the Arctic, the Viennese media celebrated its scientific achievements and underlined the bravery and audacity of its participants. Despite this praise, the media in general only showed lukewarm interest and quickly moved on to new topics. This differed widely from the reception the first AustroHungarian Arctic expedition had received on its return in 1874, where thousands of people and officials prepared a spectacular celebratory reception, accompanied by a huge and long-lasting media interest. In both receptions, the media accorded science a significant role, utilizing it to negotiate and affirm local and global cultural identities. Ideas of patriotic or nationalistic science were placed in a dynamic relationship with those of global science. There is however a marked shift in the reception discourses of 1874 and 1883, from an emphasis on science as an articulation of local and national identities to one of its relevance for humankind. Also in this discourse, polar science moved from being of general interest to becoming a niche for the specialists. The paper will discuss the reasons for these differences and trace the importance of changing contexts within the Austro-Hungarian double monarchy especially concerning the national question and the relationship between religion and science.

The Business of Scientific Expedition in the 19th c.

Karin Roth, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria The planning and organisation of scientific expeditions was a very complex and extensive business. Instead of the fact that persons in general did not travel on their own they had assistance of various political and intellectual parties and companies in the background. But the person who travelled as the head of an expedition demanded all the attention and achieved sustained success. Travelling to faraway countries evokes associations connected to an adventure: Through the special literature reporting about an expedition and through the leader of the expedition personally, in the way he performed in his function. This individualism is a European attitude, an attitude with which the discovering of new areas and the contact with indigenous people was shaped. But in fact there is a huge gap between this romantic and simplifying reception and the long and detailed organisation before a scientific expedition was started. All this planning and organisation was part of a cosmopolitan discourse of science. But was this enough to grant the real success of an expedition? There was no chance to gain it without the help of local cultural and ideological practices. Manpower was the most important fact to make a contribution to the achievement of the expedition. Even in nowadays business you can find this specific structure of a leader on the top of the company down to the wide level of manpower. This perspective applies very likely to the structure of a scientific expedition. My intent is to contrast the structure of a start up company concerning the division of work with the organisation and realisation of a scientific expedition; especially local practices are my matter of interest.. To show this comparison I will analyse two famous expeditions in comparison: the expeditions of David Livingston and of Heinrich Barth, who both travelled through Africa, but in very different ways. The visibility of manpower is rather easy to find concerning the entire organisation and planning before the expedition was started. As soon as local indigenous people were regarded, it is far from being seen as one important contribution of a successful 139

business; it is rather a hidden fact and even more difficult to find the aspect of an individual and personal manpower.

Organising Expeditions to the North American Arctic in the 19th c.: The practice of the British Navy and its Consequences on the Management of the Ships as Total Institutions
Barbara Bauer, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria In this paper, Erving Goffmans concept of "Total Institutions" is applied to ships of British Naval expeditions in search of the North-West passage in the 19th century. The paper examines in what respects Goffmans concept, which covers such diverse institutions as sanatoria, prisons, boarding schools and convents, is useful for understanding life on a discovery ship. Navy expeditions had a strict hierarchical organisation and fixed rules regulating every aspect of life on board. Matters of discipline rested with the commander of the expedition, and much depended on his personality, commitment and leadership qualities. The organisation of privately funded expeditions was usually less hierarchical, but of course they also had to take measures to ensure order and discipline on board. The paper looks at different aspects of everyday life on the ships, such as daily routine, accommodation, leisure activities, festivities, discipline and punishments. It examines what these aspects tell us about the underlying mechanisms of the Total Institution ship as well as addressing the question why internal regulations usually worked and what the reasons and consequences were if they did not. On Arctic voyages, the all-encompassing character of the "Total Institution" ship is particularly pronounced. The participants were arguably more willing to accept grievances because they saw no chance of survival outside the expedition, and conflicts and quarrels rarely escalated. In the paper, I will take a closer look at an exception from this rule, the voyage of Sir Edward Belcher (1852 1854), which, as far as human relations are concerned, was disastrous and provides an insight into what happened when the regulations of a "Total Institution" were perverted by its leader.

Anthropological Expeditions to Portuguese Timor: from Biological to Sociocultural Approach; form National to International Research
Cludia Castelo, Instituto de Investigao Cientfica Tropical, Portugal This paper intends to analyse the evolution of Anthropological Research in Portuguese Timor between the post-Second World War and 1975 (Indonesian occupation of Timor) and its 'opening' to the international scientific community. In 1953, within the Junta de Investigaes do Ultramar (Portuguese Overseas Research Board) was created the Misso Antropolgica de Timor (Timor Athropological Mission) that carried out three field campaigns (1953, 1957 and 1963). Directed by Antnio de Almeida, a physician that was also Professor of Physical Anthropology, the MAT made observation and register of anthropometric and physiological data, linguistic inquiries and, residually, ethnographical studies. The 'cultural turn' in East Timor Anthropological studies only occurred in the mid 60s and coincided with the 'opening' of that Portuguese colony to the international academic community, namely through the fieldwork of the French-Portuguese Ethnological Expedition to Timor, headed by Louis Berthe, and several expeditions carried out by anglophone researchers (e.g., David Hicks, Elizabeth Traube or Shepard Forman). Ruy Cinatti (1915-1986), a Portuguese poet, agronomist and ethnologist who lived and worked in Portuguese Timor as a colonial servant (1946-47; 1951-55) and studied Social Anthropology in the Oxford University with a JIU's grant (1957-58) played an important role in that process. As a JIU's researcher, besides doing extensive Ethnological research in Portuguese Timor (1961-62, 1966), he helped and stimulated foreign scientists and Ph.D. students to get to that territory to do intensive fieldwork. For the complete understanding of his action on must take into account the nationalistic 140

caracter of the Estado Novo [Portuguese ditatorship] scientific policy and the surveillance and constraints it imposed to foreign researchers.

Local and Global Contexts of the Archaeological Discovery P. Kozlovs Expedition to Mongolia and Sichuan (19071909)
Tatiana Yusupova, St. Petersburg Branch, Institute for the History of Science & Technology RAS, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation At the turn of the 20th century there was a kind of competition between researchers of the leading Western states in the investigation of Central Asia. During this period the outstanding archaeological discoveries were made by German, British, French, Russian, Japanese expeditions in this region. Solving their personal research problems each of these expeditions at the same time increased the political influence of their states in Central Asia. Extraordinary archaeological discovery made by Russian in this period was the excavations in the ruined ancient town Khara-Khoto in the southern Gobi by the Mongolia and Sichuan Expedition led by P. Kozlov. The numerous finds from Khara-Khoto allowed to reconstruct the history of the forgotten Xi-Xia state of the Tanguts that had existed for about 250 years (8921227) on the territory of the present-day Northern China. This discovery had an wide reaction of the European scientific community. P. Kozlov was awarded by London, Italian and Hungarian Geographic Societies, LInstitut de France. In 1925th the German traveller W. Filchner initiated the publication of Kozlovs book about Khara-Khoto in Berlin. The translator of this book was another explorer L. Breitfu, eminent Swedish traveller S. Hedin wrote an introduction to it. The expedition by A. Stein (1914), L. Warner (1923), S. Gedin (1927) continued the excavation in Khara-Khoto. As for Chinese archaeology, as a science it began to take shape later only at the turn of 1930th as a result of the penetration of Western ideas. The perception of the discovery made by Russian Explorer in China depended on international relations between China and Russia and it varied from sharply negative to positive. Today Chinese scholars actively study archaeological finds from Khara-Khoto together with Russian, European, Japanese and orean scientists.

Cave Expeditions in the early 20th c.: Social Hierarchy and the Exclusivity of the First Look
Johannes Mattes, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria At the beginning of the 20th century the speleology in Europe went through a radical change: Cave exploration was institutionalised as private clubs and governmental institutes, which were standing in a permanent competition. Since the 1870ies cave tourists of the urban civic elite were visiting the isolated karst regions. Step by step they began to attribute to themselves the name explorer. Simultaneously they claimed the right to have seen a cave for the first time. From expeditions of the 18th and 19th century, which consisted of an employer, a guide and carriers, new research groups were developed. On the principle of division of labour ostensible equal members were working together for the survey and documentation of caves. How is this change in the social structure of cave expeditions explainable? Did all expedition members participate in the interpretation of the subterranean places? Expedition diaries, exploration reports and photographic glass plates from the archives of the caving clubs in Vienna, Salzburg and Ebensee (Austria) were used as sources for my research. Some of them have not yet been examined in a professional historical way. The portrayal of explorers in cave photographs will be compared with former illustrations on paintings and engravings, furthermore the participant lists in several exploration reports will be analysed. The results suggest that the medium of photography and the improved caving equipment lead to an increased social disciplinary action within the research group. The strict division of labour between the cave explorers correspond to the social hierarchy of the members. 141

The foundation of caving clubs and their club officials can be also interpreted as an attempt to restore the former social hierarchy between employer, guide and carrier. Each penetration in the subterranean world is connected closely with the acts of naming, interpretation and ritual appropriation of the underground places, which can be seen in the context of naming and owning of colonial territories during the imperialism period.

Overcoming National Ambitions. Norwegian-Russian Cooperation in Polar Research Expeditions, 1917-1939

Kari Aga Myklebost, University of Troms, Troms, Norway Territorial expansionism and increased resource exploitation were common features of Norwegian and Soviet politics and scientific activity in the Arctic in the interwar period. This led to a chain of disputes, both over resources and sovereignty in different areas of the Arctic region. Still, there was room for cooperation inside the field of pure science, and traces of contacts and collaboration can be found primarily in the distinctive arctic research disciplines, such as polar geophysics and the study of arctic cultures. This is especially true of the period from the mid-1920s to the early 1930s, which was characterised by several attempts on scientific cooperation, in natural sciences as well as cultural research. This was made possible by the gradual stabilisation of Norwegian-Soviet political relations during the early 1920s, both on state level and in the Arctic (the Svalbard treaty of 1920; recovery of Norwegian state representation, in shape of a trade mission in Moscow from 1921; Norwegian de jure recognition of the Soviet government in 1924; and regulation of seal hunting in the Arctic seas through several conventions and agreements in 1925 and 1926). During the same period, the new Soviet regime established a row of institutions, all aimed at the development and administration of the vast northern areas. An important motive was realisation of what was perceived as the unused economic potential of the north, i.e. natural resources. Also in Norway a system of state financed mapping and research in the Arctic regions developed. The dominant national perspective of these new arctic research and administrative institutions has spurred historians into characterising the activity as territorial and industrial expansionism; still, we do find examples of Norwegian-Soviet scientific contacts and cooperation inside the framework of these institutions. Moreover, international organisations and venues such as the International Meteorological Organisation and the Second IPY 1932-33 served as contacts points strengthening transnational polar research.

Bathyscaphes and Big Science: Oceanography and Exploration, 1945-1960

Peder Roberts, Sweden When the Danish marine biologist Anton Bruun (1900-1961) returned home in 1952 after the highly successful Galathea expedition, the tradition of exploration that his venture embodied was already passing into history. During the decade that followed oceanographic exploration became associated more with international cooperation -- for logistical as much as political reasons -- while the leadership of the Nordic countries faded as the Cold War became entrenched. This paper pays close attention to the political as well as the scientific and technical reasons for these shifts. I argue that the shifting geopolitical landscape of the 1950s shaped the landscape for oceanography in diverse ways, from framing the possibilities for international cooperation (and competition) to opening new funding avenues. This went far beyond the sphere of narrowly military activities. Although the imperative to survey and control the oceans led to increased funding for physical oceanography, issues such as radioactive waste dumping, food security, and even the basic natural historical interest in locating new species opened space for marine biologists to benefit. Nor did the Cold Wars geopolitical impact end with the superpowers: decolonization changed the dynamics of international 142

cooperation, as did the emergence of new international bodies such as UNESCO. As the 1950s ended and bathyscaphes even replaced ships as the most 'sexy' vehicles for oceanographic exploration, the change since 1945 was clear even though oceanography remained both practically and rhetorically linked to exploration.

It had to be us: the Geological Expedition to Goa Made by the Portuguese Board for Colonial Research in 1960
Teresa Salom Mota, Inter University Center of History of Science and Technology, Braga, Portugal In 1960, the Portuguese Board for Colonial Research organised a team intended to study the geology of Goa, a Portuguese colonial possession in India. The team, composed mainly by geologists and fieldworkers, surveyed Goa under the supervision of Carlos Teixeira, a leading Portuguese geologist. From Teixeiras notebooks, it is possible to reconstruct the scientific and social routes done by the team: the pages are filled not only with Goa geological characterization but also with individual and institutional contacts. Questions related to the colonial empire were particular significant and a vehicle for nationalist rhetoric for 20th century Portuguese political regimes, namely the First Republic and the dictatorship known as Estado Novo. Much historical bibliography has been produced on this subject; however, studies dedicated to the scientific occupation of Portuguese colonial possessions are rare. By relaying on a case study, this work aims to analyse and understand the web of scientific and social relations that allowed the geological team to fulfil its mission in Goa in the context of the Estado Novo colonial politics. Simultaneously, it shows that the geological survey of Goa was intended as an evidence of the effective occupation of the territory by the Portuguese State at a time when colonial possessions in India were under threat. It also sustains that the geological expedition to Goa is a particularly revealing episode in the construction and affirmation process of a geological community in Portugal.

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SYMPOSIUM 24

The Exact Sciences in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Modern and Contemporary Ages
Organizers Maria Teresa Borgato, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy Christine Phili, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece The eastern part of the Mediterranean, for centuries a highly contended borderland area between the Ottoman Empire and the Christian powers, was home to emigration and exchanges. From the XVI to XIX centuries important cultural exchanges, which involved the exact sciences and their teaching, took place here with Italy, the German speaking countries and Russia on one side, and, on the other, Greece, the Dalmatian cities (Ragusa etc.), the Ionian islands, Crete and the European countries under the Ottoman Empire. The cultural exchanges between the East and the West followed in the footsteps of commercial exchanges at whose centre were to be found the marine republics of Genoa and Venice. The old universities and academies of Venice and Padua constituted the meeting points for scholars from Greece, the islands in the Aegean and Adriatic Seas as well as from the Balkans. The Adriatic was host to many important cultural exchanges drawing, to Padua, such men as Francesco Patrizi of Cherso, Giuseppe Tartini from Istria and Simone Stratico from Zara. The free city of Ragusa was the birthplace of Marino Ghetaldi and Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich. In the first half of the nineteenth century, the Ionian islands (Corfu) housed an important Academy, first French (Charles Dupin was its Secretary), and successively English. It became a meeting point for scientists who had been forced to leave Italy during the years of the Restoration period: Francesco Orioli, Giovanni Battista Moratelli, and Ottaviano Fabrizio Mossotti. The interest in the Balkans on the part of the great European powers like Russia, Austria, France and England, brought about new relations with these countries after the Napoleonic period. After obtaining its independence, Greece created a polytechnic school whose scholars looked to France and Germany for guidance. The aim of the symposium is to reconstruct this complex network of relations through the emerging scientific figures in the mathematical and physical sciences.

Francesco Patrizi, Humanist and Scientist in the Late Renaissance

Alessandra Fiocca, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy The Late Renaissance saw a profound change in the overlapping of competencies among professional categories: philosophers, engineers and architects, mathematics and astronomy teachers at the Academies, Universities and Religious Colleges. There are several examples of mathematics teachers and philosophers engaged in technical fields and, vice-versa, technicians with a scientific and mathematical background deeply rooted in classical antiquity. Francesco Patrizi (Cres 1529-Rome 1597), who taught Platonic Philosophy at the Universities of Ferrara and Rome, is well known for his violent anti-peripatetic debate found in his four-volume work Discussiones peripateticae. From 1577 to 1592 Patrizi was in Ferrara at the Court of the Este family. This was his most prolific period intellectually when he developed and completed his project to renew philosophy by rediscovering the Platonic, neo-Platonic and Hermetic tradition. 144

He is also well known as a collector of Greek manuscripts, now preserved at El Escorial Library, but there is also a technical profile which was brought to light in 1975 by Danilo Aguzzi Barbagli who published some of Patrizis as yet unpublished works. Recently, other manuscripts by Patrizi have been found and published regarding hydraulic matters in Ferrara among these, a work entitled Dialogo nel quale si tratta delle cause dellatterazione del Po di Ferrara, dellorigine dei fiumi, et altri accidenti (Dialogue which treats the causes of the silting of Ferraras Po River, the origin of the rivers and other accidents) which provides some insights into experimental methodology.

Marinus Ghetaldus and Vites ars analytica

Paolo Freguglia, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy Marinus Ghetaldus or Ghetaldi (Marin Getaldic) was born in Dubrovnik (or Ragusa in Dalmatia now Croatia) in 1568 where he also died in 1637. From 1597 he visited various European countries. In particular he went to Rome where he attended lectures by Christopher Clavius. Afterwards, he stayed in England for two years and then he studied at Antwerp with Michel Coignet. He went to Paris in 1600 where he met Franois Vite and he studied his ars analytica . Ghetaldis works are: Promotus Archimedes seu de variis corporum generibus gravitate et magnitudine comparatis which appeared in Rome in 1603 (on the physics of Archimedes), Nonnullae propositiones de parabola, published in Rome in 1603 (Claviuss influence), Apollonius redivivus seu restituta Apollonii Pergaei inclinationum geometria and Supplementum Apollonii Galli seu exsuscitata Apollonii Pergaei tactionum geometriae pars reliqua, both in Venice in 1607 (Vites influence) and a pamphlet Variorum problematum collectio (1607). Another reconstruction of works of Apollonius was Apollonius redivivus. Seu Restituta Apollonii Pergaei De inclinationibus geometriae liber secundus (1613), and De resolutione et de compositione mathematica, libri quinque published in 1630. The latter book is the object of our analysis and of a comparison between Vite and Ghetaldi concerning the ars analytica . With regard to Vietes method, it may be said that Viete explains in Isagoge Chap. I (De Definitione et Partitione Analyseos, et de iis quae juvant Zeteticen) three methodological phases, namely. Analysis (or Resolutio), Synthesis (or Compositio) and Retica exegetica (numerical or geometrical interpretations). The latter constitutes the novelty when compared with classical tradition. Viete only quotes Plato and Theon explicitly. However, a zeteticum is a problem that is an application of analysis methodus. By means of a philological analysis and historical considerations it is useful to see how Marino Ghetaldi explicitly explains Vietes methodological phases. According to Viete, analysis is constituted by zetetics (where we find, for instance, a proportion, quae invenitur aequalitatis proportiove magnitudinis) and by the poristics, where, subsequently, a new equality is opened (quae de aequalitate vel proportione ordinate theorematis veritas examinatur).

The Contribution of the Mercantile World to the Spreading of Mathematical Education in Ioannina during the Period of the Ottoman Occupation
Anastasia Tsigoni, Greece The spreading of mathematics and the cultivation of mathematical education in the Greek lands during the Ottoman occupation, has its beginnings in the Schools of Hellenism which were functioning at Ioannina. The teaching of Mathematics was introduced and gradually established from the middle of the 17th century in the Schools in Ioannina and about half a century later, in schools of other occupied Greek cities. The pioneering role of Ioannina in the establishment of the teaching of Mathematics in the city schools may only be interpreted through a correlation with social stratification, as this had developed in the city of Ioannina in the 17th century. The bourgeois merchant class - which began to be formed in the capital city of Epirus from the end of the 16th century - greatly contributed to the advancement of education in general, and more particularly to mathematical education. The merchants of Ioannina in the 17th and 18th centuries, 145

either lived and worked mainly in Western Europe, or, they visited the city frequently in the course of their business. They were, however, in contact with the "ideological climate" of the "enlightened Europe" and they attempted to transplant the "climate" of European culture into the Greek intellectual world. For this purpose they established Schools and pursued the rebirth of education and culture through a change from the clearly moralistic character to more practical levels based on European prototypes. Their motives, other than their desire to improve the sub standard intellectual level of the Greek Nation, were also based on the needs of their class. The Europeanized merchant classes were fully aware of the important contribution of Mathematics to the successful performance of commercial techniques and, because of this, they fully supported the teaching and propagation of Mathematics. Splendid Greek educational institutions were established by merchants through donations of substantial sums of money. A fundamental requirement for the operation of such Schools was the teaching of the "Sciences". Mathematics was taught at the "School of Epiphaneios" which was in operation from 1688, at the "School of Gionmas" which started between 1676 and 1680, at the "Maroutseios School which was founded in 1740, at the "Kaplaneios School (formerly Maroutseios) which was operative from 1805, right up to the Eve of The Struggle for Independence. Great Men of Letters of the Greek Nation such as Methodios Anthrakites, Anastasios Papavasilopoulos, Vasilopoulos and Cosmas Balanos, Tryfonas Metsovites, Evgenios Voulgaris, Athanasios Psalidas, taught, compiled notes for their students and translated mathematical works into Greek.

Boscovich as Mathematician and his Italian Pupils

Luigi Pepe, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy Boscovich was a professor of mathematics in the Collegio Romano for about twenty years, from 1741 to 1760. The list of Boscovichs best Italian pupils, which completes the work, is much longer than the chronological collocation of the "Elementa Universae Matheseos" in the last years of the Company of Jesus before its suppression (1773). Carlo Benvenuti, born in Livorno, had begun his novitiate with the Jesuits in Rome, he then taught in Fermo and later returned to Rome. He was a highly regarded lecturer but exposed himself to church censorship with two Latin papers on Newtonian physics (1754) that were clearly influenced by Boscovichs works. After the suppression of the order he took refuge in Poland, where he kept on defending the Society and claiming the non-validity of the Papal Bull of suppression in the lands of the Russian Empire. He died in Warsaw. Francesco Luino had an eventful life. Born in Luino on Lake Maggiore, he entered the Jesuit College of Brera where he was a pupil of Giovanni Antonio Lecchi for mathematics, and there he met Boscovich, who was a teacher in Pavia at that time (1764). In the appendix of Luinos mathematical work, "Delle progressioni e serie libri due" (Milan, 1767) there are two memoirs by Boscovich, one about the way to avoid negative logarithms and one about raising to powers of a polynomial series. Luino taught elementary geometry and physics at the University of Pavia. Luinos "Meditazione filosofica" came out anonymously in Pavia in 1778 and was condemned by the Church and placed on the Index. Luino lost the chair, and was substituted by Carlo Barletti, (whose place was then taken by Alessandro Volta). In 1783 Luino began a journey in Europe which was described in a volume of "Lettere a diversi amici" (Pavia, 1785). Luigi Panizzoni played an important role in the reconstruction of the Society of Jesus. After the canonical suppression of the order he moved to Byelorussia where Catherine II refused to enforce the papal brief of suppression of the Society (1773). Panizzoni was sent to Parma in 1793, with the aim of re-establishing the order in the dukedom. In 1800 Panizzoni sent to Pio VII, the newly-elected Pope, a "Supplica per ottenere lestensione e la dilatazione della Compagnia di Ges fuori dei confini della Russia". 146

Applied Mathematics in Boscovichs Papers

Maria Giulia Lugaresi, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy The Jesuit, Ruggiero Giuseppe Boscovich (1711-1787), was Professor of Mathematics in the Roman College from 1741 to 1760. He wrote many important papers on geometry, physics, optics and astronomy. From 1742, Boscovich began to undertake work as consultant on applied mathematics, firstly on behalf of the Papal State, and then, as his reputation grew, on behalf of the principle Italian courts. In his first public office, Boscovich was required to give his opinion on the stability of St. Peters dome in Rome. Many papers on applied mathematics, especially hydraulics, followed this first consultation on an architectural work. In 1750 he was commissioned to measure the meridian between Rome and Rimini. Boscovich travelled to the lands of the Papal State with Father Christopher Maire, cartographer and astronomer. The journey took place between October 1750 and November 1752. In the same years, Boscovich was asked for his first works on the science of waters: an examination of the passonate of the Fiumicino harbour (the passonate were made up of wood stakes that were knocked in the ground to regulate the path of the river), the regulation of the course of the Tiber, and the access to the Valleys of Comacchio. The science of waters in the 18th century was a subject that still lacked clear rules, and the figure of an engineer to deal with the regulation of the rivers did not exist, so mathematicians were called in as experts in hydraulics. In this field Boscovich displayed all his talent. He wrote reports on the regulation of some rivers (the Tiber, Po, Adige) and streams, the reclamation of extensive marshlands (the Pontine marshes in Latium, the lake of Bientina in Tuscany), but his main contributions concerned the settlement of harbours placed at the river mouth (Fiumicino, Magnavacca, Rimini, Savona). From the second half of the 18th century Boscovich addressed his studies to applied mathematics, astronomy, optics and hydraulics. He collected his work on optics and astronomy in the Opera pertinentia ad opticam et astronomiam (Bassano, 1785), but was unable to make a collection of all his papers on hydraulics before he died. The National Edition of Boscovichs works and correspondence has been promoted by the Astronomical Observatory of Brera, the National Academy of XL, the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts and the Pontifical Gregorian University and is coordinated by Prof. Edoardo Proverbio (www.edizionenazionaleboscovich.it). Boscovichs works on hydraulics, edited by Prof. Luigi Pepe and myself, will be included in the National Edition.

River Hydraulics in the Napoleonic Period: the Role of Simone Stratico

Maria Teresa Borgato, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy Simone Stratico (1733- 1824) was the reference figure for the old Republic of Venice, on all matters concerning naval construction and practical hydraulics. In the Napoleonic Period he was appointed important responsibilities in the management of the waterways of the Po Valley: in my speech I will focus on this scientific and administrative activity. Stratico, born in Zara to a Venetian family of Crete, completed his higher education in Padua where he began his academic career with a teaching post in medicine. After a long journey to London and other European countries to gather information on shipyards and naval colleges, his contributions were decisive in re-launching naval construction studies in Venice, and he took up the chair in mathematics and naval theory at the University of Padua. He was charged to examine an important and controversial project for the reconstruction of the River Brenta. During the brief democratic period (28th August 1797 16th January 1798) Stratico, who, during the last years of the Venetian Republic, had shown sympathy for the Jacobin cause, became part of the 147

government of the city of Padua. Having been banned twice from his chair and the city, as the Austrian and Napoleonic troops alternated in power, he was then called to Milan, the seat of central government of the Cisalpine Republic (1797), to teach at the University of Pavia and take part in the Hydraulics Commission charged with the drawing up of a new regulatory plan for rivers. With the proclamation of the Italian Republic (1802), then the Kingdom of Italy (1805), Stratico was nominated national expert in hydraulics, so he left university teaching. From 1803-06 he presided over a new commission (based in Modena), appointed to examine the many serious hydraulic issues in the Po Valley (the marshlands of the Veronesi Valeys, and those surrounding the town of Bondeno, the intromission of the Reno into the Po, the drainage of the Polesine, a port at the mouth of the river for Padan navigation), problems unresolved by the old Italian states, whose vision was often limited by their regional concerns. The chance to define an overall plan was, at that time, within the grasp of scientists and administrators, all figures and competences which in the Napoleonic period, had often been concentrated in a single individual, as was the case of Stratico. even before the Fall of Constantinople in 1453; a subject that warrants further research.

Simone Stratico and Naval Science in Padua and Venice

Elena Granuzzo, Padua University, Padua, Italy One of the most interesting and fascinating figures still to investigate and analyze in terms of the vast fields of interest and cultural and intellectual involvement, is Simone Stratico (Zara, 1733 Milan, 1824). He began his academic career in 1757 by lecturing in theoretical medicine at Padua University. Stratico went on a diplomatic mission to London from 1761 to 1764, in order to collect information on naval colleges and shipyards. On his return he took the chair of mathematics and nautical theory, previously held by Giovanni Poleni, his teacher, and promoted the introduction of a new school of shipbuilding in 1765 at the Arsenale. In 1778 Stratico was responsible for teaching experimental physics, taking Polenis place in the chair of pure and applied mathematics, nautical and experimental physics, which he held until 1787. In 1813 he published a Naval Dictionary in three languages: Italian, French, and English, which is still remembered in the history of naval terminology. His efforts for the progressive establishment of schools of naval architecture were fundamental. As early as 1745, the urgent need for a school of nautical theory and naval architecture in Padua had been stressed. The opening of a school of naval architecture and nautical theory at the Arsenal of Venice was also decreed (begun in 1777) with a "physical-mathematical course of studies related to naval architecture" for the last six years, under the guidance of Gianmaria Maffioletti but following Straticos suggestions. Straticos commitment to a more modern and efficient mode of teaching is highlighted by his efforts to equip the University with adequate laboratories and scientific instruments, for which he personally prepared the models. For example, he provided models of scientific instruments necessary for his Navigation Theory courses at Pavia University, as demonstrated by seven watercolor drawings dated 1803. We can also see the long and detailed list of Models, Equipment and Instruments for a Navigation School to be opened in Milan, showing his awareness of the importance of having very good examples of ship models. The purpose of this work is therefore to: 1. analyze and contextualize Straticos modern teaching and actions 2. see how he moved to establish a chair of nautical theory in Padua and a school of naval architecture in Venice 3. study in detail how his teaching of nautical theory was structured 4. analyze the instruments adopted: models, drawings, laboratories, etc. 148

5. establish which areas of naval science were most studied by Stratico 6. understand the modernity of his Naval Dictionary and other nautical works he published.

Les Mathmatiques l Acadmie Ionienne

Christine Phili, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece Quelques annes aprs l occupation des les ioniennes par les anglais, fut fonde la seconde Acadmie Ionienne en Mai 1824. Le crateur de la nouvelle Acadmie, l`homme qui a voulu reconstituer l`Acadmie de Platon tait un noble anglais, excentique certes mais un grand philhellne galement, Frederic North, 5eme comte de Guilford (1766-1827). C`est lui qui a conu les bases profondes sur lesquelles l`esprit grec devait se replacer pour revivre et refleurir. Lors le Congrs de Vienne, en 1815, lord Guilford avait eu des entretiens avec Capodistria sur le systme ducatif des les ioniennes. Les expriences de Capodistria de 1800 1807 ont grandement facilit le plan du lord. Quelques annes plus tard, en 1820, Lord Guilford fut nomm chancelier (). Ds 1820, le reprsent officiel de la couronne britannique sur les questions ducatives, travaillait l`laboratioon de son rve. L`Acadmie Ionienne, le nouveau berceau des lettres et de sciences, fut crer par l`Assemble legislative dans l`le de Corfou, en 1823. L`Acadmie se divisa en quatre facults : Thologie, Droit, Mdecine, Philosophie. Cependant ces quatre facults ne fonctionnrent pas toutes en mme temps. Ainsi durant l`anne universitaire 1824-1825, seulement deux facults fonctionnaient : celle de Thologie et celle de Philosophie. C`est Guilford, le crateur gnreux de cette institution qui avait form et nomm les premiers enseignants. Plusieurs d`entre eux avaient tudi l`tranger, boursiers de Guilford. En Novembre de 1823 a commenc l`enseignement gnral priv. Les premiers professeurs ont commenc leur enseignement avec 150 lves. Les cours couvraient tous les domaines du savoir : grec ancien, latin, anglais, littrature, histoire, rhtorique, mathmatiques, botanique, philosophie et thologie. Aprs ces cours d initiation, avaient lieu les examens d`entre au cycle prparatoire. Guilford, Chancelier de l`Universit a fait publier dans la Gazzetta degli Stati Uniti delle Isole Ionie la proclamation officielle des examens; tous les jeunes gens qui dsirent entrer l`Universit doivent subir des examens, qui auront lieu Mardi et Samedi de 10 12 le matin, la rsidence du lord. Lord Guilford a voulu pratiquement transplanter dans l`le l`atmosphre de l`universti d`Oxford des assistants (tutors) chargs de la prparation des candidats ainsi qu`un examen l`oxfordien, examen public compltaient le cadre. Plus prcisment le journal officiel, la Gazzetta, informait que les tudiants du professeur Carandinos ont t examin en arithmtique, cours prparatoire l`tude de l`algbre la rsidence du lord Guilford Outre lord Guilford, l`auditoire comprenait le commandant militaire, le prsident du Snat, l`archivque de Corfou et d`autres personnalits de l`le. La facult de Philosophie comprenait une grande varit des matires : philosophie, histoire, mathmatiques. Cette appartenance des mathmatiques la philosophie rsonne le systme ducatif de l Acadmie platonicienne. Platon, se distinguant des Pythagoriciens qui mettaient sur le mme plan les mathmatiques et la philosophie, engage l enseignement des mathmatiques dans une voie diffrente. Les mathmatiques, cest dire l arithmtique, la gomtrie, lastronomie, la thorie de l harmonie cours quon retrouve sous le nom de quadrivium au moyen-ge- nest quune science indispensable certes, mais intermdiaire qui conduit lintellect la dialectique. Les mathmatiques sont des outils ncessaires par lesquelles le penseur peut approcher le concept du bien. Ainsi la facult au philosophie, par voie danalogie, se rvle conforme la tradition platonicienne; lenseignement de mathmatiques va rjoindre et renforcer ltude de la philosophie. Aprs la mort premature de Carandinos la chaire des mathmatiques reste vacante et son lve brillant Jean Contouris n`enseigne que la trigonomtrie de 1833 1836. Ainsi aprs lui, le profil mathmatique l`Acadmie se modifia. Dans le discours inaugural pour l`anne (1835-36) prononc par Gaetano Grassetti professeur de littrature latine et italienne nous trouvons l`ide de propager 149

les mathmatiques appliques Acadmie; ces cours, pense Grassetti sont utiles la mcanique et la science nautique Durant cette mme sance inaugurale Essopios, professeur de grec, dans son discours intitul Sur les progrs de Nations annonce que la chaire des mathmatiques est vacante et que le gouvernement a invit des professeurs d`Italie pour faire acte de canditature Ottavio Mossoti fut le succeseur de Carandinos, et il enseigna lanalyse suprieure, la mcanique et lastronomie Acadmie de 1830 1847.

Ottaviano Fabrizio Mossotti from Corfu to Pisa

Iolanda Nagliati, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy Ottaviano Fabrizio Mossotti (1791-1863) was an Italian physicist, astronomer and mathematician, and professor at the University of Pisa from 1840. He is well known for his scientific works, but also for his contribution to the unification of Italy as Major of the Tuscan University Battalion in 1848, Senator of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Kingdom of Italy. He was also a leading figure, together with his student and colleague, Enrico Betti, of the mathematical school in Pisa. After graduating at Pavia University in 1811 under the supervision of Vincenzo Brunacci, he worked in the Brera Observatory, but his politically liberal attitude forced him to leave the country, going first to London and then, from 1827, to Buenos Aires, where he became a topographical engineer and professor of physics, making an important contribution to the development of scientific structures. In 1835 he tried to come back to Italy, to the Bologna Observatory, but his nomination was impeded by the Austrian authorities. He choose Corfu, where he began teaching mathematics in 1837, with Francesco Orioli, as professor of physics. While in Corfu he wrote some interesting papers and maintained relationships with the Italian scientific community; he was the University representative at the second Congress of Italian scientists, held in Turin in 1840. In this communication I will present some documents concerning the passage of Mossotti from Corfu to Pisa, with particular attention to his role in the reform of the University that took place in that period, bringing Pisa to a leading role in Italian mathematical research after the unification. New teachings of applied mathematics, higher analysis and geometry were established in the Faculty of Sciences to replace the old Collegio degli artisti (College of the artists) where physics and mathematics were taught following the medieval pattern, and the need of high level teachers allowed Mossotti to fulfil his desire to come back to his country.

Mathematics in Odessa University in the last third of the XIX century in the international context
Serguei Sergueevich Demidov, S.I. Vavilov Institut for the History of Science and Technology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation In this period mathematics in Russia developed within the atmosphere of conflict between the two principal national schools Petersburgian and Moscovite. The Novorussian University was created in 1865 in Odessa and was also involved in this rivalry but, to a certain extent, it remained independent, as, for example, in the option of its researches. Many western trends (mathematical logic, foundation of mathematics etc.) came to Russia through Odessa. The purpose of this paper is to examine the international relations of Odessian mathematicians in the last third of the XIX century and their influence on the development of mathematics in Russia.

A Major Greek Contribution to the American War of Independence

Stefanos Geroulanos, Greece 150

In 1714/15 Jacovos Pylarinos from Cephalonia and Emmanuel Timonis from Chios independently published, in the Philosophical Transactions of London, two papers in Latin describing variolation, a method for immunization against smallpox (variola), that was in common use among the Christian population of Greece. This method was thereafter propagated in England through the famous letters of the British ambassadors wife in Constantinople, Lady Mary Wortley Montague. The book of Pylarinos, published in Venice in 1715, was then translated into several languages and the method spread throughout the world. At the time of the American War of Independence (1775-83) the method was not yet widely known in North America. Washingtons army had suffered major loses in 1776. Around 1000 were killed in action, while those dying of disease mostly smallpox- totaled 10,000. While trying to put together an army with soldiers that had already survived smallpox, Washington heard from his servant that he had been inocculated against smallpox. Immediately upon arrival in Morristown on 6.1.1777, Washington wrote to Dr. W. Shippen Jr., who was in charge of the hospitals west of the Hudson River. Finding the smallpox to be spreading fast, and fearing that no precaution could prevent it from running through the whole army, I have determined that the troops shall be inoculated. (R. Stark). Later on he wrote to Governor Trummbull inoculation at Philadelphia and in its neighborhood has been attended by amazing success The liberation of Philadelphia in the middle of a smallpox epidemic was only successful due to the inoculation, and this two decades before E. Jenners discovery of the vaccination method. The data were published later by R. Stark: Immunization Saves Washingtons Army, and are well known. However the cross-linking to the Greek contribution and publications in the Philosophical Transactions of London in 1714/15 are not well known. It shows that the American War of Independence was, at least in part, successful due to the medical discovery and publications of J. Pylarinos & E. Timonis. Pylarinos even speaks of the Byzantine immunization method, suggesting that the method was known.

Meteorology and Climatology in 19th c. Greece

George N. Vlahakis, Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece The study of the weather and the climate was, among others, of great importance for the newly independent Greek state in the 19th century. This study aims to discuss the reasons which made the knowledge of the weather and climatic conditions so important in relation to the formation of the Greek national identity and the scientific level of such knowledge as it appears in the relevant literature. For many scientists the climate of Greece was used as proof for the continuity of the presence of Greece in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula which dated back to antiquity. As early as 1841, for example, the physician Constantine Mavrogiannis published a book entitled Observations on the Climate of Athens. Several other scientists, among them Georgios Vouris, director of the National Observatory, also worked for the development of the fields of Meteorology and Climatology in Greece. Of some importance is also the presentation of a relevant book written (or translated) in Greek by the Bulgarian physicist Peter Beron, who published it during his stay in Greece in 1851 following the invitation of the Physiographical Society of Athens which was very prestigious at that time. We also intend to present and discuss the relevant articles and information published in the popular journals like Parnassos, Estia, Pandora etc. as an indication of the interest in these sciences as shown by a wider public.

The End of the University of Smyrna Project and its Repercussion on Greek Educational Institutions

151

Theodora Arampatzi, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece The purpose of this paper is to show the end of Constantin Carathodorys project concerning the University of Smyrna. This institution, unique in the Region of Asia Minor, covered an extensive spectrum of Pure and Applied Sciences.Had the University operated, it would have consisted of the following schools:School of Natural Science and High Commercial Studies, School of Engineering (for training engineers of roads and bridges, metallurgists, architects, electricians, and mechanical engineers), School of Agricultural Studies, and School of Ethnology. The events of 1922 did not allow the implementation of this project. However, the deeply rooted reactions coming from both the academic and the political world in Greece that prevented the completion of the University. From 1917, after he had been elected Prime Minister for the second time, Eleftherios Venizelos, who had a liberal educational vision and programme in mind, sought to come in contact with distinguished Greek professors who could contribute to the fulfillment of his intentions. In 1919, he met Carathodory in Paris, where his primary concern was the organization and establishment of a new Greek university, in an effort to extend the borders of Hellenism. He suggests the institution of the University of Ionia based on the expansion of the Greek state and on the undisputed fact that the Greek world was the mediator between the Slavic and Turk-Arabic world and the West. After the Balkan War and World War I, the Greek Army took control of the Ionian coast. The Greek Government established the Smyrna High Commission to administer the region. The High Commission under Aristides Stergiadis had a wealth of economic resources which were set at the disposal of the University for its organization and operation. The contract between the High Commissioner and Carathodory was signed on October 28th 1920. According to that contract, he was assigned the Presidency of the University of Smyrna for five years on a monthly payment of 4,000 drachmas. His assignment was validated with a subsequent act of the High Commission. The original plans provide for the establishment of Schools relevant to the development of the region as a key point for Greeks overseas, while at the final stage of the construction works the University was believed to be equal to the greatest European Universities. The language spoken was Greek on special occasions, Turkish, too, while the use of other languages was not excluded. Today, the building of the University of Smyrna is a Turkish Girls Secondary School Carathodory's tragic return to Greece was coupled with the feeling of personal failure, and political turmoil. He never referred to the dream lost again.

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SYMPOSIUM 25

The Next Science of Humankind. Myths and Histories of the Neurosciences

Organizers Jean Gael Barbara, CNRS, Paris, France Fabio De Sio, Institut fr Geschichte der Medizin, Uniklinikum Dusseldorf, Germany According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Neurosciences made its appearance only fifty years ago, in the first issue of the Neurosciences Research Program Bulletin. Like other scientific revolutions of the XX Century (most notably cybernetics and molecular biology), the Neurosciences were born as a substantially interdisciplinary and international endeavour, through the cooperation of scholars of diverse origins (from zoology to computer science, from psychology to biochemistry) and provenance. The early historical overviews of the field point at some main features of its development: the importance of technological advances; the role of simple models (conceptual, physical and animal) in bridging of gaps between previously unrelated phenomena and perspectives; the intrinsic interdisciplinary and variously reductionistic nature of the field and, finally, its cultural relevance as the possible cornerstone of a general unified science to come, a science attacking the ultimate goal of all science and philosophy how does the mind/brain work!. To a certain extent, the recent historiography of the neurosciences seems to have taken the bulk of those claims at face value, in diverging ways and with specific agendas, i.e., in order to substantiate them, sanctifying the stillborn science, or to disprove or contextualize them, showing how certain concerns, visions, ways of knowing and doing found their underpinnings at a deeper social, political or ideological level. With few meaningful exceptions, the present mainstream view of the neurosciences qua multidisciplinary approach to the mind/brain/behaviour has informed the relative historiography and philosophy, especially as regards the concern for a feared appropriation of the question of human nature, behaviour and values. The papers in this session aim at questioning the neurosciences as a unified approach to the mind/brain historically, i.e. by contrasting the multi-faceted and diverging histories of the neurosciences with the myth of THE Neurosciences. A historical gaze on the contingency of the development and definition of the neurosciences may contribute to the appreciation of the actual heterogeneity of the field (in terms of practices, systems, rationalities, philosophical claims) and of its cultural value at large.

Deconstructing the Science of Mind: Interdisciplinary Roots of Neurosciences at the Example of Gestalt Psychology in the Weimar Academic Culture
Anna Perlina, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin, Germany Nowadays, Neurosciences is a research domain laying at the intersection of a number of disciplines, including psychology, philosophy, neurobiology, computer science etc. Interdisciplinarity is probably the most obvious and striking characteristics of this field of research. Against this background, my contribution explores the roots of Neurosciences and traces them back to the constitution of the psychological discipline in Germany before World War II. In the Weimar academic culture, experimental Psychology was nourished not only by philosophical and physiological impact but also by the then-flourishing natural sciences, particularly physics. I demonstrate that interdisciplinarity 153

was an inherent feature of Psychology, the parent discipline of Neurosciences, as early as in the 1920s. Particular attention is paid to the Gestalt school of psychology that was one of the most successful and influential psychological schools of the Weimar period. Most importantly, however, the Gestalt psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Khler, Kurt Koffka and Kurt Lewin developed a holistic psychological agenda, which was eclectic in theory and experimental practice. I take a close look at the work of Kurt Lewin, tracing his concepts and research practices of the 1920s and 1930s up to its interdisciplinary origins. Eventually, my contribution treats the diversity of the Science of Mind at the level of its conceptual structure. Focusing upon the example of Lewins work, I show how interdisciplinary conceptual bricks were integrated into one sophisticated system of concepts and made instrumental for research on mind and behavior.

Doctrinal Disputations. Brain, the Unicity of Man and the Origin of the Neurosciences
Fabio De Sio, Institut fr Geschichte der Medizin, Uniklinikum Dusseldorf, Germany Despite their relatively young age, the modern Neurosciences have acquired in the past decades a central stand in contemporary biomedicine, branching out in innumerable fields (like economics, aesthetics, religious experience etc.) traditionally considered a reserve of the human sciences. This was perceived by some as a sort of cultural imperialism, an attempt at reducing the ineffable mystery of being human to a matter of neuronal connections and membrane potentials. The term Brainhood was coined to indicate the anthropological figure resulting from the reduction of the living subject to its brain. By exploring some of the early history (1940s-1960s) of modern Neuroscience in Great Britain and the USA, this paper aims at sketching a story parallel to that of the progressive neuralization/naturalization of behaviour. The paper will focus on some early controversies over the nature and causes of human behaviour, and especially on the question of the difference between humans and the rest of the animals, paying attention to the gradient of positions between the outspoken fideistic denial of the brain/self identity (e.g. JC Eccles, D.M. McKay) and the other extreme, the attempt at building mechanical models of the brain and of behaviour (e.g. J.Z. Young). Inbetween the extremes lie a series of ideological, epistemological and methodological stands (as expressed in the interest for the neurological correlates of religious experience or for ESP) that complicate the monolithic picture of the sciences of the brain, while showing all the complexities of their cultural descent.

Glimpses of Early Cognitive Neuroscience

Marjorie Lorch, University of London, London, UK This paper will consider the interdisciplinary meetings of clinicians, experimentalists and theoreticians investigating the brain mechanisms underlying language which took place in the 1950s1960s. There were a number of interdisciplinary meetings in this period which explored questions regarding the relation between developments in linguistics and language science to those in psychology and neurology. These were funded by and located in a number of universities and foundations, which linked people doing animal experiments and those working with neurological patients. The intention was to create and facilitate a network of people which converging interest in shared research questions but employing diverse methodologies. One outcome was the founding of the Academy of Aphasia which was a closed group made up of equal numbers of clinicians, therapists and scientists. Another was the establishment of new interdisciplinary research groups including those within the Veterans Administration Medical Centers in the USA to deal with the growing groups of patients with neurological disorders, notably the Aphasia Research Group in the Boston. At the same time several new journals were founded to provide publication outlets for this new community of research such as Cortex and Neuropsychologia. This period saw the creation of a diverse community of scholars with a new focus in cognitive neuroscience. 154

Local Currents in Transnational Mediation

Cornelius Borck, University of Luebeck, Luebeck, Germany The sciences are auto-critical practices that derive some of their productivity from divergent specializations and local specificities, allowing for ever new approaches and unexpected turns. This applies particularly to the neurosciences, a declaredly interdisciplinary field from the beginnings. Building on the historical case study of different lines of electrophysiological research that were united by the employment of a particular technology, electroencephalography, the paper addresses the more general question how instruments and media participate at the shaping of research objects and the generalizations derived thereby. This case study shall then serve as platform from where to investigate in a comparative fashion how current work in the neurosciences uses the singular of the brain as a unifying linguistic tool for, de facto, a diversification of research: Under the disguise of the singularity of the brain, the neurosciences dismantle a supposedly unified entity into a myriad of experimental objects, research targets, brain states, detection data, observed phenomena, etc. Finally, the question will be addressed whether internationalization and standardization do not generate a homogenization or unification of research in the neurosciences but participate at the rapid turnover of the entire field in an ongoing adaptation to ever new research opportunities under maintenance of a more and more fictitious entity, the brain.

Of Peripheral Things. Or: de-centring the Brain in the Story of Neuroscience

Max Stadler, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland Historiographically speaking, histories of the neurosciences usually, typically, and at times very programmatically so, are stories of the brain: today, it is the brain (rather than any other old organ) that will serve to - whatever the case may be - celebrate, castigate, frame, or (at its best) historicize our own, contemporary condition: a condition that has everything, or at least a lot, to do with the brain and its science. This at any rate is a notion that would appear quite inescapable for anyone drawn, in some capacity or another, to the multiplying discourses surrounding this (according to some) science of the 21st century. And certainly the histories of neuroscience that we tell, or that are being told, tend to suggest this much, whether your choice is academic or not-so-academic history, whether you turn to wikipedia or BBC 4: its primarily the central nervous system that will be featured and, by implication, such grandoise topics as language, memory, mind and human nature. Indeed, while the genesis of the twentieth-century neurosciences remains a largely uncharted territory, when it comes to accounting for how we may have arrived here, in a world that so seemingly is, or will soon be replete with neurosciences profoundly biological vision of human nature, not unlikely that the answer will be: weve been here before, weve already lived through so many cultures of the brain or neuro-cultures. You name it: the heretic doctrines of a Descartes or de La Mettrie; the rise of the double brain in the Victorian era; the spread of biopsychiatry in Wilhelmine Germany; the origins of the EEG in the interwar period; the stories of lobotomy, of psychopharmaceuticals or of the confluence of computational machinery and minds in the 1940s and 50s. This paper, by way of highlighting the scientific, social and cultural significance of the peripheral nervous system in the interwar period, aims to press the point that thinkers of neuroscience might do well in thinking twice before entangling (the history of) neuroscience too emphatically and exclusively with the story of the brain, mind, human nature and, indeed, of culture. Such framings, as I shall argue, all too easily become complicit with the neuro-scientific discourses they profess to critically engage, reproducing, rather than questioning, the dramatic (or anti-humanistic) categories prescribed by todays neuro-discourses themselves.

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Paradigms and Too Soon Ideas in the history of neuroscience

Marek Havlik, Czech Republic Paper focuses on the philosophy and history of neuroscience. It explores two important paradigms that ruled the neuroscience for many years and were recently disproved. And paper also explores thoughts that tried to disprove these paradigms in their own time. These too soon ideas were immediately disqualified and even ridiculed. Now these ideas are considered as ones of the main focuses in contemporary neuroscience. Paper has two parts each for one paradigm. Two pursued paradigms are No new neurons and Brain is reflexive instrument. First paradigm is focused on the creation of new neurons in the brain - neurogenesis. Paradigm thought until 1990 was centrally that no new neurons can be added or created in the mammalian brain. Contemporary neuroscience now stands against these thoughts and accepts that brain has the ability to create new neurons. Too soon idea that disagreed with paradigm of no new neurons was brought by Joseph Altman but his results and theories were ignored under the pressure of textbooks and academic majority that supported no new neurons paradigm. Second paradigm is focused on reflexive and responsive powers of the brain. This paradigm held until the year of 2001. Marcus Raichle discovered the Default mode of brain function, vastly known as Default mode network or DMN. This idea brings the new paradigm in the field of contemporary neuroscience and tells that brain is working all the time. Reflexive instrument paradigm thought that brain and its parts are activated mainly for reacting and responding to the environment. Too soon idea (1929) that disagreed with reflexive paradigm was brought by Hans Berger inventor of electroencephalogram. His idea was based on the readings of alpha waves that are present in the resting state (also as DMN activations). Bergers ideas were also ignored and even ridiculed.

Promissory Materialism and the Limits of the Neurosciences

Brian Casey, National Institutes of Health, Alexandria, VA, USA At the end of the twentieth century consciousness became a neuroscientific problem. Advances such as brain imaging technologies have blurred the lines between scientific investigation and philosophical inquiry. For many observers, cognitive science has raised profound questions about the nature of the human person, most fundamentally, whether belief in an immaterial, immortal soul is irrational in the wake of the progress of the neurosciences. Despite winning a Nobel Prize for elucidating mechanisms of neuronal communication, the Australian neurophysiologist John Carew Eccles (1903-1997), waged a public battle against what he referred to as Promissory Materialism, the belief that science would someday explain all there is to know about humanity. Eccles became a scientist to discredit the notion that the mind is reducible to brain anatomy and physiology, that mind is another term for what the brain does. Exploiting Karl Poppers revolutionary ideas about the nature of science, insights he claimed helped guide him through a great scientific debate, Eccles shocked his colleagues by proposing (with the blessing and assistance of Popper) evolving neoCartesian dualist models of brain/mind interaction that incorporated the religious concept of a soul. In spite of and, indeed because of the disbelief of modern scientists and philosophers of mind, Eccles embarked on his mission to defend the notion of the ghost in the machine. Guided by Popper, Eccles challenged from within neuroscientists materialist presumptions and offered an understanding of science as open to metaphysical speculation. Eccles and Poppers widelydisparaged work, The Self and Its Brain (1977), helped force a discussion among scientists and philosophers about the ontology of modern science. This talk seeks to open discussion about the changing metaphysics of the neuroscience community through analysis of the reaction to Eccles 156

project and the changing alternative models of the mind proposed by Eccles colleagues and philosophical opponents.

Revelatory Brains and Redemptive Knowledge Towards a Connected History of Religious and Scientific Imagination in the Neurosciences
Alexandra K. Grieser, University of Groningen (RUG), Groningen, Netherlands In the history of science, the role of religion has often been confined to theological doctrines and the Christian church, acting as an exclusive competitor to scientific progress. Seeing both religion and science as cultural practices which claim to provide reliable knowledge, the relationships between the two look quite different throughout history. This is particularly true for the notion of a new leitwissenschaft, the neurosciences, touching upon cultural ideas of human identity in a very longue dure. If we, firstly, look at the aesthetic components of neuroscientific knowledge such as metaphors and images, it can be stated that the secularist equation the more science, the less religion cannot be satisfied. Religious interpretations and practices react and adapt to the scientific discourse, particularly when we consider modern fragmentary forms of religion and the esoteric and magic traditions. Secondly, it can be observed that also within the neurosciences religious patterns play a role: featuring the outlooks of the new knowledge, teleological visions are presented which blur the line between curative optimization and salvific promises, operating not far from the gnostic visions in transhumanism. Thirdly, science has certainly become the most important generator of plausibility structures and interpretive patterns in the current cultural imaginaire, be it for the understanding of the body, the self, or of nature. On the hybrid field between popularization and popular culture, the neuroscientific imagery plays a seminal role. On the one hand, the photographs of the brain in action serve as operational images in an epistemological process; on the other hand they function as configurations of aesthetic evidence seeing is knowing, so it seems, and the impression of an immediate approach to the activities of the self has an impact far beyond the scientific frame. The visual rhetoric of glowing brains, sparks, and beams recalls both enlightenment ideals of true knowledge and the romantic search for an all-encompassing and reunifying force of life, then suspected in magnetism or electricity. This romantic principle is very much at work today, and a revised history of religion and science can help to critically accompany the transfer between the production of knowledge and the production of world-views we are witnessing today.

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SYMPOSIUM 26

The Origins of Experimental Philosophy: Experimental Procedures and Empirical Methods in early modern Europe
Organizers Dana Jalobeanu, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Mihaela Madalina Giurgea, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium The origin of experimental philosophy has long been a central problem in the history of early modern science. In the past decade quite a substantial amount of work has been done in the exploration of various cognitive, psychological and social aspects of experimentation. Meanwhile, comparatively little has been done towards a more detailed, contextual and specific study of what might be described, a bit anachronistically, as the methodology of early modern experimentation, i.e. the ways in which naturalists, promoters of mixed mathematics, natural philosophers or artisans put experiments together and reflected (and sometimes discussed) on the capacity of experiments to extend, refine or test hypotheses, on the limits of experiments and, even more, on the heuristic power of experimentation. So far, the sustained interest in the role played by experiments in early modern science has usually centered on evidence- related problems. This line of investigation favored examination of the experimental results, but neglected the methodology that brought about the results in the first place. It has also neglected the more creative and exploratory roles that experiments could and did play in the works of sixteenth and seventeenth century explorers of nature. The purpose of our panel is to bring together scholars interested in specific early modern instances of experimental methodology. We are especially interested in whether one can find specific methodological considerations on the exploratory and heuristic aspects of experimentation in early modern period. Our aim is to illustrate and further explore in detail particular instances of the so far neglected aspects of early modern experimentation. The individual papers will focus on specific instances of early modern experiments and methodological considerations present in the works of sixteenth and seventeenth century explorers of the natural world. In this way, we hope to enrich the current understanding of the ways in which the methodology of experimental practice contributed to the growth of knowledge.

Experiments in Giovanni Battista Della Porta's Meteorological Treatise De aeris transmutationibus (1610)
Arianna Borrelli, Wuppertal University, Wuppertal, Germany Giovanni Battista Della Porta (ca. 15351616) was one of the most popular (and most debated) figures of late Renaissance Europe and his role in shaping early modern experimental culture can hardly be ignored, although the reception of his work has not yet been fully explored in the historical literature. I will discuss the key features of his experimental practices using as an example his treatise on meteorology De aeris transmutationibus (1610). I will argue that the main characteristic of Della Porta's experimental study of nature was its humanism, i.e. the fact that natural phenomena were primarily defined by how they looked, sounded, felt and acted upon those who witnessed them. For Della Porta, a natural philosopher should pursue his quest of natural secrets by asking: If I were nature, how would I go about producing this effect? 158

Although this epistemological stance was usually justified by a generic appeal to the theory of signatures, Della Porta was never really interested in systematically developing such abstract considerations, but rather devoted his efforts to making his readers acquainted with a large number of sensual and emotional experiences, explaining them how a philosopher - and possibly also nature could bring them about. In his early works, the descriptions of experiments were still schematic and somehow bookish, but his style improved with time, making his readers spectators of vivid natural philosophical creations, as was the case in De aeris transmutationibus. Thus, Della Porta's attention to impressing the audience was not simply due to histrionic tendencies, as often claimed, but rather to the conviction of the fundamental role of effect in nature and in experiment. Because of this, meteorology was for him a highly epistemologically significant discipline, since weather and climate play a central role in shaping human life in practical, emotional, and spiritual sense.

Exploring Galileo's Method: the Day Earth Stopped Standing Still

Markos Ioannis Polakis, Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences, Athens, Greece In this paper, I examine the complex methodological and theoretical arguments of Galileo, for the case of the Copernican paradigm in his work Dialogue concerning the Two chief World Systems. In short, I argue that the experiments of motion that are described by Galileo in the chapter "Second Day" are constituted differently in an altogether new conceptual system that is articulated, at the same time. Thus, Galileo's inquiry cannot be seen as relying on a common empirical core, or on already set theoretical grounds. This dialectical relation between theory and experience, is analysed in a series of mental experiments -or as Feyerabend puts it 'invented experiences'- that enable Galileo to make a compelling case for the hypothesis of Earth's movement. By disconnecting the concept of motion, from the notion of its observability, Galileo is able to generalise the concept of relative motion to any motion, thereby broadening the horizon of the concept so as to encompass the movement of Earth. Yet, this process presupposes that the reader gradually abandons the Aristotelian conceptual scheme in favour of a new interpretation of phenomena that is compatible with the Copernican paradigm. Pivotal to this argument is the acceptance of a new ad hoc influence, namely, the principle of circular inertia. To that extent, emphasis is given on the fact that the choice between the two chief world systems is underdetermined by the facts of experience and can only be assured with the aid of an elaborate rhetorical exposition. Following Feyerabend's analysis of natural interpretations, the complex argumentation of Galileo is interpreted as a counter inductive stance against the Aristotelian theory, that presupposes the latter and at the same time attempts to substitute its latent methodological criteria in order to pose the question of Earth's movement, under new terms. Thus, it provides us with an entirely different view on the theory - experience relation in revolutionary periods in science.

The Hunt of Pan: Creative, Heuristic and Therapeutic Role of Experiments in Francis Bacons Natural Histories
Dana Jalobeanu, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Francis Bacons philosophy of experiment has been often subject to fierce debates, and sometimes thorough abuse in the writings of historians of philosophy or historians and philosophers of science. Despite the obvious central role of experiment and experimentation in Bacons writings, it is still not entirely clear how we would answer today to any of the following questions: 1. What is the relation between Bacons speculative philosophy (i.e. cosmology and theory of matter) and his performed or imagined experiments? 2. What is the role of experimentation in general (in natural history or in natural philosophy)? 3. Why do natural philosophers have to do experiments at all? 159

Attempts have been made to read Bacon in a purely inductivist manner, as starting with observations and experiments, establishing some theory-free facts and constructing from them, through some sort of inductive reasoning, axioms and laws. There were also attempts to read Bacon as a hypothetico-deductivist: as starting with conjectures and theoretical statements and using experiments to test, confirm or reject theoretical statements. Yet other attempts tended to picture Bacon as a proto-Bayesian: as using experiments to amass evidence for a more probable conjecture and amend his theory accordingly. Last but not least, there are ways of reading Bacon in such a way that his natural and experimental history was no more than a feeble illustration of his metaphysical or cosmological theory of matter, or even a rhetorical device for enlisting help in realizing the societal and communitarian program of Instauratio Magna. In part, such divergent interpretations originate in the peculiar structure of Bacons description of experimentation and experimental procedures still the least investigated parts of his works. For Francis Bacon, the proper objects of philosophy, the principles, fountains, causes and forms of motions, that is, the appetites and passions of every kind of matter (OFB V 246) are to be investigated throughout a thoroughly regulated experimental procedure designed by the name experientia literata. In a characteristic metaphorical fashion, Bacon pictures his experimental methodology as a way of torturing nature or chaining the god Proteus and hence obliging the multifaceted nature to change shape and reveal its secrets. In Bacons speculative philosophy (Rees 1993, 2007) natural processes are the result of the active powers of the spirits enclosed in the tangible bodies. Spirits are the most active of bodies (SS I. 98) and it is from spirits and their motions that the majority of processes proceed. All properties of bodies ultimately arise from the appetites and desires of pneumatic matter (OFB V 451-2). Experimenting with matter or chaining Proteus means, in fact, experimenting with spirits, reaching, through experiments, to the sources of motion and causation that lie at the origin of all physical phenomena. How is this investigation possible? For the mechanical philosopher, the bridge between the realm of the visible and the invisible world is to postulate a fundamental similarity between macroscopic/visible phenomena and what happens at the microscopic level. Collisions, for example, are relevant from the point of view of the experimenter because of the postulate stating that in the visible and invisible world, particles or macroscopic bodies collide in the same way, like billiard balls, for example. Hence, it is relevant to study the macroscopic collisions and investigate the empirical laws governing this phenomenon. In Bacons non-mechanical philosophy, however, no such postulate of similarity is at work. There is no reason to believe that the invisible spirits trapped in bodies act in any way similar with the macroscopic bodies we can see and experience. What is, then, the relevance of experimentation? One important point worth noticing is, of course, Bacons materialism. There is no ontological difference between spirits or pneumatics in general and tangible bodies. They are all material and, what is even more important, they can be transformed into one another. Such phasetransformations are extremely important in Bacons natural histories and a lot of experiments are constructed around them. Another important point is that spirits and matter are subject to the general conservation law stating that the total quantity of matter (tangible and pneumatic) in the universe is constant. All this, however, is not sufficient to bridge the gap between the observable and the unobservable, between the visible phenomena and the invisible actions of the spirits. What is, then, the relevance of Baconian experimentation? It is my suggestion in this paper to abandon the standard view that Baconian experiments function as evidence. Instead, by looking into the way experiments were put together, varied and exploited in Bacons Latin natural histories, I will suggest alternative functions for experimentation in general, and a more sophisticated relation between theory and experiments. In this paper I will investigate in depth a number of Baconian experiments with spirits taken respectively from Historia densi et rari, Historia ventorum, Historia vitae et mortis and Sylva Sylvarum. I will first show the way they were put together as applications of Bacons own art of experientia literata, using instruments, instrumental set-ups and a complex methodology of 160

experimentation. I will then emphasize their theoretical presuppositions and their connection with Bacons matter theory. I will in the end attempt to explain three potential functions of experimentation that have received little attention so far. Firstly, I will show that experiments can serve as models for understanding more complex phenomena. Secondly, I will show in what way experiments can work as classificatory devices in Bacons own cosmological scheme/matter theory. Thirdly, I will discuss the therapeutic role of experimentation, showing in what ways experiments, by providing ministrations for the senses, memory and intellect, contribute to a more general program of medicining the mind.

Experiment and Matter Theory in Francis Bacon's Natural Histories

Doina Cristina Rusu, Romania Francis Bacon was always seen as one of the most important figures of the Scientific Revolution, and his claim that nature cannot be known by common experience alone, because of its variety and subtlety, but the scientist needs the help of an experiment in order to put nature to a trial, was considered the starting point of the experimental sciences. The question I ask in this paper is what is the exact function the experiments Bacon presented in Sylva Sylvarum and in the Latin natural histories? or, more precisely, Is for Bacon the experiment an impartial instrument for having access to nature or is it just a way of testing hypothesis? Existing literature on this subject tends to present Bacons method of experimentation as a test which searches for answers without any previous theory the experiment is just an objective reading of nature, which will lead to a theory, but only when there will be a sufficient number of instances to conclude it. I will try to prove that the results of the experiments Bacon presented in Historia naturalis et experimentalis and in Sylva Sylvarum are red and presented throughout a clear and detailed theory of matter, which Bacon had in mind from the beginning of his carrier, and which influenced the method he established for his experimental activities and writings. The role of experiments is not to describe the natural phenomena, but to offer an explanation of what governs the activities of it, to find the general laws taking place at the micro level of the small particles, which are not evident to senses, but produce all the visible effects. In this sense, the interpretation of the hidden processes of nature is very influenced by Bacons own conception of matter the appetites and movement of the pneumatic spirits.

Reconsidering Francis Bacon's Experiments on Specific Gravities

Cesare Pastorino, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK To the Victorian scholars who commented on them, Francis Bacons experiments for the determination of the specific gravities of substances looked inevitably flawed in their methodology. Most of all, Bacons apparent disregard for the Archimedean hydrostatic tradition of authors like della Porta and Ghetaldus was puzzling and disconcerting: Robert Leslie Ellis, in his introduction to the _Historia densi et rari_, suggested that Bacon was unaware of the hydrostatic method, of the real problem proposed to Archimedes, and of the idea that specific weights were to be compared by weighing in air and water. In this paper, I will advance the suggestion that to fully understand Francis Bacons research program on specific gravities we should not look at the mathematical Archimedean tradition developed by early modern natural philosophers like della Porta, Ghetaldus and Harriot. Instead, Bacons methods and procedures become intelligible if considered in relation to economy and to monetary matters. For one thing, Francis Bacons experimental techniques were likely modeled on those of goldsmiths weighing and assaying precious substances. Moreover, it is possible to identify a not well-known but very significant tradition for the determination of specific gravities without the use of the hydrostatic 161

principle, in writers dealing with monetary issues like Jean Bodin and Gerard Malynes. Francis Bacons familiarity with these authors makes them a very likely source of inspiration for his research project. In general, this case study shows that the historical reconstruction of the origins of early modern experimentation needs to take into account a wider spectrum of disciplines than natural philosophy proper, including mechanical arts and practical domains of knowledge production.

Serial Experimentation: the Case of Magnetic Coition in Gilbert's De Magnete

Laura Georgescu, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania This paper claims that, in order to understand Gilberts experimental process in De magnete (1600), the methodological unit of analysis should be the series of experiments rather than single, isolated experiments. I argue that a group of experiments is connected into a series if some results are exported from one experimental setup to another, or from one problem to another. If one experiment leads to another and so on, then understanding an experiment requires the invocation of its antecedent. There are, then, two characteristic features of series: (i) connections between experiments that hold them together, and (ii) the dependency of the (partial or complete) solution to the overall problem on these connections. That experiments are crucial for Gilbert's scientific method is no matter of debate. Yet, usually the reconstructions of Gilbert's experimental method focus on single experiments and isolated results. To illustrate my point about experimental series, I will investigate how Gilbert formulates his theory of 'coition' (mutual action between the attracting and attracted bodies). I will show that the conceptual innovation of 'magnetic coition' (De magnete, Book 2) depends on at least (a) an experimental process that studies the property of attraction by means of various experiments connected via an instrument (the 'versorium') and (b) the solution given to the problem of the type of attraction electric bodies exert. Through (a), criterion (i) for serial experimentation is covered, while (b) meets criterion (ii).

On the Creative Role of Experimentation in Descartes Study of Colours

Mihaela Madalina Giurgea, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium Although the nature and evolution of Cartesian physics has been the subject of many debates, relatively little has been done so far to clarify the details of the way in which Descartes devised, constructed and used experiments. Even if there are significant studies of the status of hypotheses in Descartes works (see Blake 1929 and 1960, Garber 2000, Ariew 2011), they pay comparatively little attention to the process of experimentation as such. Therefore my aim is to bring into discussion/discus the particular way in which experiments act as problem-solving devices. The standard story is that, for Descartes, experiments function as illustration and have, therefore, a mere passive role. My purpose in this paper is to challenge this account. I propose an alternative interpretation of the role that experiments play in the Cartesian natural philosophy by focusing on the reconstruction of the techniques of experimentation Descartes seems to have used in the explanation of colours. I claim that we do not have a hypothetico-deductive structure at work; experiments do not test predictions. They stand in a much more complex relation with Descartes physics than usually assumed. Hence, studying the nature, function, structure and application of Descartes experiments and the associated heuristic of the scientific discovery sheds a new light on Descartes doctrine, allowing a much less speculative reading of his physics. Adopting the position stating that Descartes was less a aprioristic about the scientific method than usually thought (Galison 1984, Buchwald 2008) I will identify, on particular examples, some of the functions of Cartesian experiments. I will be particularly interested in a number of Cartesian experiments destined to bridge the gap between the visible and the invisible world of particles of matter in motion. I will especially concentrate on Descartes study of the halo and the coronas around 162

the flame from the ninth discourse of Meteorology. The striking part of Descartes study of colours is the fact that in order to settle the explanation of the phenomena, two methodological strategies are available. One is to manipulate the initial experimental setting in order to reproduce phenomena. The other is to use analogical reasoning and, starting from one phenomenal occurrence, to design a new experiment in order to extend the domain to related phenomena. The modifications of the experimental setting connect apparently dissimilar physical occurrences, as the halo around stars and coronas around the flame, under the same domain of investigation. I will show that these strategies allow Descartes to generate a body of knowledge about the meteorological phenomena by unifying the phenomena that shares a common explanation. The same structure can be unearthed, I think, in other experiments of Descartes Meteorology. It is a structure that demonstrates, I claim, the creative role of experimentation. By modifying the experimental setting and the field covered by the experiment, the process of experimentation plays a more productive role in the process of discovery that usually ascribed to Descartes.

Peirce's Appraisal of Petrus Peregrinus' De Magnete

Cassiano Terra Rodrigues, Pontifical Catholic University of So Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil Peirce's appraisal of Petrus Peregrinus' "Epistle on the Lodestone" is relatively little known. According to Peirce, Peregrinus treatise on the lodestone is the very first document to bring a modern conception of science, in that it presents a link between experimentation and investigation aiming at the purpose of finding the truth. This, for Peirce, marks the very core of a modern conception of science - a conception of science not as a body of organized knowledge, deducible from a set of established premisses, but as an activity single-heartedly pursued with the purpose of discovering the truth, that is, with the purpose of correcting one's mistakes. Peirce sees in Peregrinus' detailed account of the polarities and exact methods for determining the poles a procedure of passing from hypotheses to deduction and induction that he considers characteristically of how modern experimental science is carried on, so dating its beginning about 250 years back to the 13th century. This communication aims at presenting Peirces reading of Peregrinus Epistle in the context of Peirces own concept of science as an activity, problematizing some points in this reading.

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The Scientific Cosmopolitanism as Traced by Astronomical Instruments

Organizers David Valls-Gabaud, CNRS, Observatoire de Paris, Paris, France Xenophon Moussas, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece The symposium will explore the extent to which astronomical instrumentation was used to establish a planet-wide community of practitioners who shared the same goals and tools. The international nature of this initially informal group was not always strong enough to fight nationalistic views. The symposium aims at establishing which tools were used, across time and space, to promote international cooperation, in contrast with other techniques or instruments which remained within closed groups of astronomers. To what extent international cooperation fostered the feeling of a truly cosmopolitan community before the establishment of formal trans-national entities is the central question that this symposium aims to address.

Stone Age People Controlling Time and Space: Evidences for Measuring Instruments and Methods in Earlier Prehistory and the Roots of Mathematics, Astronomy, and Metrology
Michael A. Rappenglck, Adult Education Centre and Observatory Gilching, Gilching, Germany Millennia before the beginnings of agriculture seminomadic Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers already were able to measure qualities quantitatively. The living conditions of those days compelled archaic cultures to develop certain simple but nevertheless fully functional and appropriate tools as well as procedures for measuring and counting quantities concerning space, especially lengths, but also areas and volumes as well as time periods. Basically intentional design and standardisation of stone or bone tools start out on the evolution of metrology. The perception, technical implementation and aesthetical evaluation of proportion, similarity, and symmetry of objects emerge during the Lower Palaeolithic (2.6-0.2 Ma BP). Throughout the following Middle Palaeolithic and Upper Palaeolithic early man more and more shaped materials according to abstract mathematical concepts, which are inherent in the neurophysiological structure of the human brain, related to natural prototypes. The reproduction of similar designed objects required a quite high faculty of abstraction and walkthrough, a certain repertoire of logical-mathematical transformations, manual skills of implementation, road-tests, optimization techniques, and repeated controlling of shaping. Evidences for measuring instruments and methods as well as proto-mathematical concepts during Earlier Prehistory are given by a lot of examples like the preparation of plane surfaces and levelling technics, the constructions of tents and huts including the adjustment of architectural elements, scaffolding in caves, the cut of clothing, the making of hunting weapons, the mixing ratios of dye stuffs used for cave paintings, purposes of orientation in space and time, including elementary map sketches of local regions and celestial areas, and basic systems of time reckonings. During the Upper Palaeolithic man constructed geometrical figures like the line segment, the rectangular cross, the isosceles, equilateral, and right-angled triangle, different kinds of quadrangle (rectangle, square, trapezium, rhombus), the pentagon and hexagon, the circle, the ellipse, the spiral and the Greek fret, grid and tessellation (using triangles, lozenges, and hexagons). Moreover 3D figures like cuboids, spheres or even screws had been known and manufactured. There are hints upon imaging methods, for example translation, rotation, or projection, the use of templates, scaling procedures, design 164

principles, natural and artificial measuring instruments, for example body parts, the measuring cord and rod, the plumb bob, a simple protractor, and the use of the shadow stick. During the Upper Palaeolithic man also applied certain counting methods displayed on rock faces inside and outside of caves or on mobile stone or bone objects. Archaeological records from Earlier Prehistory make evident that proto-mathematical knowledge was closely related to early sky watching, navigational purposes, and time-reckoning. Results of ethnomathematical and ethnoastronomical studies further substantiate that comparatively simple measuring instruments and methods are well-suited for perfectly good results satisfying the claims of early man. The talk presents a general view of the research results in the field.

New Light on Stonehenge from Ancient Greeks

Vance R. Tiede, Astro-Archaeology Surveys, Inc., Guilford, USA Around 50 BC the Sicilian historian Diodorus described a temple often identified as Stonehenge Hecateus [c 350 BC] and certain others say that in the region beyond the land of the Celts [Gaul] there lies in the ocean an island no smaller than Sicily. This island is inhabited by the Hyperboreans there is also on the island a magnificent sacred precinct of Apollo and a notable temple adorned with many votive offerings and spherical in shape. They also say how the moon viewed from this island appears to be but a little distance from the earth the god visits the island every 19 years, the period in which the return of the stars [astron] to the same place in the heavens is accomplished; and for this reason the 19-year period is called by the Greeks the year of Meton (Diodorus Siculus, II). Archaeologists now regard the 56 Aubrey Holes as having held large posts. But why not 57, a multiple of the 19-year period of the Metonic cycle? The cycle says that if there is a full moon on 21 June, the moon again will be full on 21 June 19 years later, but at a different position on the horizon. If the full moon starts over the Heelstone, for example, it will slowly slip away each 19 year interval. On the other hand, if you count 19, 18 and 19 years (a total of 56), it will stay completely on the stone throughout many cycles. It would seem that the architects of Stonehenge had knowledge of both: there are 19 stones in the bluestone horseshoe and there are 56 holes in the Aubrey circle. It is not the return of stars alone to the same place in the heavens that is marked by the horizon alignments at Stonehenge, but rather of the luminous bodies (astron, ), that is sun, moon and stars. We interpret Diodorus words to mean that Stonehenge records the turning points of the midsummer sun and midwinter moon with the seasonal zodiac stars, when all these luminous bodies return to the same place in the Year of the High Moon every 19+18+19 years. The Roman writer Plutarch (2nd Century AD) provides the evidence to link the number 56 with eclipses, supported indirectly by the ancient myths of cosmic struggles between light and darkness, Greek (Typhon vs Zeus) and Egyptian (Set vs Horus and Osiris): [T]he 56-sided polygon is said to belong to Typhon, as Eudoxus [Greek astronomer c 370 BC] has reported There are some who give the name Typhon to the shadow of the earth, into which they believe the moon falls and so suffers eclipse which the sun remedies by instantly shining back upon the moon when it has escaped the earths shadow (Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride 30,44,55). The movement of the moon has occupied the lives of many, many astronomers, and there are hundreds of terms to describe it. That the moon undergoes this movement to higher declinations, higher and higher in the sky, and then becomes lower and lower, has come out of the Stonehenge study. In certain places, such as southern Ireland, the moon would disappear behind the mountains. In higher latitudes, it would become circumpolar, never setting the land of the midnight moon, one could say. The 56-year cycle which controls it was not really understood or mentioned by astronomers. It is something that has come from the past to us ancient knowledge transferred in a set of alignments. 165

A Minoan Eclipse Calculator

Minas Tsikritsis, Directorate of Secondary Education, Heraklion, Greece Efstratios Theodossiou, Vassilios N. Manimanis, Petros Mantarakis, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece Searching for Minoan artifacts bearing astronomical representations in the Heraklion Archaeological Museum we came upon a stone die, which had been discovered by a peasant in a field 150 m NW of the village of Palaikastro of the Sitia province in Crete in 1899. This die was first reported (1900) by the director of the Museum Stephanos Xanthoudides. 35 years later the British archaeologist Sir Arthur John Evans expressed the view that the symbols carved on the dies surface are somehow related to the Sun and the Moon (1935). In this study, a more detailed discussion and interpretation of the relief symbols and figures, and especially of the ray-bearing disc on the right-hand side of the die, is presented and analyzed from an astronomical point of view. Evidence is presented in favor of its use as a die for the construction of a device that could determine eclipse dates during the Minoan period (c. 15th century BC); additionally, two more practical uses for it are examined: as a sundial and as an instrument for the determination of the geographical latitude.

New Aspects of the Antikythera Mechanism: A Complex Astronomical Clock (?) of the 2nd c. BC, Lunar Motion, Planetary Gear and Archimedes Signature
Xenophon Moussas, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece New discoveries concerning the oldest known computer and astronomical instrument will be presented. The Antikythera Mechanism is the earliest known complex scientific instrument, the first computer and the oldest mechanical universe. Built by Greek scientists, probably between sometime 150 and 100 BC. It is possible that it has been based on data obtained by Archimedes and his disciples that it seems that they have continued his philosophical and astronomical work after the death of the great mathematician, who as implied by our results, was a physicist and astronomer. We will try to answer important questions such as who made it, and if the mechanism had forerunners, simpler machines that could perform some of its functions? The instrument, that was called PINAX or PINAKIDION (table or little table) has several similarities with some advanced astronomical clocks of middle ages. Few years ago we discovered that the Lunar trajectory followed in the mechanism to a good approximation Keplers second law. Of particular importance is the recent discovery that the motion of the moon, as it is evident by an elliptical link between two eccentric gears gives more precise orbit than initially thought, probably following three laws of Kepler. The instrument is a dedicated astronomical complex analog computer that works with carefully designed (based on mathematical theorems) and manufactured miniaturized gears. The gears perform appropriate mathematical operations as they move around the axes and shafts. The movement of the pinion moves indicators that give the position of various heavenly bodies, the Sun, the Moon and possibly the planets. Some references to the Early Greek Astrophysics will be made. Finally we will present evidence for planetary gears.

Technical Evolution of Astrolabes through Ages

Flora Vafea, Abet Greek School in Cairo, Cairo, Egypt

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The invention of the astrolabe and the projection of the celestial sphere onto a plane is attributed to Hipparchus (2nd c. BC) by Synesius (4th-5th c. AD), although no treatise of Hipparchus exists to confirm it. Ptolemy in his work Planisphaerium provides the theoretical base for the construction of the astrolabe. He describes the methods for the construction of the various lines on the astrolabe, supported by the necessary proofs. In the treatise on the astrolabe of Joannes Philoponus (6th c. AD) written in Greek, there is a detailed description of the astrolabe and a series of problems that can be solved using this instrument. The rim of the disk of the astrolabe coincides with the Tropic of Capricorn. Severus Sebokht (7th c. AD) writes a similar treatise in the Syriac language; there is an allusion for a disk whose rim coincides with the Antarctic circle. Then, the Arabs take the baton of the astrolabe evolution. In the treatises on the use of the astrolabe written by 'Al b. 'Is, al-Khwrizm (9th c.), al-Sf (10th c.) new elements appear on the astrolabe, such as the azimuth lines, the shadow, the equal hours, the sine and the lines of the Muslim prayers. Al-Farghn (9th c.) writes al-Kmil, where he proves theorems on the stereographic projection and gives detailed description for the construction of astrolabes for the northern and southern celestial hemisphere. Al-Brn (973-1048), in his work Comprehension of the possible ways for the construction of the astrolabe, describes various types of astrolabes and other devices that can be attached to the astrolabe and give additional information. Al-Zarqall (11th c.) introduces the universal astrolabe based on the stereographic projection from the equinoctial points onto the plane of the solsticial colure. The advantage of this projection is that one image can be used for all the celestial coordinates: equatorial, ecliptic and horizontal. The universal astrolabe can be used at any latitude, while the classic planispheric astrolabe needs a disk for the specific latitude we use it. Al-Ts (12th c.) invents the linear astrolabe, projecting the important points of the planispheric astrolabe onto the meridian line; thus the astrolabe becomes a stick! Rojas (16th c.) and De La Hire (17th c.) in Europe present new forms of universal astrolabes, by modifying the pole of the projection.

Comparison of Astronomical Instruments through the Ages

Panagiotis Papaspirou, Xenophon Moussas, Kostas Karamanos, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece Observational Astronomy dates since the dawn of scientific thought, with its practices being conducted since the prehistoric times, and in all civilizations. The object of Observational Astronomy requires specifically built instruments for the measurement of the orbits and apparent angular positions of the celestial objects. Initially, these were marks on the horizon, becoming megalithic constructions, and eventually transformed to portable, miniaturized, and complicated scientific instruments in the various great civilizations. We shall conduct a historical survey of astronomical instruments used by dominant figures in the history of Astronomy, such as the Babylonian and Egyptian priests, the great Greek astronomers, the Byzantine monks, the great Muslim and Chinese astronomers, and the great European astronomers such as Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, and Galileo Galilei. We claim that possible cultural interchanges and specific scientific interactions between the European world, the Byzantine Empire and the Chinese Empire may have been accomplished through the historical trading artery of the Silk Road. We shall also investigate in detail the scientific renaissance in Astronomy brought by the introduction of the telescope and for scientific astronomical purposes. Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler play a significant role in this development. Their foundational work was greatly influenced by the most 167

accurate astronomical tables of their time, conducted under the supervision of Tycho Brahe, which become possible only after the introduction of improved astronomical instruments. We shall study all the instruments used in the various aforementioned astronomical epochs, e.g. by Hipparchus, Ptolemy, al Farghani, Omar Khayam, the great Chinese astronomers, by Copernicus, by Tycho Brahe and by Galileo Galilei. We claim that the technology used for the astronomical instruments of Observational Astronomy, and Astronomy in general, make this discipline a truly cosmopolitan scientific tradition.

Costa Lobo's coup de foudre in the early Years of Solar Astrophysics International Cooperation
Vitor Bonifcio, Isabel Malaquias, Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal Joo Fernandes, Universidade de Coimbra Largo D. Dinis, Coimbra, Portugal In the beginning of the 20th century, Portuguese astronomy was firmly anchored on the previous century: the instruments were outdated and the limited research focused on astrometric pursuits. Following a trip abroad, the Coimbra University Professor Francisco Miranda da Costa Lobo (18641945) decided to built an up-to-date solar observing facility in the country. A copy of the large Meudon spectroheliograph was planned as its main instrument. This started, in 1912, a close cooperation between Coimbra and Meudon observatories that survives until today fueled both by selfish and common interests. Coimbra needed the foreign know-how at a time when spectroheliographs were rare and international co-operation was scarce. Meudon astronomers welcomed a twin observing station at a different location and both were aware that a greater number of facilities increased solar observation coverage and that a more complete data set would improve the comprehension of solar atmospheric phenomena. In this paper we review the process that led to the installation of the Coimbra instrument and its impact both in the Portuguese and international astronomical research. We will also discuss how Costa Lobo's co-operation network played a key role in the internationalization of Portuguese science in the first decades of the 20th century.

Instrumental Developments and Acquisitions of the Viennese University Observatory in the International Context of the 19th c.
Karin Lackner, Isolde Mller, Franz Kerschbaum, Thomas Posch, Institute for Astronomy, Vienna, Austria In 1862 Otto von Littrow designed a special spectrographic configuration at the Vienna University. Due to the innovative mechanism resulting in lower complexity and production costs this instrument exceeded its predecessors and is still very popular in the international scientific community. We will discuss the successful Littrow spectrograph as well as a few other instruments that have been developed at the Vienna University Observatory in the 19th century, but only had a regional influence and were only in use locally. The difference between international and local relevance can sometimes be time variable, as we will demonstrate by the great refracting telescope of the Vienna University Observatory. It was built in 1878 by order of Edmund Weiss, who after a long international study trip decided to entrust the Irish company Grubb with the construction, and became famous as the worlds largest refracting telescope of that time. But despite of its dimensions it soon had only local relevance for reasons that we will discuss in our contribution.

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From Instruments for Recreation to Objects of Science: The Influence of European Optical Toys in China (1583-1840)
Yunli Shi, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China Ever since the arrival of Matteo Ricci in China, various optical devices, especially a number of optical toys, were brought to China as an aid for the Catholic mission in China. Not only did these devices lead to the rise of the earliest opticians in China, but they also eventually became objects of scientific studies in the hands of a Chinese mathematician Zheng Fuguang (1780ca.1853), who tried to establish his own system of optics to penetrate the optical principles behind these devices. This paper will trace the change of roles of European optical toys in different cultural contexts in China.

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The scientific culture of medieval Jews: facts and questions

Organizers Charles Burnett, University of London, London, UK Shlomo Sela, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel

This symposium will consider what role science played in the culture of the Jews of the Middle Ages in the Islamic and Western European contexts. It will focus on astronomy: the use of astrolabes and other astronomical instruments, the texts composed on their manufacture and use, the composition of astronomical tables, the writing of theoretical works on astronomy and cosmology, and the application of astronomy to the practice of astrology. The social and religious context of this pursuit of science will be explored. This symposium arises out of a research project supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council and based at the Warburg Institute, London, on 'Astrolabes in Medieval Jewish Culture' (Researcher: Josefina Rodriguez Arribas).

Hebrew Manuscripts on the Astrolabe: a Preliminary Overview

Josefina Rodriguez Arribas, University of London, London, UK Ninety per cent of the Hebrew manuscripts that are extant in the world are kept in microfilm format in the Institute of Microfilmed Hebrew Manuscripts (Jerusalem). Among these microfilmed manuscripts, we have found about one hundred and forty treatises and fragments of treatises devoted to astrolabes or instruments related to them. These treatises can be divided into three groups according to their language: Arabic, Judaeo-Arabic, and Hebrew. As is expected in a collection of this kind, Hebrew is the paramount language and is the language considered in this study. According to the contents, the Hebrew treatises can be classified into two major groups: those dealing with the construction of astrolabes and those concerned with the explanation of their use. The oldest treatises are those written by Abraham ibn Ezra in the years 1146 and 1148; he was indisputably the scholar who introduced this subject into Hebrew. After him, the tradition on this instrument has a long history in Hebrew language and culture, for it reaches until the 19th century and spread throughout Europe, North Africa, and the Near East. The codices, in which these treatises were copied and kept, display intriguing and fascinating contexts for the instrument: texts on astronomy, treatises about other instruments (like quadrants or clocks), astronomical tables for the positions of the planets and the beginnings of the months, horoscopes, treatises on geomancy, texts on astrology, on philosophy, et cetera. We intend in this paper to track the authors, the translators, and the copyists of these treatises in order to provide a preliminary overview of the Hebrew tradition of the astrolabe among Jews between the 12th and 19th centuries.

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Abraham Bar Hiyyas Megilat ha-Megalleh: An Early Integration of Philosophy, Astrology, and Theology
Y Tzvi Langermann, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel Abraham Bar Hiyya (late eleventhearly twelfth century, mostly in Barcelona and environs) was one of the first to write highly detailed Hebrew works covering astronomy, astrology, philosophy, theology, and more. His Megilat ha-Megalleh belongs formally to the genre of apocalyptic literature, as its main goal is to determine when the messiah will come. However, it is also a writing that displays philosophical and theological erudition as well as an astrological world history, based on Jupiter-Saturn conjunctions. The underlying conception of time was particularly resonant in later Jewish thought, both philosophical and kabbalistic. The talk will focus on some salient issues discussed by Bar Hiyya and attempt to fit them into the history of science and philosophy.

Abraham Ibn Ezra and the Astrolabe

Shlomo Sela, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel Besides a large corpus of biblical exegesis, religious and profane poetry, grammatical and theological monographs, Abraham Ibn Ezras (ca. 1089ca. 1161) intellectual interests also extended to science. In this area, his main contribution was the production of a significant scientific corpus of more than 30 treatises whose contents are typical of Ibn Ezra's times: (1) astrology; (2) mathematics; (3) astronomy; (4) Jewish calendar; (5) translations from Arabic into Hebrew; and (6) the astrolabe. A typical phenomenon in Ibn Ezras literary career is that he usually wrote at least two different recensions of each individual treatise. His works on the astrolabe are not exception: Abraham Ibn Ezra composed three different Hebrew versions of a treatise, which he entitled Sefer Keli haNehoshet (Book of the Instrument of Brass) and designed to describe the physical configuration of the astrolabe and teach its astronomical and astrological uses. What is more, Ibn Ezra wrote, with the aid of a disciple, a Latin version of the Astrolabe Book as well. The main aim of this presentation is to describe these four treatises, paying attention to some bibliographical and terminological features, scientific contents, questions of authorship, as well as the connections between these four works and Ibn Ezras scientific corpus.

Abraham Ibn Ezras Latin-Reading Pupils

Charles Burnett, University of London, London, UK This talk will look at the Latin texts of Abraham Ibn Ezra, written on his dictation, or in his entourage, or immediately derivative from his Hebrew texts. These will include the Latin version of the Sefer haMiddot, a Liber de nativitatibus, the Pisan Tables and Liber qui dicitur abrahismus and the Liber de astrolabio. Who were these texts written for? How were they composed?

Asturlb and Yantrarja: Two Parallel Traditions of the Astrolabe in India

Sreeramula Rajeswara Sarma, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India The large corpus of scientific manuscripts in Arabic and Persian existing in Indian collections testify that India, though situated on the periphery of the Islamic world, avidly followed the scientific developments in the Islamic world, including the science of the astrolabe. The astrolabe may have been introduced into India by Al-Brn in the first quarter of the eleventh century. Definite information is available from the second half of the fourteenth century, when Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq initiated the production of astrolabes at Delhi and sponsored the 171

composition of manuals on the astrolabe in Persian as well as in Sanskrit. Since then the study, production and use of the astrolabe ran in two parallel traditions. Muslim astronomers in India studied the Arabic/Persian works on the astrolabe and produced astrolabes with legends in Arabic/Persian; these are classified today as Indo-Persian astrolabes. Hindu and Jain astronomers, on the other hand, produced their own manuals in Sanskrit. The first Sanskrit manual was composed in 1370 by Mahendra Sri, who praised the astrolabe as yantra-rja, king of instruments. In the subsequent centuries there appeared more than a dozen manuals in Sanskrit. The composition of Sanskrit manuals was naturally accompanied by the production of Sanskrit astrolabes. Today, there exist nearly 175 Indo-Persian astrolabes and some 90 Sanskrit astrolabes. The present paper will discuss the main features of these two types of astrolabes and dwell on the makers, patrons and their milieu.

Mathematical Elements in the Jewish Calendar

Ilana Wartenberg, University College London, London, UK The lunar Jewish calendar is an intricate scheme that brings together astronomical veracity, religious constraints and arithmetical patterns. Over a millennium ago, it converged to a fixed system, no longer depending on lunar sighting in order to determine the beginning of the month. In my talk, I shall focus on mathematical elements, some of astronomical nature, which I have encountered during my present research on calendrical Hebrew medieval treatises from the 12th century. For example, one finds geometrical components in the Ptolemaic models describing the lunar and solar motions in Abraham Bar Hiyyas Sefer ha-Ibbur (Book of Intercalation), written in France around 1123. There, and in other texts, one frequently encounters the usage of the arithmetical operation casting out 7s (also 19s and other numbers), a key element in a calendar based on a 7-day week and 19-year cycle. These mathematical components are usually presented in a concise, ready-to use format. Unlike purely mathematical or astronomical tracts, which go into lengthy theoretical discussions of the themes at hand, calendrical texts tend to be of a more practical nature. The authors of calendar books, often writing both calendrical and scientific tracts, do not seem to be expecting the readers to immerse themselves in the underlying mathematical principle, or even to be able to understand pure mathematics. I shall attempt to prove this point by juxtaposing corresponding materials from calendrical and mathematical books. My analysis attempts to shed some light on larger, still not properly answered, questions: what is the precise role of the queen of the sciences in medieval Jewish society? Can one discern a bifurcation of medieval Hebrew mathematics between applied mathematics and pure mathematics, similarly to the medieval mathematical Arabic tradition?

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The Tools of Research and the Craft of History: On the Interaction between Historians, Their Tools, and the Creators of Those Tools
Organizers Birute Railiene, Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences, Vilnius, Lithuania Stephen P. Weldon, University of Oklahoma, Norman, USA This symposium is meant to explore the research culture of historians of science, technology, and medicine (STM), paying close attention to both the open repositories and tools of research that are available, the curators and creators of those repositories and tools, and the differential access to them. The standard model of research throughout most of the twentieth century centres on research libraries and institutional archives as sites for scholarly work, physical locations where researchers must come in order to find the information that they need. With the increasing development and use of digital resources, scholarly work habits are changing radically. One popular model for the distribution of both research tools and repository content is open access, in which both research sources as well as research tools are disseminated in digital form free to all. Another model relies on proprietary, and often costly, subscription-based services that maintain local site-based control over resources as long as the local sites can afford them. In contrast with the traditional place-based model, the digital information revolution has both advantages and disadvantages. The purpose of this symposium is to assess some of the ramifications for scholars in this digital revolution.

Facts as a Research Instrumentality on the Natural and Historical Studies

Juozas Algimantas Krikstopaitis, Lithuanian Research Institute of Culture, Vilnius, Lithuania In the usually way scientists have the notion fact in hand, particularly those who concern themselves with the correctness of theoretical interpretations. This is because expanding horizons of understanding, the investigations into the meaning of facts disclose additional nuances for strong point in their content. The author of this article relying on his own research seeks to determine the differences in the content of notions between the direction of natural and humanitarian sciences, and focus attention to facts as research instrumentality on the subject studies. A fact as a consensually articulate unit of a narrative contains a complex configuration of its elements (datum). It reveals a particular role of time dimension in historical research where relation of the subjectivity and objectivity always remain undefined.

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Institutionalisation of an Open Access a New Possibility for Research. A Survey of Perception and Demand
Birute Railiene, Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences, Vilnius, Lithuania In the research culture the shift from manuscript to printed sources is followed by the shift to virtual information, which in the XXI age becomes open. For researchers open access brings increased visibility, usage and impact for their work; provide an excellent means for researchers to improve their online presence in the scholarly communication surrounding. Since researchers are the producers of the content, they are the main part in the open access facility. But researchers also are the users of the open access sources, so they are first to be satisfied. Open repositories increase impact and usage of institutes research, providing new contacts and research partnerships for authors. Free and open source software is used to set up the repositories and institutions benefit from free technical support for installation and use. There is low installation and maintenance costs, repositories are quick to set up and gain benefits. And repositories provide usage statistics showing global interest and value of institutional research) (EIFL OA: open access: http://www.eifl.net/faq/eifl-oa/open-access). The option of open access is still conditioned by perception and demand (the technical side is out of issue in this survey), not the least is the field of research. In the paper the developing initiatives and institutionalisation of open access will be presented, giving the attention to the field of research of respondents in three Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The correlation with the preferences of the forms of scholarly communication will be presented; also the comparison of informal and formal channels of scholarly communication in the surrounding of internet will be attempted. The conclusions of the survey will include merits and demerits of the open access in the research performance, the data will serve for the future shaping the perception and purifying the demand of open access data.

Traditional Archives and the Economics of Open Access

Joseph Anderson, USA On the one hand information wants to be expensive. [. . .] On the other hand, information wants to be free. This statement, usually attributed to Steven Brand, represents the paradox facing traditional archives that are working to digitize analog collections and make them available online. Open access is often applied to born-digital data sets and papers, but increasingly traditional repositories are digitally reformatting their collections and putting them on the Web for a variety of reasons, including access, preservation, and funder expectations. This paper describes the significant costs and varying benefits of digital reformatting, as well as the rethinking of long-standing policies and procedures that it requires. A comparison between physical archives and their digital counterparts in terms of both usage of the repositories and the costs of maintaining them will be considered and explored in this paper. The speaker is director of the American Institute of Physics Niels Bohr Library and Archives, which is currently in the process of digitizing its photo collection, oral history transcripts, and selected manuscript collections. The speakers extensive experience working through these materials and developing digital access to physical materials in one of the worlds major scientific archive collections yields many insights into the actual experience of moving to an online resource and publishing that information.

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New Perspectives on Classification and Methodology in History of Sciences: Theoretical and Technological Bases for the Construction of Adequate Search Instruments
Ana Maria Alfonso-Goldfarb, Mrcia H.M. Ferraz, Silvia Waisse, Pontificia Universidade Catolica de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil Global information presents a series of problems to researchers in the history of science. Particularly within the context of the so-called digital revolution, the amount of resources increases by the day, whereas we lack proper theoretical and methodological tools to filter and organize them. Thus, in spite of abundance, the scholarly task risks becoming less effective and productive. The lack of an adequate classification for the sources needed in research makes this already difficult situation even more complex. The traditional division of the sciences into the modern areas leads to severe distortions and anachronism. Full fields ok knowledge predating modernity cannot find a place in the available classifications and not rarely are thrown in a limbo of pre, proto or pseudo sciences. CESIMA, our center of research in history of science, at Pontifical Catholic University of Sao Paulo, Brazil, has been facing acutely this challenge within the context of its digital library of sources for the history of science, medicine and technology. For this reason and under the sponsorship of the Brazilian agency for science and technology, it is currently developing a project aiming at the construction of theoretical tools underlying possible systems of classification of sources for the history of science. This project is carried out by an interdisciplinary team including historians of science, bibliographers, and specialists in information science and information technology, besides a scope of international collaboration within the context of project World History of Science Online. The overall aim of this project is to supply a theoretical tool to ground classification of the sources for the history of science by means of a thorough analysis of historical trees of knowledge up the present day, while organizing the categories according to modern classifications of the sciences.

The Culture of Research in History of Science as Seen through the Transformations of the Isis Bibliography in the 20th and 21st c.
Stephen P. Weldon, University of Oklahoma, Norman, USA This paper will explore the changes in what one might call the culture of research in the history of sciencehow it is that researchers gain access to the resources that they need to work with and how they operate with those materials. To understand this, one must pay attention to the nature and role of reference materials and bibliographical resources over the 20th century. The specific focus of the paper will be on the effect that the digital revolution has had on the production, dissemination, and use of bibliographical materials in the history of science. One of the ongoing questions that needs to be addressed is how physical location and institutional support have changed over the past century during the period in which the Isis bibliography has been published and how that has affected the culture of research. The speaker is the current editor of the Isis Bibliography of the History of Science and will explore this topic by looking closely at the Isis Bibliography as it changed and transformed over the previous century, in terms of how it is compiled, its institutional support, its publications, and the various forms in which the bibliographical data is indexed and classified. This information will be used to assess how access to research has changed and is likely to change over the course of the next decades.

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Understanding Shared Common Knowledge Exploring the Intersections between Context, Records and Data in the History of Science
Gavan McCarthy, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia Australia has track record of projects and programs relating to the history and archives of Australian science that commenced with initiatives from the Australian Academy of Science in the 1960s. The University of Melbourne eScholarship Research Centre (2007- ) has continued to develop public knowledge services to support this area and this is best exemplified in its web resource, the Encyclopedia of Australian Science. Recent studies on the informatics of public knowledge spaces has revealed that by conceptualising the complexity of human endeavour (i.e. history) in terms of three separate but systematically interconnected layers (i.e. context, records and data) it is possible to create new humanities and social science research methodologies that transcend existing limitations. The advent of mass digitisation and data extraction technologies combined with global accessibility challenges traditional paradigms of scholarship its print-based technological heritage. This paper presents a summary the lessons learned in the 25 years that the author has been working in this field.

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SYMPOSIUM 31

Transnational Economic Science after World War II

Organizers Till Dppe, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany Tiago Mata, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK It is difficult to over emphasize the international prestige and authority of the institutions of the United States of America in the wake of World War II. Among the most successful exports of the era were the USA model of the research University and the content and methods of its sciences. Looking at the social sciences and notably economics, this movement has been labeled an Americanization (e.g. Coats 1996). Recently, historians of science have revisited the subject of the cultural authority of US science to argue that its formula for success lay in its transnational character (see for instance, Wang 2010). In this symposium, we examine the influence of American economics in relation to its transnational elements, notably in its domestication of European migrant scientists and in the formation of a public discourse fit to travel across national boundaries. European migrant scientists brought with them a plurality of epistemic cultures, in parts in contradiction with the social, political and religious conditions of the institutions of science in the US. In order to domesticate these cultures, a new form of what Robert Merton called universalism of science had to be reconstructed. We observe the emergence of new technical standards appropriate for this task in what has been called the mathematization of economics. These transformations in the practices of economists were complemented by a new order in public discourse about the economy. A crucial ally in the formation of a discourse fit to travel across national boundaries was the publishing industry that together with American academics and journalists honed international textbooks offering a canonical representation of knowledge, as well as magazines and newsprint contributing to the image of the scientific community as a model for democratic society.

Rational Choice Theory and its Development: between Psychological Measurement and Mathematical Formalism
Catherine Sophia Herfeld, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin, Germany Since the second half of the 20th century, rational choice theory (RCT) has gained extraordinary prominence in economics and records a history of powerful applications across the social sciences. Disunity however exists among defenders and opponents alike with respect to its nature, status and role in actual practice. This disunity has given rise to fundamental disagreements about the theorys epistemic potentials and limitations and has fueled charges against the economics profession of imperializing the social sciences. I develop a narrative that contributes to an explanation for this disunity and partly alleviates the accusations of economics imperialism. By tracing the historical emergence of RCT in American economics from the 1940s to the 1970s, I argue that its development was fundamentally shaped by different disciplinary orientations and by the prevalence of diverging epistemic interests. On the one hand, RCT was developed to serve as a theory of individual decisionmaking in the behavioral sciences and as a contribution to a representational theory of measurement. This proved to be especially of interest for the development of scientific psychology and the project of operationalizing individual values. On the other hand, RCT was developed into a 177

behavioral foundation within the formal-logical construct of general equilibrium theory in mathematical economics. Given its different manifestations, it appears fruitful to understand RCT as a highly flexible set of problem-solving tools used for fundamentally distinct purposes, rather than in terms of a unified theory of individual behavior. Contrary to alternative narratives that proclaim economics imperialism, I furthermore argue that the history of RCT reveals a rational choice imperialism that has had an impact on the economics profession comparable to its effects on other social scientific disciplines. In order to support the argument, my analysis is largely placed within the context of Jacob Marschaks theoretical contributions to RCT and his professional biography.

The Coming Out of the Cowles Commission: Contextualizing the Transnational Origins of post-war Economic Science
Till Dppe, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany During the 1950s and 1960s, the Cowles Commission of Research informed most of the advances that had been made in economic theory and in reconstructing the canon of economic knowledge. Cowles researcher came to represent new technical standards that stabilized the disciplinary boundaries of U.S. economics. The coming out of this community occurred at a conference held in June 1949 under the lead of Tjalling Koopmans, titled Activity Analysis of Production and Allocation. In this article, we provide a thorough historical contextualization of this event. We begin by situating the Cowles Commission in the U.S. institutions of post-war science in-between National Laboratories, particularly the RAND Corporation, and what would become the supreme discipline of Cold War science mathematics particularly from Princeton and Chicago. Although the conference created the conditions under which the economic discipline will integrate, only weak connections existed between the participants and the profession of economics. Situating the Cowles Commission in-between academia and governmental laboratories, we argue that the distinction between the pure and the applied that flourished during the early Cold War years had its root in a specific national U.S. context of the late 1940s. Though nationally specific, the Cowles Commission domesticated various and in part contradictory intellectual cultures to such extent that it became a model for a transnational identity of economic science. Such was made possible, we argue, by a young generation of technically versed scholars, many of them European migrants, seeking for career opportunities, and very willing to leave controversial elements of science a thing of the past. The conference stands for a new intellectual culture in economic science that is based on shared standards of techniques un-interrogated by conflicting notions regarding the meaning of science.

The Polemical Construction of an American Style of Scientific Policy Analysis

Gerald William Thomas, Imperial College London, London, UK There is no doubt that deeply formalized approaches to economic, social, and political sciences had important roots in the United States. However, these approaches shared intellectual and institutional space in that country with alternative methods of analyzing the phenomena these sciences study, and alternative bases for policy advice. Although proponents of formalized approaches were critical of shortcomings in non-formalized approaches, on the whole their co-existence was more-or-less peaceful in the 1955-1965 period this paper examines. The identification of these particular approaches as peculiarly scientific and American in character, and as in-line with a generalized agenda of American liberalism, has become a staple of recent historiography of science and economic thought. In some ways, this historiography has served to offer important contextualization to intellectual developments treated in practitioner histories in overly internalist ways. But it is important to realize that this particular analytical tactic has its own roots in polemics used in the history under study. 178

This paper will show how particular groups of pundits in the period in question had a strong stake in portraying these sciences as unified, overly scientistic, yet uniquely powerful. Their polemics were themselves influential because they portrayed the American proponents of these approaches, and institutionally related policy analysts as ignorant of notions relating to the intellectual and political function and limits of formalized styles of analysis, which were, in fact, widely accepted, including by the theorists and policy analysts they were attacking. This paper revisits some of the polemical battles of this period particularly between British physicist Patrick Blackett and American economist Charles Hitch, and his RAND Corporation colleague, systems analyst Albert Wohlstetter and highlights some of their key features.

Modernism and Vanguardism: Fortune Magazines first 30 years

Tiago Mata, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK In the ninth year of publication of TIME magazine, publisher Henry Luce began plans to create a business magazine. It was the Spring of 1929. When FORTUNE saw its first issue the Great Depression was in its first quarter. FORTUNE survived the dire times by chronicling the collapse of American business. Staffed by poets and playwrights and later social scientists, FORTUNE was exquisitely written and illustrated and designed. Its influence has been long lasting, and prompted the creation around the globe of multiple imitations. The conventional answer to the question of what makes FORTUNE distinctive points to its exquisite production values, it was an article of luxury. In this paper I rehearse a different explanation. I examine the first 30 years of FORTUNE to tease out from its pages a combination of aesthetic and political sensitivity that was critical and vanguardist and shaped by its staffs travels in Europe and notably Paris. More importantly, I will argue that FORTUNE developed new ways of learning. Its peculiar combination of staff and reporting practices (in two separate waves in the 1930s and 1940s) gave new form to historical approaches to the study of social life. In the mid-1950s, FORTUNE was narrowly reoriented into a celebration of American business and way of life, but it did so drawing from a repertoire of knowledge and communicative practices that were modernist and transnational in outlook.

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SYMPOSIUM 32

Women in the Laboratory from the early Modern Times to the 20th c.
Organizers Annette Lykknes, Board Member of the Women's Commission of the DHST/IUHPS Brigitte Van Tiggelen, Board Member of the Commission for the History of Modern Chemistry of the DHST/IUHPS The laboratory is one of the fundamental spaces for teaching and research in science and technology. Being a space of knowledge transfer and development, it is not only modelled by physical settings, materials and the uses of instruments, but also by disciplinary traditions, social hierarchies and divisions of labour. The exclusive presence of men in laboratories compared to other science spaces like the salon, the field or the home shaped the science practiced in that space as well. What happened when women entered the laboratory space? Gendered practices in e.g. radioactivity and genetics laboratories have already been subject to indepth analyses, and more studies from these and especially from other fields and other time periods are needed/encouraged in order to shed light on the many facets of womens presence in laboratories. Through comparative and contextual approaches we want to explore the laboratory space from a gender perspective, in the timespan that runs from early modern times to the 20th century. How did women conform to local laboratory cultures and how did their presence in turn reshape these cultures? We are interested in studying laboratories which attracted a large number of female researchers as well as individual women working in laboratory environments dominated by men. Questions we would like to discuss in the session include: What characterized the laboratories which attracted many women? What roles did the women play in the laboratories? How did these roles affect the credibility of women in exchanges and discussions in the scientific community? To which extent and in what ways were these gendered practices disseminated from one place to another? And what did the presence of women in the laboratory add to the practice of science?

The Female co-Workers of Marie Curie

Natalie Pigeard, CNRS/Muse Curie, Paris, France Marie Curie directed a research laboratory for 28 years. This study does not aim at investigating the specifics of the scientific work and organisation of this famous laboratory, but intends to show how it was actually a reflection of its time. Indeed this famous laboratory mirrors the evolution of science education in France and is shaped by the (social? cultural? intellectual?) movement(s) at work in the French society of the early twentieth century. Between 1906 and 1934, forty-five women worked under the guidance of Marie Curie. In fact, the high number of female co-workers has often been noted, it has been considered to be an exception, and the result of deliberate choice. Of course, these women did not choose this workplace by accident. They knew its director was a woman like them. She was the laureate of one, and after 1911, two Nobel Prizes. She was leading a well-equipped laboratory with an important radioactive source. But how did Marie Curie selected her collaborators among the many applications she received? Was her choice influenced by gender? 180

Analyzing the female population, my aim is to show how prosopographical research on these women can shed light on several questions : where did these women come from, what were their social and geographic origins, did they occupy any specific cultural or technical area inside Curie's lab, what future did they have after the laboratory? The strong presence of women in this laboratory has often been highlighted, but as the results of our investigation will show, this presence can be explained contextually.

Chemistry at Home: Rosa Sensat and Chemistry Dissemination between Housewives in the early 20th c.
Josep M. Fernndez-Novell, Carme Zaragoza Domnech, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Women throughout history have spent much of their time taking care of children, preparing food and doing other household chores. In all these activities could be found a lot of science and a lot of chemistry to be precise. Knowledge of this science was an improvement in the performance of these tasks. The history and diffusion of science often comes from the characters that have devoted their lives to the education of society. Four women have won the Nobel Prize in the field of chemistry: Marie Curie (1911), Irne Joliot-Curie (1935), Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (1964) and, Ada E. Yonath (2009). But, too often, society forget other women who have contributed significantly to the promotion and teaching of chemistry. This article wants to make a small tribute to one of these women that marked an era in Barcelona and also in Spain in the early twentieth century: Rosa Sensat Ferrer. In the early twentieth century in which practically the relationship between women and science did not exist, Rosa Sensat worked hard to that women could understand the chemical facts and phenomena that take place at home, in their kitchens, how to clean some stains, the chemical composition of the most important foods, etc. For this reason, she wrote an influential textbook called: "Science at home, Les cincies en la vida de la llar", which included explanations of chemistry that any housewife could need. By doing so, Rosa Sensat took active part in the dissemination of theories and pedagogical practices aimed at developing the whole person, based on respect and freedom for the personality of women and, particularly, in the diffusion of chemistry between housewives with no knowledge in science. This article is focused on Rosa Sensat, women and the history of chemistry during the first part of twentieth century.

The Wife as Risk-taker and Conceptual Thinker: Ida Noddack-Tacke and Nuclear Fission
Annette Lykknes, Brigitte Van Tiggelen, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway When the German chemical engineer Ida Tacke in 1926 married the chemist Walter Noddack, she resigned from paid work and took up joint research with her husband. The couple specialized in the study of the abundance and chemical properties of missing elements and was acknowledged internationally for their discovery of element 75, which they named rhenium. In a recent publication, we have shown that Ida and Walter Noddack pursued research both jointly and independently and that each of them had their own areas of expertise and responsibility in joint projects. One of the papers which have granted Ida Noddack fame independently of her husband, was her proposal of nuclear fission. In her paper entitled ber das Element 93 in 1934 Ida Noddack criticized Enrico Fermis statement that transuranium elements were formed after neutron bombardment of uranium. Instead she suggested that heavy nuclei, after being bombarded, could break down into large fragments of already known elements. Hence, all elements of the Periodic Table should be eliminated before any claims of discovery of new ones could be made. Ida made her proposal as an expert on the properties of the missing elements, not as a nuclear scientist. Probably for this reason mainly, her proposal was never acknowledged by the contemporary scientific 181

community. In this paper, we will argue that the case of the fission proposal was part of a deliberate strategy of the Noddack couples work unit: Archival material suggests that the work put forward by Ida in 1934, was not, in fact, Idas individual research; rather it was conducted in collaboration with her husband Walter, in the frame of their ongoing research agenda. Walter, who had the larger capital of credibility, and who was also the bread-winner, was eager to make their collaboration productive, slowly but surely, while Ida took bigger risks in their research, unhesitant about investing in more hazardous paths and undertakings. This risk-taking behavior, which Ida exhibited in the nuclear fission proposal, reverses the usually roles allotted by gender; the man as the risk taker and the woman taking safer bets. It also reverses another gender assumption that the man is the conceptual thinker and the woman the experimental or observational enabler.

Lise Meitner versus Ida Noddack: Human and Scientific Aspects in the Controversy about Nuclear Fission
Barbara Villone, Maria Teresa Sosso, Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica, Torino, Italy In this contribution we focus on the role played by Lise Meitner and Ida Noddack in the controversy about nuclear fission. As it is known, Ida Noddack was the first to suppose the nuclear fission mechanism in her 1934 paper contesting Fermis published result on claimed discovery of transuranics, whereas Lise Meitner towards the end of 1938 gave theoretical account of the experimental results of Hahn and Strassmann showing nuclear fission . In the period 1934-1939, there was a lot of discussions about the issue transuranics vs. nuclear fission involving Noddack, Hahn, Meitner , Strassmann, and others, as Fermis group. In particular, we examine the dispute between Ida Noddack and the team formed by Hahn and Meitner, which left several historical written traces, which we will analyse in detail. A particolar focus is given to the 1939 Noddack s debate paper, and its consequences, published in die Naturwissenschaften about the nuclear fission discovery by Hahn and Strassmann. We find out that in this context, the physicist Meitner and the chemist Noddack were strongly influenced by their different scientific background; furthermore we notice also some unexpected personal attitude about living both this opposition and the change of involved scientific pradigm. We analyze common and different characteristics of Meitner and Noddack, taking into account the cultural and scientific historical background. Conclusively, we will also comment some tardive aspects of the controversy in the seventies regarding Strassmann, Hahn and Noddack.

Gender, Science and the State: British Government Research Laboratories from World War II to the 1960s
Sally Margaret Horrocks, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK During the late 1940s and early 1950s there was a dramatic expansion of the state research system in the UK, particularly in the number and size of defence research establishments. Despite the widely held belief that there was a shortage of scientific manpower (sic) and repeated anxiety regarding the difficulties of obtaining enough suitable staff, very few women were recruited to work in these laboratories. This was particularly true in the scientific officer class which was the primary route to high status careers and positions of seniority. The majority of women employed were in the subordinate grades of what was a highly bureaucratised and strongly gendered system of recruitment and promotion. My paper will explore the nature and extent of womens recruitment into these laboratories and consider how those women who were employed experienced and negotiated the gendered spaces in which they found themselves. I will pay particular attention to the 182

attitudes of male colleagues to women that shaped the pervasive (and sometimes hostile) masculine workplace culture and the strategies that women adopted to make a place for themselves within this. My sources will include oral history interviews recently collected by the National Life Stories project, An Oral History of British Science as well as a range of archival and moving image evidence.

Hit and Run: Women Scientists in Salamanca University in the late Franco Period
Tamar Groves, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain Under the Franco regime women were marginalized from higher education and only from the mid 1960s we witness a significant growth in the number of female university graduates. Recent research on women scientists in that period point to the fact that they were mainly concentrated in the capital, Madrid, and assumed secondary roles in laboratory. In this paper I wish to explore the integration of women researchers in the faculty of medicine of the University of Salamanca. The faculty of medicine in Salamanca is one of the oldest in the country and the university, although famous, is located in a remote rural province. It thus provides the opportunity to observe the integration of women in an especially traditional setup. The laboratories were clearly dominated by men and very few women managed to finish their doctoral degrees and continue with their research. Using the official annual reports of the faculty as well as oral history I explore the struggle of these women to find their place in the faculty of medicine. I try to pin point the local, national and international factors that assisted and hindered their struggle.

Better Living through Biochemistry - Margaret Keys, Biochemistry, and the Mediterranean Diet
Sarah Whitney Tracy, University of Oklahoma, Norman, USA This study examines the role of Margaret Keys, who together with her husband physiologist and epidemiologist Ancel Keys, were early champions of the Mediterranean diet. Margaret Keys did much of the blood biochemistry for the 7 Countries Study (a pioneering epidemiological study of diet and heart health among 12,000 people in seven different countries), which showed the superiority of the Mediterranean diet in preserving cardiovascular status. Trained as a biochemist, Margaret Keys accompanied her husband, while he organized the 7 Countries Study, running preliminary blood work and demonstrating the methods to be used in the field in different countries. While abroad, she and her husband redefined the nature of the biochemistry laboratory, transporting their equipment to rural areas and transforming small villages into data-generating sites for an international study of the dietary origins of heart disease. Back home in the United States, Margaret Keys also used her status as a biochemist and mother to turn her kitchen into a laboratory, testing healthy recipes based on the Mediterranean diet on her family before she released them to the public through the 1959 internationally bestselling cookbook EAT WELL AND STAY WELL. This paper uses newspaper reportage, scientific journals, and archival sources that include Margaret Keys' diaries, to characterize the multiple laboratory contexts in which she worked; examine the reception of her scientific work within epidemiology; and illustrate the multiple ways in which she used her gender to promote her scientific and culinary accomplishments across the globe. The research is part of a larger biographical project on Ancel and Margaret Keys.

Being Female is not a Requirement

Claudia Wassmann, Max-Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany A one hundred percent female laboratory, unthinkable a hundred years ago, now exists in the stronghold of scientific research, at the heart of the Max-Planck Society in Germany. This might look 183

like a fantastic victory of womens fight for equality in the academic world, but is it? The nature of the laboratory will give reason to pause. It may come as no surprise to hear that the lab is the Child Studies Lab of the Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology at the Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. Some gender prejudices seem to confirm themselves by female and male choices of work. Even though being a woman is not a requirement for being recruited, as Jana Jurkat, who organizes the work in the lab, is cited in the public press, men seem to have no interest in this research. They simply dont apply. In psychology women now form the majority of graduate students. In 2005, 72 percent of PhDs in psychology were women. (APA's Center for Psychology Workforce Analysis and Research) At the beginning of the twentieth century few women were part of the psychological laboratory. Was psychology dominated by their absence? At the turn of the twenty first century, women form the largest group in psychological laboratories. Is psychology dominated by their presence? The first laboratory for experimental psychology was created at the University of Leipzig in the nineteenth century, by Wilhelm Wundt had one female doctoral student. At Leipzig too, in the 1910s, the laboratory for experimental pedagogy was created by pedagogues interested in psychology and familiar to Wundts laboratory. Women and girls were present, but in what kinds of roles? And in which kind of topics were they interested? At the turn of the twentieth century, we find here the above mentioned all-female laboratory in the Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology. Leipzig thus represents a privileged venue in order to investigate the development and contributions of women in psychological laboratories from the beginning to the end of the twentieth century in synchronic and diachronic perspective.

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SCIENTIFIC SESSIONS

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Scientific Session 1
Ctesibius Siege Machine. Affinities and Divergences between it and the Sambuca by Damis of Colophon
Maurizio Gatto, Max Plank Institut for the History of Science, Berlin In his now lost (Memorabilia), Ctesibius, a famous engineer who flourished in Alexandria around 250s B.C., must also have dealt with a siege machine among many other engines: a large swinging tube by means of which soldiers could assault the walls of a besieged town without taking the risk of using ladders. Thats what is to be read in a passage of the , a short treatise about siege engines written by Athenaeus Mechanicus probably in the second half of the 1st century B.C. Athenaeus doesnt say clearly whether Ctesibius himself invented it or just wrote about it. He adds however some remarks about the so called Ctesibius machine but unfortunately they are short and largely incomplete, and thus unable to allow a satisfying reconstruction of the machine. Very similar in some respects to Ctesibius machine is the Sambuca by Damis of Colophon, which has been described by Biton, probably a contemporaneous of Ctesibius, in his work (Construction of war engines and artillery). Its not clear whether Ctesibius in his Memorabilia and consequently also Athenaeus in his treatise meant to discuss just Damis Sambuca or another engine similar to it. However, if we except some points in which the two engines happen to diverge significantly, they seem to be on the whole very similar to each other. Since Bitons description of the Sambuca by Damis is by far longer and more detailed than Athenaeus description of Ctesibius machine, the first account turns actually to be very important also to understand the second engine. A good comprehension of the structure and of the use of Ctesibius machine can be therefore achieved only through a philologically approached interpretation of both passages and a contrastive analysis between them.

Color in ancient Philosophy

Vasiliki Papari, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany Colors is a topic with which many philosophers have dealed with in the ancient world. They often tried to combine the emergence of the colors with the theories of vision. The Presocratics, who were natural philosophers, tried to explain the origin of the world and also the origin of the colors; their works are not delivered to us today in full, we obtain individual fragments, quotes and information about their work from the secondary literature and other writings of ancient authors. The presocratic philosophers as well as their 186ontextual have connected the phenomenon of seeing with the origin and the declaration of the phenomenon of color, so there are often in their teaching no precise theories of the origin of the colors, but it is presented only in the context of the statement of vision and its function.According to Pythagoras seeing is an activity that occurs when a type of radiation comes from the eyes. Parmenides of Elea argued that many objects and their shape and color, are just an appearance and not a reality . This view of the unrealistic representation of the objects takes later Plato; Aristotle on the other hand denies the illusory nature of the phenomena and takes an empirical and realistic explanation of all phenomena. Empedocles and Democritus deal more intensively with the phenomenon of colors and their emergence and have developed important theories about the colors. Following will be given a small presentation of the color theories of philosophers of antiquity, such as the Presocratics, Plato and Aristotle, and also a comparison of their various theories, but also their mutual influence, their reception and influence in the natural sciences.

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Georg Bartisch and his Augendienst

Lilla Vekerdy, Smithsonian Institution Libraries, USA The paper introduces and analyses the life and work of a 16th century eye surgeon, Georg Bartisch (1535-ca. 1607). The analysis is primarily based on Bartischs 1583 main work, Ophthalmodouleia, das ist Augendienst (The Service of the Eyes). Other resources include Julius Hirschbergs History of Ophthalmology and numerous scholarly articles from the RLIN, PubMed, and OCLC/WorldCat databases. Georg Bartisch is known by two extant works: one on kidney stones and the other on eye diseases. The latter is titled Ophthalmodouleia, das ist Augendienst (The Service of the Eyes). The Augendienst is remarkable in its size, details, and illustrations in the early literature of ophthalmology. The large folio volume covers 616 pages and is profusely illustrated with images of eye diseases, treatments, surgical instruments, and scenes of eye surgery. The work was repeatedly considered the first medical book in the German vernacular language but this statement is erroneous. However, the Augendienst is the first significant German-language monograph in this particular field of medicine, in ophthalmology. And it is important that the work is a non-Latin text, because it shows that its author did not belong to the contemporary medical establishment but to the less erudite group of surgeons and barber surgeons. The paper will argue about this distinction and how it determined Bartischs life. It will also emphasize the professional achievements of the Augendienst and of its author. The second part of the paper will highlight advances of eye surgery from the numerous examples described and illustrated in the Augendienst. However, it will also point out other, less advanced features of the book that lined up with certain aspects of 16th century medicine, like the humoral theory and astrological considerations. These aspects were often regarded as plain superstition by later secondary literature, but recent scholarly analysis looks at them as contemporary trends in the medical literature of 1500s, that should be scrutinized as representatives of their age. Georg Bartisch and his Ophthalmodouleia played a significant role in the development of 16th century ophthalmology. While many aspects of the book clearly refer to an early understanding of medical and surgical problems others had lasting impact in the field of ophthalmology and especially ophthalmic surgery.

From Hellenism to Sunn Revival: Cultural Frames, Theological Motives, and Perspective Shift in Dealing with Complexity
Constantin Canavas, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, Hamburg, Germany The conceptual development of devices on the basis of mechanics, hydraulics and pneumatics from the Hellenistic times through the Late Antiquity up to the period of dominance of Islamic states has been commonly considered as a history of continuous tradition, appropriation, and, eventually, innovation moments. The representation of this history by modern scholarship generally focuses on specific contributors and/or considers the affiliation inside a certain epistemological frame articulated by means of technical terms like automata, ingenious devices, or the historical reference to the qualifier 187ontextua machines. This terminology, however, focuses upon a heterogeneous spectre of culturally determined concepts and modern misunderstandings. The present study argues that the common epistemic denominator of the major treatises produced by authors like Philon of Byzantium (ca. 200 BCE), Heron of Alexandria (presumably 1st century CE), the brothers Ban Ms (9th century CE) or al-azar (12th-13th century CE) is the focus on complexity. This treatment of complexity, however, is conducted in various periods under different cultural and, hence, different epistemological conditions, and has goals, which are specific for each historical frame. This results to different forms of perspective shifting in treating complexity. Heron treats complexity as a methodological and narrative instrument in order to challenge peripatetic 187

metaphysics and to trace the limits of 188ontextualizing natural philosophy by means of technological devices. For the brothers Ban Ms the description of complexity becomes a mode of challenging the limits of articulating a cosmology of the created being by demonstrating the function of 188ontextua machines (hiyal) in the context of theological narratives and political disputes in the court of the Abbasid caliph. Finally, for al-azar the complexity is inherent to the real world of construction with its practical pitfalls. Besides, the frame of his production is 188ontextualizi by the explicit goal of his devices to impress the real or hypothetical spectator, i.e. the visitor of the local ruler. Thus, these devices are conceived as a contribution to the representation strategies within a politically fragmented Islamic world inspired by the sunn revival, which was induced during the Seljuk dominion (11th-12th cent. CE). Of particular interest for our focus is the treatise on Pneumatics by Philon of Byzantium. Since the extent Arabic and Latin manuscripts of the treatise were most probably produced after the diffusion of Ban Mss and al- azars treatises on the Ingenious Devices (Hyial), the various compilations reflect the different ways of treating complexity by elaborating concepts and devices on the field of pneumatics and hydraulics in the late 13th c. CE, i.e. after the Mongolian raids which lead to the breaking down of the Abbasid caliphate.

Mathematics Education for Merchants: the Choice of Contents in Juan de Icars Practical Arithmetic (1549)
Elena Ausejo, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain Juan de Icar (b. 1522 or 1523), the most important calligrapher during the Spanish Renaissance, was also the author of a purely mathematical book, Book titled practical arithmetic very useful for anyone willing to be trained in reckoning (1549). This rare book is a mercantile arithmetic conceived for educational purposes, an essential book to learn the mathematical skills and the teaching thereof in Spain, in the mid-sixteenth century. As a matter of fact, Icars Practical Arithmetic was the last nonalgebraic arithmetic published in Spain. The book was printed in folio, which suggests a work to be read, assimilated, consulted, and preserved, more a teachers book or a work to be kept by students under private tuition than a handbook for students attending a school. Actually, Icar warned of the impossibility to learn and understand mathematics without a good teacher. The book is high-quality printed, really beautifully illustrated, and has plenty of examples, but most remarkable is Icars educational vocation, both in structure and contents. The detailed explanations, the order of subjects, the combination of theory and practice, and the choice of contents depending on the audience he intends to reach, together with his precise references to Pellos and Ortega, show his solid education in mercantile arithmetic and the originality of his Practical Arithmetic as far as a practical arithmetic can be original. This paper presents Icars choice of contents and discusses his use of fractions in order to learn to directly multiply any combination of units without reducing before and after operating, actually the main difficulty of mercantile arithmetic before the adoption of decimalized systems of measurement.

History of Brahmaguptas Mathematics and their Transmission to Arab Countries

Rabindra Kumar Bhattacharyya, Calcutta University, Calcutta, India The history of the passage of extraordinarily brilliant and fundamental mathematical discoveries of ancient Indian mathematician Brahmagupta (598-665 A.D.) from India to Arab and then to Europe, through centuries, has been vividly described. This article endeavours to appreciate Brahmaguptas position as an original, creative mathematician in the perspective of world mathematics. This paper primarily concentrates on the history of mathematics of Brahmagupta and their transmission to Arab countries.The methodology adopted comprises a composite structure: history and mathematics. 188

Brahmaguptas original contributions contained in two illustrious treatises composed in Sanskrit verses: Brahmasphutasiddhanta and Khandakhadyaka are discussed. Brahmaguptas original method of solving an indeterminate quadratic equation in two variables has been presented in some details. The details of the Indian and Arab scholars and others involved in the intellectual scientificmathematical knowledge transmission processes, the roles played by the then rulers of Indian and Arab countries in this type of transmission operations, the socio-political situations in these countries have been vividly presented. It has been concluded that Brahmaguptas mathematics is now part of shared heritage of the humankind.

The Physicalization of Mathematics at Jesuit Colleges following the Ratio Studiorum (1599)
Albrecht Heeffer, Ghent, Belgium The physico-mathematics that emerged at the beginning of the seventeenth century entailed the quantitative analysis of the physical nature with optics, meteorology and hydrostatics as its main subjects. Recently a new view on this approach to natural philosophy is emerging. Rather than considering 189ontex-mathematics as the mathematization of natural philosophy, John Schuster (1) has characterized it as the physicalization of mathematics, in particular the mixed mathematics. Such transformation of mixed mathematics was a process in which 189ontex-mathematics became liberated from Aristotelian constraints. Peter Dear (2) has shown how this new approach to natural philosophy was strongly influenced by Jesuit writings and experimental practices. Representatives of the tradition, such as Mydorge, Descartes, Mersenne and Cassini were educated at Jesuit colleges while others, such as Fabri, Grimaldi and Scheiner were Jesuits themselves. While these well known names benefited from a strong emphasis on the mathematical sciences in their education at these colleges, such prominence of mathematics has not always been the case. It is only after the reform of the Jesuit education system at the end of the sixteenth century that mathematics acquired a special status. The Ratio Studiorum required the teaching of mathematics at all Jesuit colleges from 1599. Still, it took several decades before a dedicated chair of mathematics was established at the French colleges. In this paper we will look at some witness accounts on Jesuit mathematics education in which the mixed sciences, engineering and technology became important in tools teaching mixed but also pure mathematics. We argue that the 189ontex-mathematical research program benefitted from the specific approach of mathematics education taken at Jesuit colleges at the beginning of the seventeenth century.

The Problem of Emptiness and Movement in the Condemnation of Aristotles Cosmology during the XIIIth c.
Ana Maria Carmen Minecan, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain This paper intends to deal with several aspects of the change that occurred in the Medieval Neo Platonic conception of the cosmos after the re-discovery and translation of Aristotles texts in the XIIIth century. To show them we will analyse two basic concepts of Aristotles physic system that appear in the largest condemnations from the Middle Ages that we know about today, Etienne Tempiers Syllabus from year 1277: the absence of emptiness and the eternity of movement. In opposition to the Christianized Neo-Platonism the unknown texts of Aristotle presented a full and complete world in which the affirmation of the 189ontex and the eternity of movement were of capital importance. According to Aristotle, if emptiness existed matter could be limited by it and emptiness itself could be limited by matter, and therefore nothing would be able to put an end to this chain. Also, the eternal movement of the first sphere is passed on by contact to the lower spheres and the sub-lunar world, since action in distance is not possible in Aristotles physics. If there was emptiness in any part of the system mechanical transmission would stop, herby ending the movement in the universe as a whole. But the Holy Texts talk about a world created literally from 189

nothing, a fact which made them state that, before our world existed, there was emptiness and that the worlds movement began with the creation. On the other hand, not giving God the possibility of producing a empty space was to restrict Gods free action. And to sustain the temporality of movement was to question Gods creation ex nihilo. The importance of the study of the Medieval condemnations of Aristotles Physics by the history of science can be summarized in three main moments. First, Aristotle gave the Latin intellectuals a rational background which clearly defined the methods and goals of science. This helped give way to an empirical attitude that gave scientific interest to the causes of natural phenomena. Second, the condemnation of physical principles made it possible to question Aristotles statements. Aristotle was object of prohibition and a cause of heresy, which made it possible for his oeuvre to be 190ontextual and reinterpreted. And paradoxically, the pious obligation of reacting before the ideas which were dangerous to faith was what drew the authors curiosity towards all those phenomena which Aristotles physics did not explain.

Metamathematical Contents in Mathematical Texts by the New Algebraical and Geometrical Traditions Founders in the Ixth-Xith c.
Ben Miled Marouane, Ecole nationale dIngnieurs de Tunis, Tunis, Tynisia Well present some examples of new traditions in Arabic mathematics, as they were thought by their founders, according to their metamathematical writings, specially in the prefaces of their books. Well compare these new traditions with the Greek and the classical ones opening the door to an alternative periodization of the mathematical thoughts. Well study some of the texts of al-Khawarizmi and Thabit ibn Qurra concerning the algebra as a Theory of the equations and its foundations; of al-Mahani, al-Khazin and al-Ahwazi concerning the algebraic theory of irrationality; of al-Karaji and al-Samawal concerning polynomial algebra and its foundations; of al-Khayyam concerning the geometrical algebra; of al-Quhi and Ibn al-Haytham concerning geometry ...

Human nature and understanding in Initia doctrinae Physicae . A contextualizing analysis

Sandra Constanta Dragomir, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania Phillipp Melanchthon is considered to be by the scholars who have undertaken the study of both his theological but also his philosophical works a rationalist of a Neo-Platonic type who presents his philosophy as a means for justifying his theology. Gnther Frank reads Sachiko Kusukawas interpretation as an attempt to identify the infusion of Lutheranism in Melanchthons philosophical works. He denies that Melanchthons Initiae doctrinae physicae is an Aristotelian physics adapted to Lutheran doctrinary principles and tries to argue that whereas Luther rebukes every usefulness of natural philosophy for the human effort to gain certitude, Melanchthon admits the innate ideas that God had put into the human mind and the law that God had given man to guide himself by. Considering Franks arguments as a starting point, I will try to shed some light on the problem of certainty and knowledge-claims that the individual may assume within the reformed religion. Identifying the main means of human knowledge-be it trough revelation or just the capacity to grasp the attributes of God by comprehending the world-order- an inquiry in the Wittenbergers physics might clearify recent philosophical and historical claims regarding the extent of Melanchthon s tolerance of new natural philosophy in the age of Reformation. My claim is that it is not only an attitude of tolerance but an acceptance and support to a certain degree. Also it might change the generally accepted view that Melanchthons natural philosophy is deeply Neo-platonic in character. Because of the ideological context of which a physics like that of Melanchthons might also be a product of, the particular structure and subjects he is treating in his treatise can also hint at the way Melanchthon considers that a right understanding of nature should be considered. 190

The rejection of metaphysics which characterizes both Luther and Melanchthons creed is replaced by the latters presentation of the concept of God in his Initiae. It seems that God can be known trough nature, as he reveals himself not only spiritually, for the chosen ones, but physically, as well, to all human beings, damned or saved.

Notes on the King Alfonso the Tenths Scientific Translator Team

Montse Diaz-Fajardo, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Astrological synthesis was a genre cultivated among the astrologers of the Islamic east, and, in general, this kind of treatises was called Introduction to Astrology, including Abu Mashars (787886) Great Introduction (ed. R. Lemay), and Small Introduction (ed. And trans. Ch. Burnett, K. Yamamoto, and M. Yano), the introduction of al-Qabisi (second half of the tenth century) (ed. And trans. Ch. Burnett, K. Yamamoto, and M. Yano), the introduction by Kushyar ibn Labban (ca. at the end of the tenth century, and at the beginning of the eleventh century) (ed., trans., and commentary by M. Yano), and the treatise of al-Biruni (976-1052) (trans. Ramsay Wright). Ibn Abi-l-Rijals (fl. Qayrawan, ca. 965-1050) Kitab al-Bari fi ahkan al-nujum (Book of what stands in astrology) is an example of the interest in collecting all that is needed for the astrological craft. Nevertheless, as for Ibn Abi-l-Rijal, his book introduced knew knowledge to the Islamic west. The Kitab al-Bari is categorized within the history of science as one of the best-sellers at his time. It is preserved in a great number of Arabic manuscripts, and in addition, Ibn Abi-l-Rijals book was translated into several European languages. The Libro complido en los uidizios de las estrellas (ed. G. Hilty) is the Castilian translation of the Kitab al-Bari, and was made possible with the sponsorship of the King Alfonso the tenth (reigned, 1252-84). The study presented in this conference will focus on the comparative analysis between the Arabic text of the Kitab al-Bari (the Chapter on Prorogation) and its Castilian translation. The interpretation of the differences may offer a clearer view over some points, and especially: the system of work used by the translator team under the service of the King Alfonso the tenth, the features of the Castilian translation and the contribution of the translator team to the standardization of technical terms in the scientific circles in Spain in the thirteenth century.

Olbers Paradox: a Cornerstone of Scientific Cosmopolitanism

Fotini Argiana, Spiros Cotsakis, University of the Aegean, Greece Olbers paradox, the question why the night sky is dark, surfaces amongst the first conscious human thoughts. The simple perception of the darkness of the night sky taken under the scrutiny of science and philosophy has led to a magnificent complex of truly interesting but involved themes that have created a sensation in distinct periods in the history of science. Today various issues still remain unresolved about this question, which meanwhile has become a riddle for some, a true paradox for others. The dark night sky riddle is one of the central cosmological questions, and reveals the different aspects of our current understanding of the laws that rule the Universe, still incomprehensible. Olbers paradox cannot be usefully classified purely as a complex issue in a specialized subdiscipline of cosmology, mathematics, physics or philosophy. By its nature, it is a multitasked, interdisciplinary project that unites scientists and thinkers until today. We introduce it as a paradigm of scientific cosmopolitanism as a result of careful elaboration of its many facets. Since the beginning, when the primitive man wondered about the reason of the dark night sky, many scientific or philosophical systems, thoughtful men, and great scientific figures tried to comprehend it and offer a resolution, contributing thus a smaller or larger reason to the puzzle, but the paradox remained.

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In this work we propose an historical approach to the paradox of Olbers through questions such as: Who was the first to state the paradox clearly? How did different philosophical-scientific systems formulate the paradox? Why it is that in some specific historical periods the question of the night sky seemed a pointless one? Why this puzzle did not come to light still earlier, when the facts were down in the hands of the philosophers of antiquity? Our approach reveals the hidden ways an apparently childish-naive but unexpectedly complex observation has been approached throughout the history of science by different cultures and different philosophical systems, shedding new light to the cultures themselves. We connect standard issues of Olbers paradox to current interesting ideas in cosmology, and we find the curious fact that the substance and shape of this fundamental question has been carefully modified, partly by evolution and partly by design, leading also to new and important alignments with important changes in our perception of the world.

The Constructor Metaphor in Darwins Reflections

Ricardo Noguera-Solano, UNAM, Ciudad Universitaria Mxico, D.F, Mexico In The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, published in 1868, Darwin used the architect metaphor to clarify the subordinate role of variation in his theory of adaptive change by natural selection. In this paper, I will argue that Darwin used this metaphor to respond to two significant metaphysical issues: the interactions between accidental variation and progressive organic design; and theological questions regarding free will, predestination and the origin of evil. To explore these areas, I will trace the origin of the metaphor in Darwins letters and writing.

The first 19th century the Linnaeans Botanical Papers Regarding the Cracow-Czstochowa Upland, Poland
Ewa Kaczmarzyk, Czestochowa Museum, Czstochowa, Poland This article reviews the first 19th century botanical papers with the system of Linnaeus in the CracowCzstochowa Upland. 19th century papers from this region, based on the system of Linnaeus, were initiated by W. Besser, who in his work Primitiae Florae Galiciae (1809), mentioned the number of the rare species of plants from the surroundings of Ojcw. Among them there are 24 species new to science, for example Betula oycoviensis Bess. Next mentions about the flora of the CracowCzstochowa Upland appear at M. Szuberts publication Discription of the Kingdom of Polands forest trees and bushes (1827), devoted to the forests of the Kingdom of Poland, in J. Wagas work entitled Flora Polonica Phanerogama (1847, 1848) and in A Report from a Journey of Naturalist to Ojcw in 1854 (Waga et al. 1855, 1857). A. Wilicki, S. Lowenhard in his article Walk all over Olkuski District, under the Scientic, Farm and Industrial-Factory reasons (1856), clearly associated with travel of naturalist to Ojcw in 1854, mentioned 60 species of vascular plants from the northern part and 29 species from the southern part of Cracow-Czstochowa Upland. F. Berdau in his work Flora Cracoviensis (1859) is giving a large number of plants and describes above 200 species of plants from Ojcw Valley. Controversial material about flora of the disussed area provided by J. Sapalski (1862). His work contains a list of vascular plants found, among others, in Prdnik Valley, Ojcw and Zoty Potok.

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Scientific Session 2
Three Hundred Fathoms Under the Sea: Barbosa du Bocage and the Search for Marine Life at High Depths (1864-1874)
Daniel Gamito Marques, Interuniversity Centre for the History of Science and Technology, Lisbon, Portugal This paper focuses on the discussions concerning the existence of marine life at high depths that arose as a result of the discovery of the sponge Hyalonema lusitanicum by the Portuguese zoologist Barbosa du Bocage (1823-1907). In 1864, Bocage published the discovery of a new species of the Hyalonema genus near the Portuguese coast, which used to appear in local fishermens nets. This finding surprised renowned zoologists such as J. E. Gray and C. G. Ehrenberg because Hyalonema had been reported to live only along the Japanese coast while the Portuguese species appeared to live at great depths. Although evidence had already been accumulating on the existence of living organisms at such depths, the scientific community still considered that harsh conditions would be unbearable to most, if not all, organisms living at more than three hundred fathoms, in accordance with Edward Forbes Azoic Theory. The ensuing controversy around Bocages claims was only settled in 1868, when Perceval Wright travelled to Portugal in order to collect samples from the ocean bottom. His research not only confirmed the presence of Hyalonema on the Portuguese coast, but also showed that much more complex animals could also be found in the benthic zone. Further investigations in 1870 by W. S. Kent confirmed these results, supporting the findings of W. B. Carpenters and Wyville Thomsons famous oceanographic expeditions. The discovery of Hyalonema lusitanicum shows how the establishment of a network of collaborators by Bocage together with his awareness of current scientific debates in the international arena were essential in the making of an important discovery, which contributed to stimulate oceanographic research and provided a new understanding of marine ecosystems at high depths.

Berthollets Revolutionary Course of Chemistry at the Ecole Normale of the year III. Pedagogical Experience and Scientific Innovation
Pere Grap, Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain At the end of the eighteenth century the French Revolution unchained drastic changes in education at all levels in France. The revolutionary courses for the nitre extraction inaugurated a teaching methodology that was implemented in some new educational establishments such as the cole Polytechnique and the cole Normale. The latter was not successful in achieving its pedagogical aims in spite of the great luminaries of its teaching staff such as Laplace, Berthollet, Hay, Monge and Daubenton. However, Berthollets chemistry lectures became the public forum where his seminal ideas of a new theory of chemical change founded in a new conception of the chemical affinity were first explained. This presentation is going to explore Berthollets chemistry course in its educational context, both as a pedagogical experience and as a part of the scientific creation scenery of his chemical affinities. This chemistry course was a course intended for training school teachers and in this sense some issues need to be considered. The appropriateness of the course content, the teaching pathway followed by Berthollet, the missing topics, the didactic guidelines and Berthollets teaching performance.

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The chemistry in Ionian Academy

Efthymios P. Bokaris, Stamatis Avlonitis, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece The Ionian Academy was founded in 1817 in Corfu (Greece) by Lord Guilford, during the British rule, and opened in 1824 until 1864. It was the first University in the Greek-speaking world. In the beginning of the Ionian Academy comprised the following schools: Theology, Law, Medicine and Philosophy (which divided in two sections, Science and Philosophy). Later the School of Science renamed as School of Natural Science and included the Chemical Philosophy. The establishment of schools based on social and professional objectives. In 1837 the schools comprised by the Academy were: Literature, Philosophy, Theology, Law and Engineering. In 1841 the School of Pharmacy was established and in 1845 the main schools were: Medical-Surgical, Pharmaceutical and Obstetrics. The curriculum of the Medical Faculty of the Academy including the course "Practical and Theoretical Chemistry" which was taught by Athanasios Politis until the closing of the Academy. A. Politis took the title of professor of chemistry for the first time at a Greek speaking University. Athanasios Politis was born in Lefkada in 1790. He completed his undergraduate studies in Corfu and then studied medicine at the University of Pavia in Italy. At 1816, having completed his medical studies he went to Paris to study chemistry at the University of Sorbonne with financial support from Guilford, who intended to give him the chair of Chemistry in the Ionian Akademy. In 1824 he appointed Professor of Chemistry of the Ionian Academy, position that he hold until his death in 1864; besides his teaching work he founded a chemical laboratory by the financial support of Ioannis Kapodistrias, the later governor of the free Greek state. The main work of A. Politis was an epitome of courses in chemistry at the Academy, which was published in Corfu in 1847 entitled "Elements of Chemistry. Several issues that Politis deals in his chemistry were borrowed from JJ Berzelius work: 'Lehrbuch der Chemie"published in 1825. Until then, in 1802, were translated into Greek the book of A. Fourcroy, Chemical Philosophy by Athanasios Iliadis, in 1801 Brissons work Elements or Physicochemical Principles by the monk Demetrious-Daniel Philippides (1755-1832) and in 1808 Adets Lecons Elementaires de Chimie, a l usage des Lycees by Koumas. In this paper is explored Politis work on chemistry in the frames of the shaped Greek didactic tradition (which is oriented to Newtonian Chemistry) and the theoretical variations caused in the Newtonian tradition by the work of J.J. Berzelius.

The Importance of the Introduction of L.V. Brugnatelli s Pharmacopea Generale by Dionyssios Pyrros to the Greek-speaking Regions in the beginning of the 19th c.
Ioanna G. Stavrou, Efthymios P. Bokaris, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece Dionyssios Pyrros is one of the most representative personalities of Modern Greek Enlightenment for his erudition, his translations and his extensive medical and educational work. He could be considered as a very distinct case of Greek scholars who dealt with the making of scientific tools. In the beginning of the 19th century Dionyssios Pyrros translated L.V.Brugnatellis work `Pharmacopea Generale' under the title Pharmacopeia General, in the preface of which he mentions: I also added many other chymical preparations, all extracted from the most modern and wise European doctors. The first publication of Pharmacopeia took place in 1818 and was followed by the second in 1837. Pharmacopea Generale was published in 1802 in Pavia. Its writer was a professor in the University of Pavia and the translator to Italian of Lavoisiers Methode, where he supported a more naturalistic rather than a theoretical approach. With the above work Pyrros introduces to the Greek region a pharmacopeia in which basic improvements are included in regard to pharmaceutical preparations and which is experiment based and is adapted to the main medical and chemical theories of that time. In other words, he introduced in the Greek-speaking region the Pharmacopeia which in the European region had already gained its academic recognition and had established the social status of the profession of pharmacist along 194

with its theoretical autonomy from Chymiki, in the concept of which pharmacopeia had contributed. The introduction of L.V.Brugnatellis Pharmacopea Generale coincides with the predominance among the Greek intellectuals of that era in relation to Chymiki- of th e the Newtonian tradition, which is characterized mostly by its naturalistic approaches similar to Brugnatellis. In conlusion, it is of great historical interest in the course of pharmacopoeias academic and professional recognition to study in depth the productive work of Pyrros, the classifications that are theoretically attempted along with the nomenclature and the instruments used always in relation to the tradition of pharmacopeia in the Greek-speaking regions and the situation of pharmacopeia in Europe.

The Mathematical Work of Dimitrios Govdelas and its Influence on the Education of the Greek-speaking Regions in the meta-Byzantine Era
Georgios Baralis, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece During the post byzantine years at the Greek-speaking regions-based on the teaching textbooks of that time- the role of Mathematics is limited mostly to the revival of ancient greek Mathematics and to the identification of solutions for everydays problems. However, in the beginning of the 18th century along with the renaissance of scientific and philosophical thinking, the role of Sciences, especially Mathematics evolves and the basis for the beginning of mathematical education of Hellenism is formed. During the first decades of that century efforts were made to translate and publish manuscripts and other scientific textbooks, which would have been able to cover the educational needs of that time. This process was initiated from scholars mostly members of the church, who studied at universities of Western Europe and tried to introduce their fellow countrymen to the ideas of scientific rationalism and the new natural philosophy using novel scientific and teaching books. Dimitrios Govdelas (1780, Raphani Thessalia 1831, Iasio Moldavia), is known for his mathematical work and his teaching activity at Iasio of Moldavia. He is an excellent example of the Greek scholars efforts of that time aiming to further develop and spread the mathematical thinking of the enslaved Hellenism. In particular, two of his mathematical books written in archaic language -here presented and analyzed- intend to further develop the basic mathematical education. In their introduction the ancient Greek mathematicians are mentioned and emphasis is given to the importance of Mathematics in ancient Greece. In addition, the necessity of introducing new Mathematics, such as Algebra and Infinitesimal Calculus is justified. The evolution of the mathematical concept is presented in a didactic fashion from antiquity till that era.

University as Technological Knowledge Disseminator in Estonia

Vahur Mgi, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallin, Estonia The Chair of Agricultural Engineering and Architecture was established at the University of Tartu in 1802. Among other specialties the Engineering Class included the Professorship of Military Science, which additionally to military disciplines was responsible for the programmes in mechanics, hydraulics, architecture and construction. The Chair of Theoretical and Experimental Physics provided a general physics course to medical students, whereas Rector of the University Georg Friedrich Parrot delivered lectures on electricity, magnetism and galvanism in special subject courses. Parrot was also the founder of the first Physics Laboratory in Tartu, whose articles were mainly dedicated to application-related issues: e.g. lighting of rooms, construction of ship masts and preparation of gunpowder. In 1830 the University started offering popular science lectures with a view to spreading technological knowledge among the townspeople. The first lecturer was Johann Schmalz, Professor of Agriculture and Technology. He initiated and facilitated the establishment of the Association of Handicraftsmen in Tartu. The exhibitions arranged by the Association traditionally 195

displayed the sophisticated equipment prepared at the experimental workshops of the university side by side with various metal, pottery and glass objects made by ordinary handcrafters. Professor of Technology Georg Brunner, known as a good friend and supporter of the peasantry, provided expertise in woodworking procedures. Among other diligent dispersers of knowledge mention should be made of Physics Professor Friedrich Kmtz and Technology Professor Georg Petzholdt. The major research areas of the first-mentioned included heat phenomena, air and thunder, whereas the latter specialised in agro chemistry, metals engineering and agricultural implements. The task of introducing the basic facts of chemistry to the townsfolk was undertaken by Carl Goebel, while essential issues involved with chemical technology were presented by Gustav Tammann. The series of lectures delivered by Professor Goebel may be conditionally characterised as technical chemistry primarily dealing with a variety of problems pertaining to metals and their uses as well as electricity, air, water, etc. As lectures were accompanied by experiments they always attracted large audiences. Technical chemistry was afterwards included in the official curriculum of the university. Goebel's activities regarding dissemination of chemical knowledge were carried on by Carl Schmidt. He renovated the University Chemistry Cabinet and started specialised courses in physics and mathematics. In the course of a professional visit to England he was impressed by the smoothly running collaborative relations between local chemical scientists and industrial chemists. Following the English model, Schmidt announced after his return to Tartu that his laboratory would likewise be open to industry, agriculture and commerce. In his research Schmidt focused on the study of seamud, clays and turf. His further interests included oil shale outcrops encountered in Northern Estonia. The first chemical analyses for Estonian oil shale were performed in Tartu by Georg Petzholdt and Alexander Schamarin. Members of the Schmidt school were among other things concerned with the use of superphosphate in husbandry. He also called attention to the obolid phosphorite as a possible local raw material for processing phosphate fertilizers. This was the starting point for a thorough investigation of the Estonian phosphorites. The results of the lime marl studies conducted in his laboratory led to the establishment of cement industry in Kunda (1872). The popular science lectures held by Schmidt over the 30-plus year period covered practically all the issues that were then considered to belong under technical chemistry and acquiring general knowledge in those areas proved advantageous for everybody a handcrafter, a builder, a townsman, a farmer. The lectures at the University oriented to the broad public were eventually attended by several thousand people. At that time it was an exceptional opportunity for common people to extend their horizons.

Two Hydraulic Machines for Schnbrunn Palace 1780-1782

Alice Reininger, University of Applied Arts Vienna, Vienna, Austria On June 1st 1779 at 6 oclock in the morning the official commissioners from the Royal Office for Minting and Mining met together in the work shack of Wolfgang von Kempelen not far from the Mint office in Vienna. They were there to examine the fire and steam machines which he had developed. Unfortunately the presentation of these machines did not run as smoothly as either the commissioners or von Kempelen had hoped for. Kempelen did not allow this to discourage him and continued to work on further developing the machines. In 1780 81 following the plans of the court architect Johann Ferdinand Hetzendorf von Hohenberg, the huge Neptune fountain was erected in the Schnbrunn Palace gardens. However it was soon discovered that the amount of water available was not enough to fill the basins of this enormous fountain, or provide for the great spectacle of cascading water that was envisioned. The whole design and layout in the palace gardens required a massive amount of water which could not under present circumstances be realised. A variety of different steps had been taken in previous centuries to try and address this problem. Wolfgang von Kempelen then made his suggestion to the Empress Maria Theresa that they build both his newly developed steam hydraulic machines into the water basins in order to pump enough pressure into the water to provide the necessary water spectacle. 196

Maria Theresa gave her approval and on 16th August 1780, personally handed over the resolution for the establishing of both machines. One year later both machines were set in operation at an enormous financial cost. Unfortunately the plans for these two machines in Schnbrunn Palace gardens no longer exist. There are however documents pertaining to their placement there in the files of the Royal Court Office and State Archives in Vienna, together with newspaper reports from this period in time. In 1793 the court architect Hetzendorf von Hohenberg inspected the ageing machines and gave his judgement about their continuing existence...

Traveling Inventors. Practical Knowledge in European Centres of Power

Marius Buning, European University Institute, Netherlands This paper shall deal with the role that early modern inventor privileges played in the diffusion of knowledge among European centres of power. Inventor privileges were the precursors of what we nowadays call patents; they were exclusive rights to exploit new technologies for a limited number of years. One of the differences between privileges and patents was, however, that privileges were much more limited in geographical scope. One could, for instance, obtain a privilege for an invention in the Dutch Republic that had already been reduced to practice in Scotland. As a consequence thereof, inventors wandered around Europe to secure as many privileges as possible. It was along these trails that they also carried along a stock-in-trade knowledge. But although invention privileges are widely recognized as boosters in the dissemination of knowledge in early modern Europe, we still know relatively little about the way in which this process exactly functioned in practice. For that reason I shall focus the attention on the situation at the turn the turn of the seventeenth century (particularly in France, Germany, Italy, England, and the Dutch Republic). Following a number of inventors and inventions, I shall investigate how exactly knowledge was shared among European States. Can one maybe discern certain trends or patterns? Was there a uniform system of law in this regard? What was the exact role of cultural brokers in this process? Were there particular alliances among different States? Getting a clearer understanding of these type of issues can help us, not only to better understand the role and position of the early modern inventor, but also to understand how knowledge became a commodity in the course of the early modern period.

19th century Translations of European Mathematical Textbooks into eastern Mediterranean Vernaculars: Cosmopolitanism versus Colonialism
Gregg De Young, The American University in Cairo, New Cairo, Egypt The 19th century saw the publication of several classical Arabic mathematical treatises in the Islamic world. The same period also witnessed publication of Arabic (and Turkish) translations of European mathematical textbooks. It initially appears that the mathematical landscape is becoming more cosmopolitan in eastern Mediterranean regions, with new approaches being added to the existing traditional classics. This appearance is somewhat misleading. These "cosmopolitan" trends must be matched against both the colonialist aims of the translators and the nationalistic ambitions motivating their political supporters. I shall illustrate this tension using two translations of European mathematical textbooks: the translation of John Bonnycastles Elements of Geometry into Turkish (Cairo, 1825) and the Arabic translation of John Playfairs textbook, Elements of Geometry (Beirut, 1857). Bonnycastles treatise was translated and published under the aegis of Muhammed Ali, Ottoman governor of Egypt, for use in his new scientific and mathematical schools. These schools, he hoped, would train modern engineers and military technicians to help resist military initiatives of European powers and to strengthen his position vis--vis the Ottoman Sultan. Playfairs treatise was translated 197

by Protestant missionaries in Ottoman Syria who used modern science and mathematics to attract students into the mission schools where they could be proselytized. They also hoped to create an educated elite class that could lead the transformation of Ottoman society into something akin to middle-class American or European society. In these examples, the translators did not introduce modern mathematics as an effort toward cosmopolitanism, but as a tool to move students away from traditional mathematics and the social ideals it represented. In the long run, these translations may have contributed to a kind of cosmopolitanism, both mathematically and culturally. But this cosmopolitanism was not necessarily the result intended either by the original translators or their employers.

The Unsolved Equation: Mathematics at the University of Athens during the 19th c.
Maria Terdimou, Hellenic Open University, Patras, Greece At the University of Athens (founded 1836), we see the first efforts towards the systematic teaching of Mathematics at higher level, within the limited space of the newly formed Greek state - limited as regards both land area and intellectual development. Throughout the 19th century, Mathematics and Natural Sciences were taught under the umbrella of the School of Philosophy, in the corresponding Departments, until the definitive separation of the School of Physics and Mathematics in 1904. This event naturally led to many difficulties with finding the appropriate teaching staff for the Departments and developing the subjects taught. In this paper we will examine the history of Mathematics teaching at the University of Athens in the hundred years following the Greek revolution, until the first decades of the 20th century. More specifically, we will first investigate the course contents. We will study contemporary mathematical textbooks and seek the sources used by their authors - mostly professors at the University - and the wider influences to which the latter were subjected, mainly from the science of the European countries in which they themselves had studied. These authors include K. Negris, G. Vouris, N. Nikolaides, S. Kyparissos and V. Lakon. We will then go on to examine the interest in studying in the Department of Mathematics evinced by high-school students and others. Finally, by the end of our study we hope to have provided a historically acceptable solution to the equation of our title although some of the mathematicians discussed here would have disputed it, since it is not been arrived at using their favourite instruments, the rule and compass.

Pattern, Compass and Map: Standardization of the Cartographic Representation in early modern Iberian World
Antonio Snchez, Centro Interuniversitrio de Histria da Cincia e da Tecnologia, Portugal The aim of this paper is to show how it was carried out the grand project of systematisation and standardization of cartographic representation about the New World in early modern Iberian world, especially during the sixteenth century. Through the inner workings of the Casa de la India, Almacenes de Guinea, Minas e Indias and the Casa de la Contratacin, this paper highlights how the Hispanic monarchy and its conqueror slogan 'Plus Ultra' and the Portuguese monarchy tried to surround the Atlantic and the Indian worlds first, and control new worlds after by means of nautical charts, an essential instrument for the maintenance of the empire. This process was made possible by the establishment in Lisbon and Seville of institutions related to cosmography and navigation and the creation of the Portuguese Padro Real and the Spanish Padrn Real in the first years of sixteenth century. The author analyzes the cartographic production developed in these institutions, especially the Padrn Real. The Padrn was one the main cartographic issues in sixteenth-century Spain, and, probably, the most important one, but also one of the most evident examples of standardization of the early modern Europe. This master and royal sea-chart summarizes the attempt to solve two 198

major problems of Early Modern cartography: representing a three-dimensional body -the globe- on a flat surface and try to provide a definitive picture of a constantly changing geography.

A Contribution of the Replication Method to some Controversial Experiments of the XVIIth c.

Pierre Lauginie, University Paris-Sud, Orsay, France Armand Le Noxac, Universit Paris-Sud, GHDSO, Orsay,France Mohamed Bendaoud, USTHB, Algiers, Algeria We consider the contribution of the replication method to an insight into some controversial experiments of the XVIIth century, the reality of which had been strongly questioned specially by A. Koyr in the mid-XXth century, claiming they were clearly impossible: an experiment, otherwise known as the Passe-vins, reported by Galileo in his Two new Sciences (First Day): a complete exchange between water and wine through two superimposed vessels. a famous experiment by Pascal about the relative heights of water and wine in later so-called Torricelli tubes. According to Roberval, the opponents, poor demi-savants, were astounded by the result of the experiment. the inclined plane experiment reported by Galileo in Two new Sciences (Third day). The Passe-vins and Pascal experiments have been successfully replicated in Orsay while the inclined plane one was done in Algiers. It cannot be proved that any of those experiments was actually performed at the time, but we demonstrate they were quite feasible in the context of the time. The replication method is expected to bring new light on historical experiments by reconstructing them, as far as possible in full respect of the available reports and of the context of the time: specially, retrieving new information and facts missing from the documents having survived, such as lost knacks. Two points will be particularly emphasized: both in the inclined plane and the Pascal experiments, a positive answer to the question of their feasibility at the time has been obtained only through a strict respect of the very wording of the original texts. Galileo tells us he used a water clock (not other clock systems such as small bells distributed along the way), thus one had to do so. For Pascal, taking account of very accurate details related to the density and quality of the wine, together with the temperature of the air (in Winter 1647) was crucial for the success of the replication. discussing the Passe-vins experiment shows how strongly the problematics of the time differed from our modern ones which escaped Koyr and remnants of Aristotelianism will be evidenced in this passage of Galileos Discorsi. In conclusion, strict respect of the texts and immersing ourselves in the problematics of the time were key points for the success of our replications.

Sevillian Science and the first Scientific Revolution

Manuel Castillo, University of Seville, Seville, Spain The contribution that Seville made to the science of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it's advantageous location which served as a bridge to link it to other European expertise, and of course the important part it played in the discovery of America is indeed an extensive and ambitious theme which could not only be covered in a small sized book, but could just as easily fill a much larger one of a more precise and detailed nature. Space constraints have obviously influenced my approach to the theme, meaning that I have ultimately had to be selective in the areas that I have discussed. Some points have had to be omitted or only lightly touched upon and so I have therefore decided to limit myself exclusively to the sciences which in sixteenth and seventeenth century Seville had repercussions outside the boundary of its city walls, and to the work of certain sevillians who helped to diffuse modern science 199

throughout Europe and America and dissimilating the knowledge uncovered in the various scientific fields. I use the plural here because the various scientific studies which through the gateway of Seville flooded onto the doorstep of the rest of Europe were indeed many. However choosing to be selective I will concentrate specifically upon the fields which were more notably connected to the America, for example; Natural History, Medicine, Mining and Metallurgy.

From Local Student Groups to Information Networks of Scientific Corporations. Scientific Socialization in 19th and 20th c. Germany
Arne Schirrmacher, Humboldt Universitt zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany While students and socialization in student institutions have been considered by social, political, gender and cultural history since long, in the history of science the questions about scientific socialization and learning of epistemic forms of acting that determine practices and research cultures of scientists still need to be addressed. In my talk I will report on a current research project on German mathematical and scientific student clubs and corporations that shall demonstrate on the basis of a broad range of sources which role scientific student groups played for production and culture of science from the middle of the 19th century until their dissolution in the years after 1933. A particular feature of the is development was its emergence from informal local groups that step by step became organized in national and even international networks of clubs and corporations, which exchanged reports on university conditions and curricula and facilitated student mobility. The two main structure in Germany were two associations, the Arnstdter Verband mathematischer und naturwissenschaftlicher Vereine since 1868 and the Deutschen Wissenschafter Verband since 1910. In addition also less formal student working groups need to be considered, which started in the yeas before World War I and fully flourished in Weimar Germany. What aims, programs and ideologies were coupled with these agencies of scientific socialization and what impact did they have on science?

Commensalism in the Emergence of Ecology

Brice Poreau, University Lyon 1, Lyon, France Commensalism is a concept developed particularly in the second part of the nineteeth century, by Pierre-Joseph Van Beneden (1809-1894), a Belgian zoologist. It is an association between two species where one gets an advantage of the relationship (food for example) whereas the other one is neutral. Van Beneden classified three associations : mutualism, parasitism and commensalism. This concept, for the biologists of the end of the nineteeth century, and the beginning of the twentieth century is really interesting in order to try to explain the idea of Evolution, for example with Maurice Caullery (1868-1958) or Etienne Rabaud (1868-1956). Nevertheless, in this paper, we want to unveil another side of commensalism : it is the link between commensalism defined in zoology in the 1860's and the emergence of ecology few decades later. Our thesis is that commensalism is also part of the emergence of ecology as a science, in the 1920's 1930's. In fact, commensalism wil be studied not only in zoology, but also in botany, and in entomology : all parts of ecology. However, ecology is commonly considered as interactions between species and their environment. What about interactions between species ? Is it part of the science called ecology? How can commensalism be considered as a part of ecology ? Examples in biology, but also examples in microbiology (with contemporary models as the one of Miura) will be provided in order to put forward a new and genuine facet of ecology.

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Scientific Session 3
Between Local Practices and Global Knowledge: Public Initiatives in the Development of Agricultural Science in Russia, XIX - 1920s
Olga Y Elina, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation State patronage and modernizing role of the central government have been considered crucial for the formation of science in Russia. This paper argues that the development of Russian agricultural science had predominantly local and non-governmental sources of support. Although private patronage was historically the first to promote agricultural research in Russia, towards the end of the 19th century it was being rapidly eclipsed by new kinds of sponsorship coming from community administrations and learned societies. It was customary for the enlighted Russian gentry and intelligentsia to participate in various learned and agricultural societies, from the Imperial Free Economic Society to local province and district ones. Among their other functions, these societies provided the main forum for presenting and discussing the achievements of international agricultural science as well as local seasonal experiments conducted by members on their private estates. Soon the societies started taking the initiative offering subsides in support of private research projects, putting forward research proposals and encouraging members to partake in them. Furthermore, most initiatives on setting up agricultural experimental stations at the end of the 19th century were undertaken on behalf of small provincial agricultural societies, supported by institutions of local self-government, or zemstvos. During the last two decades of the Russian Empire, zemstvos became leaders in the modernization of Russian agriculture. Establishing regional experiment stations they provided models for the subsequent governmental activity in this field. In the case of supporting agricultural research, and institutionalizing the new discipline of scientific plant breeding, the Russian public led the state, rather than the reverse.

Wallace and Darwin on Man : a Limitation of Natural Selection ?

Thomas Robert, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland By publishing "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, Darwins aim was to present a strong argumentation in favour of evolutionism. In order to convince a mainly anti-evolutionist scientific world, Darwin unified his different theories of evolution around a simple principle, i.e. natural selection, according to the hypothetico-deductive ideal of Victorian science. Such a caricature of his thought forced Darwin to correct and explained his theory in the numerous editions of "On the Origin of Species", delaying the publication of his theory of the evolution of man and allowing the development of theories based on natural selection but contradicting the conviction of the English naturalist, such as Spencers social Darwinism and Galtons eugenics. When Wallace, the codiscoverer of natural selection, started to doubt the efficiency of natural selection with respect to human evolution, Darwin had to intervene and present his most complete work: "The Descent of Man", published in 1871. Surprisingly, in this book, Darwin used Wallaces idea of a detachment from natural selection, permitting the accomplishment of human culture. In this presentation, I propose to analyse Wallaces influence on what has to be recognised as a turn in Darwins theory, the deselection of natural selection. I will prove that Darwin proposes, thanks to Wallaces double influence, a theory, which is perfectly contradictory to the application of natural selection to human society by his contemporaries, such as Spencer and Galton, and which contradicts any attempt to naturalize human culture.

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From Myth to Natural History. Civilization and Knowledge of Nuovo Mondo in Naples between Natural Philosphy and Geology
Maria Toscano, Universit di Napoli 'L'Orientale', Napoli, Italy Carmela Petti, Universit degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy In Naples there was the only other colony of Licean Academy founded by Federico Cesi in Rome. Thats why Naples was one of the first place in Italy, for instance, to posse the Passiflora, a botanic specimen coming from Nuovo Mondo, important for its morphologic characters as well as for the Christological symbology attributed to it. The exemplar reached the Gulf in the first years of XVII century to be studied by the friars Maurizio di Gregorio and Donato dEremita. The Passiflora and a large number of other specimens (animals, stones, ethnographic objects) were the result of a long and difficult expedition organized by the Accademia dei Lincei itself with the precise scope to investigate nature, art and life of the newly discovered country. The principal promoter of this enterprise was the linceo Johannes Faber who was a good friend of Donato dEremita and as well as correspondent of Ferrante Imperato. So in the XVII century while collection of information inside Europe was principally based on the circulation of objects and memories along a definite network of scholars, to collect information outside Europe, intellectuals find themselves constricted to send learned, or in most cases less learned, people coming from Europe to explore New World. In XVIII century, diffusion of Vicos cyclical concept of history of mankind implicated the possibility of the existence of different stages of civilization. The simple and scarcely organized life of American aboriginals populations was considered a means to investigate the very first moments of the history of the world. Thats why in those years the interest for Extraeuropean countries started to be prevalently ethnographic and, in a way, anthropological. Giuseppe Saverio Poli, Neapolitan scientist internal member of the Royal Society, acquired also a certain number of ethnographic specimens coming from Pacific islands, directly by Cook and Joseph Banks. Around the thirties of XIX century we assisted at the most important changing in the study of Extraeuropean countries, both in terms of subjects to be interested, now more specialized, in and in terms of attitude toward natives. Neapolitan scientists corresponded with many people living in North and South America without any European intermediaries, their interlocutors were local high profiled scholars working at scientific institutions as.

Gaston Tissandier and the Greek Translation of his Work "Les Martyrs de la science"
Polyxeni Giannakopoulou, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens/National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece This paper explores the ways Gaston Tissandiers Les Martyrs de la Science reached the Greek audience in the late 19th century. Tissandier, the French well known popuparizer of science, was chemist, meteorologist, aviator and editor, born in 1843. He managed to escape Paris by balloon in September 1870 and first partially solved the problem of steering balloons; his balloon, in 1883, propelled by a screw, and steered by a rudder of unvarnished silk, attained a speed of nine miles an hour. Tissandier founded and edited the scientific magazine La Nature and wrote several books. In 1879 Gaston Tissandier published Les Martyrs de la science, where he discussed the founders of the sciences such as Pascal, Descartes, Bacon and a number of others. The publication was immediately picked up by The Popular Science Monthly and discussed extensively in 1880. That same year, a Greek literary woman, Eliza Soutsou, translated the entire work into Greek. Her translation appeared in Estia, a widely circulated journal of the second half of the 19th century, and in a series of volumes from June 1880 to June 1881. Soutsou came from a famous family of Athens; her brother was mayor of the city from May 1879 to September 1887. She was highly educated and spoke several languages, and also translated literary works. 202

Based on Eliza Soutsous case, I argue that Greek middle-class women of the nineteenth century tried to learn about the prominent figures of the time and their role within the scientific community. They translated articles on the lives of scientists and on scientific achievements and communicated these ideas, transmitting scientific knowledge from Europe and all over the world. Transmission of knowledge became a powerful weapon that allowed them to keep in touch with scientific developments of their time, although they didnt have access in the Greek University until the late of the century (1890). Thereby, science became for them a way to escape the narrow confines of family life and to declare their presence in public space.

Scientific Cosmopolitanism and Geography in the Habsburg Empire during the 19th c.
Petra Svatek, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria This paper looks at the degree of cosmopolitan orientation of geography as a field of knowledge across the different scientific disciplines and social strata in the Austrian part of the Habsburg monarchy in the 19th century. With this premise in mind, it aims to explore the thesis that the extent of cosmopolitan attitudes in geography often varied markedly and was primarily dependent on the interests of individual persons and institutions. In the 19th century, geography was a subject tackled not only by geographers, but also by geologists, botanists, zoologists, historians, physicians, theologians, aristocrats, politicians and the military. For example, research undertaken so far shows that above all geographers of the universities of Vienna, Graz and Innsbruck most of whom belonged to the bourgeoisie tended to engage in locally themed and historically oriented geographic research, which hardly extended beyond the territory of the Habsburg monarchy in this period. Conversely, a more cosmopolitan view of geography can be identified among members of various Imperial and Royal institutions as well as among aristocrats, whose manifold expeditions to Africa, Asia and Latin America had triggered intensive studies of other cultures (religions, languages and customs) and landscapes. Yet large-scale, officially funded research expeditions also harboured national interests, as they were aimed much less at exploring virgin territory than at striving to add to the imperial collections in Vienna. By contrast, members of the clergy hardly engaged in any form of cosmopolitan geography over the 19th century. Rather, they were mainly concerned with the biblical geography of the Holy Land or tried to Europeanise foreign cultures through missionary work.

Studying Science, Mathematics and Technology with Models of Ancient Mechanisms

Yanis Bitsakis, Constantine Skordoulis, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece This paper reports results from the implementation of a research project funded by national resources (Herakleitos, project number 70/3/11011) titled: Pedagogical aspects of the history of the Antikythera Mechanism. The first part of our project involves the study of the history of the various attempts to construct an accurate model of the mechanism. We start by examining the first model designed by Theophanides, then we proceed to the model of De Solla Price drawn after the gamma-ray examination of the remnants of the mechanism, then to the model of Allan Bromley, who used linear tomography with Michael Wright to examine parts of the mechanism, and finally we study the research model of Michael Wright revising crucial features of older models. In all models, the number of teeth, and examination of the way the gears meshed, show that the gear ratios can be associated with astronomical and calendrical parameters and allow a description of how the device must have functioned.

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Our research focuses on the interplay between historical hypotheses and experimental findings in model construction, thus highlighting important aspects of the nature of science. Issues concerning the relations between science and technology and of scientific and technological heritage will also be discussed. The second part of our research involves the design of a teaching activity which introduces students of the Greek Middle School (Gymnasium) to the function of the mechanism and especially the function of the gear systems. During this activity the students is expected to develop an understanding of the concepts of Speed, Force and Rotational Force (Torque) related to their Science course and an understanding of how simple machines work related to their Technology course. The Students perform measurements using various gears in various combinations tabulating their results. Specifically they study how changing gear numbers and ratios change speed and direction. Also by attaching various weights to the gears they study torque (rotational force). At the end of this activity the students will be able to explain gear ratios, the relationship between torque and speed, or force and speed and the purpose of each of the different mechanisms and will develop skills related to measurement, unit conversion and reading diagrams. In the last phase of the activity, the students enter a project where they are asked to design a system of gears to simulate the motion of the sun and the moon in an ideal circular orbit, constructing their own model of a mechanism.

A New Historical Approach to the Study of Ancient Waterways of the European Part of Russia
Vera Aleksandrovna Shirokova, Vasily M. Chesnov, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation The ancient waterways constitute a special type of spatial object of cultural and natural heritage. In ancient Russia, the main lines of communication were laid on the rivers and lakes. Their role in this capacity has been predetermined by geological and geographical structure of the European part of the country. In the 17th - 19th centuries this commonly known route from the Vikings to the Greeks was reconstructed in three major water systems. The development of these water highways was due both to the activities of European hydraulic engineers, and the expansion of trade with European countries. In this situation, the waterway has played a role in forming the core of the structure and formation of the entire hierarchy of cultural and historical systems. Consideration of cultural monuments and hydraulic engineering as part of an integrated natural-human system is uniquely required to reorient the traditional historical-scientific approaches. The main vector of the research was redirected to a multidimensional examination of the history of the waterway as a unifying principle for the development of the whole region. The correct study of culture and hydraulic engineering monuments required to carry out in parallel the historical, geographical, hydrological and ecological research. A special place in the area of waterway occupied by cultural and historical landscapes - complete historical, cultural and natural formation located in a particular zone with certain natural homogeneous properties due to the long interaction between man and landscape during their coherent development. With this approach intellectual and cultural values forming a sort of an information block are considerate as independent components of the landscape. Genesis, size and nature of the operation of these landscapes is mainly determined by socio-economic part of the structure, including the economic and mental activities of man. The North Dvina, Mariinsky and Vyshnevolocky lake and river systems, connected by man-made channels, with the extant monuments of hydraulic engineering present typical examples of such cultural and historical areas. During the 2005-2012 period, researchers of the Moscow University and Russian Academy of Sciences expedition completed the study according to the declared method. 204

The proposed method of mapping of various natural objects on the old and modern (including Earth remote sensing data) maps made possible to identify the retrospective nature of the situation, to restore the history of the system. This work was supported by RFBR grant - project number 09-05-00041

Adolf Erman and his Part in Developmant of Russian Oriental Studies

Kateryna Gamaliia, Ukraine Adolf Erman (1854-1937), professor of Berlin University, director of Egyptian museum in Berlin, member of Prussian Academy of Sciences, the prominent egyptologist and lexicographer, founded the Berlin school of egyptology. Under his leadership this school issued the Ancient Egyptian dictionary in 5 volumes with 7 supplements. A. Erman is the author of Modern Egyptian Grammar (1880) and seria works on Ancient Egyptian language, history of Egyptian culture and religion, and also several popular-scientific books on the life in Ancient Egypt. Adolf Erman was one of the first the Ancient World investigators, which began make use of the principle of historian method. The classical works of A. Erman and his school started the modern egyptology, had an influence on the development of this branch of science in different countries, including Rusia. From A. Erman studied the well-known Russian orientalist, academician of Sanct-Petersburg Academy of Sciences Boris Turayev (1868-1920), which created the seria of works on the history of Egypt, among them History of Ancient East in 2 volumes (1936), and continued tradition to collect the objects of Egyptian art which was begun by Kutuzovs descendant Vladimir Golenishchev (1856-1947). Nowadays this collection is exibited in Egyptian department of Pushkin museum in Moskow. At A. Erman worked on probation the pupils of B. Turayev: Vladimir Vikentyev (1882-1960), which after the Civil war leaved Russia for Egypt and became the professor of Cairo University; Vasiliy Struve (1889-1965), the outstanding Russian egyptologist and assiriologist, the author of more than 400 works on the history and linguistics of Ancient World, including the fundamental History of Ancient East (1941), director of the Institute of Ethnography in Leningrad, academician of USSR Academy of Sciences, founder of Russian school of Ancient East historians.

LOrient Express, vecteur du cosmopolitisme technologique et culturel europen

Blanche El Gammal, CHST, Paris, France Le train Paris-Vienne-Constantinople, lanc en 1882 par Georges Nagelmaekers, est devenu un mythe europen dans le cinma et la littrature par la socit luxueuse et cosmopolite qui la frquent. Mais par la diversit des problmes technologiques quil a d rencontrer, il est devenu une synthse de la technologie europenne et un puissant vecteur de dveloppement conomique et dindustrialisation du SE europen.

Youth Conferences for Science, Technology and Education as Practical Aspect of Historical and Scientific Researches
Alla S. Lytvynko, Lilia P. Ponomarenko, G.M.Dobrov Center for Scientific and Technological Potential and Science History Studies NAS of Ukraine, Kiev, Ukraine The current change of ideas, knowledge and technology is so fast that finding ways to coordinate of cascade growing knowledge and human ability to learn creatively becomes urgent. Today one of the important tasks of education is training specialists, who can live and work in a technological world, to determine the most relevant areas of science, technology and industry, creatively and unconventionally solve scientific and technical issues. One of the effective ways which effectively solve these problems is to use the science history studies in the preparation of students. It can 205

improve the quality of fundamental disciplines teaching cycle that form the basis of lifelong education. Science history studies courses allow the students see the object of their researches through the disclosure of science past and logic of its development in the context of world cultural heritage. It forms a conscious understanding and humanistic attitude to the processes and phenomena in the world and responsible for them practice; realizes the need to address global civilization problems; creates interest in the professional sphere and improves the level and depth of professional skills. Studying the history of any discipline in its social context creates a new ideological synthesis of natural-scientific, technical and humanitarian culture. Organization and conduction of conferences for the history of science, technology and education development is extremely important for emphasizing the applied aspect of historical researches and promotes understanding the role of science, technology and education for prevent global world problems. Our ten years experiences of organization and conducting scientific and practical conference "History of Science, Technology and Education" (2002 - 2012) show that the discussion about fundamental ideas and theories of natural sciences and historical aspects of the physical and mathematical sciences and technology development in the world and Ukraine promotes quality of physical education at the Technical University, search and support of talented students, changing of knowledge and obtaining research skills in the first independent scientific work.

Elisabeth Kara-Michailova
Ganka Kamisheva, Institute of Solid State Physics - BAS, Sofia, Bulgaria The fortune of Professor Elisabeth Kara-Michailova is to be researcher with dreams and personal achievements. She is the first woman physicist elected in the Sofia University. Elisabeth KaraMichailova finished foundation of the University department of nuclear physics during the first half of 20th century. Good experimental physicist with long experience from Vienna Radium Institute, she organised three laboratories on radioactivity, station for cosmic particles, and nuclear reactor in Bulgarian Academy of Sciences in the second half of 20th century.

The Cousin Ignored

Csar Lorenzano, Universidad Nacional de Tres de Febrero, Argentina On November 11, 1938, the front page of Il Corriere della Sera announced that the Council of Ministers had enacted laws on race protection: mixed marriages were forbidden, Jews were defined, they were banned from State, para-State and public-interest positions. The policies of the Mussolini regime toward Italians of Jewish ascent had radically changed. The ruling had crucial consequences for research in life sciences. Giuseppe Levi, who held the chair of Anatomy in the University of Torino and was an indefatigable teacher of researchers was sacked and confined to Calabria. He had four outstanding disciples. Three of them Rita Levi Montalcini, Salvatore Luria and Renato Dulbecoemigrated to the US and eventually received the Nobel prize. I shall focus my paper on his fourth disciple: Eugenia Sacerdote de Lustig. She came to Argentina in 1939: her diploma had been torn by the fascist regime six month after the enactment of the racist laws. She was a cousin of Rita Levi Montalcinis, they had attended the Classical Licaeum together, in order to enter the School of Medicine. They were two of the five women admitted among 500 students. They graduated in 1932 as Doctor in Medicine and Surgery. Both cousins passed their final exams suma cum laude. She stated in an interview: Anti Jewish laws of Italian fascism forced us to emigrate. Montalcini, Dulbecco and Luria fled to the US, where they later received their Nobel prize. I came to Argentina, where I lacked the means to fully develop my line of research in vitro culture of living tissue, where I did not receive the Nobel Prize.

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Her whole life was devoted to scientific research and spent in the laboratory, as an exile by military regimes, in isolation: as a Jew, a foreigner and a woman. We shall describe its main features and its context. In so doing, we shall also refer briefly to its contacts with other lives, also spent in laboratories and in exile: her cousins, Rita Levi Montalcini and Hertha Meyers. After spending a couple of years in Brazil, Eugenia Sacerdote de Lustig worked ad-honorem in the chair of Histology of the School of Medicine of the University of Buenos Aires. Later on she was hired and received a salary from the surplus of the test-tube budget. In 1945, the government headed by J. D. Pern fired Dr. Houssay --who would receive the Nobel Prize for Medicine two years later-. This led the head teacher of Histology and his entire staff to give in their resignation. At that point, Sacerdote de Lustig was invited to work at ngel Roffo Institute of Oncology and moved her laboratory of cell culture there. This would be her home for the years to come, almost until her demise. In the 50s she was asked to work in the Department of Virology of Malbrn Institute to study viruses in cell cultures and refine the technique to diagnose viral illnesses in in-vitro living cells. When the head of the department, Dr Armando Parodi, moved to Uruguay in 1956, she took over the direction. At that time, there was a polio epidemic and she had to diagnose the cases brought to her. She received a grant from the PHO (Pan-American Health Organisation) to study the polio virus in the US and Canada and the results of the newly discovered Salk vaccine on monkeys. Back in Argentina, she tested the Salk vaccine on humans --probably for the first time. She tried it on herself and her children and after that on patients in the Roffo Institute. Her work proved crucial to control the epidemic. A labour conflict plus the dismissal of the Director and several researchers of Malbrn Institute led her to tender her resignation, as did Cesar Milstein who was pursuing a very original line of research. Our researcher returns to her laboratory at Instituto Roffo on a full time basis. In 1957 her medical degree was certified, after close to 20 years since she lodged the request. Times had changed. Risieri Frondizi was the new dean of the University of Buenos Aires. His purpose was to turn the University into a top level institution and he certified Sacerdotes degree after she obtained a chair as head teacher at the School of Exact and Natural Sciences in the University of Buenos Aires. She used to teach there and carry out her research at Instituto Roffo, where her university students carried out their practice. Following the request of Dr. Houssay she joined the recently founded National Institute of Science and Technology (CONICET). In 1966, the dictatorship of General Ongana took over the University, fired the whole faculty of the School of Exact Sciences, beating authorities and professors within the premises. Yet again, Eugenia Sacerdote de Lustig lost her job and found refuge at Instituto Roffo where she continued with her research as a member of CONICET, focusing on genetics, experimental oncology and Alzheimers disease. She retired in 1986 but kept doing honorary work at Roffo Institute, training local and international grantees, directing and sharing her knowledge and expertise with doctoral candidates and technicians. When she turned 101, the country honoured her with the Bicentenary Prize, awarded to highly distinguished personalities. She had received over twenty national awards and acknowledgements. She died a few days later. Notwithstanding that, she is scarcely known outside the country, where full acknowledgement of her work came fairly late. International sources make no mention of her. Her cousin, Rita Levi Montalcini, her colleagues and friends, Salvador Luria and Renato Dulbecco do not remember her in their autobiographies. The purpose of this article is to reinstate the memory of her personality and contribution, honouring a woman fully devoted to research, someone who made a remarkable contribution to the development of science in Argentina and focused on a line of research tissue cultureinitiated with

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her doctoral dissertation in 1936 which proved to be a crucial tool to face the challenges posed by biological sciences.

Global Pressure, Local Opposition. Tendencies toward a Human Academic Environment

Gustaaf Cornelis, Vrije Universiteit, Brussel, Belgium It is common knowledge: Web of Science dominates the academic world. A comparison with Credit Rating Agencies like Moodys hold: they seem to forget their arbitrary rankings strongly influence individual lives. I will show that the pressure to publish in ISI-ranked journals (1) makes the academic work environment unfriendly, therefore unhealthy and can lead to burnouts, (2) shapes scientific research methodologically and (3) determines its content. Recent cosmological research offers relevant case studies to illustrate this. I will focus on the Hubble Space Telescope project and the Mitra-Hawking controversy regarding black holes. It all comes to two phenomena: (a) mainstream science and (b) managerism. (a) People want to be part of the mainstream, because it implies success (more respect, greater income). The Mathew effect plays a key role here. (b) National governments link research funding to scientific output. The academic authorities rank their faculties according to the amount of ISI-papers, weighed by the respective impact factors. Were all in for the money, the governments hold. On the work floor, people think differently. They get stressed and their scientific output flattens. It is my belief that universities should promote humanism, instead of serving pure economic production. In Flanders (Belgium), following Norway, a local alternative ranking for research output is available (Flemish Academic Bibliographical File). It lessens the pressure on the humanities. The global ISImonopoly is broken by the acceptance of local publications and a valuation of monographs. Scientific books are weighed four times more than ISI-papers, given that they hold a GPRC-label (Guaranteed Peer Reviewed Content). It is a first step to make the academic world more human.

Culturing Expertise: Canadian Medical Laboratory Workers, 1950-1975

Peter L. Twohig, Saint Mary's University, Halifax, Canada Medical laboratory workers are the third largest health profession in Canada. The vast majority of them, roughly eighty percent, are women. The social history of their work at the bench provides fascinating insight into the negotiation of expertise, the social organization of health care work and the relationships among these workers and clinicians, scientists, and other health care workers. Medical laboratory workers emerged as a distinctive occupational group in a period of rapid change in Canadian health care, a period that encompassed shifting scientific knowledge, the introduction of new technologies, bureaucratic and administrative restructuring, the expansion of hospitals and public health infrastructure. Medical laboratory workers carefully negotiated their role in the period after 1950, balancing a portrait of professionalism that was based on education, experience and expertise. This paper will provide a social history of medical laboratory workers from 1950 to 1975, the period in which Canadian medicare was formed. The paper draws upon administrative and clinical records and provides insight into the contested nature of health care work. Such a perspective reveals how ideas of expertise have been subjected to competing, and sometimes contradictory, pressures. Finally, paying attention to the daily work of laboratory technologists reveals the malleable nature of their expertise that was highly dependent upon context long after the creation of supposedly national, or even international, standards.

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Teaching Biology by Storytelling

Evangelia Mavrikaki, Nausica Kapsala, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece Storytelling has been a powerful way to communicate knowledge throughout time. Long before writing was invented storytelling was the primary way to pass knowledge from one generation to another. Today, storytelling remains a compelling teaching practice as stories are part of what we are as human beings. The use of storytelling in the classroom helps to attract students attention and implicate even the most indifferent of them to the learning process. Moreover, storytelling proves to be very useful in the case of ideas that cannot be easily introduced through live experience as it allows students to experience the context of the story. Stories humanize the teaching topic, bring it to life, make it approachable to the students and allow them to use besides their logical thinking also their feelings in order to learn, as stories cultivate the imagination and inspiration of the students. The stories that can be used in the classroom can be experienced stories, mythical stories, or stories coming from the history of science. Using the history of science to teach science it serves multi purposes, as the students learn how knowledge itself has been produced, and take the intellectual steps that scientists did in order to reach that knowledge. That way, students are engaged in the process of discovery for themselves. In our research we used the story of how the structure of the double helix of DNA was discovered by J. Watson and F. Crick in order to teach the structure of DNA. For our purpose we used the story, worksheets, conversation and the original script (translated into Greek) of the article that was published by J. Watson and F. Crick and used students texts in order to evaluate the process.

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Scientific Session 4
From Medieval Castille to Newtonian England: Theories of Matter and Space
Hernn Javier Matzkevich, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Any cultural production, after being put into the world by its creator, starts a long path which many times makes it separate from its original purpose and intentions. There are many authors that would today be surprised of the different interpretations and analyses their oeuvre would suffer. In this line, this paper will present the theses related to matter and space that were developed by the Cabbalists in Medieval Castille. It would not be exact to present texts such as Moses ben Shem Tovs Sefer haZohar as having scientific pretensions, even though its pages contain a series of theories about matter and space. These texts were not scientific and did not try it at all. Nevertheless, with the passing of time and the expulsion of the Jews from the kingdoms of Castille and Aragon in 1492, the Wests scientific and philosophic elite showed a growing fascination with them, which can be observed in figures of the Renaissance such as Pico della Mirandola and Robert Fludd. During the 16th century there was a great increase of Orientalism in general and Hebraism in particular based on the idea that deepening their knowledge of the ancient texts they would be able to know more about the natural world. This fashion continued through the 17th century with a great amount of translations from Hebrew into Latin. Among the translated texts were those of the Medieval Cabbalists from the Iberian Peninsula. These were the first part of a chain of sacred knowledge capable of unraveling all sciences mistakes. Authors as Henry Mores, Frances Mercury van Helmont, Christian Knorr von Rosenroth, Anne Conway and Leibniz himself did not read these texts as a result of archeological interest. On the contrary, these thinkers interpreted the works of medieval figures such as Moses of Leon and Azriel of Girona or later ones such as Israel Sarug and Abraham Cohen of Herrera according to the intellectual debates of their time. Ideas which are important to modern science such as the indefinite infinitude of space o the substantial unity of bodies were, though not directly taken, defined with arguments taken directly from those medieval texts.

For the Love of the Land Wildlife Conservation in Reborn Poland

Diana Eurydyka Maciga, Jagiellonian Univerity Intitute of Botany, Krakw, Poland Divided between three neighbouring European powers, in 1795 Poland disappeared from the map of Europe. In this exceptionally difficult time the Polish nation discovered a new source of the nation's identity, as important as history, culture and religion - the native land and its wildlife. Due to the partitioners' divergent policies and the predominant absence of any conservation strategy, private initiatives came to the fore. Among them were: protection and inventory of natural monuments, designating first nature reserves, launching legal protection of certain species for scientific reasons (a pioneering act on a global scale) and introducing wildlife conservation to university syllabuses. In spite of the turmoils of the First World War, efforts were commenced to merge the three former concepts of environment management into one coherent system. Right after Poland regained independence in 1918, the issues of wildlife conservation started to be included in legal documents pertaining to all aspects of life. Accepted as a new scientific discipline, wildlife conservation flourished. The first academic textbook was published, an arduous and difficult international programme for the European Bison reintroduction was launched and many nature reserves were designated. The dramatic fight to save the Tatra Mountains from encroaching devastation and declare it as the Tatra National Park proved to be essential in shaping the circles of Polish 210

conservationists in the interwar period. Ustawa o Ochronie Przyrody (The Nature Protection Act), introduced in 1934 as one of the most comprehensive and innovative in contemporary Europe, was the crowning achievement of the unremitting effort of the most eminent scientists and activists, such as Professor Wadysaw Szafer, Professor Jan Gwalbert Pawlikowski and Professor Stanisaw Sokoowski. Unification of the lands that had been separated for more than a century into one political entity was an overwhelming challenge. The immediate actions taken in the field of wildlife conservation, viewed as a thing of marginal significance compared to other problems of national importance, clearly demonstrate the exceptional determination of Polish naturalists, for whom the protection of natural heritage was synonymous to patriotism understood as the deep love for their native land.

Images of Darwin in Portugal: a Historical-iconographic Study of the 19th and 20th c.

Pedro Ricardo Fonseca, Ana Leonor Pereira, Joo Rui Pita, Universidade de Coimbra, Guarda, Portugal The presentation consists of a historical-iconographic study of Charles Darwin (1809-1882) in Portugal during the 19th and 20th centuries. The reception of darwinism in Portugal began shortly after the publication of On the origin of species ... (1859). During the second half of the 19th century and throughout the 20th century, Charles Darwins biological theory would have a profound influence upon Portuguese Science and Culture. During this period, several Portuguese authors, related to many different fields of knowledge, published articles on Charles Darwin and his theory. Indeed, even before his death in 1882, the British naturalist was already praised as one of the most important scientists in history by a considerable number of Portuguese authors. These texts were frequently accompanied with images (photographs and portrayals) of Charles Darwin and even of certain objects (e. g. the H. M. S. Beagle) and themes (e. g. the supposed descent of man from the monkey) associated with the British naturalist and his biological theory. But images of Charles Darwin are also to be found in many other types of Portuguese publications of the 19th and 20th centuries, such as: scientific papers, newspaper articles, cartoons, encyclopaedia entries and school textbooks. Which types of publication included most images? Who were the authors of the texts? Which images were reproduced? How did the authors or publishers obtain the images? Were there any original Portuguese portrayals or drawings? The inventory and analyses of all the images we were able to locate has provided us with answers to these and many other questions concerning the iconographical representation of Charles Darwin in Portugal, and, thus, provided us with new information on the reception and history of darwinism in this country.

Portugal and the 20th c. Darwinian Celebrations

Ana Leonor Pereira, Pedro Ricardo Fonseca, Joo Rui Pita, Universidade de Coimbra, Guarda, Portugal The presentation addresses the 20th century darwinian celebrations with respect to Portugal. First, we explore the events (e. g. scientific meetings, tributes, conferences) that took place in Portugal during the following years: 1909 (the first centennial of Charles Darwins birth and the 50th anniversary of the first publication of On the origin of species ...); 1959 (the first centennial of the first publication of On the origin of species ... and 150th anniversary of Charles Darwins birth); and 1982 (the first centennial of Charles Darwins death). Who organized the events? Who participated in them? Where did they take place? These are some of the questions that we will seek to answer. In addition, we also evaluate the significance of the participation (or non-participation) of Portuguese dignitaries in important events that were held in other countries, with special reference to the presence of three Portuguese scientists in the celebrations held at Cambridge (England) in 1909. We then present an overview of the works that were published in the Portuguese press in relation to 211

each one of the celebrations listed above. Finally, we introduce some concluding remarks on the major trends that accompanied the three 20th century darwinian celebrations in Portugal: the concern with the anthropological consequences of darwinism and the debate on the true founder of evolutionary thought (Lamarck or Darwin) in 1909; the apprehension towards social darwinism and other ideological extrapolations of the theory in 1959; and the discussions, that took place within the wider context of the sociobiology debate, regarding the validity and evolutionary significance of some of darwinisms key-features (e. g. natural selection, gradualism, adaptation) in 1982. The presentation is preceded by brief assessment of the Portuguese scientific communitys reaction to Charles Darwins death in April 1882.

Romanes: after Darwin, a New Way of Thinking

Peter Zeller, Universit degli Studi di Foggia, Bari, Italy As known, during his life Darwin passed from an almost literal trust in the Bible to a more and more marked agnosticism, on which his last considerations on our monkey brain and on its irrational need to believe let us glimpse a further pessimism. In his student George John Romanes, 39 years younger, the conflict between science and religion takes very dramatic tones passing from the meditation not merely of death, but of annihilationliness in A Candid Examination of Theism to the form of faith appearing in the last part of his life, which remains doubtful and anyway dedicated to an unknown god. Here, however, we are not interested in deciding about Romanes personal story, but rather about the making clear in him of the epochal conflict running through the lives of these Victorian scientists and, above all, the acquisitions of no return before which this new worldview based on chance and necessity put them. In his last unfinished work, the Thoughts on Religion, a radical revision of previous ways of thinking is well explained, starting from the fact that the two areas of interest (metaphysical and scientific) cannot be mixed but doing undue hybridizations. Paleys ancient argument, with which also Darwin dealt, is thus taken again to make a complete and rational dismantling of it. Through the image of a bay structure, Romanes demonstrates how any present apparent finalism can be brought back to simple and mere science notions. Finally, evolutionism did not only conduct the natural world to a tautology that can be explained by itself but it also revealed not previously perceived dimensions inside as the endless suffering of animals. We do not know which was the last thought of Romanes about the unknown god, but certainly, as it coherently appears during his whole thinking, this last cause (existing or not) cannot in any case be deduced from a dispassionate analysis of the natural world nor ethically supposed. In the transition toward the adult thinking of the contemporaneity the abandonment of an anthropological point of view, the renunciation of the project certainties, the consciousness of the suffering marking life, as it is made of Tooth and Claves, impose.

The Botanical Garden of the University of Coimbra and the Reception of Darwin in Portugal during the 19th c. and early 20th c.
Joo Rui Pita, Pedro Ricardo Fonseca, Ana Leonor Pereira, Universidade de Coimbra, Guarda, Portugal The presentation aims at providing a comprehensive view on the role played by some of the most influential botanists of the University of Coimbra in the reception of Charles Darwins biological theory in Portugal during the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century. The reception of darwinism in Portugal began with Jlio Henriques (1834-1924). The celebrated Portuguese botanist, who was director of the Botanical Garden for several decades, initiated the consistent defence of Darwins biological theory in Portugal, in 1865, with his academic thesis As espcies so mudveis? (Are species modifiable?), presented at the Faculty of Philosophy of the University of Coimbra. The following year, he presented a dissertation entitled Antiguidade do 212

Homem (Antiquity of Man), in which he applied the theory of evolution by natural selection to the human species. Lus Carrisso (1886-1937), a disciple of Jlio Henriques, and his successor as Full Professor of Botany at the University of Coimbra and as director of the Botanical Garden, pursued his masters pioneering efforts in some of his early writings. For example, his 1910 handwritten degree thesis on heredity, presented at the Faculty of Philosophy of the University of Coimbra, albeit reflecting the period commonly known as the eclipse of Darwinism, presents a lucid understanding of Charles Darwins biological theory and of the difficulties natural selection was facing at the time, concluding with a remark on the necessity of an interdisciplinary approach to evolution. It was under Lus Carrissos directorship of the Botanical Garden that two other Portuguese botanists started to gain notability: Aurlio Quintanilha (1892-1987) and Ablio Fernandes (1906-1994). Charles Darwins biological theory had a strong influence upon the original scientific works carried out by the two botanists. Indeed, thanks to their specialization in genetics and cytology, both Aurlio Quintanilha and Ablio Fernandes would tackle many issues related to evolution in innovative ways in Portugal. They would also engage in debates on biological matters with much interest to evolutionism and darwinism in the course of the 20th century.

The Reception of Th. Dobzhanskys Evolutionary Concept in the USSR

Mikhail Borisovich Konashev, St. Petersburg Branch Institute of the History of Science and Technology, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation Dobzhansky was the founder of original genetic and evolutionary school. Originally this school consisted of his young colleagues of the department of genetics of the Leningrad state university. Then in the period of restoration of genetics in the USSR many young biologists there were members of this school which became correspondence school since the beginning of 1930s. In December, 1927 as grant-aided student of Rockefeller foundation Dobzhansky has gone to T. H. Morgan's laboratory in the USA. In 1931 Dobzhansky has refused to get the position in Genetic laboratory of AS of the USSR offered to him by N. I. Vavilov. This decision has changed cardinally his fate as he has became so called nevosvrashentsem (non-returnee), and a road to come back to homeland has been closed for ever. Nevertheless while it was possible, Dobzhansky supported connections with colleagues on the native land. The first (1937) and the second (1942) editions Dobzhanskys world famous book Genetics and the Origins of Species have been ordered and have arrived to the largest Soviet scientific and public libraries. During the period of T. D. Lysenkos domination in soviet biology Dobzhanskys articles with critic of Lysenkoism have been placed in spetskhran, but their influence on the soviet biologists only increased. Dobzhansky has made much for restoration of genetics in the USSR and the propagation of the synthetic theory of evolution. In the end of 1960th in the review of a number of books on genetics published after a long break in the USSR Dobzhansky with great pleasure marked the revival of genetics. On the eve of Dobzhanskys 70-anniversary several soviet biologists including B. L. Astaurov, D. K. Beljaev, J. J. Kerkis and N. P. Dubinin have congratulated him. However no one even brief note devoted to this event has been published in the Soviet scientific periodical press. More all Dobzhansky dreamed of the translation of his main monographers into Russian, but during Soviet times it was simply impossible. His Genetics and the Origin of Species was translated into Russian and published only in 2010. Earlier, in 2002 his correspondence with Yuri A. Philipchenko, Nikolai I. Vavilov and Vladimir I. Vernadsky was published. But nevertheless both Dobzhanskys name and his evolutionary ideas were well-known for scientific youth. Dobzhanskys name went down for ever in the history of a Russian and world science, and the proof of this is a lot of articles in Russian devoted to 100-anniversary of his birth. Besides two conferences devoted Th. Dobzhansky and his scientific evolutionary heritage were held (in 1990 and in 2010). 213

Creative Darwinism as Part of a Totalitarian Ideological Framework, and the Restructuring of Life Sciences in Czechoslovakia 1948-1959
Tomas Hermann, Institute for Contemporary History of the Academy of Science of Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic The paper will focus on interpretation of the so-called creative Darwinism, Lysenkoism, and Michurinian biology, on the example of their reception in Czechoslovakia in the period of 1948 1959. This problem is to be carried out a) on a theoretical level, whereby these theories are viewed as specific parts of a totalitarian ideological structure of dialectical materialism during the Stalinist period; b) on a practical level, whereby these theories are seen as instruments of an internal shift within the power structures in life sciences, i.e. their functions in the major scientific institutions and main proponents of biology in Czechoslovakia.

Marxist Theory of Evolution in Czechoslovakia as a Case of 'Anti-synthesis'. Vladimr J.A. Novk and the Principle of Sociogenesis
Petr Hampl, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic The paper deals with the history of czechoslovak post-war biology and its reception of the synthetic evolutionary theory on the example of czech evolutionary biologist Vladimr J.A. Novk (1919-1997), considering especially his works and career in the former Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. It focuses on the marxist attitude to the synthetic evolutionary theory in eastern Europe Czechoslovakia between the 60s 80s with Novk as one of the local leading persons in the field of evolutionary theory. The presentation is divided into three sections where there are presented 1) Novk's marxist attitudes, 2) his main works regarding evolutionary biology, in particular his own 'synthetic' evolutionary theory called sociogenesis developed in the 60s as an alternative theory to the prevailing theories of evolution in the western countries. Sociogenesis is shown as considering the evolutionary process as socialist evolution toward communism with lysenkist and lamarckian background and forming an explicit opposition to the theory of sociobiology and also works by R. Dawkins, thus representing an eastern version of synthetic evolutionary theory. 3) Novk scientificaly active with political support and his own institute within Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences as organizator of many meetings, workshops and conferences focusing on the question of the evolutionary theory, its political and ideological consequences. His conferences were visited by researches from all over the world regardless the country of origin who were at that time opposing the prevailing western synthetic theory, thus forming a kind of a body of 'anti-synthetic' researchers.

The Case of Botanists in Lithuania during the Lysenkoism Period

Aurika Rickiene, Nature Reserach Centre, Lithuania In the Soviet Union cosmopolitanism meant a rejection of Soviet values. In biology this phenomenon reveals itself as lysenkoism the core of which was the pseudo theory of Trofim Lysenko based on rejection of the concept of genetics. On July 31 August 7, 1948, the authorities of V. I. Lenin Academy of Agricultural Sciences of the Soviet Union announced that lysenkoism would be used as the only correct theory in the Soviet Union. Criticism of T. Lysenko was denounced as a support of bourgeois. After World War II (WWII), Lithuania lost its statehood and became one of the republics of the Soviet Union. All spheres of society changed under the Soviet rule. Following the directives of the Moscow session, studies and research of biology and botany were placed under the umbrella of T. Lysenkos requirements in Lithuania. Botany research that was developed before WWII 214

in Lithuania and that met the requirements of Soviet science strategy was integrated into Soviet research programs. Special groups of Communist party members were organized at Vilnius University, higher schools and institutes to supervise that the studies and research correspond the Soviet ideology. During the lysenkoism period five botanists that had matured in Vytautas Magnus University before WWII Kazys Brundza, Jonas Dagys, Antanas Minkeviius, Marija Natkeviait and Povilas Snarskis were engaged in botanical research and studies in Vilnius University, Institute of Biology of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences and other schools of education. During the years 19441960 they had experienced Soviet disfavor and different challenges. All of them were criticized at different meetings and got the warnings. Immediately after the Moscow session in 1948, plant physiologist J. Dagys was removed from the position of the Head of the Department of Plant Anatomy and Plant Physiology. Scientific degree obtained in 1942 was not conferred on geneticist M. Natkeviait by soviet science authorities. P. Snarskis was obliged to establish a special Department in Vilnius University with the purpose to propagate new theory of T. Lysenko. Although all of them were under Soviet disgrace, they were the only professional scientists in the field of botany; thus, they continued working and were research guides to the majority of botanists, and Lysenkos theoretical concepts have not been widely developed in Lithuania.

Compulsory Isolation of Leprosy in So Paulo: Science, Press and Politics

Guilherme Gorgulho Braz, University of Campinas (Unicamp), Brazil In the first decades of the Twentieth Century, the State of So Paulo, Brazil, was the scenery of an endemic of leprosy which spread with the migration from Europe and other regions of the country, forcing local government to establish a public health policy. The compulsory confinement in asylums and colonies of all whom manifested the disease started in 1933 and ended in 1967. The austerity of So Paulo model of prophylaxis, in the most populous and important State of the country, was a special case in the history of combating this disease in Brazil. The strategy contributed to the reinforcement of the medieval stigma of "leprosy" represented in the pages of the newspapers of So Paulo, reflecting the prevailing view at that time. This research found that the news showed a positive situation of isolated patients, reporting issues mainly in favor of the state policy, and among the science community there were few dissenting voices. Both attitudes played an important role in supporting the health policy. As a result, the isolationist policy persevered for nearly four decades in the State, even though the compulsory confinement policy had not been recommended in an international conference in Japan in 1958, and the Brazilian government had decreed its end in 1962. This study has also included the analysis of the science journal Revista Brasileira de Leprologia and found a late 1966 manifestation of physicists about the inefficiency of the policy of compulsory isolation, which stimulated the underreporting of new cases due to fear of deprivation in leper colonies. This paper addresses this historical approach on the part of the persecution of lepers, who were deprived of social contact within establishments similar to prisons or concentration camps. Preliminary conclusion shows that the government of So Paulo could only maintain its compulsory policy with the fundamental support of the press and the scientists.

Social Representations of Folk Healers in Mass Media: the Case of Father Gymnasius
Rea Kakampoura, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece George Katsadoros, University of the Aegean, Greece Traditional societies used herbs and empirical healing practices and/or rituals of magical and religious origin to cope with illness and disease. Folk healers were held in high regard as the only ones capable of curing bodily and mental ailments, thus maintaining social stability. Nowadays, in the

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era of medical science and high specialization, as established in western societies, what do people think about folk healers and their practices? In this article we aim to examine social, political and cultural perceptions of folk healers. We will investigate the case of an illiterate monk, Father Gymnasius, who, at the end of 19th and the beginning of 20th c., was supposed to cure illness by using herbs. Father Gymnasius gained much fame during the 1930s. His remedies, which today can be found also on the Internet, were published 36 years after his death (Father Gymnasius, 369 Monk Recipes, 1975). The first part of the paper focuses on the social and political implications of the monks actions, as represented in newspapers of his time, whereas the second part deals with modern notions of folk medicine and its practitioners as revealed through the acceptance or rejection of the monks remedies by current Internet users.

The Goals and Role of the Rockefeller Foundation Public Health Programs in Central and Eastern Europe between the two World Wars
Sona Strbanova, Michal imnek, Academy of Science of Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic The Rockefeller Foundation (RF) established in 1913 was the first US based philanthropic organization focusing on funding public health activities not only in the United States, but also worldwide. Between the two World Wars, one of the priorities for the RF became building State Institutes of Public Health in Central and Eastern Europe designed to provide public health services and administration linked up with research and education. The public health projects of the RF in Europe can be characterized by the following features: 1) The State Institutes of Public Health were planned as part of a general scheme of creating a standardized global international network of top public health institutions with well trained personnel guided by the RF and its International Health Board. 2) The public health projects made use of the American experience and were designed with the aid of American advisors, nevertheless these always worked hand in hand with the local government agencies and specialists; therefore the crucial component of the project in each country was advanced training of the local experts. 3) The projects focused on the specific problems, needs and requirements of the individual countries and respected their degree of the cultural, scientific and social advancement. 4) Public health was understood very broadly in terms of a discipline based preferably on science and education, therefore the activities of the RF also targeted some special areas of basic biological and biomedical (e.g. bacteriological, genetic, biochemical) research. Czechoslovakia was the first Central European country where this model was applied in the years 1920-1939, followed by Poland, Hungary and partially Yugoslavia. In these countries, the RF projects created conditions for disease prevention and effective fighting epidemics, providing education, grants and scholarships. They also acted as models of advanced international scholarly cooperation and practical philanthropy, and vehicle of democratic ideas. From the RF public health projects came the impetus for establishing the League of Nations Health Organization, forerunner of the WHO. The paper will focus on the comparative aspects of the RF activities and show some differences in implementation of the public health projects resulting from the political, social and scientific unevenness of the individual countries.

The Role of Novosibirsk Scientific Center in the Revival of Genetics in the Soviet Union in the Thaw years (19571964)
Sergey Viktorovich Shalimov, St. Petersburg Branch of Institute for the History of Science and Technology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation

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The history of genetics in the USSR is important and at the same time it is an insufficiently studied question. As it is known, in 1948 the science about heredity has been defeated at the notorious VASKhNIL session and by the beginning of the Khrushchevs Thaw it was still in a difficult position. In these circumstances, the establishment of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1957) offered a unique opportunity for a revival of the disgraced science within its institutional framework. The establishment and subsequent development of the Institute of Cytology and Genetics at the Novosibirsk Scientific Center was of a paramount importance for the advancement of research in genetics. It was an important precondition for overcoming the Lysenkoism. It provided an institutional base for the second wave of geneticists, who had been following Vavilov approach. Among them were Nikolai P. Dubinin, Julius Y. Kerkis, Peter K. Shkvarnikov, Zoe S. Nikoro. A number of substantial practical results were achieved within these years; they were accepted by the academic community and were acknowledged by the Soviet government. The advancement of genetics in the new scientific center was inhibited by a number of factors. Certainly, political and ideological context played the most negative role. There were also serious problems with technical equipment and with recruitment of personnel. However, on the whole, the establishment of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences was an important stimulus for the revival of genetics in the Soviet Union, and the principled stance taken by the founders of the Siberian Branch proved to be one of the main factors that ensured its success. [The research was supported by the Russian Humanitarian Science Foundation, the project 12-3301295.]

The Type of Religiosity as a Factor Influencing the Acceptance or Rejection of Scientific Theories: the Case of Evolution
Kyriacos Athanasiou, Katakos Efstratios, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece Penelope Papadopoulou, University of Western Macedonia, Greece Jelena Stanissavljevic, University of Belgrade, Serbia Our present contribution is a resume of a series of our studies by which we make an effort to explore the factors that are related to the acceptance of evolutionary theory among Greek and other various countries perspective and active educators using the conceptual ecology for biological evolution as a theoretical lens. Our central question refers to the role of the type of religiosity of a certain population in making their willingness for acceptance or rejection of evolution in the school environment. The Theory of Evolution (ET) is considered as concept - threshold that needs to be passed before someone can develop his/her understanding (Kinchin 2010) of a broader perspective of natural phenomena and of the nature of science. Most educational research has shown that the result of the teaching of ET is not positive in different parts of the world. Moreover research shows that the acceptance of the ET is restricted and the knowledge is limited and controversial among school science students and teachers. Large percentages of science teachersclose to a majority in many samplesreject ET and support the teaching of antievolutionary ideas in schools (Nehm & Schonfeld, 2007). Thus evolution remains a problematic subject for many science teachers. We make the hypothesis that the type of qualitative characteristics of the religion a nation or population group holds, is an essential factor in determining the level of acceptance of evolution, and their readiness to make changes in their believes, as well. More specifically, we advocate that the student and teacher populations that come from countries with a Greek-Orthodox background are more ready to find ways on how to reconcile their religious believes with the acceptance of evolution. In that matter, they remind the very one Theodosius Dobzhansky, the father of Neo-Darwinism, who according to his students Ayala and Krimpas, was a 217

Christian Greek-Orthodox but at the same time put the foundations of Neo-Darwinism. Dobzhansky described his religious beliefs: "It is wrong to hold creation and evolution as mutually exclusive alternatives. I am a creationist and an evolutionist. Evolution is God's, or Nature's, method of Creation". We suggest a further discussion within the presentation on his Russian origin and some of the characters of the Eastern-Orthodox theology.

Wounds Treatment ... Between the Cosmopolitan Need and the Cultural Influence
Tarek Adnan Ahmad, Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Alexandria, Egypt Wounds were always an every day and every where suffer for all living creatures along the history. Their treatment differed among types. Although, small work-daily scratches never attracted the attention, more serious bleeding wounds required the care of trained candidates. Their universal aim was to clean those wounds, gather their borders, and cover them from further contaminants. However, sometimes those wounds were infected and developed into chronic ulcers, that complicated the treatment to an extent. Those patients usually required more precise care from professional physicians. It is well known that the treatment of infection mainly requires the reduction of the microbial burden at the site of infection, and enhancing the patients immune state. Although those needs were universal among all worlds nations, their practice remarkably differed. Many medicinal preparations were used to cure wounds. Obviously the most primitive cultures, imitated the animals behavior to treat their wounds and this practice continued in isolated societies. The philosophy of selecting those preparations developed with nations, to be influenced on one hand by the religious orientation of the Old Testament that introduced the philosophy of similarity. Therefore, implementing the use of natural products that treats the plants wounds like myrrh and frankincense in the treatment of the human wounds. On the other hand in Greece, the philosophy of contrast emerged and subsequently introduced the use of heavy metals poisons to treat wounds infections, that were considered to be poisons. This philosophy propagated later on to China and Egypt. The care of the host resistance as well was an issue of concern along the history, but the practice was usually influenced by the religious and social back-ground of the culture. The physician cared to boost the host immune system on the basis of patients health care, nutrition, stresstherapy, rejoicing the patients, spiritual therapy, psycho-therapy, and social relieve.

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Scientific Session 5
Lewis Wolpert: The Unnatural Nature of Science Book Review Constantina Stefanidou, Constantine Scordoulis, National and Kapodistrian University of
Athens, Athens, Greece The central topic in Lewis Wolpert Book The Unnatural Nature of Science is to reveal how unnatural science is, giving high evidence about the factors that make scientific mode of thought so special and usually so counter-intuitive. According to Wolpert, this is the key concept in order that lay people and scientists surpass a bunch of misunderstandings related to science. To establish the so called unnaturalness of the nature of science Wolpert gives great emphasis to the distinction between science and technology. For technology is much older than science and it originates from a very different mode of thought than science. The above mentioned distinction is crucial in order to trace the origins of science. In the present paper we aim at shedding light to the specific chapter of Wolperts Book Thaless Leap: West and East, in which Wolpert argues that science, contrary to technology or religion, originated only once in history, in ancient Greece. He maintains that this is due to the peculiarity of its nature. As Wolpert argues, never before had ideas about the nature of the world been independent from mankind. It was with the ancient Greeks that man and nature are for the first time not perceived inextricably linked and mere curiosity, free from serious religious constrains, about the world arises. Thales of Miletos was the first to establish mathematics as science, putting forward a number of basic propositions. Of course Babylonians and Egyptians made use of arithmetic procedures for their practical needs, but it was their neighbors, Greeks, that transformed the empirical knowledge into an ordered abstract system. For, although Aristotles science was wrong, it was in the specific place and time that the basis of a system for explaining the world based on postulates and logical deduction was established. In this sense, ancient Greece has been the right place both for the mental leap, from practical knowledge to science, and for the geographical leap, from East to West as well.

History of Fuzzy Modeling

Angel Garrido, Piedad Yuste, UNED, Alcorcon, Madrid, Spain Fuzzy Modeling is many times used to transform the knowledge of an expert into a mathematical model. The emphasis is on constructing a fuzzy expert system that replaces the human expert. Also as a tool that can assist human observers in the difficult task of transforming their observations into a mathematical model. In many fields of science, human observers have provided linguistic descriptions and explanations of various systems. However, to study these phenomena, there is a need to construct a suitable mathematical model, a process that usually requires a very subtle mathematical understanding. Fuzzy modeling is a many more direct and natural approach for transforming the linguistic description into such model. A fuzzy model represents the real system in a form that corresponds closely to the way humans perceive it. Thus, the model is easily understandable, and each parameter has a readily perceivable meaning. The model can be easily altered to incorporate new phenomena, and if its behavior is different than expected.

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Formation of Space-based Remote Sensing: the Political and Military Motives

Vasily Mikhailovich Chesnov, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation Remote sensing from space is to explore surfaces and atmospheres of the planets by space vehicles, in different frequency bands of electromagnetic radiation. In particular, the results of Earth observation are used to study the natural resources, weather problems and for other purposes. By "other purposes" usually refers to various aspects of military applications. This is the area of application of Earth observation space systems played a crucial role in the development of space remote sensing as an independent scientific and technical branches of knowledge. By the mid-50s of the 20th century it became obvious that it is possible to create an artificial earth satellite to photograph the surface of the purpose of exploring and return the exposed film. In February 1958 the U.S. adopted a program Corona. In August 1960, was delivered to Earth the first film. As a result, hundreds of thousands of images were received. The true purpose of the program were not announced. The first Soviet remote sensing spacecraft was also equipped with photographic equipment. The materials were delivered to Earth in the descent capsule. In the Soviet Union and in the United States military authorities have initiated a first space remote sensing of the Earth. 4th October 1957 launched in the Soviet Union Sputnik inaugurated the era of the study of the solar system planets and, in particular, of the Earth by space remote sensing methods. Despite the absence of special scientific instruments, spacecraft transmitter demonstrated the possibility of radio sounding of the atmosphere and ionosphere of the Earth. The political motives of the space race between the USSR and the USA contributed to the intensive development of remote sensing studies: it was necessary to obtain first images of the dark side of the Moon, of Venus' surface, detailed images of the Martian "canals". Each of these achievements have helped to strengthen the political profile of the system.

Four Biographies in the History of Industrial Solar Desalination. A Century of Pioneers (XIXXX)
Nelson Escudero Arellano, Centro de Investigacin para la Historia de la Tcnica "Francesc Santpon i Roca", Barcelona, Spain A consideration of industrial technology and culture provides a valuable approach to Charles Wilson, the inventor of the plant at Las Salinas (Chile), constructed in 1872, a man who left few traces of his work. We have some knowledge of this engineer, who was a pioneer in sustainability technology, thanks to the interest of Josiah Harding (1846 - 1919), Maria Telkes (1900 - 1991), and Julio Hirschmann (dates unknown, XX c.). Charles Wilson seems to have been born in Stockholm, Sweden. He lived in Brooklyn and pursued his professional career working in Chile and Peru, where he eventually died. Josiah Harding was born in New Zealand and studied at Crewe, England, from where he moved to the Atacama desert, living and working in Chile and dying in Cochabamba, Bolivia. While the lives of these engineers marked the beginning of the accelerated process of globalization of the world economy, those who later recognized their work also formed part of broader movements: Maria Telkes, who was born and died in Budapest, Hungary, but spent her entire career in the United States at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) as well as at several universities and private companies; and Julio Hirschmann, the only person who circulated information about the plant to enjoy a stable situation, who lived, worked and died in Chile, but who nevertheless should be considered for his ability to mobilize and integrate his research into international networks. The biographies of these four researchers are necessary in order to understand the process of construction, operation and closure of the plant at Las Salinas in the Atacama desert, about which 220

little background is known. Taken together, all this information is likely to provide a living example of the industrial culture and the use of solar energy at that time, from a trans-generational perspective. This information has been mainly obtained from an intensive analysis of archives using electronic resources. In the case of the engineers Julio Hirschmann and Josiah Harding, we have been able to use primary sources, incorporating information from their descendants or former collaborators and conducting informal interviews. The technological choices in the process of technological evolution discussed by George Basalla indicate that, among other factors, cultural influences constitute a vital element for understanding the intermittent duration of object). Basalla issued an invitation to explore the technological developments by observing the process of disposal of artefacts, a phenomenon that cannot be separated from the action of techno-institutional complexes described by Hughes and Unruh. This study provides information about the field of energy and addresses what has hitherto been an area of little interest to the history of the technology, in which the uses of solar energy technology have rarely been described or analyzed.

Radium Economies in early Twentieth Century U.S.

Maria Rentetzi, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece This paper takes us to the first half of the twentieth century and traces the failure of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to protect society from radium-based products and control the medical marketplace. Since the beginning of the century powerful industries had saturated foods, bodies, and ecosystems with radium with little regulation. Although both the federal government and the industry knew from early on that radium disrupted human tissues and could have fatal effects on human health, radium-based products continued to be produced and widely marketed to consumers. In this paper I explore how corporate structures dominated the medical and non medical marketplaces and eliminated the control of academic scientists. I show how scientific findings were manipulated to delay regulation and how technology and the production of radioactive artifacts fooled consumers.

Confronting the Unexpected: The Treatment of Anomalous Phenomena in Scientific Research

Martin Vondrek, Libor Benda, Marek Havlk, University of West Bohemia, Pilsen, Roztoky u Prahy, Czech Republic The paper aims to show how the scientific community reacts to an unexpected or anomalous event. For this purpose three events that occurred in science during the last fifty years will be considered. Marcus Raichle in 2001 presented his concept of the Default Mode Network, claiming that the brain has a default function, which is mainly present through specific activations of certain brain regions. At the time of its introduction, this concept was seen as very controversial and was initially rejected. At present, the Default Mode Network is considered by many thinkers as a new paradigm in the field of neuroscience. Joseph Weber was the first researcher seriously attempting to detect gravitational waves, a phenomenon predicted by the general theory of relativity. Drawing on the results of his measurements, he claimed in 1969 to have detected high fluxes of gravitational waves that greatly exceeded the values predicted by the theory. His claims led to a several-year controversy, which exposed some crucial issues of the methodology of scientific research. Recent high energy physics experiment OPERA showed anomalous results when a beam of neutrinos seemed to move at speed greater than the speed of light. Currently, an extensive discussion is going on about the nature of the measurement itself and the validity of its results. Focusing on these examples, the paper analyzes the behavior of the scientific community in a situation where the 221

scientists encounter anomalous phenomenon. The features described in the paper include the scientific communitys attitude towards the issues concerning the validity of observation and measurement, the accuracy of theoretical assumptions, and generally, unpredicted developments in scientific research. Provided analysis illuminates the nature of scientists coping with anomalous phenomena and clarifies the very nature of a discovery in science, namely in physics and neuroscience.

Mathematical Models between Art and Reality

Nicla Palladino, Frattamaggiore (NA), Italy Historical research on approaches to the teaching of Geometry is an activity full of curious paradoxes and startling evidence, that run through a process of transformation from the works in which the Descriptive geometry was coded- Gaspard Monge, Geometrie Descriptive, 1794 to the affirmation of the analytical methods - Gaston Darboux, Geomtrie Analytique, 1917. In the second half of the nineteenth century, mathematicians usually used mathematical models of surfaces, initially produced by artisans and then by methods for mass production. The models were made in different materials: brass, plaster, cardboard, wire or natural fiber, wood and strips of wood, celluloid, metal foils; they were used in a lot of fields of mathematics: descriptive and analytic geometry, topology, optical geometry, theory of functions, ... Using the plastic models was useful for enhancing intuitive aspects of Mathematics and Geometry, as is well described in the book Anschauliche Geometrie by D. Hilbert and S. Cohn-Vossen. In this paper, I want to document the history of the mathematical models of surfaces used for didactics of pure and applied High Mathematics and as art pieces. I want here also to underline several important links that put in correspondence conception and construction of models with scholars, cultural institutes, specific views of research and didactical studies in mathematical sciences and with the world of the figurative arts furthermore. At the same time the singular beauty of form and colour which the models possessed, aroused admiration and attraction.

Anomalies and the Crisis of the Bohr-Sommerfeld Atomic Theory

Helge Kragh, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark The crisis in the old quantum theory that in the summer of 1925 led to the new Gttingen quantum mechanics is a classical case in both history and philosophy of science. Why did physicists believe that the existing quantum theory of the atom had come to a dead end and that further progress within the framework of the Bohr-Sommerfeld theory was futile? In this paper I reconsider the problem from the perspective of the empirical as well as conceptual problems that the theory faced. To appreciate the status of the theory in the spring of 1925 one has to take into consideration not only its difficulties but also its successes. Moreover, one has to extend and differentiate the list of anomalies beyond the classical ones, in particular the helium problem and the anomalous Zeeman effect. An anomaly is not just an anomaly. Nor is a confirmation just a confirmation, witness that some of the successes of the old quantum theory (such as the fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum) turned out to be spurious. I shall base my discussion on a longer list which shows that while some anomalies were taken very seriously, others were practically ignored, and others again were only recognized as anomalies post facto. Why? I also intend to relate my account to some philosophical views of theory change, including Kuhns and Lakatos, and try to evaluate the importance of more conceptual objections against mechanical models of the atom. Finally, I shall address the question of how widespread the feeling of crisis was in the physics community (for example, it is doubtful if Bohr perceived the situation as a real crisis, or the change to quantum mechanics as a radical break). The talk will in part be based on a new book of mine, Niels Bohr and

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the Quantum Atom (Oxford University Press, 2012), which covers the development of Bohrs atomic model from 1912 to 1925.

New Phase in History of the Weber - Fechner Law

Yulia Petrovna Chukova, Krasnopresnenskiy Ecological Fund, Moscow, Russian Federation The German physiologist E.G. Weber studied a differential threshold of sensation by human sense organs (vision, audition, touch) and has formulated the rule of Weber (1834). Physicist G.T.Fechner has integrated the ration obtained by Weber and has deduced the logarithmic dependence of sensation on stimulus. It was published in book Elemente der Psychophysics (1860). Church and some scientists were against. The debate in the 19th century was finished by Fechners victory, and the Weber-Fechner law becomes the basic law for 5 sense organs. Centenary of Fechners book was celebrated in Chicago (USA) in Sept. 1960. The main lecturer was S.S. Stevens, director of Psychological Lab of Harvard University. His report in adapted form was published in the journal Science (1961) with title To honor Fechner and repeal his law with the subheading A power function, not a log function, describes the operating characteristics of a sensory system. However it was not possible to cancel the logarithmic law. What was possible? Fechner has been separate from Weber. So the separate Fechner law has appeared, which one was called in the publications a dubious, shady, notorious and so-called law. A word law was taken in an inverted commas. It was possible to put at the same level the Weber-Fechner law, power function of Stevens and linear dependence. Thus this branch of science has appeared a field for voluntarism: each experimenter approximated his outcomes by any function. Now the end to this voluntarism comes due to successes of thermodynamics of irreversible processes in systems under electromagnetic radiation. W. Wien, lord Rayleigh, Max Planck, A. Einstein, S. Bose were the forerunners of this theory. The Nobel prize winner, Russian theoretical physicist L. Landau was initiator (founder) of new branch (thermodynamics of non-equilibrium radiation). Subsequent development of this branch of science has received in activities of M.A. Weinstein, P.T. Landsberg and Yu.P. Chukova. They have shown, that efficiency of conversion of electromagnetic radiation energy in the Wien region is logarithmic dependence on absorbed energy. It means that the Weber-Fechner law is experimental conformation of fundamental law of thermodynamics. The Weber-Fechner law can not be repealed, as the energy conservation law can not be repealed.

The Past and the Future of Psychology: Students' Conceptions

Shulamith Kreitler, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel The objective was to examine whether the views of psychology students about the history of psychology are related to their conceptions about the goals of psychology at present. The issue is of importance for the shaping of the curriculm about the history of psychology. The participants were 160 psychology students in two academic institutions, in the 3rd to 7th years of study. A questionnaire administered anonimously was used for examining the views about the past of psychology and its goals at present. Views about the past focused on two issues: the decline of behaviorism and the rise of cognitive psychology; the decline of psychoanalysis and the rise of clinical and medical psychology. The views about the present focused on the following issues: should psychology as a science apply exclusively empirical methodology or should it allow also other "softer" methods; should psychology focus on describing the facts or try also to contribute to the welfare of humanity. The results showed correlations between the views of the past and the goals for the present. Major findings were that views of the past as involving aggressive combats between the contrasting disciplines were related to extremist attitudes about the goals of psychology, viz. purely

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empirical and exclusively factual. The findings indicate that the models used in constructing and teaching the history of a science have implications in regard to the present and future of the science.

Did Ideological, Religious and Nationalistic Factors Contribute to Make postwar France a Rough Place for Cybernetic Modelling?
Ronan Le Roux, Universit Paris 1 Panthon-Sorbonne, Paris, France As research on the circulation of knowledge and concepts has become a leading topic, the historian of science is confronted with the task of identifying the conditions that improve or worsen the transfer of ideas from one context to another. Growing studies in the history of Cybernetics have documented detailed occurrences of interdisciplinary exchange between technological, mathematical, biological and social and human sciences fields. But since they have focused mainly on the fruitful context of the anglo-saxon WWII effort, it remains to understand what exactly happens in less favorable circumstances. Thus, France after the "Libration" turned out to be a kind of "no man's land" for cybernetic modelling, at least in practice whatever the representation shared by the general public. It has been noticed that the French Communist Party took public position, following more or less the official advice of Moscow and dealing with the Soviet doctrinal shifts. But, while the ideological factor is not the sole factor of reception, it is also hard to assess how effective it can weight on the concrete process of circulation. I enlarge the question to religious and nationalistic factors pertaining to, respectively, internal attempts to reform the attitude of the Vatican towards Science, and the painful patriotism of the French after the Occupation. I argue that neither ideological, religious or nationalistic factors have been univocal operators in the general process. On the contrary, as a hard-to-define object, Cybernetics has splitted opinions in the corresponding networks.

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Scientific Session 6
The History of Ideas "the optical disc as a "unique" carrier of information in the systems management"
Elena Yu. Koltachykhina, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine In 1977 on the World Electrotechnical Congress in Moscow Ukrainian researcher M.V. Gorshkov and V.V. Petrov in the report "The optical disc as a "unique" carrier of information in the systems management" discussed the basic requirements to "unique" carrier of information for its use in the foreign storage devices of large control systems, computer complexes, systems of collection and processing of information in the presence of large flows of information, computer middle and small productivity, systems of data preparation and for exchange of data between computers with equal and different performance. So, in the report was considered the cost of storing information, capacity, access time, density recording of information, speed data, overwriting the information and the possibility of using "unique" carrier of information in simple and complex devices, the possibility of replication. They have determined that the cost of storing information on the "unique" carrier of information should be less than the cost of storing information on paper, capacity not less than capacity of modern carrier of information, access time to the information not less than 0,1 sec, the average density recording of information should be 26*100000 bit/mm2. M.V. Gorshkov and V.V. Petrov emphasized that "unique" carrier of information must take the form of a disk with a diameter of not more than 200 ... 400 mm to ensure minimum access time. In the report also was defined the value of using "unique" carrier of information in external devices: this will sharply increase the volume of stored data, coordinate and essentially raise the reliability of accepting and transferring data, simplify the structure of control system.

The Movement of Hunan Students Studying Abroad in Japan and the Progress of Chinese Ordnance Technology in the early 20th c.
Hui Yang Zhao, Wang Shu, Liu Yan, National University of Defence Technology, Changsha (Hu Nan province), China The background of Studying-abroad movement in Japan: In the 17th-19th century, the Japanese shoguns and Chinese Qing government coincided with the implementation of a "closed door" policy, resulting in the two countries move towards a recession. After the 19th century, with the Spread of Western forces, the gunboats of Western powers forced the two countries to make a historical choice. In 1840, the gunfire of the Opium War blew open Chinese door, and representatives of the Qing Dynasty officials, such as Lin Zexu and Wei Yuan, proposed a Learning Merits from the Foreign to Conquer the Foreign" policy and adopted the Westernization New Deal that aimed to advocate learning the advanced Western military technology so as to resist foreign aggression. In 1868, Japan's Meiji Restoration occurred. The Japan's shoguns put forward a slogan " follow the example of European and American current system, and begun to step onto the world stage by sparing no efforts to learn from the modern Western civilization. Chinese people have always been looking down upon Japan ; however, in 1894, China was defeated by Japan in the Jiawu Naval Battle, which made the Chinese ruling and opposition parties had a strong reflection that the best way to survive and strengthen itself is to indirectly intake modern Western civilization from Japan. The history of Japanese studying abroad in China started in the 7th century AD. For the first time, China sent 13 students to Japan in 1896 (Guangxu 11, Meiji 29). Since then, the Qing government sent a lot more students to Japan to study engineering every year. The Qing government hoped that 225

the Chinese students can indirectly bring the advanced Western science and technology back to China, so as to strengthen national powers as soon as possible. When studying in Japan, the Chinese students were anxious to accept new ideas and new knowledge. After returning they actively participated in the field of politics, economics, and , defense industry, as well as cultural education and other various social activities. They made an important contribution to the social changes, and the progress of economic, scientific and technological developments in China. The Profiles and features of Hunans studying-abroad movement to Japan: The development of the late Qing Dynastys studying-abroad movement to Japan is extremely uneven among Chinas provinces. Most of the students came from the provinces of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Hunan, Hubei, Guangdong, Chili , etc. This is due to not only the unbalanced development of the provinces in politics, economy and culture, but also the geographical and anthropogenic factors. Hunan began to send students to studying abroad in Japan with official fees in the late Qing dynasty Guangxu XinChou (1901). Those students were the best from each College, township, and country of China. The students were divided into three types: the official charges students, state-funded students, and self-financed students. According to what they studied in Japan, they belong to one of the following categories: accelerated pedagogical classes, accelerated police classes, quick Hosei classes and regular classes. Based on the record of the member of Hunan students studying abroad in Japan, this paper will study statistically about the basic situation of Human students studying in Japan, Hunans policy of dispatching students to Japan, funding programs and students learning situation in Japan, and clarify the basic characteristics of Chinese students studying abroad movement. The contribution and significance of Hunan students studying in Japan for the development of Chinas weapons technology: After returning to China, the representatives of Hunan Province students studying abroad in Japan, such as Lee Chenggan (1888-1959), Li Daichen (1891 -1959), devoted themselves to the Chinese Ordnance industry. They took great efforts to overcome many difficulties, such as the military environmental threats, financial trouble, Ordnance Technology backwardness, and the shortage of talents. In addition, they made scientific planning for the development of ordnance industry through the establishment of National Defense Design Committee, and managed the comprehensive construction of ordnance industry by installing the Department of War Industries. Their efforts resulted in the rapid development of Chinese ordnance industry in a short period of time. Conclusions: In the early 20th century, Chinese young students studying in Japan accepted western science and technology education. In the period of studing in Japan, they disseminated western science and technology and made it popular. Japan became the intermediary and bridge connecting Eastern and western science and culture. When Human students studying in Japan returned to china, they not only made a significant contribution to the construction and development of the national defense enterprises, the development of ordnance technology and the military-technical education, but also accelerated the historical process of China's military modernization.

Computing Machines in Greece, 1920-1980

Alexandra Lekka, Constantine Skordoulis, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece This paper presents aspects on the history of computing machines in Greece as a result of a study initiated in the frame of the European project Hephaestus, a joint venture by the University of Athens and the Hellenic Research Foundation. Linked with the literature on early European computing history, the paper attempts a contextual focus on the Hellenic case as a paradigm of a national project in a country of the so-called periphery, raising issues on European computing machines history, on europeaness itself and on relations with the United States before and after the second world war. 226

The study stands as a lens on how the implication of computing machines influenced, shaped or modified national strategies and infrastructure concerning the organization of labour and the politics of state towards public service, banking, insurance, industrial development and education, through, at first, artifact appropriation, and, secondly, through the perceptions and shared ideas accompanying the adoption of technology.

History of Russian Computer Science

Yakov Fet, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation Unfortunately, the history of Computer Science in Russia (USSR), due to some specific reasons, was almost unknown in the West till the recent time. During several past years, the author of this report has designed, edited, and published a series of books on the Russian history: 1. Essays on the History of Computer Science in Russia / Novosibirsk, 1998. 664 pp. 2. Kolmogorov and Cybernetics / Novosibirsk, 2001. 159 pp. 3. Aleksey Andreevich Lyapunov / Novosibirsk, 2001. 524 pp. 4. Leonid Vitalevich Kantorovich: a Man and a Scientist. Vol. 1 / Novosibirsk, 2002. 544 pp. 5. History of Computer Science in Russia: the Scientists and Their Schools / Moscow, 2003. 488 pp. 6. Leonid Vitalevich Kantorovich: A Man and a Scientist. Vol. 2 / Novosibirsk, 2004. 614 pp. 7. From the History of Cybernetics / Novosibirsk, 2006. 301 pp. 8. Aksel Ivanovich Berg / Moscow, 2007. 518 pp. 9. Ya.I. Fet. Novels on Cybernetics / Novosibirsk, 2007. 178 pp. 10. Aleksey Andreevich Lyapunov. 100th Anniversary of the Birth / Novosibirsk, 2011. 587 pp. Our books contain a collection of authentic essays, reminiscences, interviews and other historical documents amassed by the author. We will narrate here different events, as well as biographical sketches of famous Russian scientists from the early times of the history of Russian (Soviet) Computer Science. Naturally, our books are printed in Russian. However, the author has published a booklet containing brief descriptions of all mentioned books. In this booklet, each description presents (in English) the Summary, the Foreword, and the Contents of corresponding book. During our Session, these booklets will be given handout to the interested participants.

Ontologies and Semantic Web: New Topics of Research for Historians of Science and Technology
Olivier Bruneau, University of Lorraine, Nancy, France S. Laub, G. Chambon, J.M. Kowalski, Cline Brie, University of Brest, France M. Guedj, Manuel Bchthold, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France F. Laroche, Ecole Centrale de Nantes, Nantes, France J.L. Kerouanton, S. Tirard, University of Nantes, Nantes, France S. Walter, P. Couchet, University of Lorraine, Lorraine, France S. Garlatti, I. Kanellos, Jean-Marie Gilliot, Issam Reba, Telecom-Bretagne, France "The main purpose of the Semantic Web is driving the evolution of the current Web by enabling users to find, share, combine information more easily." Related to a FP7 European research work (2008-2010), French historians of science and technology shown the interest to publish HST resources on-line to develop pedagogical tools concerning Inquiry Based Science Teaching (IBST). Furthermore, several French labs in HST and in computer science (named SemanticHST group) decided to work together about knowledge models/ontologies and emerging methods based on digital humanities. 227

From examples in energy history, Poincar's correspondence and archives and shipbuilding history, our communication will examine the interest to develop: - research into Semantic Web technologies to increase access to knowledge in history of science and technology based on digital libraries - ontology based methods in order to extract new knowledge for comparative history - crowdsourcing that allows to create new relationship with primary sources and to change the way to work with them. In conclusion, we will show that ontologies for HST results in epistemological questions to be taken into account in order to discuss what are the limits of these ICT based methods.

Two German Philosophers of Mathematics, two Epistemological Traditions: Frege and Weyl on the Method of Abstraction
Demetra Christopoulou, University of Patras, Patras, Greece This paper aims to contrast two aspects of the issue of abstraction principles according to the accounts offered by the German philosophers Gottlob Frege and Hermann Weyl respectively. German epistemology of mathematics appears to have developed with relation to two distinct philosophical traditions. On the one hand, Frege is the leader of the analytic tradition in philosophy and epistemology of mathematics particularly. He defended the view that arithmetic is reduced to logic (Logicism) so he insisted on the analytic status of arithmetical truths, although he retained Kants account of geometrical truths as synthetic a priori. Besides, Logical positivism endorsed basic claims of Fregean Logicism as well as philosophy of language and brought it under its own philosophy of sciences. On the other hand, Weyl follows a different tradition in what concerns mathematical knowledge. He has strong commitments to transcendental idealism and Husserls approach to mathematics. The paper focuses its attention on the procedure of abstraction and attempts to detect the main differences between Frege and Weyls accounts that indicate the relative characteristics of two different philosophical traditions in epistemology.

D. Pikionis and A. Konstandinidis: the Introduction of Modern Architecture and Modern Building Technology in Greece and the Criterion of "Greekness"
Emmanouil Stylianos Skoufoglou, National Technical University of Athens Architectural modernism has had a considerable influence in Greece since the 20's. During the interwar period several vanguard architects were attracted by contemporary architectural trends, mainly by Bauhaus and Le Corbusier, and have applied modern principles in their work, which has sometimes been remarkable. The most important nodes of this process have been the program of new school buildings launched by Venizelos' liberal government in 1929 and the 4th International Congress of Modern Architecture (CIAM) held partly in Athens in 1933, in which Le Corbusier himself took actively place. However, the modernist theoretical framework, originally fundamentally internationalist, has undergone a mutation while imported in Greece. The dominant version of Greek modernism has been of nationalist and localist nature, having posed greekness as its ultimate criterion of validity. Greek vanguard architects have striven to found their work on the popular architecture, the cultural traditions or/and the special features of the Greek landscape. This is obvious in the writings of the most prominent architect theorists: Dimitris Pikionis before the Second World War, and Aris Konstantinidis after it. The demand of greekness has been common not only among architects, but also and probably mainly among artists and poets of the so-called 30's generation. On the other hand, the modern architectural idiom has been the third consecutive one to be grounded on a supposed Greek cultural superiority. In the past this had also been the argument for introducing neoclassicism and later the Byzantium centric eclecticism of Aristoteles Zahos. This ideological environment, closely connected 228

to the struggle of the Greek state to consolidate a national identity, has deprived the Greek version of modernism of the daring utopianism that it has had in Europe. Despite some exceptions, the mainstream of Greek modern architectural theory has been basically conservative.

To Bridge the Gap between the Two Cultures: a Social Pre-History of the Strong Program in the Sociology of Knowledge
Libor Benda, University of West Bohemia in Pilsen, Pilsen, Czech Republic The aim of the paper is to explore the social, cultural and political conditions that contributed to the development of the strong program in the sociology of knowledge, the first research program in the tradition of the sociology of scientific knowledge. While the emergence of the strong program in the 1970s is commonly interpreted only internally as the result of a certain synthesis of philosophical and sociological studies of science, influenced especially by T. S. Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, extra-theoretical factors that played a role in the formation of this approach are largely ignored and excluded from the overall picture. In the paper I want to focus my attention on these external causes of the development of the strong program, and mainly on the role of the group of the British scientists, who in the late 1930s began to point out the need to bridge the gap between what C. P. Snow later defined in his famous 1959 Rede lecture as the two cultures. Special attention in this regard will be paid to the biologist C. H. Waddington, who in 1966 founded the Science Studies Unit at the University of Edinburgh, where the strong program has been subsequently developed by scientifically trained D. Bloor and B. Barnes, and to the radio astronomer D. O. Edge, the first director of the Unit. On the basis of the provided analysis, I want to argue for the claim that to fully understand the strong program, it is necessary to view it not just as an independent research program, but as a result of a broader scientific endeavor to resolve the two cultures problem. Since the strong program is still often condemned as a postmodern attack on the authority of science, I also want to draw attention to its scientific roots to argue that, far from being an attack against science, it represents a most ambitious attempt of scientists themselves to scientifically analyze the relationship between scientific and other forms of knowledge, and between science and society.

Museums for the History of Science and Technology of the USSR on the Background of European Museology
Marina Shleeva, Institute for the History of Science and Technology RAN, Moscow, Russian Federation The idea of creating a museum of science and technology history was widely spread among the scientific and museum elite in the Soviet Union during the second half of the nineteen twentieths and the first half of nineteen thirtieths. At least a dozen of proposals on this subject is known. These proposals were offered by the non-governmental organizations and government agencies such as the Committee for the Knowledge History of the Academy of Sciences and the Association of Engineers of the USSR. Cities across the country including Kharkov, Sverdlovsk, Moscow and Leningrad attempted to create such museums. Preparatory work included familiarization with the museum creation experience in Western Europe. In 1920-1930 famous physicist A. F. Ioffe was negotiating with Oscar von Miller his involvement in the creation in the Soviet Union of the museum similar to the German Museum of Masterpieces of Science and Technology. For various reasons, including economical and political motives, neither of these projects was completed.

229

Relativit, determinatio et parallaxe, sur le traitement cartsien de trois controverses scientifiques

Vincent Jullien, Universit de Nantes, Nantes, France Trois sujets de philosophie naturelle, fort controverss lpoque o Descartes labore sa physique (incluant son systme du Monde) sont particulirement prsents dans les Principes de la Philosophie de Descartes, le principe de relativit des mouvements des corps matriels, la nature que lon nommera plus tard vectorielle de la grandeur qui caractrise ltat de mouvement dun corps et que Descartes contribue constituer par la notion de determinatio et lobjection parallactique contre lhliocentrisme. J'examine comment lactualit du dbat scientifique permet de comprendre largumentation cartsienne en insistant sur le caractre polmique de ce trait. On peut notamment relever que les thories galilennes psent dun grand poids dans la modification des conceptions cartsiennes du mouvement et que les arguments, alors les plus rcents, avancs en astronomie soutiennent la mise au point du systme du monde cartsien. Il sagit de mettre lhistoire des sciences au service dune meilleure intelligence de la somme philosophique cartsienne.

Transfer of an Inquiry Primary Science Teaching Module from Greece to Finland: Teaching a Control of Variables Strategy
Anna Spyrtou, A. Zoupidis, D. Pnevmatikos, P. Kariotoglou, University of Western Macedonia, Florina, Greece J. Lavonen, V. Meisalo, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland The aim of this presentation is to analyze the transfer of an inquiry science teaching module from Greece to Finland; especially how it supported the primary students learning of Control of Variables Strategy (CVS). Selected cases of floating/sinking phenomena for promoting students understanding of the CVS are part of this module. The term CVS is used in order to characterize the design of an experiment in which variables are changed in certain specified ways in order to probe the effect of a particular variable on the behavior of the system (Boudreaux, 2008). Two Local Working Groups (LWG) comprising science education researchers and teachers were formed. The Greek participants (LWG1) designed, organized one pilot and two classroom enactments of the module (Authors, 2008) and furthermore evaluated the implementation of the design ideas as well as the emergent learning outcomes. During those enactments, members of the Finnish group (LWG2) participated in a peer review study visit that offered observational information and feedback on its transfer to Finland. From the collaboration between the two LWGs, a revised and adapted module on floating/sinking phenomena was produced in order to make it appropriate for being implemented in the Finnish educational setting. Two research tasks were used in order to ascertain students difficulties related to CVS. The tasks include two main groups of assignments (i) those in which students make experiments in order to test if a variable affects the phenomenon or not, and (ii) those in which they draw conclusions if a particular variable affects the phenomenon or not. Sixty two fifth graders have participated in the study, both in the two countries. In this presentation we discuss results providing insights into how the students of both countries are thinking, in this domain.

230

List of Speakers
Ahmad Tarek Adnan, Tarekadnan@yahoo.com Amir Sulfikar, sulfikar@ntu.edu.sg Anastasiou Magdalini, anastasiou@astro.auth.gr Anderson Joseph, stephenpweldon@gmail.com Arampatzi Theodora, plata@otenet.gr Arellano Nelson Escudero, nelson.alejandro.arellano@estudiant.upc.edu Arend Jan, jan.arend@lrz.uni-muenchen.de Argiana Fotini, fargiana@icsd.aegean.gr Armitage Kevin C., armitakc@muohio.edu Athanasiou Kyriacos, kathanas@ecd.uoa.gr Ausejo Elena, ichs@unizar.es Aysal Cin, aysal@bilkent.edu.tr Badino Massimiliano, mbadino@mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de Bala Arun, ariab@nus.edu.sg Baralis Georgios, gmparalis@primedu.uoa.gr Barbin Evelyne, evelyne.barbin@wanadoo.fr Basargina Ekaterina Yurievna, akhos@mail.ru Battimelli Giovanni, giovanni.battimelli@roma1.infn.it Bauer Barbara, barbara.bauer@wu.ac.at Bazzul Jesse T., jbazzul@gmail.com Bellis Delphine, delphine.bellis@gmail.com Bellver Jos, josepbellver@gmail.com Ben Miled Marouane, marouane.benmiled@gmail.com Benda Libor, libor.benda@gmail.com Beregoi Natalia Yevgenievna, beregoi@mail.ru Berenguer Joaquim, jberenguer90@gmail.com Besser Bruno P., bruno.besser@oeaw.ac.at Bevacqua Francesco, francesco.bevacqua@bottegascientifica.it Bhattacharyya Rabindra Kumar, rabindrakb@yahoo.com Bilek Martin, martin.bilek@uhk.cz Bissell Christopher, c.c.bissell@open.ac.uk Bitsakis Yanis, bitsakis@gmail.com Blanco Monica, monica.blanco@upc.edu Blum Alexander Simon, ablum@mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de Boddice Rob, boddice@zedat.fu-berlin.de Bognon-Kss Ccilia, cecilia.bognon@gmail.com Bokaris Efthymios P., ebokaris@cc.uoi.gr Bonifcio Vitor, vitor.bonifacio@ua.pt Borck Cornelius, borck@imgwf.uni-luebeck.de Borgato Maria Teresa, bor@unife.it Borrelli Arianna, ari@drwutzke.de Boucard Jenny, jenny.boucard@gmail.com Bracco Christian, cbracco@unice.fr Braz Guilherme Gorgulho, guilherme.gorgulho@gmail.com Bruneau Olivier, bruneauolive@free.fr Buning Marius, marius.buning@eui.eu Burnett Charles, Charles.Burnett@sas.ac.uk Bussotti Paolo, paolo.bussotti@alice.it 231

Bustamante Martha Cecilia, mcbusta@paris7.jussieu.fr Buyse Filip Adolf , filip.buyse1@telenet.be Canals Enric Prez, enperez@ub.edu Canavas Constantin, constantin.canavas@haw-hamburg.de Capecchi Danilo, danilo.capecchi@uniroma1.it Casey Brian, brianpcasey@aya.yale.edu Castelo Cludia, claucastelo@hotmail.com Castillo Manuel, mcmartos@us.es Cavagnero Paolo, paolo.cavagnero@polito.it Cavalcanti Juliana Manzoni, jujumanzoni@yahoo.com.br Caye Pierre, caye.pierre@wanadoo.fr Ceyhan Cemil Ozan, coceyhan@gmail.com Chahrour Marcel, marcel.chahrour@gmx.at Chemla Karine Carole, chemla@univ-paris-diderot.fr Chesnov Vasily Mikhailovich, vmtsches61@gmail.com Chorlay Renaud, renaud.chorlay@paris.iufm.fr Christopoulou Demetra, chrdemet@yahoo.gr Chrysikopoulos Vasileios, vaschrys1@hotmail.com Chukova Yulia Petrovna, y.chukova@mtu-net.ru Cioci Vincenzo, vincenzocioci@libero.it Cirino Sergio, sergiocirino99@yahoo.com Cohen Yves, yvecohen@free.fr Conde Antnia Fialho, mconde@uevora.pt Cornelis Gustaaf, gccornel@vub.ac.be Cucic Dragoljub Aleksandar, dragoljub.cucic@gmail.com D'Alessandro Paolo, pdajsc@gmail.com De Sio Fabio, fabiodesio@gmail.com De Winter Hanne Laure, hanne.dewinter@icag.kuleuven.be De Young Gregg, gdeyoung@aucegypt.edu Dbarbat Suzanne Virginie, Suzanne.Debarbat@obspm.fr Debuiche Valrie, debuiche.valerie@gmail.com Delire Jean Michel, jmdelire@ulb.ac.be Demidov Serguei Sergueevich, serd42@mail.ru Dhombres Jean, Jean.Dhombres@damesme.cnrs.fr Di Marco Silvia, sdmarco@fc.ul.pt Diagre Denis, denis.diagre@br.fgov.be Diaz-Fajardo Montse, mdiazfajardo@ub.edu Diogo Maria Paula Pires dos Santos, mpdiogo@netcabo.pt Dobre Mihnea, mihneadobre@yahoo.com Dos Santos Roberto Eustaaquio, ro1234ro@gmail.com Dragomir Sandra Constanta, szamszy@yahoo.de Ducheyne Steffen, steffen.ducheyne@vub.ac.be Dufaud Grgory, gregorydufaud@gmail.com Dupond Marie, dupondmarie@me.com Duppe Till till.dueppe@hu-berlin.de Durnova Helena, helena.durnova@mail.muni.cz El Gammal Blanche, blanche.elgammal@hotmail.fr Elina Olga Y, olgaelina@mail.ru Elliott Paul A., p.elliott@derby.ac.uk Erkal Namk, namik.erkal@gmail.com Etter Anne-Julie, annejuetter@hotmail.com 232

Faria Cludia, cbfaria@ie.ul.pt Fedotova Anastasia A., f.anastasia.spb@gmail.com Feklova Tatiana Yurievna, Telauan@rambler.ru Fernndez-Novell Josep M., jmfernandeznovell@ub.edu Fet Yakov Ilich, fet@ssd.sscc.ru Figueiroa Silvia Fernanda, figueiroa@ige.unicamp.br Fiocca Alessandra, fio@unife.it Fonseca Pedro Ricardo, pedrorgfonseca@gmail.com Franckowiak Remi, remi.franckowiak@univ-lille1.fr Frank Martin, martin.frank82@gmx.de Freguglia Paolo, paolo.freguglia@technet.it Fritscher Bernhard, B.Fritscher@lrz.uni-muenchen.de Gamaliia Kateryna, ntatsiy@yahoo.com Gambaro Ivana, ivana.gambaro@unige.it Garrido Angel, agarrido@mat.uned.es Gatto Maurizio, mzgatto@googlemail.com Gavagna Veronica, vgavagna@unisa.it Gentile Maria, maria.gentile4@unibo.it Georgescu Laura, mailgeorgescu.laura@gmail.com Gerini Christian, gerini@univ-tln.fr Geroulanos Stefanos, geroulanos@ocsc.gr Giannakopoulou Polyxeni, giannakp@mail.ntua.gr Giannetto Enrico, enrico.giannetto@unibg.it Giannini Giulia, giulia.giannini@gmail.com Giraud Yann, yann.giraud@u-cergy.fr Giurgea Mihaela Madalina, madalinagiurgea@gmail.com Godfroy Anne-Sophie, asgodfroy@univ-paris1.fr Gonzlez Redondo Francisco A., faglezr@edu.ucm.es Grg Erdmann, erdmann.goerg@googlemail.com Gouarn Isabelle, isabelle_gouarne@hotmail.com Gouzevitch Dmitri, dgouzevit@yahoo.fr Granuzzo Elena, elena.gr@libero.it Grap Pere, pgrapi@gmail.com Grieser Alexandra K., a.k.grieser@rug.nl Groves Tamar, tamargroves@usal.es Guevara-Casanova Iolanda, iolanda.guevara@upc.edu Haddad Thoms Santoro, thaddad@usp.br Hadrava Petr, had@sunstel.asu.cas.cz Hadravova Alena, hadravova@usd.cas.cz Hakkarainen Jussi-Pekka, jussipekka.hakkarainen@gmail.com Hakosalo Heini Eliisa, heini.hakosalo@oulu.fi Halleux Robert, chst@ulg.ac.be Hammerl Christa, christa.hammerl@zamg.ac.at Hampl Petr, p.hampl@email.cz Havlik Marek, mshavlik@kfi.zcu.cz Heeffer Albrecht, albrecht.heeffer@ugent.be Heilen Stephan, stheilen@uos.de Heizer Alda, aldaheizer@jbrj.gov.br Herfeld Catherine Sophia, c.herfeld@gmx.de Hermann Tomas, hermannt@centrum.cz Hoffmann Dieter, dh@mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de 233

Horrocks Sally Margaret, smh4@le.ac.uk Hutchins Barnaby, barnaby.hutchins@ugent.be Iacobescu Gabriela Eugenia, gabrielaiacobescu@yahoo.com Ito Kenji, ito_kenji@soken.ac.jp Ivanov Boris I., b.i.ivanov@mail.ru Jalobeanu Dana, dana.jalobeanu@celfis.ro James Jeremiah, aikijjames@hotmail.com Janac Jiri, jira.janac@gmail.com Johnson Eric M., moebius@interchange.ubc.ca Jones Alexander, alexander.jones@nyu.edu Jordi Taltavull Marta, martajordit@gmail.com Jullien Vincent, vincent-jullien@wanadoo.fr Junova Mackova Adela, mackovija@volny.cz Juznic Stanislav Joze, juznic@hotmail.com Kaczmarzyk Ewa, kaczmarzykewa@poczta.onet.pl Kakampoura Rea, rkakamp@primedu.uoa.gr Kallinen Maija, Maija.Kallinen@oulu.fi Kamcevski Danko, dkamcevski@gmail.com Kamisheva Ganka, gkamish@issp.bas.bg Kapsala Nausica, nkapsala@gmail.com Kartsonakis Manolis, mankar@sch.gr Katakos Efstratios, stratisk@yahoo.com.gr Katsiampoura Gianna, katsiampoura@gmail.com Katzir Shaul, katzir@mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de Knekht Natalia, nata_knecht@mtu-net.ru Kocandrle Radim, rkocandr@kfi.zcu.cz Kochiras Hylarie, kochiras@gmail.com Kolchinsky Eduard I., ekolchinsky@yandex.ru Kolomiyets Svitlana Volodymyrivna, s.kolomiyets@gmail.com Koltachykhina Elena Yu., elenakolt@gmail.com Koltachykhina Oksana Yu., oksana.koltachykhina@gmail.com Konashev Mikhail Borisovich, mbkonashev@mail.ru Kosolosky Laszlo, laszlo.kosolosky@ugent.be Kostov Alexandre, kostov_al@yahoo.com Koutalis Vangelis, v_koutalis@yahoo.gr Kragh Helge, helge.kragh@ivs.au.dk Krasikova Elena Igorevna, eikrasikova@gmail.com Kreitler Shulamith, krit@netvision.net.il Kremer Richard L., richard.kremer@dartmouth.edu Krige John, john.krige@hts.gatech.edu Krikstopaitis Juozas Algimantas, krikstop@ktl.mii.lt Krivosheina Galina, krivosheina@gmail.com Krzeptowska-Moszkowicz Izabela, krzeptow@poczta.onet.pl Kvasz Ladislav, kvasz@fmph.uniba.sk Lackner Karin, veleda@gmx.at Lalli Roberto, rolalli@mit.edu Langermann Y Tzvi, tlangermann@hotmail.com Lauginie Pierre, pierre.lauginie@u-psud.fr Le Roux Ronan, ronan.le.roux@gmail.com Lekka, Alexandra, lekkaalexandra@gmail.com Lippitsch Max E., max.lippitsch@uni-graz.at 234

Lopes Coelho Ricardo, rlc@fc.ul.pt Lorch Marjorie, m.lorch@bbk.ac.uk Lorenzano Csar, clorenzano@gmail.com Loskutova Marina, mvlosk@yandex.ru Lugaresi Maria Giulia, lgrmgl@unife.it Lykknes Annette, Annette.Lykknes@chem.ntnu.no Lytvynko Alla S., litvinko@ukr.net Maciga Diana Eurydyka, diana.maciaga@gmail.com Macuglia Daniele, macuglia@uchicago.edu Mgi Vahur, vmagi@lib.ttu.ee Maia Maria Elisa, elisamaia@gmail.com Majstorac-Kobiljski Aleksandra, amkaero@gmail.com Makrypoulias Christos, G. christos_makrypoulias@yahoo.gr Malaquias Isabel Maria Coelho de Oliveira, imalaquias@ua.pt Marques Daniel Gamito, daniel.gamito.marques@gmail.com Martelli Matteo, martel75@libero.it Martin Marco, martin.mar@tiscali.it Martinovic' Ivica, ivica@ifzg.hr Martyknov Darina, darinamartykanova@yahoo.es Massa Esteve M Rosa, m.rosa.massa@upc.edu Mata Tiago, tjfm2@cam.ac.uk Mattes Johannes, johannes.mattes@univie.ac.at Matzkevich Hernn Javier, hermatzke@hotmail.com Maurines Laurence, laurence.maurines@u-psud.fr Mavrikaki Evangelia, emavrikaki@primedu.uoa.gr Mayrargue Arnaud, arnaud.mayrargue@univ-paris-diderot.fr McCarthy Gavan, gavanjm@gmail.com McCloughlin Thomas, John mccloughlin@mac.com Mendes Fabihana Souza, fabihanamendes@gmail.com Merianos Gerasimos, gmerianos@eie.gr Meyer-Spasche Rita, meyer-spasche@ipp.mpg.de Minecan Ana Maria Carmen, manecan@hotmail.com Miskell Louise, l.miskell@swansea.ac.uk Mohr Barbara, barbara.mohr@mfn-berlin.de Mota Teresa Salom, salome.teresa@gmail.com Moussas Xenophon, xmoussas@phys.uoa.gr Mozaffari Seyyed Mohammad, mozaffari@riaam.ac.ir Mueller-Wille Staffan, smuellerwille@gmail.com Mrsepp Peeter, peeter.muursepp@tseba.ttu.ee Myklebost Kari Aga, kari.myklebost@uit.no Nagliati Iolanda, ngllnd@unife.it Napolitani Pier Daniele, pierdaniele@gmail.com Navarro Jaume, jn242@cam.ac.uk Navarro-Loidi Juan, jnavarrolo@euskalnet.net Nenci Elio, elio.nenci@unimi.it Neuenschwander Erwin, neuenschwander@math.uzh.ch Nikolaidis Efthymios, efnicol@eie.gr Nikoli, Aleksandar S., ans@chem.bg.ac.rs; Stojiljkov Bratislav, Bratislav.Stojiljkovic@tesla-museum.org Nishiyama Takashi, tnishiya@brockport.edu Noguera-Solano Ricardo, rns@ciencias.unam.mx 235

Novotny Michal, michal.novotny@ntm.cz Oldfield Jonathan, jonathan.oldfield@glasgow.ac.uk Oliveira Benedito Tadeu, beneditoo@uaigiga.com.br Omodeo Pietro Daniel, pdomodeo@mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de Palladino Nicla, nicla_palladino@libero.it Papadopoulos Georgios, gpapad@med.uoa.gr Papadopoulou Penelope, papadopoulou@uowm.gr Papari Vasiliki, vasilikipapari@yahoo.de Paparou Flora, florap@otenet.gr Papaspirou Panagiotis, p.papaspirou973@gmail.com Parada Jaime, jparadah@hotmail.com Pastorino Cesare, cesare.pastorino@gmail.com Paul Thierry, paul@math.polytechnique.fr Pelletier Arnaud, arnplt@yahoo.fr Pepe Luigi, pep@unife.it Peres Isabel Marilia, mariliaperes@ciberprof.com Perez Liliane, liliane.perez@wanadoo.fr Perlina Anna, aperlina@mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de Petkovic Tomislav, tomislav.petkovic@fer.hr Petrovic Aleksandar Z., petralist@gmail.com Petti Carmela, petti@unina.it Phili Christine, xfili@math.ntua.gr Pigeard Natalie, natalie.pigeard@curie.fr Pinto Helder, hbmpinto1981@gmail.com Pisano Raffaele, pisanoraffaele@iol.it Polakis Markos Ioannis, mpolakis8@gmail.com Poreau Brice, bbpcharles@hotmail.com Posch Thomas Siegfried, thomas.posch@univie.ac.at Provijn Dagmar, dagmar.provijn@ugent.be Provost Jean-Pierre, provost@unice.fr Railiene Birute, b.railiene@gmail.com Rappenglck Michael A., mr@infis.org Reininger Alice, alice.reininger@chello.at Rentetzi Maria, mrentetz@vt.edu Rey Anne-Lise, annelise.rey@free.fr Richard Hlne, hbs.richard@gmail.com Rickiene Aurika, aurika.rickiene@botanika.lt Robert Thomas, robertt4@etu.unige.ch Roberts Peder, pwrobert@kth.se Rodriguez Arribas Josefina, rodriguezarribas@gmail.com Romera-Lebret Pauline, pauline.lebret@gmail.com Romero Vallhonesta Fatima, fatima.romerovallhonesta@gmail.com Rossi Arcangelo, rossi@le.infn.it Roth Karin, a9500747@unet.univie.ac.at Roztoilov Jana, j.roztocilova@seznam.cz Ruda Svetlana, svetlana.ruda@yahoo.com Rusu Doina Cristina, dc.rusu@yahoo.com Sakorrafou Sandy, ssakorrafou@gmail.com Salvia Stefano, stefano.salvia@tiscali.it Samokish Anna, V. tomasina84@mail.ru Snchez Antonio, antosanmar@gmail.com 236

Santoni Anna, a.santoni@sns.it Saraceno Marco, marco-saraceno@libero.it Saraiva Luis, mmff5@ptmat.fc.ul.pt Sarma Sreeramula Rajeswara, sr@sarma.de Saveleva Diana Nikolaevna, dnsaveljeva@mail.ru Schaefer Dagmar, dagmar.schaefer@manchester.ac.uk Schirrmacher Arne, Arne.Schirrmacher@geschichte.hu-berlin.de Schmid Anne-Franoise, afschmid@free.fr Seebacher Felicitas, fsee@aon.at Sekerk Ji, jsekerak@mzm.cz Sekyrkova Milada, msekyr@seznam.cz Sela Shlomo, shelomo.sela@gmail.com Serra Isabel Maria, isabelserra@netcabo.pt Shalimov Sergey Viktorovich, sshal85@mail.ru Shaw Denis James Barrington, D.J.B.Shaw@bham.ac.uk Shcheglov Dmitriy A., Shcheglov@yandex.ru Shi Yunli, ylshi@ustc.edu.cn Shineha Ryuma, shineha_ryuma@soken.ac.jp Shirokova Vera Aleksandrovna, vmtsches@mail.ru Shleeva Marina, shleeva.marina@yandex.ru Sigrist Ren, sigrist.rene@bluewin.ch Skordoulis Constantine, kostas4skordoulis@gmail.com Skoufoglou Emmanouil Stylianos, manosskouf@yahoo.gr Smagina Galina Ivanovna, galsmagina@yandex.ru Sobolev Vladimir Semyonovich, vsobolev.kostroma@yandex.ru Sokolova Irina Borisovna, i_sokolova@bk.ru Spelda Daniel, spelda@kfi.zcu.cz Spring Ulrike, ulrike.spring@hisf.no Spyrtou Anna, aspirtou@uowm.gr Stadler Max, max.stadler@wiss.gess.ethz.ch Stanissavljevic Jelena, jelena.stanisavljevic@bio.bg.ac.rs Stavrou Ioanna G., ioannastx@yahoo.gr Steele John, john_steele@brown.edu Stefanidou Constantina, sconstant@primedu.uoa.gr Stella Marco, marco.stella@email.cz Stoiljkovic Dragoslav M., dragos@uns.ac.rs Straner Katalin, katalin.straner@gmail.com Strasser Gerhard F., gfs1@psu.edu Strbanova Sona, sonast2@gmail.com Surman Jan, jan.surman@univie.ac.at Svatek Petra, petra.svatek@univie.ac.at Takigawa Yuko, sakanafriend@yahoo.co.jp Terdimou Maria, maria1979@her.forthnet.gr Terra Rodrigues Cassiano, ctrodrigues@pucsp.br Thebaud-Sorger Marie, thebaud.sorger@gmail.com Thomann Johannes, johannes.thomann@uzh.ch Thomas Gerald William, g.thomas@imperial.ac.uk Thomaz Manuel Fernandes, t957@ua.pt Tiede Vance R., vance.tiede@aya.yale.edu Tihon Anne, anne.tihon@uclouvain.be Torero-Ibad Alexandra, a.torero@gmail.com 237

Toscano Maria, maria_toscano@libero.it Tournes Dominique, dominique.tournes@univ-reunion.fr Tracy Sarah Whitney, swtracy@ou.edu Truffa Giancarlo, truffag@alice.it Tsigoni Anastasia, Ana_tsigoni@hotmail.com Tsikritsis Minas, mtsikritsis@gmail.com Turchetti Simone, simone.turchetti@manchester.ac.uk Twohig Peter L., Peter.Twohig@smu.ca Vafea Flora, fkvafea@gmail.com Valeriani Simona, s.valeriani@lse.ac.uk Vampoulis Epaminondas, vampoulis@edlit.auth.gr Vandersmissen Jan, jan.vandersmissen@ulg.ac.be Vekerdy Lilla, vekerdyl@si.edu Vetrovcova Marie, marie.benediktova@gmail.com Villone Barbara, villone@to.infn.it Vlahakis George N., gvlahakis@yahoo.com Vogt Annette, vogt@mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de Vondrek Martin, marvondr@kfi.zcu.cz Wahl Charlotte, charlotte.wahl@gwlb.de Waisse Silvia, dr.silvia.waisse@gmail.com Wartenberg Ilana, i.wartenberg@ucl.ac.uk Wassmann Claudia, wassmann@mpib-berlin.mpg.de Weldon Stephen P., spweldon@ou.edu Wojcik Andrzej J., awojcik@ihnpan.waw.pl Wolfe Charles, ctwolfe1@gmail.com Wu Huiyi, whyesit@gmail.com Xu Xiaodong, xiaodongcuhk@gmail.com Yusupova Tatiana, ti-yusupova@mail.ru Zaitseva Elena, baumzai@mail.ru Zakharova Larissa, larisazakharova@gmail.com Zanin Fabio, fabio.zanin@unipd.it Zeller Peter, p.zeller@unifg.it Zerpa Rodriguez Jose Julio, jjzerrod@gmail.com Zhao hui yang, wuwei_7512@163.com

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