COORDIN AT ING C ONJUNCT IONS Use a coordinating conjunction when you want to give equal emphasis to two main

clauses. The pattern for coordination looks like this: main clause , + coordinating conjunction + main clause. AND a. To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another: "Tashonda sent in her applications and waited by the phone for a response." b. To suggest that one idea is the result of another: "Willie heard the weather report and promptly boarded up his house." c. To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another (frequently replaced by but in this usage): "Juanita is brilliant and Shalimar has a pleasant personality. d. To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes replaced by yet in this usage): "Hartford is a rich city and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight." e. To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally (usually the first clause is an imperative): "Use your credit cards frequently and you'll soon find yourself deep in debt." f. To suggest a kind of "comment" on the first clause: "Charlie became addicted to gambling and that surprised no one who knew him."

The Others . . . The conjunction NOR is not extinct, but it is not used nearly as often as the other conjunctions, so it might feel a bit odd when nor does come up in conversation or writing. Its most common use is as the little brother in the correlative pair, neither-nor (see below): He is neither sane nor brilliant. That is neither what I said nor what I meant.

>It can be used with other negative expressions: That is not what I meant to say, nor should you interpret my statement as an admission of guilt.

It is possible to use nor without a preceding negative element, but it is unusual and, to an extent, rather stuffy: George's handshake is as good as any written contract, nor has he ever proven untrustworthy.

The word YET functions sometimes as an adverb and has several meanings: in addition ("yet another cause of trouble" or "a simple yet noble woman"), even ("yet more expensive"), still ("he is yet a novice"), eventually ("they may yet win"), and so soon as now ("he's not here yet"). It also functions as a coordinating conjunction meaning something like "nevertheless" or "but." The word yet seems to carry an element of distinctiveness that but can seldom register. John plays basketball well, yet his favorite sport is badminton. The visitors complained loudly about the heat, yet they continued to play golf every day.

BUT a. To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: "Joey lost a fortune in the stock market, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably." b. To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first part of the sentence implied in a negative way (sometimes replaced by on the contrary): "The club never invested foolishly, but used the services of a sage investment counselor." c. To connect two ideas with the meaning of "with the exception of" (and then the second word takes over as subject): "Everybody but Goldenbreath is trying out for the team." OR a. To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the other: "You can study hard for this exam or you can fail." b. To suggest the inclusive combination of alternatives: "We can broil chicken on the grill tonight, or we can just eat leftovers. c. To suggest a refinement of the first clause: "Smith College is the premier all-women's college in the country, or so it seems to most Smith College alumnae." d. To suggest a restatement or "correction" of the first part of the sentence: "There are no rattlesnakes in this canyon, or so our guide tells us." e. To suggest a negative condition: "The New Hampshire state motto is the rather grim "Live free or die." f. To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative (see use of and above): "They must approve his political style or they wouldn't keep electing him mayor."

In sentences such as the second one, above, the pronoun subject of the second clause ("they," in this case) is often left out. When that happens, the comma preceding the conjunction might also disappear: "The visitors complained loudly yet continued to play golf every day." Yet is sometimes combined with other conjunctions, but or and. It would not be unusual to see and yet in sentences like the ones above. This usage is acceptable. The word FOR is most often used as a preposition, of course, but it does serve, on rare occasions, as a coordinating conjunction. Some people regard the conjunction for as rather highfalutin and literary, and it does tend to add a bit of weightiness to the text. Beginning a sentence with the conjunction "for" is probably not a good idea, except when you're singing "For he's a jolly good fellow. "For" has serious sequential implications and in its use the order of thoughts is more important than it is, say, with because or since. Its function is to introduce the reason for the preceding clause: John thought he had a good chance to get the job, for his father was on the company's board of trustees. Most of the visitors were happy just sitting around in the shade, for it had been a long, dusty journey on the train.

Be careful of the conjunction SO. Sometimes it can connect two independent clauses along with a comma, but sometimes it can't. For instance, in this sentence,

Soto is not the only Olympic athlete in his family, so are his brother, sister, and his Uncle Chet.

where the word so means "as well" or "in addition," most careful writers would use a semicolon between the two independent clauses. In the following sentence, where so is acting like a minor-league "therefore," the conjunction and the comma are adequate to the task: Soto has always been nervous in large gatherings, so it is no surprise that he avoids crowds of his adoring fans.

the ducks on the lake (phrase) + the shirtless men playing soccer (phrase) Because these are not complete sentences (independent clauses), they can be connected with only a conjunction. No comma is necessary. Some people will tell you that in a list of three or more items or phrases, you need a comma and a conjunction before the final item or phrase. The truth is, you dont have to use a comma there, but you can if you want to, and if you think a comma will clear up any possible confusion, go ahead and use it. Otherwise, its really not necessary (see this article for more information on comma usage). The only coordinating conjunction that doesnt seem to be able to connect sentence fragments (words and phrases) is for. When for comes between words or short phrases, it is typically acting not as a coordinating conjunction, but as a preposition. Punctuate coordinating conjunctions correctly. Three patterns in writing use coordinating conjunctions. Add commas when required. Pattern 1 Connecting two main clauses When you connect two main clauses with a coordinating conjunction, use a comma. The pattern looks like this: main clause + , + coordinating conjunction + main clause. Here is an example: While I am at work, my dog Floyd sleeps on the bed , and my cat Buster naps in the bathtub. Pattern 2 Connecting two items You can also use a coordinating conjunction to connect any two items. These items can be any grammatical unit except main clauses. The pattern looks like this: item + + coordinating conjunction + item Here are some examples: My dog Floyd has too many fleas and too much hair. My cat Buster has beautiful blue eyes but a destructive personality. Pattern 3 Connecting three or more items in a series When you have three or more items in a series, you generally use a comma before the coordinating conjunction. Some handbooks and style guides will tell you that this comma is optional, but my advice is to put it in. The pattern looks like this: item + , + item + , + coordinating conjunction + item Here is an example: Swatting olives off the kitchen counter, dragging toilet paper streamers through the house, and terrorizing Jacques Cousteau, the parakeet, have consumed another of Buster's days.

Sometimes, at the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a kind of summing up device or transition, and when it does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma: So, the sheriff peremptorily removed the child from the custody of his parents.

SHORTCUT: For - Explains reason or purpose (just like because) I go to the park every Sunday, for I love to watch the ducks on the lake. And - Adds one thing to another I go to the park every Sunday to watch the ducks on the lake and the shirtless men playing soccer. Nor - Used to present an alternative negative idea to an already stated negative idea I dont go for the fresh air nor really for the ducks. Honestly, I just like the soccer. But - Shows contrast The soccer in the park is entertaining in the winter, but its better in the heat of summer. Or - Presents an alternative or a choice The men play on teams: shirts or skins. Yet - Introduces a contrasting idea that follows the preceding idea logically (similar to but) I always take a book to read, yet I never seem to turn a single page. So - Indicates effect, result or consequence Ive started dating one of the soccer players, so now I have an excuse to watch the game each week. Using Commas with Coordinating Conjunctions Youll notice that in the example sentences, some of the coordinating conjunctions are preceded by a comma while others are not. There is a very simple reason for this. If a coordinating conjunction is joining together two independent clauses (things that could feasibly stand alone as complete sentences), it needs to have a comma with it. If the conjunction is connecting two phrases (incomplete sentences) or words (as in a list), it does not need a comma. The soccer in the park is entertaining in the winter (independent clause) + its better in the heat of summer (independent clause) Because these are two independent clauses, they must be joined together by a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

Yes, you can begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction! Some teachers warn that beginning a sentence with a coordinating conjunction is wrong. Teachers will typically tell you this because they are trying to help you avoid writing fragments. Other times teachers give this advice because their preference is that a sentence not begin with a coordinating conjunction. What you should remember is that you break no grammar rule if you begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction. Because you might be breaking your instructors' rules, however, you should ask what their preferences are. If you decide to begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction, keep these three things in mind: Be sure that a main clause follows the coordinating conjunction. Do not use a coordinating conjunction to begin every sentence. Use this option only when it makes the flow of your ideas more effective. Do not use a comma after the coordinating conjunction. Coordinating conjunctions are not transitional expressions like for example or first of all. You will rarely use punctuation after them.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS A subordinating conjunction always introduces a dependent clause, tying it to an independent clause. The clauses can go in any order; that is, the independent or the dependent clause can come first in the sentence, but in either order, the first word of the dependent (or subordinate) clause will be the subordinating conjunction. Generally, the patterns look like these: main clause + subordinating conjunction + subordinate clause. Subordinating conjunction + subordinate clause + , + main clause.

Common Subordinating Conjunctions Cause: as because in order that since so that Contrast and Comparison: although as as though even though just as though whereas while Condition: even if if in case provided that unless Place: where wherever Time: after as soon as as long as before once still till until when whenever while

Here are some examples: While I was answering the telephone, Buster, my cat, jumped onto the kitchen counter and swatted all of my jalapeo-stuffed olives onto the dirty kitchen floor. So I had to rinse off the cat hair and crumbs sticking to these delicacies before I could add them to the salad. Flying down the bumpy path, Genette hit a rock with the front wheel of her mountain bike, flew over the handlebars, and crashed into a clump of prickly palmetto bushes. Yet even this accident would not deter her from completing the race. Only when an interrupter immediately follows the coordinating conjunction do you need to use commas. Read this example: We hoped that decorating the top of Christine's cupcake with a dead grasshopper would freak her out. But, to our amazement, she just popped the whole thing in her mouth, chewed, and swallowed.

After - later than the time that : later than when. Example: Call me after you arrive at work Although - despite the fact that : used to introduce a fact that makes another fact unusual or surprising. Example: Although she was tired, she couldnt sleep As - used to introduce a statement which indicates that something being mentioned was known, expected, etc. Example: As we explained last class, coordinating conjunctions are sentence connectors Because - for the reason that. Example: I painted the house because it was a horrible colour Before - earlier than the time that : earlier than when. Example: Come and visit me before you leave How - in what manner or way. Example: Let me show you how to knit If -used to talk about the result or effect of something that may happen or be true. Example: It would be fantastic if you could come to the party Once - at the moment when : as soon as. Example: Once youve learnt how to cycle, its very easy Since - used to introduce a statement that explains the reason for another statement. Example: Since youve studied so well, you can go outside and play Than - used to introduce the second or last of two or more things or people that are being compared used with the comparative form of an adjective or adverb. Example: My sister is older than I am That - used to introduce a clause that states a reason or purpose. Example: Olivia is so happy that its summer again When - at or during the time that something happened. Example: A teacher is good when he inspires his students Where - at or in the place that something happened. Example: We went to the bar where there most shade Whether -used to indicate choices or possibilities. Example: Bruno wasnt sure whether to go to India or Thailand While - during the time that something happened Example: While we were in Paris, it snowed Until - up to the time or point that something happened Example: We stayed up talking until the sun came up

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS A conjunctive adverb is an adverb that connects two main clauses. Conjunctive adverbs show cause and effect, sequence, contrast, comparison, or other relationships. Notice, however, that you need a semicolon, not a comma, to connect the two clauses: main clause + ; + conjunctive adverb + , + main clause. Common Conjunctive Adverbs: accordingly additionally afterward again almost also anyhow anyway as a result at last at the same time besides certainly consequently contrarily conversely earlier equally eventually finally furthermore for example for instance further furthermore hence henceforth however in addition in comparison in contrast in fact in any case incidentally indeed instead in short instead in the meantime later likewise meanwhile moreover namely nevertheless next nonetheless now on the contrary on the other hand otherwise perhaps

similarly still subsequently that is then thereafter therefore thus undoubtedly unfortunately uniquely Examples:

TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSE Functions of Subordinate Clause. A subordinate (dependent) clause may function as a noun, an adjective or an adverb in sentence. On the basis of their function in a sentence, subordinate clauses can be divided in to following types. 1. Noun Clause 2. Adjective Clause. 3. Adverb Clause Noun Clause

The due date for the final paper has passed; therefore, I could not submit mine on time. There are many history books; however, none of them may be accurate. It rained hard; moreover, lightening flashed and thunder boomed. The baby fell asleep; then, the doorbell rang. The law does not permit drinking and driving anytime; otherwise, there would be many more accidents.

A dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence is called noun clause. A noun clause performs same function like a noun in a sentence. A noun clause can be used like a noun. It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or object of the preposition. Some of the English words that introduce noun clauses are that, whether, who, why, whom, what, how, when, whoever, where, and whomever. Notice that some of these words also introduce adjective and adverbial clauses. A clause is a noun clause if a pronoun (he, she, it, or they) could be substituted for it. Example What he did made a problem for his family. In above sentence the clause what he did functions as a noun, hence it is a noun clause. A noun clause works as a noun that acts as a subject, object, or predicate in a sentence. A noun clause starts with words that, what, whatever, who, whom, whoever, whomever. Examples Whatever you learn will help you in future. (noun clause as a subject) What you said made me laugh. (noun clause as a subject) He knows that he will pass the test. (noun clause as an object) Now I realize what he would have thought. (noun clause as an object) Adjective Clause A dependent clause that functions as an adjective in a sentence is called adjective clause. An adjective clause works like adjective in a sentence. The function of an adjective is to modify (describe) a noun or a pronoun. Example He wears a shirt which looks nice. The clause which looks nice in above sentence is an adjective clause because it modifies noun shirt in the sentence. An adjective clause always precedes the noun it modifies.

Examples. I met the boy who had helped me. An apple that smells bad is rotten. The book which I like is helpful in preparation for test. The house where I live consists of four rooms. The person who was shouting needed help. Adjective clause begins with relative pronoun (that, who, whom, whose, which, or whose) and is also called a relative clause. Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clause or nonrestrictive clause Adverb Clause A dependent clause that functions as an adverb in a sentence is called adverb clause An adverb clause is like an adverb describing a verb, adjective or other adverb in a sentence. It modifies (describes) the situation in main clause in terms of time, frequency (how often), cause and effect, contrast, condition, intensity (to what extent). The subordinating conjunctions used for adverb clauses are as follows. Time: when, whenever, since, until, before, after, while, as, by the time, as soon as Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as long as, so, so that, Contrast: although, even, whereas, while, though Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing or provided that, in case Examples. Dont go before he comes. He takes medicine because he is ill. Although he tried a lot, he couldnt climb up the tree. Unless you study for the test, you cant pass it. I will go to the school unless it rains. You are safe as long as you drive carefully. You can achieve anything provided that you struggle for it.

TYPES OF PHRASES

2. Prepositional phrase Prepositional phrases start with a preposition (such as in, at, by, for, to, over, etc.), have a noun or pronoun object of the preposition, and may also have other modifiers. Prepositional phrases function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. 2.1 The announcement for the play arrived after it was over. (As adjective) 2.2 He walked into the meeting just as the president arrived. (As adverb) 2.3 For you to pass your test is the reason for having a tutor. (As noun; in this case, the subject) 2.4 She gave the information to me. (As indirect object) 3. Participial phrase Participial phrases are formed from participles and all the related words. Participles are formed from verbs and end in "ing" or "ed." Participles function as adjectives; therefore, participial phrases also function as adjectives. They often describe the subject of the sentence. 3.1 Laughing wildly, she ran down the path. (Describes "she") 3.2 The actor, pausing for a moment, looked at the crowd. (Describes "actor") 3.3 He showed us the cabinet, painted a brilliant green. (Describes the object "cabinet") 4. Infinitive phrase An infinitive phrase is formed from an infinitive and other related words. An infinitive is the word "to" followed by a verb. This type of phrase functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. 4.1 To get an appointment with him requires a great amount of patience. (As a noun subject) 4.2 He wanted to see the Eiffel Tower, but he didn't know where it was. (As a noun direct object) 4.3 He wrote a letter to raise funds for the foundation. (As an adverb) 4.4 The decision to eliminate vacations was very unpopular. (As an adjective) 5. Gerund phrase A gerund phrase if formed from a gerund plus its related words. A gerund is a verb with an "ing" ending that functions as a noun. Gerund phrases look like some participial phrases. The difference is that participial phrases function as adjectives; gerund phrases function as nouns. 5.1 Juggling knives is not recommended as a relaxation technique. (As subject)

5.2 Sam hates getting a headache when he works late. (As direct object) 5.3 His favorite activity is sailing down the Nahanni River. (As subject complement)