Back to basics

Part 1 - Components of a Steam Locomotive

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The workings of a steam locomotive are fairly well known, a sort of boiler on wheels most would say. However, not many know of the exact science that goes into designing such an engine. This section on the basics of a steam locomotive takes you from the names and functions of each component, the features of their design, and ending with the importance of the mineral composition of a lump of coal or the water in the tender.
Beginning with the heart of a steam locomotive - its boiler - it is the most compact of all types of boiler in relation to the amount of steam that it produces. Suitable for pressures up to about !! pounds per s"uare inch, it is usually fired by coal although oil has also been widely used. #n some countries, the fuel can also be wood, sugar cane waste or even peat. The fuel is burned on the grate of the inner firebox. This firebox is surrounded by water in the outer firebox shell and so absorbing radiant heat from the fire. The gap between the inner and outer fireboxes is maintained by hundreds of rigid stays. To support combustion, air is admitted into two areas$ %, &rimary air enters via damper doors in the ashpan and is drawn through the firebed. This makes the fuel incandescent but it is not sufficient to burn all of the elements of the coal. ', Secondary air is drawn through the firehole door or small flaps.

The brick arch within the inner firebox is constructed of firebrick or refractory concrete and serves three purposes. (s its material is incandescent, it encourages combustion of gas distilled from the firebed) it lengthens the path of those gases to give additional time for combustion and it prevents cool air reaching the fire tubes as it enters the firehole door. The hot gases are drawn through long tubes surrounded by water in the boiler barrel, to the smokebox at the front of the engine. *n later locomotive boilers, these tubes are of two types, small ones of about %+ - ', inches in diameter and large flues of - - -. inches diameter. The saturated steam that is generated collects above the water in the boiler. #ts /ourney to the cylinders is controlled by the regulator valve operated from within the cab by the regulator handle. #t travels through the main steam pipe to the superheater header, which is divided into two separate areas. The saturated steam at a temperature of about '!!01 passes through the superheater elements and increasing its temperature to about -!01. 2eturning to the other side of the superheater header, the superheated steam flows via steam pipes to the valves and then on to the cylinders. The gases from the fire, now much cooler after giving up much of their heat to the water and steam, are e/ected through the chimney. This is greatly assisted by the exhaust steam from the cylinders passing through the reduced orifice of the blastpipe at high speed, and capturing the gases on the way. By this method the smokebox maintains a partial vacuum that provides a draw on the fire. 2eplacement water is forced into the boiler by in/ectors or pumps, maintaining a safe level above the inner firebox crown. Safety valves on top of the boiler release steam when the pressure within the boiler rises above a predetermined level.

Part 2 - Locomotive tender design

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The locomotive tender carries enough fuel and water to supply the trains needs between fuel and water points. 3ntil the start of the '!th century, a weight of five tons of coal and -!! gallons of water was sufficient for most of Britain4s railways, however with the introduction of long non-stop runs and a higher rate of steam production from higher powered engines, tenders capacities were increased up to %! tons of coal and 5!!! gallons of water.
The water tank was originally of a horseshoe shape with the coal piled onto a flat floor in the centre, but later the design was altered to that as shown above. The inclination at the rear of the coal space encouraged the coal to slide forward onto the low hori6ontal section called the 4shovel plate4. Baffles were fitted inside the water tank to stabili6e the water while the locomotive was in motion, while at the rear, a water filler topped by a heavy hinged lid gave access to water cranes at stations and depots. 7ith the exception of the Southern 2ailway, most main-line locomotive tenders were fitted with a water scoop to collect water from lineside troughs. 8enerous air vents were re"uired due to the rush of water as was a dome shaped deflector at the top of the water space. Tenders were only detached from the locomotive at times of heavy repair and so the coupling between the two was made much stronger than normal couplings used. The 9ondon and :orth 7estern 2ailway used timber-framed tenders into the '!th century. The idea was that this would absorb any collision damage and so protect the locomotive) a sort of early crumple-6one. The main limitation on tender si6es was the length available on turntables and because of this, some large locomotives were fitted with small tenders. (t the other extreme, Sir :igel 8resley designed some exceptionally large tenders for the nonstop 9ondon to ;dinburgh service, carrying -!!! gallons of water and eight tons of coal.

<echanical stokers, successfully used in :orth (merica, were considered a little unnecessary for Britain4s railways where the firing rate was well with the capacity of the fireman. Trials with the mechanical stokers were performed on four engines though$ on three class =>4s and a Southern <erchant :avy, but unless the coal was of pitiful "uality, they were considered a bit of a luxury.

Part 3 - Types of tank locomotive

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Tank locomotives carried their coal and water in integral coal bunkers and water tanks instead of a separate tender. This not only reduced the capital cost of a locomotive, but also made its operation more convenient and cheaper. 7here there were runs of about '! miles or shunting work or branch lines, these locomotives were never very far from obtaining water, so there was little point in hauling a tender full of water.
Tank locomotives carry a supply of coal behind the cab in a bunker that often covers a small supplementary water tank. ( greater "uantity of water is carried in tanks that flank the boiler in the three positions as shown above. Because of their short length and all-round visibility, these engines were popular for yard work, especially since as much of their time is in backward motion as well as forward. >or work in docks and the restricted areas of factory sidings where turntables were not available, they were an indispensable choice of engine

The origin of the tank locomotive is uncertain. #n 7arren4s A Century of Locomotive Building there is a reference to a letter written by ?ohn B. ?ervis, 1hief ;ngineer of the @elaware and Hudson 1anal 1ompany in (merica, and dated the %5th of ?anuary %A'A, B#t is desirable to dispense with the tender carriage, to have a water tank fixed to the engine carriage . . . B 7hether such an engine was ever built is not known but the first Caccording to (hronsD evidence of a tank locomotive was one built by @r. 1hurch of Birmingham in %A E. ( popular type of design was the side tank as shown above left. These consisted of two vertical, narrow tanks that rested on the running plate on each side of the boiler. 7ater capacity varied in 8reat 7estern engines from A!! gallons in the %F!! and -A!! class ! - F - 'T4s up to '-!! gallons for the E'!! class ' - A 'T4s. (nother design was the saddle tank as shown above centre. The length of these tanks could cover the whole of the boiler and smokebox or /ust the boiler. (n example of the saddle tank is the 8reat 7estern % 5% ! - 5 - !ST class CST denoting saddle tankD. These water capacity of these particular engines was A!! gallons. (s a modification of the saddle tank, pannier tanks locomotives were introduced by the 8reat 7estern to permit the use of a Belpaire boiler. This is shown above right. There are several examples of 872 pannier tanks, but the most popular is the -E!! ! - 5 - !&T class which had a tank capacity of %'!! gallons. (nother example although not shown was the well tank. The water was carried in tanks fitted between the frames of the locomotive, however this form of engine never found favour in Britain but was widely used in 1ontinental ;urope usually in con/unction with smaller side tanks. Tanks were usually divided by baffles to prevent water surges. The express tank was especially sub/ect to this - the disastrous %='E derailment at Sevenoaks was thought to result from high speed and a bumpy track giving rise to the water in the tanks to surge. 7ith short distances and high population density, the popularity of the tank locomotive was high in Britain. >or example, the 8reat 7estern at the time of 8rouping in %=' had =FF locomotives, 'FF' of which were tanks, however 3S railroads had a few for commuter trains but shunting was entrusted to six- and eight-wheeler tender locomotives.

Part 4 - Firebo layo!t

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The firebox of a steam locomotive is designed to burn fuel efficiently and produce ade"uate heat to boil water and so create steam. The firebox must be of a si6e to burn enough fuel for the heaviest duty without forcing unburnt fuel off the firebed.
>irebox widths vary from those that overlap the engine frame and wheels to the type that is waisted to fit between the frames. The top of the firebox may round and therefore follow the circular profile of the boiler barrel, or roughly flat known as the Belpaire type. This latter firebox is more costly to produce but it gives more steam space at the top where it needed most. The firebox consists of an inner and outer shell) the outer firebox is made of steel whereas the inner firebox can be made from steel or copper. The space between the inner and outer fireboxes, usually to F inches at the sides but %. to ' feet at the top, is controlled by over %!!! metal stays that located the inner firebox at steam pressures of around '-! pounds per s"uare inch. The level of water that surrounds the inner firebox is controlled by the in/ectors that force water from the tender into the boiler, however as a safety feature, if the water level should drop below the inner firebox crown plate, fusible plugs made from a low melting-point alloy, melt and extinguish the fire. The grate at the base of the inner firebox consists of cast-iron firebars with air spaces between. The amount of air admitted through the grate to the underside of the fire is ad/usted by damper doors in the ashpan. (dditional air is admitted through the firehole and guided towards the fire by the deflector plate. This ensures complete combustion of the gases within the firebox and eliminating the periods when unburnt fuel is drawn off the firebed and produce unwanted smoke and block the boiler tubes.

1leaning the grate entailed paddling or lifting the ash directly from the firehole with a long shovel then removing several firebars with heavy tongs and pushing the remaining clinker and ash into the ashpan. To assist in this operation, some locomotives were fitted with a drop section grate, or in later days with a rocking grate that would allow the ash to be shaken from the fire while the locomotive was in use.

Part " - #alve and piston layo!t and movement

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admitted to, and exhausted from the cylinders at the precise moment in the pistons cycle. This is achieved by valves located next to each cylinder. Basically, the cylinder has a port at each end, and the function of the valve is to admit fresh steam under pressure at one end, while allowing used steam to be exhausted from the other. 9ater locomotives featured the use of piston valves as shown, in which the cylindrical valve chest contains two heads that open and close the ports in se"uence.

Tto ensure the efficient working of a steam locomotive, steam has to be

The amount of valve movement past the port is known as lap. #n slow moving locomotives, a long lap is desirable as the delayed opening of the exhaust port gives time for the steam trapped inside the cylinder to make the best use of its expanding energy against the piston. *n fast running locomotives, allowing the exhaust port to open early when the valve is in mid-position helps the steam to escape faster and so reducing backpressure. Higher speed locomotives also utilise long lead, meaning that the admission port is already open when the piston is at the end of its movement and so supplying good steam pressure immediately it begins its movement away from the end of the cylinder. 1ut-off is the term used to denote the position of the piston in its cycle at the precise moment that the valve is closing and therefore stopping steam being admitted to the cylinder. 7hen the locomotive is working slowly, a long cut-off can admit steam for most of the stroke of the piston, however as speed builds up, this overtaxes the boiler and leads to back-pressure. To prevent this, cut-off can be reduced at high speeds until steam is admitted for only %-G of the piston4s stroke, its expansive properties being used to push the piston for the remainder of the stroke.

Part $ - #alve gear layo!t

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The function of the locomotive valve gear is to regulate the movement of the valves so that steam is admitted and exhausted from the cylinders in relation to the position of the pistons. It also allows the driver to alter the length of steam admission, known as cut-off, and to reverse the locomotive.
In the Walschaert valve gear, which was common among many railway companies except for the Great Western, fore-and-aft movement of the valve spindle is controlled by both the combination lever and the expansion link. These two sources of fore-and-aft motion are oined at the point where the combination lever and radius rod are pinned together. The movement of the expansion link is obtained from an eccentric rod attached via the crank axle. !d ustment to the length of valve travel is made by raising or lowering the position of the radius rod within the expansion link. This is achieved by operation of the reversing rod from in the cab. The length of travel of the radius rod, and therefore of the valve spindle, depends on the rod"s position within the expansion link. #aximum valve travel giving maximum steam admission is obtained when the radius rod is positioned furthest from the centre of the expansion link. #oving the radius rod from one half of the expansion link to the other, reverses the movement of the locomotive by admitting steam into what otherwise would have been the exhausting side of the piston"s cycle.

Part % - Compo!nding

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the steam to a second, low-pressure group. The first successful compound locomotives were three ! - F - ' tanks built in %AE5 to the designs of the Swissborn engineer (ntole <allet.

Compound locomotives employ a high-pressure cylinder group before passing

The purpose of compounding is to extract the maximum power and efficiency from the steam raised in the boiler. >irstly, steam from the boiler is admitted to both high- and low-pressure cylinders for a great percentage of the regulator valve movement and the cylinders and valves then act as in a normal expansion locomotive, also known as a simple locomotive, as shown in part - - Halves and &istons. 7hen the regulator is opened further however, the high-pressure steam from the boiler is fed only to the high-pressure cylinder. 7hen the steam has completed its cycle here, it is then transferred to the two low-pressure cylinders before being exhausted towards the blastpipe. (s developments in cylinders and boilers changed, so one design became popular before the other overtook it. *ne problem that affected early simple locomotives was a restriction of the steam ports to the cylinders at short cut-offs. This fre"uently resulted in steam being severely throttled and leading to a drop in the delivery pressure to the cylinders and therefore giving a power loss. #mproved valve gears with larger steam port openings at short cut-offs gave an advantage to the simple design, but when these modifications were fitted to the compound locomotives, they gained the upper hand with additional benefits. 9arger port openings here produced a softer exhaust beat and so reducing the amount of unburned drawn through the boiler tubes when the locomotive is working at a high-

powered output. #n %=!- the simple locomotive claimed superiority with the introduction of 7ilhelm Schmidt4s firetube superheater. This largely overcame the ma/or problem of condensation in the cylinders of simple locomotives and giving an increase in power output by up to '!G. >rom %=!A, superheating was also fitted to the compound locomotives resulting in e"ually large savings. Some British railway companies produced a small number of compound locomotives, but others including the 8reat 7estern remained faithful to the simple expansion design, however compounds remained popular over parts of ;urope, especially >rance.

Section & - Cylinder design

When a steam locomotive was tested for its efficiency under all working conditions , indicator diagrams were drawn showing in graphic form what takes place inside the cylinder. These diagrams made it possible to measure the efficiency of converting the steam4s energy into mechanical energy within the cylinder at various speeds and cut-offs.
Testing indicators, consisting of a special pressure gauge with the means to present the readings in a diagram, were fitted inside the front and rear cylinder covers. Throughout most of the steam era, mechanical indicators were used but

electrical indicators were tried in the pot-war period. 7ith the mechanical indicators, the diagram was drawn at the cylinder and this re"uired the attendance of engineers riding on the buffer beam. To protect the from the elements, screens were erected around the front of the locomotive but these merely added to the technicians discomfort, as they had to perform their task on a bucking engine, with penetrating winds on one side and a hot smokebox on the other. The engineers advised the dynamometer car staff behind the tender, when an indicator reading was taken by means of a speaking tube or bell so that marks could be made on the paper roll recording the pull on the drawbar. >rom these readings, a graph could be obtained. ;lectrical indicators were introduced from e"uipment developed to measure pressures inside aero-engines, and had the added advantage that their readings were passed directly to the dynamometer car. This design of the recorder was ingenious as it dispensed with the pen used in mechanical indicators. #t emitted a spark when the steam pressure within the cylinder reached a certain level, which burned a small hole in the recording paper. (fter several cycles of steam entry, expansion and exhaust, the sparks had traced a series of holes. 7hatever the type of indicator, the resulting diagram was always in the shape of a boot. The highest part shows the pressure as the steam entered the cylinder as shown by the top hori6ontal line, but when the steam entry is cut off, the pressure falls as the steam expands and pushes against the piston. (fter the exhaust port opens, the line, like the piston, reverses and shows low pressure as the used steam is exhausted. (t the end of the return stroke the line rises as pressure increases due to the compression caused by the remaining steam left in the cylinder after the exhaust port has closed. (s fresh steam is admitted into the cylinder, the pressure rises once again.

Section ' - (lastpipes

As the exhaust steam travels from the cylinders and through the smokebox to
the chimney, it creates a draught which draws the smoke and gases from the firebox and boiler tubes and also pulls fresh air through the firegrate. The harder the engine is worked, the more steam is used, which in turn means a bigger draught and a hotter fire that leads to faster steam production.

The used steam from the cylinders is e/ected from the blastpipe, which is a no66le at the bottom of the smokebox facing the chimney mouth. 3p to a point, the smaller the no66le the greater the speed of the steam and the stronger the draught, however, this creates a draught that is uneven and tends to draw out pieces of half-burned coal with the smoke from the fire. #n addition, a small no66le creates back pressure in the cylinder because the used steam cannot escape fast enough. (n ideal blast is strong but slow and steady, and provides a fast passage for the steam leaving the cylinders. Because the strength of the draught through the firebox and boiler tubes is directly related to both the used steam velocity and the total area of the steam /et in contact with the gases in the smokebox, it is possible to improve the draught by altering the design of the no66le in the blastpipe. The simplest and easiest method to improve draughting is to have two blastpipes, each exhausting through a different orifice in a double chimney. This design was favoured by the 9.<.S. 2ailway where it produced a startling improvement in the performance of the 2oyal Scot class of locomotives. Similarly, after nationalisation, this design was applied to the 872 Iing and 1astle classes with e"ually noticeable improvements. &robably the most advanced method of draught improvement was with the Iylchap design, perfected by the >rench engineer (ndre 1hapelon. This had two blastpipes, but each no66le formed a cross-section of four circles /oining in the centre, so that the steam emerged as four /ets that met in the middle. Beneath each chimney orifice were two petticoat pipes, shaped to split the four /ets and then combine them again as a single /et that was exhausted through the chimney. 9ocomotives that were fitted with the Iylchap exhausts were noted for their exceptionally free running. The exhaust from the chimney was so soft that nonstreamlined engines re"uired deflector plates to lift the smoke away from cab windows.

Section 1) - S!per*eating

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The introduction of superheating was the single most important development for the steam locomotive. Superheating increases the power output of a locomotive by up to '-G, with e"uivalent savings in coal and water, over non-superheated engines. #ts widespread use from %=%! coincided with the needs from the railway operators for heavier trains to be hauled at higher speeds.
The first design for a locomotive superheater were put forward in %A-!. &revious ideas utilised a steam drying process which raised the temperature of the steam by a few degrees to overcome the moisture within the steam. 1ontact with the metal surfaces of the pipes and cylinders cools the steam, resulting in the formation of water droplets. This condition also causes frictional resistance in the movement of the pistons and a fall in pressure. The use of a superheater, however, was not advanced for another -! years when, after developments in metallurgy and lubricating oils capable of withstanding the severe cutting action of highly superheated steam, made superheating a practical proposition. Success was achieved largely due to the work of @r. 7ilhelm Schmidt, assisted by @r. 2obert 8arbe, 1hief <echanical ;ngineer of the Berlin division of the &russian State 2ailways and ?ean Baptiste >lamme, 1hief <echanical ;ngineer of the Belgian 2ailways. Steam generated in a boiler is known as saturated steam due to a high moisture content since it is in contact with the water. #n a superheated boiler, this steam is passed through the regulator valve and main steam pipe to the superheater header and into the superheater elements within the large flue tubes. This superheated steam is then returned to the superheater header to be sent to the cylinders. The moisture that was present in the saturated steam is turned into additional steam and if its temperature is raised high enough, the steam approaches the condition of a perfect gas, progressively expanding as more heat is absorbed.

Section 1) - S!per*eating

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The introduction of superheating was the single most important development for the steam locomotive. Superheating increases the power output of a locomotive by up to '-G, with e"uivalent savings in coal and water, over non-superheated engines. #ts widespread use from %=%! coincided with the needs from the railway operators for heavier trains to be hauled at higher speeds.
The first design for a locomotive superheater were put forward in %A-!. &revious ideas utilised a steam drying process which raised the temperature of the steam by a few degrees to overcome the moisture within the steam. 1ontact with the metal surfaces of the pipes and cylinders cools the steam, resulting in the formation of water droplets. This condition also causes frictional resistance in the movement of the pistons and a fall in pressure. The use of a superheater, however, was not advanced for another -! years when, after developments in metallurgy and lubricating oils capable of withstanding the severe cutting action of highly superheated steam, made superheating a practical proposition. Success was achieved largely due to the work of @r. 7ilhelm Schmidt, assisted by @r. 2obert 8arbe, 1hief <echanical ;ngineer of the Berlin division of the &russian State 2ailways and ?ean Baptiste >lamme, 1hief <echanical ;ngineer of the Belgian 2ailways. Steam generated in a boiler is known as saturated steam due to a high moisture content since it is in contact with the water. #n a superheated boiler, this

steam is passed through the regulator valve and main steam pipe to the superheater header and into the superheater elements within the large flue tubes. This superheated steam is then returned to the superheater header to be sent to the cylinders. The moisture that was present in the saturated steam is turned into additional steam and if its temperature is raised high enough, the steam approaches the condition of a perfect gas, progressively expanding as more heat is absorbed.

Section 11 - Tyres and profiles

The earliest form of railways used wooden spoked wheels surrounded by a flat plain metal rim or tyre that ran on an angled rail. These tyres would rapidly wear out until the design was altered so that the flange was fitted to the tyre instead of the rail. Harious cone shaped tyre profiles were tried by the different railway companies and these studies showed that bogies with wheels that had a steep cone-shaped profile wobbled severely as the wheel tried to centre itself after leaving a sweeping curve or a set of points. #f the movement was severe enough that the wheel flanges repeatedly gra6ed against the railhead, this movement was called hunting. #n addition to causing excessive tyre and rail wear, it would also give a rough ride. ;ventually the findings of the trials led to the use of cone-shaped tyres of a less steep profile and all ;nglish and Scottish railway companies agreed to standardise their wheel profiles.
(fter a period of time, the tyre wears due to wheel slip on wet rails and the flange grinds against the railhead as the wheels go round curves. Thin flanges are potentially dangerous as they could derail a train on points. The allowed wear varies from one to three sixteenth of an inch C%.-= - F.E5 mmD according to the vehicle type, before the flange is said to be in need of reprofiling. To correct surface defects, the wheels are reprofiled on a huge lathe, while some wheel lathes allow complete sets of wheels to be turned at the same time without having to remove them from the locomotive. 7hen the tyre has been reprofiled several times, new tyres are pressed onto the wheel to give it a new lease of life.

Section 12 - Steam sanding

Since the early days of steam locomotives, it has been normal to apply sand to the rail head to prevent wheels slipping and so aid their adhesion. @evelopments over the years have been made to improve the design of the e"uipment so that the sand is applied correctly under the driving wheels in all weather conditions.
<ost systems re"uire the sand to be dry, free from pebbles and with a low clay content to ensure its free running capabilities. @rying and sieving the sand was performed in a furnace at the locomotive depot. #n the mid-%=th century, there were some "uite crude designs in use. #n some cases, a sandbox was fitted inside the cab from which the fireman was expected to scoop up a handful of sand and pour it down a funnel onto the rail, however, as the fireman could only sand one side of the locomotive at a time, there were high risks of twisting stresses in the axles as one side gripped before the other. (nother design placed the sandboxes in front of the wheels with a disc valve, rotated by a linkage inside the cab and allowing the sand to fall onto the rail. &roblems though were encountered with the disc valves /amming in their gritty environment and the placement of the sand ahead of the wheel meant that strong winds could blow the sand off the rail before the locomotive could effectively make use of it. The <idland 2ailway realised the shortcomings of these designs and in %AA5 adopted a system developed by the @erby works manager, that used compressed air bled from the the 7estinghouse brake pump to blow the sand under the wheels. 7estinghouse ob/ected to this on safety grounds, and so the design was adapted to use steam instead of compressed air, and this system was widely adopted

throughout Britain.

Section 13 - Streamlining

The world4s first streamlined train was the 7indsplitter, built for the Baltimore J *hio 2ailroad in %=!!. The tender and coaches were modified by the addition of side valances although the engine itself was not streamlined. The trial was /udged to be a failure though, as it did not prove its owners belief that reducing wind resistance would result in very high speeds.
7ind resistance is very small compared to other parts of a locomotive that produce friction - such as the wheels against the rail and the motion of the engine, but, as small as it is, wind resistance increases with the speed of the train. British designers regarded wind pressure to be negligible for speeds up to 5! mph. The early %= !4s saw the Bugatti streamlined racing cars and he also designed a streamlined railcar for use in >rance and in %= F, two (merican railroads were operating long distance streamliners. Because of this, many railway operators from several other countries wanted to update their image and introduced streamlined trains. #n Britain, after exhaustive air tunnel tests, the 9ondon, <idland and Scottish 2ailway introduced ' streamlined 41oronation4 class locomotives, and the 9ondon and :orth ;astern 2ailway built its (F &acific4s - one of which, <allard, was destined to gain the world speed record for steam locomotives of %'5.F mph. *ne effect noticed with the streamlined locomotives, especially with the 9<S 1oronations, was that side winds were much more of a brake than head winds as the surface area of the side of the engine was greater than in its unstreamlined state. This caused the wheel flanges to grind against the rails and give servicing intervals for the engine a higher fre"uency. (lthough streamlining was removed from the 1oronation class after 7orld 7ar ##, the 9:;2 increased their stock of streamlined locomotives to include ;ast (nglia.

The 8reat 7estern meanwhile, did not believe in streamlining but to keep in the publicity race, asked their 1hief <echanical ;ngineer, 1.B. 1ollett, to modify two locomotives, 1astle class no. -!!- Manorbier Castle and Iing class no. 5!%F King Henry VII. The designs he produced were described as BungainlyB, with a bulbous nose fitted to the smokebox door, and within a few years all of the modifications were removed. (t the highest speeds, especially when there was a headwind, streamlining did produce a slightly higher speed for the same amount of energy, but it was not until the era of the 4High Speed Train4 where streamlining gave substantial fuel savings, that the techni"ue really /ustified itself.

Section 14 - +ater ,!ality

From the very early days of the steam locomotive, the "uality of water used
has been of prime concern. :o water is perfect. 7ater obtained from lakes, rivers and reservoirs may contain organic matter while water taken from boreholes is usually very hard. Hardness, caused by calcium and magnesium salts is a ma/or problem in a locomotive boiler as the previously soluble salts become insoluble as the boiler temperatures and pressures increase. Some of these salts fall on hot surfaces where they bake and form a scale while other salts sink to the bottom of the boiler as sludge. Since scale has a low heat conductivity and hampers the efficiency of the boiler, it can lead to the tubes in the boiler to overheat, resulting in buckling or in extreme cases collapse. (nother less common scale that can cause problems is silica, however, even carbon dioxide from surface water is undesirable since under the influence of heat, it gives off pure oxygen which causes pitting and corrosion. *rganic impurities could be removed by effective filtration and lineside water softening plants were used where the water was hard. #n this instance, chemicals such as hydrated lime, sodium carbonate or sodium aluminates were added to the water. #n British 2ailways Standard classes, these plants were replaced by water softening blocks that were added to the tender or tank water from perforated cylinders. #n recent years, preserved locomotives have had problems with excessive nitrates in the water supply. (cidic water is corrosive and reducing acidity by chemical means is "uite simple, however some degree of acidity is essential to reduce the risk of foaming in the boiler, leading to priming when water is carried with the steam into the cylinders. (ll steam locomotives needed a periodic boiler washout to remove sludge,

where /ets of pressurised hot or cold water are fed into plug holes in the side of the firebox. @ue to the variation of water "uality in Britain, boiler washouts were performed every -!! to -!!! miles and typically this work would be carried out every eight to ten days.

Section 1" - Locomotive coal

With /ust a few short term exceptions, British steam locomotives burned coal, but from the different varieties of coal that could be obtained, only a few types were suitable for locomotives and many railway companies designed their engines for a specific type of coal.
1oal consists of many constituents and the typical 7elsh coal used by the 8reat 7estern contained elements such as) 1arbon E-G (sh %!G *xygen AG Hydrogen -G :itrogen %G and Sulphur .G The heat produced by coal comes from its carbon and hydrogen content and coals with a high proportion of these elements, known as high-calorific coals, were always preferred. ( high sulphur content is detrimental, however, especially when it is combined with the moisture content within the coal as it will form acids in the smokebox char and in the residual ash in the firebox. These acids then attack the metal surfaces of those areas. #f the firebox is at a temperature lower than its normal working temperature to sustain steam, clinker will form on the firebars. 1linker is a hard deposit that occurred when ash and sulphur fused together and removal usually meant chipping off with a long poker. The best locomotive coal has a low ash and sulphur content particularly since ash tends to block the boiler tubes and it can pit and score the tube surfaces as it is swept through to the smokebox. Bituminous coals, which includes house coal, were widely used for locomotives, but only those types that were hard and with a low ash content. 7elsh coal, especially that used by the 8reat 7estern, was semi-bituminous and had a high carbon content that burnt with a shorter flame. #n general, a smoky exhaust displays inefficient combustion. (lthough many photographers crave this pyrotechnic effect, it is purely a sign of waste. To achieve complete combustion, a high firebox temperature together with a good air flow is re"uired by using the dampers, firehole door and maintaining an even firebed thickness. Heaping coal into the firebox at long intervals produces black smoke and wastes consumption - the better method was to fire Blittle and oftenB. 1oal has a tendency to form a hot mass over the fire known as a cake. This

tendency is an inherent property in the coal that cannot be removed, although it can be reduced by non-caking coals. #f its chemical composition is satisfactory, coal that has caked needed only a little work by the fireman to break up the crust. #n addition to the composition of the coal, the si6e of coal also mattered. Small si6ed pieces of coal increase the total surface area of coal in the firebox and therefore produce excellent steaming rates. &oor "uality coal, especially that supplied after %= =, contained a high proportion of coal dust and slack. <ost coal dust is drawn, unburned, straight up the chimney while the slack tended to block the flow of gases through the boiler tubes. *ne good use of the coal dust was in the form of bri"uettes made from compressed coal dust. 1oal that was handled in mechanical coaling plants tended to break into small pieces, and for that reason hard coals were preferred by most railways. @ue to the 8reat 7estern4s insistence of 7elsh coal that was of a high calorific value with low volatility, it stayed with handKtub coaling to reduce degradation even though it was a dirty and time-consuming method.

Section 1$ - (ritis* -ail.ays *eadlamp codes

Position the mouse cursor over part of the image below to find its name and function

/escription ;xpress passenger train, breakdown van train going to clear the line, 4light engine4 going to assist disabled train, empty coaching stock timed at express passenger train speed *rdinary passenger train, 4mixed4 train, breakdown van train not going to clear the line, branch passenger train, rail motor train or railcar ;xpress freight, or ballast train authorised to run at a maximum speed of - m.p.h., ;mpty coachingstock train not carrying headlamps for 4group %4 &arcels, newspaper, fish, meat, fruit, milk, horsebox, cattle or perishable train composed entirely of vacuum-fitted stock with the vacuum pipe connected to the engine. ;xpress freight, livestock, perishable or ballast train partly vacuum fitted with not less than one-third vacuum braked vehicles connected by vacuum pipe to the engine

0eadlamp Code 8roup %

8roup '

8roup

8roup F

>reight, mineral or ballast train. Train of empties carrying a through load to destination ;xpress freight, fish, meat, fruit or cattle train. Ballast train not running under groups or F headlamps. Special train conveying 5-ton breakdown crane but not proceeding to an accident Through fast train not running under groups , F or - headlamps and carrying a through load 9ight engine or light engines coupled together or engine and brake van >reight, mineral or ballast train stopping at intermediate stations Ballast train, freight train or inspection train re"uiring to stop in between signal boxes Cin the sectionD. Branch freight train

8roup -

8roup 5

8roup E

8roup A

8roup =

8roup %!

Taken from 4British 2ailways Standard 9ocomotive Headlamp 1odes, %=5%4 These codes were sub/ect to alteration and minor variations on the different regions of British 2ailways

Section 1% - 1+- signalbo bell codes

Description 1all (ttention ;mergency call attention, number of beats in rapid succession 'Is Line Clear?' for: ;xpress passenger train, express diesel railcar, breakdown van train going to clear the line, 4light engine4 going to assist disabled train, empty coaching stock timed at express speedL C4(4 headlampsD *rdinary passenger train, 4mixed4 train, breakdown van train not going to clear the lineL C4B4 headlampsD Branch line train Conly on main line to /unctionDL C4B4 headlampsD 2ail motor-car, auto-train or streamline railcarL C4B4 headlampsD ;xpress freight, or ballast train conveying a stipulated number of vacuum-braked vehicles connected by vacuum pipe to the engine and authorised to run at a maximum speed of - m.p.h.L C414 headlampsD &arcels, newspaper, fish, meat, fruit, milk, horse, cattle or

Beats %

-%

%-

-%-

'-'-

perishable train composed entirely of vacuum-fitted stock with the vacuum pipe connected to the engineL C4@4 headlampsD ;xpress freight, livestock, perishable or ballast train partly vacuum fitted with not more than one-third vacuum braked vehicles connected by vacuum pipe to the engineL C4@4 headlampsD ;mpty coach stock train not specially authorised to carry 4(4 headlampsL C4@4 headlampsD ;xpress freight, fish, meat, fruit or cattle train, ballast train or breakdown van train not proceeding to an accidentL C4;4 headlampsD Through fast freight train conveying through loadL C4>4 headlampsD 9ight engine or light engines coupled together or engine and brake vanL C484 headlampsD >reight, mineral or ballast train or train of empties carrying through load to destinationL C4H4 headlampsD >reight, mineral or ballast train stopping at intermediate stationsL C4?4 headlampsD Train conveying out of gauge or exceptional loadL C4?4 headlampsD Branch freight train Conly on main line to /unctionDL C4I4 headlampsD Ballast train, freight train or inspection train re"uiring to stop in sectionL C4I4 headlampsD '-5'

F-F

'-'%

-'

%-F

'-

-F%

%-'

%-'' '-%' %-'% '

Trolley re"uired to go into or pass through tunnel

Train approaching

Train entering section

Section clear but station or /unction blocked

--'-'' '-' '-% '-%-

9ine clear to clearing point only

;ngine assisting in rear of train Train out of section, or obstruction removed

;ngine arrived

Train drawn back clear of station

-'-

Blocking back inside home signal Blocking back outside home signal Blocking back outside home signal for train already in section

'-F %-'-

Shunt train for following train to pass

%-----E--%5 A--=--------

*pening signal box

1losing signal box

Testing bells

Time signal

9ampman or fogman re"uired

Testing slotted signal

Take off slot train waiting 1ancel 4#s 9ine 1learL4 Emergency bell signals: *bstruction danger Stop and examine train Train passed without tail lamp To box in advance To box in rear Train divided

-F --

5 E

= F---F--'---

Train or vehicles running away on right line

Train or vehicles running away on wrong line

Taken from 4872 2egulations for Train Signalling on @ouble 9ines4, %= 5

Preserved Steam Locomotives

When the 1onsultative &anel for historical railway relics met in %=5%, seventy-one locomotives were scheduled for preservation with /ust eight from the 872 region Ccalled the 7estern 2egion from %=FAD, however three of these engines were already preserved. These were the replica of the broad-gauge :orth Star, 41ity4 class :o. FF! 1ity of Truro and 4Star4 class :o. F!! 9ode Star.

(mong those people horrified at such a small recognition for such a historic railway as the 8reat 7estern, were four %5 year old schoolboys who appealed for funds to purchase a 4%Fxx4 !-F-'T and an autotrailer. These were the humble beginnings of the 8reat 7estern Society, whereas today the Society at @idcot has '% 872 locomotives, F' 872 carriages, a 872 diesel railcar, 872 wagons and vans, a complete 872 engine shed, ' signal boxes, ' stations and a museum housing a priceless collection of 872 memorabilia. *ther notable railway collections of 8reat 7estern locomotives include the 7est Somerset 2ailway at <inehead with %=+ miles of the most scenic track and the Bodmin and 7enford 2ailway in 1ornwall. 9ast but not least, my own local railway collection, the Severn Halley 2ailway with it4s %5 miles of track supplying an excellent atmosphere in a beautiful location.