US-China Education Review 2013 (1A)

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US-Chi na
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Volume 3, Number 1, J anuary 2013 (Serial Number 20)

Contents
Curriculum and Teaching
The Students Views Related to the Given Homeworks in the Science and Technology Courses:
A Qualitative Study 1
sa Deveci, smail nder
SoSTI Course: An Elective Science Course for Thai Upper Secondary School Non-science
Students 10
Chaninan Pruekpramool, Nason Phonphok, Orvil L. White, Kusalin Musikul
The UMR Conception Cycle of Vocational School Students in Solving Linear Equation 19
Shao-Ying Li, Shian Leon
Restructuring STM (Science, Technology, and Mathematics) Education for Entrepreneurship 27
F. O. Ezeudu, T. O. Ofoegbu, N. J. Anyaegbunnam
The Portrayal of Women in Israeli Arabic Textbooks on Druse Heritage 33
Janan Faraj Falah
The Effect of the Past on the Present: Cook Islands Teachers Perceptions of Language
Teaching 38
Frances Edwards
Learning Goals and Strategies in the Self-regulation of Learning 46
Martha Leticia Gaeta Gonzlez

Educational Technology
Analysis of the Questions Asked Through Digital and Face-to-Face Reference Services 51
Keita Tsuji, Shunsuke Arai, Reina Suga, Atsushi Ikeuchi, Fuyuki Yoshikane
A Model for Using Service-Learning in Teacher Education Programs 59
Regena F. Nelson
Education Economics and Management
Note on an Approach to Preventing Rank Reversals With Addition or Deletion of an
Alternative in Analytic Hierarchy Process 66
Yong B. Shin, Seungho Lee
US-China Education Review A, ISSN 2161-623X
J anuary 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1-9

The Students Views Related to the Given Homeworks in the
Science and Technology Courses: A Qualitative Study
sa Deveci
Uluda University, Bursa, Turkey
smail nder
Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey

This study has been created as a qualitative search related the given homeworks in the science and technology
courses in order to examine the students views. The sample consists of 1,539 7th- and 8th- grade students in the
city centre of Osmaniye. The search data is obtained from by using five open-ended questions. In the analysis of the
data, content analysis method is used. As a result of the research, it is found that the students perceptions for the
homeworks are about understanding the subjects better, as reviews, responsibilities, homeworks to be done at home
and doing researches. Also, it is concluded that there is a difference between the type of the homeworks given to
the students and the homeworks which the students prefer doing. It is found that the students have difficulty in
reaching the information from the resources, providing the tools, doing the hard homeworks, and doing the
homeworks without understanding the subject. Finally, it is concluded that by these homeworks, the students
understand the subject better, develop their skills (hand, research, observation, experiment, reading, and writing
skills), get information about the natural events and living beings, solve tests in a shorter time, and get information
about current events.
Keywords: science education, homeworks, students views
Introduction

Homeworks are well-known and common education activities among different culture, class, and ability
levels (Chen & Stevenson, 1989; Warton, 2001). Besides, providing students learn better (Cooper, 2001;
Ramdass & Zimmerman, 2011), homeworks also have different purposes. These can be arranged as getting
knowledge about the education of childrens families and about their schools (Department of Education, 2005;
Corno, 1996), developing the communication between teacher, student, and parents (Van Voorhis, 2003; Van
Voorhis, 2004), and connection between home and school (Forster, 2000).
The positive effects of homework on science success are presented in the result of research (Van Voorhis,
2001; zben, 2006; Kaplan, 2006; Cooper, Robinson, & Patall, 2006; Hizmeti, 2007; Sabah & Hammouri,
2007; Jones, 2007; Byktokatli, 2009; Kumanda & Kutlu, 2010). Beside this, it is stated in international
works that there is a positive correlation between the time that students allocating for science homeworks and
science success (Postlethwaite & Wiley, 1992; Ersoy & Anagn, 2009; Beaton, Martin, Mullis, Gonzalez,
Smith, & Kelly, 1996). However, according to TIMSS (trends in international mathematics and science study)
1999 and 2007 findings, it is seen that although more time is allocated in Turkey than the countries which are

sa Deveci, research assistant, Department of Elementary Science Education, Faculty of Education, Uluda University.
smail nder, Ph.D., associate professor, Department of Secondary Science and Mathematics Education, Faculty of Education,
Sakarya University.
DAVID PUBLISHING
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STUDENTS VIEWS, GIVEN HOMEWORKS, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COURSES

2
successful in science, our science success is low (Uzun, Btner, & Yiit, 2010; zgn-Koca & en, 2002).
These results indicate a problem in practice of homework in the aspects of science and technology. It is seen
that the homeworks which are given randomly decrease the success; the homeworks which are given
purposively increase it (Bilen, 1999; Yeilyurt, 2006). Thus, when the fact that the practiced homeworks policy
in Turkey has an indirect impact on international exam success is regarded, it is thought that there is a problem
and the source of the problem can be revealed by the students views. Therefore, it is required an extensive
research to find the students reviews that are responsible for doing their homeworks that are given in science
and technology classes. By this way, it is believed that the homeworks practices will reach in an expected
structure, so in this research, it aims to find out the secondary school students views about the homeworks
given in science and technology courses.
Method
The Research Model
In this work, the case of science pattern (phenomenology) was used which is one of the qualitative
research pattern that is suitable for the nature of research. It is understood from the term qualitative research
that it is a type of research, findings of which are not reached by means of statistical operations or quantitative
tool (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Qualitative research patterns provide flexibility to the researcher, they also
contribute to research stages to be consistent (Yildirim & imek, 2008). Phenomenological studies are
researches which are created to clarify and interpret the experience of people who attend the study (Ary, J acobs,
Sorensen, & Razavieh, 2010).
Participants
Participants consist of 1539 7th- and 8th- grade students at nine primary schools in the city center of
Osmaniye, which are under the control of Department of Education Ministry. In the selection of the study
group, typical case sampling model was applied. Typical case sampling requires choosing a typical situation
among the related situations which exist in the population, and then, getting data by using it (Yildirim &
imek, 1999; Bykztrk, akmak, Akgn, Karadeniz, & Demirel, 2009).
Data Collection Tools
In this study, reaching a lot of participants was aimed. In this way, in the research, a questionnaire which
includes five open-ended questions was used in order to reveal the students reviews about homeworks. The
final form of the questionnaire which includes open-ended questions was organized after the views and offers
of the authority. The questions asked in the questionnaire form are given below:
(1) What does the homework mean for you? Clarify it, please;
(2) What kind of activities do the homeworks of science and technology courses include?
(3) What kind of activities would you prefer in the homeworks given in science and technology courses?
Give the reasons, please;
(4) What kind of difficulties do you have while doing homeworks of science and technology courses?
(5) What are the contributions of given homeworks in science and technology courses?
Validity and Reliability
In order to provide the validity, five participants and an authority stated their thoughts about the accuracy
of the data and the comments about the data and their presentation were reviewed after the search report. Also,

3
the raw data obtained from the research was cited without adding any comments and quotations were frequently
used. To provide reliability, the researcher controlled whether the processes of data collection, codification, and
interpretation are consistent with each other. Besides, the researcher tried to confirm the results by checking the
raw data.
Data Analysis
In phenomenology studies, content analysis method is applicable (Yildirim & imek, 2008). The content
analysis sometimes means searching for repeating words and themes in a text, but it is generally used for
simplifying and making sense. In other words, it tries to define a series of qualitative data in the aspects of
consistency and the meanings (Patton, 2002). In this respect, after the content analysis, the themes, and codes
were composed related with each questions that take place in the interview form. Strauss and Corbin (1990)
stated that there are three types of codification and they array them as the codification according to the defined
concepts, the codification according to concepts obtained from the data and the codification done in a general
frame (Yildirim & imek, 2008).
Findings
In this part, the codifications and themes about the students views about science and technology
homeworks are given. As a result of the content analysis, the data obtained from the students views were
classified in five categories and 51 codes. These categories are: (1) the students perceptions for the homeworks;
(2) the content of the homeworks; (3) the students demands for the homeworks content; (4) the difficulties
experienced while doing homeworks; and (5) the contribution of the homeworks for students. The findings and
the comments obtained from the students views are provided below. It is necessary to say that the frequency
values of the given data available in the Tables 15 show the number of the codes, not the number of the
students. Each student was given numbers during the transfer process of direct quotations and their views were
coded according to the content. For example, S
245
Code: 2 (It shows that the students number is 245 and his/her
view is about the second codification).

Table 1
The Students Perceptions for the Homeworks
Theme code f
Perceptions about the homeworks
1. Studies for understanding the subject 286
2. Studies for reviews 216
3. Responsibilities 211
4. Homeworks and studies 190
5. Boring and meaningless studies 137
6. Research 130
7. Solving tests (preparation for the exams) 65
8. Studies for self-development 36
9. Studies for identifying what we learnt 14

In Table 1, the codifications related to the theme called homework perceptions are given. When the
codes which have the highest frequencies are examined, it is seen that the students consider homeworks as a
way to understand the subjects better, as reviews, responsibilities, homeworks to be done at home, and
researches. Samples from students views: S
407
Code: 1 It is something that makes me understand the subjects
related to the course; S
854
Code: 2 The first thing comes to my mind is: Review; S
1611
Code: 3 It is my

4
responsibility; S
1358
Code: 4 When the homework is mentioned, I think of the duty given by our teacher;
S
130
Code: 5 Generally makes me bored, I access the net, write and put it in my file, I do not understand
anything about it; S
269
Code: 6 They are the researches that our teachers ask for us to do; S
839
Code: 7 I
think homeworks makes us more successful on the tests which help us to understand better; S
676
Code: 8
Self-development, to understand our work better. Doing research about the homework better; and S
220
Code: 9
A test for checking understanding.

Table 2
Students Views About the Homeworks Given in Science and Technology Class
Theme code f
The content of the homeworks
1. Researching 860
2. Writing 795
3. Doing experiment 767
4. Solving test 663
5. Observing 492
6. Reading 477

In Table 2, the codifications related to the theme called The content of the homeworks are given. When
the codes which have the highest frequencies are examined, the students state that the homeworks are mostly in
the form of researches, writing, doing experiment, and solving tests. Samples from students views: S
1518
Code:
1 The homeworks are mostly given in the form of experiments and observation; S
40
Code: 2 Generally, we
write (we also do experiment); S
151
Code: 3 It is related to search and doing experiment; S
933
Code: 4
Generally solving tests, searches and a kind of experiment homeworks; S
699
Code: 5 The homeworks which
are given science and technology class include reading, writing, and observation-aimed activities; and
S
687
Code: 6 Reading, writing and doing search.

Table 3
Students Demands for the Homeworks Contents Given in Science and Technology Class
Theme code f
Homework preferences
1. Doing experiment 491
2. Researching 247
3. Doing interesting activities 164
4. Solving test 147
5. Observation 114
6. Doing homeworks about nature and animals 84
7. Reading 82
8. It does not matter, I am OK. 61
9. Writing 60
10. Doing homeworks about daily life 34
11. Playing games 20
12. The ones want doing nothing 18
13. Doing activities in the workbook 18

In Table 3, the codifications related to the theme called The homework preferences are given. When the
codes which have the highest frequencies are examined, it is seen that the students want to be given the
homeworks like experiments, researching, interesting activities, solving tests, and observations. Samples from

5
students views: S
1210
Code: 1 I want to do experiment because I do not forget what I do; S
894
Code: 2 I want
homeworks include research and observation subjects because by researching, I develop my vocabulary and
knowledge more; S
1233
Code: 3 I would like it to be more enjoyable and funnier; S
288
Code: 4 I generally
want to solve test because I understand my correct and false answers better by solving test, not by writing or
observing; S
887
Code: 5 I want to have more observation activities, because I understand better by observing;
S
1387
Code: 6 I would like the homeworks given in science and technology courses to include activities about
environment and nature; S
207
Code: 7 Researching, reading, and experiment; these are more interesting for
me; S
407
Code: 8 The homeworks are already given as I want; S
699
Code: 9 I want writing homeworks in
science and technology courses because if I write, I can understand better; S
314
Code: 10 Related with daily
life; S
391
Code: 11 funny games, etc.; S
323
Code: 12 I do not do it, and I do not like science and technology
courses; and S
188
Code: 13 From workbooks or solving test is better.

Table 4
Students Views About the Challenges They Have While Doing Homeworks
Theme code f
Challenges
1. Difficulty in reaching the information from the resources 236
2. Lack of tools (having difficulty during experiment) 221
3. I have no problem 207
4. Hard (I cannot understand, I cannot do) 198
5. Giving homework without understanding the subject 104
6. More writing and reading 73
7. I get bored easily 72
8. Not having a computer/internet access 36
9. Frequently given homework/too much homework 32
10. Difficulty in doing workbook exercises 30
11. Lack of instruction about how to do it 26
12. Not getting help 14
13. Forgetting the formulas 12

In Table 4, the codifications related to the theme called The challenges are given. When the codes which
have the highest frequencies are examined, it is seen that the students have difficulty in reaching the
information from the resources, providing the tools, doing the hard ones, and doing the homeworks without
understanding the subject. Samples from students views: S
305
Code: 1 Difficult in finding exactly what I
research; S
1259
Code: 2 During experiments, lack of one or more tools get me in trouble; S
514
Code: 3 I do
not have any trouble while doing homeworks of science and technology courses; S
801
Code: 4 I do not
understand the formulas, it is very boring; S
1235
Code: 5 The subjects which I do not understand get me in
trouble; S
1634
Code: 6 I write too much, I cannot study science and technology courses happily and heart and
soul; S
269
Code: 7 The troubles, getting bored and boring courses are the reasons; S
577
Code: 8 Having no
net access; S
1409
Code: 9 Because of too much homeworks; I have difficulty in doing them; S
436
Code: 10
Mum, Im scared. What if the book ate me?; S
345
Code: 11 Because sometimes I do not understand what to
do in the homework; S
584
Code: 12 Because nobody helps me; and S
511
Code: 13 I cannot memorize some
formulas because theyre complicated.


6
Table 5
Students Views About the Contributions of Homeworks
Theme code f
Contributions
1. I understand better 717
2. Develops my skills. (hand, research, observation, experiment, reading, and writing skills) 145
3. I get information about the natural events, living beings, and technology (science) 137
4. It has no contribution 123
5. I solve tests in a shorter time 112
6. The ones who are contented with saying useful 85
7. Get information about current events 73
8. It provides self-development 41
9. It provides me to know my own body 28
10. It provides me to get high mark 16

In Table 5, the codifications related to the theme called contributions are given. When the codes which
have the highest frequencies are examined, it is seen that by these homeworks, the students understand the
subject better, develop their skills (hand, research, observation, experiment, reading, and writing skills), get
information about the natural events and living beings, solve tests in a shorter time, and get information about
current events. Samples from students views: S
1212
Code: 1 Thanks to the homeworks, I understand better,
thanks to the homeworks, and I can understand the subject which I couldnt understand before; S
1539
Code: 2 I
learnt doing experiment, observing and studying; S
1358
Code: 3 It develops my environmental awareness and
increases my general knowledge, and it provides me to get detailed information about the cases around me;
S
1634
Code: 4 It has no contribution, it is a waste of time; S
169
Code: 5 It helps in placement test; S
194
Code: 6
It contributes well; S
1519
Code: 7 Learning new things, and we get information; S
765
Code: 8 It develops our
skills; S
1396
Code: 9 Learning, reading, and knowledge about our body, for example how our hair grows, what
should we do adolescence period; and S
1191
Code: 10 In order to do well and faster during the exams.
Results and Discussion
As a result of the research, the students perceptions for the homeworks can be ordered as: understanding
the subjects better, reviews, responsibilities, homeworks to be done at home, and researches. In their study,
Alada and Dou (2009) stated that the homeworks have an important role on understanding the subject and
reviews. Also, in Gedik, Altinta, and Kayas (2011) study, students stated that homeworks are given for
reviewing and reinforcing in the same day. With these results, it can be said that students believe in the
educational role of the homeworks. However, these results do not mean that all the homeworks have this role.
Students believe that homeworks are beneficial for themselves but the quality of given homeworks is
questionable.
By using the students views about the content of given homeworks, it can be inferred that the homeworks
are intended for researching, writing (summarizing), doing experiment, and solving test. In the study of Gedik
et al. (2011), it is stated that students want homeworks to prepare them for the exams of science and technology
class. An exam focused educational system in which the teachers assign solving test, it can be seen natural for
students to want test solving homeworks. In science and technology class, the majority of homeworks are
expected to be mainly in the form of doing experiment, observing, and researching which provide learning by
doing and experiencing. However, it is known that the multiple choice homeworks restrict the students

7
creativity and critical thinking skills. The students cannot be aware of it and by focusing on exam success, they
want to be given multiple choice homeworks.
When the students homework choices are examined according to the order of priority, it can be inferred
that students want to be given homeworks, such as experiments, researches, interesting activities, multiple
choice questions, observations, and the homeworks about nature, animals, and daily life. Alada and Dou
(2009) stated that students want assignments which are about daily life and including laboratory applications.
Similarly, in Gedik et al.s (2011) study, the students said that the homeworks are useful for their daily life.
Besides, Corretjer (2009) stated that students enjoy research project homeworks because they highlight
flexibility and creativity. The reason for the students demands for experiments, observation, and interesting
activities are studying on funny activities without getting bored and learning by doing and experiencing. The
exams can be shown as the reason of demanding test-typed homeworks.
When students views about difficulties they have while doing the homeworks are examined according to
the order of priority, they have difficulty in reaching the information in the resources, providing the tools, doing
the hard ones, and doing the homeworks without understanding the subject. Ari (2010) concluded that students
make others do their performance and project homework. Also, Corretjer (2009) stated that 4th- and 5th- grade
students find the homeworks boring and hard. This situation pushes the students to get support. Therefore, it
can be said that students are not instructed enough about how to reach information. On the subject of the
equipments necessary for the homeworks, it is seen that it is important to give homeworks which require
readily available equipments at each home. Not giving that kind of homeworks force students to look for the
equipment out of home. At this point, the families becoming a part of the activity without being aware of the
teachers expectations and their effort to create a qualified work for their children may cause problems for the
students. It is seen that another trouble is the hard homeworks. In this case, teachers should vary the
homeworks, such as preparation, exercise, and reinforcement and give the suitable ones for the students who
cannot understand the subject well. Reinforcement homeworks can also be given to the students who
understand the subject very well. Otherwise, the homeworks given for the students who cannot understand the
subject well may cause trouble and boredom for them.
When students views about the contributions they have while doing the homeworks are examined, it is
understood that the students understand the subject better, develop their skills (hand, research, observation,
experiment, reading, and writing skills), get information about the natural events and living beings, solve tests
in a shorter time, and get information about current events. In the study of etin and akan (2010), it is found
that students learn more and develop their research skills and they understand the subject better with the
performance and project works, so students believe that the homeworks are beneficial to themselves.
Conclusions
Consequently, it can be said that the homeworks have an educational goal by means of the students
perceptions about the homework given in science and technology course. Different from the homeworks given
by the teachers, it can be concluded that students want to do interesting homeworks which require observation
and which are about nature, animals, and daily life. It is understood that during the homework period, students
have troubles about reaching the information in the resources, providing the tools, doing the hard homeworks,
and doing the homeworks without understanding the subject. Also, students state that the homeworks have
significant contributions to themselves.

8
Implications
The implications of the study are as follows:
(1) Students demands for homeworks can be taken into consideration;
(2) Interesting homeworks which require observation and which are about nature, animals, and daily life
can be given;
(3) Students can be guided about how to reach the sources related with the subject of the homeworks;
(4) Homeworks can be given when the subject is understood well;
(5) Readily available homeworks should be considered while giving homeworks;
(6) Homeworks which are suitable for the students level (6th-, 7th-, or 8th- grade) can be chosen.
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J anuary 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1, 10-18
SoSTI Course: An Elective Science Course for Thai Upper

Secondary School Non-science Students

Chaninan Pruekpramool,
Nason Phonphok
Srinakharinwirot University;
Thailand Center of Excellence in
Physics (CHE), Bangkok, Thailand
Orvil L. White
State University of New York
College at Cortland,
New York, USA

Kusalin Musikul
Institute for the Promotion of
Teaching Science and Technology
(IPST), Bangkok, Thailand

This study is aimed to develop the interdisciplinary SoSTI (science of sound in traditional Thai musical instruments)
course for Thai non-science upper secondary school students to study the students attitudes toward science before
and after studying from the course. The SoSTI course development is based on the interdisciplinary concept model
and constructivist theory. The research study is divided into five phases: (1) pre-developing the course, (2)
developing the course, (3) conducting the pilot study, (4) implementing and evaluating, and (5) analyzing data and
writing the conclusion, respectively. The SoSTI course is an elective course corresponding to the Basic Education
Core Curriculum B.E. 2551 (A.D. 2008). This course was conducted with 35 12th-grade non-science students in the
second semester of the 2010 academic year at a school in Bangkok, Thailand, for a whole semester. The research
instruments were students attitude toward science questionnaire, and students opinions toward the SoSTI course
questionnaire. The results of this study presented that, after completing the SoSTI course, the students attitudes
toward science comparing before and after studying the SoSTI course were not significantly different at the .05
level. However, they have positive opinions toward the course.
Keywords: elective science course, non-science students, students attitude toward science
Introduction

The development of science curriculum is one of the most interesting fields in science education research.
This is because science reflects the growth of every country and related to the daily life of every person.
However, the progression of science always comes with the development of technology. Many of the
developments have been affected the people to overlook something important which are the root of their own
context, such as culture, art, and local wisdom. Keeping pace with the world of science and technology brings

Acknowledgements: This work was financially supported by the Institute for Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology
(IPST), Bangkok, Thailand. The authors would like to thank to the Thailand Center of Excellence in Physics (CHE), Science
Education Center, and Srinakharinwirot University (SWU), Thailand, for all supports during the completion of this paper.
Chaninan Pruekpramool, Ed.D., Science Education Center, Srinakharinwirot University; Thailand Center of Excellence in
Physics (CHE).
Nason Phonphok, Ph.D., Science Education Center, Srinakharinwirot University; Thailand Center of Excellence in Physics
(CHE).
Orvil L. White, Ph.D., State University of New York College at Cortland.
Kusalin Musikul, Ph.D., Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST).
DAVID PUBLISHING
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SOSTI COURSE, THAI UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL NON-SCIENCE STUDENTS
11
more benefit to the nation like a tree spreading its branches to grow. Culture is comparable with the plant root
and stalk to support those brunches. In Thailand, IPST (Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and
Technology) has been continually developing Thai science curriculum since 1970 (IPST, 2002, p. 1). Later,
under the theme A science for all, science subject becomes more essential to all students (Klainin &
Soydhurum, 2004). The National Science Curriculum Standards, the basic education curriculum 2001, states
the characteristics of curriculum and teaching/learning in science. Firstly, science curriculum should have the
connection among content, concepts, and cultural context. Moreover, the flexibility and diversity of the
curriculum are also concerned. Secondly, science curriculum should support learners thinking skills and
learning abilities. For a particular community, integrating science with society, culture, and tradition is
indispensable (The Ministry of Education, 2008). The learners surrounding communities can support students
to understand science in their own context and see the relation between science and the world situations (AAAS
(American Association for the Advancement of Science), 1998, p. 126).
Thailand is a country that has its own unique cultural history. One thing that reflects the uniqueness of
Thai arts and culture is traditional Thai music. Traditional Thai music has influenced the Thai people and
presented the simplicity of the society. Traditional Thai music and musical instruments are assumed to be a
valuable cultural heritage of Thailand from the past to present (Indhawong, 2003). Additionally, Thailand
cultivates the youth of the nation to learn traditional Thai music and instruments since they were young (The
Ministry of Education, 2008). This is guaranteed the familiarity and basic knowledge of the Thai youth towards
Thai music. Thus, if we can design the science course integrating with students familiar things like musical
instruments, it will promote students liking and interesting in science (Pruekpramool, C., Phonphok, N., White,
O. L. & Musikul, K., 2011).
Moreover, it is arguable that music and science are intimately related. The science of sound and music
shares some relationship in understanding sound and can present the basic ideas for investigating musical
instruments scientifically (Vijayalakshmi, K., 2007). In addition, Eger, J . (2007), a musician, stated that physics
and music are an interdisciplinary complement of each other (Tanrattanakula, J ., 2007, p. 410). Browne (2007)
additionally affirmed that the science of sound can easily understand with musical instruments. Musical
instruments can provide many comprehensible examples in the topic of sound (Knight, 2004). For that reason,
the researcher believes that using traditional Thai musical instruments will help students who are afraid of
science to like science.
According to various students learning styles, specifically considering to the upper secondary school
non-science students, the core science curriculum cannot promote students liking and interesting in science.
Whether the non-science students like or dislike science, they are still required to enroll courses in science. This
requirement certainly makes almost non-science students earn low GPA (grade point average) in science
(Pruekpramool et al., 2011).
Consequently, the researcher was inspired to design a science course dealing with music, in order to make
this course suitable for non-science upper secondary school students. In addition, the course corresponded to
the basic core curriculum B.E. 2551 of Thailand (A.D. 2008). Besides, this course was an interdisciplinary
work following the interdisciplinary concept model proposed by Jacobs (1989) which blended the science
content from physics, chemistry and biology (sound and material concepts), music content (Traditional Thai
musical instruments), mathematics (equations of sound wave), and human culture.
12
Research Objectives
The objectives of this study are to develop the science of sound interdisciplinary course for non-science
upper secondary school students by applying traditional Thai musical instruments and using integrated teaching
approach and to compare students attitude toward science before and after studying from the course.
Participants
The participants of this study were 35 non-science students who were studying in Mathayomsuksa 6
(Grade 12) of a school in Bangkok, Thailand, in the second semester of 2010 academic year.
Variables
Independent variable is: using the SoSTI (science of sound in traditional Thai musical instruments) course
via integrated teaching approach.
Dependent variable is: students attitudes toward science and students opinion toward course.
Methodology
The course development process is divided into five main phases by using the R & D (research and
development) as the research design in this study.

Figure 1. Interdisciplinary concept model of SoSTI course.

Phase 1: Pre-developing the Course
The aim of this phase was to investigate the fundamental data and information about the science of sound,
music, traditional Thai musical instruments, and the relationships among them. It was also designed to explore
how non-science upper secondary school students think about science and traditional Thai musical instruments.
This phase was divided into three steps:
(1) Step 1: Studying documents and related literatures;
Chemistry
(Matter and
materials)
Biology
(Hearing process and
some part of human body)
Human culture
(Thai context)
Music
(Traditional Thai
music and musical
instruments)
Mathematics
(Measurement and
equations of sound wave)
Physics
(Sound concept)
Science of sound
13
(2) Step 2: Interviewing the guru of traditional Thai musical instruments;
(3) Step 3: Conducting a survey with non-science upper secondary school students about their opinions
toward science and traditional Thai musical instruments.
Phase 2: Developing the Course
The researcher designed and developed a draft of the course, which is primarily composed of three
important parts:
(1) Part 1: Developing course, outlining and creating the whole course structure by using seven steps of
Tabas curriculum development (Taba, 1962, pp. 9-14) and the interdisciplinary concept model developed by
J acob (1989) to identify the organizing theme and content of the curriculum as shown in Figure 1.
The course content of the SoSTI course consists of:
(A) Introduction of the science of sound;
(B) Introduction of traditional Thai musical instruments (see Figure 2): (a) Stringed instruments: Saw--,
Saw-da-ng, and Jkhy-; (b) Wind instruments: Khli, P-nw-k, and P-chwa-; and (c) Percussion
instruments: Grp sy-pha-, Rn-t y-k, T pho-n, Khw-ng wong yi, and Chng;

Figure 2. Traditional Thai musical instruments.
14
(C) The system of sound in traditional Thai musical instruments;
(D) The science of sound in traditional Thai stringed instruments;
(E) The science of sound in traditional Thai wind instruments;
(F) The science of sound in traditional Thai percussion instruments;
(G) Making traditional Thai musical instruments.
The researcher selected various instructional strategies or teaching approaches based on constructivist
theory concerning appropriateness for non-science upper secondary school students.
(2) Part 2: Developing instructional materials which are the teachers handbook and students handbook
for use in the course. Teachers handbook and students handbook followed the content of the course. The
researcher created the lesson plans in teachers handbook based on 5-E learning cycle;
(3) Part 3: Preparing research instruments:
(A) Students attitude toward science questionnaire adapted from a SAI (scientific attitude inventory) II
(Richard & Foy, 1997);
(BA) Students opinion towards course questionnaire was created by the researcher.
Phase 3: Conducting Pilot Study
The pilot study of the SoSTI course was used with one classroom which composed of 55 non-science
upper secondary school students selected by purposive sampling. These students were studying in
Matthayomsuksa 5 (Grade 11) in the first semester of 2010 academic year.
Phase 4: Implementation
In the implementation phase, the researcher, as a teacher, conducted the SoSTI course to 35 students in the
sample group which are non-science upper secondary school students selected by purposive sampling. These
students were studying in Matthayomsuksa 6 (Grade 12) in the second semester of 2010 academic year at a
school in Bangkok, Thailand.
Phase 5: Analyzing Data and Conclusion
Students attitudes toward science and students opinions toward the SoSTI course before and after
completing the course was analyzed.
Results
Students Attitudes Toward Science
The researcher assessed students attitudes toward science before and after completing the SoSTI course
by using scientific attitude test adapted from SAI II (Richard & Foy, 1997) under the authorization. The
researcher analyzed statistically by paired samples t-test and the results are revealed in Table 1.

Table 1
Paired Sample T-test for Pretest and Posttest for Students Attitudes Toward Science
Paired analysis
Paired differences
t df
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Mean Std. deviation
Std. error
mean
95% Confidence interval
of the difference
Lower Upper
Sum pretest and posttest students
scientific attitudes toward science
-0.09514 0.39559 0.06687 -0.23103 0.04075 -1.423 34 0.164

15
From Table 1, the t-value indicated that t equals absolute value of -1.423 at =0.05 and degree of
freedom of 34. The t-test scores presented that the mean scores are not significantly different at the 0.05 level.
Therefore, the students attitudes toward science are not explicitly change after they learned from the SoSTI
course.

Table 2
GPA of the Participants
GPA Frequency Percent (%)
2.002.50 9 25.7
2.513.00 14 40.0
3.013.50 12 12.0
3.514.00 - 0.0
Total 35 100.0

Table 3
Students Opinions Toward the SoSTI Course
Item statements N Mean Std. deviation Data interpretation
Content
1. Content is suitable for the level of students 35 3.89 0.796 Agree
2. Content can be integrated to real life 35 3.83 0.785 Agree
3. Content can promote students awareness of the important of
science
35 3.77 0.910 Agree
4. Content can promote students awareness in traditional Thai music
and musical instruments
35 4.29 0.750 Agree
5. The difficulty level of the content 35 3.23 0.598 Neutral
6. The overall satisfaction to the content of the course 35 4.06 0.802 Satisfy
Learning Process
1. Learning process is suitable for the level of students 35 3.86 0.810 Agree
2. The activity can activate the learning of students 35 3.80 0.833 Agree
3. The learning process can connect the theory into practices and
actions
35 3.66 0.639 Agree
4. The instructional materials and equipments are appropriate 35 3.91 0.818 Agree
5. The classroom atmosphere is suitable for learning process 35 3.66 0.838 Agree
6. The difficulty level of activities 35 3.23 0.808 Neutral
7. The overall satisfaction to the learning process 35 3.97 0.747 Satisfy
Teachers characteristic
1. Teacher knew the content very well 35 4.31 0.758 Agree
2. Teacher behaviors and manners in class are suitable 35 4.34 0.639 Agree
3. Teacher dressed appropriately 35 4.34 0.725 Agree
4. Teacher language used is suitable 35 4.23 0.731 Agree
5. Teacher paid good attention and always cared for students 35 4.23 0.808 Agree
6. Teacher always comes to the class on time 35 4.57 0.655 Strongly agree
7. The overall satisfaction to the teacher 35 4.43 0.655 Satisfy

16
Students Opinions Toward the SoSTI Course
The students opinions toward SoSTI course after studying was measured by using students opinions
toward SoSTI course questionnaire created by the researcher. The questionnaire was divided into two parts: the
general information part and the students opinions toward the SoSTI course after studying this course. The
results can be seen in the following.
(1) Part 1: General information: The participants composed of 35 students (14 males and 21 females).
They were studying a non-science major program in Matthayomsuksa 6 (Grade 12) in the second semester of
the 2010 academic year from Rattanakosin Sompoch Bangkhen School, Bangkok, Thailand. Students GPA can
be seen in Table 2.
From Table 2, there are nine students (25.7%) have GPA between 2.00 and 2.50, 14 students (40.0%) have
GPA between 2.51 and 3.00, 12 students (12.0%) have GPA between 3.01 and 3.50, and no one has GPA
higher than 3.51;
(2) Part 2: Students opinions toward the SoSTI course: This part was divided into three aspects, content,
learning process, and teachers characteristics, respectively. The researcher used the criterion scores to interpret
the data. The results can be seen in the Table 3.
From Table 3, the results revealed that students have positive opinions toward the SoSTI course. Students
were satisfied with the SoSTI course in all three aspects, content, learning process, and teachers characteristics,
respectively. The students thought that the contents and activities in the SoSTI course are understandable and
not too difficult. Moreover, they enjoyed studying the course.
Discussion
After completing the SoSTI course, students attitudes toward science is not certainly changed.
However, the students attitude toward science is change in some items. Attitude is a part of human thinking,
feeling, and doing in either positive or negative ways (Butler, 1999; Grote, 2005). For science area, attitudes
toward science play an important role in success in science (George, 2000; J unck, 2002; Osborne, 2003;
Prokop, Tuncer, & Chud, 2007; Foley & McPhee, 2008). Attitudes toward science have relationship with
students achievements (Kan & Akba, 2006; Malaysia & Tan Yao Sua, 2007). In the same tone,
Papanastasiou and Zembylas (2002) claimed that positive attitudes can promote higher achievement in
science while low achievement in science came from students negative attitudes toward science. However,
students who have high achievement in science do not infer that they have positive attitudes toward science.
For science education area, Osborne (2003) stated that attitudes toward science are one of the interesting
issues to study. In order to evaluate students attitudes toward science, there are few factors that influence
students attitudes toward science, gender, classroom or teacher factors, instructional strategies, and
students beliefs and perceptions about science (Osborne, 2003). Conversely, there are some research
studies revealed that gender has no effect on students attitudes toward science (Prokop et al., 2007; Glynn,
Taasoobshirazi, & Brickman, 2007). It is arguable that if we need high achievement in science, we have to
promote positive attitude toward science to the students. Foley and McPhee (2008) revealed that hands-on
activities and various kinds of learning experiences can positively promote students attitude toward science.
In the same way, Adesoji (2008) stated that problem-solving method can also promote positive attitudes
17
toward science to the students.
According to the development of the science of sound in traditional Thai musical instruments
interdisciplinary course for non-science upper secondary school students by using integrated teaching approach,
this research was developed under the constructivist theory. The various instructional strategies and activities in
the SoSTI course can help be students interested in science. The SoSTI course was created specifically for
non-science upper secondary school students and they may or may not like science. However, non-science
students learned many science courses, the difficulties in science still affect to the students (Cook & Mulvihill,
2008). From the questionnaire statistic results, there are some changes presented that the students attitudes
toward science have changed after they learned from the SoSTI course. Moreover, non-science students
realized that learning through real life situations or materials will help them understand science better
corresponding to the research study of Glynn et al. (2007), which revealed that the real world situation or
familiar things will increase motivate students in learning science.
References
AAAS (American Association for the Advancement of Science). (1998). Blueprints for reform: Science, mathematics, and
technology education/project 2061. New York: Oxford University Press.
Adesoji, F. A. (2008). Managing students attitude towards science through problem-solving instructional strategy. Anthropologist,
10(1), 21-24.
Browne, J . (2007). How musical instruments make music: Studying music and physics can bring art and science together.
Retrieved March 4, 2009, from http://curriculalessons.suite101.com/article.cfm/how_musical_instruments_make_music
Butler, B. M. (1999). Factors associated with students intentions to engage in science learning activities. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 36(4), 455-473.
Cook, M., & Mulvihill, T. M. (2008). Examining US college students attitudes towards science: Learning from non-science
major. Educational Research and Review, 3(1), 38-47.
Eger, J . (2007). Einsteins violin translated by Jittraporn Tanrattanakula. Bangkok, Thailand: Matichon Publishing.
Foley, B. J ., & McPhee, C. (2008). Students attitudes towards science in classes using hands-on or textbook based curriculum.
AERA 2008. Retrieved March 4, 2010, from http://www.csun.edu/~bfoley/Foley&McPhee%20AERA08.pdf
George, R. (2000). Measuring change in students attitude toward science over time. Journal of Science Education and
Technology, 9(3), 213-225.
Glynn, S. M., Taasoobshirazi, G., & Brickman, P. (2007). Non-science majors learning science: A theoretical model of motivation.
Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(8), 1088-1107.
Grote, D. (2005). How to solve an attitude problem. HR Magazine. Retrieved October 20, 2010, from http://www. workinfo.com
/articles/Solve_Attitude_Problem.pdf
Indhawong, P. (2003). Thai classical music knowledge. Bangkok, Thailand: Chomromdek Publishing House.
J acobs, H. H. (1989). Interdisciplinary curriculum: Design and implementation. V. A.: ASCD (Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development), Edwards Brothers.
J unck, J . (2002). Attitude is everything. The keynote address presented at the Leadership and Education Seminar, Minnesota.
Retrieved October 20, 2010, from http://www.wesquaredance.com/J erryJ unck/Articals-Speeches/AttitudeIsEverything.pdf
Kan, & Akba. (2006). Affective factors that influence chemistry achievement (attitude and self efficacy) and the power of these
factors to predict chemistry achievement-I. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 3(1).
Klainin, S., & Soydhurum, P. (2004). Science education in Thailand: The results from SISS to TIMSS. Bangkok, Thailand: IPST.
Knight, R. D. (2004). Five easy lessons: Strategies for successful physics teaching. San Francisco, USA: Pearson Education.
Malaysia, K., & Tan Yao Sua. (2007). Attitudes and achievement orientations of students towards learning of science and
mathematics in English. Journal of Learning Design, 25(1).
Osborne, J . (2003). Attitudes towards science: A review of the literature and its implication. International Journal of Science
Education, 25(9), 1049-1079.
18
Papanastasiou, E. C., & Zembylas, M. (2002). The effect of attitudes on science achievement: A study conducted among high
school pupils in Cyprus. International Review of Education, 48(6), 469-484.
Prokop, P., Tuncer, G., & Chud, J. (2007). Slovakian students attitudes toward biology. Retrieved October 20, 2010, from
http://www.zoo.sav.sk/prokop/articles/Prokop_etal.Attitudes%20EJ MSTE.pdf
Pruekpramool, C., Phonphok, N., White, O.L. & Musikul, K. (2011). Student attitudes toward science: The case of Thai upper
secondary school non-science students. The International Journal of Learning, 18(1), 289-302.
Richard, M. W., & Foy, R. (1997). The scientific attitude inventory: A revision (SAI II). Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
34(4), 327-336.
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upenn.edu/curriculum/units/2007/06/07.06.06.pdf
J anuary 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1, 19-26

The UMR Conception Cycle of Vocational School Students in
Solving Linear Equation
Shao-Ying Li
National Taitung College, Taitung, Taiwan
Shian Leon
National Kaohsiung Normal University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan

The authors designed instruments from theories and literatures. Data were collected throughout remedial teaching
processes and interviewed with vocational school students. By SOLO (structure of the observed learning outcome)
taxonomy, the authors made the UMR (unistructural-multistructural-relational sequence) conception cycle of the
formative and development of linear equation about the learners under equality axiom.
Keywords: SOLO (structure of the observed learning outcome), UMR (unistructural-multistructural-relational
sequence) conception cycle, linear equation, vocational school students, remedial teaching program, concept circle
Introduction

Linear equation is the key point to learn from arithmetic to equation, it is also the beginning to learn
abstract algebra thinking for students. Students usually have learning difficulties about letter and operation of
linear equation. Kchemanns (1981) descriptions categories of interpretations of the letters could be as follows
(Hart, Kerslake, Brown, Ruddock, Kchemann, & McCartney, 1981, p. 104):
A. Letter evaluated: The category applies to responses where the letter is signed a numerical value from the outset.
B. Letter not used: Here the children ignore the letter, or at best acknowledge its existence but without giving it a
meaning.
C. Letter used as an object: The letter is regarded as shorthand for an object or an object in its own right.
D. Letter used as a specific unknown: Children regard a letter as a specific but unknown number, and can operate
upon it directly.
E. Letter used as a generalized number: The letter is seen as representing, or at least as being able to take, several
values rather than just one.
F. Letter used as a variable: the letter is seen as representing a range of unspecified values, and a systematic
relationship is seen to exist between two such sets of values.
According to these categories, Kchemann (1981) identified four levels of understanding of generalized
arithmetic and pointed out what obstacles students encountered: Level 1, using the letters as object by
evaluating the letter or by not using the letters at all; Level 2, these are more complex than level 1, though the
letters still only have to be evaluated or used as object; Level 3, children can use letters as specific unknowns,
though only when the item-structure is simple; and Level 4, children can cope with items that require specific
unknowns and which have a complex structure.
In addition, Foster (1994) found that students had different degree of difficulty when answering such
questions that could be considered as the early form of algebra learning: (1) 4 3 =; (2) 4 =7;

Shao-Ying Li, Master, lecturer, National Taitung College.
Sheng Leon, Ph.D., professor, National Kaohsiung Normal University.
DAVID PUBLISHING
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VOCATIONAL SCHOOL STUDENTS IN SOLVING LINEAR EQUATION

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and (3) 4 =7.
From these, Foster (1994) found that the third equation was the most difficult for students, because
students cannot use the strategies of arithmetic to solve it. If use letter to instead of in the same questions,
some students will consider that they are different. In recent years, Lima and Tall (2008), Freitas (2002), and
Vlassiss (2002) researches showed that 15-16 years old high school students performance was not well on
linear equations, and that will affect their fellow learning about application of equation. In Taiwan, there are
many high school students who do not understand letter or how to get the solution of linear equation that makes
them down in mathematics. According to the above, the authors want to explore the students conceptions and
find out the UMR (unistructural-multistructural-relational sequence) conception cycle by SOLO (structure of
the observed learning outcome) taxonomy in solving linear equation during remedial teaching. The authors
think that it is necessary to understand what kind of difficulties and conception students have when learning
linear equation, so that they can help them to overcome it.
Literature Review
Tall and Thomas (2001) distinguished three levels of algebra:
(1) Evaluation algebra: the evaluation of algebraic expressions, such as 4A1 +3 as in spreadsheets or in
the initial stages of learning algebra. Tall and Thomas (1991) used BASIC program to express A+3, and let
students produce meaning through input A. The experimental group is more superior than control group in
concept problem-solving. By computer sheet, students could strengthen their conception of operating letter and
find the same results between different equations;
(2) Manipulation algebra: where algebraic expressions are manipulated to solve equations;
(3) Axiomatic algebra: where algebraic systems, such as vector spaces or systems of linear equations are
handled by definition and formal proof.
It can be found that evaluation algebra is the easiest to learn and axiomatic algebra is the most difficult to
learn to students. Thurston (1990) thought different arithmetic methods to calculate 3 + 4, including
count-all, count-both, count-on, count-on from larger, derived fact, know-fact etc.. Gray and Tall
(1994) accorded with Thurstons conception, and suggested procept which indicates that the symbol acting
was the pivot of processes and concepts. Therefore, the produce and operation of procept are the abilities of
operating symbols.
In successful learners with algebra, they have some characteristics: (1) Crowley (2000) found that those
who continued to be successful had readily accessible links to alternative procedures and checking
mechanisms and had tight links between graphic and symbolic representations; and (2) when asking
students to draw maps of their developmental conceptual structures, the higher achievers revealed concept
maps which grew organically from previous maps whilst the low achievers tended to draw each successive
concept map anew without connecting ideas coherently (McGowen & Tall, 1999).
Learning of algebra by using a collection of procedures may help students to pass exams in algebra, but it
may not prepare them for future developments. In practice, students give their own cognitive meanings to
algebraic operations (MacGregor & Stacey, 1993). Therefore, many students fail to give meanings that agree
with standard mathematical meanings. They used short-term strategies that can (seem to) help at one stage, but
fail in subsequent learning. For instance, the subject is still widely introduced by a technique that is called fruit
salad algebra in which letters stand for objects, such as 3a +2b being interpreted as 3 apples plus 2 bananas.

21
This can give short-term success, such as adding 3a +2b to 4a +3b gets 7a +5b by imagining apples and
bananas were put together. Such an image soon outlives its usefulness when expressions, such as 3ab are used.
Are they three apples and bananas? It certainly is not three apples times bananas. So, how to understand letters
and use them correctly is important in learning linear function.
In contrast, Kieran (1981) gave evidence that the equal symbol is often seen as a do something
symbol rather than a sign to represent equivalence between the two sides of an equation. Such as 2 +3 =
5 means add 2 to 3 gets 5 and an equation, such as 4x 1 =7, is seen as an operation to find a number
which multiplied by 4 and 1 is subtracted, gives 7. Lima and Tall (2008) used three linear equations to 68
1516 year-old students, as shown in Table 1. Their performance was not well. Question 1 and 2 were
adapted from Freitas (2002) and Vlassiss (2002) researches, question 3 was designed by Lima and her
colleague. 5t 3 =8 could be undone by arithmetical reasoning, 3x 1 =3 +x had the unknown on both
sides of the equation, and 2m =4m was suggested by one of the teachers and caused great difficulty among
his students. This was consistent with Filloy and Rojanos (1989) findings. The arithmetical notion does not
apply to an equation of the form Ax +B =Cx +D; its resolution involves operations drawn from outside the
domain of arithmeticthat is, operations on the unknown. Only 16 students out of 68 solved both equations
1 and 2 correctly.

Table 1
Students Responses on Three Linear Equations (Lima & Tall, 2008)
Equation 5t 3 =8 3x 1 =3 +x 2m =4m
Successful 25 25 7
Blank 16 11 27
Other solutions 27 32 34
Note. Total students: 68.

Vlassis (2002) used equations with the unknown on both sides, and showed that the balance model was a
helpful metaphor for almost his students in giving meaning to the equals sign as equality between the two sides
of the equation. However, it failed to be meaningful for many students in more general situations involving
subtraction and negative numbers. Other difficulties like Freitas (2002) found that procedures related to phrases,
such as change side, change sign which were also called Vite model (Filloy & Rojano, 1989) were usually
meaningless to students and often resulted in mistakes. Collis (1972) thought 7 +4 is procept and 7 +x is lack
of closure. Many students remain process-oriented (Thomas, 1994), and think primarily in terms of
mathematical processes and procedures, causing them to view equations in terms of the results of substitution
into an expression (Kota & Thomas, 1998). Western people reading habit from left to right also makes confuse
on operation signs and parentheses (Thomas & Tall, 2001).
From the above, there are some common problems when students learning linear equation: They do not
understand the meaning of the symbols, they cannot calculate with unknown, or only using undo method to
linear equation, etc..
Research Method
Content
Linear equation usually includes:

22
(1) Elements of equation (meaning of sign, letter represents number, and equation simplized);
(2) Solve linear equation (meaning of linear equation and solution of linear equation);
(3) Problem-solving by linear equation.
In this study, the authors focus on (1) and (2), (3) is excluded.
Purpose
(1) The authors used some questions which designed by researchers to survey and got responses from 131
vocational school students responses;
(2) Exploring formation and developing conceptions when solving linear equation during remedial
teaching.
Research Design
(1) Quasi-experimental design and interview;
(2) Sample: 131 first grade students in vocational school (1617 years old);
(3) Researchers (one mathematics teacher, who is also mathematics education doctoral student, one
mathematics education professor).
Intervention
This is a remedial teaching program. It includes the processes as follows:
(1) Analyze what is the pivot of students through pre-test. The test includes 20 items as shown in
Appendix Table 1. These items were designed by mathematics teachers and mathematics education doctoral
students. The reasons why the authors use these items as follow: (a) According to Lima and Talls (2006) and
Filloy and Rojanos (1989) researches, three items (items 5, 6, and 8) come from Lima and Talls (2006)
research. Filloy and Rojano (1989) considered that when students solve equations of the types: Cx B Ax =
and D Cx B Ax = , it is not sufficient to invert the indicated operations. It is necessary to operate on what is
represented. Once they had mastered the use of the models for the type Cx B Ax = + , they were given complex
types increasingly: D Cx B Ax + = + , D Cx B Ax + = , D Cx B Ax = , etc.. So, the authors designed the
test as Appendix Table 1; (b) Every four items were grouped to test students operation which Lima and Tall
(2008) indicated Change side, change sign, but do not know why. And the minus operation, also included the
coefficient of x is 1 that always makes students confused by literature; and (c) Preliminary test shown as in
Appendix Table 2;
(2) The kernel ideas of remedial teaching by theories and preliminary and pre-test are: (a) The letter is
evaluated (Collis, 1975). Basically, letter in the symbol of linear equation is represented by a number (a
solution); (b) The meaning of representation of symbol; (c) The meaning of equal sign (=); and (d) Equality
axiom (operating on both sides of the equation in the same operation);
Data and Analysis
(1) The teaching video;
(2) Observation record by teacher;
(3) Students portfolio;
(4) Interview;
(5) The data are analyzed and presented by SOLO taxonomy (Biggs & Collins, 1982) as shown in Figure 1
which is the UMR conception cycle of (72 36) 9 =(72 9) (x 9) (Pegg & Tall, 2010, pp. 177-179).

23
According to the SOLO taxonomy (Biggs & Collins, 1982), the authors may category into a single procedure as
U (uni-structural), several distinct procedures having the same effect as M (multi-structural), and the realization
that they are essentially the same process as R (relational). The encapsulation of a process into an object is then
extended abstract, producing an entity (a procept) which can be used as the beginning of a higher-level cycle of
proceduremulti-procedureprocessprocept;
(6) When analyzing the data, researchers must discuss to reach a consensus about the UMR conception
cycle.

Figure 1. An example of SOLO model (Revised from Pegg & Tall, 2010).

Processes
Preliminarypre-testremedial teaching (six hours)post-test:
(1) Analysis 37 second grade vocational students features of solving linear equations from preliminary
and 94 first grade vocational students features from pre-test;
(2) 10 volunteers (first grade students) participated this remedial teaching after pre-test;
(3) Analysis students abilities by pre-test, intervention, and interview after remedial teaching;
(4) Teaching and data collected, including students portfolio recordings by teacher and post-test.
Results
In this study, data analysis is based on the data of the 10 students participating in remedial teaching, and
accompanied by other students answer from preliminary. Researchers from the content of the dialogue with
each student to find out the structure, based on the SOLO classification model, resulting in UMR conception
cycle which practice again in this remedial teaching to confirm the cycle of the UMR conception:
(1) The percentage of wrong answer for each question in preliminary test which all students participated
average is about 20% (see Appendix Tables 2 and 3). The first and second grade students have no significant
difference;
(2) Students pre-test and post-test results shown in Table 2. The research data collected from 10 students.
It is not easy for students to attend remedial teaching at the Saturday morning;
(3) Student A must be traced back to only unilateral unknown to start learning. Therefore, during this time,

24
he/she could not yet solve the linear equations which have unknowns in both sides. Question 7 does not appear
before the process of this study, but the students might have done analogous one before;
(4) The authors can find four teaching features which students should have during the remedial teaching,
shown as in Figure 2 (e.g., x x 2 3 1 3 + = + ).
(5) After the pre-test, the authors interviewed Students about question 8, students responses as follows:
(A) substitute m =0, It is OK, so m =0;
(B) 2m 4m =4m 4m, -2m =0,
2
0
2
2
m
, m =0;
(C) Substitute any number is not OK, so consider 0;
(D) 2m =4m, (eliminate m) but 2 4, so m =0;
(E) if m <0, substitute it, it is not OK; if m >0, substitute it, it is not OK, so consider m =0;
(F) 2m =4m, 2m 4m0, -2m =0, m =0;
(G) I do not know.
Table 2
Students Pre-test and Post-test Results
Student A B C D E F G H I J
Pre-test 0 1 3 0 20 20 20 20 20 20
Post-test 0 19 19 19 20 20 19 20 20 20
Incorrect blank No.7 No.7 No.7 No.7
Note. Numbers in the cells are showed as the number of right answers.

Figure 2. Students UMR conception cycle in solving linear equation.
Discuss and Suggestion
In this study, the authors use UMR cycle and the concept of SOLO taxonomy to analyze the formation and
development of students in the concept of solving linear equation. In the structure of the UMR, the researchers
think that students must awake their own solution steps of the equation, manipulation, and judgment. Behind
these operations, cognition must produce to monitor the existence of calculations, but do not know how to
interpret. For example, in the pre-test, the student suddenly stuck like Limas research by question 8 can be

25
found. When students see the manipulation, such as 2 =4 or -2m =0 (pre-test question 8), they do not know
how to do. In addition, some students could also get m =0, if they can substitute m =0 into the linear equation.
When student EJ use equality axiom, they do not know the reason why it is correct, but just know
change side, change sign. If they can know the reason why they are doing, the consolidation of the concept
will be well. The students should overcome the four features as Figure 2 showed.
Suitable interventions from a teacher at the point of transition may be crucial for students learning algebra
for the first time. The UMR conception cycle in this study could be helpful when teaching students, but
teachers should know that what students know and what they do not know, in order to provide a better learning
environment.
References
Biggs, J . B., & Collis, K. F. (1982). Evaluating the quality of learning: The SOLO taxonomy. New York, N. Y.: Academic Press.
Collis, K. F. (1972). A study of the relationship between formal thinking and combinations of operations. Newcastle, Australia:
University of Newcastle.
Collis, K. F. (1975). The development of formal reasoning. Newcastle, Australia: University of Newcastle.
Crowley, L. R. F. (2000). Cognitive structures in college algebra (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Warwick,
England).
Filloy, E., & Rojano, T. (1989). Solving equations, the transition from arithmetic to algebra. For the Learning of Mathematics: An
International Journal of Mathematics Education, 9(2), 19-25.
Foster, R. (1994). Counting on success in simple arithmetic tasks. Proceedings of The 18th Annual Conference of the
International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (Vol. 2, pp. 360-367). Lisbon, Portugal.
Freitas, M. A. de. (2002). First-degree equation: Methods of analysis and resolution of errors in high school (Masters thesis,
PUC-SP, Sao Paulo).
Gray, E., & Tall, D. O. (1994). Duality, ambiguity, and flexibility: A proceptual view of simple arithmetic. The Journal for
Research in Mathematics Education, 26(2), 115-141.
Kieran, C. (1981). Concepts associated with the equality symbol. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 12, 317-326.
Kota, S., & Thomas, M. O. J . (1998). Students arithmetic preference: Effect on problem-solving ability. Hiroshima Journal of
Mathematics Education, 6, 33-47.
Kchemann. D. E. (1981). Algebra. In K. M. Hart, M. L. Brown, D. E. Kchemann, D. Keslake, G. Ruddock, & M. McCartney
(Eds.), Childrens understanding of mathematics (Vol. 11-16, pp. 102-119). London: J ohn Murray.
Lima, R. N., & Tall, D. O. (2006). The concept of equations: What have students met before? Proceedings of The 30th Conference
of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (Vol. 4, pp. 233-241), Prague, Czech Republic.
Lima, R. N., & Tall, D. O. (2008). Procedural embodiment and magic in linear equations. Educational Studies in Mathematics,
67(1), 3-18.
Macgregor, M., & Stacey, K. (1993). Cognitive models underlying students formulation of simple linear equations. Journal for
Research in Mathematics Education, 24(3), 217-232.
McGowen, M. A., & Tall, D. O. (1999). Concept maps and schematic diagrams as devices for documenting the growth of
mathematical knowledge. In O. Zaslavsky (Ed.), Proceedings of The 23rd Conference of the International Group for the
Psychology of Mathematics Education (Vol. 3, pp. 281-288), Haifa, Israel.
Pegg, J ., & Tall, D. (2010). The fundamental cycle of concept construction underlying various theoretical framework. In B.
Sriraman, & L. English (Eds.), Theories of mathematics education-seeking new frontiers (pp. 173-192). Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg.
Tall, D. O., & Thomas, M. O. J . (1991). Encouraging versatile thinking in algebra using the computer. Educational Studies in
Mathematics, 22(2), 125-147.
Tall, D. O., & Thomas, M. O. J . (2001). The long-term cognitive development of symbolic algebra. International Congress of
Mathematical Instruction (ICMI) Working Group ProceedingsThe Future of the Teaching and Learning of Algebra (Vol. 2,
pp. 590-597), Melbourne.

26
Thomas, M. O. J . (1994). A process-oriented preference in the writing of algebraic equations. Proceedings of the 17th
Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia Conference (pp. 599-606), Lismore, Australia.
Thurston, W. P. (1990). Mathematical education. Notices of the American Mathematical Society, 37(7), 844-850.
Vlassis, J . (2002). The balance model: Hindrance or support for the solving of linear equations with one unknown. Educational
Studies in Mathematics, 49, 341-359.
Appendix
Table 1
(1) Pre-test Find x
(1) 3x +1 =3 +2x (2) x +2 =1 +2x (3) 4x +3 =5 +x (4) 3x +1 =9 +7x
(5) 5t 3 =8 (6) 3x 1 =3 +x (7) x +1 =2x 2 (8) 2m =4m
(9) 1 3x =5 +2x (10) 2 x =1 +2x (11) 3 4x =9 +x (12) 2 3x =5 +7x
(13) 3x +1 =2 2x (14) x +4 =1 2x (15) 4x +3 =5 2x (16) 3x +1 =8 6x
(17) 3x 1 =3 2x (18) x 2 =1 2x (19) 4x 3 =5 x (20) 3x 1 =9 7x

(2) Post-test Find x
(1) 2x +1 =3 +3x (2) 2x +2 =1 +x (3) x +3 =5 +4x (4) 7x +1 =9 +3x
(5) 8 =4 5t (6) x 1 =3 +3x (7) x +1 =x 2 (8) 4x =2x
(9) 5 2x =1 +3x (10) 1 2x =2 +x (11) 9 x =3 +4x (12) 5 7x =2 +3x
(13) 2x +2 =1 3x (14) 2x +1 =4 x (15) 2x +5 =3 4x (16) 6x +8 =1 3x
(17) x 2 =6 4x (18) x 3 =2 x (19) 4x 3 =2 x (20) 3x 5 =9 7x

Table 2
Preliminary 37 11th-grade Students Responses (Correct: 17 Persons, Blank 4 Persons)
Item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Successful 33 32 31 30 26 31 29 23 28 31 30 29 31 31 28 29 32 29 29 30
Incorrect (%) 11 14 16 19 30 16 22 38 24 16 19 22 16 16 24 22 14 22 22 19
Note. The average incorrect rate: 20.1%, incorrect (%) is calculated by
% 100
37
correct of number
1 |
.
|
\
|

Table 3
Pre-test 94 Students Responses (Correct: 43 Persons, Blank: 11 Persons)
Item 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Successful 82 77 76 74 80 79 77 67 71 76 68 74 76 69 73 78 79 75 80 81
Incorrect (%) 13 18 19 21 15 16 18 29 25 19 28 21 19 27 22 17 16 20 15 14
Note. The average incorrect rate: 20%, incorrect % is calculated by
% 100
94
correct of number
1 |
.
|
\
|

J anuary 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1, 27-32

Restructuring STM (Science, Technology, and Mathematics)
Education for Entrepreneurship
F. O. Ezeudu, T. O. Ofoegbu, N. J . Anyaegbunnam
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

This paper discussed the need to restructure STM (science, technology, and mathematics) education to reflect
entrepreneurship. This is because the present STM education has not achieved its aim of making graduates
self-reliant. Entrepreneurship education if introduced in the STM education will produce graduate who can
effectively manage their personal businesses. Entrepreneurship education was explained and the advantages
outlined. The paper gave an insight into what the chemistry education will look like when entrepreneurship
education is included using secondary school chemistry. This situation applies to biology education and in the
application of technology to teaching and learning.
Keywords: entrepreneurship, STM (science, technology, and mathematics) education, restructuring, curriculum
Introduction

Nigeria is underdeveloped because her citizens are still mentally and economically colonized. Political
upheavals, economic depression, and unemployment have frustrated development in Nigeria. It is hopeful that a
lasting solution to these problems would be achieved through education. Many people have defined education.
Okeke (2007) defined education as the process individuals undergo through the acquisition of knowledge, skills,
abilities, and attitudes that are necessary for effective living in the society. It then follows that education should
prepare people to be enterprising as they may be employees and entrepreneurs/employers. In Nigeria, today, the
above-named definition of education is farfetched. Graduates find it very difficult and impracticable to get job
or to handle their own business or be self-employed. The SIWES (students industrial work experience scheme),
which was introduced by the National Policy on Education, has not helped the graduates to be self-employed or
employable. There is an urgent need to overhaul our educational system. To this end, STM education should be
able to solve the problem of education. It is supposed to provide the basic tools for industrialization and
national development (Maduabum, 1999). It should bring economic and social development by providing
employment and improve the welfare of the recipients (Aguele & Agwagah, 2007). It should foster the students
habit of scientific attitudes and help them to acquire skills of constructive reasoning, effective mental activity,
and imaginative thinking. It is only STM (science, technology, and mathematics) education that can help
Nigerian youths become confident and disposed to survive the harsh social and economic conditions of our
times. The question is: Has STM education been able to achieve its objectives? The obvious answer is No
because according to Ayogu (2007), science education has a lot of problems in Nigeria. Some of the problems

F. O. Ezeudu, Ph.D., Department of Science Education, University of Nigeria.
T. O. Ofoegbu, Ph.D., Department of Arts Education, University of Nigeria.
N. J . Anyaegbunnam, Ph.D., Department of Science Education, University of Nigeria.
DAVID PUBLISHING
D
RESTRUCTURING STM EDUCATION FOR ENTREPRENEURSHIP

28
are: (1) Lack of policy implementation guidelines: This means that there are no specific steps in the policy to
actualize its objectives, which stated that there should be well-trained and well-motivated teachers; (2)
Resources: (a) Human resources: Science teachers are inadequate in Nigerian schools so that they are also
trained laboratory technologists and laboratory attendants; and (b) Material resources: Most of the schools do
not have well equipped laboratories. Improvised materials are also lacking; (3) Attitude to work: Nigerian
teachers are poorly motivated and salaries are paid irregularly. This gives rise to poor teaching, indiscipline on
the part of teachers and the students, examination malpractices, and failure in external examinations; (4)
Administrative problems: Administrative problems are hindrance to advancement in science education. Most
policies are hardly implemented. Those in-charges of education are not science-inclined and so they show no
interest in science issues; (5) Inadequate funding: Education budget is usually low and not much is given to
science education. This has negatively affected the teaching and learning in schools as well as research and
laboratory activities; (6) Corruption: Dishonesty, laziness, bribery, embezzlement, and looting of public fund
meant for science education. In view of the problems stated above, STM education in Nigeria has failed in
achieving its objectives. It is then penitent that STM education should be restructured towards entrepreneurship
education. This means that a cash-productive education should be introduced to make for maximum
self-development and self-fulfillment (Iloputaife, 2002).
What Is Entrepreneurship Education?
Entrepreneur comes from a French word entreprendre, which means to undertake, i.e., one who undertakes
to supply goods or services to the market for profit (Onyeniyi, 2003). Leebaert (1990) defined entrepreneurship
as a process of organizing, managing, and assuming risk of a business. Butter (1990) defined the entrepreneur,
as one who manages and takes the risks of business enterprise. It is, therefore, the process of owning and
managing a business enterprise with the hope of making profit. Entrepreneurs invest their own capital in a
business and take the risks associated with it. Entrepreneurship elements are combination of motivation, vision
with judgment, communication, determination, optimism, courage, endurance, and the power of creating
cooperation, which finds market opportunities (Bolarinwa, 2001).
Ojukwu (2001) described entrepreneurship development as a programme of human capital development
inputs aimed at increasing the supply of adequately trained entrepreneurs who are motivated to make a success
out of a business. Entrepreneurship education is defined by Bolarinwa (2001) as education provides training,
experience, and skills that are suitable for entrepreneurial endeavours. Entrepreneurship education should,
therefore, prepare graduates with entrepreneurial knowledge, competence, and skills needed to be self-reliant.
Ashomore (1989) stated that entrepreneurship education offers students opportunity to anticipate and
respond to changes. Iloputaife (1997; 2002) stated that functionality in education (entrepreneurship in STM
education) would serve to:
(1) Identify students that possess entrepreneurial traits;
(2) Motivate and develop students for launching and managing their own small-scale business enterprises;
(3) Create necessary awareness and motivation in students for promoting self-employment and alternatives
to wage empowerment.
Odo (2001) stated three benefits of entrepreneurship as: (1) It fosters economic growth; (2) It increases
productivity; and (3) It creates new technologies, products, and services.

29
Advantages of Entrepreneurship Education
According to Bolarinwa (2001), entrepreneurship education has the following advantages:
(1) It will help the students to form a base of knowledge about the function and operation of a business and
develop some level of familiarity and comfort with business environment, since technology changes
micro-enterprises;
(2) It will play as a complementary role in developing the occupational knowledge, job skills, and work
experience;
(3) It offers opportunities to students for job experience and for earning, saving, and investing money at an
earlier stage of life than their peers, contributing to their belief in their abilities and a sense of self-worth;
(4) There will be a great reduction in the high rate of unemployment in the society, and self-employment
and business ownership will become viable and appealing goals for todays students.
The STM education has failed in its responsibilities of fostering scientific skills and attitudes as the
graduates roam the streets with no job and no skill to start off their own business. Therefore, there is the need to
restructure the STM education for entrepreneurship. There is also the need to introduce into the school
curriculum entrepreneurship education for the acquisition of right habits, attitudes, and skills as a means of
surviving in the face of unemployment. In fact, there should be total overhaul of STM education in Nigeria.
A new curriculum for STM education should be developed and various sectors like the Nigerian Business
Educators Association, Chamber of Commerce and Industries, Manufacturers Association of Nigeria, etc.,
should be included in the formation of the new curriculum. The society, the schools, the students, the trade
associations, and club and business owners should be included in the development of the course contents. The
course contents should reflect the local labour markets and the students needs.
According to Iloputaife (2002) STM education should include in its objectives:
(1) Taking up employment in industries and factories requiring their areas of specialization;
(2) Providing employment for self and others;
(3) Being computer literate and being able to service and maintain computers.
STM education classroom should reflect business sessions. Electrical applications like locally made torch
lights that could be constructed for sale. Detergents, soaps, pomades, perfumes, beads, etc., could be made and
sold to make money. Dyes, colourings, and spices could be produced by students for sale. There should be a
shop in each institution to sell students products. Seminars, workshops on starting a business, small business
management, profit utilizations, personnel administration, etc., can be organized for both teachers and students.
There should be a way of rewarding the students and the teachers from the yields realized from the ventures.
This will increase their enthusiasm and enhance their interest. At least, they will experience profit making.
Students should be imparted with open mindedness, intellectual honesty, love of God, and love of their
neighbours. Most products to be made and sold should come from the local environment, which differs from
school to school. The various levels of government should fund STM education to ensure a successful, fruitful,
and result-oriented STM education. STM education should also inculcate values, such as punctuality, regularity,
tenacity to work, and reward for merit.
Insight Into the Kernel of the Issue Using Chemistry as Example
Curriculum designed for chemistry education in tertiary institutions should include courses in

30
entrepreneurship education.
For the SSS (senior secondary school) chemistry, the following should be included:
(1) For SS 1:
(a) Meaning of entrepreneurship;
(b) Basic elements of entrepreneurship;
(c) Characteristics of entrepreneurship;
(d) Key steps to entrepreneurship;
(e) Causes and remedies of entrepreneurship failure.
(2) For SS 2:
(a) Laws and procedures relating to registering a small business;
(b) Sources of fund for financing small-scale business;
(c) Small business management-principles and application;
(d) Profit utilization and credit and debit management;
(e) Computer/information processing and international business.
(3) For SS 3:
(a) Seminars and Workshops on entrepreneurship;
(b) Management of the school shop;
(c) Production and selling of items produced during practicals.
The SS 3 students can produce the following items during practicals:
(a) Ethanoic acid for preserving food-flavouring food and dyes;
(b) Esters used in making perfumes;
(c) Butter and margarine;
(d) Soap and detergents;
(e) Pomades;
(f) Glucose used in making sweets and jams;
(g) Breads and biscuits;
(h) Cassava flours;
(i) Acids for charging batteries;
(j) Shoe polishes, palm kernel oil, vegetable oils, etc.;
(k) Insecticides, antiseptics, and disinfectants.
Challenges of Entrepreneurial STM Education
Inconsistency in Policy Implementation
STM education polices may not be implemented, supervised, and evaluated by the relevant government
officials.
Poor Laboratories and Facilities
Unqualified instructors/teachers, inadequate instructional equipment/materials, and lack of properly
equipped laboratories may hinder the progress of entrepreneurial STM education.
Inadequate Fund
There may not be enough funds to provide the necessary materials needed for the programme. This may be

31
as a result of poor allocation of fund to education sector. Non-payment of teachers salaries or science teachers
allowances or even promotion of teachers can result in low morale on the part of the teachers who may not like
to take up extra job resulting from entrepreneurship.
Solution to the Problems Militating Against Entrepreneurial STM Education
The solutions to the problems militating against entrepreneurial STM education are as follows:
(1) STM policies as specified in the national policy on education must be implemented, supervised, and
evaluated by those concerned with STM education. The development of intellectual, manipulative, social, and
other skills that will ensure self-fulfilled and self-reliant citizens should be the watchword;
(2) Properly equipped laboratories must be provided in schools. These laboratories should have enough
equipment, materials, and even improvised materials;
(3) Laboratory technologists, technicians, and laboratory assistances should be provided and re-trained in
improvisation;
(4) Adequate fund should be allocated to education especially to STM education. Teachers salaries and
science allowances should be paid on time. Some of the money generated from the sales of the products should
be given to the students and the teachers to sustain their interest.
Suggestions and Recommendations
STM education should be diversified, made more functional, and geared towards solving the problems of
contemporary society. To this end, it should be restructured to reflect entrepreneurship so that the graduates
should be self-reliant, empowered, and self-employed. Hence, STM education should be a priority in Nigerian
educational system to ensure a successful, fruitful, and result-oriented entrepreneurship education. Teachers
pre-service and in-service workshops and seminars should be organized.
Values, such as punctuality, regularity to work, honesty in sales, reward for merit, and other attitudes that
will enhance productivity and promote orderly societal growth should be enforced.
STM laboratories that will produce the products to be sold should be stocked with equipment and
materials.
STM practical lessons should be geared towards production of materials for sale to the college
communities and outside the college environment.
There should be advertisement units to advertise the products to the public. If these suggestions and
recommendations are made and implemented, STM education will surely transform the society and ensure
rapid development of the nation.
Conclusions
Entrepreneurship is the hub of national development and STM education should form the base. Nigeria
should therefore gear towards functional entrepreneurial education through diversified entrepreneurial STM
curriculum. STM education should be diversified and made functional than its present status. It should be
geared towards solving the problems of our contemporary society. To this end, STM education must be
re-structured to include entrepreneurship. STM classroom should be business like to ensure education for work,
and employment and education for self-reliance.

32
References
Aguele, L. I., & Agwagah, U. N. V. (2007). Female participation in science, technology, and mathematics (STM) education in
Nigeria and national development. Journal of Social Science, 15(12), 121-126. Retrieved J anuary 17, 2013, from http://www.
krepublishers.com/02-journal1J SS-15.0-000-2007-web/J SS-15-2-000-000-2007
Ashomore, M. C. (1989). Challenging creativity through entrepreneurship. In Keys to the future of small business in Lankard B. E..
The Vocational education/entrepreneurship match. ERIC Digest.
Ayogu, Z. U. (2002). Challenges of science, technology and mathematics (STM) education, policy implementation in Nigeria
schools in the science teacher today. Journal of School of Sciences, 4(1). Federal College of Education, Eha-Amufu, Enugu
State, Nigeria.
Bolarinwa, K. O. (2001). Incorporating entrepreneurship education into business education curriculum: An equilibrium way for
sustainable poverty alleviation in Nigeria. A paper presented at The 14th Annual Conference of the Nigerian Association of
Teachers of Technology (NATT) (pp. 152-156), Nigeria.
Butter, R. (1990). Artisans and entrepreneurs in the rural Philippines: Case Monograph 2. AmsterdamVu University Press.
Iloputaife, E. C. (2002). Science and technology education and poverty alleviation. In The science teacher today. Federal College
of Education Eha-Amufu, Enugu State, Nigeria.
Leebaert, D. (1990). Elements of entrepreneurship, prosperity (Papers series). United State Information Agency.
Maduabum, M. A. (1999). Intervention packages for science, technology, and mathematics. A paper presented at The First
National Conference of the Faculty of Education, Enugu State University of Science and Technology (ESUT) Enugu State,
Nigeria.
Odo, G. E. (2001). Accentuating entrepreneurial skills as a basis for poverty reduction in Nigeria. Proceedings of The 14th Annual
Conference of Nigerian Association of Teachers of Technology (NATT) (pp. 27-30), Nigeria.
Ojukwu, K. O. (2001). Entrepreneurship development in business education: Critical success factors in starting small business
enterprises. Business Education Journal, 3(3), 103.
Okeke, E. A. C. (2007). Making science education accessible to all: An inaugural lecturer of the University of Nigeria Nsukka,
Nsukka. UNN Senate Ceremonial Committee.
Onyeniyi, O. A. (2003). Promotion of entrepreneurship through vocational education in Nigerian Colleges of Education. Oro
Science Educational Journal (OSEJ), 2(1&2), 156-158.
J anuary 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1, 33-37
The Portrayal of Women in Israeli Arabic Textbooks on Druse

Heritage
J anan Faraj Falah
The Arab College for Education; Haifa University, Haifa, Israel

Teaching heritage to a nation is important. The Israeli Arab curriculum on Druse heritage helps students connect
religion with modern society. The textbooks that are still used were written in the end of the 1970s and do not
reflect the changing reality of Druse women. This research shows that women must be portrayed in more diverse
roles in textbooks and there must be more articles written by women. If teachers are to prepare pupils for the future,
they must have more current material. If not, teachers have the obligation to model new ways of seeing women so
that young Druse women can achieve equality in work and education and lead modern lives, and so that young men
will accept and encourage their advancements.
Keywords: Druse, women, heritage, curriculum, gender
Introduction
The textbooks used in the Israeli Arab curriculum on Druse heritage are outdated and focus on boys and
men. The textbooks portray girls and women in limited ways. They do not show how womens roles have
changed within Israeli Druse society and how they should continue to change. The author researched these
textbooks and has devised new strategies for teachers who use these textbooks so they are aware of the
textbooks limitations and how they can teach students.
Theoretical Framework
Two public committees were appointed in the 1970s to examine the state of the Druse sector: The first was
Ben Dor Committee headed by Professor Ben Dor, and the second was the Shechterman Committee headed by
M. K. Shechterman who was then the Head of the Education and Cultural Committee of the Knesset.
In two government meetings in June 1975 and in October 1976, it was decided to accept the
recommendations of the committees and a committee was elected regarding Druse issues.
The Ministry of Education and Culture was the first to apply the government decisions, and set up an
independent department for caring for Druse education (Loton, 2005), and a headquarters in the head office
called The Committee for Druse Education and Culture, headed by Salman Falah who was appointed over
Druse education in Israel.
There was opposition to learning about the Druse heritage two bodies by some Druse religious leaders
who feared that the secrets of the religion would be exposed. Other critics were concerned emphasizing the
uniqueness of the Druse heritage that would lead to distancing Israeli Druse from the national Arab heritage.

J anan Faraj Falah, Ph.D., researcher, manager of Gender Department, The Arab College for Education; Haifa University.
DAVID PUBLISHING
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PORTRAYAL OF WOMEN IN ISRAELI ARABIC TEXTBOOKS ON DRUSE HERITAGE
34
The textbooks were written despite the opposition. For the past 40 years, the same textbooks have been used,
while at the same time, Druse women have made enormous advancements within Israeli society. There are now
Druse women dentists, doctors, lawyers, and professors. The curriculum, however, does not reflect womens
changing roles. Therefore, teachers using these textbooks had no available material to educate pupils to prepare
for current reality and the future. The question remains: How can research into the portrayal of women in
textbooks on Druse heritage help teachers develop new strategies to encourage equality in work and education
within the Druse community?
Methodology
In the Druse heritage, curriculum material was included regarding the sect, its culture and uniqueness,
principles of belief, and religious and historical figures. A series of books were published on Druse heritage for
Grades 312. The Druse students who learn in Druse schools must take a matriculation exam of one
compulsory and one elective unit in Druse heritage (Falah, 2000, p. 195).
The books the author researched are:
Min Bustan Torathi (From the Orchard of My Heritage) for Grade 3 (1993), Haifa;
Jikayat Min Korana (Stories from Our Villages) for Grades 3 and 4 (1982 and 1995);
Min Adabana Waadatna (Manners and Customs) for Grade 5 (1986);
Kiyam Wtakalid (Values and Customs) for Grade 6 (1978);
Min Al-Salaf Al Saleh (Our Wise Grandfathers) for Grade 7 (1979);
Min Al Torath Al Shabi (Primary Heritage) for Grade 8 (1996 and 1997);
Min Aalam Al Druse (Famous Druse) for Grade 9 (1980);
Min Oyonn Torath Banee Maruf (From the Springs of Druse Heritage) two parts for high school (1987);
Min Torath al Mowahidin Al Druse (From the Heritage of the Monotheist Druse) for high school (1993);
Al Aid (Holidays) for all grades (1979);
Teachers Guide (1979).
The texts were examined to research:
Stories about women;
Images of women in the textbooks;
The images of Druse women in the textbooks;
The frequency of Druse women versus that of men.
Four representative books were examined, the first book of the series for Grade 3, the second for Grade 7,
the third for Grade 9, and the last for high schools. The results are seen in Table 1.

Table 1
Min Bustan Torathi (From the Orchard of My Heritage), for Grade 3
Lesson name Pg. The female Action Role
In the name of God and thank
God
16 Grandmother
Do not eat this way
Wash your hands
Wait for grandfather who is at work
Moralizing
Holiday 19 Mother Mention the name of the holiday Social holiday
The Oath 26 Mother My mother swore for my brother Swearing for a son
The Halwa (prayer hall) 28 Women
There is one room for men and one for
women in the Halwa
Information
35
(Table 1 continued)
Religious and Secular 35 Religious and secular -- --
Al Nekab 43 Grandmother Grandmother wore one Wearing a Nekab
(Covering the head) Mother and sister Mother and sister did this White kerchief
Eating what is prohibited (1) 54 Mother
Mother asked: Where are the grapes from
She said: Did he give permission
Mother is angry: Do you know that eating
these grapes is prohibited
Moralizing
Eating what is prohibited (2) 56 Mother
Gave a present to mother. She said: It was
prohibited because it was stolen
Education
The Kosher money 58 Yasmin
Counted her money and gave the seller his
money back
Honesty
Wrong and mistake 63
Freda
Mother
Teacher
Not nice girl
Hat is not allowed
Moralizing
Education
Giving back the treasure 78 Girl
The judge ruled: the man will marry the
girl
No role
Help and cooperation 88 Queen of doves We must fly together Wisdom
Reward and punishment 91 Kamla
Kamla traveled with her father, she was
sad

Exercises for heritage lessons 108
Rafika
Salha
She returned the pencil that she found
Salha goes to pray twice a week
Honest
Religious
Salwa Salwa does what his mother asks Obeying
Findings
The first book The Orchard of My Heritage for Grade 3 includes 39 lessons and only 14 of them
mention females, only 35.8%. Six times the image was a mother out of 20 female images. Thirty percent of the
time the mother appeared, the grandmother appeared twice and a sister appeared once.
Six girls appeared: Yasmin, Freda, Kamala, Rafika, Salha, and Salwaalso 30%.
There were only two who had a role (10%): (1) The teacher explained that what they said was not nice and
prohibited; and (2) The queen of doves was wise and saved the girls.
Men appeared in many forms: religious, wise, and religious, Emir, Wise Sheik, Rich man, and a judge
(Kadi). The men were authoritative.
Famous men also appeared: Al Amir Al-Siid, Sultan Al Atrash, Al Sheik, Al Fadel, Alexander of
Macedonia, Abraham the Father, and Eben Adham.
Many boys appeared, they were active, thinking, and drew conclusions, such as in the book On the Land
(pp. 105-106).
The six girls who appeared were: (1) Yasmin: honest; (2) Freda: receives a moral; (3) Kamla: sad; (4)
Rafika: honest; (5) Salha: religious; and (6) Salwa: obeys.
They were passive and they obeyed. Three were the heroes of the lesson: Yasmin who was the honest;
Freda who was educated, and Kamala who was sad.
The message for girls in third grade: You must be religious, obey, and honest, and if something happens
you can be sad.
Pictures and drawings: In the lesson on the holiday, there is a picture of boys and girls playing. In the
lesson on the holy place, there are girls playing. There is a picture of girls visiting a holy site, a girl with a
kerchief on her head and next to her there is a little girl (five to six years) with a short skirt.
In the lesson On the Head Covering (p. 42), there is a picture of a woman in traditional garb (p. 44),
there is a picture of a woman in traditional garb.
36
Out of 36 pictures of people in the book only four pictures appear of girls and women (11%).
Min Al-Slaf Al Salah (Our Wise Grandfathers) (Ministry of Education and Culture, 1979)This is the
fourth of the heritage books and it is aimed at Grade 7.
The book begins with the introduction: Dear students: This is our fourth book from among the Druse
heritage books and its topic is our wise grandfathers. The book tells the story of the lives of good men (p. 43).
In fact, the book deals with the story of the lives of seven good believing and religious men. There is not
one mention of women in the book. Are there no women who were believers who dedicated their lives to belief
and to good works? The author thinks that they do exist.
In the book Min Alam Al Druse (Famous Druse) (Ministry of Education and Culture, 1980) for Grade 9
there are 140 individuals mentioned and only one women is mentioned in the titles, this is 0.071%.
The last book that the author investigated was Min Tarthi al Muhdin Al Druse (From the Heritage of the
Monotheist Druse) for high school (Ministry of Education, 1993). This book includes material for the
matriculation exam in Druse heritage. The material is varied: wills, speeches, and sociological article related to
the Druse, education, history, individuals, literature, poetry, philosophy, etc..
There are 24 lessons (topics). The last lesson in the first unit (number 14) is called The Druse Woman
by Dr. Nejala Abu Ezaldin. The article is seven pages long and discusses the special status of the Druse women
in religion and religious law. The article gives examples of women who ruled, such as J onblat, and women who
were religious and believers, such as the mother of Ali Fahri of the Lebanese Shuf (Ministry of Education,
1993). Finally, it mentions Druse women who are famous, all of them from Lebanon.
At the beginning of the second unit, there is an article again by Dr. Nejala Abu Ezaldin Morals among the
Druse. The article discusses the seven principles of Druse belief, and it is a three and a half-page article.
There are two articles written by a Druse woman among 24 articles (0.083%), and one lesson (article)
discussing the Druse woman.
Teaching heritage to the entire nation is important. Hershkowitz (2000) claimed that heritage is a synonym
for culture, and culture is a group of behavioral elements that separate a certain society (Ika, 2009). If
heritage is a culture that separates a society and separates between it another cultures, why should we not be
familiar with it?
The problem among the Druse is difficult. On the one hand, the religion is secret and a non-religious
individual may not know the secrets of the religion. On the other hand, there must be something that sets the
members of the sect part from other sects in Israel (Kasem-Falah, 2011). Every other religion learns about its
special customs and laws.
The problem with the curriculum is the status of the woman in the study material. Of course, the material
that is taught in schools affects the education and behavior of students.
Four out of 10 books were examined: In the first book, women and girls appear the most from among the
four books (35.8%). The mother and the grandmother play the role of moralizing and educating. The girls are
passive and obey or they are good (honest); In the second book, there is no mention of one good female; In the
third book, one out of 14 individuals mentioned is a female (0.071%).
The last book aimed at high school has an innovation as there is a woman doctor who writes two of the
articles, one about Druse women. There is almost no mention of educated or religious women or leaders. The
ratio between men and women in the book is 8.77% women versus 92.33% men.
As mentioned above, religion calls for equality between men and women and even scientific equality, but
37
the facts in the field are different.
The following are the findings:
(1) The percentage of appearance of girls and women in the text is very low (8.77%);
(2) Most of the girls that appear in the texts have passive traits and lack initiative;
(3) No intellectual women are mentioned;
(4) Most of the texts were written by men aside from Nagila Abu Ezaldin.
The purpose of this paper is to help teachers improve their teaching skills in the following ways:
(1) To take the research as an example for the discrimination of women and girls in the academic
curriculum;
(2) To learn to improve different academic curriculum reflecting womens current reality in society;
(3) The impact and effect of this discrimination on both male and female students and the way their
character development is impacted because they adapt to the discrimination and therefore perpetuate
inequalities within Druse society;
(4) Teachers can learn from this research and then work on improving their teaching methods to counter
the inequality in the texts that they teach;
(5) To become aware and make certain they are not discriminating against girls inside class;
(6) The discrimination effects female students achievement because they then perceive from the texts that
their future is to be at home and be a mother and wife and that it should not concern them what profession they
have or their social status and rights;
(7) Examination of the research helps teachers decide whether to use or abandon texts and to implement
language that is appropriate along with appropriate illustrations;
(8) The research will help experts write academic curricula to emphasize womens roles.
Summary
Learning tradition can contribute much to promoting the status of the Druse woman as well as learning
texts written by women.
Learning about the life of religious women, politicians, intellectuals, writers, etc. is crucial to societys
development.
Teachers can learn from this research and then work on improving their teaching methods to counter the
inequality in the texts that they teach. Teachers with an awareness of the bias in textbooks will be able to
instruct their students to believe that women deserve equal rights. They will be able to transmit the idea that
religious beliefs can be incorporated into modern society.
References
Falah, S. (2000). The Druse in the Middle East. Ministry of Security Press.
Falah-Faraj, J . (2005). The Druse woman. Barkay Books, Rishon LZion.
Ika, H. (2009). Dictionary of anthology and folklore terms (p. 24). Egypt.
Kasem-Falah, S. (2011). Alkotwa Alola ledoroz Esraeel (p. 67). Alsaadeel: Akko.
Loton, O. (2005). Henokh lashevion megdary. The Kenessit of Israel.
Ministry of Education. (1985). Min Al-Salaf Al Saleh. J erusalem: The Committee for Druse Education and Culture.
Ministry of Education. (1993). Min Torathi al Mowahidin Al Druse. Haifa: Ministry of Education, Haifa University, Department
of Curricula.
Ministry of Education and Culture. (1980). Min Alam Al Druse. J erusalem: The Committee for Druse Education.
Ministry of Education and Culture. (1993). Min Bustan Torathi. Haifa University, Ministry of Education and Culture.
J anuary 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1, 38-45
The Effect of the Past on the Present: Cook Islands Teachers

Perceptions of Language Teaching
Frances Edwards
University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand

In many countries where English is taught as a second language, the majority of the language teachers are NNS
(non-native speakers) of English. Little research based on the experience of NNS teachers in a Pacific Islands
context seems to be available. This article explores the knowledge, beliefs, and insights of three Cook Islands
teachers and the generative role that their language learning histories play in their approach and practice to English
language teaching. Their own English language learning experiences (in both formal and informal contexts), as well
as their communitys responses to English language, have clearly affected these teachers language teaching
philosophies and practices. These findings give rise to considerations necessary when planning future initiatives
aimed at improving language teacher practice.
Keywords: teachers beliefs, language teaching, education, NNS (non-native speakers), teaching practice
Introduction

Teachers theories, beliefs, and insights are important as they have been shown to play an important role in
many aspects of teaching and teacher decision-making (Ellis, 2006). English language teachers are but one
group of educators for whom this is true. However, little research that privileges the voices of NNS (non-native
speaker) English teachers working in their own countries is available (Hayes, 2009). This study seeks to
contribute to the redress of this imbalance.
Given the complexity of the job of a teacher and the multiplicity of factors influencing them in their work,
teachers draw on knowledge, beliefs, assumptions, and insights in their decision-making processes (Ellis, 2006;
Woods & Cakir, 2011). This article focuses on the explanations and commentary given by Pacific Islands NNS
of English teachers with respect to their practice of teaching English language.
The Importance of Teachers Theories and Beliefs
According to Clark and Petersen (1986), the process of teaching involves two major domains: (1) teachers
actions and their observable effects; and (2) teachers thought processes. Teachers thought processes occur
inside teachers heads and are therefore only observable indirectly. They can be categorized as follows: teacher
planning, teachers interactive thoughts and decisions, and teachers theories and beliefs. These thought
processes can be described individually, but interact with each other. Teachers theories and beliefs derive from
an amalgam of sources and inform teacher decision-making. It is important to consider how the knowledge,
theories, beliefs, and insights that teachers hold affect their practice, as there is considerable evidence that this
occurs in significant and sometimes unexpected ways. Beliefs and attitudes are not only reflected in (teacher)

Frances Edwards, Ph.D. candidate, Faculty of Education, University of Waikato.
DAVID PUBLISHING
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COOK ISLANDS TEACHERS PERCEPTIONS OF LANGUAGE TEACHING
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decisions and actions, there is evidence that teachers beliefs and attitudes drive important decisions and
classroom practice (Renzaglia, Hutchins, & Lee, 1997, p. 361).
It is generally agreed that beliefs are formed through a process of enculturation and social construction
(Pajares, 1992). Enculturation includes the assimilation by individual observation, participation, and imitation
of all the cultural elements present in their personal world. Therefore, beliefs are formed over a period of time
within the context of the individual and seem to be difficult to change. Because these have a filtering effect on
thinking and information processing, their effects need to be considered. Borgs (2001) description of a belief is
useful in the context of this study when she writes a belief is a proposition which may be consciously or
unconsciously held, is evaluative in that it is accepted as true by the individual, and is therefore imbued with
emotive commitment; further, it serves as a guide to thought and behaviour (Borg, 2001, p. 186).
Burns (1992) described English language teachers beliefs as complex and interrelated. Sources of beliefs
are wide-ranging but include teachers personality factors, as well as their experience of what works best, and
the established practice within a teaching institution (Richards & Lockhart, 1994). These sources also include
the individuals own experience as a second language learner referred to by Lortie (1975) as the apprenticeship
of observation. Language learning is an important contributor to professional practice and it has been shown
that experiential knowledge formed by (language) learning forms a powerful resource underpinning ESL
(English as a second language) teachers professional knowledge and beliefs about language teaching (Ellis,
2006, p. 1). The teachers in this study are all NNS and bilingual and are likely to be affected by their own
English language learning experience.
Context of the Study
The context of this study was the work of teachers in Rarotonga, Cook Islands. Cook Islands is a
self-governing country (in free association with NZ (New Zealand)) in the South Pacific, comprising of 15
small islands (total land area of 241 sq. km
2
) scattered over approximately two million sq. km
2
of ocean.
Rarotonga is the main island in the group with a population of approximately 8,000. Cook Islanders are
Polynesians and speak either a dialect of Cook Islands Maori, Pukapukan and/or English. Cook Islands Maori
is the first language of almost all Cook Islanders. Most teachers in the Cook Islands have learnt the English
language during their own schooling or whilst living in NZ or Australia.
An additive bilingualism model is used in Cook Islands schools to promote bilingualism (Herrman, 2005;
Mangubhai, 2002). Most schools deliver instruction in their own islands dialect until students reach grades 3
or 4, so early literacy in established in the childrens own first language. English is then introduced gradually
over grades 58 until English becomes the medium of instruction at high school level. In Rarotonga, a few
schools deliver most or all instruction in English.
A qualitative naturalistic-interpretive piece of research was completed in which three Cook Islands
teachers were invited to share their understandings and perspectives on English language teaching through
participation in semi-structured interviews. The approach had a focus on understanding the meaning of events
had for those teachers, congruent with an indwelling orientation. This approach values context and it is
recognises that the understanding of a phenomenon in all its complexity occurs within a particular situation and
environment (Maykut & Morehouse, 1994). Data were examined by recursive readings and tentative
commonalities were documented. By grouping these, over-arching themes, and key ideas were identified.
Three teachers were involved: Mata, Tu, and Tama (pseudonyms). They were identified as excellent
40
language teachers by their school principals.
Mata was a secondary English teacher in her 50s who was teaching English to 13-18 years old in a
secondary school on Rarotonga. Mata was born and educated in the Cook Islands. Her mother worked as a
servant to expatriate New Zealanders in the 1960-1970s. Mata was awarded a scholarship to travel to New
Zealand to complete her secondary education and train as a secondary school English teacher. After returning
to the Cook Islands, Mata taught in a range of schools.
Tu was a woman in her mid-twenties, teaching 67-year-olds in a primary school on Rarotonga. Tu was
born in Rarotonga and raised by her grandparents (a common practice), learning Cook Islands Maori as her first
language. She struggled to learn English at school but was successful in her studies and completed a three-year
teacher education programme in Fiji and Hawaii. She taught in her own village and so she had intimate
knowledge of most of her students and familial connections with a number of them.
Tama was a teacher in her 30s and described herself as ambition in her teaching career. She was born in
Aitutaki (a small outer island with a population of approx. 2000). Her schooling was spread between Aitutaki
and NZ. She trained as a teacher through the locally provided two-year teacher education programme in
Rarotonga and had taught in Aitutaki, coming to Rarotonga to commence in a one-year teaching position before
the research commenced. As an outer island teacher, almost all of Tamas life experience had been in an
environment where Maori was the normal medium for communication and where English, although taught in
schools, was not the language of village life.
Findings
The three teachers discussed wide ranging issues to do with their language teaching in the Cook Islands.
There were surprising commonalities in the themes that emerged as a result of analysis, and in particular, the
impact of their English language learning experience was often raised when teachers explained and justified
their methods of teaching. All quotes in the findings section below from the teachers Tama, Tu, and Mata are
sourced from Edwards (2003).
Nature, Status, and the Use of Languages
All the three teachers strongly believed that Cook Islands children need to be proficient in Cook Islands
Maori. They recognized that culture and language are linked and talked about their own identity as Cook
Islanders.
It is a way of identifying an individual that is the only way to identify yourselfthrough language. Without
language how can you have a culture? You have got to have some sort of language to see everything would link with
language or the other way round. Language and culture are everywhere. (Tama)
Mata talked about her upbringing when there was a policy was in place that meant Maori was not allowed
to be spoken at school.
We were forced to speak English. I came through a school system where no Maori was allowed we were punished
for speaking Maori you got punished. You had to go and weed the garden you go and clean the toilet, pick up the leaves.
It was never-ending. It is what I can remember about Maori speaking smacked on the thing, go outside and pick those
go outside and pull those bloody weeds, or collect the rocks off the stadium. (Mata)
The teachers talked about this policy at length. They recognised that it was very hard on children, but they
also attributed the better level of English fluency in older Cook Islanders (such as respected politicians) to this
41
policy. They all felt that the relinquishing of the No, Maori spoken at school policy resulted in students
having a poorer grasp of both languages.
English was seen as the language of power and of the future by all of the teachers interviewed, so they
took their jobs as English language teachers seriously. They felt considerable pressure from parents to prepare
their children for the global workplace, which meant prioritising English. However, at one level, they spoke of
their desire to resist ongoing colonial influences, especially from overseas language experts who advised their
country leaders on language policy. For example, when discussing the approach of a NZ, language expert
working in a school on an outer island, Mata said:
Speak more Maori? I was quite insulted and I felt offended because he was telling me to speak more Maori I got
beaten by my local teachers for doing something natural (speaking Maori while a student at school) and here I have this
foreigner telling me in my own that is how I felt. I really was. I am just bitter because here is this foreigner telling me to
speak in Maori when I live here I can speak the language. Who is he to tell me that I should my own, that I should
practise? (Mata)
There was an obvious tension for these teachers caused by their recognition of English as a language of
power in the Cook Islands, in contrast to their personal beliefs about the importance of their first language.
Language Learning Process
The teachers interviewed in this study had strong views about how English language was learnt and how it
should be taught. They linked their identified features of language teaching to their own experiences as
language learners.
Importance of language input. All three teachers placed a heavy emphasis on providing good input for
English language learners. They each recounted a number of stories from their own experiences of learning
English, and linked these to their classroom decisions as teachers.
A model, you know, someone who speaks good English and then, um, copy it. I think that was I would say that
that was the best for me, although when you were at school you tried to imitate the you know the teachers and it was not
until I left for NZ I realized that I actually spoke like some of my teachers and I made the same mistakes as my teachers.
(Mata)
Mata felt that she was able to learn a lot from listening to the way that NZ mothers spoke to their children
when she moved there on scholarship as a secondary student. Tama recounted her language learning
experiences when she was moved to NZ as a 9-year-old with no English. She discovered what she could learn
by reading, and she talked about the way she read all the shop signs on her way to and from school. She saw
this input as vital to her learning. Tu (2003) talked about how she wanted to be able to be friends with the
English-speaking expat children, and how she would sneak away to listen to these children speaking in English.
Based on their own experiences, all three teachers emphasised the need for a teaching environment that is
saturated with English language input, in order to help children learn the language.
J ust full surrounding environment with language, words. Surround them, let them see, hear, read all the senses of
you know, of the language. (Tu)
Evidence of English was visible in the learning environments set up by these teachers, e.g., posters
displayed in English, books, and music.
Need for phonics. Both teachers working in the primary sector (Tu and Tama) were adamant that a
phonics based system worked best for teaching English. They had learnt to read and write Cook Islands Maori
42
and English through a phonics-based approach during their own schooling. With the emphasis on phonics came
a parallel emphasis on the use of language drills.
Definitely phonics. Phonics, the alphabet recognizing, the structure of sentences a lot of oral, just oral speaking
(The most important first things are) sounding. Sounds. Phonics I mean. Yeah. Recognition, yeah, very important. (Tu)
So after all those things you have to drill it in for you to remember them. (Tama)
Place of reading. Reading was identified as having an important role in the learning of English. Again,
the teachers recalled their own English language learning experiences, and the centrality that reading played in
this.
I always remember being told off for reading stupid books when I was about twelve or thirteen, and of course the
more I was, you know, reading, the more I got told , the more I read them out of sight of course. Yeah, but ah I have
actually learnt quite a lot of new words and phrases and expressions um sometimes I marvel at the way some of these
authors describe human emotions. It is incredible how they describe some of them. (Mata)
When Tama talked about her classroom priorities, she similarly recalled the importance of reading in her
language learning experience. She read shop signs and beginner books, and then more advanced material.
Reading helps in fluency. It had made me really fluent in English. I got read in class, after school, in break and it
helped me more fluent in my language. (Tama)
Both Mata and Tama believed that reading could play a part in extension of vocabulary and language
skills.
Every time when I talk to someone I always remember some of the sentences in books I have read. Maybe you try to
be more sophisticated in your language. (Tama)
So because of the benefits, each of these teachers gained from reading they placed high priority on
structured reading programmes in their classes.
Focus on grammar. Mata felt it was unimportant to teach formal grammar in her English classes. She felt
that if she modeled English accurately, then her students would similarly pick up the grammar they needed.
This stemmed from her own experience of being able to pick grammar up from the language she heard around
her when she moved to NZ.
When I got there (NZ) I thought they spoke a different tongue language oohh it was wicked no wonder we
you never seen anyone cry so much we wept and just wept the whole place was so alien...
I found that the children talking to their parents was one of the easier way I could picking up grammar, correct
grammar, and correct pronunciation because when some mothers repeat words then we have got the correct
pronunciation and I was very aware of that. That is what I preferred and I guess that is what led me into teaching. (Mata)
Mata said she saw grammar as something picked up during the process of language acquisition and felt
that it was unimportant to spend class time on grammar. She said she would not plan a grammar lesson by
choice, but was sometimes forced to because of the syllabus she had to use.
Mata and Tama believed that grammar should not be an important focus in school, whereas Tu thought it
was important. It is interesting to note here that both Mata and Tama largely learnt their English as a result of
an immersion experience during their adolescence, whereas Tu learnt English more formally through schooling
in the Cook Islands.

43
The Place of Motivation
All three teachers believed that Cook Islanders are naturally good language learners, but that there are
specific barriers that they need to overcome in order to realise their potential.
At a younger age children catches it, you know, learn languages easily. I think the Cook Islands children are doing
pretty good learning both languages. (Tama)
All three teachers talked in depth about the need for motivation from Cook Islands students who wanted to
become fluent in English. Each related their own successful language learning experience to the fact that they
were determined to learn. Mata talked of her upbringing by her mother who was a servant for an ex-pat family,
and how she did not want to follow in her footsteps.
I always maintained I have got to be able to speak in English, not so much as a house girl but just so I can feel slightly
better than these blooming ex-pats.
Mum felt comfortable as a servant and you always had that impression of servitude instilled because there were four
of us girls and umm but I was determined I was not going to be and I thought that, well that one of the ways I could
overcome was to speak their language. (Mata)
Tu was also very motivated to learn English, even though she admitted to struggling with the subject at school.
But then when we take offme in my corner with my friends, we want English she or he is determined English I
am. (Tu)
The ex-pat students in Rarotonga gave Tu motivation to learn English. Tu believed that motivation and
determination meant that learners would eventually reach their language learning goals.
Tama recollected her horror in being placed in a special needs class when she arrived in NZ, and her
determination to learn English in order to be able to get out of that class! Since then, she has worked hard to
improve her English as she commented several times on the way language can be used to project an image.
Anyway, I hear a lot of people say that to me, Ohhh, my accent sometimes comes like American, you know, a bit of
a twang. You have got to give your language a style. (Tama)
Learner readiness was also discussed in relation to motivation. Teachers felt that learners are not always
ready at the same time, and that means that they have to be patient and wait for some children. Tu compared
this to her difficulties in learning English when she was younger, and added that when the time for learning is
right students will learn.
... it eventually comes out. (Tu)
However, teachers saw conflict between what is seen as best practice in second language teaching
(establishment of literacy in L1 and implementing an additive bilingualism model) and the pressure from
parents and community members to have earlier introduction of English in schools.
The Challenge of Risk Taking
Because of the cultural norms in Cook Islands, it can be difficult for children to take risks with their
learning. As the participants described, this is because people are likely to make fun of children who make
mistakes. All three teachers spoke about this with a certain amount of emotion, as they reflected on their own
experiences. They spoke about put-downs being common practice of teachers, as well as amongst people in the
general community.
... even some teachers would umm laugh at the humiliate the kids when they make mistakes and of course umm
44
that sometimes we speak in English and then we do not know the English word for a certain thing We punctuate it with
Maori and away we go. It is the humiliation, embarrassment you know generally Polynesians are timid and shy
generally. (Mata)
Tu conceded that what happened outside the classroom was beyond her control and she felt that sometimes
criticism directed at children by parents did little to encourage learning or risk-taking in children. Tu knew she
was limited in what she could do to combat this, except encourage the children to take a positive stance. The
effects of criticism meant that children were often shy in class and unwilling to speak in English for fear of
being laughed at. The teachers all saw that one of their key roles was to make sure the learning environment
was positive and safe for children. When talking about risk-taking, the three teachers all mentioned their
personal charactersThey saw themselves as risk-takers and being resilient. However, they also saw that many
of the learners that they worked with did not have the personal strength to deal with put-downs.
Affective aspects. Teachers in this study spoke with emotion when describing their own language learning
experiences. The affective aspect of the language learning experience should not be overlooked when
considering NNS. Affect is an important in the area of teachers conceptions of subject matter, and in their
approach to teaching (Burns, 1992). This aspect was especially obvious when the teachers talked about their
need to support learners to take risks in class. In the case of NNS who learned English within a colonial setting
another layer of feeling was evident when they saw language linked to colonial practices.
Discussion
The teachers involved in this study were successful NNS language teachers. Their views are valuable in
providing some insight into how Pacific Islands NNS teachers think about their language teaching practice. All
three teachers identified specific significant experiences in their pasts that impacted their learning of English,
and which continued to influence their decisions as teachers. They identified their own experiences as learners
both in formal and informal settings (including a phonics-based learning system), and their use of input
(especially modelling and reading) as reasons for their approach to teaching and learning. They attributed few
of their teaching practices to their initial teacher education, but were instead informed by their own language
learning experiences.
The findings of this study demonstrate that teachers personal life experiences have a direct impact on
their language teaching decisions through the development of their theories, beliefs, and insights. The
apprenticeship of observation described by Lortie (1975) influences the formation of knowledge, theories,
beliefs, and patterns of action that language teachers accumulate. So, the mix of the teachers own observation
of language teachers whilst at school, plus their experience as NNS learners have contributed to the complex
store of knowledge, theories, beliefs, and insights from which they draw when working as English language
teachers.
The late-exit transitional model for bilingualism promoted through Cook Islands national education policy
was reinterpreted by these teachers through their own experiences as language learners. This study found that
the impact of their past experiences was strongly reflected in these teachers decisions about how to teach
English.
Implications
This study shows how early learning experiences lead to theories, beliefs, and insights that teachers
45
develop and later draw on when approaching their own language teaching. Findings complement other studies
which focus on NNS teachers (Ellis, 2006).
Teachers experiential knowledge as well as their cultural background and history give them perspectives
from which they base their decision-making. Any professional development programme put in place for NNS
language teachers needs to take cognisance of the effect the teachers past language learning experiences on
their theories and beliefs about language teaching and learning. Proper acknowledgement needs to be made of
these theories, beliefs, and insights. The strong impact of early language learning experiences and influence of
context on teachers beliefs make it clear that professional development programmes may have limited success
unless the theories, beliefs, and insights lying behind teachers decision-making are uncovered.
References
Borg, M. (2001). Teachers beliefs. ELT Journal, 55(2), 186-188.
Burns, A. (1992). Teacher beliefs and their influence on classroom practice. Prospect, 7(3), 56-66.
Clark, C., & Petersen, P. (1986). Teachers thought processes. In M. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.,
pp. 255-296). New York: Macmillan.
Edwards, F. C. E. (2003). Netting the maroro: An exploration of Cook Islands teachers beliefs about language learning and
teaching (Masters thesis, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand).
Ellis, M. (2006). Language learning experience as a contributor to ESOL teacher cognition. TESL_EJ, 10(1).
Hayes, D. (2009). Learning language, learning teaching: Episodes for the life of a teacher of English in Thailand. Regional
Language Centre Journal, 40(1), 83-101.
Herrman, I. (2005). The current situation: The case of the Cook Islands. Directions: Journal of Educational Studies, 27(1),
123-133.
Lortie, D. (1975). Schoolteacher: Sociological study. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Mangubhai, F. (2002). Principles of second language learning. Toowoomba, Australia: University of Southern Queensland.
Maykut, P., & Morehouse, R. (1994). Beginning qualitative research: A philosophic and practical guide. London: Falmer Press.
Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teacher beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research,
62(3), 855-870.
Renzaglia, A., Hutchins, M., & Lee, S. (1997). The impact of teacher education on the beliefs, attitudes and dispositions and
pre-service special educators. Teacher Education and Special Education, 4, 360-377.
Richards, J ., & Lockhart, C. (1994). Reflective teaching in second language classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Woods, D., & Cakir, H. (2011). Two dimensions of teacher knowledge: The case of communicative language teaching. System,
39(2), 381-390.
J anuary 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1, 46-50
Learning Goals and Strategies in the Self-regulation of Learning

Martha Leticia Gaeta Gonzlez
Universidad Popular Autnoma del Estado de Puebla, Puebla, Mxico

In order to self-regulate their learning, students need to use different strategies to plan, monitor, and evaluate their
learning activities (meta-cognitive strategies), as well as to control their motivation and emotion (volitional
strategies). Students effectiveness in their self-regulated learning process also varies depending on the academic
environment and students personal goal orientations. In this study, the author analyzed the interactions between
these cognitive, volitional, and motivational variables in late adolescence. To achieve this goal, the author proposed
a model by means of SEM (Structural Equation Modeling). The investigation was developed with 268 4th-grade
secondary school students, from public and private schools, in a northwestern city in Spain. Analysis of the
proposed model showed the following results: the perception of a classroom learning goal structure relates
significantly to a personal learning goal orientation, and the latter relates positively to the use of meta-cognitive
strategies, the use of volitional strategies has a mediating effect between a learning goal orientation and the use of
meta-cognitive strategies. Results are discussed in detail in the document.
Keywords: learning goals, meta-cognitive strategies, SRL (self-regulated learning)
Introduction

In the academic context, teachers face the challenge of promoting students integral development, through
the acquisition of knowledge and skills that can be adapted throughout the different stages of their life. For
which education is viewed as a process, in which students must become more self-regulated as learners. SRL
(Self-Regulated Learning) should not be viewed as a mental ability or an academic performance skill, but rather
as a self-directed process in which students transform their mental abilities into academic skills. It refers to
self-generated thoughts, affect and behavior that are oriented towards the achievement of their goals, with the
interaction of environmental conditions (Zimmerman, 2002).
In this context, meta-cognitive processes, such as planning, monitoring, and evaluation promote students
SRL. Conceptually, meta-cognition consists of the personal awareness, knowledge, and regulation of ones
cognitive processes (Brown, 1987). While, cognitive strategies are used to help an individual achieve a
particular goal (e.g., solving a problem), meta-cognitive strategies are used to ensure that the goal has been
reached (e.g., evaluating ones understanding of that problem).
Moreover, between the intention of achieving a goal and implementing activities to achieve it, there are a
number of cognitive and meta-cognitive factors, related to the control of these activities, which may facilitate or
impede its implementation. So, students abilities to use strategies that help them to direct their motivation
towards action, in the set-goal direction, are a central aspect of SRL (Wolters, Pintrich, & Karabenick, 2003).
Specifically, volitional strategies for maintaining motivation and effort towards goals, as well as for controlling

Martha Leticia Gaeta Gonzlez, Ph.D., professor, researcher, Universidad Popular Autnoma del Estado de Puebla.
DAVID PUBLISHING
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LEARNING GOALS AND STRATEGIES IN THE SELF-REGULATION OF LEARNING
47
negative emotions, are interrelated and jointly involved in the self-regulation of learning (Boekaerts, 1995).
Also, students effectiveness in the process of SRL varies depending on the academic environment and
their personal goal orientations. Specifically, perceptions of a learning-oriented classroom structure are
positively related to more adaptive learning patterns, such as the use of effective learning strategies, as well as
to involvement in the class, motivation, effort, affective states, and eventually academic achievement (Sideridis,
2005). In contrast, a performance-oriented classroom structure has been associated with negative learning
patterns (Ryan, Gheen, & Midgley, 1998).
Based on the above, this paper proposes a model, using SEM (Structural Equation Modeling) to examine
the interactions between the classroom goal structure, personal goal orientation, and the use of volitional and
meta-cognitive strategies in 4th-grade secondary school students.
Method
Participants
A total of 268 4th-grade secondary school students, ranging in age from 15 to 16 years, from public (n =
129) and private (n =139) schools, participated in this investigation. Stratified random sampling was used in
the study.
Instruments
Students perceptions of their classroom goal structure and their goal orientation were assessed by means
of the corresponding questionnaire sections from the PALS (Patterns of Adaptive Learning Survey) (Midgley et
al., 2000). This instrument contains three subscales that measure students perceptions of the meaning of
academic tasks and achievement that are emphasized in the classroom. The questionnaire also provides an
evaluation of three general types of personal academic goals.
Volitional variables were measured by means of the AVSI (Academic Volitional Strategy Inventory)
(McCann & Turner, 2004). This instrument measures the extent to which students engage in motivational
regulation strategies for controlling their motivation and emotional states, as they initiate and attempt to
maintain action on academic requirements.
The use of meta-cognitive strategies was evaluated through the corresponding scale from the MSLQ
(Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire) (Pintrich, Smith, Garca, & McKeachie, 1991). This scale
measures the extent to which students use strategies to control and regulate their own cognition.
Procedure and Data Analyses
All the assessment instruments were administered to the students in their classroom, in one session, during
the normal academic schedule. Students were assured that their answers would be kept confidential.
SEM was utilized to determine how well the proposed theoretical model fit the research data. For the
analyses, the author used the LISREL (Linear Structural Relations) 8.80 computer program (J reskog &
Srbom, 2006).
Model to Be Investigated
The proposed model and the relationships between the corresponding variables are displayed in Figure 1.
From a general perspective, in the research model, it is hypothesized that:
(1) Classroom performance-approach goal structure and classroom performance-avoid goal structure
would positively relate to performance goal orientation;
48
(2) Performance goal orientation would be positively related to volitional strategies and to meta-cognitive
strategies;
(3) Classroom mastery goal structure would be positively associated to mastery goal orientation;
(4) Mastery goal orientation would positively relate to meta-cognitive strategies;
(5) Volitional strategies would mediate the relationship between mastery goal orientation and
meta-cognitive strategies.

Figure 1. Graphic representation of the proposed model.
Results
Based on the fit indices, the hypothesized model fit the data quite well. The RMSEA (Root Mean Square
Error of Approximation) =0.053
(0.034, 0.069)
shows an appropriate value. Data provided by other indices also
offer support for the acceptance of the model proposed in this study: NNFI (Non-Normed Fit Index) =0.93;
CFI (Comparative Fit Index) =0.97; GFI (Goodness-of-Fit Index) =0.94; AGFI (Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit
Index) =0.90. Furthermore, the SRMR (Standardised Root Mean Square Residual) =0.06 indicates an
acceptable mean residual correlation. Finally, thex
2
/df =1.74, that provides information on the parsimony of
the model, shows an excellent level.
Despite the good fit of the tested model, the results suggested that there was room for improvement. A
close examination of the estimated parameters significances and the hypothetical relevance of those not
estimated (observed through modifying indexes and standardized residuals) led us to modify the proposed
model: the path showing the hypothetical association between the classroom performance-approach goal
structure and the performance goal orientation was deleted ( =0.05; t =0.74), also the path showing the
relationship between the performance goal orientation and volitional strategies ( =0.01; t =0.15) was
eliminated, since they both were not significant. Also, a path showing the link between volitional strategies and
the performance goal orientation was included for its estimation ( =0.18; t =2.23).
The new tested model was both conceptually meaningful and provided good results on the model fit
(RMSEA =0.052
(0.035, 0.068)
, NNFI =0.96; CFI =0.97; GFI =0.94; AGFI =0.91; SRMR =0.06; x
2
/df =1.71)
and at the specific parameters estimation level. The obtained results (standardized data) regarding the specific
relations between the different variables are shown in Figure 2.
49

Figure 2. Path coefficients of the proposed relationships in the model (standardized results).

The obtained results confirm totally or partially the hypotheses used for the construction of the model.
First, classroom performance-avoid goal structure significantly relates to performance goal orientation ( =0.70;
t =8.47), however, this is not the case for the classroom performance-approach goal structure and performance
goal orientation ( =0.05; t =0.74). Second, performance goal orientation is significantly associated to
meta-cognitive strategies ( =0.14; t =2.14), but not to volitional strategies ( =0.01; t =0.15). Third,
classroom mastery goal structure is significantly related to mastery goal orientation ( =0.55; t =5.39). Fourth,
mastery goal orientation significantly relates to meta-cognitive strategies ( =0.19; t =2.08). Fifth, volitional
strategies have a significant mediating effect between mastery goal orientation and meta-cognitive strategies
(standardized indirect coefficient =0.33, p 0.05). Additionally, volitional strategies influence performance
goal orientation ( =0.18; t =2.23).
Conclusions
The analyses of the relationships between the model variables reveal the following results: classroom
mastery goal structure predicts mastery goal orientation; classroom performance-avoid goal structure and
volitional strategies explain performance goal orientation; mastery goal orientation and performance goal
orientation explain meta-cognitive strategies; volitional strategies mediate the relationship between mastery
goal orientation and meta-cognitive strategies.
From the above, it can be concluded that students perception of the classroom structure is an important
factor for the development of their personal goal orientation (Ames, 1992). Goal orientation, in turn, appears to
define the strategies that students use to take responsibility (or not) for persevering towards their goals
attainment, by controlling their motivation and emotion (Wolters & Rosenthal, 2000). This effort and
persistence for goal achievement has a positive effect on the use of strategies to control and direct their mental
processes for the SRL.
Contrary to the authors expectation, a classroom performance goal structure does not influence students
performance goal orientations, which indicates that the students in this study perceive that the goal for engaging
in academic work is not to prove competence (for example, get good grades), but to avoid demonstrating lack
50
of competence (for example, not to be the worst in class), which leads them to compare themselves to others
and to avoid demonstrating any lack of ability (performance orientation).
According to the proposed model, volitional strategies have an important mediating role between mastery
goal orientation and meta-cognitive strategies. This indicates that learning-oriented students are more likely to
find a link between their efforts and their results, and work to reduce or avoid both internal and external
distractions (Pintrich & Schunk, 2006), showing higher levels of persistence, compared to
performance-oriented students. This use of motivational and emotional control strategies will produce, as a
result, a greater commitment to learning and to the use of cognitive control strategies.
Based on the results of this study, the author emphasizes the importance of helping adolescents in the
acquisition of a greater sense of independence and self-confidence, through building classroom environments
that empower learners to regulate their learning experience. As it is seen, students perceptions of a
learning-oriented classroom structure are positively related to a greater academic involvement (Sideridis, 2005),
through a mastery goal orientation. Moreover, it can be emphasized that teachers should promote the use of
volitional strategies to help students maintaining their interest and focus on learning, as well as their emotional
balance in order to become cognitive engaged.
References
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261-271.
Boekaerts, M. (1995). Self-regulated learning: Bridging the gap between meta-cognitive and meta-motivational theories.
Educational Psychologist, 30(4), 195-200.
Brown, A. (1987). Meta-cognition, executive control, self-regulation and other more mysterious mechanisms. In F. E. Weinert, &
R. H. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation and understanding (pp. 65-116). Hillsdale, N. J .: Erlbaum.
J reskog, K. G., & Srbom, D. (2006). LISREL 8,80. Chicago, I. L.: Scientific Software International Inc..
McCann, E. J ., & Turner, J . E. (2004). Increasing student learning through volitional control. Teachers College Record, 106(9),
1695-1714.
Midgley, C., Maehr, M. L., Hicks, L., Roeser, R., Urdan, T., Anderman, E. M., & Kaplan, A. (2000). The patterns of adaptive
learning survey (PALS). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.
Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (2006). Motivacin en contextos educativos (M. Limn Trans.). Madrid: Prentice Hall (Trabajo
original publicado en 2002).
Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D., Garca, T., & McKeachie, W. J . (1991). A manual for the use of the motivated strategies for learning
questionnaire (MSLQ). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.
Ryan, A. M., Gheen, M. H., & Midgley, C. (1998). Why do some students avoid asking for help? An examination of the interplay
among students academic efficacy, teachers social-emotional role, and the classroom goal structure. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 90(3), 528-535.
Sideridis, G. D. (2005). Goal orientations, classroom goal structures, and regulation in students with and without learning
disabilities: Should we alter students motivation, a classrooms goal structure, or both? In G. D. Sideridis, & T. A. Citro
(Eds.), Research to practice: Effective interventions in learning disabilities (pp. 193-219). Boston, M. A.: Learning
Disabilities Worldwide.
Wolters, C. A., Pintrich, P. R., & Karabenick, S. A. (2003). Assessing self-regulated learning. Paper presented at theConference
on Indicators of Positive Development: Definitions, Measures, and Prospective Validity, March 12-13, 2003.
Wolters, C. A., & Rosenthal, H. (2000). The relation between students motivational beliefs and their use of motivational
regulation strategies. International Journal of Educational Research, 33, 801-820.
Zimmerman, B. J . (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory into Practice, 41(2), 64-70.
J anuary 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1, 51-58

Analysis of the Questions Asked Through Digital and
Face-to-Face Reference Services

Keita Tsuji, Shunsuke Arai, Reina Suga, Atsushi Ikeuchi, Fuyuki Yoshikane
University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki-ken, J apan

In J apan, only a few public libraries provide e-mail reference services. To help public libraries start e-mail
reference services, the authors investigated reference questions received by libraries via e-mail and traditional
face-to-face services. The authors found that research questions are more frequently observed among e-mail
questions and questions about the local area are slightly more frequently observed. Librarians who are planning to
start e-mail reference services should be aware of these tendencies.
Keywords: reference questions, e-mail reference services, digital reference services, question types, public libraries
Introduction
In J apan, only a few public libraries provide e-mail reference services. Tsuji, To, and Hara (2011) found
that only 15.6% (31 out of 199) of municipal libraries in the Kanto area are providing them. However,
considering that almost all the prefectural libraries are providing e-mail reference services and the Internet
environment is becoming increasingly prevalent, many municipal libraries will be asked to provide e-mail
reference services in the near future. They should thus begin to prepare for it. The authors investigated
reference questions received by libraries via e-mail and traditional face-to-face services. If there are differences
between the two, such information can be used to start e-mail reference services efficiently and effectively.
Related Studies
Katz (2002) classified reference questions into four categories: (1) direction; (2) ready reference; (3)
specific search; and (4) research. Based on this, Sears (2001) classified questions into the following categories
(although the Sears reference predates the Katz reference): (1) reference questions (ready reference, specific
search, and research); (2) policy and procedural questions (database instructions, passwords, etc., library policy
clarification, and availability of a specific library service); and (3) directional questions (location within the
physical library environment, location on the librarys Website, and location of places within the city or state).
These categories can be seen with some variations in researches (Smyth, 2003; Arnold & Kaske, 2005; Ryan,
2008; Kwon, 2007; Numminen & Vakkari, 2009; Pomerantz, 2005). Pomerantz (2005) also proposed other

Acknowledgements: The authors deeply appreciate the kind help and cooperation by Narita Public Library, Saitama Prefectural
Libraries, and Yokohama City Central Library (in alphabetical order).
Keita Tsuji, Ph.D., Faculty of Library, Information and Media Science, University of Tsukuba.
Shunsuke Arai, Graduate School of Library, Information and Media Studies, University of Tsukuba.
Reina Suga, College of Knowledge and Library Sciences, School of Informatics, University of Tsukuba.
Atsushi Ikeuchi, Faculty of Library, Information and Media Science, University of Tsukuba.
Fuyuki Yoshikane, Ph.D., Faculty of Library, Information and Media Science, University of Tsukuba.
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52
aspects of classification, such as subjects (topics) of question (Pomerantz, 2005).
Investigations
In this section, the authors will explain the reference questions investigated and our classification schema.
Reference Records
The authors asked six prefectural and four municipal libraries to provide their reference records. Two
prefectural and three municipal libraries agreed to our request; however, one library provided only a small
number of records and one provided only the face-to-face ones. Therefore, the authors adopted the reference
records of one prefectural library (Saitama Prefectural Libraries) and two municipal libraries (Yokohama City
Central Library and Narita Public Library) for the sample. The number of reference questions and periods
during which they were collected are shown in Table 1 (henceforth, N represents the number of samples).
The authors can see, for instance, that Saitama Prefectural Libraries provided 99 face-to-face reference
questions and 62 e-mail reference questions.
The problems of our sample are as follows: (1) It is not clear what kind of questions were recorded in each
library and which policies were different from each other; (2) The periods during which the questions were
collected were different from each other; and (3) Saitama Prefectural Libraries and Yokohama City Central
Library only provided questions that were submitted to the reference record database maintained by the
National Diet Library (i.e., Collaborative Reference Database); what kinds of questions were chosen from their
records and submitted to the database is unclear. The authors leave all of these for future research.

Table 1
Number of Questions and the Period During Which They Were Collected
N Period
Saitama Prefectural Libraries
E-mail 99 (April 2010 to March 2011)
Face-to-face 62 (April 2010)
Yokohama City Central Library
E-mail 49 (J uly 2010 to November 2010)
Face-to-face 34 (J uly 2010 to October 2010)
Narita Public Library
E-mail 6 (April 2002 and from J uly 2010 to December 2010)
Face-to-face 132 (April 2002 to September 2004)

Question Types
Based on the classification schema in the related studies, the authors classified the reference questions into
the following categories (henceforth, the authors call these categories traditional schema). Some definitions and
examples were borrowed from Katz (2002) and Numminen and Vakkari (2009).
(1) Ready reference: Questions of a factual nature that can be answered quickly by consulting only one or two
reference tools:
(a) Bibliography of known item: Questions requesting certain bibliographic information.
e.g., Who is the author of the book silent spring?
(b) Holdings of known item: Questions asking whether the library holds certain books or not.
e.g., Do you have silent spring?
(c) Fact-finding: Factual questions that can be answered easily.
e.g., How long is the Amazon River?
(2) Specific search questions: Questions which need books or lists of citations to answer. They are more difficult than
ready reference questions and easier than research questions:

53
e.g., What is the difference between the conservative and the liberal views on inflation and unemployment?
(3) Research questions: Questions requesting a particular kind and number of books or articles, etc., on a specific
topic or wanting clarification of a certain topic or matter:
(a) Topic: Questions requesting material or information on a certain topic.
e.g., What books are being written of knur works and making of them?
(b) Research: Factual questions or questions dealing with certain items or topics requiring clarification and
explication and many resources to answer.
e.g., When a child draws a house, there usually is a tree beside the house. What does this tree symbolize? A brown
trunk and a green hat?
(c) Person: Questions requesting information about a certain person.
e.g., Do you have material concerning the explorer Francisco de Orellana?
(4) Policy and procedural questions:
(a) Library policy: Questions dealing with library policy and the availability of a specific library service.
e.g., How are books selected and acquired by the library?
(b) Access to e-resources: Questions dealing with the availability and use of e-resources.
e.g., How can I use the Web of science?
(5) Directional questions:
(a) Location of physical items: Questions regarding the location of some item or service within the physical library
environment.
e.g., Where is the catalog?
(b) Location in library homepage: Questions dealing with the location of some service within the librarys Website.
e.g., Where can I order inter-library loan in your homepage?
(c) Location of library: Questions about the location of the library.
e.g., How can I get to your library by car?
(6) Others: Questions fitting not into the other categories and also notes of thanks and suggestions regarding
improving the service:
e.g., Warm thanks for your excellent answers.
In addition, the authors classified questions by: (1) subject, based on the NDC (Nippon Decimal
Classification); and (2) whether the questions are about the local area or not.
Results and Discussions
In this section, the authors initially indicate the basic results, followed by the results according to the
subjects based on NDC and whether the questions are about the local area or not.
Classification by Traditional Schema
Results of traditional schema classification of reference questions received by Saitama, Yokohama, and
Narita libraries are shown in Tables 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Concerning Saitama Prefectural Libraries, the
ratio of research questions of person among e-mail questions (7.1%) is higher than that among face-to-face
questions (1.6%). The statistical difference is at the level of 0.05. Similarly, at Yokohama City Central Library,
the ratio of research questions of topic among e-mail questions (38.8%) is statistically higher (at the level of
0.01) than that among face-to-face questions (8.8%). Concerning Narita Public Library, the ratios of research
questions of topic and research among e-mail questions are both statistically higher (at the level of 0.01)
than those among face-to-face questions (on the other hand, the ratios of Specific search questions among
e-mail questions of these three libraries are lower than those among face-to-face questions). In this respect, the
authors can say that research questions are more frequently observed in e-mail questions than in face-to-face
ones, and in that sense, the former are more difficult to answer than the latter. The examples of research

54
questions via e-mail are shown in Table 5.

Table 2
Number of Questions Classified by Traditional Schema: Saitama Prefectural Libraries
Reference questions

E-mail
Face-to-face
N (%) N (%)
Ready reference
Bibliography of known-item 12 12.1 2 3.2
Holdings of known-item 26 26.3 14 22.6
Fact-finding 9 9.1 3 4.8
Specific-search questions 28 28.3 30 48.4
Research questions
Topic 5 5.1 5 8.1
Research 7 7.1 1 1.6
Person 9 9.1 1 1.6
Policy & procedural questions
Library policy 3 3.0 5 8.1
Access to e-resources 0 0.0 0 0.0
Directional questions
Location of physical items 0 0.0 1 1.6
Location in library homepage 0 0.0 0 0.0
Location of library 0 0.0 0 0.0
Others 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 99 100.0 62 100.0

Table 3
Number of Questions Classified by Traditional Schema: Yokohama City Central Library
Reference questions

E-mail
Face-to-face
N (%) N (%)
Ready reference
Bibliography of known-item 0 0.0 3 8.8
Holdings of known-item 3 6.1 6 17.6
Research questions
Topic 19 38.8 3 8.8
Research 10 20.4 3 8.8
Person 2 4.1 1 2.9
Others 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 49 100.0 34 100.0

Classification by Subjects Based on NDC
Results of NDC-derived subject classification of reference questions to Saitama, Yokohama, and Narita
libraries are shown in Table 6. Concerning Saitama Prefectural Libraries, the most frequently observed
category among both e-mail and face-to-face questions was 7 (art) (32.3% and 22.6%, respectively). On the
one hand, concerning Yokohama City Central Library and Narita Public Library, the most and second-most
frequently observed categories among e-mail and face-to-face questions were 2 (history) and 3 (social

55
science) (for instance, 42.9% for 3 and 24.5% for 2 concerning e-mail questions to Yokohama City
Central Library). The difference might be caused by the contrast in nature between prefectural libraries
(Saitama) and municipal libraries (Yokohama and Narita). However, it might be caused by the difference of
histories of cities. Yokohama is famous as a historic port town which was opened to U.S. in 1859. Narita is also
famous for the Naritasan Shinshoji Temple (since 940) and residents fierce campaign dating back to the 1960s
against the building of Narita International Airport. On the other hand, Saitama is not a historically famous city
or prefecture.

Table 4
Number of Questions Classified by Traditional Schema: Narita Public Library
Reference questions

E-mail
Face-to-face
N (%) N (%)
Ready reference
Bibliography of known item 0 0.0 8 6.1
Holdings of known item 0 0.0 14 10.6
Research questions
Topic 3 50.0 10 7.6
Research 2 33.3 2 1.5
Person 0 0.0 5 3.8
Others 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 6 100.0 132 100.0

Table 5
Examples of Research Questions via E-mail
(a) When and why was the brick tunnel in 3 cities of Hongo-cho, Naka-ku, and Yokohama built?
(b) I would like to know the self-governing organ of foreigners in the enclave in Yokohama.
(c)
I would like to read newspaper articles on the fighter plane Shinshogo which was donated to military by Naritasan
Shinshoji Temple in 1938 or 1939.
(d) Why there are two different origins for Ouragobo?
(e) I would like to know the characteristics of memorial services for the war dead from Kamakura Era to the present.
(f) I would like to know the population and age structure in Kanto area in late J omon Era.

The difference between e-mail questions and face-to-face questions was not observed concerning the ratio
of NDC categories. Therefore, librarians who plan to start e-mail reference services might not need to prepare
for answering questions whose NDC-based subjects are different from face-to-face questions.
In the previous section, research questions were more frequently observed among e-mail questions than
among face-to-face ones. The distribution of NDC categories among e-mail research questions is shown in
Table 7. The distribution is similar to that in Table 6. The NDC category 7 is the most common among
Saitama e-mail research questions and categories 2 and 3 are the most common among Yokohama and
Narita e-mail research questions.


56
Table 6
Number of Questions Classified by Subjects Based on the NDC
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total
Saitama Prefectural
Libraries
E-mail
N 1 2 8 6 8 6 1 32 4 31 99
(%) 1.0 2.0 8.1 6.1 8.1 6.1 1.0 32.3 4.0 31.3 100.0
Face-to-face
N 2 1 9 9 10 5 4 14 1 7 62
(%) 3.2 1.6 14.5 14.5 16.1 8.1 6.5 22.6 1.6 11.3 100.0
Yokohama City Central
Library
E-mail
N 1 1 12 21 4 5 2 2 0 1 49
(%) 2.0 2.0 24.5 42.9 8.2 10.2 4.1 4.1 0.0 2.0 100.0
Face-to-face
N 3 3 8 7 4 2 1 5 0 1 34
(%) 8.8 8.8 23.5 20.6 11.8 5.9 2.9 14.7 0.0 2.9 100.0
E-mail
N 0 0 1 3 1 1 0 0 0 0 6
(%) 0.0 0.0 16.7 50.0 16.7 16.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
Face-to-face
N 5 13 25 32 14 3 6 16 5 13 132
(%) 3.8 9.8 18.9 24.2 10.6 2.3 4.5 12.1 3.8 9.8 100.0

Table 7
Number of Research Questions Classified by Subjects Based on the NDC
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total
N 0 1 2 4 1 1 0 9 0 3 21
(%) 0.0 4.8 9.5 19.0 4.8 4.8 0.0 42.9 0.0 14.3 100.0
Library
N 0 1 8 13 3 5 1 0 0 0 31
(%) 0.0 3.2 25.8 41.9 9.7 16.1 3.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
N 0 0 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 5
(%) 0.0 0.0 20.0 40.0 20.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0

Classification of the Questions About the Local Area
The numbers and ratios of questions about the local area are shown in Table 8. The authors can see that
questions about the local area are slightly more frequently observed among e-mail questions than among
face-to-face ones. For instance, ratios of questions about the local area concerning Yokohama City Central
Library are 28.6% and 23.5%, respectively (i.e., 28.6 =14/49100 and 23.5 =8/34100, respectively). These
three libraries do not allow residents outside their prefecture and city to ask questions via e-mail. The only
exceptions are questions about their local area. It might explain the above-mentioned results.

Table 8
Numbers and Ratios of Questions About the Local Area
Questions about the local area
E-mail 11 (11.1)
Face-to-face 6 (9.7)
Yokohama City Central Library
E-mail 14 (28.6)
E-mail 4 (66.7)

The authors classified the questions about the local area based on the traditional schema of reference

57
questions. The results are shown in Table 9. In addition, the authors classified the questions about the local area
by NDC-derived subject. The results are shown in Table 10. It can be seen in Tables 9 and 10 that, concerning
Yokohama and Narita, research questions and questions about history (2 in the NDC) and social science (3
in the NDC) are frequently observed among questions about the local area. It might be explained by their
histories, as mentioned in the previous section.

Table 9
Number of Questions About Local Area via E-mail Classified by Traditional Schema
Reference questions

Saitama Yokohama
Narita
N (%) N (%) N (%)
Ready reference
Bibliography of known item 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Holdings of known item 4 36.4 0 0.0 0 0.0
Fact-finding 1 9.1 1 7.1 0 0.0
Specific-search questions 3 27.3 3 21.4 0 0.0
Research questions
Topic 0 0.0 3 21.4 2 50.0
Research 0 0.0 5 35.7 2 50.0
Person 2 18.2 2 14.3 0 0.0
Library policy 1 9.1 0 0.0 0 0.0
Access to e-resources 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Total 11 100.0 14 100.0 4 100.0

Table 10
Number of Questions About the Local Area via E-mail Classified by NDC Subject
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Total
N 1 0 2 2 0 1 0 3 0 2 11
(%) 9.1 0.0 18.2 18.2 0.0 9.1 0.0 27.3 0.0 18.2 100.0
Library
N 0 0 8 3 0 2 1 0 0 0 14
(%) 0.0 0.0 57.1 21.4 0.0 14.3 7.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
N 0 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 4
(%) 0.0 0.0 25.0 50.0 0.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0
Conclusions
The authors investigated e-mail and face-to-face reference questions and found that research questions are
more frequently observed among e-mail questions. In addition, questions about the local area are slightly more
frequently observed among e-mail questions. Librarians who are planning to start e-mail reference services
should be aware of these tendencies in order to provide efficient and effective service. Future tasks are: (1)
collecting more sample questions from more libraries; (2) investigating e-mail questions from libraries that
allow non-residents to ask any types of questions (unlike the present papers three libraries); and (3)
interviewing librarians who are in charge of e-mail reference services and collecting information to provide the
service efficiently and effectively.
References
Arnold, J ., & Kaske, N. (2005). Evaluating the quality of a chat service. Libraries and the Academy, 5(2), 177-193.
Katz, W. A. (2002). Introduction to reference work, Vol. 1: Basic information services. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

58
Kwon, N. (2007). Public library patrons use of collaborative chat reference service: The effectiveness of question answering by
question type. Library & Information Science Research, 29, 70-91.
Numminen, P., & Vakkari, P. (2009). Question types in public libraries digital reference service in Finland: Comparing 1999 and
2006. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 60(6), 1249-1257.
Pomerantz, J . (2005). A linguistic analysis of question taxonomies. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and
Technology, 56(7), 715-728.
Ryan, S. M. (2008). Reference transactions analysis: The cost-effectiveness of staffing a traditional academic reference desk. The
Journal of Academic Librarianship, 34(5), 389-399.
Sears, J . (2001). Chat reference service: An analysis of one semesters data. In Issues in science and technology librarianship.
Retrieved from http://www.library.ucsb.edu/istl/01-fall/article2.html
Smyth, J . (2003). Virtual reference transcript analysis: A few models. Searcher, 11(3), 26-30.
Tsuji, K., To, H., & Hara, A. (2011). Accuracy of answers provided by digital reference services in J apanese public libraries: With
special reference to those of face-to-face reference services and q & a sites. Toshokankai (Library World), 62(5), 348-363.
(In J apanese)
J anuary 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1, 59-65
A Model for Using Service-Learning in Teacher Education

Programs
Regena F. Nelson
Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, USA

The purpose of this study is to develop a service-learning model that increases preservice teachers knowledge
about communities by assisting preschool programs to provide expanded services to low-income families. The
researcher interviewed key stakeholders in three preschool programs that vary in the types of family support
services and use of preservice teachers as interns about their effectiveness in meeting the needs of the families at
their centers. Their interview responses were used to develop a service-learning model that will help improve
delivery of program services and increase students knowledge about how to provide comprehensive support for
children, families, and communities.
Keywords: service-learning, teacher education, early childhood education, preschool
Background
High Quality Preschool Programs
Several studies have shown that children who are in a quality childcare program or preschool are more
likely to arrive at school ready to succeed in school (Barnett, 1995; Nelson, 2006; Peisner-Feinberg et al., 2001).
Research has shown that one indicator of program quality is the level of attentiveness from the teacher which is
affected by teacher-child ratios. Programs with low-ratios, meaning more teachers and assistants in the
classroom have higher-quality ratings (Frede, 1995). Therefore, increasing the number of adults in the
classroom can have a positive impact on program quality. Programs can use parent volunteers or university
interns to increase the number of adults in the program. This study will examine how university interns impact
the quality of care.
In addition, there are measurable long-term benefits of attending high-quality preschool programs on
academic achievement, social behaviors, and employment. For every dollar that is used to provide preschool
programs, three dollars are saved by not having to provide funds to pay for remedial education services for low
achieving, children and other social services for citizens that are unemployed. Working citizens also pay taxes
and increase revenues for the community (Bartik, 2011). The long-term goal of preschool is to provide a
foundation of success that leads to more productive citizens. However, some preschool programs also provide
family support services to help parents develop skills to find employment and increase the effectiveness of their
parenting. These programs have been successful in meeting their goals of reducing unemployment rates and

Regena F. Nelson, Ph.D., professor, interim chair, Department of Teaching, Learning, and Educational Studies, Western
Michigan University.
DAVID PUBLISHING
D
A MODEL FOR USING SERVICE-LEARNING IN TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS
60
increasing students performance in school (Love, Kisker, & Ross, 2002).
Comprehensive Support Services for Families
Programs vary in how they provide these services to parents. Some programs refer parents to a community
resource guide or organization that will help them with a particular problem. This information is shared in
weekly newsletters, face-to-face, at school events and posted on parent information bulletin boards. Some
studies have noted that this informal exchange of information is a model that may work better in middle-class,
suburban schools where the cultural norm is to initiate contact with the teachers to address concerns and solve
problems. In low-income urban programs families may not feel comfortable sharing personal concerns with
teachers and may not use them as a resource to help with family problems (Watson, 2011). Therefore, some
programs have developed other models for supporting parents that build trust and community within the school.
Bolivar and Chrispeels (2011) studied a parent leadership program that was developed in a low-income urban
school. The program was designed to teach parents leadership skills, so they could advocate individually and
collectively on behalf of their childrens educational needs. A community organizer facilitated the group
meetings where parents discussed concerns about the school programs, developed plans to share the concerns
and possible solutions with the school staff. The participants in the program learn to trust the facilitator and the
group members. They engaged in activities that allow them to practice how to speak with public officials and
school staff individually and collectively. Most importantly, they learned how to gain access to information
networks and use the information to improve educational outcomes for their children and themselves, as they
completed college degrees and pursued employment training.
Clearly, improving the quality of preschool programs and expanding the services they can provide is a
worthwhile investment for communities. While school staff agree that this is an important goal, they need more
support and resources to provide the services (Watson, 2011). Local universities can provide support and
resources through service-learning projects.
Service-Learning
Service-learning is defined as a method to address community problems by systematically engaging in
service activities that apply the content from a university course (Anderson, 1998). In teacher education
programs, the service projects focus on improving schools for children and their families.
It is intended to provide preservice teachers with more field-experiences that will help them understand
how childrens home and community lives influence their behavior in school. They also gain hands-on practice
with solving social problems and teaching their students about social responsibility and activism (Freeman &
King, 2001). Preservice teachers integrate the experience into their identity as teachers by engaging in
reflection about the process.
Service-learning is one of many examples of experiential learning techniques that allow students to apply
what they have learned (Sileo, Prater, Luckner, Rhine, & Rude, 1998). Instructors can prepare students for
service-learning experiences in other courses with simulated experiences, and role-playing where students are
given case study information about a certain population and then are given a problem-solving task to work on
using that information. Classroom observations and short tutoring assignments can also be used to help students
understand the culture of the students. Finally, some programs pair service-learning with internships. Students
are required to journal about their service-learning projects and or videotape themselves in their internship.
Then, they answer a series of questions about their projects and teaching that help them critique and improve
61
their performance (Wade, 1997).
Successful service-learning projects follow a similar process of identifying the organization or program to
work with; meeting with the stakeholders to identify the goals of the project; creating a contract that outlines
each persons responsibility; and completing an evaluation that explains how meeting the project goals
impacted the stakeholders and any changes that need to be made in the future to sustain or improve the project
(Sileo, Prater, Luckner, Rhine, & Rude, 1998).
Some service-learning projects involve students in direct experiences with children and families, such as
volunteering at a homeless shelter, preschool, or nursing home. Some projects focus on gathering resources to
share with families, such as hosting a clothing drive, food drive, fundraiser, or information night for families.
Other projects focus on changing policies that will improve the lives of families, such as advocating for funding
and for social and educational services in the state budget (Freeman & King, 2001; Freeman & Knopf, 2007;
Freeman & Swick, 2003; Seitz, 2005).
Programs benefit from the projects by having more people on hand to design, develop, and implement
projects that support families. Teachers can assign student projects to lead or use the students to do things in the
classroom that allow teachers to do projects outside the classroom and meet with families (Briody, 2005).
Children and families receive more individualized attention from program staff to successfully resolve
problems and issues. Interacting one-on-one allows staff to understand the needs of the families and build
authentic relationships based on mutual trust (Brown, 1998).
Students learn how to work with families, engage in civic actions and model civic responsibility for their
students. Students who have participated in service-learning projects have reported that they have a better
understanding of social issues and different cultures. They also gain organizational, collaboration, and
problem-solving skills (Daniels, Patterson, & Dunston, 2010).
The current study will examine how preservice teachers assisted high-quality preschool programs to
provide expanded services to low-income families. The researcher studied three programs that varied in the
types of support services they provide for families and a number of university interns (preservice teachers) in
the program to determine the effect these programs have on educational and employment outcomes for children
and families.
Method
Subjects
Fifteen teachers and directors at three preschool programs that vary in geographic location, level of family
support services, and number of interns were interviewed for the study. The preschool programs in this study
serve families that qualify for childcare subsidies from the DHS (Department of Human Services) and
participated in the QRIS (Quality Rating and Improvement System) project in Kalamazoo County. Thus, each
program had teachers that wanted to provide more social support and educational services to the families in
their programs.
Procedure
Each staff member participated in a 60-minute interview about their perceptions of the WMU (Western
Michigan Universitys) internship program, families experiences with the program services, overall level of
student performance and program quality.
62
Instrumentation
The interview consisted of 16 questions that prompted staff to share perceptions of the WMU internship
program, families experiences with the program services, overall level of student performance, and program
quality (see the participatory evaluation interview in Appendixes 1 and 2).
Design
This program evaluation used a participatory model. The staff were guided through a self-study approach
to evaluate the success and shortcomings of the components of their programs based on their perceptions of the
educational and employment outcomes for their programs. Each program was evaluated individually and not
compared to other programs.
Analysis
The researcher studied the notes from the interviews and labeled all program activities mentioned by the
staff as a quality improvement activity or a parent program activity. The next step was to tally the number of
professional development and parent program activities for each center. The centers were classified as having a
high amount of activity, if they had three or more activities in the professional development or parent program
activity category and low if they had two or less, activities in those categories. The results for each center are in
the Table 1.

Table 1
Amount of Program Quality Improvement and Parent Program Activities
Program Quality improvement activities Parent program activities
A High High
B High Low
C Low High
Results
Program A had a high amount of quality improvement activities. It was involved in a local QRIS project
that required that each teacher write a quality improvement plan and be assessed to determine if the
implementing the plan increased quality over a one-year period. The program also was preparing for their
re-accreditation visit by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. The teachers were
adapting a new literacy program and participated in intensive coaching with Early Reading First staff. They
also requested early childhood education interns from the university to provide more individualized instruction
to the children in the program.
Program A was part of a larger non-profit organization that served homeless families and families that
have been victims of domestic violence. Therefore, their mission is to serve families in need. As a result, their
parent program activities were high. They implemented Parents as teachers, a parenting skills program. They
provided free tuition for homeless families and employment assistance through a program called Grow to
learn. They had a parent advisory group that gave input on center policies and programs. They also offered
parent training through monthly parent meetings.
Program B also had a high level of quality investment activities. Like Program A, they participated in
QRIS and Early Reading First and requested interns from the university to improve delivery of instruction. In
addition, they set a goal to have all staff get their Child Development Associate credentials and were supporting
63
each other in achieving that goal.
The only parent support activity Program B offered was providing parents information about community
services when requested. Therefore, Program B was rated as having a low amount of parent program activities.
Program C had low amount of quality improvement activities. They were only involved in the QRIS and
Early Reading First program.
Program C was a church-based childcare center. The church offered many services to church members and
the neighborhood. Families at the center were invited to participate in job training programs, career fairs, and
two long-term parenting support groups. Program C reported that all families at the center had at least
one-parent that was fully employed.
Conclusions
The program that used interns and was linked to a larger service organization was most effective and
providing a high-quality preschool program and parent support services. A significant amount of the children in
the program are living in poverty and the center has been able to obtain additional resources to meet their
needs.
All three programs serve low-income families and could benefit from having students participate in
service-learning projects. Program B could have students focus on projects that increase parental involvement,
such as organizing parent meetings and information fairs. They could also work in the classroom with the
children while the teacher makes home visits or meets with parents.
Program C could have students in the classroom to provide more individualized instruction and develop
curriculum materials that would improve program quality. Students could also provide teachers with more time
to pursue additional training and national program accreditation.
All programs expressed interest in working more with students. The two centers that had interns shared
that the interns had a positive impact on the program quality. The students have rated their internship
experiences at the centers positively and shared that they learned an enormous amount of information about
cultural diversity and supporting families.
The next step is to develop a service-learning project with local childcare programs that would focus on
providing support services for families. This would be for students in the young children, their families, and
society course. The preschool internship would continue to focus on improving program quality.
References
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Long-term outcomes of early childhood programs (pp. 25-50). Princeton, N. J .: Center for the Future of Children.
Bartik, T. J. (2011). Investing in kids: Early childhood programs and local economic development. Kalamazoo. M. I.: W.E.
Upjohn Institute for Employment Research.
Bolivar, J. M., & Chrispeels, J . H. (2011). Enhancing parent leadership through building social and intellectual capital. American
Educational Research Journal, 48(1), 4-38.
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26, 149-155.
Brown, B. (1998). Service learning: More than community service. Columbus, O. H.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career and
Vocational Education. (ED4216401).
64
Daniels, K. N., Patterson, G., & Dunston, Y. (2010). Rules of engagement: A service learning pedagogy for pre-service teacher
education. Journal for Civic Commitment, 15, 1-16.
Frede, E. C. (1995). The role of program quality in producing early childhood program benefits. The Future of Children, 5(3),
115-132.
Freeman, N. K., & King, S. (2001). Service learning in preschool: An intergenerational project involving five-year-olds, fifth
graders and senior citizens. Early Childhood Education Journal, 28(4), 211-217.
Freeman, N. K., & Knopf, H. T. (2007). Learning to speak with a professional voice: Initiating preservice teachers into being a
resource for parents. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 28, 141-152.
Freeman, N. K., & Swick, K. J . (2003). Preservice interns implement service-learning: Helping young children reach out to their
community. Early Childhood Education Journal, 31(2), 107-112.
Love, J . M., Kisker, E., & Ross, C. M. (2002). Making a difference in the lives of infants and toddlers and their families: The
impacts of early head start (Vol. I: Final Technical Report). Princeton, N. J.: Mathematica.
Nelson, A. (2006). Closing the gap: Early childhood education. Info Brief, 45, 1-8.
Peisner-Feinberg, E. S., Burchinal, M. R., Clifford, R. M., Culkin, M. L., Howes, C., Kagan, S. K., & Yazejian, N. (2001). The
relation of preschool child-care quality to childrens cognitive and social developmental trajectories through second grade.
Child Development, 72(5), 1534-1553.
Seitz, H. (2005). Community engagement project for preservice early childhood students. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher
Education, 26, 297-304.
Sileo, T. W., Prater, M. A., Luckner, J . L., Rhine, B., & Rude, H. A. (2011). Strategies to facilitate preservice teachers active
involvement in learning. Teacher Education and Special Education, 21(3), 187-204.
Wade, R. C. (1997). Empowerment in student teaching through community service learning. Theory into Practice, 36(3),
184-191.
Watson, D. (2011). Urban, but not too urban: Unpacking teachers desires to teach urban students. Journal of Teacher Education,
62(1), 23-34.
Appendix 1: Participatory Evaluation Interview
Participatory Evaluation Interview
Defining Outcomes
As part of the QRIS your program was assessed and rated as a (provide the star rating and definition of star level). Is this the
rating you expected for your program? Why?
What other measures would you use to define quality for your program? How would you rate your program on those
measures?
Your program uses the OWL curriculum. The Early Reading First coaches assessed your students progress in literacy to
measure the impact of the curriculum and their program. About what percentage of your student performed at the level of
meeting expectations? Are these results what you expected? Why?
What other measures do you use to assess your students performance? What percentage of your students is meeting
expectations on those measures?
In this economy, particularly in Michigan, many families have a parent who is looking for work. What percentage of the
families in your class has a parent that is looking for work? Does this percentage seem low, average, or high to you? What types
of concerns do these families share about their job searches? What types of concerns do these families share about their economic
situation?
WMU Interns
The WMU internship program is a partnership that was designed to benefit the childcare center and WMU. The benefit for
WMU is having a field practicum site and qualified mentors for its students. The benefit for the childcare center is having
additional support in the classroom to provide individualized instruction to young children. How many WMU interns have you
had in your classroom?
Describe the strengths and shortcomings of the WMU intern program.
What impact have interns had on childrens educational outcomes?
What impact have interns had on the quality of the childcare program?
Family Programs
List all the programs your center offers families.
65
What are the goals and functions of each program?
Describe the strengths and shortcoming of each program.
What percentage of families in your classroom consistently participates in at least 1 program? Is this level of participation
what you expect? Why?
What impact have the family programs had on families employment outcomes?
What impact have the family programs had on childrens educational outcomes?
Is there anything else you want to share about your program or the families?
Appendix 2
Participatory Evaluation Interview Coding Sheet
QRIS program quality outcome Below average Average Above average
Agreement with rating level No Maybe Yes
Other program quality outcomes None 12 More than 3
Other program quality rating level Below average Average Above average
OWL assessment ratings Few Some Most
Agreement with OWL assessment ratings No Maybe Yes
Other child assessments None 1 3 More than 4
Other child assessments rating level Few Some Most
Percentage of parents looking for work Few Some Most
Perception of the percentage No Maybe Yes
Number of family concerns about looking for work None 1 3 More than 4
Number of family concerns about economic situation None 1 3 More than 4
Number of WMU interns None 1 3 More than 4
Number of strengths of internship program None 1 3 More than 4
Number of shortcomings of internship program None 1 3 More than 4
Impact of interns on program quality None Moderate Significant
Impact of interns on childrens educational outcomes None Moderate Significant
Number family programs None 12 More than 3
Number of strengths of family programs None 1 3 More than 4
Number of shortcomings of family programs None 1 3 More than 4
Number of familys that participate Few Some Most
Expectation of family participation level No Maybe Yes
Impact of family program on families employment outcomes None Moderate Significant
Impact of family programs on childrens educational outcomes None Moderate Significant
J anuary 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1, 66-72

Note on an Approach to Preventing Rank Reversals With
Addition or Deletion of an Alternative in Analytic
Hierarchy Process
Yong B. Shin
Francis Marion University, Florence, USA
Seungho Lee
Ulsan College, Ulsan, South Korea

The rank reversal phenomenon before and after an alternative is added or removed has been a debated issue in AHP
(analytic hierarchy process) for a long time. While in certain cases, rank reversal seems a naturally valid
phenomenon there are also many cases where rank should be preserved. For avoiding rank reversal phenomenon in
decision matrices where such reversals should not take place, this paper attempts to illustrate that the proposed
approach successfully addresses these rank reversal problems. By obtaining commensurate local priorities of the
alternatives in a decision matrix, the proposed approach generates more precise composite weights without
requiring any adjustment of the criteria weights as described by other literature.
Keywords: AHP (analytic hierarchy process), rank reversals, least common multiple
Introduction

Developed by Saaty (1980), AHP (analytic hierarchy process) is a very popular MCDM (multiple criteria
decision-making) tool. Over the past three decades, AHP has been applied to diverse fields of study, such as
manufacturing systems, financial industries, and pharmaceutical industries. However, AHP has also been
criticized for about the same duration for rank reversals when alternatives are added or dropped.
In the incipient critique of Saaty (1980), Belton and Gear (1983) demonstrated that rank reversal occurs
when an exact copy of an alternative is added. They attributed this phenomenon to the normalization process
that Saaty used in his distributive AHP. Instead of normalizing with column sums, they suggested normalizing
the relative values of alternatives with the largest value of each column of the matrix. Saaty (1987) later
adopted this modified normalizing technique in his modified AHP, the ideal mode AHP. However, Belton and
Gears (1983) demonstration of this phenomenon begins an incessant debate on how to improve the
normalizing techniques in a modified AHP.
In contrast to Belton and Gears (1983) exact copy, Dyer and Wendell (1985) contributed to the discussion
by testing with a near copy of existing alternatives, which also leads to rank reversal. As an alternative solution,
he suggested normalizing by subtracting the smallest value in each criterion in the decision matrix and then
dividing by the largest remaining value.
Schoner and Wedley (1993) modified the normalizing method of Dyer and Wendell (1985) by

Yong B. Shin, Ph.D., assistant professor, Department of Management Information Systems, School of Business, Francis Marion
University.
Seungho Lee, Ph.D., assistant professor, Department of Digital Mechanics, Ulsan College.
DAVID PUBLISHING
D
PREVENTING RANK REVERSALS, ALTERNATIVE IN AHP

67
implementing a linking pin. They propose that rank reversal can be solved by choosing one of the alternatives
under each criterion, usually the minimum, to be a linking cell with an assigned value of one to which all other
cell values are proportioned.
In addition, Triantaphyllou (2001) offered the multiplicative AHP to avoid rank reversals that he found in
the ideal mode AHP. However, as with all the aforementioned suggestions, the multiplicative AHP also suffers
from counterexamples (Vargas, 1997). Furthermore, prevailing counterexamples to these suggestions that lead
Barzilai and Golany (1994) to conclude that no normalization method could resolve rank reversal problems,
though the procedural issue of normalization methods is still up for debate.
Recently, Saaty and Sagir (2009) summarized the causes of rank reversal to two basic factors from
structural and functional standpointsthe method of measurement and the assumption of independence. From
these causes, they suggested that the aptness of using one AHP mode or the other (see Table 1). When one
compares alternatives dependent on one another in the matrix of relative measurement, the priority scales of
relative values can be obtained through normalization process with the distributive AHP method. Due to their
dependence, rank distribution necessarily fluctuates with the addition or omission of alternative values. In the
absolute measurement matrix, the priority scales of values obtained through the idealization process (dividing
each value by the largest value of any alternative) are independent. Therefore, in the ideal mode AHP, the
presence or absence of an alternative should not have an effect on how one rates any of the other alternatives.

Table 1
Methods Based on Structural and Functional Characteristics of Measurements
Original (distributive mode) AHP Ideal mode AHP
Assumption Dependent Independent
Measurement Relative Absolute
Distinction
Procedure
Ranks
Descriptive
Normalization
Anything can happen
Normative
Idealization
Preserve ranks

Despite of the guidelines in Table 1, rank reversals become a more critical issue, because they can take
place unexpectedly in undesirable ways. Out of the 22 case studies, Triantaphyllou (2001) found this ranking
irregularity occurs 16 times (i.e., 73%) when the original AHP is used and 17 times (i.e., 77%) when the ideal
mode AHP was used. While in certain cases rank reversal seems a naturally valid phenomenon, there are also
many cases where rank should be preserved (Millet & Saaty, 2000). However, this paper examines the cases of
rank reversal and proposes an alternative method to prevent rank reversal phenomenon in decision matrices
where such reversals should not take place.
The structure of the decision problem in AHP consists of a number (i) of alternatives and a number (j) of
criteria. Each alternative is evaluated in terms of the decision criteria and the relative weight of each criterion is
estimated as well. The weight vector of criteria (c
j
) is given by c
j
=[c
1
c
2
c
3
. c
j
]
T
.
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
ij i i i
j
j
j
ij
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
A
.....
....... .......... ..........
.....
.....
.....
3 2 1
3 33 32 31
2 23 22 21
1 13 12 11

Let us consider a decision matrix, A
ij
, having i alternatives and j criteria.
ij
represents the performance

68
value of the i-th alternative under j-th criteria.
Rank Reversals
This section describes two examples of the rank reversal phenomenon, when an alternative is added and
removed.
Example 1: When an Alternative Is Added
Saaty and Sagir (2009) presented the rank reversal phenomenon using three alternatives A
1
, A
2
, and A
3

with respect to three criteria C
1
, C
2
, and C
3
, respectively. They assume that the three criteria have an equal
weight of importance and derive a ranking for A
1
, A
2
, and A
3
. After the alternative A
4
is added, where A
4
is a
copy of A
2
, they find the ranking between A
1
and A
2
is reversed. From further analysis, they find that the
alternative A
4
, a near copy which is an alternative with priority close to A
2
at this time, could also cause rank
reversal in AHP.
According to Table 2, before A
4
is added, the ranking between A
1
and A
2
in the original decision matrix is
A
2
>A
1
. However, adding A
4
that is a copy of A
2
, changes the preference of A
1
over A
2
. The rank is reversed,
with A
1
preferred to A
2
. Also when we introduce an alternative A
4
that is a perturbation of A
2
with respect to C
1
,
identical to C
2
, and a perturbation of A
2
with respect to C
3
, we have A
1
=0.361 and A
2
=0.307, and now, A
1
is
preferred to A
2
.

Table 2
Adding an Alternative in the Distributive AHP
Addition Alternative
Criteria weights
Composite weights Rank
C
1
(1/3)
C
2
(1/3)
C
3
(1/3)

A
1

A
2

A
3

1/11
9/11
1/11
9/11
1/11
1/11
8/18
9/18
1/18
0.451
0.470
0.079
2
1
3
A copy of A
2

A
1

A
2

A
3

A
4

1/20
9/20
1/20
9/20
9/12
1/12
1/12
1/12
8/27
9/27
1/27
9/27
0.365
0.289
0.057
0.289
1
2
3
2
A near copy of A
2

A
1

A
2

A
3

A
4

1/19
9/19
1/19
8/19
9/12
1/12
1/12
1/12
8/26
9/26
1/26
8/26
0.370
0.301
0.058
0.271
1
2
4
3

Example 2: When an Alternative Is Removed
The following example involves three alternatives A
1
, A
2
, and A
3
with respect to two criteria C
1
and C
2
,
respectively. The normalized eigenvector of criterion weights are C
1
=3/10 and C
2
=7/10. Table 3 shows that
the ranking between A
1
and A
2
in the original decision matrix is A
1
>A
2
before A
3
is removed. However, when
we remove an alternative A
3
, we have A
1
=0.490, A
2
=0.510, and now A
2
is preferred to A
1
.
As is known for most multiple comparison decision-making problems, in order to get rid of the
dimensions of different decision attributes, normalization is necessary. Saaty (2006) argued that an exact
replica or a copy of an alternative should not be added to the choice set, because it does affect the choice set in
decision matrix. When a set of independent alternatives is compared in pairs, they become structurally
dependent. Also, if alternatives are dependent with criteria, anything can happen to their priorities and to their

69
ranks when new ones are added. For avoiding rank reversal when an alternative is added or removed, Belton
and Gear (1985), and Schoner, Wedley, and Choo (1993) proposed that the weights of criteria should be
adjusted when an alternative is added or removed.

Table 3
Removing an Alternative in the Distributive AHP
Alternative
Criteria weights
C
1
(3/10)
C
2
(7/10)
A
1

A
2

A
3

57/100
33/100
10/100
3/10
4/10
3/10
0.381
0.379
0.240
1
2
3
A
1

A
2
57/90
33/90
3/7
4/7
0.490
0.510
2
1

However, two examples of the rank reversal phenomenon seem to depict that the rank reversal is
presumably caused by procedural flaws of the normalization method rather than by functional aspects of the
decision matrix itself. In other words, the rank reversal seems to be caused by the normalization method of
local priorities rather than by the structural or functional alterations from addition or deletion of an alternative.
The proposed method how to preserve the ranking in these examples is described in next section.
A Proposed Method
Let us consider a decision problem, A
ij
, having i alternatives and j criteria. a
ij
represents the value of the
alternative under criteria. To obtain the local priorities of alternatives in the decision matrix, the distributive
AHP requires that one adds the measurement values under each criterion, and divides each measurement by the
sum of the measurements with respect to all other criteria. Employing the distributive AHP approach, values
under each criterion are normalized as follows:
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=

= = = =
= = = =
= = = =
= = = =
1 1
3
3
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
3
1
3
33
1
2
32
1
1
31
1
2
1
3
23
1
2
22
1
1
21
1
1
1
3
13
1
2
12
1
1
11
.....
........ .......... .......... .......... ..........
.....
.....
.....
'
i
ij
ij
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
ij
j
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
ij
j
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
ij
j
i
i
i
i
i
i
ij
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
A

The following paragraphs present the proposed approach that converts all measurement values of
alternatives to the commensurate values by multiplying a LCM (least common multiple) of all column sums of
criteria in the decision matrix (Hereafter, we will refer to proposed AHP approach as LCM mode AHP). Before
the composite weights of all alternatives are computed, a matrix, A
ij
is multiplied by L, a least common
multiple of all column sums of criteria, where:

70

= =
=
1 1 i
ij
j
a L

(1)

Therefore,
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=

= = = =
= = = =
= = = =
= = = =
1 1
3
3
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
3
1
3
33
1
2
32
1
1
31
1
2
1
3
23
1
2
22
1
1
21
1
1
1
3
13
1
2
12
1
1
11
.....
.......... .......... .......... .......... ..........
.....
.....
.....
' '
i
ij
ij
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
ij
j
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
ij
j
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
ij
j
i
i
i
i
i
i
ij
a
L a
a
L a
a
L a
a
L a
a
L a
a
L a
a
L a
a
L a
a
L a
a
L a
a
L a
a
L a
a
L a
a
L a
a
L a
a
L a
A

(2)

Now, the weight vector of criteria (C
j
) is given by C
j
=[c
1
c
2
c
3 -------------
c
j
]
T
. Then, multiplying the criteria
weight vector C
j
by the revised value matrix A
ij
yields
X
i
=A
ij

C
j
(3)

Therefore,
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
=

= = = =
= = = =
= = = =
= = = =
1 1
3
3 3
1
2
2 2
1
1
1 1
1
3
1
3
3 33
1
2
2 32
1
1
1 31
1
2
1
3
3 23
1
2
2 22
1
1
1 21
1
1
1
3
3 13
1
2
2 12
1
1
1 11
3
2
1
..........
... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ..........
..........
..........
..........
....
i
ij
j ij
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
ij
j j
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
ij
j j
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
ij
j j
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
a
L c a
a
L c a
a
L c a
a
L c a
a
L c a
a
L c a
a
L c a
a
L c a
a
L c a
a
L c a
a
L c a
a
L c a
a
L c a
a
L c a
a
L c a
a
L c a
x
x
x
x
X

(4)
Finally, the normalized composite weights of alternatives are obtained from the following equation,
T
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
X
(
(
(
=

= = = = 1 1
3
1
2
1
1
......... '

(5)

From Table 2, it is observed that alternatives A
1
, A
2
, and A
3
are normalized with different column sum
before and after the addition of an alternative A
4
. For instance, the alternative A
1
takes respectively the values
of 1/11, 9/11, and 8/18 under criteria C
1
,

C
2
, andC
3
before A
4
is added. However, its values change to 1/20,
9/12, and 8/27 with new column sums when A
4
is added. It is natural that any changes in denominators may
result in the changes of composite priorities and final ranking. We can find the similar changes in the
normalization process when an alternative is removed from Table 3. These considerations lead to the following
Theorem 1.

71
Theorem 1
Using a proposed method, the rankings are preserved by keeping their original column sums unchanged
when an alternative is added or deleted.
Ranking alternatives on a single criterion involves use of the senses and elementary reasoning and
scientific measurement. To rank alternatives on several criteria which they have in common, it is necessary to
not only evaluate the alternatives with respect to each criterion, but also evaluate the criteria themselves with
respect to higher criteria or directly with respect to a goal and then use their derived weights to synthesize the
resulting individual rankings of the alternatives to produce an overall ranking (Saaty & Sagir, 2009).
In the various forms of multi-criteria decision matrix, there is dependence not only of the alternatives on
the criteria, but also among themselves and of the criteria on the alternatives and among themselves too. It
seems to be necessary that the elements be somewhat homogeneous in order for judgments to be accurate. This
assumption that the comparison matrices are perfectly dependent leads to the following Theorem 2.
Theorem 2
Using a least common multiple of all column sums, the local priorities are re-scaled to be in terms of an
overall decision matrix unit that represents all alternatives and criteria.
Because of the converted matrix of the unified commensurate unit, rank reversal problems in the AHP can
be prevented without adjusting the weights of criteria or wondering about structural or functional dependency
and independency. To verify the validity of our proposed approach, the next paragraphs present the results of
LCM mode by re-examining the decision matrices used in two examples in Section 2.

Table 4
Adding an Alternative in LCM Mode Approach
Addition Alternative
Criteria weights Composite
weights
Rank
C
1
(1) C
2
(1) C
3
(1)

A
1
1*198/11 9*198/11 8*198/18 0.451 2
A
2
9*198/11 1*198/11 9*198/18 0.470 1
A
3
1*198/11 1*198/11 1*198/18 0.079 3
A copy of A
2

A
1
1*198/11 9*198/11 8*198/18 0.307 2
A
2
9*198/11 1*198/11 9*198/18 0.320 1
A
3
1*198/11 1*198/11 1*198/18 0.054 3
A
4
9*198/11 1*198/11 9*198/18 0.320 1
A near copy of A
2

A
1
1*198/11 9*198/11 8*198/18 0.318 2
A
2
9*198/11 1*198/11 9*198/18 0.331 1
A
3
1*198/11 1*198/11 1*198/18 0.056 4
A
4
8*198/11 1*198/11 8*198/18 0.296 3

Table 5
Deleting an Alternative in LCM Mode Approach
Alternative
Criteria weights
C
1
C
2

LCM
(3/10)
LCM
(7/10)
A
1
57*100/100 3*100/10 0.381 1
A
2
33*100/100 4*100/10 0.379 2
A
3
10*100/100 3*100/10 0.240 3
A
1
57*100/100 3*100/10 0.501 1
A
2
33*100/100 4*100/10 0.499 2

72
Table 4 shows that the rankings in the original decision matrix are A
2
>A
1
>A
3
before A
4
is added. Now,
the rankings are preserved as A
2
=A
4
>A
1
>A
3
and A
2
>A
1
>A
4
>A
3
, regardless of whether a copy or a near
copy of an alternative are added. In Table 5, the ranking between A
1
and A
2
in the original decision matrix is
A
1
>A
2
before A
3
is removed. When we remove an alternative A
3
, we have A
1
=0.512, A
2
=0.488, and now
A
1
is still preferred to A
2
.
Conclusions
There is little doubt that the AHP is a powerful method in multi-criteria decision-making area. It is
assumed that the AHP will be useful for many other cases, as it has been in the past. Despite this widespread
usage, the AHP still suffers from some theoretical disputes. Rank reversals have become a more critical issue,
because they can take place unexpectedly in undesirable ways. The ranks are essentially related to priorities in
the AHP. In order to drive priority vectors of alternatives, EM (eigenvalue method), geometric mean, LLSM
(logarithmic least squares method), and LSM (least squares method) have been used.
Several studies have provided convincing examples of situations where rank reversals can and should
occur. However, this paper examines the cases of rank reversal and proposes an alternative method to prevent
rank reversal phenomenon in decision matrices where such reversals should not take place. The proposed
approach in this study converts all measurement values of alternatives to the commensurate values by
multiplying the least common multiple of all column sums of criteria. It is clear that the proposed LCM mode
approach generates precise composite weights without requiring any adjustment of the criteria weights as
described by other literatures.
References
Barzilai, J ., & Golany, B. (1994). AHP rank reversal, normalization, and aggregation rules. INFOR, 32(2), 57-63.
Belton, V., & Gear, T. (1983). On a shortcoming of Saatys method of analytic hierarchies. Omega, 11(3), 228-230.
Belton, V., & Gear, T. (1985). The legitimacy of rank reversalA comment. Omega, 13(3), 143-144.
Dyer, J ., & Wendell, R. (1985). A critique of the analytic hierarchy process. Technical Report, 84/85, 4-24. Department of
Management. The University of Texas at Austin.
Millet, I., & Saaty, T. (2000). Theory and methodology on the relative measuresAccommodating both rank preservation and
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