Imperial Institute

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE
ONOGRAPHS ON MINERAL RESOURCES

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE
BRITISH EMPIRE
PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE

MINERAL RESOURCES COMMITTEE OF THE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE WITH THE ASSISTANCE
OF THE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL STAFF
SILVER ORES
BY H. B. CRONSHAW, B.A., Ph.D., A.R.S.M,
LATELY f'ROFBSSOR OF GROLOGYj UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, GALWAY
WITH TWO DIAGRAMS AND A MAP
LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W,
1921
Price 6s. net.

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE
MONOGRAPHS ON MINERAL RESOURCES
BRITISH EMPIRE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE
MONOGRAPHS ON MINERAL RESOURCES

BRITISH EMPIRE
PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE

MINERAL RESOURCES COMMITTEE OF THE
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE WITH THE ASSISTANCE
OF THE SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL STAFF
SILVER ORES
BY H. B. CRONSHAW, B.A., Ph.D., A.R.S.M.,
LATELY PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, GALWAY
WITH TWO DIAGRAMS AND A MAP
LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W.
1921
A.LL RIGHTS RESERVED
O"
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE
MINERAL SECTION
THE Imperial Institute is a centre for the exhibition and

investigation of minerals with a view . to their commercial
development and for the supply of information respecting the
sources, composition and value of minerals of all kinds.
The Imperial Institute is provided with Research Labora-
tories for the investigation, analysis and assay of minerals,
and undertakes reports on the composition and value of minerals
for the information of Governments and producing companies
and firms, in communication with the principal users in the
United Kingdom and elsewhere in the Empire.
Important minerals from within the Empire are exhibited
in the respective Courts of the Public Exhibition Galleries, and
also in the Mineral Reference Collections of the Institute.
A special staff is engaged in the collection, critical revision'
,
and arrangement of all important information^

respecting;
supplies of minerals, especially within the Enipirîn^w,nietlib<J^
:
of usage and other commercial developments.

Articleson these and related subjects are periodically
published in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, and mono-
graphs on special subjects are separately published under the
direction of the Committee on Mineral Resources.
461980
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE
Advisory Committee on Mineral Resources
The Right Hon. VISCOUNT HARCOURT, D.C.L. (Chairman).

*Admiral SIR EDMOND SLADE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. (nominated by
the Admiralty) , (Vice-Chairman).
EDMUND G. DAVIS, Esq.
*Professor C. H. DESCH, D.Sc., Professor of Metallurgy, University
of Sheffield.
*WYNDHAM R. DUNSTAN, Esq., C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., Director
of the Imperial Institute.
Captain A. L. ELSWORTHY, Intelligence Department, War Office

(nominated by theWar Office).
*Professor J. W. GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Geology,
University of Glasgow, formerly Director of Geological Survey,
Victoria, Australia.
Sir ROBERT HADFIELD, Bart., F.R.S., Past-President Iron and
Steel Institute.
ARTHUR HUTCHINSON, Esq., O.B.E., M.A., Ph.D., F.G.S., Depart-
ment of Mineralogy, University of Cambridge,
W. W. MOYERS, Esq. (Messrs. H. A. Watson & Co., Ltd.).
*J. F. RONCA, Esq., M.B.E., A.R.C.Sc., Department of Industries
'v;
and Manufactures (nominated by the Board of Trade).
*
:M.A., B.Sc., Imperial Institute (Secretary).
Members of Editorial Sub-Committet
MINERAL SECTION
Principal Members of Staff
Superintendent
R. ALLEN, M.A. (Cantab.), B.Sc. (Lond.), M.Inst.M.M.
Assistant Superintendent
S. J. JOHNSTONE, B.Sc. (Lond.), A.I.C.
Assistants
W. O. R. WYNN, A.I.C., G. E. HOWLING, B.Sc. (Lond.),
Special Assistant. Senior Assistant.
S. BANN. A. T. FAIRCLOTH.
F. H. BELL. R. C. GROVES, M.Sc. (Birm.), A.I.C.
H. BENNETT, B.Sc. (Lond.). E. HALSE, A.R.S.M., M.Inst.M.M.
PREFACE
THE Mineral Resources Committee of the Imperial Institute
has arranged for the issue of this series of Monographs on
Mineral Resources in amplification and extension of those
which have appeared in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute
during the past fifteen years.
The Monographs are prepared either by members of the
Scientific and Technical Staff of the Imperial Institute, or by
external contributors, to whom have been available the statis-
ticaland other special information relating to mineral resources
collected and arranged at the Imperial Institute.
The object of these Monographs is to give a general account
of the occurrences and commercial utilization of the more
important minerals, particularly in the British Empire. No

attempt has been made to give details of mining or metallur-
gical processes.
HARCOURT,
Chairman Mineral Resources Committee.
IMPERIAL INSTITUTE,
LONDON, S.W.y.
July 1920.
vii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
PACK
SILVER ORES : THEIR OCCURRENCE, CHARACTERS
AND USES i
CHAPTER II
SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF SILVER ORES

(a) BRITISH EMPIRE :
Europe : United Kingdom . . . .

19
Asia : India . . / . . . . .20
Africa: Rhodesia; Transvaal; Nigeria; South-
West Africa
N. America : Canada
Australasia : New South Wales
..... ; Queensland South ;
21
23
Australia
Australia
;
;
Tasmania
New Zealand
; Victoria
....
Western ;
52
CHAPTER III

(b) FOREIGN COUNTRIES :
Europe : Austria ; Czechoslovakia ;

France ;
Germany (including Silesia) ; Greece ; Hun-

gary Italy and Sardinia Norway Portugal
;
Spain Sweden ;
Asia : Asia Minor; China; Dutch East Indies;

...... ; ; ;
69
Japan Siberia ;
80
N. America : Guatemala Honduras ; ; Mexico ;
United States 87
5. America : Bolivia Chile Colombia ; ; ; Peru . 126
WORLD MAP OF SILVER DEPOSITS .... 145

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON SILVER . .
.147
ix
NOTE Numerals
: in square brackets in the text refer to the
Bibliography at the end.
SILVER ORES
CHAPTER I
SILVER ORES : THEIR OCCURRENCE, CHARACTER

AND USES
IN 1918 the British Empire produced 35,189,000 fine oz.

which was nearly one-fifth of the world's supply.
of silver,
Of amount, Canada supplied as much as 21,383,979 oz.,
this
or about 60% of the total British production, and 11%
of the world's production
The great silver-producing country of Mexico for a long time
headed the world's production, but, owing to political disturb-
ances, the output began to fall in 1911, although not to any great
extent until after 1913. By 1915 the production had fallen
to less than 23,000,000 oz., or about 3,700,000 oz. below the
output of Canada for that year. By 1917, however, the
conditions in the country had improved and the production
rose to 42,020,547 oz., and in 1918 it amounted to as much
as 62,517,000 oz. [i],
In 1919 and 1920 Mexico became the world's chief producer
with 75,000,000 and 63,750,000 oz. (estimated) respectively.
The United States headed the list as a silver producer in
1906, and from 1914 to 1918. In 1916 her production amounted
to 43 %of that of the world.
The British Empire held the third place from 1905 to 1913
inclusive, and also in 1917 and 1918, and the second place from
1914 to 1916 inclusive.
Canada is practically the only country of the British Empire
where silver ores proper are mined,, but a very large propor-
s ;
SILVER ORES
tion of the silver of that country is obtained as a by-product
from ores of lead, zinc, etc.
The world's annual production of silver from 1909 to 1913,
or for the five years preceding the Great War, averaged about
223,000,000 oz., but from 1914 to 1919 inclusive the average
was only 180,000,000 a drop of about 19% as compared
oz.,
with previous years. For two years the shortage was not
felt, owing to large stocks held, and to the comparatively
small demand for silver for coinage and other purposes ;
but in 1916 the demand had increased and the stocks had
become more or less depleted, so that the price began to rise
in that year. It continued to rise until it reached as much as 75.
6d. per oz. in February 1920, thus exceeding by 2s. per oz.
the intrinsic value of the silver in the coinage of this country.
The recent unprecedented rise in silver' was chiefly due
to the demand for the white metal in the Far East, first
from India, and latterly from China. The Indian demand
was supplied first from Shanghai stocks, and at a later date
from United States supplies. The export trade from China
has increased considerably since 1918, and to meet the balance
in favour of China, large shipments of silver have been made
from the United States.
In March 1920 silver began to decline in price, and by
December 1920 it was quoted at about 42 pence per oz., or less
than half the price reached the previous February. 1 The fall
in price was stated to be largely due to the cessation of bullion
purchase by the British Government on India account, to the

unfavourable balance of trade against India from July to
December 1920, to the unfavourable monsoon or lack of rain
during the summer and autumn of that year, and to the
substitution of paper money for the silver rupee.
WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF SILVER

The
total world's production of silver from the discovery
of America up to the year 1919 is estimated roundly to have
been about 12,600,000,000 oz.
The following table gives the annual productions for various
years since 1860 :
1 The
price per oz. on July 28, 1921, was 39 pence.
THEIR OCCURRENCE, CHARACTER AND USES 3
(e) Estimated.
[I] [2]
Variations in Average Annual Production of Silver
In the following table the average annual production for

periods of ten years (excepting 1911 to 1916), ranging from 1801
to 1916, are given :
The Ratio of the Weight of Silver produced as compared

with that of Gold
The low ratio reached during the period 1851-1860 coincided

with the discoveries of gold in California and Australia, which
added to the gold production, without a corresponding
increase in silver [3],
SILVER ORES
o o o o ô o
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M VO CO V) cooo O>M 10
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vO CO 1>
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O*42 J2
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8 8 S 8
.S.S.S 8.S
U.S.A.
Mexico
Canada
Australasia
Peru
PRODUCTION OF CHIEF SILVER-PRODUCING COUNTRIES, 1905-1918.

(Millions of Fine Ounces.)
8 SILVER ORES
VALUES OF SILVER
The ratio of the value of silver to that of gold has varied
very much from time to time, as will be seen in the table

below. Thus in ancient Arabia and Germany the value of
silver appeared to have been higher than that of gold. David
Barbour [4] remarks that:
"
In the Middle Ages the monetary standard of England
was silver, and it was not until the reign of Edward III that
a successful attempt was made to put gold coins into circula-
tion, but from that time both gold and silver coins continued
to circulate in England, the ratio of exchange between them
being declared from time to time by Royal authority. The
legal standard of the country continued to be silver, but
coins of both metals were in circulation, and were frequently
debased and the ratio of exchange altered."
In the seventeenth century both metals were of equal value

in Japan.
The variations in ratio between the values of gold and silver
in Europe are given in the following table :
Ratio of Value of Gold to that of Silver in Europe at

Different Periods [3]
Thus in 1250, 10*9 oz. of silver were exchangeable for i oz,

of gold ;
but in 1911, 38 oz. were required.
Total Sterling Values of Gold and Silver and Ratio of

Values respectively [3]
World Productions and Values of Silver from 1493

to 1911 [3]
ANNUAL VARIATIONS IN VALUE OF SILVER

In New York, quotations for silver are given in cents per
ounce Troy, 999 fine, but in London they are in pence per
ounce Troy, of standard silver, 925 fine. The following
table gives the average yearly prices of bar silver in London
from 1860 to 1920 :
io SILVER ORES
THE PROPERTIES OF SILVER

Pure white in colour and is capable of taking a
silver is
brilliant polish [5]. In the form of a very fine powder it
possesses a grey colour. It is more malleable and ductile
than any other metal except gold, and may be hammered
into exceedingly thin leaves. The tenacity of silver wire of
I sq. mm. in sectional area is equivalent to 17-27 tons per
square inch at o C. By hammering or rolling it becomes
hardened, but its softness is restored by annealing at about
200 C. It is the most perfect conductor of heat and electri-
city known, and this conductivity is increased by annealing.

The gravity of cast silver is 10-50, whilst that of
specific
molten silver is slightly lower and that of precipitated silver
slightly higher. Cast ingots of the metal are difficult to prepare
free from minute cavities. Silver crystallizes in the cubic
system, but crystals rarely occur in nature. Melting takes

place at about 1,000 C. and volatilization commences at about
1,080 C. In the molten state the metal is capable of absorbing

oxygen from the air to the extent of 22 times its own volume.
On cooling, this oxygen is violently ejected.
Silver does not oxidize in either dry or moist air at ordinary
temperatures, and only very slightly when the temperature

is raised. It is easily dissolved by nitric acid, and by hot
and concentrated sulphuric acid. Hydrochloric acid attacks
the metal only slightly. It is blackened by sulphuretted
hydrogen, and readily unites with chlorine.
THE USES OF SILVER

Silver is mainly used in the form of its alloyswith copper
for conversion into coin, plate and
jewellery. Pure silver is
too soft for the production of durable coins, ornaments, and
vessels of various descriptions, but this defect may be remedied
by alloying it with a little copper. The proportion of silver

present in 1,000 parts of alloy in the case of silver articles
is indicated by their fineness. In Great Britain all silver
coins are made of standard silver, the fineness of which, by

of pure
legal definition, is 925, but a toleration of 4 units
silver in 1,000 of alloy is allowed, i.e. a specimen passes so
THEIR OCCURRENCE, CHARACTER AND USES n
long as its fineness lies between 925 and 92 1.
1
In Germany and
in the United States all silver coins, and in France and Austria
the major silver coins, are of fineness 900, with a toleration
of 3 units. The minor coins of Austria are of fineness 375 to
520 ;
in France all silver coins under i franc contain 835 of
silver,93 of copper, and 72 of zinc in 1,000 parts. The fineness

prescribed by law or custom for silver articles is 950 in Great
Britain 800
; (5)
* n France,
750 in North Germany, 812-5
in South Germany, and 820 in Austria. Any silver-copper
alloy which contains less than 750 per 1,000 of silver tarnishes
very perceptibly in air [6].
Silver bullion is bought by the Mint and manufactured into
coin, which is kept in stock and issued as required. One
ounce of standard silver, which contains 925 parts of silver
and 75 parts of copper per 1,000 of alloy, is converted into
silver coin equivalent in value to 55. 6d., whatever may be the
market price of silver bullion. The difference between the
nominal value of silver and bronze coin and its intrinsic value
is retained by the State to cover the expenses of manufacture
and as a source of profit. The worn gold and silver coin

which is withdrawn from circulation by the Bank of England
and some other banks is received by the Mint at its nominal
value for re-coinage. It is stated that the average deficiency
in weight of worn silver coin received at the Mint is 8 to 10%
and the mean age somewhat less than 50 years [7].
Of all the alloys of silver the silver-copper alloys are by
far the most important. The addition of small amounts
of copper to silver lowers its melting-point, prevents it from
effervescing on solidification, enables sound castings to be
made, and makes it harder, without sensibly impairing its
malleability or altering its colour. Silver also alloys with
lead, bismuth, mercury, gold, zinc, and other metals.
Electro-plating is carried out in cyanide baths containing about
3 oz. of potassium cyanide and i oz. of silver per gallon of water.
Oxidized silver is ordinary silver-copper alloy which has
been coated with a thin film of silver sulphide by immersing
1 The
silver circulation of the United Kingdom is ^60,000,000. Coins of
a fineness of 500 and of the value of ^5,000,000 were put into circulation in
December 1920.
12 SILVER ORES
in a solution of sodium sulphide. Silvering calls for the use
of thin sheets of silver or of certain compounds of silver.
Amongst the many other uses which have been found for
and its compounds may be mentioned the employment
silver
of colloidal silver in medicine, and that of silver oxide for
imparting a yellow colour to glass. Silver nitrate in a fused
condition constitutes the lunar caustic of pharmacy fur- :
thermore, it is used as a marking-ink, as a constituent of

certain hair dyes, and is largely employed in photography
and medicine.
THE SILVER-BEARING ORES
Following the precedent set by the United States Geo-
logical Survey in its Annual Reports of the Mineral Resources
of that country, silver-bearing ores may be grouped under
the following heads :
1. Dry or Siliceous Ores, comprising gold and silver ores

proper, associated with very small amounts of copper, lead
and zinc.
2. Argentiferous Copper Ores, with over 2j% copper.
3. Argentiferous Lead Ores, with over 4^% lead.
4. Argentiferous Zinc Ores, with over 25% zinc.
5. Mixed Ores, comprising mixtures

of types I to 4.
It is clear, therefore, that any account of the occurrence,
distribution, and metallurgical treatment of these ores which

carry silver must necessarily extend over a very wide field.
Most ores of lead contain silver, and the metal is frequently
present in ores of zinc and copper, as well as occasionally
in ores of iron, nickel, cobalt and bismuth.
SILVER ORES PROPER
The more important silver minerals

following table gives the
together with their chemical composition :
Native silver Ag
Argentite . Ag2 S
Cerargyrite (Horn silver) AgCl
Proustite (Light-red silver ore) 3Ag2 S.As 2 S 3
Pyrargyrite (Dark-red silver ore) 3Ag2 S.Sb 2 S 3
Polybasite ....
Stephanite (Brittle silver ore)
Tetrahedrite (Fahlore)
5Ag2 S.Sb 2 S 3
9(Ag,Cu) 2 S.Sb2 S 3
3 (Cu,Ag) 2 S.Sb2 S 3
In addition to the above, the following are of less frequent

occurrence :
Stromeyerite (Cu,Ag2 )S ; Pearceite, 9(Ag,Cu) 2 S,
As 2 S 3 ; Freieslebenite, 5(Pb,Ag2 )S.2Sb 2 S 3 ; Embolite, Ag(Cl,Br);
lodyrite, and the gold and silver tellurides, Hessite,
Agl ;
Ag2 Te Petzite,
; AujjTeÂgaTe Sylvanite, (Au,Ag) 3Te 4
; ;
and Krennerite, (Au,Ag) 2Te 4 .
Native Silver. Metallic silver occurs as lumps, as plate

or foil, and in strings and wiry coils. Its hardness varies
from 2j to 3, and thus, in this respect, it falls bet ween gold
and copper. Density, 10-1 to n
that of pure silver being ;
10-5. Fresh surfaces are white in colour, but tarnish to a

red, Lustre, metallic ; fracture,
brown, or blackish colour.
hackly. Fusibility, 2 (Von Kobell's scale). The native metal
contains traces of copper, arsenic, antimony and iron. It
is soluble in nitric acid, and gives a precipitate with hydro-
chloric acid.
Native silver often occurs in isomorphous admixture with
gold, copper, and -mercury, and also with antimony (Dyscrasite).
Argentite. Sulphide of silver Ag2 S (silver 87%). Crystal-
:
lizes in cubes, octahedra, and rhombic dodecahedra, but

also occurs massive. Colour and streak, a dull black or lead
grey. Lustre, metallic. Opaque. Cubic cleavage imperfect.
Fracture, conchoidal. Sectile. Hardness, 2 to 2j. Den-
sity, 7 to 7-4. Fusibility, 1-5. Yields a globule of silver
on charcoal.
Stephanite, or brittle silver ore. A sulphide of silver
and antimony, or sulphantimonite of silver ; 5Ag2 S.Sb2 S 3
(silver, 68-36). It occurs massive, or crystallized in thick
six-sided tablets, or in short prisms of the orthorhombic system.
Colour, iron-black. Lustre, metallic. Hardness, 2 to 2\.
Density, 6-2 to 6-3. Cleavage, brachypinacoidal. Fracture,
uneven to semi-conchoidal. Brittle. Before the reducing
flame of the blowpipe on charcoal it yields a metallic button.
Pyrargyrite, or dark ruby silver ore. A sulphantimonite
sul-
of silver; 3Ag2 S.Sb2 S 3 (silver 59-97, antimony 22-21,
phur 17-82%). Habit, short columnar with rhombohedral
and scalenohedral termination. Often twinned. Also occurs
massive. Cleavage, rhombohedral. Fracture, conchoidal to
uneven. Brittle. Hardness, 2 to 3. Density, 577 to
14 SILVER ORES
5-86. Lustre, metallic-adamantine. Translucent in thin splin-

ters. Colour in reflected light, black to grey-black in ;
transmitted light, deep conchoidal red. Streak, red. Fusi-

bility, I (Von Kobell). Before the blowpipe gives off dense
antimonial fumes yields a globule of silver
; when fused with
sodium carbonate on charcoal.
Proustite, or light ruby silver ore. A sulpharsenide of
silver: 3Ag2 S.As 2 S 3
(silver 65-4, 15-17, sulphur arsenic
I 9'43 %) Habit, similar to that of pyrargyrite. Also massive.
Cleavage, rhombohedral. Fracture, conchoidal to uneven.
Brittle. Hardness, 2. Density, 5-55 to 5-64. Lustre, adaman-
tine. Transparent to translucent. In reflected light, black
or grey-black; in transmitted light, almost scarlet-red. Streak,
red. Fusibility, i (Von Kobell). Heated on charcoal before
the blowpipe gives off arsenical fumes (smelling of garlic) ;
yields a globule of silver with sodium carbonate.
Polybasite. A sulphantimonite of silver and copper ;
9(Ag,Cu) 2 S.Sb 2 S 3 (silver 62 to 75%, and copper o to 10%).

Habit, thin six-sided tablets ; also in scaly aggregates.
Lustre, metallic. Colour, iron-black ;
in thin fragments by
transmitted light, Cleavage, basal and perfect.
cherry-red.
Fracture, uneven. Hardness, 2 to 3. Density, 6 to 6-2.
Fusibility, i (Von Kobell). Before the blowpipe gives off
antimonial fumes with sodium carbonate on charcoal yields
;
a globule of cupriferous silver.
Cerargyrite, chlorargyrite or horn silver. Chloride of silver :
AgCl (silver 75-3%). Habit, cubic, also massive and in

scales and plates. Colour, whitish-grey. Lustre, resinous
to adamantine. Translucent. Malleable. Sectile. Hardness,
i to 2. Density, 5-58 to 5-6. Fusibility, i, yielding a globule
of silver on charcoal.
Hessite (Ag2Te). A telluride of silver.
analysis quoted An
by Simpson gave 61-0% silver, 38-2% tellurium,
[8/p. 90],
and 8% gold. Occurs in small irregular-shaped masses.
Colour, lead-grey, sometimes with dark grey tarnish, but
usually with bright metallic lustre. It is soft (H,2j), sectile,
tough and possesses an uneven fracture. In the closed tube
it fuses readily and gives a white fusible sublimate of telluric
oxide.
(Petzite Au 2Te.3Ag2Te). A telluride of gold and silver.

An analysis quoted by Simpson [8 /p. 91] gave 41-8% silver,
33% tellurium and 25% gold. As found at Kalgoorlie,
this mineral is black in colour, with a bright metallic lustre,
which tarnishes somewhat readily on exposure to the air.
It is brittle and shows no trace of cleavage.
Sylvanite (Au,Ag) 2Te 4 A telluride of gold and silver.

.
%
An analysis of Higgins gave 36-95 gold, 8-30% silver, and
54-50% Colour, silver-white.
tellurium. Possesses a perfect
vertical cleavage and on heating fuses quietly. Monoclinic.
Krennerite (Au,Ag) 2Te 4 A
telluride of gold and silver.
.
Very similar in appearance to sylvanite, but possesses a basal

cleavage and belongs to the orthorhombic system. Moreover,
on heating it decrepitates violently.
Kalgoorlite and Coolgardite. These are undoubtedly to
be regarded as mixtures of various tellurides and not as distinct
species as was supposed by Pittman and Carnot.
"
Broadly speaking, about two-thirds of the world's silver
in 1912 was obtained from base metal ores, and one-third from
precious metal ores. Further, only one-fifth, or 20%, was
obtained from mines worked exclusively for silver, while four-
fifths, or 80%, was derived as a by-product from mines which
were worked primarily for one or more of the metals, gold,
copper, lead and zinc, and which would not have been in
"
operation if their silver had been the sole metal output
[9/P- 185].
_
When oxide of manganese is largely present in silver-bearing

ores, it makes them rebellious and difficult or even impossible
to treat economically. In numerous silver mines in the Western
States, Mexico and South America, considerable bodies
of rebellious manganese silver ores have been left unmined
"
pending the solution of the so-called manganese-silver
"
problem [9/p. 184],
Ores of this type are being investigated in Colorado under
the direction of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, and the result
is awaited with interest.
16 SILVER ORES
ARGENTIFEROUS BASE-METAL ORES
It is a remarkable fact, as demonstrated by mining experi-
ence, that the five metals, silver, gold, copper, lead and zinc,
are closely related as regards both the genesis and geological
occurrence of their ores. A
single deposit may contain the
ores of two or more of the metals in such intimate associa-
tion that they are necessarily mined together, and generally,
as in the cases of copper and silver, lead and silver, and gold
and silver, retain this association even when reduced to a
metallic condition, and are not separated until the later
stages of metallurgical treatment have been reached. In-
deed, may be said that it is most unusual to find the ores
it
of any one of these metals absolutely free from its customary

associates. Silver ores proper yield only a fraction of the
world's output of the metal, the bulk being obtained from
what are primarily to be classed as lead or copper ores.
Under modern metallurgical treatment the precious metal
may be economically extracted from ores which are really
mined for the production of lead or copper. The silver in
these cases constitutes a by-product thus the native copper
of Michigan, said to contain at the most i part of silver
per 1,000 parts of copper, yielded 509,467 oz. of silver in the

year 1918 as a result of electrolytically refining 56,127,000 Ib.
of copper. At Butte, Montana, the copper lodes contain
on an average i part of silver per 400 parts of copper, and this
silver is profitably extracted [lo/p. 163]. It is stated that
there are few deposits in which the ratio of copper to silver
is more than 5,000 : i.
Similar remarks may be applied to the intimate and very

frequent association of silver and lead. It is seldom that a
deposit of lead occurs in which the ratio of silver to lead is
less than i 10,000. In most deposits the ratio is 1 5,000,
: :
but often the amount of silver is much higher [lo/p. 164].

Silver also frequently occurs in deposits which are mined
for their gold contents or for both gold and silver. Thus,
in the Kongsberg district the proportion of silver to gold is
given as 10,000 : i ; at Freiberg, from 5,000 to 10,000 : i ;

at Schemnitz and Nagybanya, from 150 : I to i : i ; at the

Comstock, 24 : i and at Cripple Creek, i
; : 10 [lo/p. 165].
THE METALLURGICAL TREATMENT OF SILVER-BEARING ORES
Smelting. Silver alloys readily with gold, lead, copper

and a few other metals. Lead and silver obtained in smelting
argentiferous lead and other ores are separated in a cupel-
lation furnace. When the base-bullion is not sufficiently
rich in silver, the lead is first desilverized by either Pattinson's
or Parkes' process in the former by a series of fractional
crystallizations, based on the fact that crystals poor in silver

separate out from a mother liquor much richer in silver,
until the latter contains about 2% of silver.
greater The
portion of copper, nickel or cobalt separates as scum. Parkes'
process depends on the greater affinity of silver for zinc than
for lead. melted with argentiferous lead, and the
Zinc is
scum, containing a mixture of alloys of lead, zinc and silver, is

skimmed off, argentiferous lead remaining behind.
Silver separated from coarse copper by an electric metal-
is
lurgical process. Cupriferous and pyritic ores are first roasted

and then reduced to matte (a complex-artificial sulphide)
from which blister copper is obtained. Oxidized ores may
be reduced directly to nearly pure copper. Calcined ores
are made
to yield a matte, which is calcined and then fused,
producing blister copper, or the molten matte is treated in
converters. In pyritic smelting copper matte is produced
by smelting raw pyritic ores in shaft furnaces.
Blister copper, reduced from matte, is cast anodes into
and subjected to electrolytic refining. The electrolyte used
isa solution of copper sulphate in dilute sulphuric acid. The
gold and silver collects at the bottom of the tank as a thin
mud, which is screened, dried and cupelled ;
or it is digested
with dilute sulphuric acid.
Amalgamation. This may be divided into three classes :
(i) Direct amalgamation with mercury alone (for

ores contain-
ing free silver) (2) Amalgamation

;
with mercury and certain
reagents without roasting. (It includes the Washoe process,
viz. the combination and the Boss processes) ; (3) Amalga-
i8 SILVER ORES
mation with mercury and reagents preceded by a chloridizing
roasting. (It includes the Baird, Reese-River, and the Franck-
Tina processes.)
Lixiviation. The cyanide process has largely replaced the
old Ziervogel, Augustin, Patera, Kiss and Russell leaching
processes, as well as the still older patio-amalgamation
process.
The ore crushed fine with cyanide solution (by stamps,
is
often followed by tube-mills). The pulp is concentrated

on Wilfley or other tables to remove such substances as tetra-
hedrite, galena and blende (which are smelted), and is then
separated into sand and slime. The sand is returned
to the tube-mills or is subjected to a lengthy treatment with
cyanide in specially-constructed vats. The slime is often
treated in a series of tall cylindrical steel vats (Pachuca
tanks), with cyanide solution, the pulp being agitated by
compressed air. The overflow passes from one tank to another
until nearly the whole of the silver is dissolved. The metallic
silver is precipitated from the clear 'solution either by zinc-
dust or zinc-shavings. The precipitate is screened to get rid
of any coarse undissolved zinc, and the screened product, partly
dried, is smelted, with the production of silver bullion.
CHAPTER II
(a) BRITISH EMPIRE

EUROPE
UNITED KINGDOM
THE amounts of silver obtained in recent years from ores

mined in the United Kingdom are as follow :
Oz. Or.
1914 146,444 .
75,472
1915 . . .
96,448 1918 . . .
79,645
1916 . . .
86,485 1919 . . . 68,414
No has been mined in the United Kingdom since

silver ore
1907. During 1919 there was a recovery of 134 oz. from

copper ores and 68,280 oz. from lead ores", making a total of
68,414 oz. [n].
Silver mines were worked in Britain before the invasion
of the Romans. Among the Cornish mines which produced
silver may be mentioned East Huel Rose lead mine (yield
from 1852 to 1861 was 260,721 oz.), and West Chiverton (yield
from 1866 to 1870 was 653,780 oz.). From 1852 to 1881
(30 years) Devonshire produced 31,180 tons of lead and
1,046,085 oz. of silver, but the output diminished rapidly from
1862, and in 1881 had become practically nil. The chief
producers were the Tamar silver-lead mine (yield from 1851 to
1863 was 332,204 oz.), and the Frank Mills lead mine (yield
from 1857 to 1880 was 247,151 oz.).
In 1894 the yield of silver from the North of England, Wales
(including Anglesey), the Isle of Man and Scotland amounted
to about 260,000 oz. Yorkshire and Derbyshire are not
2O SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF SILVER ORES
included in the above, as the ores from both are very poor
in silver.
Among the ores of the Parys Mountain, Anglesey, Uuestone

is of special interest as it contains 6 oz. 15 dwt. of silver per
ton, and appears to be an intimate mixture of galena, blende

and chalcopyrite. An ore of similar composition, known as
kilmacooite, occurs at Avoca, Ireland, and also contains from
6 to 8 oz. of silver per ton [12].
ASIA
INDIA
Although India the largest consumer of silver in the

is
world, no true silver ores are worked in the country, the

metal being obtained as a by-product in the extraction of lead
at Bawdwin, and of gold at Anantapur.
The values and productions of silver from 1909 to 1919
are given as follow [13] :
The first production of silver in India is recorded for the

year 1909. From 1909 to 1914 the entire output given in
the table above came from the Bawdwin mines. In 1919,
out of 2,165,607 oz., 753 oz. came from Anantapur and
from Bawdwin, the former producing since 1915.
2,164,854 oz.
The net annual average import of silver for the period
1908-13 amounted to over 62,000,000 oz., valued at over
7,000,000, so that the amount
internally produced, viz.
about 104,700 oz., was quite insignificant as compared with the
requirements, but recent production has shown a considerable
increase.
The course of the silver trade of India for three fiscal years
ending March 31 is as follows :

INDIA RHODESIA 21
During the period May, 1918 to July, 1919, large amounts of

silver were imported on Government account from the United
States under the Pittman Act. In the year 1918-19 the imports
were 122% of the world's production as against a former
annual average of 26% [14].
The silver-lead mines of Bawdwin are situated in Tawngpeng,
one of the lesser Northern Shan States of Burma. Particulars
of these mines are given in the Imperial Institute Monograph
on Zinc Ores (pp. 33-4).
AFRICA
RHODESIA
No silver minerals are known to occur in Rhodesia, but a con-
siderable amount of the metal has been
produced by the gold
mines as a by-product. The three principal mines, Falcon,
Shamva, and Rezende, in 1919 produced 65,491, 24,632 and
22,952 oz. silver respectively.
Electrum (gold-silver alloy) is present in a pyritic lode at the
Hanover mine, Filabusi. It occurs in thin scales associated
with pyrite, pyrrhotite, blende, galena, quartz and gold,
sometimes being present in the quartz and sometimes in the
pyrite.
In the Umtali district a number of gold mines work ores
largely or entirely consisting of sulphides. Silver is usually
present in galena and blende, and is partly recovered.

The Rezende mine, which recovers practically all its silver
from the argentiferous galena, is the most important in
the district. The Cairn Dhu mine formerly worked a richly
argentiferous and auriferous arsenopyrite lode, and recovered,
a few years ago, only 30% of its silver. Samples of arseno-
pyrite from the Bessie Reef are said to have assayed as
22 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF SILVER ORES
much as 50 oz. of silver to the ton, and at the Clutha mine
galena is stated to contain up to 400 oz. per ton. It is, more-
over, stated that on the Chefamiti claims, Lomagundi, a
lead-copper ore carries both silver and gold in appreciable
quantities. The copper matte of the Edmundian mine (ob-
tained from chalcopyrite) carries a few ounces of silver and
3| dwt. of gold per ton.
During 1920, the silver production in Southern Rhodesia
amounted to 158,982 oz., valued at 58,178, and the total
production to the end of 1920 was 2,970,827 oz., valued at
390,828 [15].
TRANSVAAL
have been formerly mined to some extent
Silver is said to
at the Albert silver mine in the extreme northern part of
the Pretoria-Middelburg area, and at the Transvaal silver
mine, where it is associated with copper and lead ores, in the
southern portion.
Silver-lead ores occur in the lodes south of the Pretoria
road, about 5 miles west of Balmoral [16].
NIGERIA
According to A. D. Lumb, silver-lead oreis known to occur
inmany small irregular deposits in the eastern part of Nigeria,

from the Afikfo district northwards into the Muri province.
The from traces up to 125 oz. per ton.
silver content varies
Owing to the pockety and irregular nature of the deposits

their value is doubtful. At Orofu in the Muri province the
natives mine lead ore on a small scale, but do not attempt to
extract the silver content, which, however, is present in small
amount.
SOUTH-WEST AFRICA [i7/p. 86]
At the Tsumeb mine, Grootfontein district, is a complex

ore deposit consisting of two large, steeply- dipping lenses,
in grey Otavi dolomite. The ore of the main bodies, as mined
in depth, is a massive coarsely- crystalline aggregate, composed
of argentiferous galena, chalcocite, and other minerals. The
SOUTH-WEST AFRICA CANADA
ore as exported contains 7-7 oz. silver per ton. Wagner
reports [i7/p. 109] that a number of veins carrying argen-
tiferous galena were discovered in 1912 at Aiais, situated a few
miles east of the Fish River, in the extreme western portion
of the Warmbad district. The country rock is granite, which
is by numerous basic dykes, and the veins appear
intersected
to be developed along certain of these dykes. A good deal of
exploratory work was done on these deposits during 1912
and 1913 by the South African Territories, Ltd., but as yet
it has not been definitely established whether the veins are
payable or not.
Argentiferous galena has also been found near Blydever-
wacht, in the south-east corner of the Warmbad district,
and an important occurrence of this mineral was opened up
some years ago in the vicinity of Swartmodder in the Maltahohe
district.
NORTH AMERICA
CANADA
silver- producing countries of the world, Canada
Amongst the
occupies at present the third place in respect to output.
The following table gives the annual productions of silver
for various years from 1887 to 1920 [18] :
1
Estimated.
From 1887 to 1893 the production ranged in value between
$300,000 and $400,000 and was derived chiefly from Ontario

and Quebec. The next three years saw a rapid increase in
output, due to the development of the silver-lead deposits
of British Columbia, and in 1896 a production of over $2,000,000
is recorded. From that year until 1905 the production varied
3
between $2,000,000 and $3,500,000, rising rapidly during the
next six years to $17,580,455 in 1910, as a result of the dis-
covery of the rich ores of the Cobalt district. Since then
there has been a gradual falling off in quantity.
The following table gives the production of silver by provinces
from 1909 to 1919 :
Production of Silver by Provinces, 1909-1919 [18]
The percentages of the total productions for each province

from 1914 to 1919 were as follow :
Exports. The table opposite gives the recent yearly

exports of silver (metallic, contained in ore, concentrate,
etc.) in ounces :
British Columbia
The total amount of silver produced in British Columbia

during the year 1919 was 3,403,199 oz., a decrease in amount,
as compared with the previous year, of 94,973 oz.
CANADA
In 1919 the Slocan district, including the Ainsworth, Slocan,
and Slocan City mining divisions, produced about 50% of the
total provincial output of silver, and the Fort Steele mining
division about 6%, all from argentiferous galena. The
remainder was chiefly derived from the smelting of copper
ores carrying silver. In all, about 75% of the total pro-
vincial output of silver comes from the treatment of silver-
lead-zinc ores, and the balance mainly from the smelting
of gold- copper ores carrying silver.
The table opposite shows the production of silver in
the various districts and mining divisions for the years
1913 to 1919.
The
following table shows the percentage of silver produc-
tion from the different mining divisions for the years 1916
to 1919 [21] :
From the above

seen that the Slocan mining division
it is
has by far the greatest output. The largest producers in the

Slocan in 1919 were the Surprise, the Bosun, the Queen Bess,
and the Standard. The total number of mines shipping from
this districtwas approximately forty.
A map,
on a scale of 50 miles to i inch, showing the distribu-
tion of the various mining divisions in British Columbia,
is published by the Provincial Department of Mines.
Drysdale [22] publishes a preliminary table of classification

of British Columbian ore-shoots. From this it would appear
that by far the greater number of such deposits were formed
1
This includes Trout Lake-Revelstoke 0-68, and others 0-99.
CANADA 27
during the late Jurassic times, closely following the enormous
intrusions of granites and diorites. A few, however, date from
Tertiary times.
The mineralized areas in the Kootenay region have prob-
ably received more attention from the student of ore-deposits
than most other similar areas within the Dominion. Drys-
dale has shown that it is possible to divideup the Kootenay
into definite metallographic belts, each characterized by the
predominance of a particular metal. Of these the best known
are the gold, silver-lead-zinc, and copper belts respectively,
and they may be traced more or less continuously from the
southern to the northern boundaries of the Kootenay district.
Furthermore, it happens that the trend and areal extent of
the different mineralized belts correspond with definite rock
formations. In the case of silver-bearing deposits the follow-
ing relationships have been established [23/p. 62] :
Within the the ore-deposits themselves are con-

belts,
fined to certain ore- zones, which, with the possible exception
of replacement deposits, strike either in an easterly or a
north-westerly direction. The position of these fissure-
zones
has been chiefly determined by the intrusion and solidification
of granite or dioritic rocks, whilst the filling of the fissures
with ore and gangue is to be regarded as the final phase of
some process of differentiation, which had yielded
magmatic
these previously- intruded igneous rocks. This will explain
how it is that the deeply-eroded portions batholiths, and the
of
rock- formations, remote from granitic or dioritic intrusives,
are seldom productive.
Slocan MiningDivision. The principal ores of this division
are complex silver-lead-zinc ores, the mining area being situated
CANADA 29
between New Denver and Silverton on Slocan Lake and

Kaslo on Kootenay Lake.
The tonnages of high-grade ore and concentrate from the
principal shippers of the division in 1918 were as follow :
Standard Silvertons, 34,727 Bosun, Sandon, 27,764

; Van ;
Roi, Silvertons, 25,278 ; Hewitt, Silverton, 19,399 ; Surprise,

Sandon, 13,998 Rambler- Cariboo, Rambler, 7,138
;
Queen ;
Bess, Sandon, 5,314 Galena Farm, Silverton, 5,250 No. i,

; ;
Sandon, 1,724. The remaining twenty mines produced 1,515

tons, making a grand total of 142,107 tons shipped.
The Standard mine, which for many years has been the
leading shipper of the Slocan, has been closed down, but
further development work is being done, so that it may
become large producer again in the near future [18].
a
Both fissure veins and replacement veins are represented
in the district, the latter occurring in the metamorphosed
limestone. In contrast with the fissure veins, the replacement
veins carry low amounts of silver and lead, and high amounts
of zinc. The main vein-fissures generally correspond in strike
and dip with the master-joints. Considerable faulting and
fracturing along certain axes of folding have taken place so
as to result in a systematic disposition. All transitions exist
from true fissure veins, with well-defined walls, to fissure
zones made up of a series of interrupted torsional or crevasse-
like fissures, in line or in echelon. The fissure veins and
zones may pass into stock-works or a series of connected
veins between the hanging and footwall fissures [23/p. 56].
An excellent geological map of the Slocan mining area
is included in the Summary Report of the Geological Survey
of Canada for 1916 [23/p. 61] Upon it are marked the positions
.
of the mines and the strike and dip of the lodes.

The district is occupied by sharply-folded metamorphosed
sedimentary rocks, known as the Slocan series, irregularly
penetrated by the Nelson granodiorite which is exposed at
the surface in large and small areas. The Slocan series is
furthermore traversed by numerous offshoots of granite
porphyry from the Nelson batholith. The eastern part of
" "
the area is bounded by outcrops of the Kaslo Volcanics
"
and the Shuswap Series."
The various rock-groups and their stratigraphical relation-
ships are given as follow :
Most of the metalliferous veins are contained within those

areas occupied by the Slocan series, which constitutes the
roof -rocks of the Nelson batholith and hence, as in most other
cases in the Kootenays, stands in intimate relationship to the
igneous intrusion.
Slocan City Mining Division. This division is situated on
the south of, and adjacent to, Slocan mining division.
the
Very little in the way of development was done on the claims
in 1919, but all such work has given very encouraging results
[18].
Skeena Mining Division. This is the largest, and as yet
the most important division in the North- Western district,
CANADA 31
principallydue to the operations at Anyox of the Granby

Consolidated Mining, Smelting and Power Company, which
have had a far-reaching effect on the development of mining
in the coastal region. The smelting works at Anyox were
built primarily to treat the copper ores of the Hidden Creek
mines, but also with a view to handling other Granby and

custom ores, silver being recovered as a by-product. In 1919
the tonnage treated was 647,466 tons this yielded 4,864
:
oz. gold, 348,408 oz. silver, and 19,544,588 Ib. copper.

The Skeena mining division extends for a distance of about
400 miles from Millbank Sound on the south, to the headwaters
of the Nass River on the north. It is penetrated by numerous
long, narrow inlets and is traversed from Prince Rupert

to Terrace by the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway. Con-
sidering the undeveloped nature of the region, transportation
facilities are unusually good.
A report on the Alice Arm district by J. M. Turnbull [21,
1916] indicates that in all probability this district will, in the
future, rank as an important silver-producing area. Three
types of deposits containing silver are distinguishable, viz. (a)
quartz veins of comparatively large size carrying chiefly silver.

The ore is essentially a milling-ore. These veins are associated
with, and occur in, a rock which is chiefly andesite, possibly
diabase l
The district contains the partly developed
in part.
mines, Dolly Varden and Wolf, and a number of promising

(b) Copper ores, with more or
prospects of a similar type,
less gold and silver. The characteristic mineralization is
pyrite, disseminated and accompanied by a certain amount of
chalcopyrite. These deposits are less developed and less
known or understood, (c) Small quartz veins of the fissure
type, sometimes containing high silver contents in small erratic
shoots. The ore consists of pyrite, blende, galena, chalco-
cite, and ruby-silver, in a quartz gangue. The country rock
"
is the argillite or slate formation." Little development work
has been done on any of these veins.*
The Alice Arm mineralized area lies wholly on the eastern
1 Dolerite is synonymous with diabase and is now more generally used.
2 A sample of shipping-grade ore taken from the dump of the La Rose group
gave 244 oz. silver, 18% lead and 124% zinc to the ton.
side of the great Coast Range granodiorite batholith, and is
underlaid by a series of various types of metamorphosed
sedimentary and pyroclastic rocks, into which have been
intruded various kinds of igneous rocks. The geology of the
districthas not yet been systematically worked out.
The Boundary-Yale District. The Boundary- Yale district
includes the following mining divisions Greenwood, Grand :
Forks, Osoyoos, Similkameen, Nicola, Vernon, Kamloops,

Ashcroft and Yale. In 1919, the total output of the district
was 282,131 tons, which contained silver, 231,599 oz. gold, ;
33,526 oz. ; copper, 3,835,516 Ib. ; lead, 77,259 Ib. The

ores largely consist of low-grade gold-copper-silver ores. Two
extensive copper-smelting plants were in operation for treatment
of these ores one, at Grand Forks, owned by the Granby
;
Consolidated Mining and Smelting Company of Canada,

Ltd., and the other, at Greenwood, owned by the Canada
Copper Corporation, Ltd. The Granby smelter dealt with
ores from the Granby mines at Phoenix, whilst the smelter
at Greenwood dealt with ores which came chiefly from the
Mother Lode mine in the Greenwood mining district, but also
to some extent from other sources.
In 1916, the Granby smelter treated 1,097,299 dry tons of
ore, derived from the Phoenix mines, and the following amounts
of metals were obtained Copper, 15,992,476 Ib.
:
silver, ;
204,779 oz nne
-
gld, 36,801 oz. fine. The value in silver and
i
gold per ton is given as $0-779, an(^ * ne amount of copper

recovered per ton of ore was 14-6 Ib.
In 1917, the smelter operated by the Canada Copper Cor-
poration, Ltd., at Greenwood, treated 196,856 tons of ore,
obtaining 4,247,316 Ib. of blister-copper, 9,582 oz. of gold,
and 46,355 oz. of silver. Of the total amount of ore,
I 76,392 were obtained from the Mother Lode mine,
tons
2,155 tons from the Sunset mine, 243 tons from the Oro
Denoro mine, and 675 tons from the B.C. mine. The
remainder, 17,391 tons, was derived from various outside
sources.
Both smelters are now closed, and mining at Phoenix has
ceased in consequence.
Ainsworth Mining Division. The Ainsworth mining division
CANADA 33
lies on the east side of the Trout Lake and Slocan mining
divisions, and includes Duncan Lake and the northern portions
of Kootenay Lake.
The ores mined are largely of the silver-lead type, consisting
chiefly of galena with some blende and occasionally a little
pyrite and chalcopyrite.
Fort Steele Mining Division. The Fort Steele mining
division occupies the extreme south-eastern corner of British
Columbia ;
its silver production is obtained from argentiferous
galena.
The mine has produced by far the largest tonnage
Sullivan
in the Kootenays,and is being operated by the Consolidated
Mining and Smelting Company. The smelter receipts for the
year 1919 show 14,890 tons of silver-lead ore treated, which
yielded 126,446 oz. silver.
During the same year shipments of argentiferous lead ore
amounting to approximately 776 tons were made from the
St. Eugene property, the yield being 13,383 oz. silver.
CoastDistrict. The Coast district includes the mining
divisions of Victoria, Alberni, Clayaquot and Quatsino, which
are situated on Vancouver Island New Westminster and
;
Vancouver, on the adjacent mainland and Nanaimo, which

;
covers a large area on the mainland, and the north-east coastal

belt of Vancouver Island.
The ores of the Coast district are of the copper-silver-gold
type and essentially of a low-grade character. Usually they
consist of magnetite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and pyrite.
Two principal types of ore-deposits are distinguishable, viz.
the contact-metamorphic type, and the composite lode type.
The first of these is represented by ore-bodies which occur in
zones at or near the contact between metamorphosed limestone
and igneous rocks. These ore-bodies have irregular lens-
shaped outlines and are scattered. In composition they are
characterized by the presence of magnetite, pyrrhotite, chalco-
pyrite and pyrite in a gangue of garnet, epidote and calcite,

with varying amounts of tremolite and hornblende. Those
deposits which are situated at the contact contain a higher
percentage of magnetite and pyrrhotite, whilst those which
occur within the zone of metamorphism, but at some dis-
tance from the actual contact, contain a higher percentage of
pyrite and chalcopyrite.
The second type is represented by mineralized shear-zones
in igneous rocks. Along these lines of disturbance, the
secondary production of hornblende appears to be common.
The ores consist of sulphides of iron and copper, together with
magnetite, which varies in amount and may be absent, in a
siliceous gangue consisting of comminuted country rock.
Victoria Mining Division. Three distinct types of ore-
deposits are represented in the division the composite lode
type, occurring in shear-zones in the Sooke gabbro, on Sooke
peninsula the Tyee type, occurring on Mount Sicker
; and ;
the contact type, occurring on Mount Gordon and the Koksilah

River. Brewer describes several properties which have not,
as yet, been adequately developed [21/1916, p. 309].
Alberni Mining Division. Although there are many
places at which mineralization occurs within the Alberni
mining division, only a small amount of development work
has so far been carried out, principally due to the low-grade
nature of the ore, which contains small amounts of copper,
gold and silver.
Clayoquot Mining Division. Only one group of mines, the

Indian Chief group, is reported as having shipped ore in 1919.
The mineral localities within this division were examined by
Brewer in 1916 [21/1916, p. 327]. In manner of occurrence and
composition, the ore-bodies resemble those in the Alberni
mining They are essentially low-grade copper-
division.
silver-gold ores consisting of chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, pyrite

and magnetite. The deposits belong to the replacement type
and are found within crystalline limestone and along shear
zones in igneous rocks. The gangue usually consists of garnet,
epidote and calcite. The division is well supplied with safe
harbours and good wharf sites.
Quatsino Mining Division. No shipments of silver-bearing
ore were recorded for the year 1919. Up to the present time
lode-mining operations are confined to the neighbourhood of
the south-east arm of Quatsino Sound [21/1916, p. 337].
Nanaimo Mining Division. Metalliferous mining in the
Nanaimo mining division at the present time is chiefly confined
CANADA 35
to the northern portion of Texada Island. During 1919

shipments of copper-silver-gold ores were made from several
mines. At the Marble Bay mine, native silver was especially
abundant in some of the lower levels far below the zone of
surface enrichment. It produced regularly during 1919.
At the Loyal mine the ore-body consists of irregular areas
of limestone, and occasionally, dyke rock, replaced by secondary
minerals, largely gar net and epidote, with some copper sulphides,
galena, pyrite and magnetite. The silver content is high,
reaching 20 oz. to the ton. This is probably due to the presence
of galena, a mineral not found in the principal producing
mines [27].
Vancouver Mining Division. There are several localities
at which very low-grade copper- silver- gold ores occur in com-
posite lodes within highly disturbed schists and igneous rocks.
Omineca Mining Division. The Omineca mining division
comprises an extensive territory, something like 58,000 square
miles, in the north-western portion of British Columbia. It
includes the headwaters of the Skeena, Fraser and Peace
rivers, Lakes Tacla, Stuart, Babine and Francois, and the
towns of Hazelton, Aldermere, Fort St. James, and Fort
Fraser.
The only portion which has so far produced silver-bearing
ores is the Hazelton-Telkwa section. These ores include
both lead-silver and the copper-silver-gold types.
As a rule the ore-bodies in the Hazelton-Telkwa district
may be considered as small bodies of medium to high-grade
ore, as distinguished from the large low-grade ore-bodies
found in other parts of the province. For this reason this
section should prove attractive to small mining syndicates
and individual operators.
In the Hazelton-Telkwa district the important rock-groups
are the great series of pyroclastic, extrusive and sedimentary
rocks known as the Hazelton formation the intrusive grani-
;
toid rocks known as the Bulkley eruptives, and the sedimentary,

coal- bearing Skeena formation.
The rocks of the Hazelton formation consist of quartzites,
argillites and schists, as well as partly altered volcanics, and
a third class of pyroclastic rocks. Mineralization has taken
place in the Hazelton formation or in the Bulkley eruptives

at points not far removed from the contact. Shearing and
fissuring of the country rock accompanied the intrusion and
cooling of the eruptives. Mineralization represents the last
phase of the granitoid intrusives. The dykes associated with
the plutonics are probably either contemporaneous or but
slightly antecedent to the mineralizing phase.
The Bulkley eruptives are usually granodiorite, but true
diorite and quartz- diorite are often seen. Wide variations
in composition and texture are found in different places, but
at all points the rocks are easily identified. Attendant dykes
of felsite, granite porphyry, etc., are common.
Throughout the district many different types of ore-bodies

are to be found. The principal types of wide distribution
are :
composite
(a) lodes accompanied by replacement, in
"
shear- zones (b) simple lodes, or the
;
true fissure vein type,"
and (c) metasomatic deposits.
From the point of view of mineral contents the ore-deposits
of the Hazelton-Telkwa district may be broadly divided into
two groups, which, however, grade into one another. One
is the copper- silver- gold group, and the other the lead-zinc-
silver group. The predominating minerals in the first group
are chalcopyrite, pyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, and bornite,
and in the second, galena, blende, tetrahedrite, stibnite,
and very subordinate amounts of chalcopyrite, pyrite, arseno-
pyrite and native silver. As a rule the silver content is at
but higher and lower ratios
least i oz. to the unit of lead,
than this are common. Usually the blende does not carry
much silver. Tetrahedrite, on the other hand, is nearly
always high in silver. Stibnite, found principally in the
claims of Nine- mile Mountain, stands in much the same relation
to silver content as does galena.
properties of the district were examined by
The mineral
Galloway in 1916 [21/1916, p. 92].
Windermere and Golden Mining Divisions. A
small amount
of silver is obtained from silver-lead ores occurring in the
Windermere- Golden division. At the Paradise mine, in
the Windermere mining division, the ore
probably replaces
limestone in a sheared zone between limestone and quartzite.
CANADA 37
From a shipment in 1919 some 2,000 tons of ore from an

average of about 25 %
lead and 25 oz. silver per ton were
obtained. At the Lead Queen the country rock is quartzite,
and the ore, which is galena, is stated to contain 30 to 40 oz.
per ton in silver, and from 65% lead. These examples are
fairly typical of other ore-bodies, which are at various points
within this region. Some of these are described in the
annual reports on the Mineral Production of Canada [18].
Trail Creek Mining Division. The silver production of this
division is confined to the Rossland mining camp, which is
described by Drysdale [28] and by Bruce [21/1916, p. 214].
The following three groups shipped gold- silver- copper ores
during 1916 to 1918 :
From 1894 to 1914 the total production in silver of the

Le Roi group amounted to 1,148,362 oz.
From 1894 to 1914 the total production in silver of the
Centre Star- War Eagle group was 1,082,499 oz The ore from
-
the Centre Star claim itself would perhaps average 0-6%

copper, 0-3 oz. silver and $7 to $10 in gold per ton.
At the town of Trail are situated the extensive smelting
and refining plants of the Consolidated Mining and Smelting
Co., of Canada, which produce the following refined metals :
gold, silver, copper, zinc, lead, as well as copper sulphate,

sulphuric acid and compounds of arsenic and antimony. Since
the company took over the plant in 1894, over 5,000,000
tons of ore had been treated up to 1917, with a gross yield
of 27,500,350 oz. of silver. In addition to the ores from
Rossland, a large tonnage of custom ore is treated.
The Rossland area is occupied by a complex of igneous
rocks of Carboniferous age, designated the " Mount Roberts
Formation." The igneous rocks include augite-porphyrite,
of Carboniferous age, monzonite, Nelson granodiorite, and
pulaskite, along with minor intrusions of porphyry and lam-
prophyre.
The Rossland ore consists mainly of pyrrhotite and chalco-
pyrite, associated with a gangue of altered country rock,
containing some quartz, and locally a little calcite. The ore-
deposits of the producing belt at least are replacement lodes,
along fissures and shear- zones. In the South Belt and within
the augite- porphyry are lodes of pyrite and marcasite, with
arsenopyrite. Silver may be the most important metal in
such lodes.
The Nelson Mining Division. The three principal mining
areas within this division are the Ymir, Sheep Creek and Nelson
camps. The most important properties are described in the
Annual Reports on the Mineral Production of Canada [18],
whilst Drysdale deals with the Ymir Camp in considerable
detail [22].
The ores are of various types and include those of gold-silver,
lead-silver, and gold-silver-copper.
In the Ymir area the lodes occur in the granitic rocks of
the Nelson batholith, in small intrusions of monzonite, and
within the metamorphic rocks of the Pend d'Oreille and Ross-
land groups. The ores containing silver essentially consist
of galena, pyrite and blende. Some of these ores contain
gold. At present very little mining is done in the Ymir
area. Without doubt many undiscovered veins are still
hidden under the thick cover of wash and drift in certain
promising belts. It is recommended [22/p. 62] that veins
parallel to those of the main producers of the past should be
sought after and many of the abandoned barren veins should
be tested further for the occurrence of ore- shoots at
geologically favourable localities.
South-Eastern Cassiar. An account [24/p.7o] is given
by Camsell
C. of the results of a geological reconnaissance,
carried out in 1915 in the little-known region, lying north of
the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, and between 124 and 126
long, and 54 and 56 lat. This region includes the basins of
Stuart, Trembleur, and Takla lakes of the Fraser River drainage
system, and the headwaters of the Omineca, Manson and Nation
rivers of the Peace River system.
CANADA 39
Parts of the area investigated showed evidence of important

mineralization and are worthy of more serious attention.
Although fairly high-grade gold- and silver-bearing quartz
veins are known to occur, no lode mining has yet been attempted
owing to the high cost of transportation. Camsell considers
that portion occupied by the slates, schists and associated
rocks of the Omineca district as presenting the most favourable
conditions for the occurrence of ore deposits. These rocks
are penetrated by igneous intrusive rocks and are traversed
by mineralized veins of quartz.
Ontario
The silver produced in Ontario is obtained from silver-

cobalt-nickel ores occurring in narrow, but rich veins, closely
associated with sills of quartz- diabase which are intruded into
a complex of rocks of pre-Cambrian age. Most of the silver
comes from the immediate neighbourhood of the town of
Cobalt, but small amounts are also produced at Gowganda
in South Lorrain. The following are the productions of
silver from the four mining districts of Ontario, and from
by-products in 1919 :
Cobalt ....
Casey Township
Fine Oz.
10,315,889
171,278
Gowganda 722,564
South Lorrain 4,586
Recovered from gold ores . 92,675
nickel-copper refining 56,260
Total .
From 1866 to 1903 considerable quantities of silver were

obtained from the district about Port Arthur, Lake Superior,
and particularly from the Silver Islet mine situated on a small
island f mile from the western shore of Lake Superior, and
near Port Arthur. When the mine was abandoned in 1884,
work had been carried to a depth of 1,160 feet, and it is estimated
that $3,250,000 of silver had been extracted [30].
Below is given a list of the mines or companies which, in
1919, produced more than a quarter of a million ounces of
4
silver with their individual contributions. Unless otherwise
indicated, these mines fall within the Cobalt district proper.
Other producing mines in 1919 were Adanac, Cham-

silver :
bers- Ferland, Keeley, Temiskaming, Provincial, Silver Queen,

Crews-McFarlan (Gowganda), Tretheway, Green Meehan,
Foster, Hargrave, Hudson Bay, Copper Cliff, Penn- Canadian,
Peterson Lake, Currie, Right- of- Way and Waldman.
Table I (p. 41) gives the shipments of ore, concentrate and
silver bullion from the Cobalt silver mines from 1909 to 1919.
The figures take no account of inter- camp movements, but
include all shipments to outside points, whether in Ontario
or the United States. The diminution in raw ores sent out,
and the increase of concentrate and bullion will be noted.
Table II (p. 42) shows the quantity and value of all the
constituents recoverable and recovered, in the ores of the
Cobalt campsince 1909.
At the beginning of the silver-mining industry, in 1904, the
entire output was sent to smelters in the United States. After-
wards concentration methods were introduced, which were
followedby the establishment of refineries within the province.
At a number of the mines themselves, smelting and cyanidation
processes were introduced for the production of merchantable
bars, and custom concentration and reduction plants were
erected. As at the Nipissing mine, special methods of ore
treatment were devised, and the introduction of the flotation
process enabled large quantities of low-grade material to be
concentrated. Out of the total quantity of silver contained in
the product of the cobalt mines in 1917, namely 19,401,893 oz.,
14,504,681 oz. were refined at the mines in Cobalt or in Ontario
works, being about 75% of the whole. The silver-cobalt
refineries in operation during 1919 in Ontario were The
:
CANADA
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CANADA 43
Deloro Smelting and Refining Co., Ltd., at Deloro the ;
Coniagas Reduction Co., Ltd., at Thorold the Metals

;
Chemical, Ltd., at Welland, and the Standard Smelting and

Refining Co., Ltd., at Chippawa.
Results of Operations of Ontario Silver-Cobalt Refineries, 1919
[29]
In Cobalt camp itself, the Nipissing, O'Brien and Buffalo

mines produce bullion from their own ores, and the first-named
also from purchased ores. There are two plants which
concentrate ores purchased for the purpose, or act as custom
concentrators. These are the Dominion Reduction Co., and
the Northern Customs Concentrators, Ltd. The former
produces bullion, the latter concentrate only. In 1919, the
various reduction works at Cobalt produced 1,666,135 oz silver.
-
The silver deposits at Cobalt, Gowganda, Shiningtree Lake and

at other points, are associated with sills of quartz-diabase. The
veins on Florence Lake, which carry no silver and only traces of
cobalt, but a considerable amount of chalcopyrite and quartz
rather than calcite, are associated with a sill which is partly
a quartz-norite. The veins occurring in North Williams,
Dufferin, and Browning townships, containing a little smaltite,
cobalt bloom, stibnite, galena, etc., and little or no silver, are
also associated with a sill intermediate between a quartz-
diabase and a quartz-norite. As far, then, as present experience
in northern Ontario goes, typical silver cobalt veins are to be
expected in association with sills of quartz-diabase and not

with sills of quartz-norite. The distribution of these two
rock-types is, accordingly, a matter of economic importance
[3I/p. 121].
Cobalt District. The Cobalt district lies about 330 miles
due north of Toronto, and midway between Lake Ontario and
Hudson Bay. According to the geological maps published by
the Department of Mines of Ontario, the district is occupied
by those subdivisions of the pre-Cambrian designated the
Keewatin and Lower Middle Huronian formations, which
consist of conglomerates, quartzites and various members
of a metamorphic complex. These rocks are cut by intrusions
of diabase, and in places are overlaid by Niagara limestones.
The more common minerals of the remarkably rich veins
mined in the Cobalt district are the arsenides of cobalt and
nickel, smaltite with some Moanthite, cobaltite and niccolite,
associated with native silver. Less frequent are native bismuth,
pyrargyrite, proustite, dyscrasite, argentite, millerite, with oc-
casional arsenopyrite and tetrahedrite. Pyrite, galena and
blende are sometimes found in the wall rocks. The gangue
minerals are calcite with a little quartz, but both are subordi-
nate constituents in the rich parts of the veins. Calcite veins
often serve as leaders which are followed in searching for the
valuable ore. The cobalt-bearing veins are indicated at the
"
surface by the pale reddish- blue colour of cobalt bloom."
The great majority of the veins are very narrow cracks, each
a fraction of an inch in width, filled with calcite. They are
generally vertical, but seem to be rather irregular in strike,
and pass without interruption from the Huronian into the
underlying Keewatin. Also they traverse the intrusions of
diabase. For considerable distances they may be quite barren
of metallic minerals, and may pass into a series of parallel
fractures, one of which will carry ore. Portions rich in ores
may be from 4 to 8 inches in width, and, in exceptional cases,
more than a foot for short distances, carrying a solid mass of
cobalt and nickel arsenides, more or less impregnated with

native silver, and with a rather subordinate amount of gangue,
mostly calcite with sometimes a little quartz. The linear

CANADA 45
extent of the pay portions of the veins is not great and does
not generally exceed a few hundred feet. The very rich ore,
which carries 2,000 to 6,000 oz. per ton, does not extend, as a
rule,more than 200 feet in depth.
It seems probable that the veins at Cobalt, as they exist at
the present day, represent merely the roots of what was
formerly a much more extensive system. Denudation has appa-
rently removed the upper portions. The genesis of the minerals
is evidently bound up in an intimate fashion with the intrusion
of the post-Huronian diabase eruption. It is interesting to

note the similarity of these deposits with those of Kongsberg in
Norway [32].
Gowganda. The first- discovered silver- bearing vein in the
Gowganda district was Gowganda Lake in 1908.
found east of
The production during 1919 from the district amounted to
722,564 oz., of which the Miller Lake O'Brien mine produced
708,872 oz. The discovery of high-grade silver ore on the
O'Brien property at Miller Lake was made in 1916, and during
1917 the Gowganda district received considerable attention
from mining companies in search of new properties, no
doubt as a result of this discovery. In the same year
a small production was recorded from the Reeve-Dobie
mine.
The Gowganda mining division forms a part of the great
pre-Cambrian peneplain of northern Canada and is occupied

by a complex of gneisses, schists and igneous rocks, whose
stratigraphic relations are given as follow [33] :
Pleistocene Unconsolidated gla-

cial till, stratified
clay and sand.
Post-Huronian intrusions . OH vine diabase, quartz

diabase and aplite.
f Lorrain series Quartzite, arkose and

(Upper or Middle) quartz conglomerate.
Huronian K
Pre-Cambrian Cobalt series Conglomerate, grey-
I (Middle or Lower) wacke, slate and
arkose.
Rhyolite and rhyolite

tuff.
Great unconformity.
Laurentian batholithic in- Hornblende and bio-
trusions . . . tite granites, grano-
diorite and syenite
and their gneissic
Pre-Cambrian (con- ^ equivalents.
United)
Keewatin . . . Basic and acid vol-
canic and intrusive
rocks, and various
schists.
The crystalline basement and mantle of Huronian sediments

are penetrated by dykes and sills of quartz-diabase and quartz-
norite. As a rule the dykes do not exceed 100 feet in width ;
the sills attain thicknesses up to 500 feet or more and are many
square miles in horizontal extent. The dykes are vertical,
and more numerous in the crystalline basement than the m
Huronian formation. The
on the contrary, are found
sills,
only within the Huronian. Between quartz-diabase and

quartz-norite all intermediate gradations are to be observed.
An exhaustive study of the various modifications included
under the head of quartz- diabase has led Collins [3i/p. 97] to
the conclusion that a quartz- diabase magma gave rise to the
following differentiation products :
(1) A diabase series.
(2) An aplite series.

(3) Calcite.
(4) Quartz- calcite veins carrying silver, cobalt and other

ores, that occur along with the diabase sills.
Practically all the veins at Gowganda occur within the
quartz-diabase sills. They are sharply-defined fissures rarely
2 feet wide and usually less than one foot. The dip is vertical
or nearly so. Generally speaking, there does not appear to be
any common trend to the veins in any one area or in the
region as a whole.
The veins contain native silver, smaltite, niccolite, and
chalcopyrite in a gangue of calcite and quartz. Native bismuth,
pyrite, specular haematite, stibnite and galena are less constant
constituents. The carmine stain of cobalt bloom is one of the
most conspicuous signs whereby the veins may be recognized.
The mineral constituents of the veins are believed to represent
a late differentiation product from the quartz- diabase magma.
CANADA 47
South Lorrain. The production of silver for the year 1919

in South Lorrain amounted to 4,586 oz., the chief operating
company being the Pittsburg-Lorrain Syndicate, working on
the Currie mine. The Keeley mine, formerly one of the chief
producers, has been reopened and an 80- ton mill is being
constructed.
The manner of occurrence of the ore deposits within the
South Lorrain area is similar to that at Cobalt. The veins
occur chiefly in the diabase and in the Keewatin near the
contact with the diabase.
Quebec
The small quantity of silver recorded as produced in Quebec
is obtained from the pyritic ores mined at Eustis and Weedon,
in the Eastern Townships, and the lead-zinc ores of Notre-
Dame des Anges, Portneuf County. The productions for the
years 1915-1920 were respectively :
78,809 ; 58,054 ; 96,620 ;
142,829 ; 127,223 ;
and 57,514 fine oz.
Yukon
The annual productions of silver from Yukon for the years
1909 to 1919 are given below :
[18]
The
greater part of the total output is derived from alluvial
workings, the rest being recovered from the gold and copper
ores of Whitehorse and the silver-lead ores shipped from
Mayo. In the former case the silver occurs alloyed with the
placer gold. On an average, about one ounce of silver is
contained in each 5 oz. of crude bullion from the alluvial
workings. In 1916 about 13% of the total output was
contributed by lode mining. In 1909 the whole of the silver
was derived from placer deposits, the first output from lodes
being in the following year.
Mayo Area (Duncan Mining Division). This area includes
the town of Mayo on Stewart River, and lies within the western
portion of Duncan Creek mining district. Cairnes examined
and reported on the area in 1915 [24/p. 10], So far, prospectors
have been mainly occupied with placer deposits, with the result
that very inadequate attention has been given to the occurrence
of lodes. In addition, there is a heavy mantle of superficial
deposits, which obscures the underlying bedrock in most
places. This bedrock mostly consists of mica-schists and
quartzites, with crystalline limestones, and is believed to be
of pre-Cambrian age. At certain points intrusions by granite,
rhyolite, and greenstone have taken place.
The most important lode deposit so far discovered is a rich
silver-lead vein on Galena Creek. Other veins are known
carrying gold, silver, lead and zinc minerals but in most
;
cases they have not been developed, and very little is known
concerning them.
Galena Creek. The ore of this mine consists chiefly of galena
and ruby silver, with pyrite. Samples assayed at the Govern-
ment Assay Office, Whitehorse, Yukon, were found to contain :
Whitehorse Mining District. In this district silver is re-

covered from gold and copper ores. The latter are chiefly
associated with magnetite and generally occur as contact-
metamorphic deposits in limestone at its contact with granite.
Conrad Mining Division. The Conrad mining division lies
on the northern side of the Atlin mining division of Northern
British Columbia, although, geologically speaking, the two
divisions are inseparable. Two subdivisions are recognized,
the Wheat on area and the Windy Arm area.
CANADA 49
Wheaton Area. Practically the entire area is believed to

be underlaid by the granite rocks of the Great Coast Range
batholith, which outcrop over the greater part of the area.
In addition, there are various groups of sedimentary, meta-
morphic and igneous rocks. The following is given as the
stratigraphic relations of these rock-groups .
Formation. Wthological character.

Kainozoic . Various volcanic rocks and minor
intrusive rocks, with tuffs and
breccias.
C Coast Range intrusive Granitic and dioritic intrusive

rocks. rocks, volcanic rocks with tuffs
and breccias.
Laberge series Shale, sandstone, ~arkose, grey-

Mesozoic
wacke, conglomerate and brec-
Probably corresponds Conglomerate with sandstone,

to the Kootenay shale, and seams of coal.
.....
.
Palaeozoic Limestone, pyroxenite.

Pre-Cambrian (?). Mt. Stevens group Various schists and gneisses.
The silver-bearing ore deposits are of three principal types,

viz. :
(a) Gold-silver veins.

(b) Antimony-silver veins.
(c) Silver-lead veins.
Veins of the gold-silver type are widely distributed in

Southern Yukon. The more important occur on Mount
Anderson, Mount Stevens, Wheaton Mountain, Gold Hill,
and along the south side of Watson River to the north of
Hodnett Mountain. The ore-bodies are chiefly in the coast
range intrusive rocks, but also in the schistose members of
the Mount Stevens group. Within the granitic rocks the
deposits are generally of the simple lode type where the ;
country rock is made up of schists, however, the gold-silver

ores have been deposited in lens-shaped masses and irregular
fissures. The most important constituent is galena. Pyrite
and chalcopyrite occasionally exist in small amounts. The
gangue consists of quartz, with which is usually associated
'
calcite in subordinate amounts. The most important mines

so far prospected are the Buffalo Hump, the Tally-Ho and
the Whirlwind, all of which lie within the big bend of
Wheaton River.
The antimony-silver veins occur chiefly on the western or
north-western slope of Carbon Hill facing Wheaton River.
The country rock is for the most part the Coast Range granitic
intrusive, but occasional veins are found in the Mesozoic
andesitic rocks, which are older than the former. The mineral
contents are stibnite, galena, tetrahedrite, blende, and in
some cases arsenopyrite, together with quartz and smaller
amounts and barytes. Some of the lodes contain
of calcite
important amounts of silver, but these are

generally low
in antimony, and those rich in antimony are as a rule
low in silver. In a few places, however, both silver and
antimony occur together in important amounts.
Veins of the silver-lead type are limited in their occurrence
in the Wheaton district, so far as is known, to one small area
situated on the east slope of Idaho Hill, facing Annie Lake.
It isdoubtful whether, under existing conditions, they are of
any considerable economic importance.
Windy Arm Area. The southern portion of this district,
the Windy Arm area, was described by Cairnes [23/p. 34] in
1916.
Caribou, a point on the White Pass and Yukon Railway,
serves as a distributing centre for the Windy Arm area. All
the properties are quite readily accessible and practically all
are situated at distances of from J to 4 miles from Windy Arm,
and at elevations of from 1,200 to 3,600 feet above it. Thus
aerial tramways for conveyance of ore to the water's edge for
shipment or treatment have been or can be readily constructed.
The ores chiefly consist of pyrite, galena, arsenopyrite,
pyrargyrite and argentite, in a gangue of quartz, and generally
carry fairly high amounts of silver and gold.
Locally, the country is made up of porphyrites, andesites,
basalts and tuffs, which comprise a portion of the Windy Arm-
Conrad series. The ore deposits are fissure veins, which,
with one exception, intersect andesitic rocks.
The exception is the Big Thing, which is about 5 J miles almost
due south of Caribou. The ore occurs in a fissure vein which
CANADA 51
intersects granitic rocks of Jurassic or Cretaceous age, and is
composed dominantly of quartz, pyrite and some disseminated

arsenopyrite, as well as occasional particles of chalcopyrite,
galena and stibnite. The vein, which is usually 2 to 8 feet in
thickness, although in places it becomes as much as 12 feet thick,
is chiefly of value for its gold content, but also contains some
silver. The Montana mine is situated about 3 miles south of Big
Thing. The ore occurs in a fissure intersecting basalts, ande-
sites and related rock-types, thought to be of Cretaceous or
Jurassic age. The M. and M. vein outcrops on the left bank

of Pooly canyon near the top of the hill. The vein occurs as
a fissure in andesite, and is in most places from 6 to 12 inches
in thickness. The ore consists of pyrargyrite, stephanite,
freibergite, tetrahedrite, and blue and green copper carbonates
in a gangue of quartz. This deposit is especially rich in silver.
Venus No. i and Venus No. 2 are adjoining properties. A
considerable amount of mining has been carried out on the
latter. Some small shipments of ore were made in 1916 ;
the ore consists mainly of galena, pyrite and some jamesonite,

yukonite, chalcopyrite and chalcocite in a gangue of quartz.
The gold and vary greatly. In most places
silver contents
the vein carries from less than one ounce to over 100 oz.
of silver per ton, and from a trace to about $100 in gold.
Where the ore is unaltered, it contains up to 15% lead, and
from a trace to nearly i% copper. A shipment of 300 tons of
sorted ore averaged about $70 per ton. The vein occurs as
a fissure traversing andesites, and the mineral contents have
a banded and comb structure. To a certain extent, replace-
ment of the wall rock has also occurred.
The Dail and Fleming group comprises a number of claims
located along the west side of Windy Arm, immediately to
the south of the Venus No. 2. Three principal veins have
been found, known as the Venus, Humper and Red Deer,
respectively.
The Venus vein isthe same as the one developed on the
Venus No. 2 mine. In the weathered portion, pyrite, arseno-
pyrite, galena, yukonite, together with realgar and orpiment
are noted as occurring. The average silver content is believed
to be generally under 10 oz. per ton, but varies from less than
an ounce to over 100 oz. The gold content averages in value
about $15 per ton, whilst that of the lead ranges from about
$i to $30 per ton.
The Humper vein is of the fissure type and traverses
andesitic rocks. The thickness of the vein is from 10 to 24
inches in most places where explored, and the ore consists of
argentite, pyrargyrite, stephanite, galena, pyrite and some
native silver in a gangue of quartz. Parts of the vein, at
least, are very rich in silver.
The Red Deer vein is also a fissure in andesitic rocks. Where
exposed it is found to carry pyrite, galena and various high-
grade silver minerals in a quart zitic gangue. Very little is
known concerning this vein.
Nova Scotia
In Nova Scotia there are some argentiferous galena deposits

near East Bay and at Musquodoboit, which have been
intermittently worked.
AUSTRALASIA
New South Wales
Most of the silver extracted from ores mined in New South

Wales is contained in ores of the silver-lead type, and the
Broken Hill mines are by far the largest contributors. A
small amount of the metal, however, was obtained from the
copper ores raised by the Great Cobar mine.
Only a small fraction of these ores receive metallurgical
treatment at works within the confines of the State the ;
major portion of ores and concentrate is either forwarded

to oversea countries, or else these have their silver contents
extracted in other States of the Commonwealth.
Silver is recorded as having been produced in 1919 at two
smelting works in New South Wales. One of these, the
Electrolytic Refining and Smelting Co., of Australia, Ltd.
at Port Kembla, produced 114,081 oz. silver. The other,
that of the Sulphide Corporation, Ltd., at Cockle Creek,
Boolaroo, furnished 1,108,102 oz. silver [34].
AUSTRALASIA 53
The following table gives the productions of silver in New

South Wales from 1910 to 1919 :
Estimated Quantity and Value of the Silver yielded by the Mines

of New South Wales
[34]
Broken Hill Mines. The famous silver-lead-zinc deposits

of the Broken Hill district are situated within the Albert
mining district and about 15 miles from Silverton, a town
lying near the western boundary of New South Wales. The

first discoveries in the district, namely, of cerargyrite, were made
in the year 1884, and from 1889 to 1896 the Broken Hill Pro-
prietary, Ltd., the most important of the operators, produced
over 2,000 tons of silver. By the year 1915 the total output
of silver Company had reached approximately
by this
177,000,000 oz. was stated at the 39th ordinary general

It
meeting on June 12, 1919, that the reserves of the Broken

Hill Proprietary Co., Ltd., were estimated in December, 1918,
at 1,095,015 tons of ore of an average assay value of 6*7 oz.
silver, 12-8% lead, and
n-6% zinc. Details concerning
the operations of the other companies engaged in the exploita-
tion of the metalliferous deposits are given below. In 1918
the ore raised from the mines on the Broken Hill field amounted
to 1,251,161 tons. A serious strike reduced the 1919 output
to 415,400 tons.
The district consists of an ancient and highly contorted
complex of gneisses, quartzite and mica-, hornblende- and
garnet- schists, into which are intruded dykes of basic diorite.

These rocks are covered in greater part by sedimentary de-
posits of recent and Pleistocene age. The ore-bodies are con-
formably intercalated in the metamorphic complex, and the
principal deposit is in the form of a saddle. The foot-
wall is generally sharply denned, but on the hanging-
wall side, the ore and country rock pass insensibly into
one another. The principal oxidized ores are limonite,
haematite, psilomelane, rhodonite, cerussite, cerargyrite,
native silver, together with kaolinized felspar, garnet,
etc. At greater depths this association passes into sulphide
ores, consisting principally of a coarse-grained mixture
of galena and blende. In addition one finds quartz, garnet,
felspar and rhodonite, and, more seldom, pyrite, chalco-
pyrite, arsenopyrite and fluorspar. The average ore contains
5 to 7 % lead, 14
"
to 30 %
zinc, and 5 to 38 oz. of silver per ton.
High-grade dry ore," consisting of kaolin with some quartz
and garnet, contains 4 to nearly 300 oz. silver per ton, whilst
" "
low-grade dry ore usually has 5 to 40 oz. silver per ton.
No general agreement has been reached on the subject
of the genesis of these ore-deposits. There are typical
contact minerals present, but these are older than the ore-
deposits.
The following details of the output of the various companies
engaged in the exploitation of the Broken Hill deposits
have been taken from the Annual Report of the Department
of Mines, New South Wales, for the years 1917 to 1919 [34] :
AUSTRALASIA 55
The output of the Broken Hill Proprietary Co., Ltd., to
June 1915,
2, included 176,781,329 oz. fine, of silver 102,857;
oz. gold and 1,487,640 tons of lead. 1 The total contents

;
of the crude ore, bullion and concentrate disposed of up to

the end ot 1919 by the Broken Hill Proprietary Block 14 Co.,
Ltd., are estimated at 13,993,907 oz. silver and 255,883 tons
lead. In the case of the Broken Hill Proprietary Block 10
Co., Ltd., the crude ore and products (including tailing)
disposed of were estimated to contain 38,209,213 oz. silver
and 393,586 tons lead. The output of the Central mine since
the commencement of operations by the Sulphide Corporation,
Ltd., in 1897, to the end of the year 1919, includes 41,863,181
oz. silver. The concentrate produced by Broken Hill South
Silver-Mining Co. contained 18,695,921 oz. silver. Likewise,
considerable amounts of silver have been produced by the other
companies not enumerated above. The output of the North
Broken Hill, Ltd., for the year 1919 was 53,984 tons milled,
which produced 10,890 tons of concentrate of an average assay
value of silver, 27-4 oz. to the ton lead, 63-6%; zinc, 7*5%.
;
Cobar Mining Field [35]. Considerable amounts of gold,

silver and copper, together with small amounts of lead, have
been obtained from the ore-bodies of the Cobar mining district.
By far the most important mine is the Great Cobar mine,
situated in the parish of Cobar, County Robinson, and 459
miles west by rail from Sydney. The country is composed
of sandstones and slates probably of Silurian age. The Cobar
Lode consists of large lens- shaped impregnations and replace-
ments of the country rock. No true walls exist, as is usual
with deposits of this type. The ore is largely made up of
pyrrhotite, associated with which are pyrite and chalcopyrite.
It is comparatively poor in silica and thus affords a cheap
and efficient means of extracting the gold and silver contents
of the siliceous ores obtained from the neighbouring Cobar
Peak Silver mine. During 1901-2 an electrolytic plant was
established at Lithgow for the separation of the gold and silver
and the production of electrolytic copper.
The following table gives the quantity of silver obtained
1 From information
published at time of the disposal of the company's
reduction works to the Broken Hill Associated Smelters Proprietary, Ltd.
5
from the Great Cobar mine, and the mines held in the same
interests, during various years from 1898 to 1919. (The mine
is now closed down.)
Oz. Oz.
1898 145,665 1915
1903 40,4 3 I9l6 47, 8l 9
1908 90,196 1917 45,206
1913 103,837 I9l8 38,009
1914 24,305 1919 8,594
Thequantities of silver obtained in the Cobar mining dis-

trict for the years 1911 to 1919 are represented by the fol-
lowing figures :
Oz. Oz.
1911 125,276 1916 .
47,968
1912 275,861 1917 55,923
1913 125,297 1918 98,203
1914 24,612 1919 .
18,340
1915 1,838
[34]
Yermnderie Field. A number of mines situated in the
Yerranderie division, which lies within the confines of the
Southern Mining District, raise ores of the lead-silver-gold
type. The following table shows the outputs of silver of the
Yerranderie field for various years from 1900 [34] :
Oz. Oz.
1900 58,527 1915 475,180
1905 243,403 1916 174,321
1910 783,295 1917 276,034
1913 475,866 1918 317,459
1914 520,880 1919 286,955
During the year 1919 the Colon Peaks mine raised 1,156 tons
of ore containing 110,584 oz. silver, 342 tons lead,and 178 oz.
gold; and the new Burragorang mine, 769 tons of ore con-
taining 30,856 oz. silver, 62 tons lead, and 44 oz. gold the ;
Tonalli mine 4,466 oz. and Dunn's mine 520 oz. of silver.
;
Other mines producing silver are those of Silver Peak, Silver

King and Yerranderie.
Other Localities. A few years ago a considerable quantity
of silver was obtained from ores raised by the old Conrad
mines at Howell, in the Tingha division. In 1912 these
Peak mine only.
AUSTRALASIA 57
mines yielded 395,244 oz. silver. In 1919 only 50 tons

of silver- lead ore, which after treatment gave a return
of 3,291 oz. of silver, were raised on a mineral lease which
originally formed part of the old Conrad mines. During

the same year, small amounts of ores containing silver, chiefly
of the silver- lead type, were raised in the parish of Op ton,
Burrowa division at Carboona, Tumbarumba division in
; ;
the Condobolin division ;

also in the divisions of Orange,
Sunny Corner, Leadville, and Drake. During the year
1910 the silver- lead- copper deposits of the Kangiara field
yielded 133,777 oz silver, and in 1912, 93,088
-
oz.,but in 1919
the output had fallen below 3,000 oz. silver.
In addition to the above localities, where the occurrences
are essentially of the silver- lead type, there are a large number
of places in New South Wales at which copper ores containing
appreciable amounts of silver have been found.
Queensland
The produced in Queensland is obtained as a by-
silver
product in the metallurgical treatment of copper, gold, lead

and arsenical ores. The bulk of the metal is derived from
copper and gold ores. Thus the Herberton and Mackay
fields yield copper and silver; the Cloncurry, Chillagoe,
Charters Towers, and Mount Coolon fields, gold and silver ;
the Mount Morgan and Gladstone fields, copper, gold and

silver ;
the Etheridge and Cania fields, lead and silver, and
in the Stanthorpe field, ores of copper, lead, gold, silver and
arsenic are found together.
The table on page 58 gives the production of silver in
Queensland for the years 1916 to 1919 :
Here the most important producer is the

Herberton Field.
Empress mine, which in 1918 yielded copper and silver com-
bined to the value of nearly 10,000. The second largest
producer of copper and silver is the Rio Tin to mine, Mount
Albion, where the silver content amounts to about 514 oz.
per ton of copper and 90 oz. per ton of ore. The proportion
of silver at the Richard's Queen mine averages 146 oz. per
ton of copper.
Production of Silver in Queensland, 1916-1919 [36]
Including 10,082 from Brisbane district.

1
Cloncurry Field. This is by far the most important copper-

producing centre in the State. Returns of the total mineral
output for the field for 1918 show that 189,219 tons of copper
ore were treated at the various smelters on the field, for a
f copper, 3,851 oz. of gold, and 19,362
yield of 11,625 tons
oz. silver. Some
8 tons 3 cwt. of silver ore, treated at the
Sulphide Corporation Works, yielded 10,124 oz silver. -
Stanthorpe Field. Practically the whole of the silver out-

put of thisfield comes from the Silver Spur mine, in County
Clive. In 1918 this mine produced, besides some gold and
copper, 24,239 oz. silver and 21 tons lead. The lode was
discovered in 1890, and during the period 1892-1913 a total
of a over 2,000,000 oz. of silver was produced.
little The
predominant country rock is described as a fine-grained,
slaty mudstone, and an intrusion of diorite occurs in the neigh-
bourhood of the ore- deposits, which are confined to lines of
crush and possess a general lenticular shape. The ore consists
of chalcopyrite, blende, pyrite, galena, quartz and calcite.
The amount of silver recovered averages 22 oz. per ton of
ore [37].
At the Comet mine the ore consists of arsenopyrite with
varied amounts of galena, chalcopyrite, wolframite and
AUSTRALASIA 59
cassiterite. Two samples gave 10 oz. and 28 oz. of silver
respectively. Similar associations of minerals carrying a little

silver occur at the Orient and Gibbinbar mines, and in the
neighbourhood of Sundown and Ballandean. Gold, silver

and arsenic are associated in the Norton Arsenical Goldfield,
the ore containing about 5 oz. silver per ton [38].
Ether idge Field. In this district practically the whole of
the silver obtained from silver-lead ores. The principal
is
producers of silver-lead ores during the year 1918, arranged

in order of importance, are the Queenslander, Aspasia, Percy
River Copper Co., Dry Hash, Southern Cross Extended, and
Mount Jackson mines.
Chillagoe Field. Here the only important producer of gold
and silver is the Tyrconnell mine, at Kingsborough. During
the year 1918 this mine yielded from 3,550 tons of ore raised,
3,725 oz. gold and 1,758 oz. silver.
Charters Towers. The silver is obtained as a by-product
from gold and other ores.
The Mount Cannindah mine and the mines
Gladstone Field.
at Glassford Creek yield copper, silverand gold, whilst the
Mircam mine yields copper and silver.
Mount Coolon Field. Here small quantities of silver are
associated with the gold. The principal workings are at the
Native Bear mines.
Mackay Field. A small quantity of silver was, in 1918,
obtained from two copper mines, viz. Mount Flora and Pine
Vale.
Cania Field. [39] The Mount Prospect silver-lead lode
is situated 4 miles by road south-east from Cania, and 116
miles by rail from the port of Rockhampton. The oxidized
galena ores contain about 44% lead and 55 oz. silver per ton.
The ore is principally galena and the lode occurs in granite.
In 1918 work was confined to opening up the lode, but in
absence of a treatment plant, only the sorted higher grade ore
can be marketed. The returns for February 1919 show 171 oz.
silver and one ton of lead from 5-7 tons of ore.
It is stated that ore containing silver and lead has been dis-
covered in the parish of Jondaryan, County Aubigny, Darling
Downs [40/p. 117]. Also, a silver-lead deposit is reported
6o SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF SILVER ORES
as having been discovered on Finney's Hill, Indooroopilly.
Twelve tons of ore gave a return of 1,245 oz. silver and 8 tons
of lead. In addition J ton of galena gave 138 oz. silver
[40/p.i35].
South Australia
True silver ores do not occur in South Australia, but a small
annual output is recorded as a by-product from the smelting
of copper and lead ores. The ores of the Wallaroo and Moonta
district furnish the bulk of the production, although small
quantities are also obtained from argentiferous galena. The
total production of silver from 1910 to 1919 is given as 25,889
oz., valued at 3,340, and
of silver-lead ore as 1,623 tons valued >
at 28,800. The following table gives various outputs and

values of silver and silver-lead ores from 1907 to 1919 :
Production of Silver and Silver-lead Ores in South Australia
[41]
The following table gives the silver production at Wallaroo

and Moonta from 1909 to 1916 :
1909
1910
1911
1912
The Silver-Lead Deposits [41]. Taken individually the

mines of South Australia have in general yielded
silver-lead
but small amounts of silver, and have shown no inclination
towards continuous production. Mining operations have
been carried on in a somewhat desultory fashion. This
AUSTRALASIA 61
observation applies more particularly to those which have been

active at various times during the past ten or twenty years.
The old silver-lead mines of the Glen Osmond group, situated
in the Mount Lofty Ranges, were the first mines to be worked
in South Australia Wheal Gawler, opened in 1841, is possibly
the oldest mine in Australia but little has been done on these
since the early days and nothing at all during the last twenty-
seven years. Mining operations are conducted on a small
scale, having suffered from want of capital. Many of the
deposits do not appear to have been adequately tested.
Most of them occur as fissure-veins, although, at Ediacara,
for example, argentiferous galena occurs disseminated through
a gently-inclined bed of crystalline limestone of about 18
inches in thickness. The fissure- veins are generally narrow,
but tend to occur in groups.
The silver-lead lodes are confined to the complex of Cambrian
and pre-Cambrian rocks which has an extensive distribution
in the southern part of the State, as will be seen in the Mines
Department's geological map [43]. More particularly they
show a disposition to fall within three areas, viz. (a) the district
immediately to the south and east of Adelaide (6) the country
;
between Lakes Frome and Torrens and (c] the neighbourhood

;
of Olary. Thus the Aclare, Wheal

Coglin, Commonwealth,
Mount Malvern, Oli vaster, Yattagolinga, Talisker mines and
the Glen Osmond group would fall within the first district ;
the Avondale and Williams mines belong to the second district ;
and the Commodore, Perseverance, Uncle Tom, and Wincklen's

mines are situated comparatively near Olary.
In general, it may be said that the Cambrian and pre-Cam-
brian rocks which have not so far been differentiated at most
points consist of a highly disturbed series of mica-schists,
quartzites, crystalline limestones and dolomites, and various
types of gneisses, penetrated by a variety of igneous rocks [44]
[45].
As already mentioned, the chief constituent of the silver-
bearing deposits is argentiferous galena. The content in lead

variesfrom about 10 to 70%, the average being about 45%.
The amount of silver varies considerably, being from 2 to 40 oz.
per ton.
Tasmania
The productions of silver-lead ores in the whole of Tasmania
for recent years are as follow :
1 Oz. silver.
[46]
North Pieman, Huskisson and Sterling Valley District [47].

This district forms a portion of the west coast mining region
and occupies the south-eastern corner of Russell County. The
ore deposits can be classified as :
(a) silver-lead veins ; (6)
pyrite and galena replacement bodies ; (c) galena-blende-

chalcopyrite deposits, and (d) chalcopyrite veins. Silver, in
varying amounts, is associated with galena and chalcopyrite.
The silver-lead veins consist of galena, blende, pyrite, with
a littlearsenopyrite and chalcopyrite. The gangue is quartz.
The veins are of the tabular-fissure type and occur in sheared
graphitic slate, near its junction with the porphyry intrusions.
The average width of the lodes is about 4 feet.
The district is occupied by the West Coast conglomerate,
the Read-Rosebery schists, the Farrell slates and the Dundas
slates and breccias, all of pre-Silurian age, in addition to pre-
Silurian felsites, keratophyre and porphyries. Within the
igneous rocks the lodes carry chiefly chalcopyrite, whilst in the
sedimentary rocks near the contact, blende, galena and pyrite
predominate.
Rosebery District [48]. In the Rosebery district the silver
of the zinc-lead sulphide ore-bodies amounts to about 10 oz.
per ton of ore, and is associated with galena and tetrahedrite.

Scamander Mineral District [49]. This district lies on the
east coast of Tasmania and on the north side of St. Mary's
railway station. It is occupied by Ordovician slates and sand-
stones intruded during Devonian times by granite and granite
AUSTRALASIA 63
porphyry. The silver-bearing ores consist of pyrite, arseno-

pyrite, galena, blende, chalcopyrite and gold in varied amounts,
and occur in lodes which occupy the coastal zone, chiefly in
granite porphyry. To the west of this zone is another charac-
terized by lodes of chalcopyrite and pyrite carrying smaller
amounts of silver. The Scamander silver-mines in 1911 were
reported as having been abandoned.
Zeehan Field [50]. This area is occupied by Palaeozoic sedi-
ments, with spilites, tuffs, gabbro-amphibolite, and the granite
massif of Mount Heemskirk which has played an important
part in the genesis of the lodes. The ores, which consist of
argentiferous galena and pyrite with various amounts of
blende, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, siderite and stannite, occupy
simple fractures and crush-zones in the Silurian rocks. The
first discovery of mineral wealth was made in 1882, but serious
operations were not begun until 1890. During the next few
years mining was very activei the most prominent mines being
Zeehan-Montana, Zeehan- Western and Oonah. At 300 to 400
feet,however, the lodes began to be unremunerative, causing
most operations to be suspended. In 1898 the works of the
Tasmanian Smelting Company were erected on the Zeehan-
Strahan Railway, two miles from Zeehan.
Gladstone Mineral District [51]. The township of Gladstone
lies on the north-eastern corner of the island. The gold of the
Royal Tasmanian field at Gladstone, as is usual in Tasmania
when in close proximity to the granite, is accompanied by a
considerable proportion of silver. Assays show an irregular
proportion of gold to silver. Samples from Fleming's Reef in
the new shaft have given as much as 4 oz. silver to 10 oz. gold,
and as little as I oz. silver to 8 oz.
gold per ton.
In the Portland district and in the Portland gold mine, four
miles north-east of Gladstone, the silver exceeded the gold
content two or threefold. This mine is now abandoned.
In the slate country north-east of Gladstone and west of the
Great Mussel Roe a group of gold-quartz reefs occur which
carry small quantities of gold and silver with arsenopyrite,
galena and blende. No work had been done in depth.
Mount Lyell [35]. The pyritic copper deposits at Mount
Lyell, operated by the Mount Lyell Mining and Railway Co.,
Ltd., on the west coast of Tasmania, are richer in silver and
"
gold than is usually the case with the so-called intrusive
pyrite deposits." The ore-deposits consist of two types (i)
mineralized bands of schist and great lens-shaped masses of
(2)
very pure sulphide ores. Of the latter there are two main
ore-bodies. The average silver content, according to Peters,
was estimated at 3 oz. per ton. Actual work has proved that
the ore treated up to the end of September 1902, viz. 1,320,131
tons, yielded an average of 274 oz. silver per ton. The 1918
and 1919 outputs were 320,344 and 266,864 oz. respectively.
Middlesex and Mount Claude Districts [52]. These districts
are situated in the southern part of the county of Devon,
which occupies the north central part of Tasmania. Stated
in very general terms, the area consists, geologically, of a mass
of Devonian granite, intrusive into Silurian limestone, and pre-
Silurian conglomerates and slates. In addition there are rocks
of a felsitic affinity, as well as lavas and tuffs of Tertiary age.
Lodes carrying argentiferous galena and chalcopyrite occur
at Round Hill, at Wilmot Valley, near Bell Mount, and at the
Thistle, Union and other mines in the vicinity of Lorinna.
The silver content of the lead ores in the district is varied.
A range has been observed from J oz. to 10 oz. of silver per unit
of lead, the higher ratios being yielded by ore verging on tetra-
hedrite. The gold content ranges from a trace up to 25 dwt. per
ton. In some of the lodes of the region silver is found in
association with wolfram.
The Round Hill mine is owned and operated by the Round
Hill Silver and Lead Mining Co. The ore consists dominantly
of galena, with abundant chalcopyrite and a little pyrite, blende
and siderite as common associates. The following table gives
the statistics of the production of the mine from 1907, when
operations were first commenced by the present company [53] :
AUSTRALASIA 65
Victoria
According to the Annual Report of the Secretary for Mines

for 1918 the whole of the silver produced since 1900 has been
extracted from gold at the Mint in Melbourne. No silver-lead
ore has been raised in Victoria since that date.
Thetotal amount of silver extracted from gold at the Mint
in Melbourne up to the end of 1918 was 1,424,299 fine oz.,
valued at 215,123, and the total amount derived from other
sources amounted to 30,577 fine oz., valued at 7,880. The
total quantity of silver-lead ore raised to the end of 1918 was
793 tons, valued at 5,760.

In the year 1917 it is stated that 7,669 fine oz. of silver, valued
at 1,406, were extracted from gold at the Mint [54]. The
year 1918 produced 6,333 fine oz. (value 1,319).
Western Australia
Apart from the gold and silver tellurides of the Kalgoorlie

goldfield, silver minerals have only been recorded on rare
occasions in Western Australia. The small annual production
of the metal is practically all obtained as a by-product from
the metallurgical treatment of gold, and to some extent of
copper ores.
Up to the end of 1919 the total value of the silver produc-

tion in the State amounted to 496,812, which appears particu-
larly insignificant when compared with the total gold pro-
duction of 140,729,627.
Kalgoorlie Goldfield [8]. It is stated that the average
Kalgoorlie ore contains about i oz. of silver for every 2 oz.

of gold. The silver is combined with the gold, or, in rare
instances, exists as chloride. The weathering have
effects of
been the complete oxidation of pyrite and other sulphides,
and the oxidation of all the tellurides with liberation of free
gold and silver.
In the unoxidized ores, gold and silver occur as free native
gold carrying a little silver, as pure telluride of gold (cala-
verite), as pure telluride of silver (hessite), and as tellurides
of both gold and silver (petzite, sylvanite and krennerite).
Silver production of Western Australia, obtained as By-product

and exported
Phillips River Mining District [56]. The Phillips River

mining district lies within the boundaries of the Oldfield
district, which comprises part of the south-western portion
of the State. The
lodes consist of fairly regular bodies of
copper ore, carrying small amounts of gold and silver. The
country rock is chiefly gneissic granite with some dioritic
gneisses.
Yilgarn Goldfield [57]. The gold of the Mount Jackson
and Greenmount and probably other mining centres in the
Yilgarn goldfield, carries small amounts of silver. Thus the
total yield of fine silver up to 1908 from the Mount Jackson
centre was 2,305 oz., and from the Greenmount centre 664 oz.
Kanowna District in N.E. Coolgardie Goldfield [58]. Up
to 1908 the Kanowna mining centre produced a total of 2,412
oz. silver, and the Gindalbie 38 oz. silver.
Silver-Lead Deposits
It is reported [59] that a lode containing silver-lead ore was

discovered in the country lying between the Davis and Oak-
over rivers, at a point 90 miles from Marble Bar and 60 miles
from Wallwal, on the seaboard. The lode is stated to have
been traced for 9 miles. A parcel of about 3 tons of ore
AUSTRALASIA 67
assayed 50% lead, 6-85 oz. silver, and 2*62 % copper per ton,
valued at about 21 per ton.
New Zealand
Practically the whole of the output of silver in New Zealand

results from the metallurgical treatment of the gold occurring
in the Waihi-Tairua and Thames goldfields, situated in the
Hauraki Peninsula, North Island.
Silver ores proper apparently have not been discovered in
commercial quantities in New Zealand, although there are
several places at which important deposits of silver-bearing
lead and copper are stated to occur.
*
Quantities and Values of Silver exported from New Zealand

for various Years since 1902 [60]
In the Waihi goldfield the unoxidized ore consists of

quartz, manganiferous calcite and mineralized porphyrite,
with a varied percentage of pyrite, blende, galena, chalco-
pyrite and argentite. The gold-fineness of the electrum
from the ore of the Waihi mine is 0-645. This electrum is found
in the veinstones either in a very fine state of subdivision
enclosed in the various sulphides, or is sparsely disseminated
through the oxidized ore. Tellurides of gold and silver occur
in the Silverstream, Old Maratoto, and other mines at Maratoto.
These consist mainly of hessite, with probably some admix-
ture of petzite. Argentite occurs throughout the sulphide
ores of Waihi, Golden Cross, Maratoto, Komata and Kharga-
mata. Other minerals are pyrite, with chalcopyrite, galena,
blende, rhodochrosite, pyrolusite, etc.
Thames Goldfield [61], The Thames goldfield is situated
1 Estimated.
in the Hauraki Peninsula, Auckland, North Island. Through-
out the occurs alloyed with gold in the form of
field silver
electrum, and also as tellurides. According to Fraser, it

is difficult to estimate the production of silver; probably
85,000 represents the minimum value of silver produced from

the opening of the field, in 1867, to the end of 1908.
Quartz and pyrite are the main gangue minerals of the
gold-silver veins. Sometimes calcite, rhodochrosite, galena,
blende and chalcopyrite are found in close association with
these.
CHAPTER III
SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF SILVER ORES continued
(b) FOREIGN COUNTRIES

EUROPE
AUSTRIA
IN Styria, to the north of Graz, are argentiferous lodes which
contain blende and galena, with sulphides of copper and iron,
quartz and other minerals. The galena carries about 0-06%
of silver.The country rock consists of calcareous, chloritic
and argillaceous slates.
At Pfunderrerberg the lodes contain galena and sulphides
of copper, iron and zinc. The galena contains 0-3 to 0-6%
of silver, while the copper and iron sulphides are auriferous.
The district is made up of gneiss and slates traversed by in-
trusions of diorite, aplite and micropegmatite.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
At Przibram, in Bohemia, is a silver-lead district which
includes the towns of Przibram and Birkenberg on the left
bank of the River Moldau, to the south-west of Prague. The
country consists of Lower Silurian slates and sandstones,
which about 2 miles to the south-east of Przibram give place
to granite and phyllite. These rocks are intruded by numerous
dykes and bosses of greenstone, with which the lodes are in-
timately associated. The lodes are of the lead-silver type,
and the principal ore consists of argentiferous galena with
blende, siderite and pyrite in a gangue of calcite, dolomite,
quartz and barytes. Silver minerals also occur in places.
The earliest available records of mining operations at Przibram
date from the beginning of the sixteenth century. In 1910
69
the output amounted to 47.7 tons of fine silver, 3,390 tons of
soft lead, 596 tons of antimonial lead, 155 tons of zinc ore
and 50-5 tons of antimony ore [lo/p. 705].
According to the Engineering and Mining Journal, the silver
production of Bohemia amounted to 1,478,000 oz. for the
year 1915, all of which was obtained from the mines at
Przibram.
To the west and south of Pilsen, in eastern Bohemia, lead
and zinc ores occur, with quartz and subordinate amounts of
barytes and fluorspar, or calcite and dolomite. The silver
content of the galena varies between 0-05 and 0-2%.
At Kuttenberg and Budweis, in Bohemia, there occur lodes
of galena and blende, with quartz, dolomite, pyrite and
sulphide of arsenic. Native silver and red silver ores also

occur in subordinate amounts. The districts contain gneiss
overlaid by Cretaceous rocks and invaded by granite, pegma-
tite, and mica trap.
FRANCE
The Saint Sebastien d' Aigrefeuille Deposit [lo/p. 1179].
The argentiferous lead deposit of Saint Sebastien d' Aigre-
occurs near the village of Generarques in the department
feuille
of Gard. The ore-bearing beds consist of Upper Triassic
conglomerate and sandstone, some n
yards thick, and rest
directly upon granite, and are overlaid in parts by Lias
and Dogger. The ore consists of galena and pyrite, which
fills the spaces between the pebbles over large areas of the
conglomerate. The payable masses have very irregular out-
lines. The maximum lead content of the ore-bodies is 30 % ;
their average content 6 to 10%, while the whole bed may

contain 2 to 4%. The amount of silver found with the lead is
very varied, but on an average amounts to 58 oz. per ton of
lead.
In the Auvergne important lead lodes carry argentiferous
galena, with sulphides of zinc, iron and copper, and antimonial
compounds in a quartz and barytes matrix. These lodes chiefly
occur in gneiss and other metamorphic rocks traversed by
veins of fine-grained granite and quartz-porphyry, and are
FRANCE GERMANY 71
contemporaneous with the older of the Tertiary volcanics,

which are overlaid by later extrusives.
In the departments of Cantal, Haute-Loire and Puy-de-
Dome, some of the antimonial lodes carry silver. These lodes
occur in gneiss, mica schist and granite. The now abandoned
argentiferous galena district of Pontgibaud, in the department
ofPuy-de-D6me, produced important amounts of silver chiefly
from 1760 to 1780.
GERMANY (INCLUDING SILESIA)
Mansfeld District [io/p. 1121]. In the Kupferschiefer .
(bituminous marl-shale bed) of the Zechstein formation,

copper occurs principally as chalcopyrite, chalcocite and
bornite, and with a varied amount of silver. In the Mansfeld
district the average is 0-55 parts of silver to 100 parts of copper,
but in Reichelsdorf and Westphalia, the silver contents only
amount about one-fifth and one- twenty- fifth of the above
to
respectively. Very little silver exists in Thuringia, where

the silver is associated with pyrite as well as with copper.
Between Gerbstadt and Eisleben, in the Mansfeld district,
the Kupferschiefer contains 2 to 3% of copper and 180 oz.
of silver per ton of copper.
Freiberg District (Saxony). The total production from

1163 to 1896 is given as follows :
Oz.
1163-1523 63,171,300
1524-1835
1836-1896 ..... 56,598,201
49,315,861
The formation consists of granite-gneiss surrounded by a

contact- aureole of mica schists and other metamorphosed
sediments. Quartz- silver lodes occur containing argentite,
pyrargyrite, proustite, etc., and silver- lead lodes with dolo-
mite or with barytes. The silver seems to have been associated
with the grey gneiss, and lodes become poorer on entering
red gneiss or mica schist.
Altenberg District (Saxony). The best- known lode is the
Bergmannstrost, which carries arsenopyrite with galena,

blende, tetrahedrite, etc.
6
Other lodes may be described as gold-silver lodes, and
contain copper minerals as well. The Bergmannstrost and
Liischwitzgrund lodes contain traces of gold only, and 5
and ij oz. of silver per ton respectively, whilst the Maria-
Forderung, Olgar-Wunsch and Wender-Hoffnung lodes contain

10, 2 and 17 dwt. of gold, and 6, 2 and 7 oz. of silver
per ton respectively (Beyschlag and Vogt).

The formation consists of dark-coloured slates (probably
Silurian), with intercalated porphyry and diabase, and some

small intrusions of porphyry and olivine-kersantite.
This region includes the dis-
Upper Erzgebirge (Saxony).
Schneeberg, Johanngeorgenstadt, Annaberg, Marien-
tricts of
berg and Scheibenberg-Oberwiesenthal. Silver only occurs

to a limited extent in Schneeberg with cobalt-bismuth
ores. At Johanngeorgenstadt silver- bearing lodes contain
ores of bismuth (principally), cobalt and uranium. The other
districts were renowned for their cobalt- silver ores. Ores
of tin, copper, lead, zinc and iron were also mined.
Clausthal District (Harz Mountains). The formation of the
Clausthal plateau, n miles long and 5 miles wide, chiefly
consists of Culm and Devonian beds. The silver-lead lodes
are fault-fissures of considerable width, the hanging- wall being
disturbed and undefined. The principal ore is galena carrying
O'Oi to 0-3 %
of silver. Blende is common, whilst chalcopyrite,
tetrahedrite and bournonite also occur. Quartz is the pre-
vailing gangue. In 1908 eight mines produced 265,000
tons of argentiferous galena and blende, valued at 202,000 at
the mine.
The copper and mixed ores of the pyrite deposit at Ram-
melsberg, on the N.W. border of the Harz, contain 0-015%
of silver.
Andreasberg District (Harz Mountains). The ore-bodies

St.
of the silver-lead-zinc lodes were discovered in 1521, and
reached a maximum of prosperity during the latter half of the
sixteenth century then followed a period of quiescence, but
;
mining operations were resumed about the middle of the

seventeenth century, and continued until 1910, when the ore-
bodies had become exhausted. The lodes, rich in silver,
carried galena, blende, and ores of silver, arsenic, etc.
GERMANY 73
Tarnowitz-Beuthen District (Silesia). The metasomatic silver-

lead-zinc deposits of this district occur interbedded in Mus-
chelkalk limestone (Triassic), and contain galena, with from
0*025 0-048% of silver, blende, zinc carbonate, zinc
to
hydrosilicate and marcasite. Mining began in the sixteenth

century. In 1897 the production in Upper Silesia amounted
to 510,686 tons of zinc ore, 35,847 tons of lead ore and
268,400 oz. of silver.
Goldberg District (Silesia). This was once an important
district. The
cupriferous Zechstein, from 1866 to 1883,
produced 58,000 tons of ore, with some 110,500 oz. of silver.
Berg District (Rhine Province). Numerous argentiferous

lead-zinc lodes occur in Devonian rocks. The Luderich lode
can be followed for a distance of 2j miles. The ore consists
chiefly of compact, fine to coarse-grained galena, carrying
from 6 to 16 oz. silver, and sometimes as much as 225 oz.
per ton. Blende, carrying cadmium, is abundant, and there
are small amounts of chalcopyrite, pyrite and siderite in most
places.
Hokappel District (Wiesbaden). The formation consists of
Devonian rocks considerably altered by a variety of tectonic
disturbances. The lode-system appears to be a composite
strike-fault consisting of a main lode, three branch lodes and a
transverse lode. The principal contents are argentiferous
galena with an average of 2 oz. of silver per ton, blende,
siderite and chalcopyrite, with quartz as the chief gangue.
The silver content amounts to 0-15% in the compact and
fine-grained varieties.
From 1905 to 1910 the silver in the lead ore varied from
2 to 2j oz. per ton.
Ems District (Wiesbaden). -The formation is Lower
Devonian. The ore consists mainly of argentiferous galena,
blende, siderite and chalcopyrite, with quartz as the
principal gangue. In the main lode at Friedrichssegen, galena
and blende are present in roughly equal proportions. The
silver content of the clean galena (65% lead) is about 16 oz.
per ton.
Ramsbech District (Westphalia). The formation consists
of Devonian rocks, with numerous narrow but persistent
silver-lead-zinc lodes. Galena, with from 0-027 to 0-065% f
silver, and blende are the principal constituents. Pyrite,

chalcopyrite and siderite also occur. The gangue is
quartz.
Munsterthal (Black Forest). The lodes are associated with
porphyritic dykes in biotite gneiss, and contain blende and
galena, with some pyrite, silver, antimonial and arsenical
ores. The gangue consists of quartz, fluorspar, calicte,
siderite and barytes.
Schapbach District. The lodes contain galena, copper,

bismuth and other ores in a gangue of quartz, barytes, fluorspar,
calcite, etc.
GREECE
Laurion District [lo/p. 746]. In the Laurion or Ergastiria
the extreme south-eastern corner of Attica,
district, situated in
metasomatic silver-lead-zinc deposits occur in crystalline
limestone (Upper Marble) and dolomite and calcareous schists
(Lower Marble). Between the Upper and Lower Marble there
is a bed of mica schist
(the Kaesariani mica schist) which has
played an important part in determining the position of the
metalliferousdeposits. These deposits are of an irregular
bed-like form and consist of argentiferous galena, blende
and oxidized ores of zinc. According to von Ernst, the galena,
which is usually very compact, has a high percentage of lead
and is rich in silver, 60 oz. per ton often being obtained. It
is stated that the slags forming part of the dumps resulting
from mining and smelting activities in ancient times, contain
13 to 14% lead with 16 to 100 oz. of silver per ton of lead. In

1912 the Laurium Mines Co. produced 10,253 tons f
argentiferous lead.
The islands of Milos, Pharos, Santorin, etc., in the Grecian
archipelago, contain argentiferous lead deposits.
HUNGARY [IO/P. 535]
The Hungarian silver production is derived from gold-silver

lodes, which are geographically as well as genetically closely
associated with a series of Lower and Middle Miocene eruptives.
The most important mining districts are those of Schemnitz-
HUNGARY 75
Kremnitz, Nagybanya-Felsobanya-Kapnik, and the Transyl-

vanian Erzgebirge. In 1907 the various silver-mining districts
contributed the following amounts of silver to the Hungarian
production :
Schemnitz, 146,447 oz. ; Kremnitz, 2,515 oz. ;
Nagybanya, 55,212 oz. ; Felsobanya, 59,888 oz. ; Kapnik,

53,245 oz. Transylvania, including Nagyag, 6,289 oz.
;
Schemnitz and Kremnitz. At Schemnitz, mining operations

date back to some time prior to the year 750. About the
year 1600 there were more than 400 mines in operation.
However, since the fall in the price of silver in 1900 they have
been worked at a considerable loss, the average yearly loss
during the period 1903-1907 having been 'about 46,000.
The district contains Triassic limestones and quartzites,
Eocene nummulitic beds, a series of Miocene lava flows,
chiefly andesites, intrusive diorites, and a post-mineralization
eruption of Pliocene basalt. By far the greater number of
the lodes are found in andesite. In the adjacent sedimentary
strata they quickly split up and disappear. Propylitization
of the andesiteand alteration of the other rocks have generally
occurred in the immediate neighbourhood of the ore-bodies.
The most important minerals are argentite, stephanite, galena,
polybasite, pyrargyrite, proustite, tetrahedrite, etc. Quartz

is the most important gangue mineral, but calcite and other
carbonates are also found.
At Kremnitz the lodes likewise occur in propylitized andesite.
Among the ore-minerals pyrite and stibnite are common,

while galena Quartz is the principal gangue-mineral.
is rare.
Nagybanya, Felsobanya and Kapnik. Felsobanya lies about

5 J miles, and Kapnik about 21 miles to the east of Nagybanya,
a town near the north-western border of Transylvania. At
Nagybanya the lodes consist chiefly of auriferous quartz with
silver minerals, particularly pyrargyrite. At Felsobanya
silver-lead lodes carrying some gold occur, whilst at Kapnik
the lodes are of the silver-lead-zinc type and contain compara-
tively little gold.
Transylvanian Erzgebirge. An area on the north side of
the River Maros, in western Transylvania, includes such im-
portant gold- and silver-producing localities as Nagyag,
Offenbanya, Verespatak, Zalatna and Ruda. It consists of
Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments. With the last
are associated Tertiary igneous rocks, chiefly andesite and
dacite, and to a less extent rhyolite, forming a number of
small detached occurrences. The lodes are found for the most
part to lie within andesite and dacite. The native gold,
which generally contains a relatively high proportion of silver,
is accompanied by pyrargyrite, proustite, stephanite, native
silver, pyrite, galena, tetrahedrite, arsenopyrite, etc. Quartz

is the predominant gangue-mineral, although calcite is often
abundant, and the frequent occurrence of manganese minerals

is characteristic.
ITALY AND SARDINIA
Sardinia The Iglesias District [lo/p. 749]. In the Iglesias

mining south-western Sardinia are extensive argen-
district in
tiferous galena and blende deposits of metasomatic origin.
By far the greater number of these lie within Silurian lime-

stones and appear to be genetically connected with certain
granitic intrusions partly exposed within the area under
consideration. The most productive localities, as far as galena
is concerned, are those of Montevecchio, San Giovanni, San
Benedetto, Malacalzetta, Nebida and Monteponi. The lode-
series Montevecchio includes three argentiferous galena
at
lodes. In depth, blende becomes more common. At San
Giovanni and the other localities mentioned above, galena,
often rich in silver, is also mined. During 1889 these deposits
yielded a total output of galena amounting to 25,910 tons,
of which 12,100 tons was contributed by the Montevecchio
lodes. It is interesting to note that the more irregular deposits
carry most silver, and that the silver content decreases in

depth, whilst the amount of blende increases.
In Sardinia, silver ores proper were first discovered in 1870
at the Monte Narba mine on the eastern coast of the island,
where the metal occurs native, as sulphide and as chloride.
mines of Monte Narba, Giovanni,
Silver ores occur at the
Bonu, Bacu Arrodas and Correboi. At Monte Narba the
lode traverses Silurian slate in the vicinity of porphyry [12].
Italy. In Tuscany lodes containing argentiferous galena,
ITALY AND SARDINIA NORWAY 77
sulphides of zinc, iron and copper in a gangue of quartz and

calcite, occur in Palaeozoic slates. A well-known deposit is
the Bottino mine, near Florence.
NORWAY
Kongsberg District [lo/p. 660]. The silver lodes at Kongsberg,
some 50 miles west an area
of Christiania, are distributed over
about 20 miles long and 3 to 6 miles wide. The area is occupied
by a pre-Cambrian complex of gneisses and schists, and the
very numerous lodes vary in thickness from that of paper to
4 in. Often several parallel veins are bunched together. Their
mostly at right angles to that of the crystalline schists.
strike is
By most important constituents of these veins are

far the
native silver and calcite, although argentite, fluorspar and
quartz are to be met with in much smaller amounts. It has
long been observed that the silver is almost exclusively confined
to those parts of the veins which intercept portions of the
schists impregnated with iron and copper sulphides the
fahlbands. The two principal mining areas are Overberget
and Unterberget. Since 1622, when the silver was discovered,
some 150 mines have at different times been worked. Most
of the mines belong to the State. From 1624 to 1815 the
output amounted to 18,042,000 oz. of silver, and from 1816 to
1909, 13,548,000 oz. The net profit received by the State
from 1830 to 1890 was i-i million sterling. Since the drop
in price of silver in 1892-1893, the production has practi-
cally only covered the cost. The production is now very

small.
Near Vefsen, Helgeland, argentiferous lead lodes occur in
and older Palaeozoic rocks, which are intruded
gneiss, schist
by gabbro and soda-granite. The principal ore is galena,
containing 0-2 to 0-8% of silver. In addition, the sulphides
of zinc, iron, copper and antimony are found.
At Dalane, in Kvitseid, situated in the Telemarken district
of South Norway, an impregnation of native copper with
native silver occurs. Telemarken contains Late Archaean
slates, conglomerates and quartzites intruded by later pre-
Silurian granite. The Norwegian pyrite occurrences are
widely distributed over the country, and at several points
contain notable amounts of silver. At Sulitjelma, in Nordland,
where the most important deposit is situated, the Bessemer
copper contains 0-0448% of silver. The deposits at Rows
and at Meraker show similar proportions.
PORTUGAL
The most important lead- mining area in Portugal is that
of Mertola, near the Guadiana. The galena occurring in this
district is said to contain 24 oz. silver to the ton [12].
SPAIN
Cartagena and Mazarron Districts [lo/p. 547]. In the neigh-

bourhood of Mazarron and Cartagena, situated on the Medi-
terranean coast of south-eastern Spain, there are lodes carrying
argentiferous galena. At both localities the ore-bodies are
found in close association with Tertiary extrusions of andesite
and dacite. At Mazarron the lodes occur within an area about
8 km. long and 3 km. wide, partly in dacite and partly in the
surrounding metamorphic series. The principal ores are
galena, blende, pyrite and marcasite. The gangue consists
of siderite, calcite, dolomite, some barytes and quartz.
The galena generally carries 48 oz. of silver per ton, and, ex-
ceptionally, as much as 95 to 190 oz. In 1904, the mines at
Mazarron produced more than 30,000 tons of lead ore with
58% of lead. The mineralized district around Cartagena
has a length of about 10 km. and a width of about 5 km. The
lodes, which traverse propylitized andesite as well as the
adjacent sediments, carry chiefly galena, containing on an
average 32 to 48 oz. of silver per ton, together with blende,
copper sulphides and pyrite. In 1904 the production at
Cartagena amounted to 80,000 tons of lead ore alone.
Linares District [lo/p. 709]. This important argentiferous
lead district lies on the northern side of the town of Linares,
which is about 260 km. south of Madrid. Within this area
are several exposures of granite surrounded by Cambrian and
Silurian sediments. The principal country rock is granite
and the ore-deposits are most numerous in the Linares granite
SPAIN 79
mass. Others occur in the granite mass at La Carolina and at

St. Elena, and still others in a similar intrusion at
Arquillos.
The most important ore is galena, which contains on an average
6 oz. silver per ton. Blende, pyrite and chalcopyrite are also
present. Quartz is the principal gangue. The most important
mine that of Arrayanes, near Linares. Here the galena
is
carries up to about 3 oz. per ton. The lodes at La Carolina

and Elena contain galena which has a silver content of 20
St.
to 30 oz. per ton. This district reached its zenith in 1889
with an output of 118,325 tons of lead. In 1909 the pro-
duction was 78,848 tons.
At Ciudad Real, 96 km. north of Linares, the lead contains
0'4 to 0-5% of silver.
Guadalajara. The silver-bearing veins of Hiendelaencina

have been described by Vicente Kindelan [62]. The most
important veins belong to the oldest system, striking E.-W.
The silver ores include native silver, argentite, stephanite
and ruby silver. Galena, blende, bournonite, pyrite and
chalcopyrite are only accidentally present. The gangue of the
richest veins consists of barytes and hyaline or amorphous
quartz, or quartz in a state of agate. The formation is gneiss

and mica schist.
A barren zone occurs from a depth of from 200 to 300
metres, but is succeeded by a rich zone which has been followed
to a depth of 600 metres, which appears to be the limit of
payable silver ore in that region. The Segunda Santa Cecilia
veins from 1904 to 1907, inclusive, produced 787,600 oz. of
silver from the lower rich zone. From 1844 to 1870, 9,649,800
oz. of silver were extracted from the Rico lode alone, and since
that date the silver output from Hiendelaencina has been almost
exclusively from that lode.
In Andalusia argentiferous lead and copper ores are ac-
companied by barytes, strontianite and siderite. Secondary
ores of silver are found in the upper parts of the lodes.
In Seville native silver and silver ores are associated with
cobalt ores and siderite. The famous pyrite deposits of the
Huelva or Rio Tinto district, in southern Spain, usually contain
about i oz. of silver per ton, representing a relation of 1,000
to 1,200 of copper to i of silver.
8o SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF SILVER ORES
SWEDEN
In the Ammeberg district in Orebro, situated about 100 miles
south-west of Stockholm, blende with some argentiferous
galena occurs in the form of beds and fahlbands. The
country rock is Archaean granulite, associated with which are
gneisses, limestone and various igneous intrusives. The ore
is intergrown microcline, some quartz, subordinate
with
plagioclase and biotite, and more rarely, pyroxene, hornblende
and garnet. The principal ore-bed may be followed almost
without interruption for a distance of 3 miles. Of this,
however, only a number of lenticular swellings, which in places
may reach 12 to 15 m. in thickness, are payable. The deposit
may probably be regarded as of the contact-metamorphic
type. From 1857 up to and including 1909, altogether
1,968,729 tons of picked and of milling ore were produced.
The lead ore contains about 72% of lead and 26 oz. of silver
per ton [lo/p. 677].
At Sola, which lies about 60 miles north-west of Stockholm,
there occurs a metasomatic silver-lead deposit in dolomite,
which, however, is now practically exhausted. Mining began
in the year 1500 and reached its zenith in the first half of
the sixteenth century. From 1510 to 1600, some 200 tons
of silver were obtained ;
from 1601 to 1700, 63 tons from ;
1701 to 1800, 37 tons; and from 1801 to 1908, 87 tons

[lo/p. 771].
At Fahlun large quantities of copper have been obtained,
but the production latterly has considerably declined. The
"
soft ore/' consisting of pyrite with chalcopyrite, quartz,
etc.,contains about J oz. of silver per ton. Silver was also
present in the pyrite deposits of Atvidaberg.
ASIA
ASIA MINOR
The following data concerning the silver-lead deposits
of western Asia Minor have been derived from an article
written by Penzer in August, 1919 [63].

The chief mines in western Asia Minor which yield silver-
ASIA MINOR 81
lead are those of Balia-Karaidin in Brusa, and Bulgar-Maden

in Konia. The mines of Balia-Karaidin date from very ancient
times. In 1901 there were about 1,600 men employed, and
the production was 7,000 tons of argentiferous galena, con-
taining 70% of lead and 0-125% of silver, as well as blende
and calamine. In 1910 the output was 12,000 tons of lead
and 3,000 to 4,000 tons of blende. In 1913 the output
amounted to 13,076 tons of lead and 5,000 tons of zinc ore.
The mines are furnished with a modern smelting and refining
plant.
The Bulgar-Maden mines, situated a few miles south of the
Konia- Adana line in the vilayet of Konia, have been worked
by the peasants for nearly eighty years, in a primitive fashion.
The deposits occur in the neighbourhood of the contact
between micro-granulities and Palaeozoic limestones. Two
separate zones have been noticed extending all along the
metalliferous formation from Bulgar-Maden to Kizil Tepeh.
The annual yield is about 103,000 oz. of silver, 225 oz. of
gold and about 400 tons lead. In 1892 the ore extraction was
20,000 tons, containing 20% of lead and 209,000 oz. of silver,
and 19 to 26 dwt. of gold to a ton of lead. These figures
increased just before the war, and the mines yielded ore
containing 75% of lead and from ij to 3|% of silver.
In the vilayet of Aidin, silver-lead mines occur in Balia,
which from 1911 to 1913 yielded an average of 14,000 tons
of lead.
In Angora, silver-bearing lead ore is found at Ak-Dagh-
Maden, Denek-Maden and Elma-Dagh ; all these mines are
State-controlled, but the last-named was abandoned many

years ago.
In Castamouni, the argentiferous lead mine at Kurre has
been abandoned owing to insufficient means of transport and
communication.
In Adana, besides the silver-lead mines of Bulgar-Maden,
are those of Karalar and Hadjin, while silver, lead and zinc
occur at lotape. There are probably other deposits in the
northern part of the vilayet, but owing to the lack of communi-
cations and transport, no exploitation has been carried on.
Recent reports have been received of two lead mines (prob-
ably argentiferous) 24 miles north-east of Bulgar-Maden.
One is at Delik Tash, 15 miles due east of Bereketli Maden,
and the other 9 miles north-west of Delik Tash.
Silver-lead mines also occur at Kebah Maden.
It is reported that in 1916 the Germans obtained seventy
concessions for the workings of silver-lead mines in Asia
Minor, probably in Brusa and Aidin.
Edwards states [64] that most of the lead mines in the
(former) Ottoman Empire contain appreciable amounts of
silver, and have been considerably exploited at shallow depths
by the ancients.
Before the war, an Englishcompany, the Asia Minor
Mining Co., was working and producing
silver ores at Lidshisi,
about 3,000 tons of ore per year, and important mines were
being opened on the Kessendere peninsula [i2/p. 558].
Lead and silver, with a little gold, are also mined by the
State at Bulgardegh, where about 48,000 oz. of silver are pro-
duced annually [i2/p. 558].
CHINA
In Chi-li and North Shansi (North China) silver is obtained
from deposits of argentiferous galena. At Ten Yung Shang,
in the Je-hol district of Mongolia, a vein occurs in limestone
near the contact with metamorphic schists. It is worked
by the Chinese. The vein strikes E.-W. and dips N.5o-7O.
The galena carries 300 to 500 oz. of silver per ton, and
blende, also present, 12 to 18 oz. per ton. In the Qu-San-Tzu
mines, seven miles east of the last, galena with tetrahedrite
carries 100 oz. of silver per ton, and occurs in a vein with
the same strike and dip and in a similar formation [i2/p. 618].
In Sze-Chuan (one of the south-western provinces) the
Maha gold mine is said to carry a considerable amount of silver.
At Loku-Te-Tye are veins bearing free gold and lead ores
high in silver (300 oz. per ton). At Ma-Ta-Sa is a vein of
silver-lead,which is said to produce 122 oz. per ton, and
another vein bears argent it e. At Ta-Chien-Lu are the Govern-
ment silver mines producing 75 to 90 oz. of silver per ton.
The vein is 4 feet wide and is worked along its strike for over
CHINA 83
10 miles. This vein contains complex ore carrying copper,

silver and lead, but it is only worked for its silver content.
Near Yer-She are veins of gold, silver and copper ore, and in
the south-eastern district are veins carrying silver-lead.
At Fukea are numerous veins containing copper and silver
ore. These mines supplied the greater part of the silver used
in Tang dynasty. Near Hui-Le-Chao are numerous
the
veins of gold, copper and silver ores, which are worked exten-
sively by the aborigines. In the Yen- Yuan district are veins
carrying gold, silver, lead, copper, zinc and also mercury [65].
In the Hunan province, Central China, is the Shui-Ko-
Shan zinc and lead mine. The country is limestone (prob-
ably Carboniferous) overlaid by red sandstones and shales
of Cretaceous or Tertiary age. Large irregular- shaped bodies
of ore, composed of blende and galena with pyrite and chalco-
pyrite, are developed in the limestone at and near its contact

with syenite. The latter has small crystals of chalcopyrite
disseminated through it. The deposit was the direct result
of the metasomatic action of the mineral-bearing solutions
emanating from the magma. Lead concentrate contains
from 9 to 38 oz., and zinc concentrate from 2-5 to 15 oz. of
silver per ton [66]. The only other deposit with an impor-
tant output is that of Kungshan in Tungchwan (Yunnan
province), where the principal ores are carbonates. The pro-
duction from the Wei-hung-chow district, Kweichow, is chiefly
silver.
The amount of silver produced in China in 1914 was in-
significant, and probably did not exceed 50,000 oz. [67].

For 1917 the production is given as 63,900 oz., and that of
1918 as 70,000 oz. (U.S. Bureau of the Mint).
DUTCH EAST INDIES

Borneo
A vein near Budok, Dutch Borneo, contains sylvanite

(a telluride of gold and silver).
In the Kahajang mine, of the central auriferous district of
Dutch Borneo, there is some silver in the ore [69].
Celebes
The sulphide gold ores at Palehleh, on the north coast,

contain 12 oz. of silver per ton [69].
Sumatra
In the Redjang-Lebong lodes the ratio of silver to gold

in the bullion is often as high as 10 to i. In 1906 and
1907, the mine produced 248,240 and 327,584 oz. of silver
respectively [69].
In Western Sumatra, from Tjalang to a point on the coast
opposite the island of Poolo Raja, garnet and wollastonite
lenses occur in ancient schist, which carry copper (as bornite),
gold, silver and some platinum silver being by far the chief
product [70].
JAPAN
Silver-mining in Japan dates from a very early period, the
oldest records referring to the discovery of silver ore in the
island of Tsushima, in the year A.D. 674. From then
until the year 1896 many deposits were opened up, but
during the course of the next few years a number of these

had to be abandoned on account of the fall in the price of
silver.
The production of the metal gradually increased from 1874
to 1895, but from 1895 to 1904 remained nearly stationary,
in spite of the rapid progress made by the gold and copper
industries. In 1905 there was a considerable increase in the
production owing to the conspicuous development of the
Kosaka mine and the general increase of the silver production
in the gold and copper mines. The great increase in 1908
was due to the development of the Tsubaki mine, and the
total output for that year was more than 17 times the output
in 1875, and 2j times that in 1900. Generally speaking, the
production of silver extracted from silver ores proper is de-
clining, but the total output maintained or increased by

is
the increasing amounts of the metal obtained as a by-product

in the treatment of gold and copper ores [71] [72] [73].
JAPAN
Production of Silver in Japan, 1880 to 1919
(U.S. Bureau of Mint.)
Production of Silver by the Principal Japanese

Mines in 1919
[68]
The production of the twenty most important mines during

the five years prior to 1908 aggregated 85-2% of the total
output. The greater part of the silver produced by these
mines came from argentiferous lead ore 18-6% from normal
;
or dry silver ore, and 157% from argentiferous copper ore.

It is to be noted, however, that there is a tendency for the
output of silver from copper ores to surpass that derived from

dry silver ore.
The silver deposits, whether in the form of veins, impreg-
nations, or metasomatic replacements, are practically confined
to Tertiary volcanic flows of liparite and andesite and tuffs
of the same age. On the other hand, the economically un-
important contact-metamorphic deposits are restricted to the
region occupied by pre-Tertiary rocks.
Several of the principal mines exploit dry silver ore as well
as argentiferous lead and copper ores, which occur as lodes
traversing eruptive and sedimentary rocks of Tertiary age.
Of considerably less importance are argentiferous lead and
copper ores which occur as impregnations in Tertiary rocks.
With regard to deposits of the metasomatic type it is stated
that, although great numbers of such deposits exist, the only
one actually explored is the so-called Kuroko deposit. The
Kuroko deposit was worked in conjunction with the Tsubaki
mine, which in 1908 yielded the greatest output of silver of any
mine in Japan.
Numbers of deposits of thecontact-metamorphic type are
known, but only a few are important, such as those at Kamioka
and Hiragane in Hida. These occurrences are very commonly
situated at or near the contact between igneous intrusions and
Palaeozoic or pre-Cambrian strata.
The Tsubaki mine, opened in 1889, no longer produces. The
country rock consists of Tertiary shales and andesites. The
" " "
ore is the so-called kuromono or black ore," a mixture
of argentite, blende, galena, pyrites, chalcopyrite, barytes,
quartz and calcite. It contains generally 0-07% of silver, but
the richer parts yield 0-15% to 0-3% of the metal. The Kosaka
mine was opened in 1866, and is one of the most important
in Japan. The ore is of the kuromono type and yields copper,
silver and gold, and occurs as a large mass in Tertiary tuff
near its contact with dacite. The Ikuno mines are said to
have been started in 807, although it was not until 1542
that they were worked on anything like a large scale. There
are two principal mines, namely the Tasei and the Kanagase,
which yield copper, silver and gold. The country consists of
Tertiary tuffs, liparite and associated rocks, and the ore is
made up of argentite, native gold and silver, with chalcopyrite,
pyrite, galena, blende, pyrargyrite, stibnite, quartz, calcite and
rhodochrosite. These minerals occur in a series of veins.
The Kamioka deposit is said to have been discovered about
1,200 years ago, and yields silver, copper and lead. The rocks
are hornblende gneiss with limestone and intrusive quartz-
porphyry, and the deposits, which consist of argentiferous
galena, chalcopyrite, blende, actinolite, epidote, with calcite,
quartz, pyrite, etc., occur as lodes.
SIBERIA NORTH AMERICA 87
SIBERIA
The silver-lead mines of Western Altai, Government of

Tomsk, were important in the early part of the nineteenth
century. In Central Altai the deposits lie for the most part
in Carboniferous limestone and occur as lodes carrying silver-
bearing lead ores mixed with a large proportion of barytes.
Silver tellurides are mentioned as occurring in these
also
deposits. The mines have been worked outto depths of 700

feet, and operations did not apparently pay in depth. The
deposits in the Salair Mountains are very similar in their
mineral contents, as likewise are those in the Kolybane district,
but are stated to be much richer. The Zmeeff mine near
Kolyban Lake, south of Barmaoul, exploited a particularly
Another rich group of mines is the Rydirsk
rich shoot of ore.
group [74].
In 1845 the silver production of the Altai is given as
26,331 oz. [74] and in 1891 as 313,462 oz. [12].
NORTH AMERICA
The primary silver deposits of the American continents
have been formed during, or shortly after, certain epochs of
igneous activity, either of the intrusive or of the volcanic type.
They are thus intimately connected with occurrences of igneous
rock, and in general are found either within such rocks, or at
their contact with the intruded sediments, or within sedimentary
strata not far removed from the intrusive rocks. The American
silver deposits date from two widely separated ages. The
firstperiod belongs to the pre-Cambrian or early Palaeozoic ;
the second period belongs to the late Mesozoic and the Kainozoic.
The older silver and gold deposits of the first-named type
occur at various points in the wide stretches of the two land-
masses on the eastern side of the American Cordillera. In
North America silver is obtained from the copper deposits of
the Lake Superior region, but a much larger amount is yielded
by the Cobalt district in Ontario. Considering the vast
extent of the eastern lowlands in North America it is extra-
ordinary how localized and highly concentrated these deposits
are.
In South America the region east of the Andes is geologically
very similar to the corresponding region in the northern part
of the continent, but here the silver production is
insignificant.
The younger deposits, belonging to the second period, were
formed during the great igneous activity which accompanied
the building of the Cordilleras, and are thus confined to the
western or Cordilleran part of the continents where deposits
of the first period are either rare or else concealed by newer
sediments or igneous flows. From Cape Horn to Alaska
these younger silver deposits occur under similar geological
conditions, and were formed during a period dating from
earliest Cretaceous times. Throughout the interior part of
the region of North America are numberless
Cordilleran
intrusions of granitic or dioritic rocks and porphyries of later
Mesozoic or Tertiary age. Aureoles of silver-bearing veins
surround these intrusions. Contact-met amorphic deposits
have been commonly formed where the intruded rock is
limestone. In Mexico there are countless, though small,
intrusive masses of diorite or porphyry in Cretaceous lime-
stone, around which argentiferous veins or contact-metamorphic

deposits have formed. In addition to this type of silver
deposit there is another which comprises ore-bodies occurring
in lava flows. These include such celebrated deposits as those
at Comstock, Tonopah and Cripple Creek. They are best
represented in Nevada, Arizona, Utah and Colorado. Few
of these are found north of the Canadian boundary, and none
of them along the main Canadian or American coast. In
Mexico the most celebrated silver occurrences belong to the
same type. In South America the most prominent formations
of theAndes are the Cretaceous sediments. During Jurassic
and Cretaceous times there was considerable volcanic activity,
unattended, however, by mineralization. In this respect
there is a difference from North America, where mineralization
is connected with large plutonic intrusions of the same age.

In the Cordilleran region of South America the principal and
almost the only period of mineralization seems to be that
of the early Tertiary, when igneous intrusions occurred on a
large scale. Of less importance are ore-bodies associated
with late Tertiary lava flows. The poverty of the eastern
GUATEMALA HONDURAS 89
front ranges of the Andes is paralleled by the lack of precious

metal deposits in the eastern or Rocky Mountain range of
Canada.
GUATEMALA
According to Rene Guerin [75], blende and argentiferous
galena abound in limestone in the department of Chiquimula,
sometimes being associated with copper carbonate. The ore
on an average contains from 64 to 96 oz. of silver per ton. Silver
was formerly coined from the mines of Alotepique to the value
of 60,000,000 pesos. The San Pantaleon mine, worked by an
English company from 1854 to 1868, produced silver to the
value of 44,000,000 pesos.
HONDURAS
The republic of Honduras is the largest silver-producer in
Central America. The greater part of the production comes
from the gold-silver mine of Rosario, near Tegucigalpa, where
" "
the lodes are connected with rhyolitic intrusions traversing
Triassic sandstones and limestones.
The following account of the silver-mining in Honduras is
based on information supplied by Thacer in a paper published

in 1891 [76].
The Opoteca mine is perhaps the most important in Hon-
duras. The
ore is free-milling and carries native silver and
argentite in addition to gold. The deposit has been exten-
sively worked in the past. The assay value of the ore is given
as about $20 silver and $i gold per ton of 2,000 Ib. An ore-
body consisting mainly of argentiferous galena, with blende
and pyrite in small amounts, is situated about 3 km. from the
town of Valle de Angeles and 32 km. from Tegucigalpa, and
is worked by the Animas and California companies. The assay
value of the ore is given as about $60 of silver and 30% lead.
Silver- and gold-bearing quartz veins, some i to 4-5
metres in width, occur about 3 km. from the village of San
Juancito, near Tegucigalpa. The foot-wall consists mainly of
"
volcanic greenstone," and the hanging- wall chiefly of siliceous
slates.
The Yuscaran mining district, comprising the mountains
of Yuscaran and vicinity, is situated 72 km. south-east from
Tegucigalpa and 144 km. from San Lorenzo on the Pacific
coast. The lodes, which traverse igneous rocks, carry sulphides
of silver, copper, zinc, lead, iron, etc., together with antimonial
sulphide of silver, in a quartzitic gangue. Sulphides of silver
carrying some gold occur in the department of Choluteca,
districtof Aramicina, near a town of the same name, 48
km. from the Pacific coast and about 137 km. from Teguci-
galpa. The Guasucaran mine, a celebrated silver mine and one
of the oldest in Honduras, lies 96 km. from the Pacific and
48 km. south-west of Tegucigalpa. Argentite and blende

occur in a gangue of quartz and barytes. The country rock
is stated to be a highly siliceous trachyte. The San Bar-
tolo mines lie 90 km. north of San Lorenzo and 80 km. south-
west of Tegucigalpa. The ore is free-milling quartz carrying
sulphide and chloride of silver. The mines of San Andres
are situated upon San Andres Mountain, north-west of
Tegucigalpa in the department of Copan. The ore is said
to be free-milling. Another group of silver mines lies about
15 km. from Tegucigalpa, and in 1891 was worked by the
Suyape Silver Concession, Ltd. The ore is argentiferous
galena with blende and quartz.
Ore carrying silver and gold occurs near the village of
San Juan, in the district of Corpus, department of Choluteca.
In the district of Santa Lucia, department of Tegucigalpa,
lodes are worked by the Victoria, Zopilotiera and Santa Elena
mines. The Zopilotiera lode carries argentite, and in the
Victoria lode the silver-bearing minerals are arsenical and
iron pyrites.
Antimonial silver ore, associated with more or less gold,
occurs in the department of Tegucigalpa, 120 km. from the
city, and at about 144 km. from the same city, near
a
small village called Langue, ores carrying silver and lead occur.
At San Marcos, 80 km. from San Lorenzo and near the town
of Sabana- Grande, a free-milling ore carrying argentite and
gold is said to occur. The Santa Lucia mines lie 14 km.

east of Tegucigalpa. The lodes carry pyrite, argentite,
brittle and ruby silver, and a trace of gold. The ores
MEXICO 91
require a preliminary roasting and are not adapted to free

milling.
The silver from the whole of the Central America States in

1918 amounted to only 2,900,000 oz., an average of 483,000
oz. per annum for each of the six countries forming those States.
The total yield for 1919 is estimated at 3,000,000 oz.
MEXICO
The silver- producing States of Mexico, arranged alpha-
betically, are as follow :
Aguascalientes [77]
At Asientos de Ibarra the country is hornblende-andesite
or diorite. Other formations are limestone, schist and rhyolite.
The principal veins strike N.6o-7oW. and dip N.E. or
S.W.8o. According to Miguel Velazquez de Le6n, the silver
ores are argentite, pyrargyrite and polybasite, with argen-
tiferous galena, blende, pyrite, chalcopyrite and bornite. The
gangue is quartz. Other veins in the district run N.-S. or

E.-W.
Tepezala, with similar formation, is a copper district, but
the copper oxides and sulphides of some of the veins are silver-
bearing.
Chiapas
The Santa Fe mine is interesting, as, according to E. T.
McCarthy [78], the ore occurs in in irregular courses or
it
channels in a large mass of wollastonite (lime silicate) sur-

rounded by limestone. The principal useful minerals are
argentiferous bornite and chalcopyrite, carrying more or less
free gold, associated with tetrahedrite, enargite, pyrite,
galena, blende, with copper carbonate minerals as incrusta-
" "
blow " or
"
tions in the vicinity of vent holes. The ore
carries from 6 to 8 oz. of silver per ton. The ore-bodies are
usually regarded as contact deposits.
Chihuahua
The Santa Eulalia camp of the Iturbide district lies 28
km. south-east of Chihuahua city. It was discovered
in 1703. The formation consists of folded Cretaceous lime-
stones largely covered by an unconformable mantle of dacitic
tuff. The
ore-bodies, which are irregular in shape, are metaso-
matic replacements of limestone, mainly along bedding-planes,
but partlyalong fractures. The richest ores, consisting
chiefly of cerussite, galena and oxidized ores of iron, occur
at depths of from 400 to 457 metres.
In the Parral camp of the Hidalgo de Parral district,
strong and well-defined veins in porphyry have been worked

to a depth of 366 metres.
According to Waitz, the area between Parral and Minas
Nuevas consists essentially of a foundation of schists, upon
which rests, and through which penetrates, a series of Tertiary
volcanic flows and minor intrusive rocks. The schistose
formation, of unknown age, consists principally of siliceous
schists, which are considerably folded. The Tertiary igneous
rocks are made up of felspar-porphyry, andesites, rhyolites and
tuffs and basalt, arranged in their order of appearance. The
felspar porphyry occurs as intrusive rocks cutting through
the schists and sending out apophyses in all directions. The
andesites occur as surface flows.They are, for the most part,
considerably altered. The extrusion of the andesitic rocks was
followed by the appearance of rhyolites and tuffs, and after-
wards by the formation of dykes and surface flows of basalt.
Santa Barbara, 6 km. south-west of Parral, was discovered
in 1547. The ore-deposits occur as lodes cutting through
indurated grey shales and porphyries, which break through
and overlie them. Generally speaking, the ores consist
of galena, with pyrite and blende, in a gangue of quartz.
When Weed examined the district in 1900, the Moctezuma
Mining and Milling Co. was exploiting two lodes, carrying ore
of the following average composition lead, 7-5 zinc, 6-5
:
; ;
copper, 0-27 ; iron, 5-0 ; lime, 8-0 ;

and silica, 50-0%; silver,
6 oz. and gold, $1-40 per ton.
;
Minas Nuevas is 12 km. north-west of Parral. The most

important lode is the Veta Grande, on the Veta Colorada,
which was located in 1645. At 305 metres in depth it is from
4*5 to 5-5 metres thick, and carries about 46 oz. of silver per
ton.
MEXICO 93
According to Robles, the more important system of lodes

trends N.28W. and traverses rhyolitic rocks. A second
system has a direction N.43E. and traverses andesites. The
first system includes the Veta del Refugio, Santa Ana, Veta
Colorada, and Veta Negra lodes. The principal minerals

occurring in the Veta Colorada are argentite, pyrargyrite,
native silver, anglesite, cerussite and galena in a gangue of
quartz, with which is associated a small amount of fluorspar.
The lodes cut through all rocks with the exception of the
basalt, and Robles considers that mineralization probably
took place in Pliocene times.
In the Andres del Rio district, the Urique mines were
discovered in 1630. N.-S. veins dipping E. traverse Middle
Cretaceous limestones and slates. Polybasite, pyrargyrite,
argentite, pyrite, galena and blende occur in a gangue of
quartz, calcite and gypsum. Veins with a similar strike and
dip traverse Tertiary diorite. The gangue is quartz, and the
ores are polybasite, miargyrite, pyrargyrite, pyrite and galena.
Iron oxides and blue and green copper carbonates are found in
the oxidized zone. The mines of Batopilas were discovered
in 1632. N.-S. lodes course through diorite arid contain an
abundance of native silver, argentite, pyrargyrite, miargyrite,
proustite, pyrite and galena in a gangue of quartz and calcite.
In the Arteaga district (W.N.W. of Batopilas), a vein, at
the Rio Plata mine, according to H. J. Baron [77/p. 547],
strikes N.25W. in diorite. The from 1-2 to 1-8 metres
vein,
thick, carriesargentite, bromyrite and native silver in a
gangue of bluish quartz. The ore, which occurs in shoots from
2*5 to 30-5 cm. thick on the hanging-wall side, carries from

200 to 4,000 oz. of silver per ton. At the Palmarejo
mines the ores are argentite, with some stephanite in a siliceous
gangue, carrying disseminated pyrite. The principal bonanza,
according to T. H. Oxnam [77/p. 547], occurred at the inter-
section of an E.-W. vein with one coursing N.5i3oW. At
Chinipas the veins occur in diorite and hornblende-andesite,
The strike is N.E., or in some cases N.W. The vein-filling is
quartz with argentite, pyrite, oxides of iron and dendritic
manganese.
Ocampo, in the Rayon district, was discovered in 1821.
The country is porphyry, and the ores are siliceous, carrying
silver and some gold. At Pinos Altos (north of Ocampo) the
principal vein is 6 metres thick, and the silver values are greater
than the gold values.
In the Sahuayacan district (48 km. west of Ocampo) there
is a narrow band of shale impregnated with argentiferous
pyrite, with an intrusion of andesite near by. The veins

are numerous and well-defined. Guadalupe y Calvo, of the
Mina district, is a gold mine, but the ores contain about
16 oz. of silver per ton. The veins at Cerro Colorado form
a network of altered hornblende-andesite. The gangue is
calcite and quartz, carrying free gold, pyrite and chalcopyrite
rich in silver. At San Jose de Gracia the lodes, which have
a N.-S. course, and traverse hornblende-andesite, carry
auriferous pyrite, galena, blende and silver sulphides in a
gangue of quartz.
Coahuila
The Sierra Mojada mines, discovered in 1878, are in the

southern part of the State. The occurrence is very similar
to that of Santa Eulalia (Chihuahua). The formation is
Cretaceous limestone. A volcanic breccia, consisting of angular
fragments of and granite rocks, cemented by a siliceous
felsite
matrix, rests unconformably upon the limestone. The ores

lead carbonates, copper ores and silver chloride occur as
replacement and impregnation deposits within the limestone,
at and near its contact with the volcanic breccia. However,
the most valuable ore-body ever mined in the camp the San
Jose copper-stope was apparently an impregnation of the
siliceous breccia with silver chloride and copper oxide, and
occurred chiefly at the contact. The ore, considered as a
whole, carries varying amounts of lead, silver, silica, iron,
and sometimes copper, zinc, barium sulphate, sulphur and
gypsum.
Durango
In Guanacevi, according to A. F. J. Bordeaux [77/p. 556],
there is a stockwork in hornblende-andesite impregnated
with pyrite, and elsewhere, an altered rhyolite with intrusions
MEXICO 95
of andesite dykes containing fragments of rhyolite, -forming

a breccia, and reticulated with veinlets of argentite, etc. The
minerals are pyrite, argentite, ruby silver, native silver, chalco-
pyrite with some arsenopyrite, galena, and blende in depth.
The gangue is quartz and calcite. A little north of the town
of Guarisamey, the formation, according to E. Halse [79/p. 248],
is eruptive quartz-hornblende-andesite, andesite breccia, and
porphyrite with interbedded sheets and intrusive dykes of
felsite of the rhyolite group. The main lode
N.W. and
strikes
dips N.E. The ore is argentite, argentiferous pyrite, chalco-

pyrite, galena and ruby silver (rare). Some of the ore consists
of wavy black layers alternating with lighter ones and having
a conchoidal texture. This ore has frequently much resem-
blance to the fluidal structure of the country, and may
felsite
be regarded as evidence of the replacement of the latter by
quartz and argentite [80].
In the Candelaria mine, at San Dimas, the main vein strikes
N.55E., dips N.W.5O and is from 1-8 to 2-4 metres thick
,
in brecciated felsite. The ores are argentite, proustite, native

silver and argentiferous pyrite in quartz and calcite.
At Promontorio, which was discovered in 1880, the formation,
according to F. C. Lincoln [77/p. 557], consists of rhyolite-
porphyry with inclusions of andesite and dacite and segrega-
tions (?) of binary granite. The vein strikes N.55W. and dips
S.W., cutting the joint-planes of the country at an acute angle
on both strike and dip. The primary minerals are quartz,
galena and blende, less pyrite, a little chalcopyrite, and minute
quantities of bornite, chalcocite and covellite. The secondary

enrichment consists of native silver, chalcocite and a little
chalcopyrite. Small amounts of copper minerals indicate a
high silver content. The ore is arranged in shoots, which pitch
south-east or follow the dip of the cross-fractures (N.E.-S.W.,
dipping steeply to the S.E.).
At Mapimi, which was discovered in 1598, the formation,
according to J. D. Villarello [77/p. 558], consists of Middle
Cretaceous sedimentary rocks and a Tertiary eruptive rock
(hornblende-andesite) . The primary minerals are arsenopyrite,
galena, blende and pyrite, with calcite as gangue boulangerite, ;
chalcopyrite, fluorspar and barytes are less abundant, while

stibnite, pyrargyrite, tetrahedrite and quartz are rare. The
above occur in chimneys. The Ojuela chimney is 40 metres in
diameter, between 800 and 500 metres in depth, and descends
almost perpendicularly to 650 metres. La Paloma chimney
at a depth of 470 metres is horizontal, then descends vertically
600 metres.
At Copalquin the ore-deposits are contained in quartz-
diorite. At Topia the veins extend N.E. and contain galena,
blende, a small amount of pyrite, argentite and pyrargyrite,
in a gangue of quartz and calcite.
Guanajuato
The mining district of Guanajuato is one of the oldest and
most extensive in Mexico, and has yielded immense quantities
of silver, as is shown by the following figures :
Value of Silver Production, 1701 to 1903
1701-1800 ....
....
$ (Pesos)
279,690,689
1800-1900
1900-1903 .... 231,137,013
6,235,204
($10 = 1 approximately.)
The most productive years were 1791, 1804, 1849, I ^5o

and 1852.
The researches of Villarello, Flores and Robles on the geology
of the Sierra de Guanajuato have given the folio wing results :
The oldest rock-group is formed of highly contorted argillaceous,

calcareous and carbonaceous schists and conglomerates,
identical in petrological characters with those of Zacatecas.
Into this metamorphosed sedimentary series were intruded,
with attendant metamorphism, gabbros and olivine- and quartz-
diabases. After a period of erosion there then followed a
series of Tertiary extrusions in the following order :
(i) Andesite rocks with tuffs. (2) Rhyolites with rhyolitic

tuffs and Hypersthene and augite-andesites
breccias. (3) ;
"
these were succeeded by the deposition of the Red Con-
glomerate," after which there appeared rhyolitic tuff, dykes
of comptonite, and an outpouring of the Cerro Cubilete
MEXICO 97
basalt. Mineralization is believed to have been coincident

with the extrusion of the Cerro Cubilete basalts.
The lodes have been grouped into three zones, viz. the
Central Zone, the Eastern Zone and the Western Zone. The
Central Zone, which includes the Veta Madre, which was
discovered in 1558, is divisible into three systems. The famous
Veta Madre lode occupies a brecciated zone lying chiefly
" "
between the Red Conglomerate and the schists. In depth
it traverses the schists where they are intruded by diabases.
The Veta Madre is really a composite lode of considerable

complexity, and frequent variations in dip and strike have been
brought about by the variations in the nature of the rock
traversed. Similar variations are to be observed in the Sta.
"
Lucia and Sta. Ines veins within the Red Conglomerate."
At Esperanza, Protectora and La Cebada, the ore-bodies
traverse schists and diabases. As example of the second
system of the Central Zone there is the Cedro lode which
traverses rhyolitic breccia and the hypersthene- and augite-

andesites, and the veins of the Flores de Maria group, the
S. Vicente, Sta. Anita, Canales and El Conejo lodes, which
"
occur in rhyolites and rhyolitic breccias and the Red Con-
glomerate," are examples of those belonging to the third
system. The Eastern Zone comprises the districts of Sta.
Rosa, San Nicolas del Monte, Peregrina, Villalpando, Cubo
and El Nayal, and the Western Zone extends from San Cayetano
La Luz.
to the district of
The predominant minerals occurring in the lodes of the
Sierra de Guanajuato are polybasite, stephanite, argentite
and pyrite in a gangue of quartz with some calcite. The zone
of oxidation is very superficial.
Guerrero
Tasco is one of the oldest and one of the most important

mining camps of the district of Hidalgo.
The formation calcareous schist and limestone cut by
is
Tertiary eruptives. At Tehuilotepec (which forms part of the

Tasco camp) the formation is mainly limestone cut by andesite
and rhyolite.
According to J. O. Aguilera [77/p. 567], the veins of Tasco

are related to these eruptives.
According to E. Halse [81], the veins run (i) N.N.W.-S.S.E.,
dip E.S.E. (prevalent) (2) N.W.-S.E., dip N.E. (prevalent)
; ;
(3) N.-S., dip E. The veins usually meet at acute angles on

the line of strike, and rich branches or shoots of ore occur at
the points of intersection. The filling consists of marcasite,
pyrite, blende, galena, chalcopyrite, argentite and proustite
in a gangue of quartz and calcite.
In Tetipec (including Poder de Dios, Pregones and Xocotitlan)
"
the country," filling and structure of the veins are similar.
The principal direction of the veins is N.W.-S.E., as in
Tasco.
The lodes of the Rosario mines and the San Nicolas del Oro
mine are in hornblende-andesite. They course N.W. and some-
times N.E., and contain, below the zone of oxidation, argentite,
ruby silver, pyrite and a small quantity of chalcopyrite.
The gangue is quartz carrying gold.
At Tlalchapa the lodes have a N.W. course and dip to
the N.E. The vein- filling is quartz with argentite, p^rite
and blende. Occasionally calcite, galena and chalcopyrite
occur.
The veins worked by the Coronilla mines are in rhyolite,
and contain argentite, ruby silver and pyrite in a gangue of
quartz.
At the Tepantitlan mines the veins traverse red conglom-
erate of Tertiary age. They have a N.W. course and dip to
the N.E. or to the S.W. The gangue is quartz, containing
argentite, ruby silver, blende, arsenopyrite and a small amount
of chalcopyrite.
In the Campo Morado range of the Aldama district, large
masses of pyrite occur in sedimentaries of Archaean (or possibly
Palaeozoic) and Cretaceous ages, in relation to a dioritic dyke.
According to Luis Hijar y Haro [82], the outer shell of one
enormous prism consists of oxidized ores, cerussite, anglesite,
and silver contents about equal.
iron oxide, etc., with the gold
The prism probably contains on an average 0*25 % silver and
0-005 % gold. The deposit is a primary one.
MEXICO 99
Hidalgo
Pachuca and Real del Monte are nearly 5 km. apart and
about 100 km. north of the City of Mexico. The Pachuca
district lies on the western slope and Real del Monte on the
eastern slope of the Pachuca range of mountains, which bounds
the great Valley of Mexico. From 1522, when Pachuca was
discovered, to 1901, more than 3,500 tons of silver, worth
about 31,000,000 sterling, are said to have been extracted,
principally from the immense bonanzas.
The Pachuca Range is built up of Tertiary andesite, rhyolites
and basalt, probably of Miocene age. The outpouring of
andesite, which forms the principal rock- type, was followed
by rhyolite, with associated obsidian, pitchstone and tuffs,
and finally by basalt. The lodes, usually found in andesite,
are younger than the rhyolite, but older than the basalt. The
country near the lodes is kaolinized, impregnated with silica,
and otherwise considerably altered [83].
The veins, according to Aguilera and Ordonez, belong to one
E.-W. system of fractures only, but secondary veins branch
off from and sometimes diagonally unite the E.-W. veins at
angles seldom exceeding 30. The veins are fissure veins with
a quartz gangue.
There are five main groups of lodes, namely, the Vizcaina,
El Cristo, San Juan Analco, Santa Gertrudis and Palo Norte.
The width of the lodes seldom exceeds 7 metres, but they are
remarkably persistent along the strike.
The upper oxidized (Colorado) zone consisted of quartz,
oxides of iron and manganese, and chlorides and bromides of
silver, which were capable of treatment by the cold amalga-
mation or patio process (invented in Pachuca in 1557 by
Bartolome de Medina). Exploitation is now confined to the
lower sulphide (negro] zone, which consists of pyrite, galena,
argentiteand rhodonite.
Sometimes stephanite and polybasite occur. Blende is
rare. The gangue is milky quartz, with, in places, bluish,
greenish and purplish varieties. Calcite occurs only in small
amounts as a later infiltration.
Native silver is found at all depths. Dark ruby silver
J
ioo SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF SILVER ORES
(pyrargyrite) is rare, and light ruby silver (proustite) appears
to be entirely absent from the Pachuca veins. In Pachuca,
bonanzas have occurred more frequently in the lower than
in the upper zone. The San Rafael bonanza produced nearly
$14,000,000 in ten years, whilst that of Rosario produced
$28,000,000 in thirty years (1853 to 1883).
At Real del Monte N.-S. veins intersect the E.-W. veins.
At a depth of 400 metres the filling of the Vizcaina vein is
quartz, coarse blende, fine-grained argentiferous galena, pyrite,
chalcopyrite and rhodonite. The Santa Ines (N.-S.) vein
has been worked to a depth exceeding 400 metres, and has
two shoots of rich ore in the sulphide zone which appear
to pitch south [84].
Jalisco
At Hostotipaquillo, the lodes are formed by the siliceous
replacement of brecciated andesite. According to S. J. Lewis

[20/p. 523], the primary filling consisted of metallic base sulphides
with some silver, the gangue being calcite, a little quartz and
rhodochrosite then followed siliceous solutions containing
;
more of the precious metals this was followed by oxidation

;
and enrichment. Here and

there, through step-faulting, the
quartz has been shattered, displaced from 3 to 6 metres, and
leached. Rich ore occurs to a depth of 200 metres from ;
200
to 300 metres the ore shows little secondary influence, but can
still be worked at a profit.
The Amparo mine, near Etzatlan, is in augite-andesite

(basic rock).
In the opinion of S. J. Lewis [20/p. 526], the San Juan lode,
striking N.S. and dipping W.7O, was first formed, the primary
low-grade filling consisting of lead, and copper
zinc, iron,
sulphides, and abundant rhodochrosite in a gangue of calcite.
This vein was subsequently cut through and displaced 90
metres by the Dulces Nombres vein, trending N.W.-S.E. and
dipping .70. Owing to the draining of the ground and the
re-opening of the channels, this section of 300 ft. in length
became much enriched by a siliceous solution containing gold
and Finally there was a great fault movement in the
silver.
southern portion of the San Juan vein the rock breccia was
;
MEXICO .. , ,,,,,, 101
ground up into impalpable powder by the up arid clown move-

ment, and a gouge (flucari) from 30 cm. to I m. in thickness
was formed in the fault zone, which acted as a check across the
ore- channels, thereby causing heavy ore deposition on both
sides of the fault. There are two ore-bodies, one of which goes
to a depth of 300 metres. The ore contains an average of
5 dwt. gold and 9*6 oz. silver per ton.
Territory of Lower California

In the Cacachilas district the veins are in a granitic rock.
The gangue is quartz. In the upper zone are oxides of anti-
mony and iron, chloride and bromide of silver, and carbonate
of lead in the sulphide zone are galena, tetrahedrite, sulphides
;
of silver, berthierite, jamesonite, pyrite and blende.

In the San Antonio district, according to Santiago Ramirez,
N.E.-S.W. veins, dipping S.E., occur in granulites and diorites.
The sulphide ores are similar to those of the Cacachilas
district [86/p. 343].
In the Virgenes district (32 km. east of La Paz) the
formation is tourmaliniferous granite traversed by dykes of
pegmatite (?). According to Santiago Ramirez the veins
course N.20W. and dip E. The ores are silver-bearing
tetrahedrite and galena, accompanied by copper minerals.
The gangue is quartz or heavy spar [86/p. 346].
At the Pihuamo mines the lodes course E.ioN. and dip
N.ioW.65. The gangue is calcite, and the ore is silver-
bearing galena and blende. The ore-bodies lie at the contact
between slates and limestone of the Lower Cretaceous above,
and granulites below.
Mexico
At El Oro, the formation consists of calcareous shale
(Cretaceous), from 500 to 900 ft. in thickness, overlying
intrusive andesite of about 1,000 ft. in thickness. At a depth
of 2,200 ft. shale again appears, and may possibly prove to be
ore-bearing. The veins strike N.io-2OW. and dip W.
63-70. S. J. Lewis [25] gives the history of the lodes as
follows : After the fracturing of the shale by the andesite,
the primary mineralization was performed by alkaline solutions
no doubt aided by the carbonaceous matter in the shale
and calcite was the gangue carrying little of the precious
metals then followed cross-faulting and the entry of a siliceous
;
solution far richer in the precious metals (pseudomorphs of
quartz after calcite occur) finally, owing to the wearing away

;
of the surface cap of andesite, circulation of the surface waters

in the cross-channels has produced enrichment of the ore-bodies,
forming them into the bonanzas that are being mined to-day.
The which occurs in a fine state of division, is alloyed
free gold,
with and is mixed with minute proportions of argentite,
silver,
proustite and pyrargyrite.

At Sultepec, the Cretaceous shale, from 300 to 600 metres
thick, is underlaid by intrusive andesite, in which the lodes
become impoverished.
According to E. Halse [87], the country is a green talcose
schist, often accompanied by andesite dykes. The ores are
pyrite, marcasite, argentite, pyrargyrite, proustite (occasional),
stephanite (rare), miargyrite (rare), galena and blende, accom-
panied by chalcopyrite, stibnite (rare) and arsenopyrite. The
gangue is quartz, calcite, dolomite, fluorspar and barytes (rare).
At Zacualpan, the principal lodes strike N.-S. in andesite
with inclusions of Cretaceous shale, which has an adverse effect
on the lodes. The pay-ore, in the opinion of S. J. Lewis [26],
is largely a matter of secondary enrichment, which will probably
prove to reach to 450 metres in depth.

Two systems of veins occur in Temascaltepec E.-W. (the
best) and N.W.-S.E. (low grade). According to Dollfus
and Montserrat [88], the country is a blackish schist with
calcite, and is near a mass of quartzose porphyry. The veins,
as regards filling, are very similar to those of Sultepec.
In the Ilaltaya group, according to Hoppenstedt, the ores
form contact- deposits between andesites and Tertiary volcanic
conglomerates.
Michoacdn
The principal veins at Tlalpujahua, according to Joseph
Burkart [85/p. 75], strike N.25W. and dip E. The country
is a metamorphosed schist or slate. The filling consists of
MEXICO 103
native gold and silver, argentite, polybasite and pyrargyrite,

with pyrite and occasionally calcite. The usual gangue is
quartz. Dos Estrellas, one of the richest mines of the Republic,
geologically forms part of the El Oro district (see State of
Mexico). The ore milled contains 7 or 8 dwt. of gold and
from 4 to 6 oz. of silver per ton. At Angangueo the veins
are fissures in eruptive rock. The silver occurs mainly as
argentite, with galena, blende and chalcopyrite. The gangue
is quartz and calcite.
Nuevo Leon
The ores in this State are principally silver- bearing galena

and blende. According to J. O. Aguilera [77/p. 596], the
Iguana ore-deposits are bedded veins carrying quartz, galena,
pyrite and silver sulphides in limestone near diorite.
Oaxaca
According to E. Halse [8g/p. 372] the country at Taviches

is hornblende-andesite (Tertiary), traversed by dykes of
diorite, trending, like the veins, in a general N.W.-S.E. direction,
and which are metalliferous in places. Pyrargyrite is the
principal silver ore. It is frequently associated with auriferous
pyrite, and is occasionally accompanied by polybasite, argentite

and stephanite. Stibnite, galena, chalcopyrite and blende
are also found. The gangue is quartz, with calcite and gypsum
occasionally. Dark ruby silver (pyrargyrite) occurs in spots
(moscas) and little bunches (ojos), and sometimes forms the
centre of quartz, having a radiated spherical texture (rueda),
which appears to have filled cavities in the rock [80] .
Gold-bearing ores, carrying some silver, occur at Peras and

at Pefioles in granitic rocks, and argentiferous lead- ore deposits
are found at Tehuantepec.
Puebla
In the Teziutlan and Tlatlaquitepec districts, contact copper-
bearing deposits occur between gneiss and mica schist. On
an average the ores carry 3 oz. of silver and i dwt. of gold
per ton.
8
t
Queretaro
At Cadereita, the old mine of San Juan Nepomeceno (or
Mina Grande del Doctor) produced a large quantity of silver
during the Colonial period. In the seventeenth century
it is have paid more than 18,000,000 pesos as the King's
said to
fifth. According to C. B. Dahlgren [90], the vein strikes
E.-W. and dips S.6o in limestone. The ore now being worked
in the upper levels is siliceous, and contains both silver and
gold.
The Ajuchitlan mine, in the Mineral de las Aguas, is, accord-
ing to S. J. Lewis [55/p. 448], a true contact deposit, consisting

of tongues of intrusive porphyrite in Cretaceous calcareous
shale. The latter was shattered by the eruptive mass, primary
mineralization of gold-silver ores from a siliceous solution
followed, and quartz-breccia ore-bodies were formed by replace-
ment. This stage was accompanied by settling and was
followed by cross-faulting, while enrichment has succeeded the
latter.
San Luis Potosi

The Barreno mine in the San Pedro district is a true contact
deposit of Cretaceous limestone overlying intrusive diorite-
porphyrite (probably Miocene). The lead-silver-gold ores
were deposited in immense fractures in the limestone. S. J.
Lewis [55/p. 444] regards the lodes as having been built up as
follows (i) A deposition of primary iron sulphides from a
:
siliceous solution with low precious-metal contents (2) a ;
considerable shattering of the limestone, which preceded and

accompanied the entry of siliceous solutions
carrying lead,
mercury, antimony, arsenic, zinc and other base metals, with
an increase in gold and silver (pseudomorphs of galena after
pyrite occur) and ; (3) the oxidizing enrichment of the iron-
sulphide ore-bodies by atmospheric and circulating agencies,
which has reached a depth of 300 metres.
Catorce was discovered in 1772. The veins traverse lime-
stone and porphyry dykes, and are themselves cut by more
recent porphyry dykes. The general strike is N.W.-S.E., the
dip S.E. or N.W.6o to 65. The negros zone contains proustite
MEXICO 105
and other rich silver ores, with sulphide of antimony and

arsenic,chalcopyrite, pyrite, galena and some blende. The
gangue is more quartzose than in the colorados or oxidized
zone.
At Santa Maria del Rio, according to J. P. Manzano, the
country is Cretaceous slate [77/p. 611]. The veins vary in
strike N.4O to 75W. and in dip from N.68 to 8.67.
The ore argentite and pyrargyrite,
consists of tetrahedrite,
accompanied by pyrite and chalcopyrite in a gangue of quartz

and steatite. At Charcas the formation is limestone, and
the ores contain copper, zinc and antimony, with some silver.
At Ramos, La Cocinera vein, discovered in 1796, produced
silver to the value of 21,000,000 pesos from 1801 to 1809.
The country is an argillaceous schist.
The ores are native silver, polybasite, cerargyrite, argentite
and proustite, accompanied by tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite,
pyrite, galena and blende in a gangue of quartz and clay.
Sinaloa
At Fuerte, silver-bearing veins occur in porphyry and

syenite. Palmerito, about 48 km. north of Culiacan, is in
the district of Mocorito. Here, according to W. H. Weed
[77/p. 614], there is a breccia reef of decomposed trachyte,
striking E.-W. and dipping N.30, and from 41 to 46 metres
thick. The hanging-wall is quartz-syenite, and the footwall is
altered trachyte. Argentite and galena are the principal ores.
The whole ledge is said to average 15 oz. of silver per ton. The
output amounted to between 4,700 and 6,000 oz. per month in
1900. At Cosala the country is andesite, carrying much lime.
copper. The gangue
All the ores carry silver, gold and some
is quartz. About 25% of the value of the content is in silver.
At Santa Cruz de Alaya, 48 km. north of Mazatlan, the forma-
tion, according to E. Halse [79/p. 243], is limestone, probably
of Middle Cretaceous age,
containing thin bands of chert and
intercalations of schist. The principal veins course N.-S. and
dip W. The ore consists of argentiferous blende, with some
pyrite, chalcopyrite and arsenopyrite, and occasional spots of
argentite and ruby silver in a gangue of quartz and calcite.
The veins are of the replacement type and often consist of bands
of ore separated by limestone. The ores carry from 19 to
40 oz. of silver per ton.
The vein of the Jocuistita mine, district of San Ignacio,
strikes E.-W. and dips N.83. The formation is porphyry
and trachyte.
At Copala, district of Concordia, the formation consists
of Tertiary eruptive rocks. The veins strike N.-S. and
dip E. The filling is quartz, which carries small quantities
of argentite and native silver, with a little
pyrite, galena
and gold.
The Tajo mine, district of Rosario, was worked by the
Spaniards. The vein strikes E.-W., and the ore consists of
argentite, native gold and silver, galena, pyrite and blende
in quartz [QO/p. 92].
Sonora
The Babicanora camp, district of Arizpe, was discovered

in 1780. The country is porphyry. The principal lode
strikes N.52W., and dips W.75. The ores are sulphide of
silver with gold and pyrite. According to the late Edmond
Fuchs [91], one vein of the Carmen mine carries proustite,
argentite and polybasite, with a little gold, associated with
pyrite, a little galena, chalcopyrite and tetrahedrite (rare).
The gangue quartz and a little calcite. Some silver
is is found
in the ores of the Cananea copper deposits.
The Chipionena mine 26 km. north of Matape, in the
lies
district of Ures. According to E. Halse [89], the vein strikes

N.W.-S.E. and dips N.E.45 in granite. The ores are
silver-bearing galena, pyrite and blende. The ore occurs
in shoots pitching N.W. or following the cross- joints in the
country.
The silver-bearing veins, worked by the San Javier, Los
Bronces and La Barranca companies, traverse sandstone and
slate, and contain chalcocite, tetrahedrite, pyrite, chalco-
pyrite, blende and a small amount of galena, and complex
sulphides of silver in a gangue of quartz and calcite.
MEXICO 107
Tamaulipas
In the Victoria district the ores carry silver-lead-copper.
San Joseis a copper district, but the ores contain some silver.
Territory of Tepic
Rich gold-silver veins occur in the municipalities of Santa

Maria del Oro, Acaponeta and Santiago Ixcuintla, with or
without copper and lead.
El Zopilote mine, in the last municipality, has veins with
a N.W. course consisting of quartz, blende and pyrite, sul-
phides of silver and small amounts of galena. The Castellana
mines, to the north of Ixtlan del Rio, have lodes with a N.5oW.
course. They contain quartz, pyrargyrite, polybasite and a
small amount of argentite. Native silver occurs in the qxide
zone. At Barranca del Oro, in Ahuacatlan, the veins are in
granulites cut by dykes of diorite and hornblende-andesite.
The lodes have an E.-W. course, and contain quartz, pyrite
and a little galena.
Zacatecas
The Zacatecas was discovered by Juan de Tolosa

district
in 1546. The extension is 14 km. from north to south, and
12 km. from east to west.
Values of Production in the Zacatecas District
1548-1810 .....
.....
$ (Pesos)
588,041,956
1810-1818
1818-1825
1825-1832
..... 20,060,363
17,912,476
30,028,540
Among the mines famous for their remarkable output of

may be mentioned La
silver Gallega, San Acacio, San Borjas,
Asturiana and San Francisco, all in the Veta Grande lode,
Quebradilla, Rondaneva and Guadalupe, on the Mala Noche
lode, and the mines exploiting the San Luis and Santo Tomas
veins.
According to Burckhardt and Scalia, the oldest rocks in

the Zacatecas region are ancient, highly-contorted sericitic
io8 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF SILVER ORES
schists. Of later origin, and unconformable to the above, are
quartzites, grits and siliceous and argillaceous schists of

Upper Triassic age, exposed only at two points, and folded
or highly-inclined.
Exposed over a considerable area to the west of the town

an upper and lower series of spilites (altered
of Zacatecas is
shaly-olivine-basalts) intercalated with the Triassic sediments

and folded with them. The upper
series rests unconformably
upon both the ancient schists and the lower series of spilites.
The outpouring of the upper spilites was followed by a lengthy
period of erosion during which the roca verde grits and breccias
were laid down. Afterwards came the Bufa rhyolites and
rhyolitic tuffs and breccias as extensive surface flows, but
now represented by a few uneroded remnants, and, finally,
quartz-porphyry and rhyolite, as unimportant dykes traversing
schists and spilites, now represented by occasional outliers
at elevated points.
Flores distinguishes three principal mineralized zones
the middle zone, which includes the mines working the Vet a
Grande lode the north zone, including the mines of Panuco
; ;
and the south zone close to the town of Zacatecas. The south
zone may be grouped into several systems. The first includes
Cantera, Mala Noche, El Bote, Magistral, Sierpe and Plata,
all of whose lodes strike E.-W.
The Cantera group is located for the most part between

the roca verde breccia and the spilites the Mala Noche lode
;
lies mostly within the spilites, and the El Bote and Magistral
groups traverse the ancient schists.

The N.W.-S.E. system of lodes include the Quebradilla,
San Luis, Santo Tomas, San Vicente and Dolores groups. The
predominant primary minerals of these lodes ar-e argentite,
proustite, polybasite, galena, blende, pyrite, chalcopyrite and
bornite in a gangue of quartz with calcite. The secondary
minerals include oxides of iron, argentite, native silver and
copper, and the oxides of copper. Cerargyrite, bromyrite,
cerussite and the oxide of manganese are rarer.
According to E. Halse [92], there is a gold-silver-bearing

group of veins to the south of the town. The strike varies
from N.i4W. to N.28W., and the dip is easterly from 55
MEXICO 109
to 80. The country is a highly altered schist, often chloritic,

with diorite (?). The veins, about i metre thick on an
average, have a banded structure, the filling being character-
ized by alternate layers ^f quartz and calcite, with ribbony
bands of silver sulphide and native gold deposited preferably in
the quartz. The veins carry from 6 to 38 oz. of silver and
from 9 to 60 dwt. of gold per ton.
The mines at Fresnillo are about 64 km. south-west of
Zacatecas City. According to B. Silliman [77/p. 644], the
deposit is a stockwork of some sixty veins resting in the N.E.
and S.W. slopes of the Cerro de Proafio Mountain. The forma-
tion consists of Cretaceous limestone with dykes and inter-
calations of rhyolite. The veins average 60 cm. in thickness,
and the walls for 90 or 120 cm. are impregnated with pyrite,
cerargyrite, native silver and argentite (azulaques). The
gangue is white quartz. The sulphide ores are argentite,
pyrite, etc. The lodes cut diorites, and, according to Arenas,
rhyolite also.
Sombrerete was discovered by Juan de Tolosa in 1555.
The veins strike E.-W. and dip S.8o in compact limestone,
slate and porphyry. Proustite is the characteristic ore,
arsenopyrite is abundant, and the gangue

quartzose. is
Aranzazu, formerly known as Mazapil, was discovered in

1530. Here strata of Cretaceous- Jurassic age are, according
to Ordonez [84] intruded by quartz monzonite of Tertiary
age. Mineralization is confined to the contact zones in
limestone against the igneous rock. The ore-bodies consist

of chalcopyrite, pyrite, tetrahedrite, small amounts
with
of blende and galena, in a gangue of calcite, garnet with tremo-
lite and quartz. The ore-bodies therefore possess the charac-
contact-metasomatic deposits.
teristics of
The chief mine is Albarradon the vein strikes N.E.-S.W.
;
and dips 8.85 in felspathic porphyry, near limestone and slate.

The ores, principally cerussite and galena, contain 40 oz.
of silver per ton, but rich copper ores, as well as some gold
occur also. The geological formation of the ore-bodies of
Santa Rosa and Concepcion del Oro is very similar.
At Pen6n Blanco the veins cut Cretaceous limestone. They
contain quartz, calcite and barytes and, in the zone of oxidation,
no SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF SILVER ORES
native gold and silver, carbonates of copper and silver sulphide.
In the sulphide zone are found argentite, stephanite, poly-
basite, stromeyerite, pyrargyrite, galena, pyrite, chalcopyrite
and arsenopyrite. The lode at Mezquital del Oro, in the
Juchipita district, has a N.E. course and dips N.W. In the
oxidized zone are quartz, iron oxide and free gold and, in
the sulphide zone, quartz, chalcopyrite, pyrite and sulphides
of silver. The country is rhyolite.
Mexico produced 63,656,000 oz. of silver in 1920.
UNITED STATES
During the year 1919 the production of silver in the United

States amounted to 56,682,445 fine oz., having a value of
$63,533,652 (valued at $1-12 per oz.). Compared with the
output in 1918 this indicates a
reduction amounting to
11,127,694 oz., and represents the smallest output since
Below are given the more important statistics relating to

production, value, imports and exports of silver for the United
States.
The following table gives the amounts and values per ounce
of silver produced in the United States from the years 1913
to 1920, inclusive, compared with some previous years :
1
By the terms of the Pittman Act and U.S. Mint regulations domestic
silver produced and reduced in the United States after Jan. 17, 1920 is saleable
to the Director of the U.S. Mint at $i oo per fine oz. (Min. Jour., Jan. 29, 1921).
The following table gives the output of silver by States

UNITED STATES in
for the years 1916 to 1920. The figures for 1920 represent a
joint preliminary estimate by the Bureau of the Mint and
the Geological Survey.
Silver Produced in the United States 1916-20, in Fine Ounces
Including 4,144 oz. from Maine.

1
The table on p. 112 gives figures relating to the imports

and exports in the year 1919.
As regards the manner of occurrence and mineral contents
of the very numerous silver-bearing deposits in the United
States, space will only permit of a brief survey with the object
of demonstrating their more important characteristics. With
this in view one cannot do better than summarize the opinion
held by Waldemar Lindgren, a recognized authority on the
gold and silver deposits of America [93].
H2 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF SILVER ORES
Value of Silver Imported and Exported for Year Ended

Dec. 31, 1919
(Figures furnished by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce.)
On the basis of geological occurrence, Lindgren distinguishes

three types of silver-bearing deposits, viz. :
I. Veins contained in granitic rocks or accompanied by
porphyries consolidated at considerable depth. The normal

gangue is white massive quartz through which the sulphides
are sparsely disseminated.
II. Veins contained in volcanic surface flows, such as rhyo-
lite, andesite and basalt. The gangue is prevailingly very

fine-grained, chalcedonic, or drusy, and in many places it
contains adularia. The metallic constituents consist of
accompanied by very small amounts of
argentite, lead, zinc
and copper sulphides.
III. Metasomatic deposits in limestone, generally in con-
nection with granite, diorite, monzonite or porphyry. Both
quartz and calcite appear in the gangue. Almost without
exception the ores contain lead and usually also copper and
zinc. Native silver and cerargyrite (horn silver) are abundant.
Deposits of the first type are apt to be rich near the sur-
face, where secondary sulphides and sulphantimonites have
formed, but generally they are disappointing below the water
level, where the primary ore is reached. Many examples of
UNITED STATES
this type may be found
Montana, Idaho, and other States.
in
A is formed by veins which contain
subdivision of this class
more abundant sulphides, among which galena generally pre-
dominates, and may be successfully worked by concentration
even below the surface zone of enrichment. Examples occur
in Clear Creek County, Colorado.
Deposits of the second type, by oxidation and secondary

deposition of sulphantimonites, have undergone great enrich-
ment in their upper parts. Illustrations of this are found in
the Tonopah and Comstock ores of Nevada, the Mogollon
ores of New Mexico, and the Silver City ores of Idaho.
The upper parts of deposits belonging to the third
many
type are extremely rich, as exemplified at Leadville and Lake
Valley.
Geological Classification of Silver derived from Various Ores

in the United States for 1906 [93]
The United States

classification of the silver ores of the
is most
satisfactorily based on metallurgical considerations.
Lindgren recognizes two main groups, dry or siliceous ores

and silver base metal ores. The siliceous ores include the
silver- lead- copper ores, the silver-gold ores, and the true silver
H4 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF SILVER ORES
ores, and comprise those which contain little or no copper,
lead or zinc. In the main they are siliceous ores containing
only gold and silver. The value of the silver is equal to or
greater than that of the gold, and the copper and lead are
below 2% % and 4^ %respectively. The silver- gold ores con-
tain gold ranging from 0-5 to 3 oz. per 100 oz. of silver. The
true silver ores contain less than 0-5 oz. of gold per 100 oz.
of silver. Among the silver base metal ores, those containing
2i% or more of copper, equivalent to 50 Ib. per short ton,
are designated copper ores, whilst those with over 4^% of
lead, or 90 Ib. per ton, are called lead ores.
The following tables give the relative proportions and actual
production of the chief classes of ore produced during the years
1916 to 1918 in the United States :
Sources of Silver in United States
(From different classes of ores.)
The productions from the various classes of ore for the
year 1918 are in fine oz. as follow :
Total 68,058,952
The following are additional details concerning the sources

from which the various classes of ore were derived during the
year 1918.
UNITED STATES 115
Dry or Siliceous Ores. About 42 % of the total production

came from Nevada (chiefly from the Tonopah district), 22%
was from Colorado (mainly from Leadville, Upper San Miguel,
and Sneffels districts), and 18% from Utah. Montana and
Arizona each produced more than 900,000 oz. of silver from
this source, and New Mexico nearly 380,000 oz. Ninety-nine
per cent, of the silver produced in Texas was from siliceous
silver ores.
A large part of the silver from silver-gold siliceous ores is
obtained with the gold by amalgamation and cyanidation
in the mills, and the silver is recovered by refining the
mill bullion. The remainder is produced by smelting the
richer ores and refining the copper or lead bullion pro-
duced.
Copper Ores. Silver is obtained from most of the copper
ores, which are mainly sulphides, by the electrolytic refining
of lake and blister copper produced by smelting.
Lead Ores. The principal yield of argentiferous lead ores
comes from Idaho and Utah. The yield in Idaho is mainly from
the silver- lead ores of the Cceur d'Alene, and in Utah from the
Park City and Tin tic districts. Colorado ores of this type are
derived from Aspen and Leadville. Most of the output is
from the desilverization of lead bullion derived from the
smelting of western ores and concentrate.
Zinc, Lead-Zinc and Mixed Ores. The silver from argen-
tiferous zinc ores is obtained mainly as refinery by-products
from the smelting of zinc concentrate from Colorado,
Californiaand Nevada.
The silver from lead- zinc ores comes chiefly from concentrate
from the Cceur d'Alene in Idaho, the Butte district in Montana,
and the Park City region in Utah.
Copper-lead and copper-lead-zinc ores were, during 1918,
mainly derived from Utah, New Mexico, Colorado, California
and Arizona.
Having obtained a general idea of the silver- bearing deposits
in the may now be turned
United States as a whole, attention
to a more detailed consideration of the several States from
which silver is obtained.
ir6 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF SILVER ORES
Montana
This State is the leading silver producer in the United
States, but records a decrease in 1919 compared with the
production in 1918. As in past years, much of this silver
came from copper but a large part of the increase
ores,
resulted from residues from zinc ores, both those smelted in
the East and those treated in the electrolytic plant at
Great Falls. The principal contributors of silver in 1919
were the combined Anaconda properties with the Butte and
Superior, the North Butte, the Elm Orlfc, the Davies Daly
and the East Butte. In 1918 the copper ores yielded
10,521,219 oz. (an average of 1-64 oz. per ton), of which Silver
Bow County (Butte) supplied 10,480,556 oz. The lead-zinc
ores produced 4,532,034 oz., of which Silver Bow County
supplied 4,261,041 oz., and Lincoln County supplied 156,887 oz.
The dry or siliceous ores produced 1,028,443 oz., of which
Granite County supplied 465,631 oz.
At the town of Butte, in south-western Montana, both
copper and silver lodes occur. The latter, which are no longer
worked, contain silver sulphide ores, with some native silver,
blende, pyrite, galena, quartz, rhodochrosite, rhodonite and
hiibnerite. They have a marked banded structure. The
copper lodes contain quartz as a gangue, whilst the metal-
liferous portions consist on an average of about 60 of chal- %
cocite, 30% enargite, 8% bornite, and 2% chalcopyrite,
covellite and tetrahedrite. The mineral region is made up
of Tertiary igneous rocks intruded into Cretaceous metamor-
phosed limestones, etc., and is partly covered by rhyolite.
The most important lodes are found in quartz-monzonite,

"
the Butte granite."Into the quartz-monzonite were in-
truded, as later differentiated products, a granite- aplite, the
" "
Bluebird granite," and a quartz-porphyry, the Medoc
' '
porphyry. The rhyolite constitutes the latest phase of igneous

action. Mineralization pre-dated the volcanic phase. The
lodes, which are divisible into three groups, cut the aplite and
quartz-porphyry dykes, but are older than the rhyolite. The
formation of extensive oxidation and cementation zones are
of great economical importance.
UNITED STATES 117
Nearly all the silver-lead ores in Montana occur in fissure

veins in or about the contacts of intrusive quartz- monzonite
stocks, and a few deposits are contained in limestone.
Utah
Most of the produced in Utah is a by-product obtained
silver
copper and lead ores.

in the smelting of
In 1918 the largest production came from Juab County,
credited with 4,994,806 oz., mainly from lead ores. Salt
Lake County had the next largest output, amounting to
3,022,638 oz., from copper, lead and zinc-lead ores. Of the
Salt Lake County output of silver, the 'Bingham district
produced 81%. The Tintic district, in Juab and Utah coun-
ties, yielded 6,681,644 oz mainly from lead ores. The Park
->
City region, in Summit and Wasatch counties, produced

2 572,586 oz., mainly derived from lead and lead- zinc ores.
>
Al-
together, the lead ores of Utah yielded 6,672,725 oz. of silver
in 1918, the copper ores 1,445,559 oz -> tne lead- zinc ores
1,243,638 oz., and the dry or siliceous ores 3,987,068 oz. The
crude ore smelted in 1918 contained 10,612,588 oz., and con-
centrate contained 2,316,766 oz.
At Bingham Canon contact-metasomatic copper deposits
occur in limestone in the neighbourhood of late Mesozoic or
early Tertiary monzonite. Lodes accompanied by impregna-
tion zones also occur in monzonite.
The silver base metal ores of Tintic and Park City are derived
from replacement deposits in limestone associated with in-
trusive rocks.
Idaho
The output of Idaho showed a decrease of 38% in 1919
compared with the figure given for 1918. Decreases amounting
to 300,000 oz. or more were shown by the Hercules, Morning,
Hecla, Tamarack and Custer mines. Smaller decreases were
reported by the Bunker Hill, Caledonia and Gold Hunter.
The largest silver producer in the State was the Bunker
Hill and Sullivan mine, followed by the Hecla mine at
Burke. Other important silver producers were the Morning,
Tamarack and Custer, Gold Hunter and Caledonia. The
n8 SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF SILVER ORES
mines in the Coeur d'Alene district produced about 4,800,000
oz., or about 84% of the total output of the State. In 1918
lead ores contained 88 %
of the total output of silver, and lead-
zinc ores 9%. Crude ore shipped, which averaged 15-61
oz. of silver a ton, supplied nearly 32% of the silver, and
concentrate, which averaged 19*66 oz. of silver a ton, con-
tained more than 67 %
of the total silver.
The silver- lead deposits of the Cceur d'Alene district in
northern Idaho consist of
argentiferous galena, siderite,
blende, pyrite, etc., in a gangue of quartz with some barytes.
The district is composed of Algonkian slates and quartzites
pierced by a large syenitic intrusion. The lodes are later
than the syenite, but, with the exception of the Hecla lode,
older than a series of intrusive basaltic rocks which traverse it.
The siliceous silver-gold ores of Silver

City in Owyhee
County occur in connection with surface flows of lavas. In
the Wood River district galena- tetrahedrite veins cut through
limestone. The Gold Hunter deposit of silver base metal
ores occurs in quartzite.
Nevada
During the year 1919 the largest output of silver, or about
3,535,000 oz., was produced in the Tonopah district, where the
principal contributors were the Tonopah Extension, Tonopah
Mining, Tonopah Belmont and West End. Large quantities
of silver also came from the Nevada Wonder, in Churchill
County, and the Rochester mines, in Humboldt County.

Smaller outputs came from the Yellow Pine, Nevada Packard,
Prince Consolidated, Elko Prince, and several properties at
Virginia City. The Corns tock district produced about 240,000
oz., and several properties at Rochester produced about
575,000 oz. In 1918 dry or siliceous ores yielded all but

848,223 oz. of the output of silver, and nearly 88% of this
yield was recovered by cyanidation.
The silver-bearing lodes at Tonopah occur in a series of
Tertiary eruptive rocks. There are younger lodes containing

silver minerals in a quartz gangue traversing rhyolite-dacite,
and there are older lodes found in andesite. This latter
set of lodes contains argentite, polybasite, stephanite, etc.,
UNITED STATES 119
with some chalcopyrite, pyrite, and a little galena and blende

in a gangue consisting principally of quartz. The country
rock in the neighbourhood of the lodes is greatly propylitized.
The famous Comstock lode, in the Washoe district, is situated
principally in propylitized augite-andesite. The chief vein-
stone is quartz, and the metalliferous contents were concen-
trated in a series of large bonanzas. The most important silver
minerals of these bonanzas were argentite, stephanite and
argentiferous galena. Mining operations were suspended in
1892. Since then, except for a little sporadic work, the mines
have been idle.
The main ore-bodies in the Eureka district are due to re-
placement of a limestone along its faulted plane of contact

with impervious quartzite. The primary ore consists of galena
associated with pyrite. Within the oxidation zone these give
place to various carbonates, sulphates, arsenates, molyb-
denates and chlorides, which are rich in gold.
Colorado
In 1918 there was an increase of silver contents in ore

marketed direct from the mines, the decrease in silver and
lead being due to a decrease in lead concentrate from lead-
zinc ores. Lake County, chiefly Leadville, but including
Lackawanna Gulch, Sugar Loaf, St. Kevin, and Wortman lode
districts, and the Arkansas River dredge district, produced
2,348,000 oz. of silver. San Miguel mills, treating ore from

both San Miguel and Ouray counties, produced 1,170,000 oz.
of silver. Owing to various difficulties connected with labour,
etc., was a falling off in the production of the San Juan
there
region. Dolores County also showed a small decrease, but
in Mineral County there was an increase of over 100 %. De-
creases are recorded from Cripple Creek and Boulder and Chaffee
counties. Pitkin County (Aspen) yielded 570,000 oz. of silver.
In 1918 siliceous and dry ores yielded 67% of the silver
recovered, lead ores 21%, lead- zinc ores 8%, and copper
ores 2%. The remainder came from placers, zinc ores and
copper-lead ores.
The silver-lead occurrence at Leadville represents a meta-
9
somatic deposit in blue- grey dolomitic limestone, of Carbon-
iferous age. The ore-bodies occur chiefly as flats at the junc-
tion of the limestone and microgranite. The ores are mostly
made up of anglesite, cerussite, galena and pyromorphite.
The deposits at Aspen are also of the replacement type in
limestone.
In the Cripple Creek district a series of related Tertiary
intrusive rocks occur in pre-Cambrian granite and slate. The
lodes occur principally in breccia and phonolite, but to some
extent also in other rocks. Considerable alteration of the
country rock in the neighbourhood of the veins has taken place.
The ore consists of tellurides of gold, silver and lead, and
pyrite. In addition, tetrahedrite, stibnite, and small amounts
of galena, blende, molybdenite, etc., occur. The gangue con-
sists of quartz, fluorspar and dolomite.
Fissure veins connected with intrusive rocks occur at Clear
Creek, and also in Park, Gunnison and other counties. Fissure
veins contained in volcanic surface flows occur in Mineral
County (Creede), and also in San Miguel, Custer, Hinsdale,
Ouray and San Juan counties.
Arizona
A large decrease in output was recorded for 1919 resulting

from a falling off in shipments of lead ore, which contains
considerable amounts of silver. Of the 6,686,152 oz. of
silver produced 1918, 5,347,618 oz. came from copper
in
ores, 913,973 oz. from dry or siliceous ores, 362,182 oz. from
lead ores, 36,208 oz. from lead- zinc ores, and smaller quanti-
ties from zinc, copper-zinc and copper-lead ores. Cochise
County produced 2,315,518 oz., of which 1,693,598 oz. came
from copper ores and 426,019 oz. from siliceous ores. Yavapai
County produced 2,502,968 oz., mainly derived from copper
ores. Bullion recovered from gold and silver ores, almost
allby cyanidation, yielded 158,476 oz. of silver. Concentrate
contained 1,119,510 oz., and crude ore shipped to smelters
contained 5,372,505 oz., or more than 80% of the total output
of silver.
The silver base metal ores are derived from imperfectly-
UNITED STATES 121
known districts in Gila, Mohave, and Santa Cruz counties,

and in part probably represent oxidized and enriched ores.
In 1906 the largest part of the siliceous silver- lead- copper
ores produced in Arizona was contributed by the Tombstone
mine, working veins and replacements in limestone, quart-
zite, and shale near bodies of intrusive rocks.
The siliceous silver-gold ores are derived from fissure
veins in volcanic flows, principally rhyolite or dacite, and the
larger part of it comes from Cochise County.
The siliceous silver ores seem to be largely oxidized ores
from veins connected with intrusive rocks, in the Cerbat
Range, Mohave County, also from Globe, and from mining
districts in Yavapai County.
California
In 1919 the silver was derived mainly from copper and
lead ores, although an appreciable quantity was also mined
with the gold. Owing to the rise in the value of the metal
some few old silver mines in the southern part of the State
have been reopened, but none on any large scale. In 1918
more than 47% of the output, or 669,711 oz., came from
copper ores. Zinc and silver-lead ores yielded 499,759 oz.,
siliceous ores 228,332 oz., and placers the remainder. The
only counties producing more than 100,000 oz. of silver in
1918 were Shasta, Inyo and Plumas. About 69 %
of all the
silver was recovered from crude ores sent to smelters.
Alaska
In 1918 the copper mines produced 719,391 oz., siliceous
ores yielded 90,064 oz., and the placers 38,334 oz., out of a
total of 847,789 fine oz. silver.
New Mexico
The Fanney cyanidation mill and the Ernestine mill, both
at Mogollon, yield the bulk of silver produced in New Mexico.
In 1918 the total output amounted to 782,421 oz., of which
Socorro County produced 352,878 fine oz., or 45%, chiefly
from siliceous ores from the Mogollon district, the remainder
from mixed ores of the Magdalena district. The output from
Grant County amounted to 338,833 oz., and most of this
yield came from the Lordsburg and Central districts. Dry
and siliceous gold and silver ores, chiefly from Grant and
Socorro counties, yielded 48 %
of the total copper ores,
;
chiefly from Grant, Socorro and Santa Fe counties, yielded

32%. The remainder of the production was from lead-zinc
and copper-lead ores, mainly from the Central, Cook's Peak,
and Magdalena districts.
Victoria,
The Mogollon deposits belong to the second type recognized
by Lindgren and are associated with volcanic flows.
Texas
The greater part of the silver comes from the Presidio silver
mine and cyanidation mill in the Shafter district, Presidio
County.
Michigan
In 1918 the copper mines at Michigan produced 509,067
fine oz. of silver. The silver was mainly derived from the
electrolytic treatment of 56,127,000 Ib. of copper. The average
"
recovery of silver per ton of rock" treated was 0-18 oz.
Of the total output of silver, 453,957 oz. came from mines in
Houghton County. The ore consists of native copper in an
amygdaloid and conglomerate gangue.
Washington
In 1918 about half the silver came from copper ores, and
most of the remainder from Republic ores. In 1918 Ferry
County produced 101,376 oz., mainly from siliceous ores,
and Stevens County 168,669 oz., mainly from copper ores,
out of a total of 310,093 oz.
South Dakota
The output of silver in 1918 inSouth Dakota, which was

mainly derived from refining gold bullion, was 159,202 oz.
UNITED STATES 123
O en
3 &
$ I
^
UNITED STATES 125
-0
2
<$ a
-
cq
Oregon
In 1918 the total output in Oregon was 107,323 fine oz., of
which 77,031 oz. came from siliceous ores, 26,161 oz. from
copper ores, and 4,102 oz. from placer bullion.
Southern Appalachian States
These include Alabama, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina,

South Carolina, Tennessee and Virginia.
In 1918 the total production of silver in Tennessee and
Virginia was 95,478 oz. Only 44 oz. came from siliceous ores
and placers, and 95,434 oz. from copper ores.
Wyoming
Silver is obtained partly from the siliceous ores of the
Seminole and Elk Mountain districts, in Carbon County.
SOUTH AMERICA
BOLIVIA
Potosi. was discovered in the Potosi Mountain in

Silver
1544 [95]. The mountain consists of a cone of porphyritic
rhyolite surrounded by conglomerates, shales and tuffs. These
rocks are traversed by hundreds of approximately parallel
veins and the intervening country rock is considerably mineral-
ized. In the oxidized zone the silver occurs as cerargyrite
and native metal, whilst within the sulphide zone the upper
portion is characterized by an abundance of pyrargyrite and at
lower levels by tetrahedrite. Cassiterite is also to be included
as one of the constituents. Pyrite is practically the only
gangue, although small amounts of barytes and quartz are
present.
The Bolivian output of silver from 1553 to 1910 is said to
have been 48,800 tons, of which the mines of Potosi are
stated to have contributed no less than 30,000 tons. At
present Bolivia and Chile yield about 125 tons per annum.
A large part of this comes as a by-product from the tin mines,
whilst another part is derived from the mine near Huanchaca.
BOLIVIA CHILE 127
The great mineral belt of Bolivia lies in the chain of moun-

tains which forms the eastern border of the high plateau of
that country, a region of Palaeozoic folded slates with cores
of diorite and granite, together with porphyritic intrusions.
Lava flows are generally absent. The characteristic ore-bodies
are those containing both silver and tin. The most important
districts are Carabuco, Avicaya, Milluni and Huayna-Potosi,
Monte Blanco in the Quimza-Cruz mountains, Colquiri, Oruro,
Morococha, and Huanuni, Llallagua, Colquechaca, Potosi,
Porco, Pulacayo, Huanchaca, Chocaya, Tasna, Chorolque, etc.
The primary silver minerals are principally antimonial tetra-
hedrite, with pyrargyrite, proustite and stephanite. Cassi-
terite and a large variety of other minerals also occur. The
most important gangue-mineral is quartz, which is occasionally
accompanied by some calcite and barytes.
The upper parts of these lodes carry native silver, cerargyrite,
pyrargyrite, proustite, etc. The wonderfully rich silver veins
of Potosi change in depth to pyritic tin-bearing veins.
At Corocoro extensive deposits of native copper, with some
native silver, domeykite, certain silver ores, etc., occur as an
impregnation in sandstone.
CHILE
Mineral deposits of commercial value are practically confined
to northern Chile. Here the Jurassic and Cretaceous forma-
tions are strongly developed with contemporaneous lava
flows of great volume. Into these are intruded granite
porphyries and diorite porphyries in smaller stocks, as well
as many batholithic masses of granodioritic rocks. The great
majority of mineral deposits are associated with these intru-
sives, although a certain number occur in late Tertiary lava
flows. Moricke classifies those ore-deposits containing silver
into the following groups :
I. Silver-copper deposits. Deposits containing argentiferous

copper ores in basic plagioclase-augite rocks or in Mesozoic
sediments, especially limestones, penetrated by the igneous
rocks. The chief gangue-minerals are calcite, barytes and
quartz. Deposits containing silver, but with only a subordinate
amount of copper, occur at Tres Puntas, Cabeza de Vaca,
Los Bordos, Chanarcillo, San Antonio in Atacama, Algodones,
Rodeito, Argueros, Quitana in Coquimbo, etc.
II. Silver lodes with a high gold content. These occur in both
basic and acid igneous rocks. Free gold as well as silver
chlorides occur, e.g. at Lomas Bayas in Atacama, and Con-
doriaco in Coquimbo.
III. Deposits containing galena, blende, tetrahedrite, enargite,
etc. Examples of such argentiferous deposits occur at Cerro
Blanco and La Coipa in Atacama, Las Hediondas, Vacas
Heladas and Rio Seco in Coquimbo.
The principal silver-bearing provinces are in the northern
portion of Chile. Proceeding from north to south they are
as follow :
Tarapacd. The Huantajaya mines, in the Coast Mountains,

east of Iquique, are amongst the oldest in Chile and have
yielded an enormous amount
of high-grade ore. The formation
consists of metamorphosed limestone and schist. The veins
are productive only in the limestone, and carry abundant
native silver, cerargyrite and embolite. The new mineral
huantajayite (approximately 2oNaCl -f AgCl) was found in
the partly-cemented superficial debris.
In the Cordillera, east of the Pampa of Tamarugal, are
various veins which carry argentiferous galena and blende
in a quartz gangue. At Mina there are veins which carry
about 8 oz. silver and 2 dwt. gold per ton. They occur
in diorite intruded by porphyry, gabbro and basalt dykes
(99/pp. 274-6].
Antofagasta. The Caracoles silver district, in the
department
of El Loa, is the most important in this province. It was
discovered in 1870, and was extensively worked for some years.
Black marls of Jurassic age, dipping. south, have been intruded
by dykes of quartz-porphyry and diorite-porphyry. Masses
of porphyry also occur in the sedimentary rocks. The main
lode (Resurrection) strikes N.-S. and can be traced for 2 km.
The thickness varies from 2 to 6 m., and the filling at and near
the surface consists of barytes with some calcite and iron oxide.
At a depth of 50 m. the first bunch or shoot of ore was found,
several metres in length and height and with a pitch to the
south. Where the shoot occurred the country was more
CHILE 129
compact and of darker colour than nearer the surface, and there
were numerous cross- veins. A second ore-body was discovered
at a depth of 100 m. which was 90 m. in length and 15 m. in
height. A series of veins formed a junction with the main

vein at this point. The metalliferous minerals met with
included native silver in wire form, proustite, pyrargyrite,
cerargyrite, argentite, highly argentiferous galena and pyrite.
The gangue consisted of calcite, barytes and altered country.
The average silver content was about 320 oz. per ton.
At a depth of 137 to 155 m., a number of pockets of ore
were met with, all pitching south, containing native silver, ruby
silver, argentite, cerargyrite and iodyrite in a gangue of calcite,
barytes and country rock altered through silicification, etc.

Nodules of sulph-arsenide of silver and iron were found above
the pockets, and masses of porphyry were also met with, in
which argentite predominated in leaves or was disseminated
therein. The total depth reached was 200 m. The mines
are no longer being worked [100], They produced in the best
years 120 tons of silver.
At El Inca, 32 km. north of Calama, are veins which carry
silver chlorides to a depth of 152 m. ;
in others, argentiferous
galena isthe principal ore. At Guanaco, 129 km. N.E. of

Taltal, are gold mines, which carry some silver in enargite, and
other copper ores. Below 121 m. the gold and silver contents
became negligible, and the mines were worked for copper
[99/p. 276].
Atacama. The department of Copiapo is especially rich
in silver mines. The famous mines of Chafiarcillo were dis-
covered in 1831 or 1832, and for half a century produced a
large quantity of silver. The isolated mountain of Chafiarcillo
lies about 80 km. inland from the Pacific, between the ports
of Taltal and Chafiaral, and has an altitude of 1,220 m.

The formation consists of a bluish limestone of Jurassic age
interstratified with various intrusive or highly metamorphosed
rocks. Four beds of limestone, known as the first, second,
third and fourth limestones, and three beds of oli vine-basalt or
"
dolerite, known as the first, second and third greenstones,"
have been penetrated by the mine workings.
Several layers in the limestone (termed sheets of porphyrite
by F. Moesta) are impregnated with ore [101] ;

thus the one
known as the Manto de Ossa, which really forms the roof of
No. i limestone in the northern parts of the Colorado mine, is
from i to 6m. in thickness, and has a vesicular structure,
and, especially where calcite and limonite abound, the rock
was found to be impregnated with granules, filigrees, leaves,
plates and veins of native silver, mixed with argentite, cerar-
gyrite and some embolite. About 55 m. below this, a thin
" "
band of ferruginous limestone (? porphyrite), a few inches
thick, had many small cavities encrusted with embolite, and

filled with calcareous clay [102].
The sterile rock, interstratified with the limestone, is,
according to Hen wood [iO2/p. 79],composed largely of felspar,

quartz and hornblende. A more recent writer Nicomedes
Echegarai calls them sheets of melaphyre (altered olivine-
basalt) and dolerite [103]. At Colorado a pair of parallel dykes
of augite-porphyrite, striking N.W. and dipping N.E., traverse
all the strata.
The principal lodes strike N.E. and dip N.W., and are
metalliferous only in the limestone. According to M. H. Gray,
some lodes dip S.E., and, although many of them have been
explored to a considerable depth, they have, generally speaking,
been found to give unsatisfactory results [12]. Deeper still,
the proportions of blende, galena and arsenopyrite increase.
Calcite is the principal gangue in the limestone, with brownspar
(a variety of dolomite) and barytes. The lodes were richest

where they united with minute veins (cruceros) oblique both
in direction and dip.
When Henwood wrote his memoir, the workings on the
Colorado lode were at a vertical depth of 414 m., and in
the third bed of limestone. Since then the bottom levels of
the Delirio and Constancia mines penetrated a fourth bed of
limestone, in which the ore in the veins was abundant but not
of high grade [104].
Portions of all the lodes have been enormously rich, e.g. at
about 180 m. deep in the first limestone, the Candelaria lode
for a length of 64 m. averaged upwards of 720 oz. silver
per ton. The rich bunches pitched uniformly S.W., but

they were of course generally surrounded by much larger
CHILE 131
bodies of inferior ore. In 25 years, ending 1856, the principal

mines of Chafiarcillo have produced silver to the value approxi-
mately of 6,140,000 [i02/p. 124], and from 1830 to 1853,
or in 23 J years, the production of the department of Copiapo
alone amounted to upwards of 1,100 metric tons of silver
[I02/p. 153]-
Kenwood, referring to the lower grade ore, says "Of this
:
there remains, either still unbroken in the lodes or rejected at

"
the surface, almost incalculable quantities [i02/p. 93]. Eche-
garai points out that the Descubridora lode is completely
virgin in the third zone, having been exploited only in the first
and second zones for a length of ij km. The suspension of
the deeper mines is said to have been solely due to the abun-
dance of water met with in depth.

The above statements, provided they are correct, would appear
to warrant the reopening of some of the old mines of Chafiarcillo.
In the department of Vallenar several rich veins containing
much native silver and some gold and copper were discovered
in the beginning of the last century.
In the Vicuna district, 104 km. east of Chanaral, quartz
veins carry argentiferous ores of copper and lead in syenite
and porphyry [99/p. 277].
At present the silver production of the Atacama province
comes mainly from the Elisa de los Bordos mine.
Coquimbo. Numerous very rich silver mines were formerly
worked in the department of La Serena, but the richest ores
are exhausted, and the mines are practically all idle now.
The Arqueros deposits were discovered in 1825. The
formation consists of Jurassic limestones traversed by por-
phyries. The filling of the lodes comprises native amalgam,
native silver, pyrargyrite, cerargyrite, stephanite, smaltite,
tetrahedrite, bornite and chalcopyrite [i2/p. 875].
The Rodeito silver mines have also been highly productive,
as well as those of the Algodones district of the department
of El Qui [99/p. 278].
According to Alberto Herrmann, silver ore was first dis-
covered and worked in Chile in 1692, and from that time to
the end of 1902 the country has produced 8,824 metric tons
of metal [105].
COLOMBIA
Silver ores proper occur principally in the departments of
Tolima, Cauca and Antioquia.
In the first, the Frias mines of Guayabal are the only ones
at present being worked for silver alone. The Frias veins
contain no gold. The silver ores occur along the line of
intersection of two veins, which meet at an angle of 57 on
the line of strike. The country is hornblende-schist. The
ores are argentite, ruby and
silvernative silver with abundant
pyrite,a little blende and galena. The gangue is quartz
with some carbonate of lime.
South of Guayabal are the Libano and Venadillo mines.
The ores are principally gold-bearing, but contain from 3 to
upwards of 20 oz. of silver to the ton.
In the Mariquita district, several old silver mines are found,
which were formerly worked by the Spaniards, viz. Bocaneme,
which has an E.-W. vein at the contact of andesite and
schist, the ores being argentite and ruby silver, and Plata
Vieja with an E.-W. nearly vertical vein, 60 cm. thick, of

pyritic quartz, carrying ruby silver and, occasionally, native
silver. The Santa Ana mine of the Santa Ana district was
also formerly worked by the Spaniards, and was reopened
about sixty years ago, but was abandoned in 1874. The vein
strikes N.ioE. in schist, and is nearly vertical. Both gold
and silver occur in pyrite, blende and galena. The Calamonte
mine is in schist. The ores are pyrite and blende, occasionally
rich in silver, and native silver. The gangue is quartz. The
vein also carries gold.
In the Marmato district of the department of Cauca, several
silver veins are known. In the Marmato gold mines the ores
carry from 10 to 20 oz. of silver per ton. In the Echandia
district, a few km. south of Marmato, vertical veins from 30 to
150 cm. thick occur in hard rhyolite near schist, and close to
a dyke of diorite. The ores are pyrite, galena, blende, chalco-
pyrite, arsenopyrite, native silver and gold. The gangue is
quartz and calcite. In 1900 the annual production of Echandia

was 230,000 oz. of silver and 2,000 oz. of gold [g6/p. 123].
In Antioquia, Caramanta is the only district which is princi-
COLOMBIA PERU 133
pally argentiferous. An E.-W. vein occurs in a porphyritic

"
rock near trap." The ores are galena, blende, tetrahedrite,
argentite, ruby silver and native silver (scarce). The gangue
is quartz. Some free gold is found at and near the surface.
In Manizales, the Diamante mine has a lode from 91 to 122
cm. thick of soft breccia, composed of trachyte and rhyolite,
and traversed by small quartz veinlets 1-25 to 4 cm. thick,
carrying free gold, auriferous pyrite, argentite and a little
chalcopyrite. With increasing depth the tenor of the lode in
silver increases greatly [6g/p. 622].
In Volcanes, a vein in mica-schist strikes N.-S., dips W.
and is 60 cm. thick. It shows native gold with tetrahedrite
(freibergite) and ruby silver. In Morisca the country is

rhyolite, and the gold is associated with dark ruby silver and
brogniartite [96/p. 142].
The famous Zancudo mine, near Titiribi, is a contact vein
at the junction of hornblende- schist with overlying con-
glomerate, having diorite near. The sulphides are arseno-
pyrite, chalcopyrite, blende, galena, stibnite and dyscrasite,
with some nickel, cobalt and manganese ores. The gangue
is quartz and calcite. The ores average 17 dwt. of gold,
and 18 oz. of silver per ton.
The fineness of the bullion from the important Remedios
gold district averages about 600 gold and 350 silver, and that
of the vein-gold of the whole of Antioquia is said to average
698 gold and 302 silver, and that of the placer gold, 834 gold
and 136 silver [97].
PERU
Peru is the leading silver-producing country in South
America, the greater part of the output being derived from the
copper mines of Cerro de Pasco. A small amount comes from
lead bullion, and the remainder from silver or gold- silver
deposits. The districts in which silver-bearing deposits occur
are very numerous and are generally situated in the Western
Cordillera in the departments of Cajamarca, Libertad, Ancachs,
Huanuco, Junin (Cerro de Pasco), Lima, Huancavelica and
Arequipa.
In Peru and Chile, along the coast and Central Cordilleras,
there a strong development of Jurassic and also of
is
Cretaceous sediments, folded and in part overturned towards

the east. These Mesozoic sediments contain interbedded
lava flows of the same age, which, however, do not appear to
be ofimportance as regards mineralization. The great
majority of Peruvian deposits are in close genetic connection
with numerous intrusions of dioritic or monzonitic porphyries,
probably of early Tertiary age. Thus the Cerro de Pasco
deposits occur at or near the contact of an intrusion of a
dioritic prophyry with the surrounding Cretaceous sediments.
Formerly, the lodes carried very rich silver ores in their upper
parts, but in depth these give place to low-grade copper ores.
The production of silver in Peru during the year 1918
amounted to 9,781,733 oz., compared with 10,864,624 oz.
in 1917.
The principal silver-bearing departments, proceeding from
north to south, are as follow :
Cajamarca. In the district of Hualgayoc (altitude about

3,650 m.) in the province of the same name, silver-bearing
veins proper are associated with andesite, and copper-bearing
veins, containing more or less silver, with diorite. The primary
ore of the latter is enargite. Cerro Jesus is the centre of the
silver and contains four systems of veins
mineralization,
striking N.67E., N.45E., N.8oE. and N.20W., of which
the first is the most important. The filling consists of the
common sulphides of copper, lead, zinc and iron, and native
silver, argentite, pyrargyrite, stromeyerite, bournonite, tetra-
hedrite, enargite and some native gold, in a gangue of quartz,
calcite and barytes. The oxidized ores, now exhausted, were
rich in silver.
The Cerro Chilete (altitude 1,340 m.), in the province of
Cajamarca, is built up of diorites and amphibole porphyries.
Several veins traverse these rocks. The sulphide zone
consists of antimonial argentiferous galena and blende, in a
gangue of quartz, but cerargyrite and native silver occur in
the oxidized zone.
At Sayapullo, in the province of Cajabamba, limestone,
overlaid by sandstone and shale, strikes E.-W. and dips N.
The veins, 125 cm. in thickness, striking N.W. and dipping
PERU 135
30 to 35 S.W., contain argentite, tetrahedrite, enargite,

chalcopyrite, pyrite, blende and quartz. The filling of the
veins at Algamarca is similar, but enargite and blende appear
to be absent. The veins strike N.E. and dip 60 to 70 S.W.
in shales arfd quartzite. They are from 80 to 120 cm. in
thickness [99/pp. 447-9].
In other districts of the department silver occurs in lead or
copper ores, or in both, and although, in many instances,
silver ores may occur in the oxidized zone (forming pacos),
they are more or less rare in the sulphide zone.

In 1917 the province of Cajabamba produced 100,200 oz. of
silver contained incopper ingots, and the province of Hualgayoc
yielded 116,800 oz. from leached sulphides.
Libertad.In the province of Santiago
district of Quiruvilca,
de Chuco, copper ores enargite, tennantite and tetrahedrite
predominate, and contain under 16 oz. silver per ton, but the
veins of Llacapuquio are rich in silver (800 to 1,000 oz. per
metric ton), and carry only 4 or 5% of copper. It is note-
worthy that red blende in small crystals and barytes generally
accompany the shoots of ore rich in silver, and that when
the copper content increases, the silver content diminishes, and
vice versa. Enargite when pure carries 45 -5% copper and
ii oz. silver per metric ton [106].
In the Aguinuay district the country is augite-andesite,
and the ores are galena and blende with spots of tetrahedrite
rich in silver. At San Miguel the ores are similar, with the
addition of bournonite, rich in silver and at Santa Rosa
;
the sulphide region is characterized by argentiferous and

ferriferous jamesonite with much pyrite and spots of tetra-
hedrite. Blende is rare. At Mundo Nuevo, when slate forms
the country, argentiferous lead and zinc ores predominate,
but when it is quartzite, copper ores prevail [107].
In 1917 the province of Otuzco yielded 129,100 oz. of silver
from silver ores, and the province of Santiago de Chuco,
51,000 oz. silver from lead ores. "La Guardia " mine in
Otuzco produced ores very rich in gold and silver.
Ancachs. In the Macate district, province of Huaylas, both
lodes and bedded- veins (mantos) occur in shale and sandstone
intruded by mica-diorite. The minerals are native silver
10
(insmall quantity), argentite, pyrargyrite, tetrahedrite, galena
and pyrite, and their oxidation products, in a gangue of quartz.
The ore of these districts is also essentially argentiferous
galena, including, in addition to the minerals already men-
tioned, chalcopyrite, blende, bournonite and siderite.
Recuay is the most important district of the province of
Huaraz. The Anglo-French Ticapampa Co., Ltd., owns
mines in Collaracra. There are two mineralized zones, one of
galena and one of complex sulphides, with a high silver content
and some copper. The former diminishes, and the latter
increases in depth. The production amounted to 591,000 oz.
silver in 1917.
In the San Luis and Chacas district, province of Huari,
the formation is quartz- diorite, upon which rests in succession
contact metamorphosed black shale, sandstone and coal-
bearing strata. The veins strike N.W., N. or N.E. The
minerals, in order of abundance, are galena, blende, stibnite,
pyrite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite and some stephanite, poly-

basite,bournonite and arsenopyrite. The blende contains
from 20 to 45 oz. silver, and the leanest galena over 90 oz.
silver per ton.
At Tulla, three veins, coursing N.-S. and dipping W.53, are
cut by a vein striking E.-W. and dipping 5.45. The country
is slate and gneiss cut by igneous rocks. The thickness varies
from o to 120 cm., and the average ore contains from 40 to
60 oz. silver per ton. The ore consists of galena, blende,
auriferous pyrite, with small amounts of tetrahedrite, ruby
silver and native silver, in a gangue of quartz, calcite, siderite
and fragments of wall-rock.
In the Auquimarca district, of the province of Cajatambo,
veins, 2 m. in thickness, are found in dioritic country. The
filling consists of native silver in threads and dendritic forms
in quartz, tetrahedrite, galena, chalcopyrite and pyrite, and the
ore contains from 130 to 550 oz. silver per ton. In the Quichas
district the formation is limestone and sandstone. The ore
is tetrahedrite with pyrargyrite, realgar and pyrolusite in
a gangue of calcite and grossularite, and averages 70 oz.

silver per ton. Pure tetrahedrite has as much as 900 oz.
silver per ton. The ore in the Socorro mine, in the Chanca
PERU 137
district, is banded ;
the successive layers from the centre to
the walls are quartz and calcite, sprinkled with pyrargyrite
and tetrahedrite, fine and coarse pyrite, thin bands of quartz
and calcite, and thick bands of pyrite. Galena, blende and
chalcopyrite also occur [99/pp. 451-4]-
The ores of the province of Pallasca are characterized by high
silver content as compared with their lead and copper contents.
Tetrahedrite in Ancachs generally carries tin [108].
In 1917 the department produced 743,300 oz. of silver.
Huanuco. A silver- copper-lead belt traverses the province
of Dos de Mayo. The ores of the Huallanca district consist
principally of argentiferous pyrite and tetrahedrite in a quartz
gangue. In the Chonta district are three bedded veins (mantos) ,
inters tratified in sandstone and quartzite, consisting of pyrite,

blende, galena, cinnabar and tetrahedrite, which were formerly
worked for the mercury content [99/p. 454].
All the silver in this department is extracted as a by-product
from the treatment of copper ores.
Junin. The silver- lead- copper deposits of this department
occur in a belt less than 50 km. wide in its western part. The
northern half of the zone includes the well-known districts of
Cerro de Pasco, Colquijirca and Morococha.
The Cerro de Pasco district, in the province of the same name,
was discovered in 1630, and has produced a large quantity of
oxidized ores, or pacos, containing silver, but, since 1898 it
has been worked mainly for copper. The country consists

principally of rhyolite agglomerates and tuffs. There has
been a concentration of silver and a leaching of copper in the
oxidized zone. Low-grade pyritic ores occur below this zone,
but, here and there, are portions so enriched with enargite
and famatinite that they can be worked at a profit. The
copper ores contain silver.
In the Colquijirca district of the same province, there are
two beds of ore intercalated in the limestone series, which
represent replacements. In some places the manto consists
almost wholly of chert, and in others almost entirely of pyrite.
Galena and barytes are present when the deposit is richest in
silver, with, here and there, a little chalcopyrite and tetra-
hedrite. Magnificent specimens of native silver in wire-form
occur in the oxidized or partially oxidized ores. Its most
common habitat is in the spaces between the interlocking
tabular crystals of barytes, where it may be found alone or
adhering to some of the sulphides, very commonly to the
tetrahedrite.
In the Vinchos district, north of Cerro de Pasco, there are
veins in limestone, which has been intruded by igneous rock.
The filling consists of galena, pyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite,
tetrahedrite, bournonite, pyrargyrite and native silver. The
silver content varies from 70 to 300 oz. per ton, and the
lead from 25 to 30%. The thickness of the veins varies from
20 to 50 cm. There are ore-shoots at the intersections.
In the Huaillay (sometimes called Huancavelica) district,
south of Colquijirca, veins in micaceous dacite yield enargite
and tennantite in quartz. In the sedimentary rocks (Cretaceous-
Jurassic sandstones and marls metamorphosed in contact
with dacite) there is less copper and more lead and zinc in
the ore, and the gangue is more calcareous than in the eruptive
rocks.
In the Morococha district, province of Yauli, the formation
consists of porphyry and peridotite argentiferous copper
;
ores are now

being worked and are yielding a large output
of copper and silver, but silver-lead ores also occur in the
district they are not being mined at present [99/pp. 454~5 and
;
476-8]. On the Cerro San Marcelo, sulphides and complex

sulphides of silver (pavonados) with oxidized ores (pacos) occur
in veins in metamorphosed limestone, which appear to have
favoured the precipitation of silver, for where the limestone
the silver present is very small in quantity.
is little altered,
" "
Flats occur, having a floor of highly siliceous limestone,
and a roof which appears to be a friction-breccia. At Cerro
Alpamina, highly argentiferous galena, sometimes accompanied
by oxidized or sulphide silver ores, occurs in the marls and
limestone [109].
In the Yauli district, of the same province, native silver
and argentite, with small quantities of blende, pyrite and
galena, occur in the uppermost part of the veins. In depth
argentite gives way to pyrargyrite this in turn
;
to stern-
bergite, with native silver becoming very rare. Galena, blende,

PERU 139
and especially pyrite, show progressive increase in amount with

depth. Still lower are geodes with small amounts of native
silver, pyrite first becomes cupriferous and argentite again
appears, followed by tetrahedrite and the almost complete

disappearance of the rich silver minerals [99/p. 455].
At Carahuacra, iron oxide is very abundant, and rich ores
occur in shoots. This region is deemed to have a great future
before At Andachagua, galena,
it. tetrahedrite, native silver,
blende and iron oxide predominate.
In 1917 the department of Junin produced 5,707,700 oz.
silver,5,499,000 oz. of which resulted from the smelting of
copper ores in the province of Cerro de Pasco, and 121,900
oz. from lead ores produced in the province of Yauli.
Lima. The Casapalca district is being worked for its
argentiferous copper ores. The veins are for the most part
in andesite. The San Antonio is the only mine in the district
that contains ruby silver and gold in any quantity.
Huancavelica. In the Lircay district of the province of
Angaraes, pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, occur in the country
rock, with siderite, barytes and ocasionally quartz. There are
three varieties of tetrahedrite (a) silvery
: in colour, with from
600 to 650 oz. silver and 5% copper (6) silvery-grey, found
;
below this, with from 450 to 500 oz. silver and 15% copper,
and (c) reddish, found at still greater depth, with from 300
to 400 oz. silver and 20% copper. The Acchilla vein runs
N.W. and dips N.E. in dark porphyritic rock. The filling
consists of galena, tetrahedrite, arsenopyrite, and much ruby
silver and argentite. The ordinary ore contains 300 oz. silver
per ton.
In the Vizcachas region (10 km. east of Lircay), the
Vizcachas vein, 15 cm. in thickness, strikes N.-S. and dips
W. in porphyritic rock. It contains native silver in plates
and filaments in a gangue of calcite and some quartz.
Sulphides of copper and lead are accessory.
The silver-lead-copper region of Huachocolpa (province of
Huancavelica) and Carhuapata (province of Angaraes) is found

in the porphyritic facies of the Mesozoic. In the famous
Quespesisa mine, which lies at an altitude of 5,000 metres,
galena and blende are the most abundant minerals, and they
are associated with native silver, argentite, pyrargyrite,
proustite, stephanite, pyrite, chalcopyrite and stibnite. The
gangue is quartz, and some barytes. The Candalosa vein con-
tains galena, blende, bournonite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, stibnite
i
and tetrahedrite (with 5 dwt. gold per ton). There are three
varieties of tetrahedrite in this mine :
(a) crystallized, brilliant
silvery, with 270 oz. silver and 15% copper; (b) crystallized,
steel- colour with blue and yellow shade, 200 oz. silver and 25%
copper (c) amorphous, 53 oz. silver and 30% copper.

; The
mine is in the zone of rich sulphides. Quespesisa has probably
yielded three times more silver and gold than Candalosa,
although statistics are lacking, and is regarded by some as
still being above the rich sulphide zone.
The silver-leadNanantuyo, Sapralla and of

regions of
Totoral Grande y Chico should also be mentioned, as argen-
tiferous galena is the principal ore of each [no] [99/pp. 455-9]-
In 1917 the department produced about 32,000 oz. of
silver.
Cuzco. Silver-bearing galena and tetrahedrite occur in veins
in the Lares district of the province of Calca. In the Vilca-
bamba district of the province of La Convencion, four systems
of veins occur in sedimentary rocks (probably Carboniferous),
having an intrusion of porphyry, with which the mineral

deposits no doubt bear some genetic relation, viz. :
(i) N.-S. ;
dip W. argentiferous tetrahedrite, with argentite and native

;
silver in calcite country metamorphosed limestone and red

porphyritic sandstone (2) N.-S. dip E. argentiferous galena
; ; ;
and some tetrahedrite with calcite in limestone ; (3) E.-W. ;
dip S. ;
the principal ore is niccolite (NiAs) in calcite, accom-
panied by gerdormte and occasionally smaltite
(NiAsS),
(CoAs 2). The niccolite sometimes associated with pyrite,
is
argentiferous tetrahedrite, galena and arsenic (4) N.E. dip ; ;
N.W. copper ores,

;
with argentiferous tetrahedrite as a rare
constituent.
In the Chimboya district, on the summit of the Eastern
Cordillera, atan altitude of 4,600 metres, the principal sul-

phides from the surface down, are pyrite, galena, blende
and stibnite. The gangue is quartz, calcite and barytes, and
the country a red porphyry which has been highly altered by
PERU 141
propylitization. The galena is usually fine-grained and rich

in silver.
In the province of Paruro, there is a replacement vein of
highly argentiferous galena in white quartzite. In the pro-
vince of Chambivilcas, veins of argentiferous galena are found
in patches of limestone, resting on a laccolite of quartzose
diorite, and, in the Furgani region, the same mineral is found
in limestone which rests on limestone-conglomerate, which
in its turn lieson quartz-diorite [in].
Apurimac. In the Challhuanca district of the province
of Cotabambas, there are lodes at Pisti which carry pyrite,
silver sulphides and iron oxides. The veins are in granite
and are 0-5 m. in thickness. The sulphides of silver yield
about 58 oz. silver per ton. North of Lake Tunicre (altitude
4,460 m.), there occurs a vein in quartzite, which consists
of a number of stringers these occasionally unite and form
;
a vein 0-3 m. in thickness. This vein carries silver sulphides

[112].
The silver produced in this department is a by-product
of the gold industry.
Puno. At Santa Lucia (altitude 4,370 m.), in the province
of Lampa, very irregular mineralizations occur in limestone.
They sometimes constitute large bunches, and sometimes appear
as little veins, and
may be regarded as impregnations or re-
placements of the limestone. The deposits are rich in iron
and manganese, and contain silver and copper, and, here
and pure polybasite occurs, containing 3,215 oz.
there,
silverper ton and 25% copper. Until a few years ago, the
deposits were worked by the Lampa Mining Co., Ltd., which
owned a 3o-ton per day smelter. The future of the mine
depends on the economic winning of the large ferruginous
masses assaying 1-5 to 2% copper, with from 27 to 35 oz.
silver per ton [113].
In 1917, the province of Lampa yielded 72,800 oz. silver
from copper ores.
The plateau region of southern Peru, west of Lake Titicaca,
is built up of Palaeozoic shales and limestone, Mesozoic and
Tertiary sandstones and acid eruptive rocks. Silver-bearing

lodes occur in the igneous rocks, and, to a lesser extent, in
the Palaeozoic limestone. The silver lodes usually carry
a little and a considerable amount of chalcopyrite,
gold,
galena, blende and pyrite. In general, the sulphides of copper,
zinc, lead and iron are present in roughly equal proportions,
forming an ore difficult to treat. The gangue consists of
barytes, calcite, rhodonite and quartz. The copper ores in the
Tertiary sandstones contain, as a rule, much smaller amounts
of silver than when they occur in the Palaeozoic sedi-
ment aries.
Arequipa. In the Quequena and Cerro Verde mining regions
numerous copper-bearing veins occur in diorite and carry
some silver [113].
The first silver mines of the Caylloma district (altitude
5,000 metres), in the province of the same name, were worked
by the Spaniards in 1630, and, prior to that time, by the
Incas. The veins occur in andesite, and contain pyrargyrite,
argentite and native silver, which, in depth, are largely replaced
by polybasite and argentiferous galena. Tetrahedrite, rich
in silver, occurs occasionally, and blende, pyrite and chalco-
pyrite are also present. The gangue is rhodonite and quartz

with a little calcite and occasionally rhodochrosite, barytes
or wavellite. Even the purest samples of rhodonite and
quartz have yielded from ij to 3 oz. silver per metric ton.
The outcrop of the principal vein now worked is traceable for
nearly 4,000 m. From 1890 to 1905 the Caylloma Silver Mining
Co., Ltd., produced 5,542,000oz. of silver. In 1906 a new
(Chilian) company Consolidada Sociedad Explotadora de
Caylloma was formed. Its monthly output averages no
tons of concentrate assaying 190 to 280 oz. silver per ton,
together with gold and lead [114] [115].
In 1917 the province of Caylloma yielded 225,000 oz. silver
from silver ores, etc., and the output of the province of
Arequipa amounted to 13,300 oz. silver from copper ores.

Practically the whole of the production came from the mines
owned by the Caylloma company [113].
The tables on page 143 give productions of silver in Peru
classified according to the nature of the products and as regards
the outputs of the departments respectively.
The nature of the products which carry silver, together
PERU 1 43
u-)O COO
M N 1 04 CO
1 Tf CO
rj- 1000
T- r- N
oco o
o -^ *o
N
0<
OCO NM
ON -<J- M O N
OONO
fO ON t-^
O CO iO N
M" rf 10 of
O CO CO M CO
COO CO s
I -
OON ON rt- -<1-00
04 CO CO ^ <O
O 00 <O ON Tf-
O ON >OOO 10
00 COO O 00
O 00 O ^ M
M M 00
oO
V>
o o o 10
ON M ON TJ- 04
oo" oo" o" rh i>,
00
Tf CO M
OONOOM ON **" >O
O -^- CO
04 ON
of of coo~oo"
O 00^ >OOO
C^ IO M M
ON
O CO M M M
ON o" o" >O co
04 04 CO 04 04
00 I
s-
CO COO
Moo o r- o
MOO ON 0^
co of ON M" ON
O ONOO O O
Annua
f 10 O >O ON
M rt- 04 04 04
00 O COO >O
eg" $<$& S
CO ^- >OO I
s-
ON ON O> ON ON
with the amounts of stiver contained in these products, is
summarized as follows :
Nature of Silver-bearing Products and their Content in

Silver, 1917
REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON SILVER
The Publications are referred to by Numerals in the Text.
[i] Mineral Industry, 1919, 28.

"
[2] Gold and Silver in 1918," U.S. Geol. Surv., Min. Res. of
U.S., 1918.
[3] McNeill, B. Presidential Address, Trans. Inst.
: Min. and Met.,
1913, 22.
[4] Barbour, D. Abstract of Proceedings of Council of Governor-
:
General of India, June 26, 1893.

[5] Thorpe, E. A Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, London,
:
1913, 4. ,
[6] Encyclopedia Britannica, 22.

[7] Encyclopedia Britannica, 18.
"
[8] Simpson, E. S., and Gibson, C. G. :
Geology and Ore De-
posits of Kalgoorlie," pt. i, Geol. Surv. W. Australia, 1912,
Bull. 42.
"
[9] Carpenter, H. C. H., and Cullis, C. G. Report on World's :
Production of Silver," Rept. of Comm. ... on Indian Ex-

change and Currency, 1920, 3, Append, xxx.
[10] Beyschlag, Vogt, and Krusch Ore Deposits (Trans, by S. J.
:
Truscott), 1, 1914; 2, 1916.

[u] Mines and Quarries : General Report and Statistics.
[12] Phillips, J. A. (H. Louis) A Treatise on Ore Deposits, London,
:
1896.
[13] Records of Geol. Surv. , India.
[14] Bd. of Trade Journ., Nov. 13, 1919, p. 595.
[15] Annual Report of Rhodesia Chamber of Mines, Bulawayo.
"
[16] Wagner, G. P. A. Geology of Portions of Pretoria and
:
Middelburg Districts," Transvaal Mines Dept. Geol. Surv.,
1907.
"
[17] Wagner, G. P. A. Geology and Mineral Industry
: of S. W.
Africa," Union S. Africa Geol. Surv., 1916, Mem. 7.
[18] Annual Reports on Min. Production of Canada.
[19] Trade and Commerce Reports of Canada.
148 REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON SILVER
"
[20] Lewis, S. J. : Ore Deposits of Mexico VI. Ore Deposits
in Surficial Flows of Igneous Rock," Min. and Sci. Press,
Oct. 9, 1920.
[21] Annual Reports of Min. of Mines of Brit. Columbia.
"
[22] Drysdale, C. W. Ymir Mining Camp, B.C.," : Geol. Surv.
Canada, 1917, Memoir 94.

[23] Summary Report of Geol. Surv., Dept. of Mines, Canada, 1916.
[24] Summary Report of Geol. Surv., Dept. of Mines, Canada, 1915.
"
[25] Lewis, S. J. : Ore Deposits of Mexico III. Non-Contact
Deposits in Sedimentary Rocks," Min. and Sci. Press,
June 26, 1920, pp. 934-5-
"
[26] Lewis, S. Ore Deposits of Mexico V. Ore Deposits in
J. :
Igneous Rocks," Min. and Sci. Press, Sept. n, 1920, p. 383

"
[27] McConnell, R. G. Texada Island, B.C.," Geol Surv. Canada,
:
1914, Mem. 58.

"
[28] Drysdale, C. W.
Geology and Ore Deposits of Rossland,
:
B.C.," Geol. Surv. Canada, 1915, Mem. 77.

[29] Annual Reports of Ontario Bureau of Mines.
' "
[30] Economic Minerals and Mining Industries of Canada,"
Mines Branch, Dept. Mines, Canada, 1913, No. 230, p. 32.
"
[31] Collins, W. H. The Onaping Map- Area," Geol. Surv. Canada,
:
1917, Mem. 95.

[32] Bain, H. F.Types of Ore Deposits, 1911, pp. 140-56.
:
"
[33] Collins, W. H. Geology of Gowganda Mining Division,"
:
Geol. Surv. Canada, 1913, Mem. 33, p. 26.
[34] Annual Reports of Dept. of Mines, N.S.W.

"
[35] Cane, J. E. Copper-Mining Industry of N.S.W.," Mines
:
Dept., Geol. Surv., 1908; Mineral Resources of N.S.W. ,
No. 6.
[36] Annual Reports of Under-Sec, for Mines, Queensland.
"
[37] Ball, L. C. Silver Spur Mine," Queensland Govt. Min.
:
Journ., 1918, pp. 152-60.

"
[38] Jensen, H. I. Arsenic Mines : in Stanthorpe District,"
Queensland Govt. Min. Journ., 1918, pp. 503-6.
"
'
[39] Cameron, W. E. Mount Prospect Silver-Lead Lode, Cania,"

:
Queensland Govt. Min. Journ., 1918, pp. 308-9.

[40] Queensland Govt. Min. Journ., 1919.
[41] Annual Rev. of Mining Operations in S. Australia.
"
Geology of Moonta and Wallaroo Mining
'
[42] J a ck, R. L. :
District," Geol. Surv. S. Australia, 1917, Bull. 6, p. 15.

[43] Annual Reports of Direct, of Mines and Govt. Geologist of
S. Australia, 1916.
REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON SILVER 149
[44] Brown, H. V. L. : Record of the Mines of S. Australia, 1908,

p. 2.
[45] Jack, R. L. :
"Geology of the County of Jerrois," etc., Geol.
Surv. S. Australia, 1914, Bull. 3, pp. 10-6.
[46] Annual Reports of Secretary for Mines, Tasmania.
"
[47] Reid, A. M. : North Pieman and Huskisson and Sterling
Valley Mining Fields," Geol. Surv. Tasmania, 1918, Bull. 28.
"
[48] Hills, L. Lead and Zinc Deposits of Read-Rosebery Dis-
:
trict," Geol. Surv.

Tasmania, 1915, Bull. 19.
"
[49] Twelvetrees, W. H. Scamander Mineral District," Geol.
:
Surv. Tasmania, 1911, Bull. 9.

"
[50] Twelvetrees, W. H., and Ward, L. K. Ore-Bodies of the :
Zeehan Field," Geol. Surv. Tasmania, 1910, Bull. 8.

"
[51] Twelvetrees, W. H. Gladstone Mineral District," Geol.
:
Surv. Tasmania, 1916, Bull. 25.

"
[52] Twelvetrees, W. H. Middlesex and Mt. Claude :
Mining
Field," Geol. Surv. Tasmania, 1913, Bull. 14.
[53] Reid, A. M. "Mining Fields of Moina, Mt. Claude, and
:
Lorinna," Geol. Surv. Tasmania, 1919, Bull. 29, p. 138.

[54] Annual Reports of Secretary for Mines, Victoria.
[55] Lewis, S. J. "Ore Deposits of Mexico II. Ore Deposits in
:
Sedimentary Rocks. The Barreno and Ajuchitlan Mines,"

Min. and Sci. Press, March 27, 1920.
"
[56] Blatchford, T. Phillips River
:
Mining District," Geol. Surv.
W. Australia, 1900, Bull. 5.
"
[57] Montgomery, A. :
Report on Mines of Yilgarn Goldfield,"
Dept. Mines, W. Australia, 1908.
"
[58] Montgomery, A. Report on the : Kanowna Mines," Dept.
Mines, W. Australia, 1908.
[59] Blatchford, T. : Geol. Surv. W. Australia, 1913, Bull. 52,
p. 121.
[60] New Zealand Mines Statements (Annual).
[61] Geol. Surv. New Zealand, 1910, Bull. 10.
[62] Kindelan, Vicente Estadistica Minera de Espana, 1908. Ab-
:
stract in Min. Journ., Dec. 17, 1910, pp. 1461-2.

"
[63] Penzer, N. M. Mineral Deposits of Western Asia Minor,"
:
Mining Magazine, Aug. 1919, pp. 76-81.

"
[64] Edwards, G. M. Notes on the Mines of the Ottoman
:
Empire," Trans. Inst. Min. and Met., 1914, 23, p. 197.

[65] Way, H. W. L. Mining Magazine, July 1916, pp. 22-3.
:
[66] Wheler, A. S., and Li, S. Y. "The Shui-Ko-Shan Zinc and :
Lead Mine," Mining Magazine, Feb. 1917, pp. 91-7.

i5o REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON SILVER
"
[67] Mineral Resources"bf China," reprinted from the Far Eastern
Review, July 1917, Mining Magazine, Oct. 1917, pp. 180-90.
[68] The Twentieth Financial and Economic Annual of Japan,
Tokyo, 1920, p. 53.
[69] Maclaren, J. M. : Gold : its Geological Occurrence and Geo-

graphical Distribution, London, 1908.
"
*
[70] Hundeshagen, L. Occurrence of Platinum in Wollastonite,
:
on Island of Sumatra, Netherlands East Indies," Trans. Inst.

Min. and Met., 1903-4, 13, pp. 550-2.
"
-
[71] Inouye, K. : Mineral Resources of Japan in 1908," Mem. of
Imp. Geol. Surv. of Japan, 1910, No. 2.
"
[72] Mining in Japan, Past and Present," Bureau of Mines, Dept.
of Agri. and Comm. of Japan, 1909.
"
[73] Outlines of the Geology of Japan, pt. 3., Economic Geology,"
Imp. Geol. Surv. Japan, 1902.
"
[74] Brown, W. B. Gold Mining Districts of Central Siberia,"
:
Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., 1904, 34, pp. 785-6.

[75] Guerin, Rene Revista Economica Boletin Mensual de Hacienda
:
y Economia Mineria de Centro-America, Ano n,

. . . . . .
No. 9, April 1910, abstract in Min. Journ., Sept. 17, 1910,

p. 1124.
"
.
[76] Thacer, W. Mining in Honduras," Trans. Amer.

A. : Inst.
Min. Eng., 1892, 20, pp. 394-409.
[77] Mexican Year Book, 1909-10.
"
[78] McCarthy, E. T. Mining in the Wollastonite Ore-Deposits
:
of the Santa Fe Mine, Chiapas, Mexico," Trans. Inst. Min.

and Met., 1895-6, 4, pp. 169-85.
"
*
[79] Halse, E. Some Silver-bearing Veins of
:
Mexico," Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng., 1901-2, 23, p. 310.
"
[80] Halse, E. : Notes on Structure of Ore-bearing Veins in
Mexico," Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., 32, p. 285.
[81] Halse, E. Trans. Inst. Min. Eng., 1900-1, 21, p. 198.
:
[82] Hijar y Haro, Luis. Mexican Min. Journ., Sept. 1909. (Ab- :
Min. Journ., pp. 48-9.)

stract in
[83] Aguilera, J. G., and Ordonez, E. "El Mineral de Pachuca," :
Boletines del Instituto Geologico de Mexico, 1897. Nos. 7,
8,9-
"
[84] Ordonez, E., and Rangel, Manuel El Real del Monte," Bole- :
tin del Instituto Geologico de Mexico, 1899, No. 12.
[85] Burkart, J. Aufenthalt und Reisen in Mexico, 2 vols., 1836.

:
Santiago, Noticia Historica de la Riqueza Miner a de

-
[86] Ramirez,
Mexico, 1884.
REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON SILVER 151

:
[88] Dollfus, A., and Montserrat, E. de Archives dela Commission :
Scientifique du Mexique, 1864-69, 111, p. 486-8.
[89] Halse, E. Trans. Inst. Min. Eng., 1899-1900, 18.

:
[90] Dahlgren, C. B. : Minas Historicas de la Republica Mexicana,

1887.
[91] Fuchs, Edmond, et Launay, L. de Traite des Gites Mineraux :
et Metalliferes, 1893, 2, pp. 818-20.

:
"
[93] Lindgren, W.
Geological Analysis of the Silver Production
:
of U.S. in 1906," U.S. Geol. Surv., 1908, Bull. 340, pp. 23-35.
[94] Foreign Commerce and Navigation of U.S.

'
f
[95] Miller, B. L. , and Singewald, G. T. Mining in Potosi Dis- :
trict," Eng. and Min. Journ., 1917, 103, pp. 255-60.

[96] Gamba, F. P. Riqueza Mineral de la Republica de Colombia,
:
1901.
[97] Restrepo, Vicente : Estudio sobre las Minas de Oro y Plata de
Colombia, 1888, pp. 41-2.
[98] "Estadistica Minera del Peru," Bol. Cuerpo de Ing. de Minas.
[99] Miller, Benjamin L., and Singewald, Jr. Joseph T. The Mineral , :
Deposits of South America, New York, 1919.

"
[100] El Mineral de Caracoles," Bol. de la Sociedad Nacional de
Mineria, Series 3, 17, Santiago de Chile, Jan. 31, 1906.
Abstract Min. Journ., June 30, 1906, p. 854.
[101] Beck, Richard The Nature of Ore Deposits (Weed's trans.),
:
New York, 1905, I, p. 279.

"
[102] Henwood, W. Jory Observations on Metalliferous De-
:
posits," Trans Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, 8, Penzance, 1871,
pt. I, pp. 75-7.

"
[103] Echegarai, Nicomedes El Mineral de Chanarcillo," Bol.:
de la Soc. Nac. de Mineria, No. 106, Santiago de Chile, Dec.

3i, 1905-
[104] Min. Journ., May 5, 1906, p. 581.
[105] Herrmann, Alberto La Produccion en Chile de los Metales
:
y Miner ales desde La Conquista hasta fines del Ano

. . .
1902, Santiago de Chile, 1903. Abstract Min. Journ.,

June 26, 1906. "
[106] Santolalla, F. Malaga Estado Actual de la Mineria en:
Quiruvilca," Bol. del Cuerpo de Ing. de Minas del Peru, No. 75.
Lima, 1909. Abstract Min. Journ., Oct. I, 1910, pp.
1171-2.
"
[107] Santolalla, F. Malaga :
Riquezas Minerales de la Provincia
II
152 REFERENCES TO LITERATURE ON SILVER
de Santiago de Chuco," Bol. del Cuerpo de Ing. de Minas del
Peru, No. 46, Lima, 1906. Abstract, Min. Jo-urn., Sept.
28, 1907, pp. 388-9, and Oct. 5, 1907, p. 440.
[108] De Romana, Eduardo A. L. Bol. del Cuerpo de Ing. de

:
Minas del Peru, No. 57, p. 33, Lima, 1908.

"
[109] Jochamowitz, Albert Estado Actual de la Mineria en
:
Morococha ..." Bol. del Cuerpo de Ing. de Minas del

Peru, No. 65, Lima, 1908. Abstract Min. Journ., May
22, 1909, p. 644.
"
[no] Duefias, Enrique J. Fisionomia Minera de les Provincias
:
de Tayacaja, Angaraes y Huancavelica," Bol. del Cuerpo

de Ing. de Minas del Peru, No. 62, Lima, 1908. Abstract
Min. Journ., March 27, 1909, pp. 399-400, and April 10,
1909, pp. 459-60.
"
[in] Duenas, Enrique Aspecto Minero del Departmento de
J. :
Cuzco," Bol. del Cuerpo de Ing. de Minas del Peru, No.

53, Lima, 1907. Abstract Min. Journ., March 7, 1908,
p. 284, and March 14, 1908, pp. 315-6.
"
[112] Jochamowitz, Alberto Recursos Minerales del Departa-
:
mento de Apurimac," Bol. del Cuerpo de Ing. de Minas del

Peru, No. 58, Lima, 1908. Abstract Min. Journ., Nov. 7,
1908, p. 603.
"
[113] Basadre y G., Carlos Estado Actual y Porvenir de la
:
Industria Minera en Departamentos del Sur," Bol. del

los
Cuerpo de Ing. de Minas del Peru, No. 93, Lima, 1918.

Abstract Min. Journ., May 17, 1919, pp. 301-2.
[114] Carroll, C. M. Informaciones i Memorias, Organo de la Soc.
:
de Ing. del Peru, Lima, Dec. 1908, pp. 479-503. Abstract

Min. Journ., Oct. 23, 1909, p. 129.
[115] Weed, Walter Harvey The Mines Handbook, New York,
:
1920, p. 1792.
Printed by Hatell, Watson 6- Vincy, Ld., London and Aylesbury, England.

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Hen Ma
^h" FI JP~ ^tius Hemp-Bowstring Hemp-New Zealand Hemp-Brush.
Fibres-Flosses-Raffia-raper-making Materials, etc.-Biblio^raphy.

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IMPERIAL INSTITUTE

ONOGRAPHS ON MINERAL RESOURCES

PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE

WITH TWO DIAGRAMS AND A MAP

Price 6s. net.

MONOGRAPHS ON MINERAL RESOURCES

PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE

WITH TWO DIAGRAMS AND A MAP

THE Imperial Institute is a centre for the exhibition and

and arrangement of all important information^

of usage and other commercial developments.

The Right Hon. VISCOUNT HARCOURT, D.C.L. (Chairman).

Captain A. L. ELSWORTHY, Intelligence Department, War Office

important minerals, particularly in the British Empire. No

SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF SILVER ORES

Europe : United Kingdom . . . .

SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF SILVER ORES

Europe : Austria ; Czechoslovakia ;

Germany (including Silesia) ; Greece ; Hun-

Asia : Asia Minor; China; Dutch East Indies;

WORLD MAP OF SILVER DEPOSITS .... 145

Bibliography at the end.

SILVER ORES : THEIR OCCURRENCE, CHARACTER

IN 1918 the British Empire produced 35,189,000 fine oz.

purchase by the British Government on India account, to the

WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF SILVER

In the following table the average annual production for

The Ratio of the Weight of Silver produced as compared

The low ratio reached during the period 1851-1860 coincided

M" o o" o" cf M -

O cooo M M *t- CO N ooo>ro t^vo

PRODUCTION OF CHIEF SILVER-PRODUCING COUNTRIES, 1905-1918.

very much from time to time, as will be seen in the table

In the seventeenth century both metals were of equal value

Ratio of Value of Gold to that of Silver in Europe at

Thus in 1250, 10*9 oz. of silver were exchangeable for i oz,

Total Sterling Values of Gold and Silver and Ratio of

World Productions and Values of Silver from 1493

ANNUAL VARIATIONS IN VALUE OF SILVER

THE PROPERTIES OF SILVER

city known, and this conductivity is increased by annealing.

system, but crystals rarely occur in nature. Melting takes

1,080 C. In the molten state the metal is capable of absorbing

temperatures, and only very slightly when the temperature

THE USES OF SILVER

by alloying it with a little copper. The proportion of silver

coins are made of standard silver, the fineness of which, by

silver,93 of copper, and 72 of zinc in 1,000 parts. The fineness

and as a source of profit. The worn gold and silver coin

thermore, it is used as a marking-ink, as a constituent of

1. Dry or Siliceous Ores, comprising gold and silver ores

4. Argentiferous Zinc Ores, with over 25% zinc.

5. Mixed Ores, comprising mixtures

distribution, and metallurgical treatment of these ores which

SILVER ORES PROPER

The more important silver minerals

In addition to the above, the following are of less frequent

and Krennerite, (Au,Ag) 2Te 4 .

Native Silver. Metallic silver occurs as lumps, as plate

10-5. Fresh surfaces are white in colour, but tarnish to a