ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ABSTRACT TABLE OF CONTENT INTRODUCTION HISTORICAL BACKGROUND PROJECT METHODOLOGY RESULT AND DISCUSSION CONCLUSION

Acknowledgments
First of all we would like to thank our family which supported us during all our studies, without them we would have had much more difficulties finishing our education. It is a pleasure to express our thanks to ----------for the encouragement and guidance throughout the course of this project. We would like to express our deep sense of gratitude and admiration to Head Of Aeronautical Engineering Department. our gratitude goes also to our teachers for their valuable advices and help. We would also like to thank our team members ( Ankush ,Nitin sharma,Rohit kumar, and Md. fahad khan) who supported our team and made us feel happy especially during the difficult times.

Ankush Nitin Sharma Rohit Kumar Md.Fahad khan

Abstract
Now a days hypersonic flights have become a dominant feature of aerodynamics. Aerodynamicists mostly use slender pointed body. Because more pointed and slender the body, the shock wave attached to the nose will be weaker and the wave drag associated with the body will also be less. But when the flights are in hypersonic speeds, there will be sudden change in certain factors, like in intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM).These vehicles are designed to cruise outside the earth atmosphere. When these vehicles reenter the earth atmosphere, the cruise speeds will approximately be of 20000 to 22000 ft/sec. At this hypersonic speeds, aerodynamic heating is the severe problem and it will give quite influence over the design of the proper nose cone and vehicle. So aerodynamicists prefer the blunt body concept for the reentry vehicle.

INTRODUCTION
Now a days hypersonic flights have become a dominant feature of aerodynamics. Aerodynamicists mostly use slender pointed body. Because more pointed and slender the body, the shock wave attached to the nose will be weaker and the wave drag associated with the body will also be less. But when the flights are in hypersonic speeds, there will be sudden change in certain factors, like in intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM).These vehicles are designed to cruise outside the earth atmosphere. When these vehicles reenter the earth atmosphere, the cruise speeds will approximately be of 20000 to 22000 ft/sec. At this hypersonic speeds, aerodynamic heating is the severe problem and it will give quite influence over the design of the proper nose cone and vehicle. So aerodynamicists prefer the blunt body concept for the reentry vehicle. As we know that at the outer edge of the atmosphere, due to its velocity and altitude, the reentry vehicles have high amount of kinetic and potential energies. But near the earth surface, the reentry vehicles have less kinetic energy and approximately zero potential energy. Here all the energy changes to heat energy. Some energy goes to heat the airflow and some to reentry vehicle. We know that in the supersonic flow, the shock waves are generated in the flow and a large temperature gradient is generated. And at the same time, the body gets heated by the frictional dissipation in the boundary layer adjacent to the body. But by the using some special type of bodies, we can dump the energy into the airflow. These bodies are called blunt body which creates a stronger shock wave. Studies show that the heating of airflow can be enlarged by creating a stronger shock wave at the nose. So accordingly the shape of the nose should be such that a stronger shock is formed at the nose. Here comes the use of Blunt bodies.

Studies shows that the heat load experienced by any reentry vehicle is inversely proportional to the drag coefficient experienced by it. Greater the drag, the less the heat load. By the use of Blunt reentry vehicle, air can't "get out of the way" quickly enough. And so vehicle acts as an air cushion to push the heated shock layer forward (away from the vehicle). Since most of the hot gases are not in contact with the vehicle, the heat energy will stay in the shocked gas and simply move around the vehicle to later dissipate into the atmosphere.

Historical Background
Contribution of Harry Julian Allen Harry Julian Allen (1 April 1910 29 January 1977), also known as Harvey Allen, was an aeronautical engineer and a Director of the NASA Ames Research Center, most noted for his "Blunt Body Theory" of re-entry aerodynamics which permitted successful recovery of orbiting spacecraft. His technique is still used to this day. H. Julian Allen is best known for his "Blunt Body Theory" of aerodynamics, a design technique for alleviating the severe re-entry heating problem which was then delaying the development of ballistic missiles. His findings revolutionized the fundamental design of ballistic missle re-entry shapes. Subsequently, applied research led to applications of the "blunt" shape to ballistic missles and spacecraft which were intended to re-enter the Earth's atmosphere. This application led to the design of ablative heat shields that protected the Mercury, Gemini and Apollo astronauts as their space capsules reentered the Earth's atmosphere Allen was interested in the full range of aerodynamics research, and made contributions to the study of subsonic, transonic, supersonic and hypersonic flow. When the United States became interested in the design of ballistic missiles, Allen began research in the dynamics and thermodynamics of atmospheric reentry, as well as the effects of radiation and meteorites on space vehicles. His most significant contribution in this area was the idea of using a blunt nose for reentry vehicles, otherwise known as his "Blunt Body Theory". Earlier ballistic missiles, developed by both the United States and the Soviet Union, featured long nose cones with very narrow tips, which had relatively low drag when entering the atmosphere at high speeds. However, Allen demonstrated that a blunt body, although it had greater drag, would have a detached shock wave which would transfer far less heat to the vehicle than the traditional shape with its attached shock wave. Excessive heating was the greatest concern in the design of ballistic missiles and spacecraft, since it could melt their surface; the blunt body design solved this problem. Allen's theory led to the design of ablative heat shields that protected the astronauts of the Mercury, Gemini and Apollo programs as their space capsules re-entered the atmosphere.

Blunt Body reentry shapes These four shadowgraph images represent early re-entry vehicle concepts. A shadowgraph is a process that makes visible the disturbances that occur in a fluid flow at high velocity, in which light passing through a flowing fluid is refracted by the density gradients in the fluid resulting in bright and dark areas on a screen placed behind the fluid. H. Julian Allen pioneered and developed the Blunt Body Theory which made possible the heat shield designs that were embodied in the Mercury, Gemini and Apollo space capsules, enabling astronauts to survive the firey re-entry into Earth's atmosphere. A blunt body produces a shockwave in front of the vehicle--visible in the photo--that actually shields the vehicle from excessive heating. As a result, blunt body vehicles can stay cooler than pointy, low drag vehicles.

AERODYNAMIC HEATING PROBLEM

When an object cruise at very high suborbital speed (Hypersonic) , the shock wave attached to it is very strong. And consequently the temperature behind the shock will be extraordinarily high. And this heat inputs directly to the body. For example, during the suborbital speed 11.2 km/s the air temperature behind the shock wave reaches the 11,000K higher than the surface of the sun. At these high temperatures, the air itself breaks down and the O2 and N2 molecules dissociate into O and N atoms and ions respectively. The air becomes chemically reacting gas and the heat inputs directly to the vehicle itself. As shown in the fig 1.1, the vehicle is sheathed in a layer of hot air, first from the hot shock layer at the nose, then from the hot boundary layer on the forward and rearward surface .These hot gases then flow downstream in the wake of the vehicle .So the major objective of entry vehicle design is to shield the vehicle from the severe aerodynamic heating. The objective of full reentry vehicle design is to minimize the heat which goes into the vehicle and maximize that which go into the air. So properly designed reentry vehicle will work as heat shield and reduces the aerodynamic drag.

shock wave formation in front of a blunt body

What is blunt body? With reference to aeronautics, a blunt body is a body in which the pressure drag is large in comparison to the skin friction drag. For example: A blunt body fired from a gun against a supersonic flow in a wind tunnel, producing a bow shock.

A bow shock, also called a detached shock, is a curved, stationary shock wave that is found in supersonic flow past a finite body. Unlike an oblique shock, the bow shock is not necessarily attached to the tip of the body. Oblique shock angles are limited in formation and are based on the flow deflection angle, upstream Mach number. When these limitations are exceeded (greater deflection angle or lower Mach number), a detached bow shock forms instead of an oblique shock. As bow shocks form for high flow deflection angles, they are often seen forming around blunt objects. Downstream of the shock, the flow-field is subsonic, and the boundary condition can be respected at the stagnation point. The bow shock significantly increases the drag in a vehicle traveling at a supersonic speed. This property was utilized in the design of the return capsules during space missions such as the Apollo program, which need a high amount of drag in order to slow down during atmospheric reentry.

FLOW FIELD AROUND THE BLUNT BODIES Due to bluntness of the body, the deflection angle of the body will be large and the strong bow shock will generate in the front of the body. This shock will produce a large gradient of flow property across itself. At the apex of the body the substantial portion of the wave can be assumed as normal shock, and this portion of the wave will be strongest. Due to this normal shock, temperature of extensive region of the air will be high, and much of this high temperature air will simply flow past the body without encountering the surface. A blunt body will deposit much of its initial kinetic energy and potential energies into heating the air, and little into heating the body .In this fashion, a blunt body tends to minimize the total heat input to the vehicle. After flow passing through nose, a thin hot boundary layer will generate adjacent to the surface and the flow will separate further and a hot wake region will be form as shown in figure.

Detached Shock in front of a Blunt Body

Gas Dynamics Before going further it is necessary to review some thermodynamic properties.We know that fluids are classified as Incompressible and Compressible fluids. Incompressible fluids do not undergo significant changes in density as they flow. In general, liquids are incompressible;water being an excellent example. In contrast compressible fluids do undergo density changes. Gases are generally compressible;air being the most common compressible fluid we can find. Compressibility of gases leads to many interesting features such as shocks, which are absent for incompressible fluids. Gasdynamics is the discipline that studies the flow of compressible fluids and forms an important branch of Fluid Mechanics.

Equations of Motion for a Compressible Flow We now write the equations of motion for a compressible flow. Recall that for an incompressible flow one calculates velocity from continuity and other considerations. Pressure is obtained through the Bernoulli Equation. Such a simple approach is not possible for a compressible flow where temperature is not a constant. One needs to solve the energy equation in addition to the continuity and momentum equations. The latter equations have already been derived for incompressible flows. Of course, one has to account for the changes in density. We focuss here on the energy equation and briefly outline the other two. We restrict ourselves to an Integral Approach and write the equations for a control volume. Equations are derived under the following assumptions.

Flow is one-dimensional. Viscosity and Heat Transfer are neglected. Behaviour of flow as a consequence of area changes only considered. The flow is steady.

We consider a one-dimensional control volume as shown.

Control Volume for a Compressible Flow

Continuity Equation For a steady flow it is obvious that the mass flow rates at entry (1) and exit (2) of the control volume must be equal. Hence, (1.1)

Written in a differential form the above equation becomes,

(1.2)

At this stage, it is usual to consider some applications of the above equation. But we note that this equation has always to be solved with momentum and energy equations while calculating any flow. Accordingly, we skip any worked example at this stage.

Momentum Equation The derivation of Momentum Equation closely follows that for incompressible flows. Basically, it equates net force on the control volume to the rate of change of momentum. Defining pm as the average pressure between the entry (1) and exit (2),(see Fig.above), we have for a steady flow, (1.3)

For a steady flow through a duct of constant area the momentum equation assumes a simple form, (1.4)

It is to be noted that the above equations can be applied even for the cases where frictional and viscous effects prevail between (1) and (2). But it is necessary that these effects be absent at (1) and (2). Energy Equation From the first law of Thermodynamics it follows that, for a unit mass, q + work done = increase in energy (1.5)

where q is the heat added. Work done is given by p1v1 - p2v2 (1.6)

We consider only internal and kinetic energies. Accordingly, we have,

(1.7) Change of energy =

Substituting Eqns. 1.6 and 1.7 into Eqn. 1.5 we have as the energy equation for a gas flow as,

(1.8)

Noting that enthalpy, h = e + p.v, we have

Considering an adiabatic process, q = 0, we have,

(1.9)

This equation demands that the states (1) and (2) be in equilibrium, but does allow nonequilibrium conditions between (1) and (2). If the flow is such that equilibrium exists all along the path from (1) to (2) then we have, at any location along 1-2,

(1.10) = constant Differentiating the above equation, we have, (1.11)

For a thermally perfect gas i.e., enthalpy, h depends only on temperature, T (h =cpT) the above equation becomes, (1.12)

Further, for a calorically perfect gas, i.e., cp is constant, we have,

Stagnation Conditions Stagnation conditions are reached when the flow is brought to rest,i.e., u = 0. Temperature, pressure, density, entropy and enthalpy become equal to "Stagnation Temperature" , T0, "Stagnation Pressure", p0 , "Stagnation Density", , "Stagnation Entropy", s0 and "Stagnation Enthalpy, s0. These are also known as "Total" conditions.

Shock Wave Basics

The two main types of shock waves produced by a supersonic body are Normal Shocks and Oblique Shocks. These two types are produced by the same phenomena, but the shape of the supersonic object dictates which type of shock wave is experienced. Normal Shock Waves A Normal Shock is created by a blunt body in supersonic flow. The same body in a subsonic flow produces waves of sound that propagate ahead of the body, basically warning the approaching air stream of the approaching body. These sound waves cause the molecules in the air stream to begin to diverge around the body well in advance of the actual body. When the object is traveling supersonically, however, these sound waves cannot outrun the object, and they pile up a short distance in front of the object. This stacking of sound waves is a Normal shock wave, and it serves to instantaneously force the air to change direction around the body. This effect is also referred to as a Bow Shock, and is shown in the figure below, depicting a supersonic bullet.

As a unit of air passes through the Normal shock wave, its temperature, pressure, and density dramatically rise as its velocity falls. In the case of the Normal Shock, the air flow downstream of the shock (and therefore seen by the bullet) is always subsonic. A Normal Shock, though, is generally a special case of a common Oblique Shock that typically occurs on supersonic airplanes and rockets.

Oblique Shock Waves An Oblique Shock is a sharp edged shock wave that is formed when supersonic flow is turned on itself. These shocks are weaker than Normal Shocks, and although the temperature, pressure, density, and air stream velocity are reduced across the shock similar to the Normal Shock, the air stream behind the shock is not necessarily subsonic. The Mach number behind the Oblique shock is calculated from the upstream Mach number, defined by the angle at which the flow is tuned. The figure below shows a typical oblique shock formed by a sharp angle.

The next figure shows the companion of oblique shocks, the Expansion Fan. The expansion fan is essentially an infinite number of Mach Waves, and has the opposite effects of an oblique shock. When the airflow is turned around a corner, the temperature, pressure, and density fall as the Mach number rises.

These two typical shock waves formations are experienced in series on supersonic airplanes and rockets, and they dictate the air properties down the length of the vehicle.

References
1. http://www.princeton.edu/~asmits/Bicycle_web/blunt.html 2. 3. http://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/FALL/fluids/Lectures/f05.pdf 3. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics by J.D.Andreason 4. Wiki.answers.com about Blunt Body 5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_entry 6. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Julian_Allen 7. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blunt_body_reentry_shapes.png 8. http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/gasdyn/conststagn.html 9. http://www.aeromech.usyd.edu.au/aero/gasdyn/node1.html 10. http://www.asa-houston.org/technical/aerodynamics.htm