UNIT-4

HARMONICS
Decorative HF chokes

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What is Unit 4?

HARMONICS
(SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS)

Harmonic Concept, Harmonic Resonance Etc. Quantitative Expression, Indices Or Evaluation. Sources Of Harmonics. Controlling Or Mitigating Devices. Harmonic Standards. 1. Define Harmonics. A sinusoidal component of a periodic wave having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. Thus for a power system with f0 (50 Hz)fundamental frequency, the frequency of the h-th (if 2nd)order of harmonic is hf0 2X50) Harmonics are usually defined as periodic steady state distortions of voltage and/or current waveforms in power systems. 2. What causes harmonics? One common source of harmonics is iron core devices like transformers. The magnetic characteristics of iron are almost linear over a certain range of flux density, but quickly saturate as the flux density increases. This nonlinear magnetic characteristic is described by a hysteresis curve. Because of the nonlinear hysteresis curve, the excitation current waveform isn't sinusoidal. Generators themselves produce some 5th harmonic voltages due to magnetic flux distortions that occur near the stator slots and non-sinusoidal flux distribution across the air gap. Other producers of harmonics include nonlinear loads like rectifiers, inverters, adjustable-speed motor drives, welders, arc furnaces, voltage controllers, and frequency converters. Semiconductor switching devices produce significant harmonic voltages as they abruptly chop voltage waveforms during their transition between conducting and cutoff states. Inverter circuits are notorious for producing harmonics, and are in widespread use today. An adjustablespeed motor drive is one application that makes use of inverter circuits, often using pulse width modulation (PWM) synthesis to produce the AC output voltage. 3. What is a non- linear load.? Why a non-linear load is more significant from harmonic point of view? A non linear devices is one in which the current is not proportional to the applied voltage. Nonlinear load- Electrical load that draws currents discontinuously or whose impedance varies during each cycle of the input AC voltage wave form. 4. What is IEEE standard 519-1992? IEEE 519 Explains about Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems.

5. What is harmonic distortion Harmonic distortion is caused by non-linear devices in the power system. (A non linear devices is one in which the current is not proportional to the applied voltage). Harmonics occur in the steady state, and are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. 6. Explain briefly voltage verses current distortions.

Voltage drop + Pure Sinusoid Distorted voltage

Distorted load current

Harmonic current flowing through the system impedance result in harmonic voltage at the load 7. What is the significance of Harmonic Indices? Name some common harmonic indices The two most commonly used indices (fig showing the relative level) for measuring the harmonics are Total harmonic distortion(thd) Total demand distortion(tdd) 8. Define Total Harmonic Distortion (THD).What does it indicate? The ratio of the root mean square of the harmonic content to the rms value of the fundamental quantity expressed expressed as a percent of the fundamental

Where, Mh is the magnitude of either the voltage or current harmonic component and Mfundamental is the magnitude of either the fundamental voltage or current. Significance of THD THD provides a good idea of how much extra heat will be realized when a distorted voltage is applied across a resistive load Gives indication of additional losses caused by the current flowing through a conductor. 9. Define Total demand distortion (TDD). Why it is preferred over total harmonic distortion?( TDD) The Total Demand Distortion (TDD) shall be defined as the ratio of the RMS value of the harmonic content to the RMS value of the rated or maximum fundamental quantity. A small current may have a high THD but not be significant threat to the system. Even though relative current distortion may be high but magnitude of harmonic current can be low. To avoid this difficulty we go for Total Demand Distortion (TDD) instead of THD.

10. Define Telephone Influence Factor Telephone influence factor (TIF) is a measure used to describe the telephone noise originating from harmonic currents and voltages in power systems. 11. Give few harmonic - producing commercial loads. Single phase power supplies. Fluorescent lighting Adjustable speed drives for HVAC and elevators 12. Give few harmonic - producing industrial loads.

Three phase power converters D.C drives AC drives Arcing devices (Furnace arc welders, discharge -type lightning like fluorescent, sodium vapor mercury vapor) Saturable devices(transformers and other electromagnetic devices with a steel core) 13. What is harmonic resonance? Harmonic resonance is caused when the electrical system reactances (capacitive and inductive) combine to form a tank circuit (LC circuit) with its natural resonant frequency near any frequency where electrical energy may be present. Harmonic resonance can appear in two different forms, Parallel resonance Series resonance
14. Name the devices for controlling harmonics

In- line reactors or chokes Zigzag transformer. Passive filters shunt passive filter series passive filter Active filters

15. What is IEC standard on harmonics?

The IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) standard on harmonics, Explains about the Electromagnetic compatibility standard that deals with power quality issues. The Electromagnetic compatibility includes concerns for both radiated and conducted interference with end use equipments. The IEC standards are broken down in to six parts. 16. Define interharmonic frequency. the sum of two or more pure sine waves with different amplitudes where the frequency of each sinusoid is not an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency does not necessarily result in a periodic waveform. This noninteger multiple of the fundamental frequency is commonly known as an interharmonic frequency.

17. Define Triplen Harmonics. The triplen harmonics are defined as the odd multiples of the 3rd harmonic (ex. 3rd, 9th, 15th, 21st etc.). 18. What are the bad effects of harmonics? In general, harmonics present on a distribution system can have the following effects:

Overheating of transformers & rotating equipment Increased Hysteresis losses Decreased kVA capacity Neutral overloading Unacceptable neutral-to-ground voltages Distorted voltage and current waveforms Failed capacitor banks Breakers and fuses tripping Interference on phone and communications systems Unreliable operation of electronic equipment Erroneous register of electric meters Wasted energy/height electric bills - kW & kWh Wasted capacity - Inefficient distribution of power is a harmonic filter?

19. What

A harmonic filter is used to eliminate the harmonic distortion caused by appliances. Harmonic filters isolate harmonic current to protect electrical equipment from damage due to harmonic voltage distortion. They can also be used to improve power factor. 20.What are passive harmonic filters? Passive harmonic filters are built with a series of passive components such as resistors, inductors and capacitors. Passive filters are most common and available for all voltage levels. They are built-up by combinations of capacitors, inductors (reactors) and resistors. 21.What are active harmonic filters? Active filters are available mainly for low voltage networks. Active harmonic filters are very fast electronic devices that will insert negative harmonics into the network, thus eliminating the undesirable harmonics on the network. The filters are built with active components such as IGBT-transistors and can eliminate many different harmonic frequencies. Signal types can be single phase AC, three phase AC, or DC.

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1. Explain Harmonics

HARMONICS
(LONG TYPE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS)

Harmonics: Harmonics by definition are a steady state distortion of the fundamental frequency (50 Hz). Harmonic distortion of current occurs when sinusoidal voltage is applied to a nonlinear load (ex. electronic ballast, PLC, adjustable-speed drive, arc furnace, any ac/dc converter). The result is a distortion of the fundamental current waveform. This distortion occurs in integer multiples of the fundamental frequency (50 Hz). Hence, the 2nd Harmonic has a frequency = 2 x 50= 100 Hz, the 3rd Harmonic = 150 Hz and so on. Voltage distortion, on the other hand, is generated indirectly as result of harmonic currents flowing through a distribution system. It is important to note that the vast majority of harmonic currents found in a distribution system are odd-order harmonics (3rd, 5th, 7th, etc.). Secondly, more often than not, the sources of the harmonic currents in a distribution system are the loads in operation within that facility. Interestingly, these are frequently the types of loads that are the most sensitive to distortion in the current and/or voltage.

2. Explain. Harmonic distorsion, Voltage versus current distorsion (OR) What is harmonic distortion and what are its effects? Explain voltage & current distortion. distortion: Any deviation from the normal sine wave of an AC quantity. Harmonic distortion is caused by non-linear devices in the power system. (A non linear devices is one in which the current is not proportional to the applied voltage). Harmonics occur in the steady state, and are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.

Fig 4.1. current distortion caused by non linear resistor

Fig 4.2 Distorted current-induced voltage distortion.

Voltage Versus Distortion When a non-linear load draws current, that current passes through all of the impedance that is between the load and the system source (see Figure 4.2 As a result of the current flow, harmonic voltages are produced by impedance in the system for each harmonic. These voltages sum and, when added to the nominal voltage, produce voltage distortion. The magnitude of the voltage distortion depends on the source impedance and the harmonic voltages produced. If the source impedance is low, then the voltage distortion will be low. If a significant portion of the load becomes non-linear (harmonic currents increase) and/or when a resonant condition prevails (system impedance increases), the voltage can increase dramatically. Power systems are able to absorb a considerable amount of current distortion without problems, and the distortion produced by a facility may be below levels recommended in IEEE 519. Fig 4.3 shows that voltage distortion is the result of distorted currents passing through the linear, series impedance of the power delivery system. Although we have assumed here that the source bus contains only fundamental frequency voltage, the harmonic currents passing through the impedance of the system cause a voltage drop for each harmonic. This results in voltage harmonics appearing at the load bus. The amount of voltage distortion depends on the impedance and the current. Assuming the load bus distortion stays within reasonable limits(less than 5 percent), the amount of harmonic current produced by the load is nearly constant for each load level. Voltage waveform distortion typically relates to electronic equipment, which has an internal switch-mode power supply (SMPS) that draws a nonlinear current waveform. Whereas a linear load produces a sine wave current, the SMPS draws current pulses at only one portion of the applied voltage waveform. This nonlinear current increases with each added device. The nonlinear current, combined with the impedance of the circuit conductors and the power source, creates a voltage drop you see at the peak portions of the voltage waveform. The heavier the loading, the greater the root-means-square (rms) voltage drop. Recent changes in SMPS design and efficiency decreased the amplitude of current and, therefore, the amount of voltage waveform distortion

Fig 4.3 harmonic current flowing through the system impedance result in harmonic voltage at the load

3. Explain the harmonic indices THD & TDD in detail. (OR) Common Harmonic Indices. In harmonic analysis there are several important indices used to describe the effects of harmonics on power system components and communication systems but the two most commonly used indices for measuring the harmonics are, Total harmonic distortion(THD) Total demand distortion(TDD) i. Total harmonic distortion(THD) The ratio of the root mean square of the harmonic content to the rms value of the fundamental quantity expressed as a percent of the fundamental

Where, Mh is the magnitude of either the voltage or current harmonic component and Mfundamental is the magnitude of either the fundamental voltage or current. Significance of THD THD provides a good idea of how much extra heat will be realized when a distorted voltage is applied across a resistive load Gives indication of additional losses caused by the current flowing through a conductor. Derivation The THD is a measure of the effective value of the harmonic components of a distorted waveform. That is, it is the potential heating value of the harmonics relative to the fundamental. This index can be calculated for either voltage or current:

Figure 5.8 Arc furnace operation in an unbalanced mode allows triplen harmonics to reach the power system despite a delta connected transformer.

Where, Mh is the rms value of harmonic component h of the quantity M. The rms value of a distorted waveform is the square root of the sum of the squares as shown in Eqs. (5.3) and (5.4). The THD is related to the rms value of the waveform as follows:

The THD is a very useful quantity for many applications, but its limitations must be realized. It can provide a good idea of how much extra heat will be realized when a distorted voltage is applied across a resistive load. Likewise, it can give an indication of the additional losses caused by the current flowing through a conductor. However, it is not a good indicator of the voltage stress within a capacitor because that is related to the peak value of the voltage waveform, not its heating value. The THD index is most often used to describe voltage harmonic distortion. Harmonic voltages are almost always referenced to the fundamental value of the waveform at the time of the sample. Because fundamental voltage varies by only a few percent, the voltage THD is nearly always a meaningful number. Variations in the THD over a period of time often follow a distinct pattern representing nonlinear load activities in the system. Figure 5.9 shows the voltage THD variation over a 1-week period where a daily cyclical pattern is obvious. The voltage THD shown in Fig. 5.9 was taken at a 13.2-kV distribution substation supplying a residential load. High-voltage THD occurs at night and during the early morning hours since the nonlinear loads are relatively high compared to the amount of linear load during these hours. A 1-week observation period is often required to come up with a meaningful THD pattern since it is usually the shortest period to obtain representative and reproducible measurement results.

ii. Total demand distortion(TDD) The total demand distortion (TDD) is the total harmonic current distortion defined as the ratio of the RMS value of the harmonic content to the RMS value of the rated or maximum fundamental quantity. WHY TDD? A small current may have a high THD but not be significant threat to the system. Even though relative current distortion may be high but magnitude of harmonic current can be low. To avoid this difficulty we go for Total Demand Distortion (TDD) instead of THD.

Where, IL is the maximum demand load current (15- or 30-minute demand) at fundamental frequency at the point of common coupling (PCC), calculated as the average current of the maximum demands for the previous twelve months. 4. Discuss the various industrial & commercial loads as sources of harmonics.

Harmonic - producing commercial loads. Single phase power supplies. Fluorescent lighting. (it contains a ballast which is responsible for harmonics, 186) Adjustable speed drives for HVAC and elevators (page 188) I. Single-phase power supplies Electronic power converter loads with their capacity for producing harmonic currents now constitute the most important class of nonlinear loads in the power system. Advances in semiconductor device technology have fueled a revolution in power electronics over the past decade, and there is every indication that this trend will continue. Equipment includes adjustable-speed motor drives, electronic power supplies, dc motor drives, battery chargers, electronic ballasts, and many other rectifier and inverter applications. A major concern in commercial buildings is that power supplies for single-phase electronic equipment will produce too much harmonic current for the wiring. DC power for modern electronic and microprocessor- based office equipment is commonly derived from single-phase full-wave diode bridge rectifiers. The percentage of load that contains electronic power supplies is increasing at a dramatic pace, with the increased utilization of personal computers in every commercial sector. There are two common types of single-phase power supplies. Older technologies use ac-side voltage control methods, such as transformers, to reduce voltages to the level required for the dc bus. The inductance of the transformer provides a beneficial side effect by smoothing the input current waveform, reducing harmonic content. Newer-technology switch-mode power supplies (see Fig. 5.10) use dc-to-dc conversion techniques to achieve a smooth dc output with small, lightweight components. The input diode bridge is directly connected to the ac line, eliminating the transformer. This results in a coarsely regulated dc voltage on the capacitor. This direct current is then converted back to alternating current at a very high frequency by the switcher and subsequently rectified again. Personal computers, printers, copiers, and most other single-phase electronic equipment now almost universally employ switch-mode power supplies. The key advantages are the light weight, compact size, efficient operation, and lack of need for a transformer. Switch-mode power supplies can usually tolerate large variations in input voltage. Because there is no large ac-side inductance, the input current to the power supply comes in very short pulses as the capacitor C1 regains its charge on each half cycle. Figure 5.11 illustrates the current waveform and spectrum for an entire circuit supplying a variety of electronic equipment with switch-mode power supplies. A distinctive characteristic of switch-mode power supplies is a very high thirdharmonic content in the current. Since third-harmonic current

Figure 5.10 Switch-mode power supply.

components are additive in the neutral of a three-phase system, the increasing application of switch-mode power supplies causes concern for overloading of neutral conductors, especially in older buildings where an undersized neutral may have been installed. There is also a concern for transformer overheating due to a combination of harmonic content of the current, stray flux, and high neutral currents. II. Fluorescent lighting Lighting typically accounts for 40 to 60 percent of a commercial building load. According to the 1995 Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption study conducted by the U.S. Energy Information Administration, fluorescent lighting was used on 77 percent of commercial floor spaces, while only 14 percent of the spaces used incandescent lighting.1 Fluorescent lights are a popular choice for energy savings. Fluorescent lights are discharge lamps; thus they require a ballast to provide a high initial voltage to initiate the discharge for the electric current to flow between two electrodes in the fluorescent tube. Once the discharge is established, the voltage decreases as the arc current increases. It is essentially a short circuit between the two electrodes, and the ballast has to quickly reduce the current to a level to maintain the specified lumen output. Thus, a ballast is also a current-limiting device in lighting applications. There are two types of ballasts, magnetic and electronic. A standard magnetic ballast is simply made up of an iron-core transformer with a capacitor encased in an insulating material. A single magnetic ballast can drive one or two fluorescent lamps, and it operates at the line fundamental frequency, i.e., 50 or 60 Hz. The ironcore magnetic ballast contributes additional heat losses, which makes it inefficient compared to an electronic ballast. An electronic ballast employs a switch-modetype power supply to convert the incoming fundamental frequency voltage to a much higher frequency voltage typically in the range of 25 to 40 kHz. This high frequency has two advantages. First, a small inductor is sufficient to limit

Figure 5.11 SMPS current and harmonic spectrum.

the arc current. Second, the high frequency eliminates or greatly reduces the 100- or 120-Hz flicker associated with an iron-core magnetic ballast. A single electronic ballast typically can drive up to four fluorescent lamps. Standard magnetic ballasts are usually rather benign sources of additional harmonics themselves since the main harmonic distortion comes from the behavior of the arc. Figure 5.12 shows a measured fluorescent lamp current and harmonic spectrum. The current THD is a moderate 15 percent. As a comparison, electronic ballasts, which employ switch-mode power supplies, can produce double or triple the standard magnetic ballast harmonic output. Figure 5.13 shows a fluorescent lamp with an electronic ballast that has a current THD of 144. Other electronic ballasts have been specifically designed to minimize harmonics and may actually produce less harmonic distortion than the normal magnetic ballastlamp combination. Electronic ballasts typically produce current THDs in the range of between 10 and 32 percent. A current THD greater than 32 percent is considered excessive according to ANSI C82.11-1993, High-Frequency Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts. Most electronic ballasts are equipped with passive filtering to reduce the input current harmonic distortion to less than 20 percent. the arc current. Second, the high frequency eliminates or greatly reduces the 100- or 120-Hz flicker associated with an iron-core magnetic ballast. A single electronic ballast typically can drive up to four fluorescent lamps. Standard magnetic ballasts are usually rather benign sources of additional harmonics themselves since the main harmonic distortion comes from the behavior of the arc. Figure 5.12 shows a measured fluorescent lamp current and harmonic spectrum. The current THD is a moderate 15 percent. As a comparison, electronic ballasts, which employ switch-mode power supplies, can produce double or triple the standard magnetic ballast harmonic output. Figure 5.13 shows a fluorescent lamp with an electronic ballast that has a current THD of 144. Other electronic ballasts have been specifically designed to minimize harmonics and may actually produce less harmonic distortion than the normal magnetic ballast-lamp combination. Electronic ballasts typically produce current THDs in the range of between 10 and 32 percent. A current THD greater than 32 percent is considered excessive according to ANSI C82.11-1993, High-Frequency Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts. Most electronic ballasts are equipped with passive filtering to reduce the input current harmonic distortion to less than 20 percent.

Figure 5.12 Fluorescent lamp with (a) magnetic ballast current waveform and (b) its harmonic spectrum.

Since fluorescent lamps are a significant source of harmonics in commercial buildings, they are usually distributed among the phases in a nearly balanced manner. With a delta-connected supply transformer, this reduces the amount of triplen harmonic currents flowing onto the power supply system. However, it should be noted that the common wye-wye supply transformers will not impede the flow of triplen harmonics regardless of how well balanced the phases are. III. Adjustable-speed drives for HVAC and elevators Common applications of adjustable-speed drives (ASDs) in commercial loads can be found in elevator motors and in pumps and fans in HVAC systems. An ASD consists of an electronic power converter that converts ac voltage and frequency into variable voltage and frequency. The variable voltage and frequency allows the ASD to control motor speed to match the application requirement such as slowing a pump or fan. ASDs also find many applications in industrial loads.

Figure 5.13 Fluorescent lamp with (a) electronic ballast current waveform and (b) its harmonic spectrum.

Harmonic - producing industrial loads. Three phase power converters. D.C drives. AC drives. Arcing devices. Saturable devices. I. Three-phase power converters Three-phase electronic power converters differ from single-phase converters mainly because they do not generate third-harmonic currents. This is a great advantage because the third-harmonic current is the largest component of harmonics. However, they can still be significant sources of harmonics at their characteristic frequencies, as shown in Fig. 5.14. This is a typical current source type of adjustable-speed drive. The harmonic spectrum given in Fig. 5.14 would also be typical of a dc motor drive input current. Voltage source inverter drives (such as PWM-type drives) can have much higher distortion levels as shown in Fig. 5.15. The input to the PWM drive is generally designed like a three-phase version of the switch-mode power supply in computers. The rectifier feeds directly from the ac bus to a large capacitor on the dc bus. With little intentional inductance, the capacitor is charged in very short pulses, creating the distinctive rabbit ear ac-side current waveform with very high distortion. Whereas the switch-mode power supplies are generally for very small loads, PWM drives are now being applied for loads up to 500 horsepower (hp). This is a justifiable cause for concern from power engineers. II. DC drives Rectification is the only step required for dc drives. Therefore, they have the advantage of relatively simple control systems. Compared with ac drive systems, the dc drive offers a wider speed range and higher starting torque. However, purchase and maintenance costs for dc

motors are high, while the cost of power electronic devices has been dropping year after year. Thus, economic considerations limit use of the dc drive to applications that require the speed and torque characteristics of the dc motor. Most dc drives use the six-pulse rectifier shown in Fig. 5.16. Large drives may employ a 12-pulse rectifier. This reduces thyristor current

Figure 5.16 Six-pulse dc ASD.

duties and reduces some of the larger ac current harmonics. The two largest harmonic currents for the six-pulse drive are the fifth and seventh. They are also the most troublesome in terms of system response. A 12-pulse rectifier in this application can be expected to eliminate about 90 percent of the fifth and seventh harmonics, depending on system imbalances. The disadvantages of the 12-pulse drive are that there is more cost in electronics and another transformer is generally required. III. AC drives In ac drives, the rectifier output is Inverted to produce a variable-frequency ac voltage for the motor. Inverters are classified as voltage source inverters (VSIs) or current source inverters (CSIs). A VSI requires a constant dc (i.e., low-ripple) voltage input to the inverter stage. This is achieved with a capacitor or LC filter in the dc link. The CSI requires a constant current input; hence, a series inductor is placed in the dc link. AC drives generally use standard squirrel cage induction motors. These motors are rugged, relatively low in cost, and require little maintenance. Synchronous motors are used where precise speed control is critical. A popular ac drive configuration uses a VSI employing PWM techniques to synthesize an ac waveform as a train of variable-width dc pulses (see Fig. 5.17). The inverter uses either SCRs, gate turnoff (GTO) thyristors, or power transistors for this purpose. Currently, the VSI PWM drive offers the best energy efficiency for applications over a wide speed range for drives up through at least 500 hp. Another advantage of PWM drives is that, unlike other types of drives, it is not necessary to vary rectifier output voltage to control motor speed. This allows the rectifier thyristors to be replaced with diodes, and the thyristor control circuitry to be eliminated.

Figure 5.17 PWM ASD.

Very high power drives employ SCRs and inverters. These may be 6- pulse, as shown in Fig. 5.18, or like large dc drives, 12-pulse. VSI drives (Fig. 5.18a) are limited to applications

that do not require rapid changes in speed. CSI drives (Fig. 5.18b) have good acceleration/deceleration characteristics but require a motor with a leading power factor (synchronous or induction with capacitors) or added control circuitry to commutate the inverter thyristors. In either case, the CSI drive must be designed for use with a specific motor. IV. Arcing devices This category includes arc furnaces, arc welders, and discharge-type lighting (fluorescent, sodium vapor, mercury vapor) with magnetic

Figure 5.20 Equivalent circuit for an arcing device.

(rather than electronic) ballasts. As shown in Fig. 5.20, the arc is basically a voltage clamp in series with a reactance that limits current to a reasonable value. The voltage-current characteristics of electric arcs are nonlinear. Following arc ignition, the voltage decreases as the arc current increases, limited only by the impedance of the power system. This gives the arc the appearance of having a negative resistance for a portion of its operating cycle such as in fluorescent lighting applications. In electric arc furnace applications, the limiting impedance is primarily the furnace cable and leads with some contribution from the power system and furnace transformer. Currents in excess of 60,000 A are common. V. Saturable devices Equipment in this category includes transformers and other electromagnetic devices with a steel core, including motors. Harmonics are generated due to the nonlinear magnetizing characteristics of the steel (see Fig. 5.21). Power transformers are designed to normally operate just below the knee point of the magnetizing saturation characteristic. The operating flux density of a transformer is selected based on a complicated optimization of steel cost, no-load losses, noise, and numerous other factors. Many electric utilities will penalize transformer vendors by various amounts for no-load and load losses, and the vendor will try to meet the specification with a transformer that has the lowest evaluated cost. A high-cost penalty on the no-load losses or noise will generally result in more steel in the core and a higher saturation curve that yields lower harmonic currents.

Figure 5.21 Transformer magnetizing characteristic.

Although transformer exciting current is rich in harmonics at normal operating voltage (see Fig. 5.22), it is typically less than 1 percent of rated full load current. Transformers are not as much of a concern as electronic power converters and arcing devices which can produce harmonic currents of 20 percent of their rating, or higher. However, their effect will be

noticeable, particularly on utility distribution systems, which have hundreds of transformers. It is common to notice a significant increase in triplen harmonic currents during the early morning hours when the load is low and the voltage rises. Transformer exciting current is more visible then because there is insufficient load to obscure it and the increased voltage causes more current to be produced. Harmonic voltage distortion from transformer overexcitation is generally only apparent under these light load conditions. Some transformers are purposefully operated in the saturated region. One example is a triplen transformer used to generate 180 Hz for induction furnaces. Motors also exhibit some distortion in the current when overexcited, although it is generally of little consequence. There are, however, some fractional horsepower, single-phase motors that have a nearly triangular waveform with significant third-harmonic currents. The waveform shown in Fig. 5.22 is for single-phase or wye-grounded three-phase transformers. The current obviously contains a large amount of third harmonic. Delta connections and ungrounded-wye connections prevent the flow of zero-sequence harmonic, which triplens tend to be. Thus, the line current will be void of these harmonics unless there is an imbalance in the system. 5. What is harmonic resonance? Explain harmonic resonance with neat diagrams. the phenomena of series and parallel

The operation of nonlinear loads in a power distribution system creates harmonic currents that flow throughout the power system. The inductive reactance of that power system increases and the capacitive reactance decreases as the frequency increases, or as the harmonic order increases. At a given harmonic frequency in any system where a capacitor exists, there will be a crossover point where the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal. In short, harmonic resonance can result if both of the following are true: Harmonic loads, such as AC/DC drive systems, induction heaters, arcing devices, switch mode power supplies, and rectifiers, are operating on the system.

A capacitor or group of capacitors and the source impedance have the same reactance (impedance) at a frequency equal to one of the characteristic frequencies created by the loads.

A common problem that occurs when power factor correction capacitors are installed on a system is harmonic resonance. Harmonic resonance is caused when the electrical system reactances (capacitive and inductive) combine to form a tank circuit(LC network) with its natural resonant frequency near any frequency where electrical energy may be present. Conditions under which series and parallel harmonic resonance occurs Parallel resonance occurs when the parallel combination of system inductance and capacitance tune close to a harmonic frequency.

Fig.4.3 Parallel Resonance Equivalent Circuit.

fig 4.4 Parallel Resonance.

When parallel resonant condition exist, the shunt capacitor bank appear to the harmonic source as being in parallel with the system source reactance (or short circuit reactance, Fig.4.4.). This means that for parallel resonance, the combined impedance will be very high, so any harmonic current present may cause large harmonic voltages to be present. The resonant frequency of this combination can be calculated as follows,

Where, h is harmonic number referred to the fundamental. KVA is transformer KVA. Z% is transformer impedance. KVAR is rating of a connected capacitors. Series Resonance When series resonant conditions occur, the capacitor appears to be in series with line impedance, as seen from the harmonic source (see Figure 5). This presents a low-impedance path to the flow of harmonic currents. For series resonance, where the L and C components appear electrically in series with each other, XL=XC and therefore the combined impedance is very low. This means that if harmonic voltage is present at a frequency, the harmonic current into the network can be equal to the harmonic voltage divided by the LC network impedance (near zero), causing excessive current at a specific harmonic frequency.

Fig.5 series resonance equivalent circuit

Fig.4.5 Series Resonance.

6. Discuss the devices for controlling harmonic distortions? In- line reactors or chokes zigzag transformer. Active filters -series active filter -shunt active filter Passive filters -shunt passive filter -series passive filter c- type filter i. InLine reactors or chokes Simply a series inductance which represents a series impedance that is directly proportional to frequency. Relatively small reactor or choke inserted at the line input side of the drive the inductance slows the rate at which the capacitor on the DC bus can be charged and forces the drive to draw current over a longer time period. The net effect is a lower magnitude current with much less harmonics. ii. Zigzag Transformer A zigzag transformer is a special purpose transformer. It has primary windings but no secondary winding. One application is to derive an earth reference point for an ungrounded electrical system. Another is to control harmonic currents. Consider a three-phase Y (wye) transformer with an earth connection on the neutral point. Cut each winding in the middle so that the winding splits into two. Turn the outer winding around and rejoin the outer winding to the next phase in the sequence (i.e. outer A phase connects to inner B phase, outer B phase connects to inner C phase, and outer C phase connects to inner A phase). This device is the zigzag transformer.

fig 4.6. conceptual diagram

These transformers are 3-phase, dry-type autotransformers that are wound on a common core and are designed for very low zero-sequence impedance. The zero-sequence impedance is usually less than 1%, and the reactance component is very small.

Fig.4.7. Zigzag Transformer

They're designed for 3-phase, 4-wire systems, and they provide a low-impedance path for the zero sequence harmonic currents. They should be installed in parallel and typically at a panel or bus duct that is as close as possible to the harmonic producing load see fig 4.7 above. Zig-zag transformers offer the following benefits for controlling the harmonic voltages and currents. There are no capacitors. The magnetic-only solution eliminates concerns about resonance or magnification of other harmonic components. They reduce third harmonic current components flowing in both the phase conductors and the neutral conductors up-line (back towards the supply) from the zig-zag transformer installation. By providing a shorter path. This reduces neutral conductor loading problem and losses in all of the conductors and the supply transformer. It also reduces transformer heating for the supply transformer iii. Active filters An active filter removes harmonics from the supply current by injecting the opposite harmonics that are produced by the load. An example of the active filter system is shown in the Next graphic.

Harmonic cancellation-active filters This technique uses an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IBGT) based device. The basic operation of this type of filter involves measurement and analysis of the input current waveform, with the injection of the inverse harmonic current waveform. You typically select the active filter capacity based upon harmonic cancellation current requirements, which is accomplished by determining the magnitude of harmonic current desired to be removed from the system. When properly selected, an active filter will typically reduce harmonics to residual levels of about 5% THDI. You connect a standalone active filter in parallel with the power system. It is suitable for a mixture of both nonlinear and linear loads. Active Harmonic Filter An active harmonic filter is something like a boost regulator. The concept used in an active filter is the introduction of current components using power electronics to remove the harmonic distortions produced by the non-linear load.

These filters correct harmonic distortion levels by monitoring the current waveform that includes the nonlinear loads, and by creating a current waveform that results in cancellation of the harmonic components. Several different control strategies are possible in the nonlinear load current. Active filters for commercial applications have the following advantages: Active harmonic filters are mostly used for low-voltage networks. There are mainly two types of active harmonic filters based on the way they are connected to the AC distribution network. a) The series filter is connected in series with the AC distribution network. It serves to offset harmonic distortions caused by the load as well as that present in the AC system. b) The parallel/ shunt filter is connected in parallel with the AC distribution network and offset the harmonic distortions caused by the non-linear load. iv. Passive Harmonic Filter A passive harmonic filter is built using an array of capacitors, inductors, and resistors. It can take the form of a simple line reactor or may use a series of parallel resonant filters to eliminate harmonics. Passive harmonic filters are also divided based on the way they are connected with the load. a) A series filter: Here the filter is placed in series with the load and uses parallel components, i.e. inductors and capacitors are in parallel. This filter is a current rejecter. Unlike a notch filter which is connected in shunt with the power system, a series passive filter is connected in series with the load. The inductance and capacitance are connected in parallel and are tuned to provide a high impedance at a selected harmonic frequency. The high impedance then blocks the flow of harmonic currents at the tuned frequency only. At fundamental frequency, the filter would be designed to yield a low impedance, thereby allowing the fundamental current to follow with only minor additional

impedance and losses. Figure 6.16 shows a typical series filter arrangement. Series filters are used to block a single harmonic current (such as the third harmonic) and are especially useful in a single-phase circuit where it is not possible to take advantage of zero-sequence characteristics. The use of the series filters is limited in blocking multiple harmonic currents. Each harmonic current requires a series filter tuned to that harmonic. This arrangement can create significant losses at the fundamental frequency. Furthermore, like other series components in power systems, a series filter must be designed to carry a full rated load current and must have an overcurrent protection scheme. Thus, series filters are much less commonly applied than shunt filters.

Figure 6.16 A series passive filter.

v. C-type filter It is used for complex loads, cyclo converters and electric arc furnaces and is a special variation of the high pass filter. This filter will provide the load with reactive power and avoid forming parallel resonance circuits with the load. 7. Explain the role & types of active filters for harmonic control
It is covered in previous question

8. Explain the role of passive filters for harmonic control

9. Discuss IEEE & IEC standard on harmonics in detail. (Or) Write a note on harmonic standards. Harmonic standards are needed for the following reasons. Compatibility between the power system and end-user equipment. For utilities: Provides measurable limits that can be used as the basis for system design. For equipment manufacturers: Describes the electrical environment the equipment may be expected to operate in. Helps manufacturers design equipment to operate acceptably. IEEE 519-1992 Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems: Requirements Limits harmonic current produced by loads. Limits voltage distortion on the utility system. Reference Material Describes harmonic generation by power converters, arc furnaces, SMPSs, etc. Covers effects on motors, transformers, capacitors, conductors, and other equipment.

Practices Covers analysis methods for, System frequency response System modeling Telephone interference And more

Covers measurements. Describes a methodology for evaluating new harmonic sources. Overall IEEE standard 519-1992 represents a consensus of guidelines and recommended practices by the utilities and their customers in minimizing and controlling the impact of harmonics generated by nonlinear loads.

IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) standard on harmonics The IEC ( International Electrotechnical Commission) standard on harmonics explains about the Electromagnetic compatibility standard that deals with power quality issues. The Electromagnetic compatibility includes concerns for both radiated and conducted interference with end use equipments The IEC standards are broken down in to six parts General definitions, terms Environment description and characteristics Limits Allowable disturbances caused by equipment Testing and measurement techniques guidelines for measurement equipment and test procedures Installation and mitigation guidelines define equipment immunity levels.