AGR 301 – Weed Management ( 1+1 )

Theory notes
Weed – Definition:

Weeds are unwanted and undesirable plants which interfere with the
utilization of land and water resources and thus adversely affect human welfare.
They can also be referred as plants o ut of place.

Weeds compete with the beneficial and desired vegetation in crop lands,
forests, aquatic systems etc. and poses great problem in non-cropped areas like
industrial sites, road/rail lines, air fields, landscape plantings, water tanks and
water ways etc.,

Weeds are an important factor in the management of all land and water
resources, but its effect is greatest on agriculture. The losses caused by weeds
exceed the losses caused by any other category of agricultural pests. Of the
total annual loss in agriculture produce, weeds account for 45%, insect 30%,
disease 20% and other pests 5%.

Origin of weed and evolution of weed control:

Weeds are no strangers to man. They have been there ever since man
started to cultivate crops about 10,000 B.C and recognized as a problem. The
concept of weed control is also as old as agriculture. From the beginning of
agriculture to the middle of the twentieth centuary, the plough and hoe have been
the widely employed means of weed control. As weed infestations began to
seriously limit the production of crops, methods were devised viz., manual,
mechanical, biological and chemical to combat them.

Classification of weeds:
Weeds can be classified in different groups on the basis of their.
a) Life cycle (ontogeny)
b) Growth characteristics
c) Habitat
d) Ecological affinity to water
e) Origin
f) Plant morphology
g) Plant families
h) Soil reactions
i) Dependence on other hosts
j) Relative position of weeds
a) According to Ontogeny :
Weeds, based on their life cycle can be broadly classified as.
i) Annuals : a) Kharif season annual
b) Rabi season annual
 c) Summer season annual
d) Multi season annual
ii) Biennials :
iii) Perennials : a) Simple perennial
b) Bulbous perennial
c) Creeping perennial
i) Annuals : Those weeds which complete their life cycle within a
season/year and propagate by seeds. These annuals are sub-divided according
to the season of prevalence.
i) Kharif season annual : (June – October)
ex : Ammania baccifera
Aeschynomene aspera
Cyperus difformis
Fimbrystyllis miliacea
ii) Rabi season annual : (October – February)
ex : Chenepodium album
Phalaris minor
Avena fatua
iii) Summer season annual : (February – June)
ex : Solanum nigrum
Trianthema portulacastrum (Saranai)
Argemone mexicana
Portulaca oleracea (Pasalai)
iv) Multi-season annual : (All seasons)
ex : Echinochloa colonum
Eclipta alba
Eleusine indica
Phyllanthus niruri
ii) Biennials : Those weeds which complete their life-cycle within two years.
They may propagate either by seeds or vegetative parts or by both. Biennials
generally do not come up in annual crop fields but they infest perennial crop
fields, pastures, lawns and orchards.
Ex : Daucus carrota
Zingiber casumunar
Alternenthra echinita
Oxalis carniculata
iii) Perennials: Those weeds which live for three or more years and
produce seeds more than once in their life cycle. They may propagate
by seeds, vegetative parts or both. Perennials may be of following
types.

(i) Simple perennials: These reproduce solely by seeds but when

roots or crown are cut, the cut pieces may produce new plant.
ex. Ipomea carnea
Lantana camera
 (ii) Babous perennial: These propagate by bulbs or bulblets as well
as by seeds.
ex: Wild onion and wild garlic.
Allium vineale
(iii) Creeping perennials : These propagate by means of rhizomes,
stolons, spreading roots as well as seeds.
ex: Convovulus arvensis : Deer’s foot
Apropyron repens : Quack grass
Sorghum halepense : Johnson grass
b) According to growth characteristics:
Weeds can be classified on the basis of their growth habit as.
(i) Erect : Stem stands upright
Ex : Chenopodium album
Panicum repens
(ii) Prostrate: Some weeds instead of being erect have got short stems
with extremely short internodes that give the impression of ‘crown of
leaves borne on root’.
Ex:. Eleusine indica
Portulaca oleracea
Polygonum spp.,
(iii) Twining: In some weeds, stems coil itself round the support in clock
wise\anticlock-wise
Ex: Cuscutta spp.,
Ipomea quamoclit
(iv) Trailing; Stems of some weeds spread on ground
Ex : Convolvulus arvensis
Citrallus Vulgaris
(iv) Runner: In some weeds, stem grow horizontally and there will be
formation of special shoots rooting at each nodes.
Ex: Lippia nodiflora
Ipomoea biloba
c) According to habitat:
Based on the habit characteristics of weeds, the weeds are classified into;
(i) Weeds of cultivated land
Those weeds which have the tendency to have the life cycle similar to that
of the cultivated plant.
Ex: Amaranthus sp.,
Euphorbia sp.,
(ii) Weeds of lawns and public parks
The standard lawn grass in various parts of the country is cynodon
dactylon. A large number of annual and perennial weeds encroach upon the
lawns.
Ex: Desmodium triflorum
Imparata cylindrical
Indigofera enneaphylla
Setaria intermedia
 (iii) Orchard weeds:
The microclimate of orchards vary in shade, humidity, and excessice soil
moisture. Those weed species prefer to the habitat are
Ex: Cannabis sativa
Euphorbia geniculata
Imparata cylindrical
Xanthium strumarium
Acalypha indica
(iv) Aquatic weeds:
Aquatic weed habitats include both aquatic environments and those in
water saturated soil.
Ex: Ipomoea reptans
Exhhornia crassipes
Hydrilla verticillata
Paspalum distichum
(v) Road side weeds
All the 3 types annuals,biennials and perennials are found.
Ex: Euphorbia sp.,
Daucus carots
Solanum xanthocarpum
(vi) Weeds of uncultivated land:
Mostly hardy weeds are found in these lands .
Ex. Digitaria spp.,
Cenchrus pauciflorus
Tribullus terrestris
Xanthium strumarium

d) According to ecological affinity to water:

(i) weeds of semi-aquatic condition (wet land)
Those weeds which are mostly associated with rice.
Ex. Echinochloa colonum; E. crusgalli
(ii) Weeds of garden land:
Ex : Trianthema porttucastrum
Digeria arvensis – Koia keerai
(iii) Weeds of dryland:
These weeds are hardy with lengtheier tap root system. It even thrive at
very little moisture condition.
Ex. Euphorbia hirta- Amman pacharisi.
Celotia argentia

e) Origin of weeds:
(i) Alien: Those weeds which are foreign in origin.
Ex. Argemone mexicana
Parthenium hysterophorus
(ii) Apophytes: Those weeds which are introduced by man from one place
to another.
 Ex: Phalaris minor
Corchorus acutangulus

f) According to plant morphology:

(i) Dicot \ Broad-leaved weeds:
Ex: Cleome viscose; Eclipta alba

(ii) Grasses
Ex. Echinochloa colonum; Cynodon dactylon
(iii) Sedges:
Cyperus rotundus; Fimbrystyli miliaceas

g) According to plant families:

Most of the weeds belong to the families.
(i) Poaceae (Gramineae) : Eleusine indica
(ii) Asteraceae (Compositae) : Tridax procumbens
(iii) Solanaceae : Solanum nigrum
(iv) Euphorbiaceae: Euphorbia hirta
(v) Teliaceae: Corchorus acutangulus
(vi) Leguminosae: Melilotus indica
(vii) Chenopodiaceae: Chenopodium album
(viii) Amaranthaceae: Amaranthus viridii

h) According to soil reactions:

(i) Saline soils : Salsola spp.,
(ii) Alkaline soils: Cressa erecta
(iii) Acid soils: Rumex acetosella

i) According to dependence on other hosts:

i) Stem parasites Total ex: Cuscutta sp., (Doddar)
Partial ex: Loranthus sp., (Mistle toe)
ii) Root parasites Total ex: Orobanche sp.,
Partial ex. Striga sp., (Witch)

J) According to relative position of weeds:

(i) Absolute weed: is a plant which is not economically desirable but present
in a crop field.
Ex. Colonum in rice fields.
(ii) Relative weeds:
A crop plant in an another crop field which is not desirous.
Ex : Cotton in Maize
(i) Rouges: A variety of a crop plant found mixed with another
variety of the same crop plant.
Ex: TKM 9 rice in ADT 36 rice.
Characteristics of weeds:
As the weed plants are nourished by nature they bear more tolerant to
adverse conditions compared to domesticated crop plants. They bear with it
certain special characteristics which help in their Perpetuation , multiplication,
dissemination, stabilization and overall adaptation.
(i) Perpetuation:
(a) Weeds perpetuate through seeds \vegetative propagules.
(b) Propagules are produced when weeds experience unfavourable
condition.
(c) Seeds are produced at one time or over an extended period of time.
(d) Seeds or vegetative propagules may remain dormant but viable for
years when underneath the soil. Eg. Chenopodium sp., for 30 to 40
years.
(ii) Multiplication:
a) No. of seeds\weed plant may sometimes equal to crop plant but seeds
produced \unit area exceeds 100 times.
b) Weeds prolify with high fecundity fertile\productive.

(c) Weed will co-exist in crop field or bare field thereby enriching the weed
seed population.
(d) Weeds with seed and vegetative propagules multiply enormously.
(iii) Dissemination:
a) The dispersal of seeds or propagules of weeds take place by
mobile agents: Man, animals including birds, wind and water.
b) Man is most important for the dissemination of weeds over some
distance and in particular direction.
c) Fruits and seeds of some weed species have appendages which
enable them to easily carry by wind\water.
d) Most weed seeds have dormancy which estivate unfavourable
environment.
e) Some weeds have explosive mechanisms for seed dispersal.
Ex: Ruellia prostrata.

(iv) Stabilisation:
i. weeds find their suitable sites and time for establishment by
their intrinsic nature which breaks dormancy through the triggering
action of edaphic\climatic\biotic factors.
b) Some weeds bear very minute or inconsipicious flowers (ex:
Trianthema portulacastrum) which often produce mature seeds
even before they are recognized as flowers.
c) E. Colonum will mature and produce seeds even before the pulling
out of seedling for transplanting.
d) Time of maturity of weed seeds coincides with the maturity of the
crop plants and get mingled with the crop seeds. Eg. Phalaris sp., /
Avena spp., in wheat.
 e) Weeds with radicoid forms easily escape drought, fire, soil erosion,
man made modifications or disruptive forces.

Why it is difficult to control weeds?

1. Weeds are prolific with abundant seed production potentialities.
e.g. Amaranthus spp.
2. They Are resistance and persista nt to control.
e.g. Cyperus spp.
3. They have long periods of dormancy.
e.g. Nelumbium speciosum – 20 years
Chenopodium sp. 30-40 yrs.
4. They have deep root system.
e.g. Solanum elegnifolium
5. They can also reproduce by veg. method.
e.g. Cynodon, Cyperus
6. Weeds are hardy and resist adverse climatic and soil conditions
e.g. Prosopis juliflora

7. Some weed seeds are similar to crop seeds.

e.g. Mustard and Argemone seeds
8. Weeds have smaller seeds which help in easy dispersa
e.g. Amaranthus spp.
9. One weed seeds gave some appeudages which help in easy
dissemination.
e.g. Calotropis, Acanthospermum hispidum
Reproduction and Dissemination of weeds:
The knowledge of reproduction of weeds is an essential prerequistle for
any planning of their control. Nearly all of them reproduce by means of seeds
and a large number of them in addition reproduce vegetatively.
Seed reproduction:
In general weeds produce large number of seeds which have greater
viability than crop seeds.
1. Brassica nigra (Black mustard) : 58,363
2. Amaranthus sp., (Pig weed) : 1,80,220
3. Solonum nigrum (Night shade) : 1,78,000
4. Agrophron repens (Quack grass) : 11,400
5. Echinochloa crusgalli (Barnyard grass) : 7,160

Vegetative reproduction:
Many noxious weeds reproduce and spread vegetatively as well as by
seed. The depth to which the root system of such weeds penetrate depends
upon the texture of soil, water table, nature of sub soil and species to which they
belong.

Medium of weed seed dispersal.

1. Through impure seeds.
2. Through organic manures.
3. Through air\wind.
4. Through cattle.
5. Through agriculture implements.
6. Through birds.
7. Through human beings.
8. Through irrigation and drainage water
9. Through Sewage and sludge.
The depth from which roots and rhizomes regenerate is of importance in
its relation to tillage practices and to application of herbicides.
Ex : Quack grass – regenerate from 30 cms
Convolvulus arvensis – regenerate from 120 cms

DISSEMINATION OF WEEDS :
In general, most weeds are good travelers. Though they themselves have
no power of locomotion, several agencies like wind, water and animals including
man and transport scatter them from place to place. Most weeds have
modifications of some kind which adapt them for dissemination by one or more
agents.
Eg : Saccate fruits, winged fruits and seeds, comate seeds, parachute
fruits, plumed fruits, hook or spiny appendages.
ECOLOGY OF WEEDS:
Ecology is the relationship between plants and environment. The ecology
of weeds refers to the growth characteristics and adaptations of weeds in
different environments and also their persistence in such conditions. An
environment is characterized by climate, edaphic (soil) and biotic factors.
CLIMATE:
Light, temperature, water, wind, humidity and their seasonal variations
relates to climatic factors. The light intensity, quality and photoperiod governs
the growth, flower and seed production by plants including weeds. Most of the
weeds adapt to grow in shade with much competitiveness.
Temperature also plays a very important role in occurrence and
distribution of weeds. Soil temperature is particularly concerned with the seed
germination, survival of underground parts and similarly early growth of weeds is
affected by atmospheric temperature.
Water is one among climatic factor of ecology that determines the
occurrence and distribution of plants.
Wind is another effective source for occurrence and distribution.
EDAPHIC
Soil fertility, soil pH, soil temperature, radiation and soil water influence
weed population. Soil acidity / alkalinity have considerable influence on weed
population.
BIOTIC
Biotic factors include both plants and animals. Crop plants affect the
weed population and persistence by competing on the available resources. The
root exudates of one plant also influence other plants in their association. Soil
found, insect pests, grazing animal and man affect the weed persistence directly/
indirectly.

Weed Adaptations:
Weeds are euryoecious (wide range of tolerance) compared to crop plants
which are more stenoecious in nature.
a) Weed seeds have wide range of moisture requirement for seed
germination.
b) Weeds can modify their morphology by reducing their leaf area / sending
roots deeper and wider.
c) The weeds are quickly responsive to favourable environments after the
removal of stress.
d) Some weeds imitate the general appearance, colour, shape or particular
feature of another plant and act as a special weapen of defence.
e) Some weed species poses special devices such as thorns, spines,
prickles, bristles, stinging hair, glandular hair with poisnous substances, irritating
substances, repulsive in smell or disagreeable in odour which help to protect
them from natural enemies.
f) Some weeds develop a thick culticle, cork and bark as a defence
mechanism.
g) Some weed sp., (Cyperus sp. and Sphaeranthus indicus) come up during
the post harvest period and produce seeds vigorously.

CROP – WEED INTERACTIONS:

The climatic, edaphic and biotic factors of environment determine the
distribution of species, their competitive ability, their prevelance and their
associations. Apart from natural factors, man-made modifications like
management of soil, water, nutrient, crops and pests and crops in sequence also
influence the crop-weed interactions. However, weeds with unique
characteristics try to shape themselves under any changed situations through
acclimatization.
In crop-weed interactions, plant competition is a powerful natural force
responsible for the suppression or extinction of weaker plants. There may be
intra-plant or inter-plant competitions. Rapidly growing plants with rapid
coverage of both below and above ground areas have an advantage over slow
growing ones. Density, geometry and architecture of plants have contributing
role in competition. Competition is usually most severe when competiting plants
are alike in vegetative and reproductive habits.
Weeds compete with crops plants for water, light, nutrients, space, air and
the micro-environment. The competition for any one or for all begins when those
factors falls below the requirements of both the weed and crop. Also, an
abundance of any factor may induce competition for other factors. For example,
abundant nutrient supply generate competition for water, light and space.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE COMPETING ABILITY OF CROP PLANTS

Crop plants and their varieties differ in their competing ability. Rapid and
uniform germination, rapid development of foliage and root, tolerance to high
density and close canopy etc. are the characteristics of a plant species to be
successful in competition. The factors that determine vigorous and uniform stand
of crop plants are variety of a crop, soil-water relations. Soil fertility soil reaction,
tillage, date of sowing, rate and method of sowing, crop rotation, cropping and
cultural system, use of herbicides, inset pest and disease management.
Critical periods:
The chief effect of weed competition on crops is to decrease the yields of
crop. The early growth phase of the crop plants are found to be most critical w.r.t
competition while on the progress secures competitive ability of the weeds.
Those crop plants with rapids and uniform germination, quick development of
foliage and root and formation of closed canopy within early stages will have
dominating character over weed in the competition. Some crop plants excrete
phytotoxins to evict the neighbours and this allelopathic effect is used in
competition with needs.
HARMFUL EFFECTS OF WEED
Weeds extend the harmful effects slowly, steadily and inconspicuously
and the effect is almost irrevocable.
a) If no restriction is imposed they compete with crop plants and the yield
reduction of individual crops varies from 0. to 100% and that of cropping system
5 to 50%.
b) Presence of weeds increases the cost of agriculture and hinders the
progress of work.
c) It increases the irrigation requirement.
d) They reduce the valve of produce or otherwise adds the cost of cleaning.
e) Some weeds when eaten (Cleome viscosa) by milch animals will produce
an undesirable odour in the milk. At times death/disorder/disformity may
occur eg: Datura stramarium. The fruits and seeds of Xanthium
strumarium and Achyranthes aspera entangle with wool which fetch lower
prices.
f) They harbour insect pests, pathogens and parasites
g) They reduce the valve of the land.
h) Their presence will impair the purity of varieties by chance of cross-
pollination.
i) Weeds causes health hazards to man and animals.
j) Weeds cause allelopathic effect.

Harmful effect of weed in Non-cropped area:

a) Weeds detracts the beauty of public places.
b) Weeds in non-cropped areas causes fire hazards, accidents and pollution
as well as health hazards.
c) Weeds in acquatic environments restrict the movement of water flow there
by
i) loss of water by seepage and
ii) Poor irrigation efficiency
iii) Restrict drainage
iv) Pollute the environment

BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF WEEDS:

i) Weeds are valued for increasing organic matter content in soil, increasing
soil fertility, checking soil erosion, inducing soil formation, food, feed and
medicinal values. Eg: Amaranthus sp.,, Trianthema portulacastrum
(Saranai), Chenopodium album , are used as greens.
Cynodon dactylon
Echinochloa colonum
Digitaris sanguinalis Palatable succulent feed.
Eclipta alba
Avena fatua
Centella asiatica
Therapeutic purposes.
Andrographis paniculata
2) Weeds are valued for economic utilization.
Imperata cylindrical used for thatching roofs.
Saccharum munjo

Cyperus rotundus used for making Joss sticks.

Andropogon squarrosus

Cymbopogan citrates used for essential oils.

C. martini
3. Weeds are valued as indicator plants to indicate the incidence of disease,
deficiency, disorders etc.,
4. Weeds are valued as source of genetic material for crop improvement.
5. Weeds reclaim problematic soil eg., cynodon & Argemone mexicana
reclaim alkaline soils.
6. Weeds are valued for protecting bunds, as a host for beneficial organisms,
ornamental plants, religious and ritual purposes and for maintenance of
biological equilibrium.
Weed management: Principles and methods
Weed management is the application of certain principles and suitable
methods that will improve the vigour and uniform stand of the crop at the same
time ignore or discourage the invasion and growth of weeds.

Principles of weed management:

Weed have both harmful and beneficial effects. When the harmful effect
is greater then their population and growth are to be reduced to such an extent
that the damage caused are within permissible limits. At the same time, the cost
of weed management should be much less than the expected value of produce
lost.
To deal with the problems many methods are adopted based on certain
basic principles that relates to.
a) Life cycle of weeds:
eg: The annuals weeds can be easily controlled if they are prevented from
seed production.
Similarly, best time to destroy biennials is during the seedling stage of the
first year.
Perennials can be checked by repeated destruction of aerial shoots,
underground roots etc. by cutting, plugging, digging, drying, flooding etc.
b) Characteristic of weeds:
Prodomiance of a particular group of weeds (such as broadheaved
\grasses\sedges) determine the method.
c) Mode of reproduction of weeds.
Number and time of production of propagules, methods of dispersal,
dormancy, viability, association with crop plants etc., if known can be useful in
determining method to be employed.
d) Habitat, location and season:
The crops and weeds of upland are quite different from low lands, cultural
practices and wortability also varies, thus weed might varies.
e) Soil and weather conditions:
Soil texture and moisture are the important factors in selecting suitable
method. In light soild flooding cannot be advocated, similarly in heavy soils
mechanical method is impeded.
f) Area of weed management:
In localized plots like nurseries hand pulling may be adopted. In larger
areas chemical method and in many cases integrated approach is suited.
g) Farming and cultural practices:
Method of weed control varies in
- Grain\seed\fodder production\ Green manure
- Sole\mixed\Inter cropped.
- Direct seeded\ Transplanted.
- Plant crops\Ratoon crops
- Mechanised\Non-mechanised farming.
h) Availability of resources:
 The availability of farm labourer, implements power and herbicides
determine the method of weed management.
i) Economics of the methods
Even though some methods of weed control, are Profitable, except in
some commercial crops, farmers Prefer multi-purpose traditional hoeing.
Methods of weeds management:
Weed control and weed management are the two terms used in weed
science. Weed control is the process of limiting infestation of the weed plant so
that crops can be grown profitably.
Weed management includes prevention, eradication and control by
regulated use, restricting invasion, suppression of growth, prevention of seed
production and complete destruction. Thus weed control is one of the aspect of
weed management.
Weed management

Preventive Curative / Remedial

Eradication Control

Cultural chemical Biological

Mechanical Cropping & Competitive

Preventive methods:
i) Use pure seed/seedlings.
ii) Avoid feeding hay containing weed seeds without destroying.
iii) Avoid using sand\soil from weed infested area to cultivated area.
ii) Use well rotten\decomposed organic manure.
iii) Avoiding the cattle to move from weed infested area to cultivated area.
iv) Cleaning all implements & tools after use.
v) Keeping irrigation & drainage channel clean.
vi) Keeping fence, roads & bunds clean.
vii) Keeping thrashing yard, granary & compost pit free.
viii) Following legal & quarrentine measures.

Eradication methods:
Eradication can be done by a) destroying the species at the initial stage of
introduction. B) Degenerating the buried dormant but viable seeds by
fumigation, flooding, heating & other chemicals.
Control methods:
Mechanical methods:
1. Hand pulling
2. Hoeing
3. Tillage
4. Mowing/sickling
5. Flooding
6. Burning
7. Smothering\mulching
8. Digging
9. Cheeling
Cropping & competition:
i. Crop rotation.
ii. Kind of crop.
iii. Use of fertilizers.
iv. Date and rate of planting.
v. Inter cropping
vi. Companion cropping eg. Azolla in Rice
vii. Plant population.
Biological methods.
1. Parasites.
2. Predators.
3. Pathogens.
Ex: i) Crocidosema lantana moth on Lantana camera
2. Alternaria eichorniae fungi on Eichhornia crassipes
3. Orseoliella javanica gall midge on Imperata cylindrica
4. Dactylopius tomentosus cochinelid insect on. Opuntiadillenii
5. Neochetina bruchi beetle (weevil) on E. Crassiper N. eichornii
6. Tilapia mossambica fish to control acquatic weeds.
Chemical methods :
I) Selective : a) Foliage & b) Soil applicant
2) Non-selective : a) Foliage b) Soil applicant
Germination stimulants :
Tillage, chemical stimulants like population growth regulators, plant
products, responding inhibitors, oxidants, Nitrogenous compounds, anesthetics,
etc.
CHEMICAL METHODS:
Employing chemicals for weed control constitutes chemical method, are
used for over 85 years. The introduction of Bordeaux mixture in 1896 and
subsequent chemicals like sulphuric acid, iron sulphate, copper nitrate, annonium
& potassium salts were used for weed control till 1910. During 1930, sodium
chlorate, carbon bisulphide, sodium assenate and dinitrophenols are employed.
The discovery of 2,4-D in 1940 ‘s revolutionaside the chemical methods.

Benefits of chemical method :

1. Herbicides can be applied for weed control in crop rows and where
cultivation is impossible.
2. Pre-emergence herbicides provide early season weed control.
3. Cultivation & manual methods of weed control may injure the root system.
4. Herbicides reduce the need for pre-planting tillage. They are extremely
useful in minimal\zero tillage.
5. Herbicides can control many perennial weed which cannot be controlled
by other methods. Eg: Cyperus sp.,

Herbicide classification:
Currently there are about 250 herbicides in the world market. The
herbicides are classified on the basis of

a) Method of Application: Soil applied

Foliage applied
All herbicides applied at pre-planting and pre-emergence are included in
the soil applied group.
Those applied at post-emergence include in the foliage applied.

b) Mode or action:
Based on the physiological and bio-chemical actions of the herbicides they
are categorized as
i) Systemic / translocated :
ii) Non-systemic / contact :
c) Chemical affinity and structural similarity:
There are 18 chemical groups\chemical nucleus under which the
herbicides having chemical affinity and structural similarity are classified.
Chemical groups General structure
1. Aliphatics R-COOH
2. Amides & Acetamides R1 ------N-c---R3
R2
3. Arsenicals R- As – OH
4. Benzoics & phenyl acetates --------- COOH
5. Bipyridiliums ( with quaternary ammonium salt) -------
6. Carbonates. (Esters of carbanilicacid)
7. Dinitroanilines
8. Diphyenyl eithers Derived from phenols
9. Nitrates
10. Phenols OH
11. Phenoxy acids cl--- o—ch2-cooh (2,4-D)
12. Pyridazinones
13. Thiocarbonates (carbonic acid)
14. Triazines
15. Triazoles
16. Uracils
17. Ureas
18. Unclassified
Classification of common herbicides on the basis of mode of application,
mode of action and chemical affinity:
Chemical group Soil applied Foilage applied Contact
systemic
1. Aliphatic Allyl alcohol Dalapon Acrolein
TCA-Trichloro
Acetic acid
2. Amides & Alachlor, Butachlor, Alachlor Butachlor Solan-
Acetamides Metolachlor, Propanil MAA - Methanear-
Propachlor sonic acid
3. Arsenicals ---- MAA MSMA DSMA Cacodylic acid
MSMA

4. Benzoics & Chloramben, 2,3,6 - Dicamba 236-TBA ----TBH Trichloru

phenyl acetates TBA Benzoic acid
5. Bipyeisilliums ---- ----- Diquat, Paraquat,
Cyperquat.
6. Carbamates Chlorbufam, Asulam, Barban, ------
Propham, Terbutol Propham
7. Ditritroanilines Fluchloralin, ---------- ---------------
Dinitramine,
Nitrofluralin,
Pendimethalin,
Trifluralin
8. Diphenyl Nitrofen, Nitroflurofen Flurodifen ------
Oxyflurofen
9. Nitrates Dichlobenil Bromoxynil -----
10. Phenols Dinoseb --- Dinosed, PCP
11. Phenoxyacides 2,4-D. 2,4-D; 2,4,5-T -----
2,4-DEP 2,4-DB
Dichlorprop
MCPA, MCPB
12. Phridazinones Phrazon Oxyphrazon Phrazon ----------
13. Thiocarbonates Benthiocarb, EPTC ------- ---------
Butylate
14. Triazines Atrazine Metribuzin Ametryn.
Metribuzin, Terbutyrin
Propazine,
Simazine,
Terbutyrin
15. Triazoles ----- Amitrole --------
16. Uracils Bromacil, Isocil -------- --------
17. Ureas Diuron, monuron, Chlorbromuron ---------
Fenuron,
chlorbromuron
Linuron
18. Unclassifed DCPA, Oxadiazon, Glyphosate Bentazon.
cypromid MH.
Picloram

Pre-Planting : refers to the application of herbicides before the crop is planted.

Pre-emergence : Pre-emergence treatment are applied before a crop\weed have
emerged.
Post-emergence : Treatment after the emergence of crop or weed.

Weed control by Germination stimulant:

1. Tillage:
Soil tillage often promotes emergence of weed seedlings due to its effect
on soil disturbance. Seed population can be reduced by stimulating their
germination by various tillage practices. Inducing the germination of these long
lived, dormant seeds is a key to solve long lasting weed problems.
2. Chemical stimulants:
The chemicals that stimulate germination of both viable and dormant
seeds include
1. Plant growth regulators (Gibberlins, Cytokinins & Ethylene)
2. Plant products ( strigol, Fusicoccin)
3. Respiratory inhibitors( Azide, Cyanide & Hydroxylamine)
4. Oxidants (Hypochlorite, oxygen)
5. Nitrogenous compounds ( Nitrate, Nitrite & Thiourea)
6. Anesthetics ( Acetone, Ethanol, Chloroformeta)
Of these ethylene, nitrates, strigol and Azide have been tested in the field
and used for stimulation of weed seed germination.
Ethylene: is an important tool in the control of Striga spp., (witch weed). A
single injection of ethylene gas as 1-7 kg ha -1 at 20 cm soil depth.

Nitrates: Nitrates are well known to enhance germination of many weed

seeds. At the field level, Ammonium Nitrate is known to cause increased
emergence of wild oato, Eleusine indica, E. Colonum, etc.
ABSORPTION AND TRANSLOCATION OF HERBICIDES:
If a herbicide is to be effective, it must be absorbed by the plant and
translocated (except contact) in adequate quantity to the site of action.
Absorption:
Is the process of penetration into the plant tissue.

Absorption of soil applied herbicides:

Herbicide applied to the soil either as pre planting\ pre emergence are
usually taken-up by the roots or shoot of emerging seedling.
The water-soluble herbicides as like water and salts are taken-up by the
root hairs.
The xylem in the absorbing region is functional and the endodermis at the
region will not be lignified to Prevent penetration of solutes.
As shown in the figure from root hair cortex, the molecules migrate via the
symplast (Phloem) into the stele where they shift to apoplast (xylem) and ascend
into the foliage via the transpiration stream.
A non-polar herbicide can dissolve the Casparian strip and diffuse through
it to reach the stele and move symplastically. However, the polar herbicides
cannot do this to enter the symplast instead move along the apoplast system.
Besides roots, the soil applied herbicides are also absorbed by young
shoots (coleoptiles) and seeds. Eg. EPTC, diallate, eg: atvazine, lineson
Polar compounds: They are either electrically positive as well as negative.
They are soluble in polar solvents.
Eg. Water, ch20, Amino acides.
Non-Polar compounds: They are neither strongly positive or negative and
soluble in non-polar solvents. Eg: oil, waxes.

Absorption of foliage applied herbicides:

The foliage applied herbicides will have to penetrate the cuticle which is
made of 4 different substances1) Cutin 2) Cutin wax 3) Pectin and 4) Cellulose
Cutin (Polumerised long chain fatty acids)
Cutin wax (short chain esters & alcohols)
Pectin (Amorphous long chain acid molecules, Hydrophilic)
Cellulose (Fibrillar, hydrophilic, elastic CH2 O)
to enter into the living cells either by lipoidal route (Non-polar compounds) or by
aqueous route (Polar compounds).
Or by both: They also enter into plant through trichomes and stomata. In
some cases, herbicide enters into the plant through stem.

TRANSLOCATION:
Once a herbicide is absorbed into the Plant system, it moves either
apoplastically/symplastically.
Apoplast : System of Non-living interconnecting cell walls, intercellular
spaces, water filled and air filled oxylem elements.
Symplast : System of interconnected protoplasm that is connected from
cell to cell by means of plasmodesmata.
Translocation of soil applied Herbicides:
The soil applied herbicides taken up by the roots penetrate into the oxylem
and move upward apoplastically in the transpiration stream. Under low
moisture\water deficit conditions, a rapid absorption & translocation occurs.
Translocation of Foilage applied Herbicides:
The two main pathways are the phloem and the Oxylem. The herbicides
move along with the assimilated using the source to sink principles. A herbicide
translocated through phloem can also leak out of the symplast to enter the
Oxylem circulation.

FACTORS AFFECTING ABSORPTION AND TRANSLOCATION:

A number of factors affect and modify the absorption and translocation of
herbicide.
PLANT FACTORS
a) Branching habit : is very critical for foliage applied herbicides.
b) Plant surface : Hairyness of the surface. Arrangement and shape of
leaves cutinization Thickness composing of cuticle
(wax)
c) Plant maturity : Herbicides move faster in young plants than in old.
d) Plant species and varieties : Some plant species, some cultivors within the
species show differences in A&T of herbicides.
Environmental factors:
a) Temperature & Humidity:
b) Rainfall
c) Wind: has direct effect on ET, could damage the cuticle.
d) Light: Assists herbicide penetration by stimulating stomatal opening,
activities, Ps, movement of solutes.
Soil factors:
a) Soil water stress and Temperature: soil water potential affects
transpiration, Ps, root permeability etc.,
b) Soil pH : has profound effect on the uptake of herbicides by roots.
c) Soil organic matter and clay type: influence movement, availability and
absorption of herbicides.
Chemical factors:
a) Herbicide concentration
b) pH of herbicide
c) Chemical structure
d) Surfactants: are the non-herbicidal compounds, which enhance the
absorption by reducing the surface tension between the plant surface and
spray particles.
e) Formulation
f) Application
ACTIVITY AND SELECTIVITY OF HERBICIDES:
Herbicide activity is related to the phytotoxic effects of a chemical on the
plant growth and development.
Herbicide selectivity is referred to the phenomenon wherein a chemical
kills the target plant sp., in a mixed plant population without harming the other
plant.
Factors affecting activity & selectivity:
a) Rate of application
b) Plant morphollgy, Thickness of cuticle affects H. Selectivity
c) Stage of plant development
d) Cultivation practices
e) Absorption
f) Translocation
g) Physiological differences
h) Metabolism
i) Environmental factors
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF HERBICIDES:
Herbicides after coming into contact\reaching the site of action will bring
about various physiological and bio-chemical effects like.
1. Chlorosis 2. Defoliation 3. Stunting 4. Necrosis
5. Stand reduction 6. Epinasty 7. Morphollogical aberrations
8. Growth stimulation. 9. Cupping of leaves 10. Marginal leaf burn
11. Desiccation 12. Delayed emergence 13. Germination failure etc.
The various physiological and biochemical process are grouped under six
broad categories.
1. Respiration and mitochondrial activities
2. photosynthesis
3. Protein and nucleic acid metabolism
4. Hydrolytic enzyme activities
5. Cell division
6. Membrance function
Most of the herbicides affect atleast one or all of these processes.

1. Respiration and mitochondrial activities:

Mitochandria is the cellular organelles, which carry out the cellular
respiration. ATP Synthesis and transport of electron & protons . Herbicides
affect by uncoupling the reactions responsible for ATP synthesis and interfere in
the electron & proton transport.
Eg. Bromoxymil, Dinoseb.
2. Photosynthesis:

Photosynthesis is usually represented by the following equation:

light
6 CO 2 + 6 H2 O C6H12 O6 + 6O2
(Glucose)

This takes place in two phases

1. Light reaction \Light phase

Water + ADP + Pi + NADP + Oxygen+ ATP+NADPH + H +

2. Dark reaction \Light phase:

CO 2+ NADPH+ H+ + ATP Glucose+ NADP + + ADP+ P i

Chloroplasts are the organelles on which photosynthetic activities of the

cell are centred.
 Herbicides inhibit photosynthesis by
1. Inhibiting \ Blocking the Light reaction and the Production of O2 from
H2O.
2. Inhibit the transfer of electron from PS II to PS I
3. Removing the electrons from PS I
4. Inhibiting non-cyclic ATP synthesis
5. Inhibitors of photosynthetic pigments

3. Protein and Nuocleic acid metabolism

Protein synthesis is an active and major biological function. Ribosome are
particulate where proteins are synthesized. The synthesis of soluble proteins
involve in three different stages.
1. Transfer of information from m RNA to the amino acid sequence.
2. Formation of peptide bonds.
3. Release and coiling of polupetide chain.
The Herbicides that are translocated into the plant system either at the early
stages or at the grand growth phases will bring a change into protein
synthesis, amino acid availability and catalystic enzyme activity.
Eg: Glyphosate, sulfonyl urror

4. Hydrolytic enzyme activity:

One of the major metabolic process that takes place during seed
germination is the production of hydrolytic enzymes such as amylases, proteases,
lipases, phosphatases, esterases etc., Each of these enzymes degrades the
large molecules into subunits for the germinating seed.

Gibberlic Acid Synthesis of Polyribosomes, Proteins, &

Hydrolytic enzymes
GA 3
An effect of herbicide on any one or more of these events would affect the
other events consequently affecting the eventual germination of the seed. A
significant number of pre emergence herbicides inhibits these metabolic process.
Eg. Amides & Bio-carbomates

5. Cell division:
‘Mitosis’ is the process by which cell divides into two identical ‘daughter
cells’. Cell division has four phases 1) Prophase 2) Metaphase 3) Anaphase 4)
Telophase.
In Metaphase of cell division spindle dibres (make up of proteins called
microtubules0) are formed. These spindle fibres determined the plane at which
cells divide and subsequent organization of new cells.
Some of the herbicides affect the formation of spindle fibre and thereby
affect cell division.
Eg: Dinitroainlines, pronomide, propham & chlorpropharm
6. Membrane function:
All plant membranes, even though involved in different cellular functions,
have a remarkably similar structure. Membranes are involved in nearly every
process that occurs in cell biology. Membranes are very critical to the function of
plant cells.
Any herbicides which disrupt the membrane integrity with disrupt the
normal plant development. The symptoms of membrane disruption are severe
willing and foliage dessication from cell leakage. Herbicides that affect
membrane allow the cellular contents to leak into the intercellular spaces.
Eg: Bipyridillium compounds, Dinitrophenols.
PERSISTENCE AND BEHAVIOUS OF HERBICIDES IN SOIL:
‘After’ a herbicide reaches the soil, through Pre-planting/pre-emergence
applications or as foliage run-off, it is subjected to various reactions of soil and
environment factors.
Persistence in soils is an important feature of a herbicide as it determines
its suitability or otherwise in a particular soil and cropping situation. Herbicides
which decompose too readily are less desirable in some situations as they
cannot be very effective on the weeds emerging later. In other situations,
herbicides which have longer persistence of activity are unsuitable as their
phytotoxic residues can injures the sensitive crops grown in rotation. Hence, a
knowledge on the persistence and residual effects is essential to use them safely
& effectively.
Herbicides reaching the soil become dissipated or removed in the
following ways:
1. Uptake and metabolism by plants
Most of the soil applied herbicides are applied at 0.5 to 4.0 kg\ha = 0.5 to
4 ppm in soil of one ha (upto 15 cm depth). Most portion of this herbicide is
subjected to dissipation in soil.
In case of post-emergence herbicides, a dose of 1 kg a.i\ha is applied
which amount to 100 ppm if the crop yield is 10 ton\ha ( assuming all the parts
are harvested). This is only theoretical calculation. However, in practice only 0.1
to 1.0 % of the applied herbicide reaches the crop plants.
2. Volatalization:
Volatalization is a process where a condensed phase such as liquid/solid
is transformed into vapour by elevation of temperature or reduction of external
pressure.
Herbicides with vapour pressure of more than 1x10 -5 mm Hg at 20 o c are
generally considered volatile.
The volatilization of herbicide from soil\foliar is affected by 1) Air
temperature 2) Wind velocity 3) RH 4) Soil temperature 5) Soil moisture 6) VP of
the compound 7) concentration 8) solubility in water and 9) its adsorption to soil
colloids.
3) Photo-decomposition:
Decomposition by light is an important mechanism of herbicide
detoxification in soil under field conditions especially when surface application
without subsequent incorporation / rainfall / irrigation.
4) Adsorption and inactivation by soil:
Adsorption by clay colloids is a major factor, which controls the availability
of herbicide molecules, movement of herbicides in soil and availability to plants.
Several factors affect the adsorption of herbicides, they are
1. Type of clay colloid.
2. Soil organic matter.
3. Soil p H
4. Moisture content
5. chemical nature of herbicide, and
6. Leaching.
5) Microbial degradation:
The microbial organisms involved in herbicide detoxification include
bacteria, fungi, algae, moulds, etc.
Bacteria genera : Agrobacterium
Alcalaginese
Arthrobactor
Bacillus
Pseudomonas
Nocardia, streptomyces etc.,
Fungi genera : Fusarium
Pencillium
 Herbicide combinations, Rotations and Interactions:
Herbicide combinations or mixtures are being increasingly used for
effective and economical weed control. Herbicide combinations offer the
following advantages.
1. A mixture will broaden the spectrum of herbicidal action in order to kill
greater variety of weeds.
2. A mixture will have synergistic/additive effect.
3. In a mixture, one herbicide may prevent rapid detoxification of the other.
4. A mixture offers the possibility of reducing the dose of each herbicides.
5. Less\No devision of resistance in weeds against Herbicides.
Some of the commercial herbicide mixtures currently marketed in the world
are:
2, 4-D + 2, 4, 5 -T : Glyphosate + 2,4-D
Paraquat + 2, 4-D : Atrazine + Metolachlor.
Herbicide rotations :
In a rotational programme a soil-applied or foliage applied herbicide or
both are used in a sequence to take care of annual\perennial weeds.
Herbicide rotation offers the following advantages.
1. It provides most effective weed control for the duration of crop growth.
2. It helps in preventing emergence & occurrence of tolerant weed sp.,
3. It offers high cumulative cost-benefit ratio over the years.
4. It reduces the quantities of herbicides.
5. It aids in reducing the potential for building up of herbicide residue.
6. Avoids shift in weed population.
Herbicide Interactions:
Under the current crop production practices, simultaneous\sequential
application of herbicides and other agricultural chemicals like insecticides,
fungicides, antidotes, fertilizers etc., are made in a single cropping season.
These chemicals when applied as mixture\sequentially undergo a change in
physical & chemical characters which could eventually result in
enhancement\reduction in the efficacy of one or more compounds.
When two or more herbicides are applied in a mixture or alone as
sequential applications they could interact to cause synergistic or antagonistic
responses.
Many reports on syngestic responses in herbicide combinations are
1) 2,4 – D and Triazine herbicides.
2) Amitrole and Ammonium Bio-cyanate
3) Paraquat with certain triazines and urea on Agrophyron repens.
4) Atrazine and alachlor in corn.
The numerous reports on the antagonistic responses between herbicides
are.
1. EPTC with 2,4 -D | 2,4,5-T. or Dicamba.
2. Dalapon & Atrazine
3. TCA – 2,4-D
4. TCA – MCPA.
 Generally, contact and systemic herbicide combinations show antagonistic
response.
Herbicide-Antidote Interactions:
They are always antagonistic in nature.
Eg: Antidotes : 1,8- naphthalic anhydride
N-N- diallyl -2,2- dichloro acetamide.
The seed treatment of these antidotes will prevent the injury of herbicides
like Alachlor, EPTC etc.,
Hence, the use of antidotes have tremendous potential in offering.
1. Permit to use of higher rates if herbicides for effective weed control.
2. Using herbicides in case of susceptible varieties adverse weather\soil
conditions.
3. Using Non-selective herbicides for selective weeding of field crops.
Herbicide - Fertilizer Interactions:
There is a growing evidence for herbicide plant nutrient interactions.
Ammonium ion of fertilizers speed-up the translocation of herbicides and its
activity.
Ammonium sulphate 0.5----10% + Glyphosate increased the phytotoxicity.

Aquatic Weeds and their control :

Aquatic weeds are those unwanted plants, which grow in water and
completed atleast a part of their life cycle in water.
Many aquatic plants are desirable since they play temporary beneficial
sole in reducing agricultural, domestic and industrial pollution. However, some of
these aquatic plants are considered weeds when they deprieve the humans at all
facets, of efficient use of water.
1. Submersed, emersed and marginal weeds in and along irrigation
channels/drainage channels impede water flow, in creases evapotranspiration,
Cause damage to annals structures, clog grates, sophons, bridges, pumps etc.,
2. Floating and deep sooted submersed weeds interfere with navigation ,
prevent boats and steamers from moving
3. Submersed& floating aquatic weeds in farm ponds, village tanks &
Qrwe ewawecoiea ewsuxw the water storage .
4. Prevents & impairs the use of inland waters for fishing by creating
oxygen deficiency.
5. Aqvatic weeds provide a suitable habitat for mosquitoes causing
malaria, filariasis etc.,
6. Aquatic weeds reduce the recreational values of tanks lakes, streams
etc.,
Types of Aquatic weeds:
1. Floating weeds : Eicbornial crassipes, pistia stratiotes Azolla,
( free floating ) lemboids , selviria
2. Emergent weeds : Nymphea, sagittaria
( Leaves at orablve water surface)
3. Submerged weeds : Hydrilla verticillata, Vallisanaria spp.,
(Mostly vascular )
 4. Marginal weeds : Typha, Cyperus, Colocasia, Scrpus, Ipomoea.
5. Algal blooms : Microcystis, Oscillatory, Anabaena
Control methods of aquatic weeds :
I. Mechanical methods :
1. Dredging : using bucket and weed fork.
2. Drying : Draioing & drying.
3. Mowing : Shoreline emersed weeds are cut with scythes /
swords.
4. Hand cleaning : Men cut using knives & books.
5. Chaining : Using heavy chains on the opposite sides.
6. Burning :
7. Cutting :
II. Biological methods :
1) Fish species like Tillapia, silver carp, common carp, gold fish & silver
dollar fish etc.,
2) Alternaria eichhorniae, cercospora rodmanii cause diseases in water
hyacinth.
3) Flea beette (Agasiches hydrophilla) on water hyacinth & salvania is
insect control.
III. Chemical methods :
Herbicides to control aquatic weeds have low toxicity to human beings &
other warm-blooded animals. Usually spraying is done on only the part of the
weed mat
Eg: I) Acrolein ( acrylaldebyde ) – potent irritant / lachry mator ( teargas) at
a cone. Of 4to7ppmV.
2) Dalapon @ 15 to 20 k / ha of surface area of weed infestation .
3) Amitrole @ 5 -10 kg /ha (Typha) Amitrole –T - do- (water
hyacinth)
4) TCA- Controls phragmites, sorghum halepense
BIO- ASSAY OF HERBICIDES :
In weed research, bio-assays are used to measure the biological
response of a living plant to a herbicide and to quantify its concentration in a
substrate. Bio-assays are usually conducted with sensitive plant species referred
as indicator/ Test plant.
The more commonly used indicator species are cucumber, oats, Barnyard
grass, tomatoes, soybean, sorghum etc.,
In bio-assay, an indicator species is grown is herbicide treated soil at
different known concentrations along with the same crop grown in untreated soil.
This gives responses. Ranging from nil to complete deathas hesbicide conc is
increased. The relationship between herbicide dose and plant response (%kill)
Can be compared as follows.
The herbicide dose is greatest at a level where the plant produces 50%
response and that is known as GR50 / ED50 / LD 50 \ID 50.
(Growth reduction\Equivalent dose\Lethal dose\Inhibition dose)
The response of an herbicide on two or more plant species can be
determined by comparing the ED50 values.
The bio-assay studies can be used to determined residue levels of a
known herbicide in different fields. The surface soil samples from several areas
in the same field are collected and bio-assay test crops are grown in pots under
green house conditions. This value can be compared with the standard dose-
response curve for estimating the residue. This when continued for time period
then the persistence of herbicide can be known.
Adjuvants
Adjuvants are chemicals that improve the herbicidal effects, without being
phytotoxic by themselves. Their effects are due to their ability to increase wetting
of target surface and enhance penetration. They reduce the energy required to
about herbicides across cuticle and exterior leaf membrane barriers.
They are grouped according to the type of action:
Increase H activity--------a. Activator adjuvants (surface, wetting agents,
penetrants, oils.)
To reduce drift or --------- b. spray modifier adjuvants (stickers, film formers,
Promote spreading spreaders, spreader, stickers, deposit buildess thicken
And sticking agents foam)
Wider the range of ----- c. Utility modifiers (emulsifiers, dispersants, stabilizing
Cardns under which agents, buffering agents, entifoam agents)
A given formulation is useful.
The common kinds of adjuvants used with herbicides:
Activators:
Wetting agents: also called as surfactants or surface-active agents. Some weed
foliage may not get wet by aquepis herbicide sprays (eg. Cyanodos dactylon).
When a wetting agent is added to the spray tank, the spray immediately wets the
foliage and the herbicide action becomes rapid. (In many commercial herbicide
formulation the wetting agents are already provided). Surfactants may be part of
the purchased formulation (eg. Glyphosate, or added to spray tank prior to use if
recommended (eg. Grammaxane). Even soap surfants acts as a wetting agent.
More potent weed against like upher, teepol are mighted in India. Stickers,
spreaders, spreader stickers are used in very limited guty with herbicides, but are
used mainly with fungicides and insecticides.
Deposit builders: ( = filming agents \stickers)
These are added to he herbicide concentrates to hold the toxicant in
intimate contact with the plant surface against their otherwise washing away by
rain. Many herbicide formulation are pre-provided with deposit builders,
otherwise these can be added to the spray tank in areas receiving frequent rains.
Drift control agents:
H spray drifts may post serious hazard to the non-target plants in the
neighbourhood. Adjuvants are available that reduce the spray drift possibilities
by either (i) increasing the droplet size, (ii) forming a foam, or (iii) making invest
emulsion. Drift control agents are particularly necessary in aerial application of
HC. Eg:
Stabilising agent:
When an emulsion concentrate is placed in water, it soon tends to oil-out
on the surface, unless a suitable stabilizing agent is added to it or it is consta ntly
agitated. It disperses the emulsion concentrate into minute droplets throughout
the surface of the water in the tank & maintains this system in this state all
throughout the spray work in the field. They are often pre-added in E.C.
formulations.
Dispersants \Dispessing agents:
They stabilize the suspension of a weltable power. In its absence the w.p
particles tend to settle at the bottom of the tank, unless constantly agitated. They
are also pre-mixed with H. powders.
Antifoam agents:
Reduce foam in spray tanks. These agents are usually silicones that are
often dispensed in aerosol cans or plastic squeeze bottle. The highest
concentrate of antifoam agent needed for climinating foam is about 0.1% farmers
often use kerosene or diesel fuel to about 0.1%.
Compatibility agents:
For dispessing emulsifiable H in liquid fertilizers.
Buffering agents:
Minimize the effect of alkaline water acid on spray mixtures of herbicides.
Increase the dispersion solubility of H in water.
Activators:
Improve h absorption & or translocation an the target points urea, cm, cl2
Am nitrate enhance the phytotoxicity of 2,4-D by widening it’s entry points in the
leaf cuticle.
Paraffinic oils with less than 10% aromatic content are called non-
phytotoxicoils (NPO) or phytobland oils. Some of these have been found strong
activators of a wide range of shoot-active H, including altrazine, amitrole. Their
maximum use has been made to activate atrazhine against established grasses.

Table
HERBICIDE RECOMMENDATIONS, INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR IMPORTANT CROPS
III DIRECT WEED CONTROL METHODS

Sl. Crop Critical Cultural method of Herbicides or chemical Biological weed Remarks
No. period of weed weed control control
weed control control./Mechanical
method
1. Rice 20-30 DAT 1) Hand weeding Butachlor (1-2 kg ai/ha) 1. Hirsch - I. Substitution and
2) Hand pulling Alachlor (1-2 kg ai/ha) manniella preventive
3) Pudding Thiobencarb + 2, 4D Spinicaudata is a method:
4) Flooding isopropyl rice root nematode a) Stale seed bed
5) Weeder (Float) (0.75) ester (0.5 which controls most technology
kg ai/ha) upland rice weeds b) Land
Metsulfuron methyl (20 preparation
WP) 2. Azolla c) Water
(0.008 kg ai/ha) management
Benthiocarb (1.5 – 2.5 kg
ai/ha)
Bopanil (2-3 kg ai/ha)
(only post-
emergence)
2. Wheat 15 – 30 DAS a) Hand Hoeing 1. 2, 4D (1 – 1.5 kg ai/ha) II.
b) Inter cultivation 2. MCPA (1 – 1.5 kg Complimentary
c) Criss-cross sowing ai/ha) weed control
dissolved in 700 – 800 methods
litres a) Cultivars
applied at 25 – 30 b) Seedling age /
DAS planting method
Efficiency can be c) Fertilizer
increased by mixing urea management
@ 3% d) Cropping
3. Mixture of Isoproturan system
(0.75 kg ai/ha) and 2, 4D
(0.4 kg ai/ha) during 30-
35 DAS

Sl.No. Crop Critical Chemicals Biological

3. Sorghum 21 – 42 DAS 1. Pre-plant application of Atrazine (1 kg ai/ha) + Pre- 1. Inclusion of cotton crop in
emergence application of Atrazine (0.5 kg ai/ha) the rotation
2. Propazine (1 kg ai/ha) as pre-emergence band
 application
3. Simazine and 2, 4D have adverse effects
4. Application of paraquat as directed spray effectively
controls striga (1-2 litres/ha)
5. Fluchloralin/Alachlor should be used when sorghum is
intercropped with any pulses/Groundnut
4. Maize 2 to 6 Weeks 1. Pre-emergence application of Atrazine (1-2 kg ai/ha)
2. Combined application of Alachlor (2 kg/ha) and atrazine
(1kg/ha) is more effective and have wider spectrum of
control
3. Post-emergence application of 2, 4D (1-2 kg/ha)
Dinoseb (0.75 to 1 kg/ha) and Dicamba (0.5 to 1 kg/ha) –
should be applied at 2-4 leaf stage
5. Groundnut Upto 45 days 1. Alachlor (1-5 kg/ha) – pre emergence application
2. Combination of Alachlor with nitrofen (3-5 kg) or
prometryn (1 – 1.5 kg/ha) as pre-emergence
3. For perennial weed control vernolate (2-3 kg) needs to
be incorporated before sowing crop seeds
6. Sunflower 4-6 weeks 1. EPTC (2 to 3 kg/ha) or Trifluralin (0.5 to 1 kg/ha) are
incorporated as per planting
 2. Alachlor (1-2 kg/ha), Nitrofen (1.5 – 2 kg/ha) as pre-
emergence
7. Cotton First 45 days 1. Diuron (0.5 – 1.5 kg/ha), Monuron (1-1.5 kg/ha),
Fluchloralin (1-1.5 kg/ha) applied as pre-
emergence/preplanting
2. Pre-emergence combination of Trifluralin and diuron
(1+1 kg/ha) are most effective and wider spectrum
3. MSMA (2-3 kg/ha) and Dalapon (3-4 kg/ha) as post-
emergence directed spray
8. Pulses First 30-35 days 1. Alachlor (1-2 kg/ha), Nitrofen (0.75 – 1.5 kg/ha)
Fluchloralin (1-1.5 kg/ha ), Trifluralin (1-2 kg/ha) as pre-
emergence (preplanting incorp.)
9. Tobacco First 9 weeks 1. Methyl bromide (4 to 8 kg per 100 m2), calcium
cynamide (40-60 kg per 100m2) fumigation to sterelise the
soil in the nursery before 2-4 days of sowing
2. Fluchloralin (2-3 kg/ha), Pendemethalin (1-1.5 kg/ha) as
pre-emergence and vernolate (2-3 kg/ha) and Benefen (1.5
– 2 kg/ha) as pre-planting incorporation in transplanted
fields
10. Sugarcane 4 to 5 months 1. Pre-emergence herbicides like atrazine (2 to 3 kg/ha)
Simazine (2 to 3 kg/ha), Alachlor (1.3 to 2.5 kg/ha) etc.,
will generally last for 8 to 12 weeks
2. To obtain best results sequential application of pre-
emergence and post emergence herbicides or post
emergence herbicides like Glyphosate (0.8 to 1.6 kg/ha)
Paraquat (0.4 to 0.8 kg/ha), Asulam (3 to 4 kg/ha)