Organic CHM

326 CHEMISTRY
UNIT 12
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY – SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES

AND TECHNIQUES
In the previous unit you have learnt that the element

carbon has the unique property called catenation due to
which it forms covalent bonds with other carbon atoms.
After studying this unit, you will be It also forms covalent bonds with atoms of other elements
able to like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus and
• understand reasons for halogens. The resulting compounds are studied under a
tetravalence of carbon and separate branch of chemistry called organic chemistry.
shapes of organic molecules; This unit incorporates some basic principles and
• write structures of organic techniques of analysis required for understanding the
molecules in various ways; formation and properties of organic compounds.
• classify the organic compounds;
• name the compounds according 12.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
to IUPAC system of
nomenclature and also derive Organic compounds are vital for sustaining life on earth
their structures from the given and include complex molecules like genetic information
names; bearing deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and proteins that
• understand the concept of constitute essential compounds of our blood, muscles and
organic reaction mechanism; skin. Organic chemicals appear in materials like clothing,
• explain the influence of fuels, polymers, dyes and medicines. These are some of
electronic displacements on the important areas of application of these compounds.
structure and reactivity of Science of organic chemistry is about two hundred
organic compounds; years old. Around the year 1780, chemists began to
• recognise the types of organic distinguish between organic compounds obtained from
reactions; plants and animals and inorganic compounds prepared
• lear n the techniques of from mineral sources. Berzilius, a Swedish chemist
purification of organic proposed that a ‘vital force’ was responsible for the
compounds; formation of organic compounds. However, this notion
• write the chemical reactions was rejected in 1828 when F. Wohler synthesised an
involved in the qualitative
organic compound, urea from an inorganic compound,
analysis of organic compounds;
ammonium cyanate.
• understand the principles
involved in quantitative analysis NH4 CNO ⎯⎯⎯⎯
Heat
→ NH2 CONH2
of organic compounds. Ammonium cyanate Urea
The pioneering synthesis of acetic acid by Kolbe (1845)
and that of methane by Berthelot (1856) showed
conclusively that organic compounds could be synthesised
from inorganic sources in a laboratory.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY – SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES 327
The development of electronic theory of necessary for a proper sideways overlap.

covalent bonding ushered organic chemistry Thus, in H2C=CH2 molecule all the atoms
into its modern shape. must be in the same plane. The p orbitals
are mutually parallel and both the p orbitals
12.2 TETRAVALENCE OF CARBON:
are perpendicular to the plane of the
SHAPES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
molecule. Rotation of one CH2 fragment with
12.2.1 The Shapes of Carbon Compounds respect to other interferes with maximum
The knowledge of fundamental concepts of overlap of p orbitals and, therefore, such
molecular structure helps in understanding rotation about carbon-carbon double bond
and predicting the properties of organic (C=C) is restricted. The electron charge cloud
compounds. You have already learnt theories of the π bond is located above and below the
of valency and molecular structure in Unit 4. plane of bonding atoms. This results in the
Also, you already know that tetravalence of electrons being easily available to the
carbon and the formation of covalent bonds attacking reagents. In general, π bonds provide
by it are explained in terms of its electronic the most reactive centres in the molecules
configuration and the hybridisation of s and containing multiple bonds.
p orbitals. It may be recalled that formation
and the shapes of molecules like methane Problem 12.1
(CH 4 ), ethene (C 2 H 4 ), ethyne (C 2 H 2 ) are How many σ and π bonds are present in
explained in terms of the use of sp3, sp2 and each of the following molecules?
sp hybrid orbitals by carbon atoms in the
(a) HC≡CCH=CHCH3 (b) CH2=C=CHCH3
respective molecules.
Hybridisation influences the bond length Solution
and bond enthalpy (strength) in organic (a) σC – C: 4; σC–H : 6; πC=C :1; π C≡C:2
compounds. The sp hybrid orbital contains
(b) σC – C: 3; σC–H: 6; πC=C: 2.
more s character and hence it is closer to its
nucleus and forms shorter and stronger Problem 12.2
bonds than the sp3 hybrid orbital. The sp2 What is the type of hybridisation of each
hybrid orbital is intermediate in s character carbon in the following compounds?
between sp and sp3 and, hence, the length
and enthalpy of the bonds it forms, are also (a) CH3Cl, (b) (CH3)2CO, (c) CH3CN,
intermediate between them. The change in (d) HCONH2, (e) CH3CH=CHCN
hybridisation affects the electronegativity of
carbon. The greater the s character of the Solution
hybrid orbitals, the greater is the (a) sp3, (b) sp3, sp2, (c) sp3, sp, (d) sp2, (e)
electronegativity. Thus, a carbon atom having sp3, sp2, sp2, sp
an sp hybrid orbital with 50% s character is
Problem 12.3
more electronegative than that possessing sp2
or sp 3 hybridised orbitals. This relative Write the state of hybridisation of carbon
electronegativity is reflected in several in the following compounds and shapes
physical and chemical properties of the of each of the molecules.
molecules concerned, about which you will (a) H2C=O, (b) CH3F, (c) HC≡N.
learn in later units.
Solution
12.2.2 Some Characteristic Features of π
Bonds (a) sp2 hybridised carbon, trigonal planar;
(b) sp3 hybridised carbon, tetrahedral; (c)
In a π (pi) bond formation, parallel orientation sp hybridised carbon, linear.
of the two p orbitals on adjacent atoms is
328 CHEMISTRY
12.3 STRUCTURAL REPRESENTATIONS Similarly, CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3

OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS can be further condensed to CH3(CH2)6CH3.
12.3.1 Complete, Condensed and Bond-line For further simplification, organic chemists
Structural Formulas use another way of representing the
structures, in which only lines are used. In
Structures of organic compounds are
this bond-line structural representation of
represented in several ways. The Lewis
organic compounds, carbon and hydrogen
structure or dot structure, dash structure,
atoms are not shown and the lines
condensed structure and bond line structural
representing carbon-carbon bonds are drawn
formulas are some of the specific types. The
in a zig-zag fashion. The only atoms
Lewis structures, however, can be simplified
specifically written are oxygen, chlorine,
by representing the two-electron covalent
nitrogen etc. The terminals denote methyl
bond by a dash (–). Such a structural formula
(–CH3) groups (unless indicated otherwise by
focuses on the electrons involved in bond
a functional group), while the line junctions
formation. A single dash represents a single
denote carbon atoms bonded to appropriate
bond, double dash is used for double bond
number of hydrogens required to satisfy the
and a triple dash represents triple bond. Lone-
valency of the carbon atoms. Some of the
pairs of electrons on heteroatoms (e.g.,
examples are represented as follows:
oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, halogens etc.) may
or may not be shown. Thus, ethane (C2H6), (i) 3-Methyloctane can be represented in
ethene (C2H4), ethyne (C2H2) and methanol various forms as:
(CH3OH) can be represented by the following (a) CH3CH2CHCH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
structural for mulas. Such structural |
representations are called complete structural CH3
formulas.
(b)
Ethane Ethene
(c)
Ethyne Methanol
These structural formulas can be further

abbreviated by omitting some or all of the
dashes representing covalent bonds and by (ii) Various ways of representing 2-bromo
indicating the number of identical groups butane are:
attached to an atom by a subscript. The
resulting expression of the compound is called
a condensed structural formula. Thus, ethane, (a) CH3CHBrCH2CH3 (b)
ethene, ethyne and methanol can be written
as:
CH3CH3 H2C=CH2 HC≡≡CH CH3OH
(c)
Ethane Ethene Ethyne Methanol
In cyclic compounds, the bond-line formulas

may be given as follows:
(b)
Solution
Condensed formula:
Cyclopropane (a) HO(CH2)3CH(CH3)CH(CH3)2
(b) HOCH(CN)2
Bond-line formula:
(a)
Cyclopentane
(b)
chlorocyclohexane
Problem 12.6
Problem 12.4
Expand each of the following bond-line
Expand each of the following condensed formulas to show all the atoms including
formulas into their complete structural carbon and hydrogen
formulas. (a)
(a) CH3CH2COCH2CH3
(b) CH3CH=CH(CH2)3CH3
Solution (b)
(a)
(c)
(b) (d)
Solution
Problem 12.5
For each of the following compounds,
write a condensed formula and also their
bond-line formula.
(a) HOCH2CH2CH2CH(CH3)CH(CH3)CH3
330 CHEMISTRY
Molecular Models
Molecular models are physical devices that
are used for a better visualisation and
perception of three-dimensional shapes of
organic molecules. These are made of wood,
plastic or metal and are commercially
available. Commonly three types of molecular
models are used: (1) Framework model, (2)
Ball-and-stick model, and (3) Space filling
model. In the framework model only the
bonds connecting the atoms of a molecule
and not the atoms themselves are shown.
This model emphasizes the pattern of bonds
of a molecule while ignoring the size of atoms.
In the ball-and-stick model, both the atoms
and the bonds are shown. Balls represent
atoms and the stick denotes a bond.
Compounds containing C=C (e.g., ethene) can
best be represented by using springs in place
12.3.2 Three-Dimensional
of sticks. These models are referred to as ball-
Representation of Organic and-spring model. The space-filling model
Molecules emphasises the relative size of each atom
The three-dimensional (3-D) structure of based on its van der Waals radius. Bonds
organic molecules can be represented on are not shown in this model. It conveys the
paper by using certain conventions. For volume occupied by each atom in the
example, by using solid ( ) and dashed molecule. In addition to these models,
computer graphics can also be used for
( ) wedge formula, the 3-D image of a
molecular modelling.
molecule from a two-dimensional picture
can be perceived. In these formulas the
solid-wedge is used to indicate a bond
projecting out of the plane of paper, towards
the observer. The dashed-wedge is used to
depict the bond projecting out of the plane of
the paper and away from the observer. Wedges
are shown in such a way that the broad end
of the wedge is towards the observer. The Ball and stick model
Framework model
bonds lying in plane of the paper are depicted
by using a normal line (—). 3-D representation
of methane molecule on paper has been
shown in Fig. 12.1.
Space filling model
Fig. 12.2
Fig. 12.1 Wedge-and-dash representation of CH4
12.4 CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC (homocyclic). Sometimes atoms other than

COMPOUNDS carbon are also present in the ring
(heterocylic). Some examples of this type of
The existing large number of organic
compounds are:
compounds and their ever -increasing
numbers has made it necessary to classify
them on the basis of their structures. Organic
compounds are broadly classified as follows:
Cyclopropane Cyclohexane
Cyclohexene Tetrahydrofuran
These exhibit some of the properties similar
to those of aliphatic compounds.
Aromatic compounds
Aromatic compounds are special types of
compounds. You will learn about these
compounds in detail in Unit 13. These include
benzene and other related ring compounds
(benzenoid). Like alicyclic compounds,
aromatic comounds may also have hetero
atom in the ring. Such compounds are called
I. Acyclic or open chain compounds hetrocyclic aromatic compounds. Some of the
examples of various types of aromatic
These compounds are also called as aliphatic
compounds are:
compounds and consist of straight or
branched chain compounds, for example: Benzenoid aromatic compounds
CH3CH3
Ethane
Isobutane
Benzene Aniline Naphthalene
Non-benzenoid compound
Acetaldehyde Acetic acid
II Alicyclic or closed chain or ring

compounds
Alicyclic (aliphatic cyclic) compounds contain
carbon atoms joined in the form of a ring Tropolone
332 CHEMISTRY
Heterocyclic aromatic compounds acid found in red ant is named formic acid
since the Latin word for ant is formica. These
names are traditional and are considered as
trivial or common names. Some common
names are followed even today. For example,
Furan Thiophene Pyridine Buckminsterfullerene is a common name
Organic compounds can also be classified given to the newly discovered C60 cluster
on the basis of functional groups, into families (a form of carbon) noting its structural
or homologous series. similarity to the geodesic domes popularised
by the famous architect R. Buckminster
Functional Group
Fuller. Common names are useful and in
The functional group may be defined as an many cases indispensable, particularly when
atom or group of atoms joined in a specific the alternative systematic names are lengthy
manner which is responsible for the and complicated. Common names of some
characteristic chemical properties of the organic compounds are given in Table 12.1.
organic compounds. The examples are
Table 12.1 Common or Trivial Names of Some
hydroxyl group (–OH), aldehyde group (–CHO) Organic Compounds
and carboxylic acid group (–COOH) etc.
Homologous Series
A group or a series of organic compounds each
containing a characteristic functional group
forms a homologous series and the members
of the series are called homologues. The
members of a homologous series can be
represented by general molecular formula and
the successive members differ from each other
in molecular formula by a –CH2 unit. There
are a number of homologous series of
organic compounds. Some of these are
alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, haloalkanes,
alkanols, alkanals, alkanones, alkanoic acids,
amines etc.
12.5 NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
Organic chemistry deals with millions of
compounds. In order to clearly identify them, a
systematic method of naming has been 12.5.1 The IUPAC System of Nomenclature
developed and is known as the IUPAC A systematic name of an organic compound
(International Union of Pure and Applied is generally derived by identifying the parent
Chemistry) system of nomenclature. In this hydrocarbon and the functional group(s)
systematic nomenclature, the names are attached to it. See the example given below.
correlated with the structure such that the
reader or listener can deduce the structure from
the name.
Before the IUPAC system of nomenclature,
however, organic compounds were assigned
names based on their origin or certain
properties. For instance, citric acid is named
so because it is found in citrus fruits and the
By further using prefixes and suffixes, the In order to name such compounds, the names
parent name can be modified to obtain the of alkyl groups are prefixed to the name of
actual name. Compounds containing carbon parent alkane. An alkyl group is derived from
and hydrogen only are called hydrocarbons. A a saturated hydrocarbon by removing a
hydrocarbon is termed saturated if it contains hydrogen atom from carbon. Thus, CH4
only carbon-carbon single bonds. The IUPAC becomes -CH3 and is called methyl group. An
name for a homologous series of such alkyl group is named by substituting ‘yl’ for
compounds is alkane. Paraffin (Latin: little ‘ane’ in the corresponding alkane. Some alkyl
affinity) was the earlier name given to these groups are listed in Table 12.3.
compounds. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are Table 12.3 Some Alkyl Groups
those, which contain at least one carbon-
carbon double or triple bond.
12.5.2 IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes
Straight chain hydrocarbons: The names
of such compounds are based on their chain
structure, and end with suffix ‘-ane’ and carry
a prefix indicating the number of carbon
atoms present in the chain (except from CH4
to C4H10, where the prefixes are derived from
trivial names). The IUPAC names of some
straight chain saturated hydrocarbons are
given in Table 12.2. The alkanes in Table 12.2 Abbreviations are used for some alkyl
differ from each other by merely the number groups. For example, methyl is abbreviated
of -CH 2 groups in the chain. They are as Me, ethyl as Et, propyl as Pr and butyl as
homologues of alkane series. Bu. The alkyl groups can be branched also.
Thus, propyl and butyl groups can have
Table 12.2 IUPAC Names of Some Unbranched branched structures as shown below.
Saturated Hydrocarbons
CH3-CH- CH3-CH2-CH- CH3-CH-CH2-
⏐ ⏐ ⏐
CH3 CH3 CH3
Isopropyl- sec-Butyl- Isobutyl-
CH3 CH3
⏐ ⏐
CH3-C- CH3-C-CH2-
⏐ ⏐
CH3 CH3
tert-Butyl- Neopentyl-
Common branched groups have specific
Branched chain hydrocarbons: In a
trivial names. For example, the propyl groups
branched chain compound small chains of
can either be n-propyl group or isopropyl
carbon atoms are attached at one or more
group. The branched butyl groups are called
carbon atoms of the parent chain. The small
sec-butyl, isobutyl and tert-butyl group. We
carbon chains (branches) are called alkyl
also encounter the structural unit,
groups. For example:
–CH2C(CH3)3, which is called neopentyl group.
CH3–CH–CH2–CH3 CH3–CH–CH2–CH–CH3
Nomenclature of branched chain alkanes:
⏐ ⏐ ⏐
We encounter a number of branched chain
CH3 CH2CH3 CH3
alkanes. The rules for naming them are given
(a) (b) below.
334 CHEMISTRY
1. First of all, the longest carbon chain in separated from the groups by hyphens and
the molecule is identified. In the example there is no break between methyl and
(I) given below, the longest chain has nine nonane.]
carbons and it is considered as the parent 4. If two or more identical substituent groups
or root chain. Selection of parent chain as are present then the numbers are
shown in (II) is not correct because it has separated by commas. The names of
only eight carbons. identical substituents are not repeated,
instead prefixes such as di (for 2), tri
(for 3), tetra (for 4), penta (for 5), hexa (for
6) etc. are used. While writing the name of
the substituents in alphabetical order,
these prefixes, however, are not considered.
Thus, the following compounds are
named as:
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
⏐ ⏐ ⏐ ⏐
CH3-CH-CH2-CH-CH3 CH3⎯C⎯CH2⎯CH⎯CH3
1 2 3 4 5 1 2⏐ 3 4 5
CH3
2. The carbon atoms of the parent chain are
numbered to identify the parent alkane and 2,4-Dimethylpentane 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane
to locate the positions of the carbon atoms H 3 C H2 C CH3
at which branching takes place due to the ⏐ ⏐
substitution of alkyl group in place of CH3⎯CH2⎯CH⎯C⎯CH2⎯CH2⎯CH3
hydrogen atoms. The numbering is done 1 2 3 ⏐4 5 6 7
in such a way that the branched carbon
CH3
atoms get the lowest possible numbers.
Thus, the numbering in the above example 3-Ethyl-4,4-dimethylheptane
should be from left to right (branching at
5. If the two substituents are found in
carbon atoms 2 and 6) and not from right
to left (giving numbers 4 and 8 to the equivalent positions, the lower number is
carbon atoms at which branches are given to the one coming first in the
attached). alphabetical listing. Thus, the following
compound is 3-ethyl-6-methyloctane and
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 not 6-ethyl-3-methyloctane.
C ⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯C ⎯ C ⎯ C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
⏐ ⏐
CH3 — CH2—CH—CH2—CH2—CH—CH2 —CH3
C C⎯C
⏐ ⏐
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 CH2CH3 CH3
C⎯ C⎯C⎯C⎯C⎯C⎯C⎯C⎯C
⏐ ⏐ 6. The branched alkyl groups can be named
C C⎯C by following the above mentioned
3. The names of alkyl groups attached as a procedures. However, the carbon atom of
branch are then prefixed to the name of the branch that attaches to the root
the parent alkane and position of the alkane is numbered 1 as exemplified
substituents is indicated by the below.
appropriate numbers. If different alkyl 4 3 2 1
groups are present, they are listed in CH3–CH–CH2–CH–
alphabetical order. Thus, name for the ⏐ ⏐
compound shown above is: 6-ethyl-2- CH3 CH3
methylnonane. [Note: the numbers are 1,3-Dimethylbutyl-
The name of such branched chain alkyl group Cyclic Compounds: A saturated monocyclic
is placed in parenthesis while naming the compound is named by prefixing ‘cyclo’ to the
compound. While writing the trivial names of corresponding straight chain alkane. If side
substituents’ in alphabetical order, the chains are present, then the rules given above
prefixes iso- and neo- are considered to be are applied. Names of some cyclic compounds
the part of the fundamental name of alkyl are given below.
group. The prefixes sec- and tert- are not
considered to be the part of the fundamental
name. The use of iso and related common
prefixes for naming alkyl groups is also
allowed by the IUPAC nomenclature as long
as these are not further substituted. In multi-
substituted compounds, the following rules
may aso be remembered:
• If there happens to be two chains of equal
size, then that chain is to be selected
which contains more number of side 3-Ethyl-1,1-dimethylcyclohexane
chains. (not 1-ethyl-3,3-dimethylcyclohexane)
• After selection of the chain, numbering is
to be done from the end closer to the Problem 12.7
substituent. Structures and IUPAC names of some
hydrocarbons are given below. Explain
why the names given in the parentheses
are incorrect.
2,5,6- Trimethyloctane
[and not 3,4,7-Trimethyloctane]
5-(2-Ethylbutyl)-3,3-dimethyldecane
[and not 5-(2,2-Dimethylbutyl)-3-ethyldecane]
3-Ethyl-5-methylheptane
[and not 5-Ethyl-3-methylheptane]
Solution
(a) Lowest locant number, 2,5,6 is lower
than 3,5,7, (b) substituents are in
5-sec-Butyl-4-isopropyldecane equivalent position; lower number is
given to the one that comes first in the
name according to alphabetical order.
12.5.3 Nomenclature of Organic

Compounds having Functional
Group(s)
A functional group, as defined earlier, is an
atom or a group of atoms bonded together in a
5-(2,2-Dimethylpropyl)nonane unique manner which is usually the site of
336 CHEMISTRY
chemical reactivity in an organic molecule. suffix. In such cases the full name of the parent
Compounds having the same functional group alkane is written before the class suffix. For
undergo similar reactions. For example, example CH 2 (OH)CH 2 (OH) is named as
CH3OH, CH3CH2OH, and (CH3)2CHOH — all ethane–1,2–diol. However, the ending – ne of
having -OH functional group liberate hydrogen the parent alkane is dropped in the case of
on reaction with sodium metal. The presence compounds having more than one double or
of functional groups enables systematisation triple bond; for example, CH2=CH-CH=CH2 is
of organic compounds into different classes. named as buta–1,3–diene.
Examples of some functional groups with their
prefixes and suf fixes along with some Problem 12.8
examples of organic compounds possessing Write the IUPAC names of the compounds
these are given in Table 12.4. i-iv from their given structures.
First of all, the functional group present
in the molecule is identified which determines
the choice of appropriate suffix. The longest
chain of carbon atoms containing the
functional group is numbered in such a way
that the functional group is attached at the Solution
carbon atom possessing lowest possible • The functional group present is an
number in the chain. By using the suffix as alcohol (OH). Hence the suffix is ‘-ol’.
given in Table 12.4, the name of the compound • The longest chain containing -OH has
is arrived at. eight carbon atoms. Hence the
In the case of polyfunctional compounds, corresponding saturated hydrocarbon
one of the functional groups is chosen as the is octane.
principal functional group and the compound is • The -OH is on carbon atom 3. In
then named on that basis. The remaining addition, a methyl group is attached
functional groups, which are subordinate at 6th carbon.
functional groups, are named as substituents Hence, the systematic name of this
using the appropriate prefixes. The choice of compound is 6-Methyloctan-3-ol.
principal functional group is made on the basis
of order of preference. The order of decreasing
priority for some functional groups is:
-COOH, –SO3H, -COOR (R=alkyl group), COCl,
-CONH2, -CN,-HC=O, >C=O, -OH, -NH2, >C=C<,
-C≡≡C- . Solution
The –R, C6H5-, halogens (F, Cl, Br, I), –NO2, The functional group present is ketone
alkoxy (–OR) etc. are always prefix (>C=O), hence suffix ‘-one’. Presence of
substituents. Thus, a compound containing two keto groups is indicated by ‘di’,
both an alcohol and a keto group is named hence suffix becomes ‘dione’. The two
as hydroxyalkanone since the keto group is keto groups are at carbons 2 and 4. The
preferred to the hydroxyl group. longest chain contains 6 carbon atoms,
For example, HOCH2(CH2)3CH2COCH3 will be hence, parent hydrocarbon is hexane.
named as 7-hydroxyheptan-2-one and not as Thus, the systematic name is Hexane-
2-oxoheptan -7-ol. Similarly, BrCH2CH=CH2 2,4-dione.
is named as 3-bromoprop-1-ene and not 1-
bromoprop-2-ene.
If more than one functional group of the
same type are present, their number is
indicated by adding di, tri, etc. before the class
Table 12.4 Some Functional Groups and Classes of Organic Compounds

338 CHEMISTRY
Solution (iii) Six membered ring containing a

Here, two functional groups namely carbon-carbon double bond is implied by
ketone and carboxylic acid are present. cyclohexene, which is numbered as
The principal functional group is the shown in (I). The prefix 3-nitro means that
carboxylic acid group; hence the parent a nitro group is present on C-3. Thus,
chain will be suffixed with ‘oic’ acid. complete structural formula of the
Numbering of the chain starts from compound is (II). Double bond is suffixed
carbon of – COOH functional group. The functional group whereas NO2 is prefixed
keto group in the chain at carbon 5 is functional group therefore double bond
indicated by ‘oxo’. The longest chain gets preference over –NO2 group:
including the principal functional
group has 6 carbon atoms; hence the
parent hydrocarbon is hexane. The
compound is, therefore, named as
5-Oxohexanoic acid.
(iv) ‘1-ol’ means that a -OH group is

Solution present at C-1. OH is suffixed functional
The two C=C functional groups are group and gets preference over C=C
present at carbon atoms 1 and 3, while bond. Thus the structure is as shown
the C≡C functional group is present at in (II):
carbon 5. These groups are indicated by
suffixes ‘diene’ and ‘yne’ respectively. The
longest chain containing the functional
groups has 6 carbon atoms; hence the
parent hydrocarbon is hexane. The name
of compound, therefore, is Hexa-1,3-
dien-5-yne.
(v) ‘heptanal’ indicates the compound to
Problem 12.9
be an aldehyde containing 7 carbon
Derive the structure of (i) 2-Chlorohexane, atoms in the parent chain. The
(ii) Pent-4-en-2-ol, (iii) 3- Nitrocyclohexene, ‘6-hydroxy’ indicates that -OH group is
(iv) Cyclohex-2-en-1-ol, (v) 6-Hydroxy- present at carbon 6. Thus, the structural
heptanal. for mula of the compound is:
Solution CH3CH(OH)CH2CH2CH2CH2CHO. Carbon
atom of –CHO group is included while
(i) ‘hexane’ indicates the presence of
numbering the carbon chain.
6 carbon atoms in the chain. The
functional group chloro is present at
carbon 2. Hence, the structure of the 12.5.4 Nomenclature of Substituted
compound is CH3CH2CH2CH2CH(Cl)CH3. Benzene Compounds
(ii) ‘pent’ indicates that parent
For IUPAC nomenclature of substituted
hydrocarbon contains 5 carbon atoms in
benzene compounds, the substituent is
the chain. ‘en’ and ‘ol’ correspond to the
functional groups C=C and -OH at placed as prefix to the word benzene as
carbon atoms 4 and 2 respectively. Thus, shown in the following examples. However,
the structure is common names (written in bracket below)
of many substituted benzene compounds
CH2=CHCH2CH (OH)CH3. are also universally used.
Substituent of the base compound is

assigned number1 and then the direction of
numbering is chosen such that the next
substituent gets the lowest number. The
substituents appear in the name in
Methylbenzene Methoxybenzene Aminobenzene alphabetical order. Some examples are given
(Toluene) (Anisole) (Aniline)
below.
Nitrobenzene Bromobenzene 1-Chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene

(not 4-chloro,1,3-dinitrobenzene)
If benzene ring is disubstituted, the
position of substituents is defined
b y n u m b e r i n g the carbon atoms of
the ring such that the substituents
are located at the lowest numbers
possible.For example, the compound(b) is
named as 1,3-dibromobenzene and not as
1,5-dibromobenzene.
2-Chloro-1-methyl-4-nitrobenzene
(not 4-methyl-5-chloro-nitrobenzene)
(a) (b) (c)

1,2-Dibromo- 1,3-Dibromo- 1,4-Dibromo-
benzene benzene benzene
In the trivial system of nomenclature the
terms ortho (o), meta (m) and para (p) are used 2-Chloro-4-methylanisole 4-Ethyl-2-methylaniline
as prefixes to indicate the relative positions
1,2- ;1,3- and 1,4- respectively. Thus,
1,3-dibromobenzene (b) is named as
m-dibromobenzene (meta is abbreviated as
m-) and the other isomers of dibromobenzene
1,2-(a) and 1,4-(c), are named as ortho (or just
o-) and para (or just p-)-dibromobenzene,
respectively.
For tri - or higher substituted benzene 3,4-Dimethylphenol
derivatives, these prefixes cannot be used and
the compounds are named by identifying When a benzene ring is attached to an
substituent positions on the ring by following alkane with a functional group, it is
the lowest locant rule. In some cases, common considered as substituent, instead of a
name of benzene derivatives is taken as the parent. The name for benzene as substituent
base compound. is phenyl (C6H5-, also abbreviated as Ph).
340 CHEMISTRY
different carbon skeletons, these are referred

Problem 12.10
to as chain isomers and the phenomenon is
Write the structural formula of: termed as chain isomerism. For example, C5H12
(a) o-Ethylanisole, (b) p-Nitroaniline, represents three compounds:
(c) 2,3 - Dibromo -1 - phenylpentane, CH3
(d) 4-Ethyl-1-fluoro-2-nitrobenzene. ⏐
Solution CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 CH3−CHCH2CH3
Pentane Isopentane
(2-Methylbutane)
CH3
⏐
CH3⎯ C⎯ CH3
(a) (b) ⏐
CH3
Neopentane
(2,2-Dimethylpropane)
(ii) Position isomerism: When two or more

compounds dif fer in the position of
(c) (d) substituent atom or functional group on the
carbon skeleton, they are called position
12.6 ISOMERISM isomers and this phenomenon is termed as
position isomerism. For example, the
The phenomenon of existence of two or more molecular formula C 3H 8O represents two
compounds possessing the same molecular alcohols:
formula but different properties is known as
OH
isomerism. Such compounds are called as
⏐
isomers. The following flow chart shows
CH3CH2CH2OH CH3−CH-CH3
different types of isomerism.
Propan-1-ol Propan-2-ol
12.6.1 Structural Isomerism
Compounds having the same molecular (iii) Functional group isomerism: Two or
formula but different structures (manners in more compounds having the same molecular
which atoms are linked) are classified as formula but different functional groups are
structural isomers. Some typical examples of called functional isomers and this
different types of structural isomerism are given phenomenon is termed as functional group
below: isomerism. For example, the molecular
(i) Chain isomerism: When two or more formula C3H6O represents an aldehyde and a
compounds have similar molecular formula but ketone:
Isomerism
Structural isomerism Stereoisomerism
Chain Position Functional Metamerism Geometrical Optical

isomerism isomerism group isomerism isomerism
isomerism
O H understanding the reactivity of organic

y x compounds and in planning strategy for their
CH3−C-CH3 CH3−CH2—C= O synthesis.
Propanone Propanal In the following sections, we shall learn
some of the principles that explain how these
(iv) Metamerism: It arises due to different alkyl reactions take place.
chains on either side of the functional group
12.7.1 Fission of a Covalent Bond
in the molecule. For example, C 4 H 10 O
represents methoxypropane (CH3OC3H7) and A covalent bond can get cleaved either by : (i)
ethoxyethane (C2H5OC2H5). heterolytic cleavage, or by (ii) homolytic
cleavage.
12.6.2 Stereoisomerism
In heterolytic cleavage, the bond breaks
The compounds that have the same in such a fashion that the shared pair of
constitution and sequence of covalent bonds electrons remains with one of the fragments.
but differ in relative positions of their atoms
After heterolysis, one atom has a sextet
or groups in space are called stereoisomers.
electronic structure and a positive charge and
This special type of isomerism is called as
the other, a valence octet with at least one
stereoisomerism and can be classified as
lone pair and a negative charge. Thus,
geometrical and optical isomerism.
heterolytic cleavage of bromomethane will give
+
12.7 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN CH 3 and Br– as shown below.
ORGANIC REACTION MECHANISM
In an organic reaction, the organic molecule
(also referred as a substrate) reacts with an
appropriate attacking reagent and leads to the A species having a carbon atom possessing
formation of one or more intermediate(s) and sextext of electrons and a positive charge is
finally product(s) called a carbocation (earlier called carbonium
+
ion). The C H3 ion is known as a methyl cation
The general reaction is depicted as follows :
or methyl carbonium ion. Carbocations are
Attacking classified as primary, secondary or tertiary
Reagent [Intermediate] Product(s) depending on whether one, two or three
Organic
molecule carbons are directly attached to the positively
(Substrate) Byproducts charged carbon. Some+ other examples of
carbocations are: CH3C H2 (ethyl +
cation, a
Substrate is that reactant which supplies primary carbocation), (CH3)2C H (isopropyl+
carbon to the new bond and the other reactant cation, a secondary carbocation), and (CH3)3C
is called reagent. If both the reactants supply (tert-butyl cation, a tertiary carbocation).
carbon to the new bond then choice is Carbocations are highly unstable and reactive
arbitrary and in that case the molecule on species. Alkyl groups directly attached to the
which attention is focused is called substrate. positively charged carbon stabilise the
In such a reaction a covalent bond carbocations due to inductive and
between two carbon atoms or a carbon and hyperconjugation effects, which you will be
some other atom is broken and a new bond is studying in the sections 12.7.5 and 12.7.9.
formed. A sequential account of each step, The
+
observed+
order of carbocation
+
stability
+
is:
describing details of electron movement, C H3 < CH3CH2 < (CH3)2CH < (CH3)3C. These
energetics during bond cleavage and bond carbocations have trigonal planar shape with
formation, and the rates of transformation positively charged carbon +being sp 2
of reactants into products (kinetics) is hybridised. Thus, the shape of C H3 may be
referred to as reaction mechanism. The considered as being derived from the overlap
knowledge of reaction mechanism helps in of three equivalent C(sp2) hybridised orbitals
342 CHEMISTRY
with 1s orbital of each of the three hydrogen Alkyl radicals are classified as primary,
atoms. Each bond may be represented as secondary, or tertiary. Alkyl radical stability
C(sp 2)–H(1s) sigma bond. The remaining increases as we proceed from primary to
carbon orbital is perpendicular to the tertiary:
molecular plane and contains no electrons.
(Fig. 12.3). ,
Methyl Ethyl Isopropyl Tert-butyl
free free free free
radical radical radical radical
Organic reactions, which proceed by
homolytic fission are called free radical or
homopolar or nonpolar reactions.
12.7.2 Nucleophiles and Electrophiles
A reagent that brings an electron pair is called
Fig. 12.3 Shape of methyl cation a nucleophile (Nu:) i.e., nucleus seeking and
the reaction is then called nucleophilic. A
The heterolytic cleavage can also give a
reagent that takes away an electron pair is
species in which carbon gets the shared pair
called electrophile (E+) i.e., electron seeking
of electrons. For example, when group Z
and the reaction is called electrophilic.
attached to the carbon leaves without
During a polar organic reaction, a
nucleophile attacks an electrophilic centre of
the substrate which is that specific atom or
electron pair, the methyl anion is part of the electrophile that is electron
deficient. Similarly, the electrophiles attack at
formed. Such a carbon species carrying a nucleophilic centre, which is the electron
negative charge on carbon atom is called rich centre of the substrate. Thus, the
carbanion. Carbanions are also unstable and electrophiles receive electron pair from
reactive species. The organic reactions which nucleophile when the two undergo bonding
proceed through heterolytic bond cleavage are interaction. A curved-arrow notation is used
called ionic or heteropolar or just polar to show the movement of an electron pair from
reactions. the nucleophile to the electrophile. Some
In homolytic cleavage, one of the examples of nucleophiles are the negatively
electrons of the shared pair in a covalent bond charged ions with lone pair of electrons such
– –
goes with each of the bonded atoms. Thus, in as hydroxide (HO ), cyanide (NC ) ions and
–
homolytic cleavage, the movement of a single carbanions (R3C: ). Neutral molecules such
electron takes place instead of an electron
as etc., can also act as
pair. The single electron movement is shown
nucleophiles due to the presence of lone pair
by ‘half-headed’ (fish hook: ) curved arrow.
of electrons. Examples of electrophiles
Such cleavage results in the formation of +
neutral species (atom or group) which include carbocations ( C H 3 ) and neutral
contains an unpaired electron. These species molecules having functional groups like
are called free radicals. Like carbocations carbonyl group (>C=O) or alkyl halides
and carbanions, free radicals are also (R 3C-X, where X is a halogen atom). The
very reactive. A homolytic cleavage can be carbon atom in carbocations has sextet
shown as: configuration; hence, it is electron deficient
and can receive a pair of electrons from the
nucleophiles. In neutral molecules such as
Alkyl alkyl halides, due to the polarity of the C-X
free radical bond a partial positive charge is generated
on the carbon atom and hence the carbon 12.7.3 Electron Movement in Organic
atom becomes an electrophilic centre at Reactions
which a nucleophile can attack. The movement of electrons in organic
reactions can be shown by curved-arrow
Problem 12.11 notation. It shows how changes in bonding
Using curved-arrow notation, show the occur due to electronic redistribution during
formation of reactive intermediates when the reaction. To show the change in position
the following covalent bonds undergo of a pair of electrons, curved arrow starts from
heterolytic cleavage. the point from where an electron pair is shifted
(a) CH3–SCH3, (b) CH3–CN, (c) CH3–Cu and it ends at a location to which the pair of
electron may move.
Solution
Presentation of shifting of electron pair is
given below :
(i) from π bond to

adjacent bond position
(ii) from π bond to

adjacent atom
Problem 12.12
(iii) from atom to adjacent
Giving justification, categorise the
bond position
following molecules/ions as nucleophile
or electrophile: Movement of single electron is indicated
by a single barbed ‘fish hooks’ (i.e. half headed
curved arrow). For example, in transfer of
hydroxide ion giving ethanol and in the
dissociation of chloromethane, the movement
Solution of electron using curved arrows can be
depicted as follows:
Nucleophiles: HS ,C2H5O ,( CH3 )3 N:,H2N:
− − −
These species have unshared pair of

electrons, which can be donated and
shared with an electrophile.
+ + +
E l e c t r o p h i l e s : BF3,Cl,CH3 −C = O,NO2 .
Reactive sites have only six valence 12.7.4 Electron Displacement Effects in
electrons; can accept electron pair from Covalent Bonds
a nucleophile. The electron displacement in an organic
molecule may take place either in the ground
Problem 12.13
state under the influence of an atom or a
Identify electrophilic centre in the
substituent group or in the presence of an
following: CH3CH=O, CH3CN, CH3I.
appropriate attacking reagent. The electron
Solution displacements due to the influence of
* * an atom or a substituent group present in
Among CH 3 HC =O, H 3 C C ≡N, and
* the molecule cause permanent polarlisation
H 3C –I, the starred carbon atoms are
electrophilic centers as they will have of the bond. Inductive ef fect and
resonance effects are examples of this type of
partial positive charge due to polarity of
electron displacements. Temporary electron
the bond.
displacement effects are seen in a molecule
344 CHEMISTRY
when a reagent approaches to attack it. This nitro (- NO2), cyano (- CN), carboxy (- COOH),
type of electron displacement is called ester (-COOR), aryloxy (-OAr, e.g. – OC6H5),
electromeric effect or polarisability effect. In etc. are electron-withdrawing groups. On the
the following sections we will learn about these other hand, the alkyl groups like methyl
types of electronic displacements. (–CH 3) and ethyl (–CH 2–CH 3) are usually
considered as electron donating groups.
12.7.5 Inductive Effect
When a covalent bond is formed between Problem 12.14
atoms of different electronegativity, the Which bond is more polar in the following
electron density is more towards the more pairs of molecules: (a) H3C-H, H3C-Br
electronegative atom of the bond. Such a shift (b) H 3 C-NH 2 , H 3 C-OH (c) H 3 C-OH,
of electron density results in a polar covalent H3C-SH
bond. Bond polarity leads to various electronic
effects in organic compounds. Solution
Let us consider cholorethane (CH3CH2Cl) (a) C–Br, since Br is more electronegative
in which the C–Cl bond is a polar covalent than H, (b) C–O, (c) C–O
bond. It is polarised in such a way that the Problem 12.15
+
carbon-1 gains some positive charge (δ ) and
– In which C–C bond of CH3CH2CH2Br, the
the chlorine some negative charge (δ ). The
fractional electronic charges on the two atoms inductive effect is expected to be the
in a polar covalent bond are denoted by least?
symbol δ (delta) and the shift of electron Solution
density is shown by an arrow that points from
+ – Magnitude of inductive effect diminishes
δ to δ end of the polar bond.
+ + − as the number of intervening bonds
δδ δ δ
increases. Hence, the effect is least in the
CH3 ⎯→⎯CH2⎯→⎯ ⎯→⎯Cl
bond between carbon-3 and hydrogen.
2 1
In turn carbon-1, which has developed 12.7.6 Resonance Structure
+
partial positive charge (δ ) draws some
There are many organic molecules whose
electron density towards it from the adjacent
behaviour cannot be explained by a single
C-C bond. Consequently, some positive charge
+ + Lewis structure. An example is that of
(δδ ) develops on carbon-2 also, where δδ
benzene. Its cyclic structure
symbolises relatively smaller positive charge
containing alternating C–C single
as compared to that on carbon – 1. In other
words, the polar C – Cl bond induces polarity and C=C double bonds shown is
in the adjacent bonds. Such polarisation of inadequate for explaining its Benzene
σ-bond caused by the polarisation of adjacent characteristic properties.
σ-bond is referred to as the inductive effect. As per the above representation, benzene
This effect is passed on to the subsequent should exhibit two different bond lengths, due
bonds also but the effect decreases rapidly to C–C single and C=C double bonds. However,
as the number of intervening bonds increases as determined experimentally benzene has a
and becomes vanishingly small after three uniform C–C bond distances of 139 pm, a
bonds. The inductive effect is related to the value inter mediate between the C–C
ability of substituent(s) to either withdraw or single(154 pm) and C=C double (134 pm)
donate electron density to the attached carbon bonds. Thus, the structure of benzene cannot
atom. Based on this ability, the substitutents be represented adequately by the above
can be classified as electron-withdrawing or structure. Further, benzene can be
electron donating groups relative to hydrogen. represented equally well by the energetically
Halogens and many other groups such as identical structures I and II.
unpaired electrons. Among the resonance

structures, the one which has more number
of covalent bonds, all the atoms with octet of
electrons (except hydrogen which has a
duplet), less separation of opposite charges,
(a negative charge if any on more
electronegative atom, a positive charge if any
Therefore, according to the resonance theory on more electropositive atom) and more
(Unit 4) the actual structure of benzene dispersal of charge, is more stable than others.
cannot be adequately represented by any of
these structures, rather it is a hybrid of the Problem 12.16
two structures (I and II) called resonance –
Write resonance structures of CH3COO
structures. The resonance structures and show the movement of electrons by
(canonical structures or contributing curved arrows.
structures) are hypothetical and
Solution
individually do not represent any real
molecule. They contribute to the actual First, write the structure and put
structure in proportion to their stability. unshared pairs of valence electrons on
Another example of resonance is provided appropriate atoms. Then draw the arrows
by nitromethane (CH 3NO 2) which can be one at a time moving the electrons to get
represented by two Lewis structures, (I and the other structures.
II). There are two types of N-O bonds in these
structures.
Problem 12.17
Write resonance structures of
CH2=CH–CHO. Indicate relative stability of
However, it is known that the two N–O the contributing structures.
bonds of nitromethane are of the same
length (intermediate between a N–O single Solution
bond and a N=O double bond). The actual
structure of nitromethane is therefore a
resonance hybrid of the two canonical
forms I and II.
The energy of actual structure of the
molecule (the resonance hybrid) is lower than
that of any of the canonical structures. The
difference in energy between the actual
structure and the lowest energy resonance
structure is called the resonance Stability: I > II > III
stabilisation energy or simply the [I: Most stable, more number of covalent
resonance energy. The more the number of bonds, each carbon and oxygen atom has
important contributing structures, the more an octet and no separation of opposite
is the resonance energy. Resonance is charge II: negative charge on more
particularly important when the contributing electronegative atom and positive charge
structures are equivalent in energy. on more electropositive atom; III: does
The following rules are applied while writing not contribute as oxygen has positive
resonance structures: charge and carbon has negative charge,
The resonance structures have (i) the same hence least stable].
positions of nuclei and (ii) the same number of
346 CHEMISTRY
The atoms or substituent groups, which

Problem 12.18
represent +R or –R electron displacement
Explain why the following two structures,
effects are as follows :
I and II cannot be the major contributors
to the real structure of CH3COOCH3. +R effect: – halogen, –OH, –OR, –OCOR, –NH2,
–NHR, –NR2, –NHCOR,
– R effect: – COOH, –CHO, >C=O, – CN, –NO2
The presence of alternate single and
double bonds in an open chain or cyclic
Solution system is termed as a conjugated system.
The two structures are less important These systems often show abnor mal
contributors as they involve charge behaviour. The examples are 1,3- butadiene,
separation. Additionally, structure I aniline and nitrobenzene etc. In such systems,
contains a carbon atom with an the π-electrons are delocalised and the system
develops polarity.
incomplete octet.
12.7.8 Electromeric Effect (E effect)
12.7.7 Resonance Effect It is a temporary ef fect. The organic
The resonance effect is defined as ‘the polarity compounds having a multiple bond (a double
produced in the molecule by the interaction or triple bond) show this effect in the presence
of two π-bonds or between a π-bond and lone of an attacking reagent only. It is defined as
pair of electrons present on an adjacent atom’. the complete transfer of a shared pair of
The effect is transmitted through the chain. π-electrons to one of the atoms joined by a
There are two types of resonance or multiple bond on the demand of an attacking
mesomeric effect designated as R or M effect. reagent. The effect is annulled as soon as the
(i) Positive Resonance Effect (+R effect) attacking reagent is removed from the domain
of the reaction. It is represented by E and the
In this effect, the transfer of electrons is away
shifting of the electrons is shown by a curved
from an atom or substituent group attached
to the conjugated system. This electron arrow ( ). There are two distinct types of
displacement makes certain positions in the electromeric effect.
molecule of high electron densities. This effect (i) Positive Eelctromeric Effect (+E effect) In
in aniline is shown as : this effect the π−electrons of the multiple bond
are transferred to that atom to which the
reagent gets attached. For example :
(ii) Negative Resonance Effect (- R effect)

This effect is observed when the transfer of
(ii) Negative Electromeric Effect (–E effect) In
electrons is towards the atom or substituent
this effect the π - electrons of the multiple
group attached to the conjugated system. For
bond are transferred to that atom to which
example in nitrobenzene this electron
the attacking reagent does not get attached.
displacement can be depicted as :
For example:
When inductive and electromeric effects In general, greater the number of alkyl
operate in opposite directions, the electomeric groups attached to a positively charged carbon
effect predominates. atom, the greater is the hyperconjugation
interaction and stabilisation of the cation.
12.7.9 Hyperconjugation
Thus, we have the following relative stability
Hyperconjugation is a general stabilising of carbocations :
interaction. It involves delocalisation of
σ electrons of C—H bond of an alkyl group
directly attached to an atom of unsaturated
system or to an atom with an unshared
p orbital. The σ electrons of C—H bond of the
alkyl group enter into partial conjugation with Hyperconjugation is also possible in
the attached unsaturated system or with the alkenes and alkylarenes.
unshared p orbital. Hyperconjugation is a Delocalisation of electrons by
permanent effect. hyperconjugation in the case of alkene can
To understand hyperconjugation effect, let be depicted as in Fig. 12.4(b).
+
us take an example of CH3 CH2 (ethyl cation)
in which the positively charged carbon atom
has an empty p orbital. One of the C-H bonds
of the methyl group can align in the plane of
this empty p orbital and the electrons
constituting the C-H bond in plane with this
p orbital can then be delocalised into the
empty p orbital as depicted in Fig. 12.4 (a).
Fig. 12.4(b) Orbital diagram showing
hyperconjugation in propene
There are various ways of looking at the
hyperconjugative effect. One of the way is to
regard C—H bond as possessing partial ionic
character due to resonance.
Fig. 12.4(a) Orbital diagram showing

hyperconjugation in ethyl cation
This type of overlap stabilises the
carbocation because electron density from the
adjacent σ bond helps in dispersing the
positive charge.
348 CHEMISTRY
The hyperconjugation may also be New methods of checking the purity of an

regarded as no bond resonance. organic compound are based on different
types of chromatographic and spectroscopic
Problem 12.19 + techniques.
Explain why (CH3)3C is more stable than
+ + 12.8.1 Sublimation
CH3CH2 and C H3 is the least stable
cation. You have learnt earlier that on heating, some
solid substances change from solid to vapour
Solution + state without passing through liquid state.
Hyperconjugation interaction in (CH3)3C The purification technique based on the above
+
is greater than in CH C H as the principle is known as sublimation and is used
+ 3 2 +
(CH3)3C has nine C-H bonds. In C H3 , to separate sublimable compounds from non-
sublimable impurities.
vacant p orbital is perpendicular to the
plane in which C-H bonds lie; hence 12.8.2 Crystallisation
+
cannot overlap with it. Thus, C H lacks This is one of the most commonly used
3
hyperconjugative stability. techniques for the purification of solid organic
compounds. It is based on the difference in
12.7.10 Types of Organic Reactions and the solubilities of the compound and the
Mechanisms impurities in a suitable solvent. The impure
Organic reactions can be classified into the compound is dissolved in a solvent in which
following categories: it is sparingly soluble at room temperature
(i) Substitution reactions but appreciably soluble at higher
temperature. The solution is concentrated to
(ii) Addition reactions
get a nearly saturated solution. On cooling
(iii) Elimination reactions
the solution, pure compound crystallises out
(iv) Rearrangement reactions
and is removed by filtration. The filtrate
You will be studying these reactions in (mother liquor) contains impurities and small
Unit 13 and later in class XII. quantity of the compound. If the compound
is highly soluble in one solvent and very little
12.8 METHODS OF PURIFICATION OF
soluble in another solvent, crystallisation can
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
be satisfactorily carried out in a mixture of
Once an organic compound is extracted from these solvents. Impurities, which impart
a natural source or synthesised in the colour to the solution are removed by
laboratory, it is essential to purify it. Various adsorbing over activated charcoal. Repeated
methods used for the purification of organic crystallisation becomes necessary for the
compounds are based on the nature of the purification of compounds containing
compound and the impurity present in it. impurities of comparable solubilities.
The common techniques used for 12.8.3 Distillation
purification are as follows :
This important method is used to separate (i)
(i) Sublimation
volatile liquids from nonvolatile impurities and
(ii) Crystallisation
(ii) the liquids having sufficient difference in
(iii) Distillation their boiling points. Liquids having different
(iv) Differential extraction and boiling points vaporise at dif ferent
(v) Chromatography temperatures. The vapours are cooled and the
Finally, the purity of a compound is liquids so formed are collected separately.
ascertained by determining its melting or Chloroform (b.p 334 K) and aniline (b.p. 457
boiling point. Most of the pure compounds K) are easily separated by the technique of
have sharp melting points and boiling points. distillation (Fig 12.5). The liquid mixture is
taken in a round bottom flask and

heated carefully. On boiling, the
vapours of lower boiling component
are formed first. The vapours are
condensed by using a condenser and
the liquid is collected in a receiver. The
vapours of higher boiling component
for m later and the liquid can be
collected separately.
Fractional Distillation: If the
difference in boiling points of two
liquids is not much, simple distillation
cannot be used to separate them. The
vapours of such liquids are formed
within the same temperature range and
are condensed simultaneously. The
technique of fractional distillation is
used in such cases. In this technique,
vapours of a liquid mixture are passed
through a fractionating column before
Fig.12.5 Simple distillation. The vapours of a substance condensation. The fractionating
formed are condensed and the liquid is collected column is fitted over the mouth of the
in conical flask. round bottom flask (Fig.12.6).
Fig.12.6 Fractional distillation. The vapours of lower boiling fraction reach the
top of the column first followed by vapours of higher boiling fractions.
350 CHEMISTRY
Vapours of the liquid with higher boiling theoretical plate. Commercially, columns
point condense before the vapours of the with hundreds of plates are available.
liquid with lower boiling point. The vapours One of the technological applications of
rising up in the fractionating column become fractional distillation is to separate different
richer in more volatile component. By the time fractions of crude oil in petroleum industry.
the vapours reach to the top of the
Distillation under reduced pressure: This
fractionating column, these are rich in the
method is used to purify liquids having very
more volatile component. Fractionating
high boiling points and those, which
columns are available in various sizes and
decompose at or below their boiling points.
designs as shown in Fig.12.7. A fractionating
Such liquids are made to boil at a temperature
column provides many surfaces for heat
lower than their normal boiling points by
exchange between the ascending vapours
reducing the pressure on their surface. A
and the descending condensed liquid. Some
liquid boils at a temperature at which its
of the condensing liquid in the fractionating
vapour pressure is equal to the external
column obtains heat from the ascending
pressure. The pressure is reduced with the
vapours and revaporises. The vapours thus
help of a water pump or vacuum pump
become richer in low boiling component. The
(Fig.12.8). Glycerol can be separated from
vapours of low boiling component ascend to
spent-lye in soap industry by using this
the top of the column. On reaching the top,
technique.
the vapours become pure in low boiling
component and pass through the condenser Steam Distillation: This technique is
and the pure liquid is collected in a receiver. applied to separate substances which are
After a series of successive distillations, the steam volatile and are immiscible with
remaining liquid in the distillation flask gets water. In steam distillation, steam from a
enriched in high boiling component. Each steam generator is passed through a heated
successive condensation and vaporisation flask containing the liquid to be distilled.
unit in the fractionating column is called a The mixture of steam and the volatile
organic compound is condensed and
collected. The compound is later separated
from water using a separating funnel. In
steam distillation, the liquid boils when
the sum of vapour pressures due to the
organic liquid (p 1 ) and that due to water
(p 2 ) becomes equal to the atmospheric
pressure (p), i.e. p =p 1 + p 2 . Since p 1 is
lower than p, the organic liquid vaporises
at lower temperature than its boiling
point.
Thus, if one of the substances in the
mixture is water and the other, a water
insoluble substance, then the mixture will boil
close to but below, 373K. A mixture of water
and the substance is obtained which can be
separated by using a separating funnel.
Aniline is separated by this technique from
aniline – water mixture (Fig.12.9).
12.8.4 Differential Extraction
When an organic compound is present in an
Fig.12.7 Different types of fractionating columns. aqueous medium, it is separated by shaking
Fig.12.8 Distillation under reduced pressure. A liquid boils at a temperature below its
vapour pressure by reducing the pressure.
Fig.12.9 Steam distillation. Steam volatile component volatilizes, the vapours condense in
the condenser and the liquid collects in conical flask.
352 CHEMISTRY
it with an organic solvent in which it is more mixture get gradually separated from one
soluble than in water. The organic solvent and another. The moving phase is called the mobile
the aqueous solution should be immiscible phase.
with each other so that they form two distinct Based on the principle involved,
layers which can be separated by separatory chromatography is classified into different
funnel. The organic solvent is later removed categories. Two of these are:
by distillation or by evaporation to get back (a) Adsorption chromatography, and
the compound. Differential extraction is (b) Partition chromatography.
carried out in a separatory funnel as shown
in Fig. 12.10. If the organic compound is less a) Adsorption Chromatography: Adsor -
ption chromatography is based on the fact
that different compounds are adsorbed on an
adsorbent to different degrees. Commonly
used adsorbents are silica gel and alumina.
When a mobile phase is allowed to move
over a stationary phase (adsorbent),
the components of the mixture move by
varying distances over the stationary
phase. Following are two main types of
chromatographic techniques based on the
principle of differential adsorption.
(a) Column chromatography, and
(b) Thin layer chromatography.
Column Chromatography: Column
chromatography involves separation of a
Fig.12.10 Differential extraction. Extraction of com- mixture over a column of adsorbent
pound takes place based on difference (stationary phase) packed in a glass tube. The
in solubility
column is fitted with a stopcock at its lower
soluble in the organic solvent, a very large end (Fig. 12.11). The mixture adsorbed on
quantity of solvent would be required to
extract even a very small quantity of the
compound. The technique of continuous
extraction is employed in such cases. In this
technique same solvent is repeatedly used for
extraction of the compound.
12.8.5 Chromatography
Chromatography is an important technique
extensively used to separate mixtures into
their components, purify compounds and also
to test the purity of compounds. The name
chromatography is based on the Greek word
chroma, for colour since the method was first
used for the separation of coloured
substances found in plants. In this technique,
the mixture of substances is applied onto a
stationary phase, which may be a solid or a
liquid. A pure solvent, a mixture of solvents, Fig.12.11 Column chromatography. Different
or a gas is allowed to move slowly over the stages of separation of components
stationary phase. The components of the of a mixture.
adsorbent is placed on the top of the eluant rises up the plate, the components of
adsorbent column packed in a glass tube. An the mixture move up along with the eluant to
appropriate eluant which is a liquid or a different distances depending on their degree
mixture of liquids is allowed to flow down the of adsorption and separation takes place. The
column slowly. Depending upon the degree relative adsorption of each component of the
to which the compounds are adsorbed, mixture is expressed in ter ms of its
complete separation takes place. The most retardation factor i.e. Rf value (Fig.12.12 b).
readily adsorbed substances are retained near Distance moved by the substance from base line (x)
the top and others come down to various Rf =
Distance moved by the solvent from base line (y)
distances in the column (Fig.12.11).
The spots of coloured compounds are
Thin Layer Chromatography: Thin layer
visible on TLC plate due to their original
chromatography (TLC) is another type of
colour. The spots of colourless compounds,
adsorption chromatography, which involves
which are invisible to the eye but fluoresce,
separation of substances of a mixture over a
can be detected by putting the plate under
thin layer of an adsorbent coated on glass
plate. A thin layer (about 0.2mm thick) of an ultraviolet light. Another detection technique
adsorbent (silica gel or alumina) is spread over is to place the plate in a covered jar containing
a glass plate of suitable size. The plate is a few crystals of iodine. Spots of compounds,
known as thin layer chromatography plate or which adsorb iodine, will show up as brown
chromaplate. The solution of the mixture to spots. Sometimes an appropriate reagent may
be separated is applied as a small spot about also be sprayed on the plate. For example,
2 cm above one end of the TLC plate. The amino acids may be detected by spraying the
glass plate is then placed in a closed jar plate with ninhydrin solution (Fig.12.12b).
containing the eluant (Fig. 12.12a). As the Partition Chromatography: Partition
chromatography is based on continuous
differential partitioning of components of a
mixture between stationary and mobile
phases. Paper chromatography is a type of
partition chromatography. In paper
chromatography, a special quality paper
known as chromatography paper is used.
Chromatography paper contains water
trapped in it, which acts as the stationary
phase.
A strip of chromatography paper spotted
Fig.12.12 (a) Thin layer chromatography. at the base with the solution of the mixture is
Chromatogram being developed. suspended in a suitable solvent or a mixture
of solvents (Fig. 12.13). This solvent acts as
the mobile phase. The solvent rises up the
paper by capillary action and flows over the
spot. The paper selectively retains different
components according to their differing
partition in the two phases. The paper strip
so developed is known as a chromatogram.
The spots of the separated coloured
compounds are visible at different heights
from the position of initial spot on the
chromatogram. The spots of the separated
Fig.12.12 (b) Developed chromatogram. colourless compounds may be observed either
354 CHEMISTRY
5H2O + CuSO4 ⎯→ CuSO4.5H2O

White Blue
12.9.2 Detection of Other Elements
Nitrogen, sulphur, halogens and phosphorus
present in an organic compound are detected
by “Lassaigne’s test”. The elements present
in the compound are converted from covalent
form into the ionic form by fusing the
compound with sodium metal. Following
reactions take place:
Na + C + N ⎯⎯→Δ NaCN
Δ
2Na + S ⎯⎯→ Na2S
Δ
Na + X ⎯⎯→ Na X
(X = Cl, Br or I)
C, N, S and X come from organic
compound.
Cyanide, sulphide and halide of sodium
so formed on sodium fusion are extracted from
the fused mass by boiling it with distilled
water. This extract is known as sodium fusion
extract.
(A) Test for Nitrogen
Fig.12.13 Paper chromatography.
The sodium fusion extract is boiled with
Chromatography paper in two different
shapes.
iron(II) sulphate and then acidified with
concentrated sulphuric acid. The formation
under ultraviolet light or by the use of an of Prussian blue colour confirms the presence
appropriate spray reagent as discussed under of nitrogen. Sodium cyanide first reacts
thin layer chromatography. with iron(II) sulphate and forms sodium
12.9 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF hexacyanoferrate(II). On heating with
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS concentrated sulphuric acid some iron(II) ions
The elements present in organic compounds are oxidised to iron(III) ions which react with
are carbon and hydrogen. In addition to these, sodium hexacyanoferrate(II) to produce
they may also contain oxygen, nitrogen, iron(III) hexacyanoferrate(II) (ferriferrocyanide)
sulphur, halogens and phosphorus. which is Prussian blue in colour.
–
12.9.1 Detection of Carbon and Hydrogen 6CN + Fe2+ → [Fe(CN)6]4–
Carbon and hydrogen are detected by heating 3[Fe(CN)6]4– + 4Fe3+ Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3.xH2O
the compound with copper(II) oxide. Carbon Prussian blue
present in the compound is oxidised to carbon (B) Test for Sulphur
dioxide (tested with lime-water, which (a) The sodium fusion extract is acidified
develops turbidity) and hydrogen to water with acetic acid and lead acetate is added
(tested with anhydrous copper sulphate, to it. A black precipitate of lead sulphide
which turns blue). indicates the presence of sulphur.
Δ
C + 2CuO ⎯⎯→ 2Cu + CO2 S2– + Pb2+⎯→ PbS
Δ
2H + CuO ⎯⎯→ Cu + H2O Black
(b) On treating sodium fusion extract with
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 ⎯→ CaCO3↓ + H2O sodium nitroprusside, appearance of a
violet colour further indicates the (D) Test for Phosphorus

presence of sulphur. The compound is heated with an oxidising
S2– + [Fe(CN)5NO]2– ⎯→ [Fe(CN)5NOS]4– agent (sodium peroxide). The phosphorus
Violet present in the compound is oxidised to
In case, nitrogen and sulphur both are phosphate. The solution is boiled with nitric
present in an organic compound, sodium acid and then treated with ammonium
thiocyanate is formed. It gives blood red molybdate. A yellow colouration or precipitate
colour and no Prussian blue since there are indicates the presence of phosphorus.
no free cyanide ions. Na3PO4 + 3HNO3 ⎯→ H3PO4+3NaNO3
Na + C + N + S ⎯→ NaSCN H3PO4 + 12(NH4)2MoO4 + 21HNO3 ⎯→
–
3+
Fe +SCN ⎯→ [Fe(SCN)]2+ Ammonium
Blood red molybdate
If sodium fusion is carried out with excess (NH4)3PO4.12MoO3 + 21NH4NO3 + 12H2O
of sodium, the thiocyanate decomposes to Ammonium
yield cyanide and sulphide. These ions give phosphomolybdate
their usual tests.
NaSCN + 2Na ⎯→ NaCN+Na2S 12.10 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
(C) Test for Halogens The percentage composition of elements
present in an organic compound is
The sodium fusion extract is acidified with
determined by the methods based on the
nitric acid and then treated with silver nitrate.
following principles:
A white precipitate, soluble in ammonium
hydroxide shows the presence of chlorine, a 12.10.1 Carbon and Hydrogen
yellowish precipitate, sparingly soluble in Both carbon and hydrogen are estimated in
ammonium hydroxide shows the presence of one experiment. A known mass of an organic
bromine and a yellow precipitate, insoluble compound is burnt in the presence of excess
in ammonium hydroxide shows the presence of oxygen and copper(II) oxide. Carbon and
of iodine. hydrogen in the compound are oxidised to
X– + Ag+ ⎯→ AgX carbon dioxide and water respectively.
X represents a halogen – Cl, Br or I. CxHy + (x + y/4) O2 ⎯→ x CO2 + (y/2) H2O
If nitrogen or sulphur is also present in the The mass of water produced is determined
compound, the sodium fusion extract is first by passing the mixture through a weighed
boiled with concentrated nitric acid to U-tube containing anhydrous calcium
decompose cyanide or sulphide of sodium chloride. Carbon dioxide is absorbed in
formed during Lassaigne’s test. These ions another U-tube containing concentrated
would otherwise interfere with silver nitrate solution of potassium hydroxide. These tubes
test for halogens. are connected in series (Fig.12.14). The
Fig.12.14 Estimation of carbon and hydrogen. Water and carbon dioxide formed on oxidation of substance
are absorbed in anhydrous calcium chloride and potassium hydroxide solutions respectively
contained in U tubes.
356 CHEMISTRY
increase in masses of calcium chloride and

2 × 0.1014 × 100
potassium hydroxide gives the amounts of Percentage of hydrogen =
water and carbon dioxide from which the 18 × 0.246
percentages of carbon and hydrogen are = 4.58%
calculated.
Let the mass of organic compound be 12.10.2 Nitrogen
m g, mass of water and carbon dioxide
There are two methods for estimation of
produced be m1 and m2 g respectively;
nitrogen: (i) Dumas method and (ii) Kjeldahl’s
12 × m 2 × 100 method.
Percentage of carbon= (i) Dumas method: The nitrogen containing
44 × m
organic compound, when heated with copper
2 × m1 × 100 oxide in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide,
Percentage of hydrogen =
18 × m yields free nitrogen in addition to carbon
dioxide and water.
Problem 12.20
On complete combustion, 0.246 g of an CxHyNz + (2x + y/2) CuO ⎯→
organic compound gave 0.198g of carbon x CO2 + y/2 H2O + z/2 N2 + (2x + y/2) Cu
dioxide and 0.1014g of water. Determine Traces of nitrogen oxides formed, if any,
the percentage composition of carbon are reduced to nitrogen by passing the
and hydrogen in the compound. gaseous mixture over a heated copper gauze.
Solution The mixture of gases so produced is collected
over an aqueous solution of potassium
12 × 0.198 × 100 hydroxide which absorbs carbon dioxide.
Percentage of carbon =
44 × 0.246 Nitrogen is collected in the upper part of the
= 21.95% graduated tube (Fig.12.15).
Fig.12.15 Dumas method. The organic compound yields nitrogen gas on heating it with
copper(II) oxide in the presence of CO2 gas. The mixture of gases is collected
over potassium hydroxide solution in which CO2 is absorbed and volume of
nitrogen gas is determined.
Let the mass of organic compound = m g Calculate the percentage composition of

Volume of nitrogen collected = V1 mL nitrogen in the compound. (Aqueous
Room temperature = T1K tension at 300K=15 mm)
p1V1 × 273 Solution
Volume of nitrogen at STP=
760 × T1 Volume of nitrogen collected at 300K and
(Let it be V mL) 715mm pressure is 50 mL
Where p1 and V1 are the pressure and volume Actual pressure = 715-15 =700 mm
of nitrogen, p 1 is dif ferent from the
273 × 700 × 50
atmospheric pressure at which nitrogen gas Volume of nitrogen at STP =
300 × 760
is collected. The value of p1 is obtained by
= 41.9 mL
the relation;
p1= Atmospheric pressure – Aqueous tension 22,400 mL of N2 at STP weighs = 28 g
22400 mL N2 at STP weighs 28 g. 28 × 41.9
41.9 mL of nitrogen weighs= g
22400
28 × V
V mL N 2 at STP weighs = g 28 × 41.9 × 100
22400 Percentage of nitrogen =
22400 × 0.3
28 × V × 100 =17.46%
Percentage of nitrogen =
22400 × m
(ii) Kjeldahl’s method: The compound
Problem 12.21 containing nitrogen is heated with
In Dumas’ method for estimation of concentrated sulphuric acid. Nitrogen in the
nitrogen, 0.3g of an organic compound compound gets converted to ammonium
gave 50mL of nitrogen collected at 300K sulphate (Fig. 12.16). The resulting acid
temperature and 715mm pressure. mixture is then heated with excess of sodium
Fig.12.16 Kjeldahl method. Nitrogen-containing compound is treated with concentrated H2SO4 to get
ammonium sulphate which liberates ammonia on treating with NaOH; ammonia is absorbed
in known volume of standard acid.
358 CHEMISTRY
hydroxide. The liberated ammonia gas is

Problem 12.22
absorbed in an excess of standard solution of
sulphuric acid. The amount of ammonia During estimation of nitrogen present in
produced is determined by estimating the an organic compound by Kjeldahl’s
amount of sulphuric acid consumed in the method, the ammonia evolved from 0.5
reaction. It is done by estimating unreacted g of the compound in Kjeldahl’s
sulphuric acid left after the absorption of estimation of nitrogen, neutralized 10 mL
ammonia by titrating it with standard alkali of 1 M H2SO4. Find out the percentage
solution. The difference between the initial of nitrogen in the compound.
amount of acid taken and that left after the Solution
reaction gives the amount of acid reacted with 1 M of 10 mL H2SO4=1M of 20 mL NH3
ammonia. 1000 mL of 1M ammonia contains 14 g
Organic compound + H2SO4 ⎯→ (NH4)2SO4 nitrogen
2 NaOH 20 mL of 1M ammonia contains
⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯→ Na 2 SO4 + 2NH3 + 2H2 O
14 × 20
g nitrogen
2NH3 + H2SO4 ⎯→ (NH4)2SO4 1000
Let the mass of organic compound taken = m g 14 × 20 ×100
Percentage of nitrogen = = 56.0%
Volume of H2SO4 of molarity, M, 1000 × 05
.
taken = V mL
Volume of NaOH of molarity, M, used for 12.10.3 Halogens
titration of excess of H2SO4 = V1 mL Carius method: A known mass of an organic
V1mL of NaOH of molarity M compound is heated with fuming nitric acid
= V1 /2 mL of H2SO4 of molarity M in the presence of silver nitrate contained in
a hard glass tube known as Carius tube,
Volume of H 2SO 4 of molarity M unused
(Fig.12.17) in a furnace. Carbon and hydrogen
= (V - V1/2) mL
(V- V1/2) mL of H2SO4 of molarity M
= 2(V-V1/2) mL of NH3 solution of
molarity M.
1000 mL of 1 M NH3 solution contains 17g
NH3 or 14 g of N
2(V-V1/2) mL of NH3 solution of molarity M
contains:
14 × M × 2 ( V − V1 /2 )
gN
1000
14 × M × 2 ( V-V1 /2 ) 100
Percentage of N= ×
1000 m
1.4 × M × 2 (V -V1 /2 )
=
m
Kjeldahl method is not applicable to
compounds containing nitrogen in nitro and
azo groups and nitrogen present in the ring Fig. 12.17 Carius method. Halogen containing
(e.g. pyridine) as nitrogen of these compounds organic compound is heated with fuming
does not change to ammonium sulphate nitric acid in the presence of silver
under these conditions. nitrate.
present in the compound are oxidised to 1 mol of BaSO4 = 233 g BaSO4 = 32 g sulphur
carbon dioxide and water. The halogen
32 × m1
present forms the corresponding silver halide m1 g BaSO4 contains g sulphur
(AgX). It is filtered, washed, dried and weighed. 233
Let the mass of organic 32 × m1 × 100
compound taken = m g Percentage of sulphur=
Mass of AgX formed = m1 g 233 × m
1 mol of AgX contains 1 mol of X
Problem 12.24
Mass of halogen in m1g of AgX
In sulphur estimation, 0.157 g of an
atomic mass of X × m1g organic compound gave 0.4813 g of
=
molecular mass of AgX barium sulphate. What is the
Percentage of halogen percentage of sulphur in the compound?
Solution
atomic mass of X × m1 × 100
= Molecular mass of BaSO4 = 137+32+64
molecular mass of AgX × m = 233 g
Problem 12.23 233 g BaSO4 contains 32 g sulphur
In Carius method of estimation of 32 × 0.4813
halogen, 0.15 g of an organic compound 0.4813 g BaSO4 contains g
233
gave 0.12 g of AgBr. Find out the
sulphur
percentage of bromine in the compound.
Solution 32 × 0.4813 × 100
Percentage of sulphur=
Molar mass of AgBr = 108 + 80 233 × 0.157
= 188 g mol-1 = 42.10%
188 g AgBr contains 80 g bromine
12.10.5 Phosphorus
80 × 0.12
0.12 g AgBr contains g bromine A known mass of an organic compound is
188 heated with fuming nitric acid whereupon
phosphorus present in the compound is
80 × 0.12 × 100
Percentage of bromine= oxidised to phosphoric acid. It is precipitated
188 × 0.15 as ammonium phosphomolybdate, (NH4) 3
= 34.04% PO 4 .12MoO 3 , by adding ammonia and
ammonium molybdate. Alter natively,
12.10.4 Sulphur phosphoric acid may be precipitated as
A known mass of an organic compound is MgNH 4 PO 4 by adding magnesia mixture
heated in a Carius tube with sodium peroxide which on ignition yields Mg2P2O7.
or fuming nitric acid. Sulphur present in the Let the mass of organic compound taken
compound is oxidised to sulphuric acid. It is = m g and mass of ammonium phospho
precipitated as barium sulphate by adding molydate = m1g
excess of barium chloride solution in water.
Molar mass of (NH4)3PO4.12MoO3 = 1877 g
The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried and
weighed. The percentage of sulphur can be 31 × m1 × 100
calculated from the mass of barium sulphate. Percentage of phosphorus = %
1877 × m
Let the mass of organic
If phosphorus is estimated as Mg2P2O7,
compound taken = m g
and the mass of barium 62 × m1 × 100
sulphate formed = m1g Percentage of phosphorus = %
222 × m
360 CHEMISTRY
where, 222 u is the molar mass of Mg2P2O7, I2O5 + 5CO ⎯→ I2 + 5CO2

m, the mass of organic compound taken, m1, The percentage of oxygen can be derived
the mass of Mg2P2O7 formed and 62, the mass from the amount of carbon dioxide or iodine
of two phosphorus atoms present in the produced.
compound Mg2P2O7. Let the mass of organic = m g
12.10.6 Oxygen compound taken
The percentage of oxygen in an organic Mass of carbon dioxide = m1 g
compound is usually found by difference 44 g carbon dioxide = 32 g oxygen
between the total percentage composition
32 × m1
(100) and the sum of the percentages of all m1 g carbon dioxide contains g O2
other elements. However, oxygen can also be 44
estimated directly as follows: 32 × m1 × 100
Percentage of oxygen = %
A definite mass of an organic compound 44 × m
is decomposed by heating in a stream of
Presently, the estimation of elements in
nitrogen gas. The mixture of gaseous products
an organic compound is carried out by using
containing oxygen is passed over red-hot coke
microquantities of substances and automatic
when all the oxygen is converted to carbon
experimental techniques. The elements,
monoxide. This mixture is passed through
carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen present in a
warm iodine pentoxide (I2O5) when carbon
compound are determined by an apparatus
monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide
known as CHN elemental analyser. The
producing iodine.
analyser requires only a very small amount
Compound ⎯⎯⎯→ O2 + other gaseous
heat
of the substance (1-3 mg) and displays the
products values on a screen within a short time. A
detailed discussion of such methods is beyond
2C + O2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ → 2CO
1373 K
the scope of this book.
SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt some basic concepts in structure and reactivity of organic
compounds, which are formed due to covalent bonding. The nature of the covalent bonding
in organic compounds can be described in terms of orbitals hybridisation concept, according
to which carbon can have sp3, sp2 and sp hybridised orbitals. The sp3, sp2 and sp hybridised
carbons are found in compounds like methane, ethene and ethyne respectively. The
tetrahedral shape of methane, planar shape of ethene and linear shape of ethyne can be
understood on the basis of this concept. A sp3 hybrid orbital can overlap with 1s orbital of
hydrogen to give a carbon - hydrogen (C–H) single bond (sigma, σ bond). Overlap of a sp2
orbital of one carbon with sp2 orbital of another results in the formation of a carbon–carbon
σ bond. The unhybridised p orbitals on two adjacent carbons can undergo lateral (side-by-
side) overlap to give a pi (π) bond. Organic compounds can be represented by various structural
formulas. The three dimensional representation of organic compounds on paper can be
drawn by wedge and dash formula.
Organic compounds can be classified on the basis of their structure or the functional
groups they contain. A functional group is an atom or group of atoms bonded together in a
unique fashion and which determines the physical and chemical properties of the compounds.
The naming of the organic compounds is carried out by following a set of rules laid down by
the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). In IUPAC nomenclature,
the names are correlated with the structure in such a way that the reader can deduce the
structure from the name.
Organic reaction mechanism concepts are based on the structure of the substrate
molecule, fission of a covalent bond, the attacking reagents, the electron displacement effects
and the conditions of the reaction. These organic reactions involve breaking and making of
covalent bonds. A covalent bond may be cleaved in heterolytic or homolytic fashion. A
heterolytic cleavage yields carbocations or carbanions, while a homolytic cleavage gives
free radicals as reactive intermediate. Reactions proceeding through heterolytic cleavage
involve the complimentary pairs of reactive species. These are electron pair donor known as
nucleophile and an electron pair acceptor known as electrophile. The inductive, resonance,
electromeric and hyperconjugation effects may help in the polarisation of a bond making
certain carbon atom or other atom positions as places of low or high electron densities.
Organic reactions can be broadly classified into following types; substitution, addition,
elimination and rearrangement reactions.
Purification, qualitative and quantitative analysis of organic compounds are carried out
for determining their structures. The methods of purification namely : sublimation, distillation
and differential extraction are based on the difference in one or more physical properties.
Chromatography is a useful technique of separation, identification and purification of
compounds. It is classified into two categories : adsorption and partition chromatography.
Adsorption chromatography is based on differential adsorption of various components of a
mixture on an adsorbent. Partition chromatography involves continuous partitioning of the
components of a mixture between stationary and mobile phases. After getting the compound
in a pure form, its qualitative analysis is carried out for detection of elements present in it.
Nitrogen, sulphur, halogens and phosphorus are detected by Lassaigne’s test. Carbon and
hydrogen are estimated by determining the amounts of carbon dioxide and water produced.
Nitrogen is estimated by Dumas or Kjeldahl’s method and halogens by Carius method.
Sulphur and phosphorus are estimated by oxidising them to sulphuric and phosphoric
acids respectively. The percentage of oxygen is usually determined by difference between
the total percentage (100) and the sum of percentages of all other elements present.
EXERCISES
12.1 What are hybridisation states of each carbon atom in the following compounds ?
CH2=C=O, CH3CH=CH2, (CH3)2CO, CH2=CHCN, C6H6
12.2 Indicate the σ and π bonds in the following molecules :
C6H6, C6H12, CH2Cl2, CH2=C=CH2, CH3NO2, HCONHCH3
12.3 Write bond line formulas for : Isopropyl alcohol, 2,3-Dimethyl butanal, Heptan-4-
one.
12.4 Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds :
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f) Cl2CHCH2OH
12.5 Which of the following represents the correct IUPAC name for the compounds
concer ned ? (a) 2,2-Dimethylpentane or 2-Dimethylpentane (b) 2,4,7-
Trimethyloctane or 2,5,7-Trimethyloctane (c) 2-Chloro-4-methylpentane or
4-Chloro-2-methylpentane (d) But-3-yn-1-ol or But-4-ol-1-yne.
362 CHEMISTRY
12.6 Draw formulas for the first five members of each homologous series beginning with
the following compounds. (a) H–COOH (b) CH3COCH3 (c) H–CH=CH2
12.7 Give condensed and bond line structural formulas and identify the functional
group(s) present, if any, for :
(a) 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane
(b) 2-Hydroxy-1,2,3-propanetricarboxylic acid
(c) Hexanedial
12.8 Identify the functional groups in the following compounds
(a) (b) (c)
12.9 Which of the two: O2NCH2CH2O– or CH3CH2O– is expected to be more stable and
why ?
12.10 Explain why alkyl groups act as electron donors when attached to a π system.
12.11 Draw the resonance structures for the following compounds. Show the electron
shift using curved-arrow notation.
+
(a) C 6 H 5 OH (b) C 6 H 5NO 2 (c) CH 3 CH=CHCHO (d) C 6 H 5 –CHO (e) C6H5 −CH2
+
(f) CH3CH = CHC H2
12.12 What are electrophiles and nucleophiles ? Explain with examples.

12.13 Identify the reagents shown in bold in the following equations as nucleophiles or
electrophiles:
−
(a) CH3COOH + HO → CH3COO + H2O
–
–
(b) CH3COCH3 + C N → ( CH3 )2 C ( CN )( OH )
+
(c) C6H5 + CH3 C O → C6H5COCH3
12.14 Classify the following reactions in one of the reaction type studied in this unit.
(a) CH 3CH 2 Br + HS − → CH 3CH 2 SH
(b) ( CH3 ) C = CH2 + HCl → ( CH3 ) ClC −

2 2
(c) CH 3CH 2 Br + HO − → CH 2 = CH 2 + H 2O
(d) ( CH3 ) C − CH2OH + HBr → ( CH3 ) CBrCH2CH

3 2
12.15 What is the relationship between the members of following pairs of structures ?
Are they structural or geometrical isomers or resonance contributors ?
(a)
(b)
(c)
12.16 For the following bond cleavages, use curved-arrows to show the electron flow
and classify each as homolysis or heterolysis. Identify reactive intermediate
produced as free radical, carbocation and carbanion.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
12.17 Explain the terms Inductive and Electromeric effects. Which electron displacement
effect explains the following correct orders of acidity of the carboxylic acids?
(a) Cl3CCOOH > Cl2CHCOOH > ClCH2COOH
(b) CH3CH2COOH > (CH3)2CHCOOH > (CH3)3C.COOH
12.18 Give a brief description of the principles of the following techniques taking an
example in each case.
(a) Crystallisation (b) Distillation (c) Chromatography
12.19 Describe the method, which can be used to separate two compounds with different
solubilities in a solvent S.
12.20 What is the difference between distillation, distillation under reduced pressure
and steam distillation ?
12.21 Discuss the chemistry of Lassaigne’s test.
12.22 Differentiate between the principle of estimation of nitrogen in an organic compound
by (i) Dumas method and (ii) Kjeldahl’s method.
12.23 Discuss the principle of estimation of halogens, sulphur and phosphorus present
in an organic compound.
12.24 Explain the principle of paper chromatography.
12.25 Why is nitric acid added to sodium extract before adding silver nitrate for testing
halogens?
12.26 Explain the reason for the fusion of an organic compound with metallic sodium
for testing nitrogen, sulphur and halogens.
12.27 Name a suitable technique of separation of the components from a mixture of
calcium sulphate and camphor.
12.28 Explain, why an organic liquid vaporises at a temperature below its boiling point
in its steam distillation ?
12.29 Will CCl4 give white precipitate of AgCl on heating it with silver nitrate? Give
reason for your answer.
364 CHEMISTRY
12.30 Why is a solution of potassium hydroxide used to absorb carbon dioxide evolved
during the estimation of carbon present in an organic compound?
12.31 Why is it necessary to use acetic acid and not sulphuric acid for acidification of
sodium extract for testing sulphur by lead acetate test?
12.32 An organic compound contains 69% carbon and 4.8% hydrogen, the remainder
being oxygen. Calculate the masses of carbon dioxide and water produced when
0.20 g of this substance is subjected to complete combustion.
12.33 A sample of 0.50 g of an organic compound was treated according to Kjeldahl’s
method. The ammonia evolved was absorbed in 50 ml of 0.5 M H2SO4. The residual
acid required 60 mL of 0.5 M solution of NaOH for neutralisation. Find the
percentage composition of nitrogen in the compound.
12.34 0.3780 g of an organic chloro compound gave 0.5740 g of silver chloride in Carius
estimation. Calculate the percentage of chlorine present in the compound.
12.35 In the estimation of sulphur by Carius method, 0.468 g of an organic sulphur
compound afforded 0.668 g of barium sulphate. Find out the percentage of sulphur
in the given compound.
12.36 In the organic compound CH2 = CH – CH2 – CH2 – C ≡ CH, the pair of hydridised
orbitals involved in the formation of: C2 – C3 bond is:
(a) sp – sp2 (b) sp – sp3 (c) sp2 – sp3 (d) sp3 – sp3
12.37 In the Lassaigne’s test for nitrogen in an organic compound, the Prussian blue
colour is obtained due to the formation of:
(a) Na4[Fe(CN)6] (b) Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3 (c) Fe2[Fe(CN)6] (d) Fe3[Fe(CN)6]4
12.38 Which of the following carbocation is most stable ?
+ + + +
(a) (CH3)3C. C H2 (b) (CH3)3 C (c) CH3CH2 C H2 (d) CH3 C H CH2CH3
12.39 The best and latest technique for isolation, purification and separation of organic
compounds is:
(a) Crystallisation (b) Distillation (c) Sublimation (d) Chromatography
12.40 The reaction:
CH3CH2I + KOH(aq) → CH3CH2OH + KI
is classified as :
(a) electrophilic substitution (b) nucleophilic substitution
(c) elimination (d) addition

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326 CHEMISTRY

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY – SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES

In the previous unit you have learnt that the element

The development of electronic theory of necessary for a proper sideways overlap.

12.3 STRUCTURAL REPRESENTATIONS Similarly, CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3

These structural formulas can be further

In cyclic compounds, the bond-line formulas

Space filling model

12.4 CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC (homocyclic). Sometimes atoms other than

Acetaldehyde Acetic acid

II Alicyclic or closed chain or ring

12.5.3 Nomenclature of Organic

Table 12.4 Some Functional Groups and Classes of Organic Compounds

Solution (iii) Six membered ring containing a

(iv) ‘1-ol’ means that a -OH group is

Substituent of the base compound is

Nitrobenzene Bromobenzene 1-Chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene

(a) (b) (c)

different carbon skeletons, these are referred

(ii) Position isomerism: When two or more

Structural isomerism Stereoisomerism

Chain Position Functional Metamerism Geometrical Optical

O H understanding the reactivity of organic

(i) from π bond to

(ii) from π bond to

These species have unshared pair of

unpaired electrons. Among the resonance

The atoms or substituent groups, which

(ii) Negative Resonance Effect (- R effect)

Fig. 12.4(a) Orbital diagram showing

The hyperconjugation may also be New methods of checking the purity of an

taken in a round bottom flask and

5H2O + CuSO4 ⎯→ CuSO4.5H2O

violet colour further indicates the (D) Test for Phosphorus

increase in masses of calcium chloride and

Let the mass of organic compound = m g Calculate the percentage composition of

hydroxide. The liberated ammonia gas is

where, 222 u is the molar mass of Mg2P2O7, I2O5 + 5CO ⎯→ I2 + 5CO2

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f) Cl2CHCH2OH

(a) (b) (c)

12.12 What are electrophiles and nucleophiles ? Explain with examples.

(a) CH 3CH 2 Br + HS − → CH 3CH 2 SH

(b) ( CH3 ) C = CH2 + HCl → ( CH3 ) ClC −

(d) ( CH3 ) C − CH2OH + HBr → ( CH3 ) CBrCH2CH

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