Quantum Cryptography
Quantum Cryptography
A
Paper
Presentation
By
N.Rajasekhar
IV B.Tech (CSIT)
(E-Mail: raja2csit@yahoo.com)
K Krishna Mohan
IV B.Tech (CSIT)
(E-mail: kkmohan_b4u@yahoo.co.in)
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
1.INTRODUCTION.
1.1 Introduction to security.
2.TYPES OF CRYPTOGRAPHY.
4.QUANTUM CODING.
8.CONCLUSIONS.
9.REFERENCES.
NETWORK SECURITY - QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY
ABSTRACT
Why do we need a Network Security? Because in networked systems, the
major security risks occur while conducting business on the Net; The
key cryptography), two keys namely public and private key are used for
which is efficient and fastest of all methods to secure the information. In this
properties are related in such a way that measuring one property prevents the
1.INTRODUCTION:
1.1 Introduction to security:
Why do we need a house at all? Because of just to live with security and
also to safe guard from outer atmosphere.
So also the organizations needs secrete code to hide information while
revealing some secret to another person without being acknowledged by the
third, we need a secrete language. For example if the word ‘raja’ is to be sent
to other secretly just add ‘ka’before word, but so that receiver can easily
decode it.
Why any organization gives more important on network security?
Because of in this age of universal electronic connectivity, of viruses and
hackers, of electronic traud so we awareness of the need to protect data and
protect system from network based attacks.
The generic name for the collection of tools designed to protect the data
and to thwart hacker is computer security.
The Network security measures are needed to protect data during their
transmission.
1.2 Introduction to cryptography:
Cryptography is one of the host authentication technique used in making a
network channel secure to transmit confidential data.
In cryptographic system, the original intelligible message is known as
plaintext is converted in to random nonsense known as ciphertext. This
cipher is transmitted at the receiver end; the random nonsense is converted
back to the plaintext.
In cryptographic system, the algorithm that is used for Encryption the
plaintext to ciphertext, decrypting the cipher text to plaintext is kept open,
The key that are used for encryption and decryption must be maintained
secretly.
1.3 Introduction to Quantum cryptography:
In quantum cryptography by using the quantum mechanics using the
quantum mechanics protects the information by the law of physics.
The Hinesburg uncertainty principle and Quantum entanglement can be
exploited in a system of secure communication after referred to as “Quantum
cryptography”.
2. TYPES OF CRYPTOGRAPHY
2.1 Classical Cryptography:
Cryptography is the art of devising codes and ciphers and
cryptanalysis is the art of breaking them. Cryptology is the combination of
the two. In the literature of cryptology, information to be encrypted is known
as plaintext, and the parameters of the encryption algorithm that transforms
the plaintext are collectively called a key. The keys used to encrypt most
messages, such as those used to exchange credit-card information over the
Internet, are themselves encrypted before being sent. The schemes used to
disguise keys are thought to be secure, because discovering them would take
too long for even the fastest computers.
Existing cryptographic techniques are usually identified as "traditional" or
"modern." Traditional techniques date back for centuries, and use operations
of coding (use of alternative words or phrases), transposition (reordering of
plaintext), and substitution (alteration of plaintext characters). Traditional
techniques were designed to be simple, for hand encoding and decoding. By
contrast, modern techniques use computers, and rely on extremely long keys,
convoluted algorithms, and intractable problems to achieve assurances of
security.
There are two branches of modern cryptographic techniques: public key
encryption and secret key encryption. In PKC, as mentioned above,
messages are exchanged using an encryption method so convoluted that
even full disclosure of the scrambling operation provides no useful
information for how it can be undone. Each participant has a "public key"
and a "private key", the former is used by others to encrypt messages, and
the latter is used by the participant to decrypt them.
The widely used RSA algorithm is one example of PKC. Anyone wanting to
receive a message publishes a key, which contains two numbers. A sender
converts a message into a series of digits, and performs a simple
mathematical calculation on the series using the publicly available numbers.
Messages are deciphered by the recipient by performing another operation,
known only to him. In principle, an eavesdropper could deduce the
decryption method by factoring one of the published numbers, but this is
chosen to typically exceed 100 digits and to be the product of only two large
prime numbers, so that there is no known way to accomplish this
factorization in a practical time.
In secret key encryption, a k-bit "secret key" is shared by two users, who use
it to transform plaintext inputs to crypto text for transmission and back to
plaintext upon receipt. To make unauthorized decipherment more difficult,
the transformation algorithm can be carefully designed to make each bit of
output depend on every bit of the input. With such an arrangement, a key of
128 bits used for encoding results in a choice of about 1038 numbers. The
encrypted message should be secure; assuming that brute force and massive
parallelism are employed, a billion computers doing a billion operations per
second would require a trillion years to decrypt it. In practice, analysis of the
encryption algorithm might make it more vulnerable, but increases in the
size of the key can be used to offset this.
The main practical problem with secret key encryption is exchanging a
secret key. In principle any two users who wished to communicate could
first meet to agree on a key in advance, but in practice this could be
inconvenient. Other methods for establishing a key, such as the use of secure
courier or private knowledge, could be impractical for routine
communication between many users. But any discussion of how the key is to
be chosen that takes place on a public communication channel could in
principle be intercepted and used by an eavesdropper.
One proposed method for solving this is the appointment of a central key
distribution server. Every potential communicating party registers with the
server and establishes a secret key. The server then relays secure
communications between users, but the server itself is vulnerable to attack.
Another method is a protocol for agreeing on a secret key based on publicly
exchanged large prime numbers, as in the Diffie Hellman key exchange. Its
security is based on the assumed difficulty of finding the power of a base
that will generate a specified remainder when divided by a very large prime
number, but this suffers from the uncertainty that such problems will remain
intractable. Quantum encryption, which will be discussed later, provides a
way of agreeing on a secret key without making this assumption.
Communication at the quantum level changes many of the conventions of
both classical secret key and public key communication described above.
For example, it is not necessarily possible for messages to be perfectly
copied by anyone with access to them, nor for messages to be relayed
without changing them in some respect, nor for an eavesdropper to passively
monitor communications without being detected.
2.2 Quantum Cryptography:
The foundation of quantum cryptography lies in the Hinesburg
uncertainty principle, which states that certain pairs of physical properties
are related in such a way that measuring one property prevents the observer
from simultaneously knowing the value of the other. In particular, when
measuring the polarization of a photon, the choice of what direction to
measure affects all subsequent measurements. For instance, if one measures
the polarization of a photon by noting that it passes through a vertically
oriented filter, the photon emerges as vertically polarized regardless of its
initial direction of polarization.
Quantum cryptography provides means for two parties to exchange an
enciphering key over a private channel with compielt security of
communication. There are at least three main types of quantum
cryptosystems for the key distribution.
(a). Cryptosystem with encoding based on two non-commuting
observable.
(b). Cryptosystems with encoding built upon quantum entanglement and
the bell theorem.
(c). Cryptosystem with encoding based on two non-orthogonal state
vectors.
The basic idea of cryptosystems is a sequence of correlated particle pairs is
generated, with one member of each pair being detected by each party (for
example, a pair of so-called Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen photons, whose
polarizations are measured by the parties). An eavesdropper on this
communication would have to detect a particle to read the signal, and
retransmit it in order for his presence to remain unknown. However, the act
of detection of one particle of a pair destroys its quantum correlation with
the other, and the two parties can easily verify whether this has been done,
without revealing the results of their own measurements, by communication
over an open channel.
Quantum cryptosystem includes a transmitter and a receiver. A sender
may use the transmitter to send photons in one of four polarizations: 0, 45,
90, or 135 degrees. A recipient at the other end uses the receiver to measure
the polarization. According to the laws of quantum mechanics, the receiver
can distinguish between rectilinear polarizations (0 and 90), or it can quickly
be reconfigured to discriminate between diagonal polarizations (45 and 135);
it can never, however, distinguish both types. The key distribution requires
several steps. The sender sends photons with one of the four polarizations,
which are chosen at random. For each incoming photon, the receiver chooses
at random the type of measurement: either the rectilinear type or the
diagonal type. The receiver records the results of the measurements but
keeps them secret. Subsequently the receiver publicly announces the type of
measurement (but not the results) and the sender tells the receiver which
measurements were of the correct type. The two parties (the sender and the
receiver) keep all cases in which the receiver measurements were of the
correct type. These cases are then translated into bits (1's and 0's) and
thereby become the key. An eavesdropper is bound to introduce errors to this
transmission because he/she does not know in advance the type of
polarization of each photon and quantum mechanics does not allow him/her
to acquire sharp values of two non-commuting observable (here rectilinear
and diagonal polarizations). The two legitimate users of the quantum
channel test for eavesdropping by revealing a random subset of the key bits
and checking (in public) the error rate. Although they cannot eavesdropping,
they will never be fooled by an eavesdropper.
and Bob use a binary search with log (k) iterations to locate and
correct the error in the block.
5. To account for multiple errors that might remain undetected, steps 1-4
are repeated with increasing block sizes in an attempt to eliminate
these errors.
6. To determine whether additional errors remain, Alice and Bob repeat
a randomized check:
o Alice and Bob agree publicly on a random assortment of half
the bit positions in their bit strings.
o Alice and Bob publicly compare parities (and discard a bit). If
the strings differ, the parities will disagree with probability 1/2.
o If there is disagreement, Alice and Bob use a binary search to
find and eliminate it, as above.
7. If there is no disagreement after l iterations, Alice and Bob conclude
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