History of Literature - Original

Hi s tory of Li terature Fi nal Edi ti on
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Chapter One
Old English literature
The Old English language, also called Anglo-Saxon, as the
earliest !orm o! English. "t is di!!icult to gi#e exact dates !or the
rise and de#elo$ment o! a language, because it does not change
suddenly% but $erha$s it is true to say that Old English as s$oken
!rom about A.&. '(( to about " )((.
The greatest Old English $oem is *eoul!, hich belongs to
the se#enth century. "t is a story o! about +,((( lines, and it is the
!irst English e$ic. ) The name o! its author is unknon.
*eoul! is not about England, but about Hrothgar, ,ing o! the
&anes, and about a bra#e young man, *eoul!, !rom southern
Seden, ho goes to hel$ him. Hrothgar is in trouble. His great
hall, called Heorot, is #isited at night by a terrible creature,
-rendel, hich li#es in a lake and comes to kill and eat Hrothgar.s
men. One night *eoul! aits secretly !or this thing, attacks it,
and in a !ierce !ight $ulls its arm o!!. "t manages to reach the lake
again, but dies there. Then its mother comes to the hall in search
o! re#enge, and the attacks begin again. *eoul! !ollos her to
the bottom o! the lake and kills her there.
"n later days *eoul!, no king o! his $eo$le, has to de!end his
country against a !ire-breathing creature. He kills the animal but is
badly ounded in the !ight, and dies. The $oem ends ith a
sorro/!ul descri$tion o! *eoul!.s !uneral !ire. Here are a !e
lines o! it, $ut into modern letters0
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alegdon tha tomiddes maerne theoden
haeleth hio!ende hla!ord leo!ne
ongunnon tha on beorge bael-!yra maest
igend eccan udu-rec astah
seart o!er siothole sogende leg
o$e beunden.
The sorroing soldiers then laid the glorious $rince, their dear
lord, in the middle. Then on the hill the ar-men began to light the
greatest o! !uneral !ires. The ood-smoke rose black abo#e the
!lames, the noisy !ire, mixed ith sorro!ul cries.
The old language cannot be read no exce$t by those ho ha#e
made a s$ecial study o! it. Among the critics ho cannot read Old
English there are some ho are unkind to the $oem, but
*eoul!has its on #alue. "t gi#es us an interesting $icture o! li!e
in those old days. "t tells us o! !ierce !ights and bra#e deeds, o! the
s$eeches o! the leader and the su!!erings o! his men. "t describes
their li!e in the hall, the terrible creatures that they had to !ight,
and their shi$s and tra#els. They had a hard li!e on land and sea.
They did not en1oy it much, but they bore it ell.
The !e lines o! *eoul! gi#en abo#e do not ex$lain much
about this kind o! #erse, and it may be ell to say something
about it. Each hal!-line has to main beats. There is no rhyme2
"nstead, each hal!-line is 1oined to the other by alliteration +
3middesimaerne % haelethlhio!endelhla!ord % beorge4 bael %
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ungendlioeccanhuudu % stoeart4 sunotholelsioogende 5, Things are
described indirectly and in combina/tions o! ords. A shi$ is not
only a shi$0 it is a sea-goer, a sea-boat, a sea-ood, or a a#e-
!loater. A sailor is a sea-tra#eller, a seaman, a sea-soldier. E#en
the sea itsel! 3sae5 may be called the a#es, or the sea-streams, or
the ocean-ay. O!ten se#eral o! these ords are used at the same
time. There!ore, i! the $oet ants to say that the shi$ sailed aay,
he may say that the shi$, the sea-goer, the a#e-!loater, set out,
started its 1ourney and set !orth o#er the sea, o#er the
ocean/streams, o#er the a#es. This changes a $lain statement
into some/thing more colour!ul, but such descri$tions take a lot o!
time, and the action mo#es sloly. "n Old English $oetry,
descri$tions o! sad e#ents or cruel situations are commoner and in
better riting than those o! ha$$iness.
There are many other Old English $oems. Among them are
-enesis A and -enesis *. The second o! these, hich is short, is
con/cerned ith the beginning o! the orld and the !all o! the
angels 6. "t is a good $iece o! riting% the $oet has thoroughly
en1oyed describing -od.s $unishment o! Satan and the $lace o!
$unishment !or e#il in Hell.7 8ost o! the long -enesis A, on the
other hand, is dull, and little more than old history taken !rom the
*ible and $ut into $oor Old English #erse. Other $oems taken
straight !rom the *ible are the ell-ritten Exodus, hich
describes ho the "sraelites le!t Egy$t, and &aniel. Another $oem,
9hrist and Satan, deals ith e#ents in 9hrist.s li!e. There is a good
deal o! re$etition in this ork.
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:e kno the names o! to Old English $oets, 9AE&8O; and
9<;E:=L>. Almost nothing no remains hich is certainly
9aedmon.s ork. He as a $oor countryman ho used to stay
a$art hen his !ellos sang songs to -od% !or 9aedmon as
un/educated and could not sing. One night an angel a$$eared to
him in a dream and told him to sing -od.s $raise. :hen he oke,
he as able to sing, and $art o! one o! his songs remains.
9yneul! almost certainly rote !our $oems, ?uliana, The >ates
o1 the A$ostles,' 9hrist, and Elene. The last o! these seems to
ha#e been ritten 1ust be!ore 9yneul!s death% !or he says in it,
.;o are my days in their a$$ointed time gone aay. 8y li!e-1oys
ha#e dis/a$$eared, as ater runs aay.. 9yneul!.s $oems are
religious, and ere $robably ritten in the second hal! o! the
eighth century.
Other Old English $oems are Andreas and -uthlac. The second
o! these is in to $arts, and may ha#e been ritten by to men.
-uthlac as a holy man ho as tem$ted in the desert. Another
o! the better $oems is The &ream o! the @ood 3the rood is 9hrist.s
cross.5 This is among the best o! all Old English $oems.
Old English lyrics A include &eor.s 9om$laint, The Husband.s
8essage, The :anderer and The :i!e.s 9om$laint. &eor is a
singer ho has lost his lord.s !a#our. So he com$lains, but tries to
com!ort himsel! by remembering other sorros o! the orld. O!
each one he says .That $assed o#er% this may do so also..
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There are many other $oems in Old English. One o! the better
ones is a late $oem called The *attle o! 8aldon. This battle as
!ought against the &anes in BB) and $robably the $oem as
ritten soon a!ter that. "t has been highly $raised !or the ords o!
courage hich the leader uses0
Latin books into Old English, so that his $eo$le could read
them. He brought back learning to England and im$ro#ed the
education o! his $eo$le.
Another im$ortant riter o! $rose as AEL>@"9. His orks,
such as the Homilies2 3BB(-65 and Li#es i! Saints.2 3BB+-'5, ere
mostly religious. He rote out in Old English the meaning o! the
!irst se#en books or the *ible. His $rose styleC. is the best in Old
English, and he uses alliteration to 1oin his sentences together.
hige sceal the heardra heorte the cenre mod sceal the mare the
ure maegen lytlath her lith ure ealdor eall !orheaen
god on greote a maeg gnornian
se the nu !ram this ig$legan endan thenceth.
The mind must be the !irmer, the heart must be the bra#er, the
courage must be the greater, as our strength gros less. Here lies
our lord all cut to $ieces, the good man on the ground. "! anyone
thinks no to turn aay !rom this ar-$lay, may he be unha$$y
!or e#er a!ter.
"n general it is !airly sa!e to say that Old English $rose7 came
later than Old English #erse% but there as some early $rose. The
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oldest Las ere ritten at the beginning o! the se#enth century.
Saine o! these are interesting. "! you s$lit a man.s ear, you had to
$ay +( shillings. These Las ere not literature, and better
sentences ere ritten toards the end o! the se#enth century.
The most interesting $iece o! $rose is the Anglo-Saxon
9hronicle, an early history o! the country. There are, in !act,
se#eral chronicles, belonging to di!!erent cities. ;o doubt ,";-
AL>@E& 3D6B-B( "5 had a great in!luence on this ork. He
$robably brought the di!!erent ritings into some kind o! order.
He also translated a number o! Latin books into Old English, so
that his $eo$le could read them. He brought back learning to
England and im$ro#ed the education o! his $eo$le.
Another im$ortant riter o! $rose as AEL>@"9. His orks,
such as the Homilies2 3BB(-65 and Li#es i! Saints.2 3BB+-'5, ere
mostly religious. He rote out in Old English the meaning o! the
!irst se#en books or the *ible. His $rose styleC. is the best in Old
English, and he uses alliteration to 1oin his sentences together.
Chapter Two
Middle English literature
The English hich as used !rom about " )(( to about ).E(( is
called 8iddle English, and the greatest $oet o! the time as
-EO>>@E< 9HA=9E@. He is o!ten called the !ather o! English
$oetry, although, as e kno, there ere many English $oets
be!ore him. As e should ex$ect, the language had changed a
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great deal in the se#en hundred years since the time o! *eoul!
and it is much easier to read 9haucer than to read anything ritten
in Old English. Here are the o$ening lines o! The 9anterbury
TalesC 3about )+DA5, his greatest ork0
:han that A$rille ith his shoures sote
The droghte o! 8arche hath $erced to the rote
#Fhen A$ril ith his seet shoers has struck to the roots the
dryness o! 8arch . . .
There are !i#e main beats in each line, and the reader ill notice
that rhyme has taken the $lace o! Old English alliteration. 9haucer
as a ell-educated man ho read Latin, and studied >rench and
"talian $oetry% but he as not interested only in books. He
tra#el/led and made good use o! his eyes% and the $eo$le hom
he describes are 1ust like li#ing $eo$le.
The 9anterbury Tales total altogether about )A,((( lines - about
hal! o! 9haucer.s literary $roduction. A $arty o! $ilgrims G agree
to tell stories to $ass the time on their 1ourney !rom London to
9anter/bury ith its great church and the gra#e o! Thomas a
*ecket. There are more than tenty o! these stories, mostly in
#erse, and in the stories e get to kno the $ilgrims themsel#es.
8ost o! them, like the merchant, the layer, the cook, the sailor,
the $loughman, and the miller, are ordinary $eo$le, but each o!
them can be recogniHed as a real $erson ith his or her on
character. One o! the most en1oyable characters, !or exam$le, is
the :i!e o! *ath. *y the time she tells her story e kno her as a
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oman o! #ery strong o$inions ho belie#es !irmly in marriage
3she has had !i#e husbands, one a!ter the other5 and eIually !irmly
in the need to manage husbands strictly. "n her story one o! ,ing
Arthur.s knights + must gi#e ithin a year the correct anser to
the Iuestion .:hat do omen lo#e most2. in order to sa#e his li!e.
An ugly old itch 6 knos the anser 3.To rule.5 and agrees to tell
him i! he marries her. At last he agrees, and at the marriage she
becomes young again and beauti!ul.
O! 9haucer.s other $oems, the most im$ortant are $robably
Troylus and 9ryseyde 3"+AG-A25, and The LegendJ o! -ood
:omen 3 " +DE5. The !ormer o! these is a bou t the lo#e o! the to
young $eo$le. Shakes$eare later rote a $lay on the same sub1ect,
but his 9ressida is less attracti#e than 9haucer.s.
The old alliterati#e line as still in use in 9haucer.s time,
though not by him. The Fision ' o! Kiers the Kloughman, mostly
by :"LL"A8 LA;-LA;&, is a $oem in this #erse. "t as
ritten by a $oor man to describe the sorros o! the $oor. "t looks
a lot older than 9haucer.s rhymed #erse, though the to men li#ed
at the same time. Langland sadly tells, as in a dream, ho most
$eo$le $re!er the !alse treasures o! this orld to the true treasures
o! hea#en. The characters in the $oem are not as real as 9haucer.s.
. The alliterati#e metre A as used in se#eral other $oems,
including Sir -aaHn anL theLreen ,night 3"+'(25, one o! the
stories o! ,ing Arthur and h"S ,nights o! the @ound Table. Like
others o! these legendary stories, it tells o! the ad#entures o! one
o! ,ing Arthur.s knights 3in this case Sir -aain5 in a struggle
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against an enemy ith magic7 $oers as ell as great strength
and cunning. Sir -aain !inishes the ad#enture ith all honour.
Kerha$s the author o! -aain also rote Kearl and Katience,
to o! the best alliterati#e $oems o! the time. Kearl as the name
o! the $oet.s daughter, ho died at the age o! to% but he is
com!orted hen, in a dream, he sees her in hea#en. Katience is the
story o! ?onah, ho as thron into the sea and salloed by an
immense creature o! the sea, hich carried him to the $lace here
-od ished him to go.
A good deal o! 8iddle English $rose is religious. The Ancien
@ile teaches $ro$er rules o! li!e !or anchoresses 3religious
omen5 /ho they ought to dress, hat ork they may do, hen
they ought not to s$eak, and so on. "t as $robably ritten in the
thirteenth century. Another ork, The >orm o! Ker!ect Li#ing,
as ritten by @"9HA@& @OLLE ith the same sort o! aim. His
$rose style has been highly $raised, and his ork is im$ortant in
the history o! our $rose.
?OH; :<9L">>E, a $riest, attacked many o! the religious
ideas o! his time. He as at Ox!ord, but had to lea#e because his
attacks on the 9hurch could no longer be borne. One o! his belie!s
as that anyone ho anted to read the *ible ought to be alloed
to do so% but ho could this be done b# uneducated $eo$le hen
the *ible as in Latin2 Some $arts had indeed been $ut into Old
English long ago, but :ycli!!e arranged the $roduction o! the
hole *ible in English. He himsel! translated $art o! it. There
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ere to trans/lations 3)+DG and )+DD5, o! hich the second is
the better.
"t is sur$rising that :ycli!!e as not burnt ali#e !or his attacks
on religious $ractices. A!ter he as dead and buried, his bones
ere dug u$ again and thron into a stream hich !los into the
@i#er A#on 3hich itsel! !los into the @i#er Se#ern50
The A#on to the Se#ern runs, The Se#ern to the sea,
And :ycli!!e.s dust shall s$read abroad, :ide as the aters be.
An im$ortant 8iddle English $rose ork, 8orte &. Arthur MN
Arthur.s &eath4, as ritten by S"@ THO8AS 8ALO@<. E#en
"or the #iolent years 1ust be!ore and during the .:ars o! the @oses,
8alory as a #iolent character. He as se#eral times in $rison,
and it has been suggested that he rote at least $art o! 8orte &.
Arthur there to $ass the time.
8alory rote eight se$arate tales o! ,ing Arthur and his
knights but hen 9axton B $rinted the book in )6DE 3a!ter
8alory.s death5 he 1oined them into one long story. 9axton.s as
the only co$y o! 8alory.s ork that e had until, Iuite recently
3)B++-65, a hand/ritten co$y o! it as !ound in :inchester
9ollege.
The stories o! Arthur and his knights ha#e attracted many
*ritish and other riters. Arthur is a shadoy !igure o! the $ast,
but $robably really li#ed. 8any tales gathered round him and his
knights. One o! the main sub1ects as the search !or the cu$ used
by 9hrist at the Last Su$$er. 3This cu$ is knon as The Holy
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-rail.5 Another sub1ect as Arthur.s battles against his enemies,
including the @omans. 8alory.s !ine $rose can tell a direct story
ell, but can also ex$ress dee$ !eelings in musical sentences. Here
is $art o! the book in modern !orm. ,ing Arthur is badly
ounded0
Then Sir *edi#ere took the king on his back and so ent ith
him to the ater.s edge. And hen they ere there, close by the
bank, there came a little shi$ ith many beauti!ul ladies in it% and
among them all there as a Iueen. And they all had black head-
dresses, and all e$t and cried hen they sa ,ing Arthur.
The !irst English $lays told religious stories and ere $er!ormed
in or near the churches. 8any e#ents o! religious history ere
suit/able sub1ects !or drarna?7 These early $lays, called 8iracle.C
or 8ystery Klays, are in !our main grou$s, according to the city
here they ere acted0 9hester, 9o#entry, <ork and :ake!ield.
The sub1ects o! the 8iracle Klays are #arious0 the disobedience
o! Adam and E#e% ;oah and the great !lood% Abraham and "saac%
e#ents in the li!e o! 9hrist% and so on. They ere acted by $eo$le
o! the ton on a kind o! stage on heels called a $ageant. This
as mo#ed to di!!erent $arts o! the ton, so that a $lay shon in
one $lace could then be shon in another. O!ten se#eral 8iracle
Klays ere being $er!ormed at the same time in di!!erent $laces.
Here is a short bit o! ;oah.s >lood in the 9hester Klays0
-O&0 Se#en days are yet coming >or you to gather and bring
Those a!ter my liking
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:hen mankind " annoy. >orty days and !orty nights
@ain shall !all !or their unrightsA
And those " ha#e made through my mights* ;o think " to
destroy.
;OAH0 Lord, at your bidding2 " am true Since grace is only in
you,
As you ask " ill do.
>or gracious7 " you !ind.
A rongdoing * onder!ul $oers corders & kind
Although the 8iracles ere serious and religious in intention,
English comedy)G as born in them. There as a natural
tendency !or the characters in the $lay to become recogniHably
human in their beha#iour. Hoe#er serious the main story might
be, neither actors nor audience could resist the tem$tation to en1oy
the $ossibilities o! a situation such as that in hich ;oah.s i!e
needs a great deal o! $ersuasion to make her go on board the ark.C7
Other $lays, in some res$ects not #ery di!!erent !rom the
8iracles, ere the 8orality Klays. The characters in these ere
not $eo$le 3such as Adam and E#e or ;oah5 % they ere #irtues
3such as Truth5 or bad Iualities 3such as -reed or @e#enge5 hich
alked and talked. >or this reason e !ind these $lays duller
today, but this does not mean that the original audiences !ound
them dull. The $lays $resented moral truths in a ne and e!!ecti#e
ay.
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One o! the best-knon !i!teenth-century 8oralities is
E#eryman, hich as translated !rom the &utch. "t is the story o!
the end o! E#eryman.s li!e, hen &eath calls him aay !rom the
orld. Among the characters are *eauty, ,noledge, Strength,
and -ood &eeds. :hen E#eryman has to go to !ace &eath, all his
!riends lea#e him exce$t -ood &eeds, ho says !inely0
E#eryman, " ill go ith thee and be thy guide, "n thy most
need to be by thy side.
Another kind o! $lay, the "nterlude, as common in the
!i!teenth and sixteenth centuries. The origin o! this name is
uncertain% $erha$s the "nterludes ere $layed beteen the acts o!
long 8oralities% $erha$s in the middle o! meals% or $erha$s the
name means a $lay by to or three $er!ormers. They are o!ten
!unny, and ere $er!ormed aay !rom churches, in colleges or
rich men.s houses or gardens. One o! them is The >our K.s, "n one
$art ,o! this $lay, a $riHe is o!!ered !or the greatest lie% and it is
on by a man ho. says that he ne#er sa and ne#er kne any
oman out o! $atience.
The riters o! these early $lays are unknon until e come to
the beginning o! the sixteenth century. ?OH; HE<:OO& rote
The >our K.s 3$rinted about .E6E5 and The Klay o! the :eather
3.E++5, in hich ?u$iter, the ,ing o! the -ods, asks #arious $eo$le
hat kind o! eather ought to be su$$lied. Heyood rote other
"nterludes and as ali#e in Shakes$eare.s time.
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Chapter Three
Elizabethan poetry and prose
8any imitators o! 9haucer a$$eared a!ter his death in )6((, but
!e are o! great interest. 8ore than a century had to $ass be!ore
any !urther im$ortant English $oetry as ritten. Oueen EliHabeth
ruled !rom )EED to )'(+, but the great EliHabethan literary age is
not considered as beginning until )EAB. *e!ore that year to $oets
rote orks o! #alue.
S"@ THO8AS :<ATT and the EA@L O> S=@@E< are o!ten
mentioned together, but there are many di!!erences in their ork.
*oth rote sormets.? hich they learned to do !rom the "talians%
but it as :yatt ho !irst brought the sonnet to England. Surrey.s
ork is also im$ortant because he rote the !irst blank G #erse in
English.
"n the !orm o! the sonnet :yatt mainly !olloed the "talian $oet
Ketrarch 3)+(6-A65. "n this !orm, the )6 lines rhyme abbaabba 3D5
P G or + rhymes in the last six lines. The sonnets o! Shakes$eare
are not o! this !orm% they rhyme ababcdcde!e!gg.
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:yatt has le!t us some good lyrics. Here is $art o! a lo#er.s $ra
yer to his girl0
And ilt thou lea#e me thus That hath lo#ed thee so long "n
ealth and oe7 among% And is thy heart so strong
As !or to lea#e me thus2
Say nay7C Say nayC
A sorro * no
Surrey.s blank #erse, hich has been mentioned, is !airly good%
he kee$s it ali#e by changing the $ositions o! the main beats in the
lines. 8arloe.s !amous .rnight#7 line. is blank #erse and much
!iner $oetry, and Shakes$eare im$ro#ed on it. 8ilton made blank
#erse the regular metre o! e$ic.
*e!ore and during the EliHabethan age, the riting o! $oetry
as $art o! the education o! a gentleman, and the books o! sonnets
and lyrics that a$$eared contained ork by numbers o! di!!erent
riters. A good exam$le o! these books is Tottel.s Songs and
Sonnets 3)EEA5, hich contained 6( $oems by Surrey and B' by
:yatt. There ere )+E by other authors7. &id these $o$ular
sonnets and lyrics ex$ress real !eelings, or ere they 1ust $oetic
exercises2 Some may be o! one sort and some o! the other. They
di!!er a good deal. Some contain rather childish ideas, as hen a
man is murdered by lo#e and his blood reddens the girl.s li$s.
Some are #ery !ine indeed.
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One o! the best sonnets o! the time as by 8"9HAEL
&@A<TO;.
" t begins like this0
Since there.s no hel$, come let us kiss and $art0
; ay7, " ha#e done% you get no more o! me% And " am glad, - yea
* glad ith all my heart That thus so cleanly " mysel! can !ree.
A no *yes
The sonnets o! Shakes$eare, $rinted in )'(B, ere $robably
ritten beteen )EB+ and )'((. >or hom, or to hom, did he
rite them2 8any o! them re!er to a young man o! good !amily,
and may be addressed to :illiam Herbert 3the Earl o! Kembroke5,
or the Earl o! Southam$ton. At the beginning o! the )'(B
collection, it is said that they are !or .8r. :. H.. Other $eo$le
mentioned in the sonnets are a girl, a ri#al $oet, and a dark-eyed
beauty. Here is one o! Shake/s$eare.s sonnets0
:ho ill belie#e my #erse in time to come,
"! it ere !illed ith your most high deserts72 Though yet,
Hea#en knos, it is but7 as a tornb.7 :hich hides your li!e, and
shos not hal! your $arts. "! " could rite the beauty o! your eyes,
And in !resh numbers7 number all your graces The age to come
ould say, .This $oet lies,
Such hea#enly touches ne.er touched earthly !aces.. So should
my $a$ers, yelloed ith their age,
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*e scorned like old men o! less truth than tongue% And your true
rights be termed E a $oet.s rage> And stretched metre o! an
antiIue2 song.
*ut ere some child o! yours ali#e that time
<ou should li#e tice L in it, and in my rhyme.
A hat you deser#e * only 9 gra#e ( #erses E called > madness
-old
The $oet ho introduced the EliHabethan age $ro$er as
E&8=;& SKE;SE@. "n )EAB he $roduced The She$herd.s
9alendar, a $oem in tel#e books, one !or each month o! the year.
S$enser as no doubt making ex$eriments in metre and !orm,
examining his on abilities. The $oems are uneIual, but those !or
A$ril and ;o#ember are good. They take the !orm o! discussions
beteen she$herds E, and are there!ore $astorals ' - the best
$astorals ritten in English u$ to that time. There are #arious
sub1ects0 $raise o! Oueen .EliHabeth, discussions about religion,
the sad death o! a girl, and so on. The nation elcomed the book%
it as ex$ecting a great literary age, and acce$ted this ork as its
beginning.
S$enser.s greatest ork, The >aerie O.ueene 3)EDB-B'5, as
$lanned in tel#e books, but he rote little more than the !irst six.
The .Oueene. is either Oueen EliHabeth or -lory as a $erson. There
are tel#e knights re$resenting di!!erent #irtues, and ,ing Arthur
is gentlemanliness. The knights. ad#entures are the basis !or an
allegory A, but this is not clear. The greatness o! the ork is not in
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its thought or in its story. "t is in the magic !eeling in the air, the
onder!ul music o! the #erse, the beauty o! the sound. >e $eo$le
no read the hole thing% $erha$s too much seetness at once is
more than the mind and s$irit can bear.
S$enser in#ented a s$ecial metre !or The >aerie Oueene. The
#erse has nine lines% o! these the last has six !eet, the others !i#e.
The rhyme $lan is ababbcbcc. This #erse, the .S$enserian StanHa.
D, is 1ustly !amous and has o!ten been used since. Here is an
exam$le0
Long thus she tra#eled through deserts ide,
*y hich she thought her and.ring knight should $ass, <et
ne#er sho o! li#ing igh tA es$ied * %
Till that at length9 she !ound the trodden.2 grass "n hich the
track o! $eo$le.s !ooting as, =nder the stee$ !oot o! a mountain
hoar 7%
The same she !ollos, till at last she has
A damsel7 s$ied2 slo-!ooting her be!ore,
That on her shoulders sad a $ot o! ater bore.
A $erson * sa 9 at last & $ressed don by !eet E old and grey
> girl - seen
S$enser married EliHabeth *oyle in )EB6 hen he as o#er
!orty. The 1oy that he !elt is ex$ressed in E$ithalamion 3)EBE5, an
almost $er!ect marriage song. His Krothalamion 3)EB'5, ritten in
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honour o! the double marriage o! the daughters o! the Earl o!
:orcester, contains the re$eated line, .Seet Thames run so!tly
till " end my song.. S$enser also rote DD sonnets hich ere
$ublished in )EBE/ith the E$ithalamion - under the title,
Amoretti.
The EliHabethan age $roduced a sur$rising !lo o! lyrics.
Lyric $oetry gi#es ex$ression to the $oet.s on thoughts and
!eelings, and !or this reason e tend to $icture the lyric $oet as a
rather dreamy un$ractical $erson ith his thoughts turned
inards. As a descri$tion o! the EliHabethan lyric $oets, nothing
could be !urther !rom the truth. :e kno !e details o! S$enser.s
li!e, but his !riend S"@ KH"L"K S"&;E< as a true EliHabethan
gentleman o! many acti#ities -- courtier, statesman, $oet, soldier.
"t is $robably true that this man, acce$ted as the $attern o! nobility
in his time, re!used a cu$ o! ater hen he lay dying on the
battle!ield o! Qut$hen, saying that it should be gi#en to a ounded
soldier lying near to him. Sidney.s book o! sonnets, Astro$hel and
Stella, as $rinted in )EB) a!ter his death. 8ost o! the $oems o!
another great EliHabethan, S"@ :ALTE@ @ALE"-H, soldier,
sailor, ex$lorer, courtier, and riter, ha#e been lost, but the short
$ieces hich remain sho a real gi!t !or $oetic ex$ression.
Some o! the best lyrics o! the time ere in the dramatic orks.
9haracters on the stage ere gi#en songs to sing to $lease the
audience and to gi#e some relie! hen necessary. "n Shakes$eare.s
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Tel!th ;ight, !or exam$le, there is a #ery seet lyric0 3sec $age
665
o mistress mine, here are you roaming2
Shakes$eare.s longer $oems, Fenus and Adonis and Lucrece,
arc both on the sub1ect o! lo#e. The !ormer o! these as $robably
his !irst $ublished B ork. "n both $oems there is a .kind o!
coldness, as i! Shakes$eare as only riting according to the
rules, but ithout much !eeling.
9H@"STOKHE@ 8A@LO:E, the !amous dramatist, as also a
!ine lyric riter. The Kassionate-# She$herd to his Lo#e
3$ublished in )EBB5 starts like this0
9ome li#e ith me and be my lo#e, And e ill all the
$leasures $ro#e That hills and #alleys, dales7 and !ields :oods or
stee$y mountain yield.
A ri#er-#alleys
Sir :alter @aleigh rote another $oem as the girl.s anser0
"! all the orld and lo#e ere young And truth in e#ery
she$herd.s tongue, These $retty $leasures might me mo#e To li#e
ith thee and be thy lo#e.
As the songs and sonnets o! the great EliHabethan age $assed
sloly aay, the immense lyrical tide began gradually to lose its
!orce. The age that !olloed, the ?acobean age, as less !resh -
more interested in the mind than in heart or eye. A grou$ o! $oets,
knon as the 8eta$hysical7 Koets, rote #erse hich as
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generally less beauti!ul and less musical, and hich contained
tricks o! style and unusual images.C to attract attention. These
$oets mixed strong !eelings ith reason, and the mixture is
strange.
?OH; &O;;E is the greatest meta$hysical $oet but it is
di!!icult to !ind a com$lete $oem by him hich is !aultless. He
rote many good things, but no $er!ect $oem. His songs and
sonnets are $ro/bably his !inest ork, but he is best studied in
collections o! #erse by #arious $oets. He rote a lot o! $oor #erse
hich these collections omit.
&onne as a layer and a $riest, and he rote religious $oetry,
though it is not his best. "n metre &onne o!ten $ut the main beat
on ords o! little im$ortance% yet he had his good Iualities. Some
o! his beginnings, such as .-o and catch a !alling star,. are !ine. He
can say e!!ecti#e things in a !e ords0 ." am to !ools " kno.
>or lo#ing and !or saying so.. <et some o! his lines are terribly
bad0
Here lies a she sun and a he moon there She gi#es the best light
to his s$here7 Or each is both, and all, and so
They unto one another nothing oe.
A ball like the moon
&rink to me only ith thine eyes, And " ill $ledge7 ith mine%
Or lea#e a kiss but in the cu$, And ".ll not look !or ine.
A drink to your health
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"t is time no to turn to the $rose o! this age, hich took se#eral
#ery di!!erent !orms. The translation o! Klutarch.s Li#es o! the
;oble -recians and @omans 3)EAB5, S"@ THO8AS ;O@TH is
im$ortant. "t is on the hole ritten in !ine and noble English, and
it had a ide in!luence on EliHabethan $rose. "t as used by
Shakes$eare as a storehouse o! learning. Shakes$eare used Iuite
extensi#e ex$res/sions !rom it in ?ulius 9aesar, 9oriolanus and
Antony and 9leo$atra. ;orth as one o! the best translators, ith
a good command o! English ords and the ability to ea#e them
into $oer!ul sen/tences. He did not translate directly !rom the
-reek, but !rom a >rench translation by Amyot o! Auxerre.
"n )EDB @"9HA@& HA,L=<T collected and $ublished The
Krinci$al ;aoigations07, Foyages, and &isco#eries o! the English
;ation. At this time there as a great deal o! tra#el and ad#enture
on the sea, and this book as enlarged in "EBD, "EBB and "'((. "t
includes accounts o! the #oyages o! the 9abots, Hakins, &rake,
and >robisher, besides se#eral others. Hakluyt le!t a lot o!
un$ublished $a$ers, and some o! these came into the $ossession o!
Kurchas.
SA8=EL K=@9HAS $ublished the Hakluyt $a$ers under the
title, Kurchas his Kilgrims 3" 'GE5, containing .A History o! the
:orld in Sea Foyages and Land Tra#el.. This book deals ith
#oyages to "ndia, ?a$an, 9hina, A!rica, the :est "ndies and other
$laces. To other books by Kurchas ha#e titles hich are almost
the same, Kurchas his Kilgrimage, or @elations o! the :orld and
the @eligions Obser#ed in All Ages 3" ')+5 and Kurchas his
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Kilgrim, or The History o! 8an 3)')B5. Another im$ortant history
book o! this time as Holinshed.s 9hronicles07 3)EAA5. Though it
is knon by his name, se#eral riters ere res$onsible !or the
material in it.
A kind o! no#el)E began in the EliHabethan age% Lyly.s Eu$hues
3" EAD and " ED(5 started a !ashion hich s$read in books and
con#ersation.
?OH; L<L< as em$loyed at court. Eu$hues has a thin lo#e
story, hich is used !or the $ur$ose o! gi#ing Lyly.s ideas in
#arious talks and letters. The style is !illed ith tricks and
alliteration% the sen/tences are long and com$licated% and large
numbers o! similes)' are brought in. A short exam$le o! this style
is, .They are commonly soonest belie#ed that are best belo#ed, and
they liked best hom e ha#e knon longest.. The reader !orgets
the thought behind the ords, and looks !or the machine-like
arrangement o! the sentences. This kind o! style as common in
the con#ersation o! ladies o! the time, and most o! those at court
ere at one time Lyly.s $u$ils. Oueen EliHabeth hersel! used it.
E#ery girl o! good !amily in those days learnt to s$eak, not only
>rench, but also Eu$huism. E#en Shakes$eare as in!luenced by
this arti!icial style.
Another no#elist as @O*E@T -@EE;E, hose story
Kandosto ga#e Shakes$eare the $lot o! his $lay The :inter.s Tale.
Another, THO8AS ;ASH, a riter o! #ery inde$endent
character, re!used to co$y Eu$hues or anyone else. His book The
Li!e o! ?acke :ilton as a $icaresIue no#el, that is to say, a no#el
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o! ad#enture about men o! bad character. KicaresIue no#els ere
!irst ritten in S$ain and then co$ied elsehere. The interest o!
the ad#enture is sometimes s$oilt by long s$eeches hich are
made 1ust hen e ant the s$eaker to do something instead o!
talking.
These EliHabethan .no#els. are o! little #alue on the hole, and
!e $eo$le read them no. They did not lead on to the great
no#els o! later years. They ere a !alse start, and died out.
The $rose o! >@A;9"S *A9O; is im$ortant. His Essays.2
es$ecially are $o$ular still. They !irst a$$eared in "EBA and then
ith addi/tions in " ')G and )'GE. The sentences in the earlier
essays are short, shar$ and e!!ecti#e% the style o! the later essays is
rather more !loing. Some o! the best-knon sayings in English
come !rom *acon.s books, and es$ecially !rom the Essays.
Here are a !e, ith the title o! the essay0
8en !ear death as children !ear to go in the dark. 3&eath5 All
colours ill agree in the dark. 3=nity in @eligion5 @e#enge is a
kind o! ild 1ustice. 3@e#enge5
:hy should " be angry ith a man !or lo#ing himsel! better than
me2 3@e#enge5
9hildren seeten labours.7 but they make mis!ortunes more
bitter. 3Karents and 9hildren5
"! a man be gracious to strangers, it shos he is a citiHen o! the
orld. 3-oodness5
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The remedy is orse than the disease. 3Troubles5
Stay a little, that e may make an end the sooner. 3&es$atch5
9ure the disease and kill the $atient.>7 3>riendshi$5
That is the best $art o! beauty hich a $icture cannot ex$ress.
3*eauty5
Some books are to be read only in $arts% others to be read, but
not curiously% and some !e to be read holly. 3Studies5
A ise man ill make more o$$ortunities than he !inds.
39eremonies and @es$ects5
Other books by *acon include A History i! Henry F"" 3)'GG5,
hich as ritten in a !e months. The Ad#ancement o1 Learning
3)'(E5 considers the di!!erent ays o! ad#ancing knoledge, and
the di#isions o! knoledge, such as $oetry and history. The ;e
Atlantis 3)'G'5. contains social ideas in the !orm o! a story. This
story is o! a 1ourney to an imaginary island, *ensalem, in the
Kaci!ic Ocean. *acon rote se#eral other books in English and
Latin.
The AuthoriHed t2 Fersion ! 3A.F.5 o! the *ible a$$eared in
)')).
The history o! the English *ible is im$ortant. "n Old English
se#eral translations o! $arts o! the *ible ere made, but the !irst
com$lete translation as :ycli!!e.s. :"LL"A8 T<;&ALE.
translated the ;e Testament !rom the -reek, and $art o! the Old
Testament !rom the Hebre. He as later burnt to death !or his
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belie!s, but he is remembered !or his care!ul and im$ortant ork
on the trans/lation. The AuthoriHed Fersion de$ended a great deal
on Tyndale.s ork. Se#eral other translations ere made in the
sixteenth century, including a com$lete *ible 3)E+E5 by 8iles
9o#erdale.
A meeting as held in )'(6 to consider a ne translation.
>orty/se#en translators ere a$$ointed, and they orked in
grou$s on di!!erent $arts o! the *ible. The ork as !inished in
)')) and the result, de$ending chie!ly on :ycli!!e and Tyndale,
as called the AuthoriHed Fersion, though in !act no one
authoriHed it.
The language is beauti!ul, strong and $ure, #ery unlike
Eu$huism.
8ost English riters are in!luenced in some ay or other by the
ords o! the A.F.
Here are a !e sentences !rom Ecclesiastes, 9ha$ter )G0
@emember no thy 9reator7 in the days o! thy youth, hile the
e#il days come not, nor the years dra nigh * hen thou shalt
say, " ha#e no $leasure in them% hile the sun, or the light, or the
moon, or the stars, be not darkened, nor the clouds return a!ter the
rain.
A maker * near
Timber or &isco#eries 3)'6(5 by the dramatist *en ?onson, is a
collection o! notes and ideas on #arious sub1ects. =ntil ?onson
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rote this book, nothing had a$$eared to make clear the true ork
o! a critic, his aims and limitations. ?onson says that a critic ought
to 1udge a ork as a hole, and that the critic himsel! must ha#e
some $oetic abilities. ?onson is the !ather o! English literary
criti/cism. His critical ideas are not limited to this book, but
a$$ear elsehere. He has some interesting things to say. He
thought that &onne, .!or not kee$ing o! accent M$ro$er beat4,
deser#ed hanging.. He as not $leased ith the S$enserian stanHa
or ith S$enser.s language. :hen he as told that Shakes$eare
had ne#er .blotted a line. 3N crossed a line out5, he ished that he
had .blotted a thousand.. ?onson.s ideas ere much in!luenced by
the classics, GG and this ex$lains much o! hat he says.
Chapter Four
Elizabethan drama
The chie!literary glory o! the great EliHabethan age as its
drama, but e#en be!ore it began se#eral $lays a$$eared hich
shoed that a great de#elo$ment had taken $lace. They are not
#ery good $lays, but in general the comedies are better than the
tragedies..
The !irst regular English comedy as @al$h @oister &oister
3 )EE+25 by ;"9HOLAS =&ALL, headmaster o! :estminster
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School, ho $robably rote it !or his boys to act. "t is in rough
#erse and contains the sort o! humour- that may be !ound among
country $eo$le. Another comedy as -ammer -urton.s ;eedle,
acted at 9ambridge =ni#ersity in )E'', also in rough #erse. "t is
about the loss and the !inding o! a needle ith hich -ammer
-urton mends clothes. Ouarrels, broken heads, and a drinking
song are im$ortant $arts o! it.
Lyly.s $rose comedy 9am$as$e and his allegorical $lay
Endimion are an im$ro#ement on this. They ere $er!ormed in
!ront o! Oueen EliHabeth, $robably by boy actors. These boys,
knon as .9hildren o! Kaul.s., no doubt caused a lot o! !un hen
they $layed the $arts o! great men such as Alexander the -reat, or
the $hiloso$her, + &iogenes.
The $lay 9am$as$e contains the charming 3and no !amous5
song0
9u$id2 and my 9am$as$e $layed At cards !or kisses% 9u$id
$aid.
A -od o! Lo#e
9u$id loses one thing a!ter another to 9am$as$e, and at last he
o!!ers his eyes0
At last he set her both his eyes%
She on, and 9u$id blind did rise. o Lo#e, has she done this to
thee2 :hat shall, alasC7, become o!* me2
A ho sad " * ha$$en to
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The !irst regular English tragedy as -orboduc, in blank #erse,
$er!ormed in "E'6. The !irst three acts ere ritten by THO8AS
;O@TO;, the other to by THO8AS SA9,F"LLE. "t is #ery
dull, and is about ,ing -orboduc o! England and his !amily. 3This
man a$$ears in S$enser.s >aerie Oueene as -orbogud.5 The blank
#erse is $oor stu!!, and nothing is done on the stage exce$t some
mo#ements in silence. The story o! the $lay is told.
The S$anish Tragedy 3" EBG5 by THO8AS ,<& is an exam$le
o! the tragedy o! blood, $o$ular at the time. *lood and death $lay
a large $art in such $lays. The S$anish Tragedy is in some ays
rather like Shakes$eare.s Hamlet. A ghost 6 a$$ears, demanding
re#enge% but it a$$ears to the !ather o! a murdered son, not to the
son o! a murdered !ather, as in Hamlet. A girl ho is mad, and a
man ith the name Horatio 3as in Hamlet5 also a$$ear in the $lay.
There is a belie! that ,yd once rote a $lay based on the Hamlet
story, and that Shakes$eare sa it% but it has ne#er been !ound.
The !irst great dramatist o! the time as 9H@"STOKHE@
8A@LO:E.
His !irst tragedy, Tamburlaine the -reat 3)EDA or earlier5, is in
to $arts. "t is ritten in the s$lendid blank #erse that 8arloe
brought to the stage. The !irst $art deals ith the rise to $oer o!
Tamburlaine, a she$herd and a robber. His terrible ambition dri#es
him e#er onards to more $oer and more cruelty. His armies
conIuer *a1aHet, ruler o! Turkey, hom Tamburlaine takes !rom
$lace to $lace in a cage, like a ild animal. "n the second $art
Tamburlaine is $ulled to *abylon in a carriage. "t is dran by to
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kings, hom he hi$s and curses hen they do not go !ast
enough. He shouts angrily0
:hatC 9an ye dra but7 tenty miles a day2 A only
:hen they get tired, they are taken aay to be hanged, and then
to s$are kings ha#e to $ull the carriage. Tamburlaine dri#es on
to *abylon, and on arri#al gi#es orders !or all the $eo$le there to
be droned. His li!e is #iolent in other ays. He cuts an arm to
sho his son that a ound is unim$ortant. He shouts !or a ma$.
.-i#e me a ma$., he cries, .then let me see ho much is le!t !or me
to conIuer all the orld..
The $lay as ell recei#ed, but the #iolence o! the language
and o! the action, and the terrible cruelty, are serious !aults. <et
8arloe.s .mighty line. !ills the heart and satis!ies the sense o!
beauty. "t is usually $oer!ul and e!!ecti#e, and it is not used only
to describe #iolence. 8arloe disco#ered the s$lendid $oer o!
the sound o! $ro$er names0
"s it not bra#e.7 to be a king, TE9HELLES, =S=89ASA;E
and THE@"&A8AS2
"s it not $assing7 bra#e to be a king,
A;& @"&E "; T@"=8KH9 TH@O=-H KE@SEKOL"S2 A
!ine * #ery 9 #ictory
The ?e o! 8alta 3"EDB25 is again o!ten #iolent. "n it the
go#ernor o! 8alta taxes the ?es there, but *arabas, a rich ?e,
re!uses to $ay. His money and house are there!ore taken !rom him
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and in re#enge he begins a li!e o! #iolence. He $oisons his on
daughter, Abigail, and causes her lo#er to die too. He hel$s the
Turks hen they attack 8alta, and so they make him go#ernor%
but he decides to kill all the Turkish o!!icers. He arranges that the
!loor o! a big room can be made to !a.C " suddenly, and then in#ites
them to a meal in it. He ho$es thus to destroy them hile they are
eating, but an enemy makes his secret knon, and he himsel! is
thron don belo the !loor into a #essel o! boiling ater. His
last ords are0
&ie, li!eC >ly, soulC Tongue, curse thy !ill and dieC
The language o! The ?e o! 8alta is not alays so !ierce%
some/times the beauty o! sound and rhythm E 3and again o!
$ro$er names5 is #ery !ine0
" ho$e my shi$s
" sent !or Egy$t and the bordering isles Are gotten u$ by ;ilus
andering banks% 8ine argosies7 !rom Alexandria
Loaden ith s$ice7 and silks, no under sail, Are smoothly
gliding9 don by 9andy2 shore To 8alta through our
8editerranean Sea.
A big shi$s ( $lant ith shar$ taste c mo#e smoothly & 9rete
The so!tness o! the last line suggests #ery ell the Iuiet
mo#ement o! a sailing shi$ in the old days.
&r. >austus as $robably acted in )EDD. The $lay is based on
the ell-knon story o! a man 3>austus5 ho sold his soul to the
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de#il so as to ha#e $oer and riches in this li!e. 8arloe.s
>austus agrees to gi#e his soul to the de#il, 8e$histo$heles, in
return !or tenty-!our years o! s$lendid li!e. &uring these years
the de#il must ser#e him and gi#e him hat he ants. The end o!
the $lay, hen death is near and >austus is !illed ith !ear, is a
highlight o! terrible descri$tion.
One o! the things that >austus orders the de#il to do !or him is
to bring back !rom the dead the beauti!ul Helen o! Troy, the cause
o! the Tro1an ar. :hen >austus sees her, his delight esca$es
!rom his li$s in these ords0
:as this the !ace that launched7 a thousand shi$s And burnt the
to$less toers o! "lium*2
Seet Helen, make me imrnortal.r ith a kiss. 3,isses her.5 Her
li$s suck !orth my soul% see here it !liesC
9ome, Helen, comeC -i#e me my soul again ...
(, thou art !airer than the e#ening air,
9lad& in the beauty o! a thousand stars.
A sent !orth * Troy 9 undying & clothed
Such beauti!ul language is #ery di!!erent !rom the rough #erse
o! -orboduc.
8arloe.s Edard the Second 3)EB+5, $erha$s his best $lay,
deals ith English history. "t is $ossible that he hel$ed
Shakes$eare ith the riting o! $arts o! Henry the Sixth and other
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early $lays. 9ertainly 8arloe.s riting set an exam$le !or other
dramatists in the great EliHabethan age in to im$ortant ays0 the
use o! $oer!ul blank #erse lines to strengthen the drama, and the
de#elo$ment o! charac/ter to heighten the sense o! tragedy. :hen
Shakes$eare added to these his on mastery o! $lot ' and his
human sym$athy, the drama reached its greatest heights.
8arloe as killed in a Iuarrel at a Thames-side inn be!ore he
as thirty years o! age. "! he had li#ed longer, he ould $robably
ha#e ritten other s$lendid $lays. Shakes$eare certainly thought
so.
The order in hich the $lays o! :"LL"A8 SHA,ESKEA@E
ere ritten is uncertain. "n !act, e kno #ery little about his
li!e. He as born and educated at Strat!ord-on-A#on, married
Anne Hathaay in )EDG, and later ent to London, here he
orked in a theatre. "t is knon that he as an actor and dramatist
by )EBG.
Shakes$eare.s earliest ork is $robably seen in certain historical
$lays. Kerha$s he began his ork as a dramatist by im$ro#ing the
ork o! other riters% the three $lays hich tell the story o! Henry
the Sixth may be an exam$le o! this. "n @ichard the Third 3"EB+25
and the later @ichard the Second 3"EBE25 e see Shakes$eare
gradually disco#ering his $oers and mastering his art. "n the
smooth blank #erse o! @ichard the Third, the sense usually ends
ith the line0
Oh, " ha#e $assed a miserable night,
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So !ull o! ugly sights, o! ghastlyA dreams, That, as " am a
9hristian !aith!ul man,
" ould not s$end another such a night Though .t ere to buy a
orld o! ha$$y days. A terrible
"n @ichard the Second there is rather more !reedom. Although
the line usually ends at a natural $ause, there are times hen the
sense $ushes through !rom one line to the next0
>or -od.s sake, let us sit u$on the ground And tell sad stories o!
the death o! kings ... All murdered% !or ithin the hollo cron
That rounds7 the mortal * tem$les7 o! a king ,ee$s &eath his
court
A surrounds * ha#ing only a man.s li!e 9 side o! the head
The rhythm o! the blank #erse is still Iuite strictly obser#ed%
Shakes$eare has not yet de#elo$ed the master.s !reedom hich
brings such !reshness and $oer to his later #erse $lays% but the
start is here.
@omeo and ?uliet 3)EB6-E5 is the !irst o! Shakes$eare.s great
tragedies. The $lot o! this story o! $ure and tragic lo#e is knon in
all $arts o! the ci#iliHed orld. The deaths o! @omeo and ?uliet are
necessary0 their !amilies are enemies, and death is the only ay
out o! their ho$eless situation. The tragedy is dee$ly sad and
mo#ing, but ithout the shock o! the terrible tragedies that
!olloed later.
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The !irst o! the comedies as $robably A 9omedy o! Errors
3)EBG/+25% its $lot de$ends on the likeness o! tins A and the
likeness o! their tin ser#ants, ith the resulting con!usion. The
order o! the early comedies a!ter this may be The Taming o! the
Shre D, The To -entlemen o! Ferona, and Lo#e.s Labour.s
Lost. The real ste$ !orard comes ith A 8idsummer ;ight.s
&ream 3)EBE-'5, hich shos Shakes$eare.s groing $oer in
comedy. The di!!erent stories o! this light-hearted $lay are mixed
together ith great skill. The !eelings o! the lo#ers are ne#er
alloed to tire the audience% some/thing really !unny alays
interru$ts them in time. *ut there is true sym$athy in the treatment
o! character, and a great deal o! beauty in many descri$ti#e lines.
The next $lay e should notice is The 8erchant o! Fenice
3)EB'-A5.
"n this, Antonio, a merchant, borros money !rom Shylock to
hel$ his !riend *assanio, ho ants to marry the rich and
beauti!ul Kortia. Shylock hates Antonio and only agrees to lend
the money on condition that, i! it is not re$aid at the right time,
Antonio shall $ay a $ound o! his !lesh. :hen Antonio.s shi$s are
recked, and to e#eryone.s sur$rise he cannot $ay the money,
Shylock demands his $ound o! !lesh. The case is taken to court,
and Antonio has no ho$e. Then suddenly Kortia, dressed as a
layer, a$$ears in court. At !irst she tries to $ersuade Shylock to
ha#e mercy, but she does not succeed, e#en ith the !amous
s$eech about mercy0
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"t Mmercy4 dro$$eth as the gentle rain !rom hea#en =$on the
$lace beneath% it is tice blessed0
"t blesseth him that gi#es and him that takes .T is mightiest in
the mightiest% it becomes2 The throned monarcb .. better than his
cron.
A suits * king
Then Kortia hersel! becomes hard0 Shylock may ha#e his !lesh
but not one dro$ o! blood% there is nothing abou t blood in the
agree/ment. As Shylock cannot take the !lesh ithout s$illing
some blood, Antonio is sa#ed.
The story is nonsense - no one belie#es that li#ing !lesh can
!orm $art o! an agreement at la - but the $lay is great. "t is called
a comedy, though Shylock is, in !act, badly treated. He has been
called the !irst great Shakes$earian character, the !irst great tragic
!igure.
As <ou Like "t 3"EBB25, another im$ortant comedy, is the story
o!a good duke B li#ing in the !orest o! Arden because his e#il
brother has dri#en him out o! his country. Lo#e a!!airs $lay an
im$ortant $art, and the interest is increased hen the girl @osalind
dresses hersel! as a man. 3;o actresses a$$eared on the
EliHabethan stage. The $arts o! girls ere taken by men, and so
.@osalind. as more accustomed to a man.s clothes than a
oman.s.5 8inor characters in the $lay include the sad and
thought!ul ?acIues and the ise !ool Touchstone. The $astoral
setting gi#es us some beauti!ul descri$/tions, but there is a reality
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about the characters that as not to be seen in earlier $astoral
$oetry and $lays. "t is true that nature at its most cruel is seen as
kinder than men in courts and tons0
*lo, blo, thou inter ind, Thou arr7 not so unkind
As man.s ingratitude7
A you are * shoing that he is not grate!ul% unthank!ulness
*ut Touchstone is not $ersuaded0
Ay, no am " in Arden% the more !ool ". :hen " as at home, "
as in a better $lace% but tra#ellers must be content.
8uch Ado About ;othing 3)EBD-B5, a ell-balanced comedy
ith good s$eeches, is also built on lo#e a!!airs% yet there is a dark
side o! the $lay hich is there but almost hidden. The a$$earance
o! a sel!ish young man ho brings sorro to others is re$eated in
the e#en darker comedy, All.s :ell that Ends :ell, the date o!
hich is uncertain.
Tel!th ;ight 3"'((25 has been called the $er!ection o! English
comedy. The hole $lay is ali#e ith humour and action. The
skill in the changes !rom bright to dark, !rom gentle to se#ere, is
matched by the skill in the arrangement o! the #erse and $rose.
The &uke Orsino belie#es that he is in lo#e ith the Lady Oli#ia,
but he is more in lo#e ith lo#e. ."! music be the !ood o! lo#e,. he
says at the beginning o! the $lay, .$lay on.. There are tins again,
and they cause con!usion hen the girl dresses like her brother.
To knights, Sir Toby *elch and Sir Andre Aguecheek, $ro#ide
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amusement ith their !oolish $lans and their drinking. The $lay
contains se#eral songs. Here is one0
(, mistress mine, here are you roaming.#2 (, stay and hear%
your true lo#e.s coming, That can sing both high and lo.
Tri$7 no !urther, $retty seeting% ?ourneys end in lo#ers
meeting, E#ery ise man.s son doth kno.
:hat is lo#e2 .T is not herea!ter% Kresent mirth2 hath $resent
laughter% :hat.s to come is still unsure.
"n delay there lies no $lenty%
Then come kiss me, seet and tenty, <outh.s a stu!! ill not
endure.7,
A andering * dance c amusement ( last
The to $arts o! ,ing Henry the >ourth 3"EBA-D5 introduced the
!at knight Sir ?ohn >alsta!! to the orld. Krobably his im$ortance
in the $lay is greater than Shakes$eare at !irst intended% but he
gre to like the man, and so did his audiences, although >alsta!! is
certainly not a model o! knighthood. The young Krince Henry
3later to become ,ing Henry the >i!th5 astes hours drinking and
1oking ith >alsta!!, ho is $roudly $enniless, delight!ully rude,
!atly icked, onder!ully un$leasant to look at, boast!ully late !or
battles, and a cheer!ul coard ho carries a bottle e#en on the
battle!ield. :hen Henry becomes king, >alsta!! ex$ects to be
gi#en a $osition o! honour 3and an endless su$$ly o! re!reshment5
by his old com$anion. :hat a shock he getsC ." kno thee not old
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man. is ,ing Henry.s anser to his greeting. .>all to thy $rayers..
8uch has been ritten about the cruel treatment o! >alsta!!. but
Henry as king, cannot ha#e the !at old knight as a com$anion.
>alsta!! is heart-broken. Henry allos him some money, but
considers the a!!airs o! England more im$ortant than the a!!airs o!
Sir ?ohn >alsta!!.
Henry the >i!th as $er!ormed in " EBB. "t is !illed ith the lo#e
o! country and the s$irit o! ar. Those ho anted to see >alsta!!
again ere disa$$ointed0 he is not there. "t is said that Oueen
EliHabeth, s$eaking !or her $eo$le, demanded another $lay hich
ould sho >alsta!! in lo#e% and that Shakes$eare there!ore rote
The 8erry :i#es o! :indsor 3"E(C25 in to eeks. "t is a $leasant
$lay, but ithout great im$ortance.
"t is con#enient no to consider the three @oman tragedies, and
then the !our great tragedies. ?ulius 9aesar 3" EBB25 is $robably the
best Shakes$earian $lay to read !irst. "n the earliest $lays there is
not enough thought to !ill the language% the later $lays are di!!icult
because so much thought is $ressed into the language that it is not
#ery clear. "n ?ulius 9aesar the thought and the language are about
balanced. "ts structure.2 is also clear0 the rise !rom the introduction
to the crisis.C 3the killing o! 9aesar5 in Act """, and the gradual !all
to the tragic end o! the $lay 3the deaths o! the cons$irators)G5.
>urther, ?ulius 9aesar is not so dark and hea#y as 9oriolanus, nor
so loose as Antony and 9leo$atra.
The hero-7 is *rutus, ho 1oins 9assius and the other
cons$ira/tors in the $lan to kill 9aesar. They belie#e that he ants
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to make himsel! king. 8uch o! the $lay is no !amous. *e!ore a
large crod o! @oman citiHens Antony makes his great s$eech
o#er the body o! 9aesar. " t begins0
>riends, @omans, countrymen, lend me your earsC " come to
bury 9aesar, not to $raise him.
The e#il that men do li#es a!ter them%
The goon is o!t interred/. ith their bones.
So let it be ith 9aesar ...
A buried
<et this s$eech is not a great deal !iner than many others. On
seeing the dead body o! *rutus at the end o! the $lay, his enemy
Antony says0
This as the noblest @oman o! them all All the cons$irators,
sa#e7 only he,
&id that7 they did in en#y o! great 9aesar. He only, in a general
honest thought,
And common good to all, made.i one o! them. His li!e as
gentle% and the elements.2
So mixed in him that ;ature might stand u$ And say to all the
orld, .This as a manC.
A exce$t * hat c became ( Iualities
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The main sub1ect o! Antony and 9leo$atra 3)'('-A5 is Antony.s
lo#e Ror the Egy$tian Iueen. He returns to @ome !rom Egy$t to
meet Octa#ius 9aesar, hose sister, Octa#ia, he marries.
9leo$atra is 1ealous, and Antony returns to Egy$t. Octa#ius
!ollos ith shi$s and men, and de!eats Antony at Alexandria.
Hearing 3!alsely5 that 9leo$atra is dead, Antony !alls on his
sord, is carried to 9leo$atra, and dies in her arms. She then takes
her on li!e by alloing a snake to bite her.
9oriolanus 3)'(A5 concerns the li!e and death o! 9aius 8arcius
9oriolanus, a $roud @oman commander ho leads his armies
against the Folscians and beats them. On his return to @ome, he
ishes to become one o! the consuls 3rulers5 o! the city% but to
succeed in this aim, he must ask the $eo$le !or #otes. His $ride
makes this im$ossible0 he cannot beg !or #otes or !or anything
else. He is dri#en !rom @ome !or insulting the $eo$le, comes back
ith a Folsican army to attack his on city, is met there by his
i!e and his mother, and is $ersuaded to lead the army aay. The
Folscians then kill him Ror !ailing in his duty to them.
"n each o! these tragedies, the !atal eakness o! character, and
the tragic course o! e#ents, hich together lead a great man to
ruin, are clear enough. *rutus is not a $ractical man. He lo#es
@ome more than he lo#es his !riend, 9aesar% but he is thron into
a situation here he must deal ith $ractical li!e and ar. He
makes se#eral bad mistakes. >or exam$le, he allos Antony to
s$eak to the $eo$le a!ter himsel!% and the crod remembers
Antony.s s$eech better because it is later. A $ractical man ould
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s$eak last to an uneducated crod. He uses reasons to sho the
crod that the murder as necessary. Antony more isely stirs u$
their !eelings.
"n the next $lay Antony is ruined because o! his lo#e o! com!ort
and lo#e. 9oriolanus is ruined by his terrible $ride. "! he had
humbly asked !or #otes, the $eo$le ould gladly ha#e chosen him
as consul% but he scorns their dirty bodies and their stu$id minds.
This recks his on li!e. 8any men are not $ractical% many men
lo#e com!ort% many men are $roud. *ut they esca$e destruction
because the course o! e#ents hel$s to hide their eaknesses.
"n Hamlet 3)'((- "5, the $rince o! that name sus$ects that his
dead !ather, ,ing o! &enmark, has been murdered by his uncle,
9laudius. 9laudius has become king and has married Hamlet.s
mother. The ghost o! Hamlet.s dead !ather a$$ears to him in the
castle o! Elsinore and tells him about the murder. Hamlet decides
on re#enge% but then he begins to think too much, and to hesitate.
:as the ghost telling the truth2 Hamlet must try to !ind $roo! o!
the murder. "n the crisis in Act """, Hamlet has his $roo!. *ut still
he hesitates. The $lay still holds our attention, and Hamlet kee$s
our sym$athy, but the end is certain and una#oidable.
Hamlet.s tragic eakness is hesitation, inability to act hen
action is needed. He is too much o! a thinker.
"n ,ing Lear 3"'('25 e see an old king thron out o! his home
by to icked daughters, and treated so badly that he goes mad
and dies. "t is $erha$s Shakes$eare.s greatest ork, reaching into
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the dee$est $laces o! the human s$irit% but as a $lay on the stage it
is #ery di!!icult, i! not im$ossible, to act. Lear.s eakness is his
o$en/ness to !iatter#.l7 He gi#es his kingdom to the to e#il
daughters ho !latter him, and nothing to the youngest girl, ho
tells the truth but lo#es him best.
"n 8acbeth 3)'(E-'5 the hero, 8acbeth, must be considered
together ith his i!e, Lady 8acbeth. Three old itches tell
8acbeth that he ill recei#e high honours and then become king.
The high honours come, and he decides to hel$ !ate to make him
king. ,ing &uncan stays ith him at his castle, and he and Lady
8acbeth murder the ,ing% but &uncan.s sons, 8alcolm and
&onalbain, esca$e. 8alcolm brings an army against 8acbeth, ho
is killed. Lady 8acbeth is already dead. Here are some ords o!
8acbeth hen he hears o! her death0
She should ha#e died herea!ter 7%
There ould ha#e been a time !or such a ord. Tomorro and
tomorro and tomorro
9ree$s in this $etty $ace7 !rom day to day
To the last syllable.7 o! recorded time%
And all our yesterdays ha#e lighted !ools
The ay to dusty death. Out, out, brie! candle.7C Li!e.s but a
alking shado, a $oor $layer,
That struts and !rets E his hour u$on the stage And then is heard
no more% it is a tale
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Told by an idiot7, !ull o! sound and !ury,7 Signi!yingH nothing.
A A!ter this * slo s$eed 9 $art o! a ord ( short li!e
E alks $roudly and orries > !ool -anger 7meaning
9om$are these lines ith the lines on $. 6) !rom @ichard the
Third. The 8acbeth s$eech has the ring o! $oer, but the metre is
treated ith the !reedom o! a master, and the sense runs !reIuently
$ast the end o! a line.
l"t "S i a tale "
" TOld " by an 7id " lot, !ull " o! sound " and !ury "
Othello 3)'(6-E5 is the story o! a bra#e 8oorish commander in
9y$rus ho has a beauti!ul i!e, &esdemona. "ago, an e#il old
soldier, has seen 9assio raised in rank abo#e him, and tries to
make Othello belie#e that 9assia and &esdemona are lo#ers.
Othello too easily belie#es this, and kills &esdemona. Some critics
ha#e said that Othello has no !atal eakness% bu t such unI
uestioning 1ealousy is great eakness, e#en i! it comes !rom a
mind too noble to doubt e#il suggestions.
The main last $lays o! Shakes$eare are usually called the
romances. They are 9ymbeLine 3)'(B-)(5, The :inter.s Tale
3)')(-) "5, and The Tem$est.J 3)' " " - " G5. "t is generally agreed
that The Tem$est is his last com$lete $lay. All these orks are
coloured ith the idea o! !orgi#eness. There is still ickedness in
these orlds, but it is not
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the !inal ord o! the $lays. -one is the #iolence o! the great
tragedies. "nstead e ha#e ha$$ier things - beauti!ul islands and
beau ti!ul girls0 "mogen in 9ymbeLine, Kerdita in The :inter.s
.Tale, and 8iranda in The Tem$est. A s$eech in the last o! these
$lays seems to sho that Shakes$eare had decided to rite no
more. This is $art o! it0
Our re#els7 no are ended. These our actors As " !oretold *
you, ere all s$irits and
Are melted into air, into thin air ..
:e are such stu!!
As dreams are made on, 9 and our little li!e "s rounded ith a
slee$.
A amusements * told 3you5 to ex$ect 9 o!
The immense $oer and #ariety o! Shakes$eare.s ork ha#e led
to the idea that one man cannot ha#e ritten it all% yet it must be
true that one man did. There is usually more in the language o! the
later $lays than at !irst meets the eye. They must be read again and
again i! e ant to reach don to the bottom o! the sense. "! a
ne $lay is !ound and su$$osed to be by Shakes$eare, e can
decide hether it belongs to his later ork. "! it does, no one .0<ill
understand the hoLe meaning at a !irst reading.
A great dramatist ho !olloed Shakes$eare, but ho as !ar
belo him, as *E;?A8"; ?O;SO;. His ork is more learned
and less ins$ired-7 than Shakes$eare.s, and the ancient classics had
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a great in!luence on it. His best knon $lay is E#ery 8an in his
Humour 3)EBD5. A .humour. meant a Iuality made into a $erson, a
s$ecial !oolish/ness, or the chie! strong !eeling in a man. This is
one o! ?onson.s eaknesses as a dramatist. His characters are
alking humours, and not really human. "n this $lay ,itely, a
merchant, has a $retty i!e and his humour is 1ealousy. He
sus$ects a young man, ,noell, o! ha#ing ideas about the $retty
i!e. ,noell.s !ather also has a humour0 it is anxiety about his
son.s beha#iour. *obadill, a coardly soldier, is one o! ?onson.s
best-dran characters.
?onson rote about tenty $lays alone, and others ith other
$layrights. His tragedy Se1anus as $layed. at the -lobe Theatre
in )'(+ by Shakes$eare.s com$any. Fol$one the >ox, a comedy,
as also acted at the -lobe, and at the to old uni#ersities in
)'('.
?onson as also one o! the best $roducers o! masIues at this or
any other time. These masIues are dramatic entertainments ith
dancing and music, hich are more im$ortant than the story and
the characters.
?onson as $roud and rude. He said, in e!!ect, .Here is my $lay.
"t.s good. "! you don.t like it, that.s your !ault.. He scorne2 much.
o! the other dramatic ork o! the time, but not Shakes$eare s. O!
him ?onson said0
Soul o! the AgeC
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The a$$lauseC delightC the onder o! our stageC 8y
Shakes$eare, riseC " ill not lodge7 thee by 9haucer, or S$enser,
or bid *eaumont lie
A little !urther, to make thee a room.
Thou art a moniment .. ithout a tomb7,
And art ali#e still, hile thy book doth li#e, And e ha#e its2
to read, and $raise to gi#e.
A $lace 3you beside5 * gra#estone c gra#e & skill
?onson belie#ed in the unities o! $lace, time and action. That is
to say, he thought that the scenes o! a $lay ought all to be in one
$lace, or at least not too !ar !rom each other. "! the audience ere
su$$osed to tra#el a !e hundred miles beteen one scene and the
next, he did not think it reasonable. The unity o! time meant that
the e#ents o! a $lay ought not to s$read o#er more than tenty-
!our hours% and most.o!his on $lays !ollo this rule. The unity o!
action meant that nothing outside the main story should be
alloed intothe.$lay. He crossed out a !ine s$eech in the original
E#ery 8an in his Humour because it as in $raise o! $oetry and
did not suit the rest o! the action.
Among his other $lays are E#ery 8an out o! his Humour
3)EBB5, E$icoene, The Silent :oman 3r'(B5, The Alchemist07
3r')O5 and *artholome >air 3r')65. They are all remarkable
$lays, but it is hard to !ind a single ordinary $erson in them.
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Other dramatists o! the time include ?OH; :E*STE@, ho
de$ended a lot on #iolence, re#enge, murder, rong-doing, and so
on. His best to $lays are The :hite &e#il 3)' " " 25 and The
&uchess o! 8 al!i 3)')65, both o! hich are !rightening. He is not
a!raid o! shoing almost unbearable su!!ering% yet his ork
contains grou$s o! ords that stay long in the mind. Among these
are, .The !riendless bodies o! un buried men., !rom The :hite
&e#il, and ." am &uchess o! 8al!i still. and ." kno death hath ten
thousand se#eral doors !or men to take their exitsC7, !rom The
&uchess i! 8al!i.
>@A;9"S *EA=8O;T and ?OH; >LET9HE@ together
rote a number o! $lays at this time, and $erha$s >letcher also
orked ith Shakes/$eare. :ith *eaumont he $roduced The
,night o! the *urning Kestle.7 3)'(A5, a comedy hich hel$s the
modern reader to understand the theatre and stage o! those days.
The to men also rote tragedies, such as The 8aid.s Tragedy
3)') "5.
Chapter Five
John Milton and his time
"t is generally agreed that the English $oet second a!ter
Shakes$eare is ?OH; 8"LTO;, born in London and educated at
9hrist.s 9ollege, 9ambridge. A!ter lea#ing the uni#ersity, he
studied at home in Horton, *uckinghamshire 3)'+G-A5, and as
grate!ul to his !ather !or alloing him to do this instead o!
$re$aring !or a $ro!ession. He li#ed a $ure li!e, belie#ing that he
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had a great $ur$ose to com$lete. At college he as knon as The
Lady o! 9hrist.s.
"t is con#enient to consider his orks in three di#isions. At !irst
he rote his shorter $oems at Horton. ;ext he rote mainly $rose.
His three greatest $oems belong to the last grou$.
At the age o! G+ he had still done little in li!e, as he admits in a
sonnet0
Ho soon hath time, the subtle7 thie! o! youth Stolen on his
ing my three-and-tentieth yearC 8y hasting days !ly on ith
!ull career7
And my late s$ring no bud2 or blossom2 shoeth. A secretly
cle#er * at !ull s$eed 9 young !loer ( !ull !loer
Among his other sonnets, he rote one on his on blindness0
:hen " consider ho my light is s$ent
Ere7 hal! my days, in this dark orld and ide, A be!ore 3" ha#e
li#ed5
And that one talent7 hich is death to hide
Lodged ith me useless, though my soul more bent7 To ser#e
thereith.2 my 8aker, and $resent
8y true account, lest he returning chide 7
.&oth -od exact7 day-labour, light denied2.
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" !ondly7 ask. *ut Katience, to $re#ent
That murmur7, soon re$lies, .-od doth not need Either man.s
ork or his on gi!ts% ho best *ear his mild yokel, they ser#e
him best0 his state "s kingly% thousands at his bidding5 s$eed7
And $ost.0 o.er land and ocean ithout rest% They also ser#e ho
only stand and ait..
* ability 3to see5 9 ishing & ith it E blame me > demand -
!oolishly H com$laint " ser#ice ? orders , run L rush
8ilton.s studies at Horton ere dee$ and ide. One o! his
notebooks contains $ieces taken !rom eighty riters - -reek,
Latin, English, >rench and "talian. At the same time he as
studying music.
L. Allegro 3the ha$$y man5 and "" Kenseroso 3the thought!ul
man5 3both )'+.G5 are usually considered together. 3The ord
Kenseroso should be Kensieroso in good "talian.5 "n the !irst the
$oet describes the 1oys o! li!e in the country in s$ring% outside in
the !ields in the morning, but at home in the e#ening, en1oying
music and books. "n the second $oem, hich is set in the autumn,
he studies during the day and goes to a great church in the e#ening
to listen to the s$lendid music.
9omus 3)'+65, also ritten at Horton, is a masIue, and Arca6es
3"'++25 $art o! one. The music !or these as ritten by Henry
Laes, a musician to ,ing 9harles ). Lycidas 3)'+A5 is a
sorro!ul $astoral on the death by droning o! Edard ,ing, ho
had been a student ith 8ilton at 9ambridge. "n one $art the $oet
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argues that some men might think it useless to study hard, but the
ho$e o! !ame dri#es the s$irit onards0
:ere it not better done, as others use, To s$ort ith Amaryllis
in the shade, Or ith the tangles2 o! ;eaera.s hair2 A con!usion
>ame is the s$ur7 that the clear s$irit doth raise 3That last
in!irmity7 o! noble mind5
To scorn delights and li#e laborious2 days. * dri#ing !orce c
eakness & hard-orking
8ilton.s $rose orks ere mainly concerned ith church
a!!airs, di#orce S and !reedom. 8any o! them are #iolent in
language, and ha#e neither literary #alue nor interest !or modern
readers. The arguments about religion e may neglect entirely.
The di#orce $am$hlets7 ere mainly the result o! his on hasty
marriage 3)'6+5 to 8ary Koell, a girl o! se#enteen. 3"t as not a
success.5
His best $rose ork is $robably the Areo$agitica 3)'665, A
S$eech !or the Liberty o! =nlicensed Krinting. This is good
riting, and it contains little o! the #iolent language o! the other
$am$hlets. 9alm reasoning and smooth ords go together, and the
style is !airly sim$le. 8ilton.s sincere belie! in the im$ortance o!
!reedom o! riting and s$eech !ills the book ith honest !eeling.
Here are three sa yings taken !rom it0
O$inion in good men is but knoledge in the making. He ho
destroys a good book kills reason itsel!.
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y
A good book is the $recious li!e-blood o! a master s$irit.
The English ci#il + ar beteen 9harles " and Karliament
39rom/ell5 began in )'6.G and lasted until )'6'% and it as
!olloed by the second ci#il ar, )'6D-E). &uring these years
8ilton orked hard at his $am$hlets, su$$orted 9romell, and
became a minister o! the go#ernment. His eyesight began to !ail,
and by )'E " he as totally blind. He became un$o$ular hen
9harles "" as made king 3)''(5, but it as !rom this time
onards that he rote his three greatest orks.
He considered se#eral sub1ects !or his great $oem, and at one
time anted to rite on ,ing Arthur% but he !inally chose the !all
o! the angels, the story o! Adam and E#e, and their !ailure to kee$
-od.s commands. This great e$ic $oem, Karadise 6 Lost 3!irst
$rinted in )''A and sold !or T)(5 as $lanned in ten books, but
ritten in tel#e. The scene is the hole uni#erse, including
Hea#en and Hell. 8ilton.s s$lendid #oice can be heard here at its
best, in the great blank #erse, strengthened by his immense
learning and ornamented by all the skill o! a master $oet. Hell is
described like this0
A dungeon7 horrible7, on all sides round
As one great !urnace2 !lamed - yet !rom those !lames ;o light,
but rather darkness #isible.2
Ser#ed only to disco#er sights o! oe ..
@egions7 o! sorro, dole!ul! shades, here $eace And rest can
ne#er dell7, ho$e ne#er comes That comes to all.
52
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y
A $rison * terrible c !ierce !ire ( hich can be seen E sorro >
$laces - sad H li#e
Karadise Lost contains hundreds o! remarkable thoughts $ut into
musical #erse. The !olloing are some o! these0
The mind is its on $lace, and in itsel!
9an make a hea#en o! hell, a hell o! hea#en.
3*ook ", GE6.5
*etter to reign7 in hell than ser#e in hea#en.
A rule 3*ook ", G'+.5
>or ho ould lose
Though !ull o! $ain, this intellectual7 being These thoughts that
ander through eterniry.72
A o! the mind * endless time 3*ook G, )6'.5
Long is the ay
And hard, that out o! hell leads u$ to light.
3*ook G, 6+G.5 So !areell7 ho$e, and ith ho$e !areell !ear.
A good-bye 3*ook 6, )(D.5
Like 8arloe, 8ilton understood the beauty o! $ro$er names.
There are many exam$les o! this in Karadise Lost. Here are three0
Thick as autumnal lea#es that stre7 the brooks7 "n
Fallombrosa, here the Etrurian shades
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y
High o#er-arched emboer.7
A co#er * streams c !orm a roo!
All ho since ...
?oustedA in As$ramont or 8ontalban, &amaseo, or 8aroeeo, or
Trebisond,
Or hom *iserta sent !rom A!rie shore :hen 9harlernain ith
all his $eerage .. !ell *y >ontarabbia.
A !ought as knights do * nobles 3*ook ", EDG5
As hen to them ho sail
*eyond the 9a$e o! Ho$e and no are $ast 8oHambic, o!! at
sea north-east inds blo Sabaean odours7 !rom the s$icy7 shore
O! Araby the *lest.
A smells * seet-smelling 3*ook 6, )EB5
Karadise @egained 3$ublished )'A "5 is more se#ere, less
s$lendid than Karadise Lost5 yet occasionally it also shos the
same use o! names. These call u$ rich images !or the reader to
hom the# are !amiliar and add to the $oer and beauty o! the
sound hen the lines are read aloud0
O! !aery damsels7 met in !orest ide *y knights o! Logres* or
o! Lyories7, Lancelot, 9 or Kelleas, 9 or Kellenore. 9
c s$irit-like girls * countries in the stories o! ,ing Arthur
knights o! ,mg Arthur.s @ound Table *ook ).5
54
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y
Samson Agonistes 3)'A "5, a tragedy on the -reek model,
describes the last days o! Samson, hen he is blind and a $risoner
o! the Khilistines at -aHa. He is !orced to go aay to $ro#ide
amusement !or the Khilistine lords% but later a messenger arri#es to
say that Samson has $ulled don the hole theatre on their heads
and his on. 8ilton had no been blind !or about tenty years,
and about three years later he died. Samson.s sorros no doubt
reminded him o! his on, and some o! the lines o! Samson
$robably re!lect 8ilton.s $ersonal !eelings0
A little onard lend thy guiding hand To these dark ste$s, a
little !urther on.
o dark, dark, dark, amid the blaHe2 o! noon "rreco#erably7 dark,
total ecli$se7,
:ithout all ho$e o! day.
And " shall shortly7 be ith them that rest. A brightness *
ithout cure c darkening & soon
L<@"9 KOETS. Though 8ilton toers abo#e all other $oets o!
the time, se#eral lyric-riters ha#e le!t us seet songs.
@"9HA@& LOFELA9E rote To Althea5 !rom Krison 3.Stone
alls do not a $rison make, ;or iron bars a cage.5 and To Lucasta,
on -oing to the :ars, hich includes the !amous ords, ." could
not lo#e thee, &ear, so much, Lo#ed " not honour more..
S"@ ?OH; S=9,L";- as a !amous it E at court. He is a
light/hearted and o!ten careless $oet0
55
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y
Out u$on itCA " ha#e lo#ed Three hole days together, And am
like to lo#e thee more "! it $ro#e... !air eather.
Acurse *is
@O*E@T HE@@"9, as considered by the men o! his on
time to be the best li#ing lyric $oet. He rites ell about the
English country and its !loers. His lo#e songs are also seet0
" dare not ask a kiss%
" dare not beg a smile% Lest ha#ing that or this,
" might gro $roud the hile.
;o, no, the utmost7 share O! my desire shall be Only to kiss that
air
That lately kissed thee.
A greatest
3TO ELE9T@A5
E it, the ability to use language in a cle#er and amusing ay% a
it, a $erson res$ected !or this ability% ad1. itty.
At a bout this time E&8=;& :ALLE@ rote some o! the
earliest heroic cou$lets, a !orm o! #erse hich as idely used in
the next hundred and !i!ty years.
"n this metre a cou$let is a $air o! lines, rhyming and o! !i#e
iambic !eet. :aller rote His 8a1esty.s Esca$e in the metre,
$robably about )'GE. He has been honoured !or in#enting the
56
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y
heroic cou$let but there are other $oets !or hom the claim is
made. They include Shakes$eare, ho rote in Othello, long
be!ore :aller.s $oem0
She that as e#er !air and ne#er $roud%
Had tongue at ill, and yet as ne#er loud% ;e#er lacked gold
and yet ent ne#er gay,
>led2 !rom her ish, and yet said, .;o " may.. She that, being
angered, her re#enge being nigh,* *ade2 her rong stay, and her
dis$leasure !ly.
A ran aay * near c ordered 3OTHELLO Act G, Scene ".5
*e!ore lea#ing the $oetry o! the $eriod ' e should notice the
$oem 9oo$er.s Hill, ritten by S"@ ?OH; &E;HA8 and
$ublished in )'6G.
"n beteen descri$tions o! the English countryside are
&enham.s thoughts on #arious sub1ects. >our lines on the @i#er
Thames are ell knon0
o could " !lo like thee and make thy stream 8y great exam$le,
as it is my theme/7l
Though dee$, yet clear% though gentle, yet not dull% Strong
ithout rage% ithout o.er!loing !ull.
A sub1ect
A small book in $rose, 8icrocosmogra$hie 3)'GD5 by ?OH;
EA@LE, o!!ered character studies o! ordinary $eo$le. "t is
57
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y
im$ortant because the descri$tion o! characters o! this sort as a
basis !or character/riting in the no#el, not yet born.
S"@ THO8AS *@O:;E, a doctor, rote in his di!!icult,
learned and $olished style on #arious sub1ects. His @eligio 8edici
3)'6G5 is a book on religion but includes o$inions on many other
sub1ects. Fulgar Errors, his longest ork, is a study o! the
mistaken belie!s o! the $oorly educated, such as the idea that an
ele$hant.s legs ha#e no 1oints.
The $eriod $roduced a number o! #ery interesting biogra$hies. A
A good exam$le is the li!e o! his !riend ?ohn &onne, the $oet,
ritten in )'6( by "QAA, :ALTO;. "t as ritten in excellent
$rose, but it is also interesting as a sources o! in!ormation on the
social history o! the time. The ork by "Haak :alton that is still
idely read and lo#ed is the 9om$leat Angler 3)'E+5, a $rose
discussion o! the art o! ri#er !ishing hich includes lo#ing
descri$tions o! ri#erside scenery and breaks o!! !or #erse and
songs and then !or ad#ice on $re$aring and cooking the !ish0
This dish o! meat7 is too good !or any but anglers, * or #ery
honest men.
A cooked !ish * men ho !ish ith rod and line
The closing o! the theatres in )'6G meant that no im$ortant
drama as $roduced in the years be!ore )''(.
58

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