Brakes

Brakes
Legislative service braking

0,54 0,36
(t
a
+ t
s
/2) [s]
700 500
F [N]
5,0 5,8
a [m/s
2
]
36,7 61,2 36,7 50,7
s [m]
s [m]
60 80 60 80
v [km/h]
N3 N2 N1 M3 M2 M1 Category
150
1 , 0
2
v
v +
130
15 , 0
2
v
v +
Requirements on the brake capability of vehicles stated in regulations:
ECE 13, ES 71/320 (For CZ: . 102/1995 Sb.)
Braking test with cold brakes, when no engine brake is applied for
empty and fully loaded vehicle
Legislative emergency braking
2,2
600 400
F
hand
[N]
700 500
F
foot
[N]
2,5 2,9
a [m/s
2
]
71,6 123,3 64,4 93,4
s [m]
s [m]
60 80 60 80
v [km/h]
ECE 13, ES 71/320 (For CZ: . 102/1995 Sb.)
Braking test with cold brakes, when no engine brake is applied for
empty and fully loaded vehicle
150
2 1 , 0
2
v
v +
130
2 15 , 0
2
v
v +
115
2 15 , 0
2
v
v +
Legislative partial failure
performance
A maximum pedal force of approx. 445 N should
achieve deceleration of approx. 0,3 g for the vehicle
loaded at GVW in the event of booster failure.
In case of hydraulic circuit failure, a maximum pedal
force of approx. 445 N should slow the vehicle loaden
at GVW at decelaration of approx 0,3 g.
In the event of repeated or continued braking with
increased brake temperatures a pedal travel of
approx. 115 to 130 mm out of 150 mm available
should be exceeded for a maximum pedal force of
approx. 445 N.
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) 105
Legislative Parking brake
The parking brake should hold the vehicle stationary
when laden at GVW on a 30 % slope with a hand
force of not more than 356 N or a foot force of less
than 445 N.
With the apply force limitations stated, the parking
brake should be able to slow a vehicle laden at GVW
at approx. 0,3 g.
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard (FMVSS) 105
Braking procedure
t
r
driver reaction time
t
a
brake system application time
t
s
deceleration rise time
t
v
constant deceleration time
s
1
distance traveled during reaction and
system application time
s
2
distance traveled during deceleration rise
time
s
3
distance traveled during constant
deceleration interval
Source: Limpert R.
Brake design and Safety
Driver reaction time
Perception phase: 0,32 to 0,55 s
Judgement and reaction initiation: 0,22 to 0,58 s
Reaction execution (pedal switch): 0,15 to 0,21 s
Driver reaction consists of:
perception judgement reaction initiation reaction execution
Drivers use distributive attention to scan entire scene. After swith to
concentrative attention the controlled reaction begin.
Source: Limpert R.
1,48 0,77 1,25 Eye movement > 5
o
1,33 0,68 1,12 Eye movement 0,5 to 5
o
0,78 0,36 0,64 No eye movement
98 %
(only 2 % are slower)
2 %
(only 2 % are faster)
Normal driver Reaction time [s]
Reaction time
Source: Mitschke M., Wallentowitz H.
Dynamik der Kraftfahrzeuge
The reaction time under influence of alcohol is multiplication of the standard driver reaction time
Brake system application time
Deceleration rise time
0,18 0,14 0,17
Deceleration rise time
passenger cars (t
s
)
0,06 0,03 0,05
Brake system application
time passenger car (t
a
)
98 %
(only 2 % are slower)
2 %
(only 2 % are faster)
Normal
passenger car
Vehicle
Reaction time [s]
0,54 0,36
(t
a
+ t
s
/2) [s]
Braking procedure
( )
2
max
max
2
1
1 3 2 1
max 1
2
2
max
2
1
max max
2
2
2
max
2
0
3
max
1
max
2
max
1 2
max 2 max 2
2
max
1
0
2
2
max
1
max
1
max
1
24 2 2
4 2
1
2
2
2
2
6
2
s
s
a r
s s
v v
t
s
v
s
s s
t
s s
s
a r travel
t
a
a
v t
t t v s s s s
t a v t
a
v
a a
v
t
a
t v dt v s
t
a
v
a
v
t
t
a
v v
t a v dt a v v
t
a
t v dt v s
t
t
a
v dt t
t
a
v v
t
t
a
x
t t v s
v
s
+
+ + = + + =
+ +
=
= + = =
=
+ =
+ = + =
+ = =
+ = + =
=
+ =
& &
Source: Limpert R.
Change of kinetic energy into the
heat
=
+ =
+
+ + =
+ + + =
dt P W
P
P
P
v S c
g
x
s f v G v v S c
g
x
G s G f G P
R
drivetrain
brake engine
x x x x R
_
3 2
2 2
& & & &
Necessary power on the wheels [W]
Necessary braking power, the resulting power
after engine brake is applied and when vehicle
resistances are acting on the vehicle [W]
Braking work [J] dissipated energy which is changed into the heat in the
vehicle brakes
Design of vehicle brake system
http://static.howstuffworks.com/flash/brake-simple.swf
Disc brakes
The rotor (disc) rotates through the
caliper. The wheel cylinder pistons
force the braking pads against the
disc.
Disc brakes
Fixed caliper
Caliper solidly bolted to the flange.
Two or four pistons. Pistons from both sides of the disc
Source: Limpert R.
Disc brake
Floating caliper
http://static.howstuffworks.com/flash/disc-brake.swf
One or two pistons on inboard side only.
The pressure forces the piston and pad toward the disc and also forces the
housing in the opposit direction (to apply the outboard pad against the disc).
Source: Limpert R.
Fixed versus floating caliper
Fixed caliper
more balanced inner and outer
pad wear
no anchor or general knuckle
attached with standard fasteners
fewer service parts
Floating caliper
easier to package
lower brake fluid operating
temperature
fewer leak points
easier to bleed in service
Air-disc floating caliper
Rockwell International
Source: Limpert R.
Wear in disc brakes
Worn disc brakes can show significantly more
wear on the leading end (rotor entrance) than on
the trailing end (rotor exit). The nonuniform
distributrion is caused by the lever arm between
the pad drag force and abutment force.
Solution to minimize or eliminite tapered pad
wear can be:
Asymmetrical caliper piston contact edge
Piston located closer to the trailing edge
Four pistons per caliper (smaller piston located at the
leading end)
ITT Teves Hammerhead design of pad anchor
system
Wear in disc brakes
Source: Limpert R.
Non uniform pressure distribution wears the brake pads unevenly,
particularly during severe braking in high speeds.
Pad wear increases for brake temperature in excess of approx. 573 to
623 K.
Uniform pad wear is a major indicator of a quality of caliper design.
Non-uniform pad presure distribution
Source: Limpert R.
F
av
average force pressing the pad against
the rotor (N)
l
p
pad length (mm)
t
p
pad thickness (mm)
f
pad support friction coefficient
p
pad/rotor friction coefficient
Equation of moment equilibrium around point A
6 2
p p
f p av p p av
l F l
F t F

= +
=
2
6
p
f p p p
p
av
l
t
l
F
F
+ + =
2
6
1
max
p
f p p p
p
av
l
t
l
F F
Solving for force change
Maximal force
Solving for typical values leads to result
that the force (pressure at the leading
edge will be one third greater than
the average force, and only two thirds
at the rotor exit.
Offset piston design
Source: Limpert R.
Equation of force equilibrium
Both equations of equilibrium combined together to
solve c
2
p
f p d av
l
F t F c F + =
f p p p av
F F F + =
f p
p
f p p p
l
t
c

+
+
=
1
2
Hammerhead pad design
Source: Limpert R.
6
p
f p p av
l F
b F t F

=
( ) b t
l
F F
f p p p
p
av
=
6
( )
+ = b t
l
F F
f p p p
p
av

6
1
max
Solving for force change
Maximal force
Solving for typical values leads to result that the maximal force F
max
= 1,033*F
av
. Which shows
nearly uniform distribution. Pulled pads can carry heavier specific loadings and are used in
high performance vehicles.
Proposal of piston diameter
Higher pressure smaller components of brake system
Higher pressure higher demands on sealing
From experience: optimal pressure in braking system
for z = 1, p = 100 bar (1000 N/cm
2
)
Cirfumferential force acting on the disc:
B hyd piston U
p A F =
*
_
*
*
2
C p A r M
C p A F
C
hyd piston disc B B
hyd piston U
B
=
=
=
Two friction areas, and corresponding change of circumferential force:
Friction torque of disc brake
Proposal of piston diameter
Braking forces on the vehicle wheels
( )
DB
G
p
z
B
G
DB B
p z
G
B B
p
G
B B
z
B
B
DB
C A r
r
B
C A r
r
B
C p A r
r
B
C p A r
r
B
hyd
F
F
hyd
R F
hyd
R F
F
R
R R piston R disc B
dyn
R
F F piston F disc B
dyn
F
R hyd R piston R disc B
dyn
R
F hyd F piston F disc B
dyn
F
+
=
+
=
+
=
+
=
=
=
=
=
=
1
1
2
2
2
2
*
*
* *
*
*
*
_ _ _
*
*
_ _ _
*
*
_ _ _
*
_ _ _
Characteristic parameter (front brakes)
Characteristic parameter (rear brakes)
Brake force distribution factor
Estimation of front brake characteristic
parameter
Source: Audi A4
ATZ Sonderheft, 2008
Electromechanical Park brake acting
on disc brake
Master cylinder
The cars brake systems are split into two circuits, with
two wheels on each circuit. If a fluid leak occurs in one
circuit, only two of the wheels will lose their brakes and
your car will still be able to stop when you press the brake
pedal.
The master cylinder supplies pressure to
both circuits of the car. When the brake
pedal is pressed, it pushes on the primary
piston through a linkage. Pressure builds
in the cylinder and lines as the brake pedal
is depressed further. The pressure between
the primary and secondary piston forces
the secondary piston to compress the fluid
in its circuit. If the brakes are operating
properly, the pressure will be the same in
both circuits.
Master cylinder
Estimation of piston diameter
( )
z
F
G
DB B
i A
F
A
i
p
A p F
F i F
Bp
F
Bp cylinder master
Bp
cylinder master
Bp
hyd
cylinder master hyd circuit
Bp Bp circuit
+
=
=
=
=
1
*
1 _ _
1 _ _
1 _ _ 1 _
Brake system without booster
F
Bp
Force on brake pedal
i
Bp
Lever ratio of brake pedal
Brake system with booster
( )
( )
( ) ( )
G z
DB B F F i
A
A
DB B
G z
A p F
F F i F F F
DB B
G z
p
F spring booster Bp Bp
cylinder master
cylinder master
F
cylinder master hyd circuit
spring booster Bp Bp spring booster circuit circuit
F
hyd
+
=
+

= =
= =
+

=
1
1
1
*
_
1 _ _
1 _ _
*
1 _ _ 1 _
_ _ 1 _
*
F
booster_spring
Force of booster
return spring
Booster
The vacuum booster is a metal canister that
contains a valve and a diaphragm. A rod going
through the center of the canister connects to the
master cylinder's piston on one side and to the
pedal linkage on the other.
The engine creates a partial vacuum
inside the vacuum booster on both
sides of the diaphragm. When the
brake pedal is hited, the rod cracks
open a valve, allowing air to enter the
booster on one side of the diaphragm
while sealing off the vacuum. This
increases pressure on that side of the
diaphragm so that it helps to push the
rod, which in turn pushes the piston in
the master cylinder.
As the brake pedal is released, the
valve seals off the outside air supply
while reopening the vacuum valve. This
restores vacuum to both sides of the
diaphragm, allowing everything to
return to its original position.
Booster
Source: Limpert R.
Estimation of the booster diaphragm
area
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

+
+

=
+

= =
+
+
+

=
+

=
+
=

=
+ =
=
Bp Bp spring booster
F
cylinder master
St
booster
F
hyd
cylinder master
spring booster booster St Bp booster
spring booster
F
cylinder master
Bp Bp
booster
F
cylinder master
spring booster Bp Bp booster
cylinder master
spring booster booster St Bp Bp booster
hyd
cylinder master
spring booster Bp Bp booster
hyd
spring booster booster St Bp booster
St
circuit
spring booster Bp Bp booster circuit
F i F
DB B
A G z
p
A
DB B
G z
p
A
F A p F i
F
DB B
G A z
F i
i
G
DB B
A
F F i i
z
A
F A p F i i
p
A
F F i i
p
F A p F i F
F F i i F
_
*
1 _ _
*
1 _ _
_
_
*
1 _ _
*
1 _ _
_
1 _ _
_
1 _ _
_
_ 1 _
_ 1 _
1
1
1
1
1
1
Optimal operation point
the highest pressure difference of
booster
Behind the optimal point the pedal
force remains without boosting.
Pressure of booster by optimal
point: p
St
Relative achievable deceleration
below optimal operation point
Drum brakes
The brake pedal is actuated -> the piston pushes the brake shoes against the drum.
As the brake shoes contact the drum, there is a kind of wedging action, which has the effect of
pressing the shoes into the drum with more force.
The extra braking force provided by the wedging action allows drum brakes to use a smaller
piston than disc brakes. But, because of the wedging action, the shoes must be pulled away
from the drum when the brakes are released. This is the reason for some of the springs. Other
springs help hold the brake shoes in place and return the adjuster arm after it actuates.
Drum brakes - overview
Connected shoes in two
senses (Duo servo)
One leading-trailing
shoe (Simplex)
Two leading shoes
(Duplex)
Brake with connected
shoes (Servo)
Two leading shoes in both
sense (Duo Duplex)
Source: Vlk F.
Podvozky motorovch vozidel
Basic arrangements of drum brakes
Duo-Servo brake
Two leading Shoe brake (Duplex)
Leading-Trailing Shoe Brake (Simplex)
Source: Limpert R.
Leading-Trailing Shoe Brake
Used as rear brake of passenger cars.
+ low sensitivity to lining friction
changes, stable brake production
Source: Limpert R.
Duo-Servo brake
The primary shoe reaction (at the bottom
of the shoe) is used as application force
of the secondary shoe by pushing
through adjustement mechanism.
+ high brake torque
- high variation in brake torque for small
changes of friction coefficient
Drum brake
adjuster
For the drum brakes to function correctly, the brake shoes must remain close
to the drum without touching it. If they get too far away from the drum (as the
shoes wear down, for instance), the piston will require more fluid to travel
that distance, and your brake pedal will sink closer to the floor when you
apply the brakes. This is why most drum brakes have an automatic
adjuster.
As the pad wears down, more space will form between the shoe and the
drum. Each time the car stops while in reverse, the shoe is pulled tight
against the drum. When the gap gets big enough, the adjusting lever rocks
enough to advance the adjuster gear by one tooth. The adjuster has threads
on it, like a bolt, so that it unscrews a little bit when it turns, lengthening to fill
in the gap. When the brake shoes wear a little more, the adjuster can
advance again, so it always keeps the shoes close to the drum.
Source: Limpert R.
S-cam with automatic slack adjuster
(Rockwell international)
90 % of air brake trucks and
tractors use S-cam or wedge
actuated drum brake.
S-cam uses leading-trailing
shoe design. The shoes area
applied mechanically by
rotation of a cam shaped in an
S form. Rotation of the cams
pushes the rollers and tips of
the shoes apart. Due to cam
geometry the application force
against the leading shoe will
have a smaller lever arm
relative to the pivot anchor of
the leading shoe than that of
the trailing shoe nearly
uniform wear of leading and
trailing shoe
leading shoe
Trailing shoe
S-cam
Air-brake chamber
Estimation of the drum brake torque
Simplified theory
F
L
leading shoe tip resultant
F
T
Trailing shoe tip resultant
M
B
Brake drum torque
coefficient of friction
between lining and drum
N radial force between lining
and drum
r drum radius
r N M
B
=
Simplified calculation
Moment balance around the point A
0
0
= +
=
= +
b
F c F h F
F
F
b F c F h F
d d a
d
n
n d a
Brake factor of the leading shoe
c b
h
F
F
BF
a
d
leading

= =
Total brake factor of the leading and trailing shoe

2
1
2

=
b
c
b
h
BF
Sensitivity
2
2
2
1
1
2
) (
= =
b
c
b
c
b
h
d
BF d
S
Braking torque
a
F r BF M =
B
Brake factor
BF1 Brake factor of the leading shoe
BF2 - Brake factor of the trailing shoe
BF Total brake factor
The curves are computed for the
following parameters of the brake:
h = 200 mm
b = 100 mm
c = 75 mm
Source: Limpert R.
Real distribution of pressure
For calculation of real braking the magnitude and location of the resulting
force acting on each shoe should be determined.
leading shoe
trailing shoe
Example of the continous load distribution by
leading & trailing shoe drum brake.
Presumption:
The magnitude of the specific continous load on
the shoe pads corresponds to the magnitude of
the deformation.
sin = = c k k p

sin sin
sin
sin
max
= =
=
p a k p
a
c
Deformation is proportional to the pressure
With usage of law of sinus in ASK
The pressure and deformation have sinusoidal
development around the drum brake surface
The maximal pressure occurs in the location which
corresponds to the 90 deg measured from join line
between the drum center and anker point of the shoe.
The magnitude and the location of the
resulting normal force we obtain by ploting
the line of elementary components of
normal force. When choosing small angle
the resulting curve will be cycloid.
The angle of contact of brake pads is mostly smaller than 120 deg, and can
non symmetrically distributed round the drum circumference. When the
angle of contact equals
2

1
, the resultatiting normal force will be obtained
by linking the points on the cycloid.
The cycloid curves are similar one to each other. Therefor is sufficient to plot
one cycloid for all drum brakes.
n t
F F =
'
2
'
1 ) ( ) ( ) (
2
1
2
1
2
1

= = =

r d dF dF r d r dF F
t t t t
r
F
r
F
n t
= =
2 1
'
2
'
1

The frictional force will be obtain from the cycloid and the coefficient of
friction between lining and drum
The direction of the frictional force is perpendicula to the normal one.
The point of application can be obtain from the moment equilibrium to the
center point S
The fictive radius of application equals
2 2 1 1
+ =
t t
F F M
Remaining forces can be obtained graphically separately for leading and
trailing shoe. We choose the unit actuating force. The resulting braking
moment is sum of braking moments of both shoes.
Leading shoe
Trailing shoe
Disc versus Drum
brakes
Source: Limpert R.
Disc brakes
+
little fade at high temperatures
no increase of pedal travel
linear relationshipe between brake
torque and pad/disc friction coefficient
temperatures up to 1173K
Drum brakes
-
highly temperature sensitive
maximum temperature 700 K
the drum increases with temperature
increase (by 1 to 1,5 mm)
larger drum diameter causes improper
contact between lining and drum
Brake factor: ability of a brake to
produce brake torque for different
lining/drum friction coefficients
Brake comparison
Very low Very high 5,0 Duo-servo shoes
Low High 3,0
Two leading
shoes
Moderate Moderate 2,2
Leading and
trailing shoes
Low High 1,6
Single leading
shoe
High Low 1,2 Disc and pad
Very high Very low 1,15
Two trailing
shoes
Very high Very low 0,55
Single trailing
shoe
Stability Relative
braking power
Brake factor
for ~ 0,375
Type of brake
Comparison of
brake system
control media
Safety factors
Only 2 % of highway accidents involve
brake malfunction as a contributing
accident causation. Of these 90 % are
related to the brake system defects
caused by improper maintentance.
Source: Limpert R.
Vehicle stability during braking
Import experience for vehicle stability during braking:
By frontal crash with initial speed of 50 km/h in most cases the passengers
survive.
By side crash with vehicle speed of 30 km/h in most cases the passengers
do not survive.
The vehicle should during braking always maintain its direction, even after
a disturbance should return to its previous direction.
g
x
z
& &
=
Braking ratio
z G Z Z
z G B B
R R F F
R F
= +
= +

x:
B
F
B
R
Z
F
Z
R
G
x m & &
l
F
l
R
l
h
z
A
M
A
:
+ =
=
l
h
x
l
l
g m Z
h x m l G l Z
R
F
R F
& &
& & 0
z:
G Z Z
R F
= +
=
=
=
l
h
x
l
l
g m Z
l
h
x
l
l
g m Z
l
h
x m
l
l
g m g m Z
Z G Z
F
R
R
R
R
R
F R
& &
& &
& &
1
l
h
l
l
F
=
=
( )
( )

=
+ =
z G Z
z G Z
R
F
1
( )
( )
( ) ( )
[ ]
yBR yBF xBR xBF
z
yBR
F
yBF
F
xBR
F
xBF
F z
yBR F yBF F xBR F xBF F z
F R
F F
yBR F yBF F xBR R xBF F z
q yBR yBF
xBR xBF
R F
F F F F
J
l
dt
d
F
l
l l
F
l
l
F
l
l l
F
l
l
l dt
d J
l F l l F l F l l F l
dt
d
J M
l l b
l b
F l l F l F b F b
dt
d
J M
G z F F y
G z F F x
+ =

+ =
=
=
+ =
= +
= +
=
= =

cos ) 1 ( cos sin ) 1 ( sin
cos cos sin sin
: / cos cos sin sin :
cos
sin
cos cos :
:
:
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Source: Burkhardt
Bremsdynamik und PkW Bremsanlagen
R
i
g
i
d
b
i
c
y
c
l
e
m
o
d
e
l
( )
( )
cos
cos
1
=
=
=
+ =
=
=
=
=
R hyd xBR
F hyd xBF
yBR yBR
yBF yBF
R
ybR
yBR
F
ybF
yBF
R
xbR
xBR
F
xbF
xBF
B p F
B p F
z G F
z G F
Z
F
Z
F
Z
F
Z
F
[ ]
yBR yBF xBR xBF
z
F F F F
J
l
dt
d
+ =

2
2
Source: Burkhardt
Source: Burkhardt
R
i
g
i
d
b
i
c
y
c
l
e
m
o
d
e
l
[ ]
yBR yBF xBR xBF
z
F F F F
J
l
dt
d
+ =

2
2
Positive value of yaw rate increase of
body slip angle vehicle is instable
Negative values decrease of body slip angle
vehicle is stable
In case of front axle blocking:
F
yBF
= 0 => yaw rate negative => the vehicle remains
stable
Rear axle is blocked:
F
yBR
= 0 => yaw rate positive => immediate increase
of body slip angle => the vehicle is unstable
Source: Burkhardt
Stability of the vehicle during braking
85 % of braking torque
actuates the rear wheels
85 % of braking torque
actuates the front wheels
Source: Mitschke M. Wallentowitz H.
B
F
B
R
Z
F
Z
R
G
x m & &
l
F
l
R
l
h
y
A
+ = = +
= =
= =
= + =
G
Z
G
Z
z
G
B
G
B
Z B Z B
z
G
Z
z
G
Z
R F R F
R F
R R R F F F
R F

1
z =
Special case
G
B
F
G
B
R
Source: Burkhardt
Ideal force distribution during braking
In ideal case on the front and rear axle is the
same utilization of tangential forces
Ideal force distribution during braking
( )
( )

=
+ =
z z
G
B
z z
G
B
R
F
1
Elimination of z from equations leads to:
G
B
G
B
G
B
F F R
2
1 1
4
) 1 (
2
2
Equation of parabola Parabola of ideal
distribution of tangential (braking) forces.
Parabol axis:
G
B
G
B
R F
;
G
B
R
G
B
F
Source: Burkhardt
G
B
R
Analysis of parabola of ideal
braking force distribution
G
B
F
Case: no braking force on
rear axle
1) z=0
2) -z=0
Case: no braking force on
front axle
1) z=0
2) 1-+z=0
Source: Burkhardt
Equation for the line of
parabola symmetry

=
4
2 1
G
B
G
B
F R
G
B
R
G
B
F
Source: Burkhardt
Coordinates of point A
Maximal value of B
R
/G is
achieved if
0 =
F
R
dB
dB
= + =

2
4
2
4
1
4
) 1 (
2
2
2
max
2
2
G
B
G
B
z
G
B
G
B
G
B
G
B
F R
A
A
F
A
R R
F
G
B
R
G
B
F
Source: Burkhardt
Coordinates of point B
Maximal value of B
F
/G is
achieved if
=
F
R
dB
dB
The maximum is
negative, therefore
the result is valid
for traction, not for
braking
B
F
was replaced
with F
TF
B
R
was replaced
with F
TR
( )
= + =
2
1
4
1
4
1
0
4
) 1 (
2
2
2
G
F
G
F
z
G
F
G
F
G
B
TR TF
B
TR
B
TF
F
G
B
R
G
B
F
Source: Burkhardt
P
a
r
a
b
o
l
a
s
y
m
m
e
t
r
y
Slope of the parabola at any point:
1
4
) 1 (
2
1
2
2

=
G
B
dB
dB
F
F
R

=
1
F
R
dB
dB
Slope of the parabola in the origin:
Diagram of braking force distribution
R
R
P
P
R F
crit crit
crit
kr
Z
B
Z
B
z
DB
DB
z
= = =
=
+
=

1
G
B
R
G
B
F
Source: Burkhardt
1 Parabola of ideal braking force distribution
2 Lines of installed brake distribution
3 Lines of front tire-road friction coefficients
4 Lines of rear tire-road friction coefficients
5 - Critical decelaration
O
v
e
r
b
r
a
k
e
d
f
r
o
n
t

a
x
l
e
O
v
e
r
b
r
a
k
e
d
r
e
a
r
a
x
l
e
Limiting the braking force of rear
axle
1 Brake fluid input
2 Guidance pivots
3 Ball tube
4 Mass
5 Spring
6 Piston
7 Spring
9 Brake fluid output
10 - Sealing
The brake fluid of the circuit the rear axle comes from the mastercylinder to the input (1).
In the limiter follows the hole of Guidance pivot (2). On (2) reside ball tube (3) and mass
(4). The spring (5) ensure that these parts can not move. The working point is
determined by the spring (5). For compensation of short impact are implemented piston
(6) and spring (7). The mass does not move till z=0,7. On the output (9) is connected
the rear axle circuit. When the working point is overcomed the mass moves and prevent
the pressure increase in rear axle circuit
Source: Burkhardt
Limiter Bendix
Limiting the braking force of rear
axle Source: Burkhardt
1 Control ball
2 Contact surface
3 Control opening
4 Brake fluid
5 Output
6 Stepped piston
i
st
control ratio
The limiter is in the vehicle mounted inclined with an angle . If the limit relative
decelarion overstep tan(), the ball (1) starts to roll to the control opening (3). So is the
fluid circulation to the output (5) blocked, i.e. the pressure in the rear axle can not
increase. If the input pressure is still increasing, after overstepping the second working
point the piston (6) moves. The pressure can again increase. The second working point
is determined by the ratio of input and output pressure corresponding to i
st
.
Limiter Girling
Function of limiters and ABS system
Regulation depending
on statical load
Proportional reduction
valve control
ABS Systems
Emergency braking without
any steering maneouver
1 Path of vehicle COG
2 Vehicle without limiter (ABS)
3 axleTwo-axle ABS with
separate wheel control
4 Two-axle ABS Select-Low
on the rear
Source: Mitschke, Wallentowitz
Braking of trucks and articulated
vehicles
The driver force is not sufficient to actuate the
brakes of truck. Therefor as the energy medium
is used compressed air. The brake pedal effort
of the driver is used to modulate the pressure
applied to the brake chambers.
No manual push-through when the energy source
is off.
Brake system must have a dual air brake system, if
one circuit fails, emergency braking function is
maintained.
Air-over-hydraulic brakes the air pressure is
converted into hydraulic pressure used to press
shoes against the drum.
Air brake system
The compressor 1 charges wet supply reservoir 3 from which reservoirs 9 and 13 are
fed (and reservoirs of trailer). The dual brake system is modulated by the driver throug
the dual brake application valve 15. When brake application valve is released, all brake
chambers 16 exhaust their respective quick release valves (21). When front brake
circuite fails, double check valve 12 and reservoir single check valve immediately
close. The same for rear brake failure. Because of double check valve, air is supplied
to the tractor and trailer spring brakes and the trailer service brakes if the tractor rear
system becomes inoperative. If both the front and rear brake systems become
inoperative, spring brakes will apply automatically when the air pressure drops below
approximately 40 psi.
1 Air compressor
2 Compressor governor
3 Wet supply reservoir
4 Drain cock
5 Safety pressure valve
6 Pressure protection valve
7 Automatic drain valve
8 One-way check valve
9 Front system reservoir
10 Low pressure switch
11 Automatic front brake
limiting valve (ratio valve)
12 Double check valve
13 Rear system reservoir
14 Service relay valve (if
ABS wheel lock control
modulator)
15 Dual application valve
16 Service brake chamber
17 Spring brake chamber
18 System park control
valve
19 Spring brake relay valve
20 Dual air gage
21 Quick release valve
22 Spring brake control
valve
23 Instrument package
manifold valve
24 Stoplight switch
25 Application pressure air
gage
26 Filler valve
Source: Limpert R.
Retarders
Engine passive resistance in engine when the
gear is engaged
Engine brake (exhaust brake) restriction of
exhaust gax output, change in valve timing,
lowering the fuel supply (double or triple action
than just braking by engine).
Hydrodynamic brake (need of cooling system,
compact powerful system)
Electrodynamic brake (stator set of
electromagnets linked with chassis, rotor is
driven by output shaft. Generated eddie current
produces magnetic force which generates
braking torque. (Simple design, high weight,
dependence on temperature.)
Retarders
Engine brake MAN EVB
1 Exhaust throttle
2 Restriction
3 Compressed air
4 - Piston
Edie current electrodynamic
brake:
1 Rotor
2 Stator
3 Locking caliper
4 Driving shaft
Source: Vlk F.
Podvozky motorocch vozidel
Retarders - comparison
Source: Vlk F.
Podvozky motorovch vozidel
B
r
a
k
i
n
g
t
o
r
q
u
e
M
a
x
i
m
a
l
t
o
r
q
u
e
o
f
i
n
t
e
r
n
a
l
c
o
m
b
u
s
t
i
o
n
e
n
g
i
n
e
rpm
Rpm by nominal power
Eddie
current
brake
Hydrodynamic
brake
2 types of design
B
r
a
k
i
n
g
b
y

I
C

e
n
g
i
n
e
o
n
l
y
I
C

e
n
g
i
n
e
e
q
u
i
p
p
e
d
w
i
t
h
e
x
h
a
u
s
t
b
r
a
k
e
Braking dynamics of
combination vehicles
Source: Vlk F.
Dynamika vozidel
Black wheels are overbraked.
White wheels are braking.
The figure shows that cases e) and f)
are strongly unstable
Braking dynamics of
combination vehicles
Source: Vlk F.
Dynamika vozidel
Black wheels are overbraked.
White wheels are braking.

Brakes

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Legislative service braking

Total brake factor of the leading and trailing shoe

cos ) 1 ( cos sin ) 1 ( sin

cos ) 1 ( cos sin ) 1 ( sin

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