Microprocessor: A microprocessor is a multipurpose,

programmable, clock-driven, register base electronic device,

that reads binary instruction from storage device called
memory accept binary data and input and process data
according to those instruction and provide result as output.
Microprocessor application can be classified as:
Reprogrammable system:
- In this microprocessor is used for computing and data
processing.
- Capable of handing large data, storage devices such as
disks and CD Rom and peripherals devices such as
printers. Eg microcomputer.
Embedded system:
- In this case microprocessor is a part of final product
and is not available for reprogramming to end uses.
- Eg washing machine, traffic light controller,
Automatic testing machine.
Evolution of microprocessor:
4004- introduced in 1971, first 4 bit up having memory
addressing capability of 1 KB
- Consist of 16 pin with clock signal of 750 HZ
8008- introduced in 1972, 8 bit p , 40 pin
8080- introduced in 1973 , 8 bit p.
8085- introduce in 1976, 8 bit p having addressing
capability of 64kb,cosists of 40 pin with 3-6 MHZ clock
signal.
8086 introduce in 1978, 16 bit P having addressing
capability of 1 MB , consists of 40 pins with 5-10 MHZ
clock signal.
8088- introduced in 1980, 8/16 bit p with memory
addressing capability of 1 MB, consists of 5-8 MHZ clock
signal.
80286- introduced in 1982, 16 bit p with memory
addressing capacity of 16 MB, consists of 68 pin with 6-12.5
MHZ clock signal.

80386 introduce in 1985 , 32 bit p with 4 GB memory
addressing capability. Consists of 132 pins with 22 to 33
MHZ clock signal.
80486- introduced in 1989, 32 bit p with 4 GB memory
addressing capacity, consists of 168 pin with 26-100 MHZ
clock signal.
Pentium:- introduced in 1993, 32 bit up with 4 GB of
memory addressing capacity consists of 168 pins with 100
and 150 MHZ.
Pentium pro, Pentium II , and Pentium III, was
developed each with 32 bit word length having 150-1000
MHZ clock signal.

Calculator verses computer:-
- Calculator are dedicated devices and can perform
arithmetic and logical operations only. Also calculator
had to be operated manually for each and every steps
to be followed to solve a problem.
The computer are programmable in the sense that
all state steps needed to solve a problem are fed into main
memory as program. Than the computer works on the
previous fed program.
- calculator has very less memory capacity in
comparison to the computer.
- A calculator has a very small size in comparison to
the computer.








Microcomputer:-

I/P device
O/P
device
I/P Port
Control
Processing
Unit
Memory
RAM & ROM
Control
bus
Control
bus
Address
bus

Fig. Block diagram of microcomputer


Microprocessor:


ALU
Registry
memory
Control
unit




Microcomputer: A small computer that contains
microprocessor is microcomputer. They range from 4-bit
words that can address a few thousand bytes of memory to
32 bit words and can address billions of bytes of memory. In
microcomputer cpu is single integrated circuit called
microprocessor. The block diagram of microcomputer is
shown above. The major parts are central processing unit,
memory, and input output ports. Each of these part are
connected with each other through address bus , data bus ,
and control bus.

Memory: This consists of a mixture of ram and Rom. It may
also have magnetic floppy disk, magnetic hard disk or
optical disk. It's function are :
1. Store the binary codes for the sequences of
instruction and then write a program from that
sequence of instruction for the computer.
2. Store the binary coded data with which the
computer is going to work.

I/P port: The i/p section allows the computer to take in data
from the outside world or send data to the outside world. Eg
keyboard, video display terminals, printers, modems, etc.
The physical devices used to interface the computer buses
to external systems are called ports. Two ports are available
i/p port example keyboard, mouse. O/p port example
monitor , printer.

Central processing unit: The cpu control the operation
of computer. Cpu fetches binary coded instruction from
memory. Decode the instruction into a series of actions and
carries out these actions in a sequence of steps. It also
contains the instruction pointer register which hold the
address of the next instruction or data item to be fetched
from memory.

Address bus: The address bus consists of 16,20,24 or 32
parallel signal lines. On these lines the CPU sends out the
address of the memory location that is to be written to or
form.

Data bus:The data bus consist of 8, 16 or 32 parallel signal
lines and are bidirectional that CPU can reads data in from
memory and send data out to memory on these lines.
device in a system will have out connected to the
data bus but only one device at a time has its out enable.
Control bus: The control bus consists of 4-10 parallel signal
lines. The CPU sends out signal on the control bus to enable
the o/p of the address memory device. Control bus signal are
memory read, write, i/p read, o/p write.

Microprocessor:




ALU
Registry
memory
Control
unit



ALU: This area of microprocessor perform various function
on data. The ALU performs arithmetic operation like
addition subtraction and logical operation like And, OR, X-
OR.

Register array: This area of microprocessor consists of
various register identified by B,C, D,E, H, L. These register
are used to temporary store the data during the execution of
a program.

Control Unit: This area provides the timing and control
signal to all the operations in the microcomputer. It contains
the flow of data between the microprocessor memory and
peripheral.

Stored Program concept: The task of entering and altering
the programs for the ENIAC (electronic numerical integrator
and computer) was extremely tedious. The programming
concept could be faciliated if the program could represented
in a form suitable for storing in memory along side the data.
Than a computer could get it's instruction by reading them
form the memory and a program could be set or altered by
setting the values of a portion of memory . This approach is
known stored program concept.

A L U
Main
memory
I/O
Equipment
C P U


Fig: Von-Numann Architecture.

Main memory is used to store both data and instruction ALU
is capable for performing Arithmetic and logical operation
binary data. The program control unit(cpu) interprets the
instruction in memory and causes them to be a execute. The
input/output unit and helps inputting data and getting results.
The memory of Von-Neumann machine consists
of thousand storage location called words of 40 binary
digits(bits). Both data and instruction are stored in it.
The storage locations of control unit and
ALU are called registers. The various registers of this model
are MBR, MAR, IR, IBR, PC, AC.

Memory Buffer Register: It consist of a word to be stored
in memory or is used to receives a memory or is used to
receive a word from memory.
Memory address Register: It contain the address in
memory of the world to be written from or read into the
MBR.

IR(Instruction register): Contain the 8 bit upcode
(operation code) instruction being executed.

IBR(instruction buffer register): It is used to temporarily
hold the instruction from a word in memory.

PC (program counter): It contain address of next
instruction to be fetched from memory.

Ac (Accumulator) and MQ(multiplier quotient): They
are employed to temporarily hold operands and results of
ALU operations.

Harvard Architecture:

control
unit
central
Arithmatic
unit
program
counter
related
Hardware
Data
memroy
address
arithmatic
unit
program
Memory
Data
Memory
Program mermory Addressbus
Program mermory Databus
Datamermory Address bus
Datamermory Data bus
Address
bus
Data
bus
Control
bus

Fig. Block diagram of the Harvard architecture based P

Harvard Architecture based computer consist so separate
memory spaces for the programs (or instruction) and data.
Each memory space has it's own address and data bus. Thus
both instruction and data can fetch from memory
concurrently.
From the figure it is seen that there are two data and
two and address buses for the program and data memory
spaces respectively. The program memory data bus and data
memory data are multiplexed to form single data bus where
as program memory Address and data memory address are
multiplexed to form single address bus. Hence there are two
blocks of ram chip. One for program memory and another
for data memory space.
Data memory address arithmetic unit
generates data memory address. The data memory address
bus carries the memory address of data where as program
memory address bus carries the memory address of the
instruction.
Central arithmetic logic unit consists of the ALU,
multiplier, Accumulator, etc. The program counter is used to
address program memory. Pc always contains the address of
next instruction to be fetched. Control unit control the
sequence of operations to be executed. The data and control
bus are bidirectional where as address bus is unidirectional.

Internal Architecture of 8085:



Intel 8085 is a 8 bit general purpose microprocessor capable
of addressing upto 64kB of memory. It is a 40 pin ic
package fabricated on a single LSI using an NMOS
technology. It's clock speed is about 3 MHZ and uses a
single 5v DC supply.
The internal structure of 8085 is shown in figure. It
consists of three main section.
1. Register array.
2. Arithmetic and logic unit.
3. Timing and control unit.

Register array: The 8085 has both 8 bit and 16 bit
registers. It has 8 addressable 8 bit registers and three 16
bit registers. These registers can be classified as a..
General purpose register b. Special purpose register.

a. General purpose register: The 8085 has 6 general
purpose registers to store 8 bit data during program
execution. B,C, D ,E, H, L are 8 bit registers and can
be used singly or 16 bit register pairs. BC, DE, HL.
When used in register pairs , the high order byte
resides in the 1
st
register that is B when BC is as
register pair and low order byte in second( ie c when
BC is used). The register pair Hl besides it's possible
use as to independent registers functions as a data
pointer. It can hold memory addresses that are
referred to in a number of instructions which use
register indirect addressing.
b. Special purpose register:
Accumulator: It is a 8 bit register used in arithmetic
logic load and store operations as well in input output
instructions.
Flag Register: It is 8 bit register in which the bits carry
significant information in the form of flags.
S- Sing Flag
Z- zero flag
AC- Auxiliary carry flag
D- Parity flag
CY- Carry flag

SZ X
AC X P
X CY



Temporary register: It is 8 bit register not accessible to the
programmer while executing the instruction. The 8085
places the date into temporary register for a brief period.

Program counter: The program counter acts as a pointer to
the next instruction to be executed and always contains 16
bit address of the memory location of the next instruction.
The program counter is updated by the processor and points
to the next instruction after the processor has fetched the
instruction.
Stack pointer: The stack is an area of read write memory in
which temporary information is stored in first in last out
basis. The stack pointer holds the address of last byte written
on to the stack.

Instruction register and decoder: These are not accessible
to the programmer after fetching an instruction from
memory the processor load it in the instruction register. This
instruction is decoded by the decoder and the sequence of
events are established for the execution of instruction.
Arithmetic and logic unit: The ALU performs the
computing function. It includes the accumulator, the
temporary register, arithmetic and logic circuits and the flag
register. The temporary register is used to store hold data
during an arithmetic/ logic operation. The result is stored in
the accumulator and the flags are set or cleared according to
the result of operation.

Timing and control unit: This unit synchronizes all the
microprocessor operations with the clock. The clock is
symmetrical square wave signal that drives the cpu. The
control circuitary and all the operations are driven by the
clock signals.
Interrupt: The 8085 has 5 interrupt signal that can be used
to interrupt a program execution. The various interrupt
signals are, INTR, RST 5.5, RST 6.5, RST 7.5, TRAP.

Serial I/p port: The 8085 has two signals to implement the
serial transmission SID and SOD. This two signals are used
to transmitting the data serially.

Data and address bus: The 8085 has 8 bit data bus and and
hence 8 bit of data can be transmitted parallel from an to a
microprocessor . The 8085 has 16 bit address bus as memory
address are of 16 bit.
- The 8 bit significant bits of the address are transmitted
by AD bus. The AD bus transmits the data and
address at different moments. At a particular moment
it transfers either data or address.
- The 8 most significant bit of the address are
transmitted by address bus A bus.
- First of all the 16 bit data is transmitted by the
microprocessor MSB on the A bus and 8 LSB on the
AD bus. Thus the effective 16 bit bus is used for 16
bit address. Then data is transfer via AD bus.

8085 Microprocessor unit pin details:


SID
SOD
TRAP
RST 7.5
RST 6.5
RST 5.5
INTR
READY
HOLD
RESET
INTA
S0
HLDA
ALE
S1
IO/M
RD
WR
5
4
6
7
8
9
A15
39
36
11
38
A8
28
21
AD7
AD0
12
19
30
29
33
34
32
31
x1
1
2
x2
3 37
Externally
initiated
signal
Control and
Status signal
External
signal
qck
Serial I/O
Port
Reset
OUT
CLK
OUT
+5V


Intel 8085 contains 40 pins as shown in figure which has
- 8 unidirectional address pins (A
8
to A
15
)
- 8 bidirectional multiplexed address/data pins (AD
0
to
AD
7
)
- 11 control output pins
- 11 control input pins.
- Two power supply pins +5v and ground.
- A
8
A
15
(pin 21 28) output
- Does the work of carrying the 8 MSB of the address
data.
AD
0
AD
7
:
- [pins 12 19 ] I/O
- It carrys both data and address.
- It carries lower address bits as well as it can be used
as data bus as it can be used as data bus.
- Carries data of 8 bit.

ALE (Address latch enable):
- Pin 30, output pin
- It goes high during first clock cycle of a machine
cycle.
- When high, AD
0
AD
7
is used as address bus.

IO/ M :
- pin 34, o/p pin
- Distinguishes whether the address is fir memory or
I/O
- When high the operation is performed between I/O
and P
- When low the operation is performed between
memory and p.
S
0
, S
1
:
- Pin 29, 33, o/p pin
- These are status signals and indicates the type of
operation performed.
S
0
S
1
Operation
0 0 HALT
0 1 READ
1 1 WRITE
1 1 FETCH (bring info. From the
Memory to P)

RD:
- Pin 32, o/p pin
- Controls READ operation.
- When it goes low, the selected memory or I/O device
is read.
WR:
- Pin 31, o/p pin
- A low indicates a write operation being performed
into the selected memory or I/P device.

READY:
- Pin 35, i/p pin
- It is used to sense whether a peripheral is ready to
transfer data or not.
- If READY is high, the peripheral is ready.
- It is low, the p waits till it goes high.

HOLD ( when high):
- pin 39, i/p pin
- It indicates the another device is requesting the use of
buses. Having received a HOLD request the P stops
the use of the buses as soon as the current instruction
is completed. The processor regains the bus after the
removal of the HOLD singnal.

HLDA:
- Pin 38, 0/p pin.
- A signal for HOLD ack.
- It indicates that the HOLD request has been received.
- After the removal of a HOLD request the HLDA goes
low.

INTR:
- pin 10 , input pin
- It is an interrupt request signal.
- When it goes high the program counter does not
increment its content. The P suspects its normal
sequence of instruction at hand it goes to the CALL
instruction.

INTA:
- pin 11, o/p
- The P sends as interrupt ack after INTR is received.


RST 5.5, RST 6.5, RST 7.5 & TRAP:
- Pin 9,8 , 7 & 6, input pin
- These are interrupt signals.
- When interrupt is recognized, the next instruction is
executed from a fixed location.
- RST 7.5,6.5,5.5 are ..interrupt.


RESET IN :
- pin 36, input pin.
- When signal on this pin is low, the P is reset.

RESET OUT:
- pin 3, output pin.
- This signal indicates that P is being reset.
- This signal can be used to reset other devices.

X
1
, X
2
:
- Pin 1, 2 , i/p pin.
- These are terminals to connect to an external crystal
oscillator which drives on internal circuitary of the P
to produce a suitable clock for the operation of P.

CLK:
- pin 37, output pin.
- It is a clock output for user which can be used for
other digital ICs
- Its frequency is same at which processor operates.

SID:
- pin 5, input pin.
- It is a data line for serial i/p.
- The SID signal can be used to i/p the SID pin to the
most significant bit of the accumulator.

SOD:
- Pin 4, o/p pin.
- It is a data line for serial o/p.
- It can be used to o/p the most significant bit of the
accumulator.

VCC:
- pin 40, input pin.
- +5v dc supply.

V
ss
:
- Pin 20, input pin.
- Ground.
-



Microprocessor instruction:
Register transfer language(RTL): The internal network
organization of a digital computer is defined by specifying.
- The set of register it contains and their functions.
- The sequence of micro operation performed on the
binary information stored in the registers.
- The control that initiates the sequence of micro
operation.
The symbolic notation used to describe the micro
operation transfer among register is called register
transfer language .

Fetch and execute cycle:
Eg: Mov
If the next instruction in the pc is Mov A,B then
Fetch cycle:
T1: MAR- pc
T2: MBR M
T3: IR- (MBR)
PC- Pc+1
Execute cycle:
T1: MAR-(IR (address of B))
T2: MBR-(B)
T3: MAR-(IR( address of A))
T4: A- PC
In fetch cycle the last two operations are included within
a single time unit T3 as the increment of pc takes place
immediately after the content of MBR gets transferred
into instruction registers. The representation, T1, T2, T3
represent time units and are of equal duration operations
performed within this single unit is called micro
operation.

8085 instruction Description:

Instruction: It is command given to a computer to
perform specific operation on given data. The entire
group of instructions called the instruction set determines
what functions the micro processor can perform.
It has two parts
Opcode : Specifies what operation to be performed.
Operand: Specifies where to perform the operation.



Instruction of a computer: The computer can be used to
perform a specific task only by specifying the necessary
steps needed to complete the task. The collection of such
ordered steps forms a program of a computer. The
program is thus collection form of such steps called
instruction.

Categories of instruction:
1. Data Transfer instruction.
2. Arithmetic instruction.
3. Logical instruction.
4. Branch instruction.
5. Machine control instruction.

1. Data transfer instruction: This instruction copies
data from one location called source to another location
called destination without modifying the content of the
source. The various types of data transfer instruction are :
a. Between register: eg MOV A, B , MOV C,A
b. Specific data byte two a register or memory location.
Eg. MVI B,32H
LDA ,2500H , LDAX B
c. Between a memory location and register.
Eg. LXI B,2000H
LXI- load immediate at location.
d. Between an input/output device and location.
Eg. IN 02H , OUT PORT 1

2 Arithmetic instruction: These instruction perform
arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction,
increment, and decrement.
i. Addition: Any 8 bit number or the content of
register or the content of memory location can
be added to the content of accumulator and the
sum is stored in the accumulator. No two other
8 bit register can be added directly.
Add B,
ADD M
ADI 06H
ii. Subtraction: Any 8 bit number or the content
of register or can be subtracted from the content
of accumulator and result is stored in the
accumulator.
eg Sub B, Sub M, SBI 06H
3. Increament/Decreament : The 8 bit contents of
register or memory location can be increased or
decreased by 1.
INR B
DCR B
INX H
DCX H
4. Logical instruction: The instruction of this group
perform logical operation like AND, OR,
Compare, rotate etc.
opcode
operand
CMP
RAL-
ANA-
ORA-
5. Branch instruction: List instruction alters the
sequence of program execution either conditionally or
unconditionally.
Jump: These instruction test for certain condition
and altered the program sequence when the condition is
met. Eg J C, J Z, J NC, J NZ
Call, return and restart: These instruction change a
sequence of program either by calling a subroutine or
returning from subroutine.

6. Machine controlled operation or instruction: This
instruction control machine function such as Holt, Not
Stop, End Operation. Eg: HLT, NOP, EI


Addressing modes: Each instruction requires certain
data in which it has to operate. There are various
technique to specify data for instructions. These
technique are called addressing mode.

1. Direct addressing mode: In this mode of addressing
the address of the operand(data) is given in the
instruction it self. Eg. STA 2400H, IN 02H
2. Immediate addressing mode: In this addressing
mode the operand is specified within the instruction
itself . eg. AVI A, 06L , LXI H, 2500H
3. Register addressing mode: The operand are in
general purpose register. The upcode specifies the
address of the registers in addition to the operation to
be performed. MOV A, B , MOV B, ADD B, SUB C
4. Register indirect addressing mode: In this mode of
addressing the address of operand is specify by the
register pair as a pointer for operand. Eg, LXI H,
2500H , MOV A,M , ADD M
5. Implied addressing mode: There are certain
instruction which operate on the content of a
accumulator such instruction do not require the
address of operand. Eg, CMA, RLA, RAR, NOP,
HLT


Instruction cycle: The necessary steps that the cpu
carries out to fetch an instruction and necessary data from
the memory and to execute it constitute and instruction
cycle it is defined as the time required to complete the
execution of an instruction.
An instruction cycle consists of fetch cycle and
execute cycle. In fetch cycle CPU fetches upcode from
the memory . The necessary steps which are carried out
to fetch an upcode from memory constitute a fetch cycle.
The necessary steps which are carried out to get data if
any from the memory and to perform the specific
operation specified in an instruction constitute and
execute cycle . The total time required to execute an
instruction given by IC =Fc+Ec
The 8085 consists of 1-6 machine cycles or operations.

Fetch cycle: The first byte of an instruction is it's upcode
. The program counter keeps the memory address of the
next instruction to be executed in the beginning of fetch
cycle the content of the program counter ,which is the
address of the memory location where upcode is
available , is send to the memory. The memory places the
upcode on the data bus so as to transfer it to CPU. The
entire process takes 3 clock cycle.

Execute cycle/Operation:- The upcode fetched from the
memory goes to IR from the IR it goes to the decoder
which decodes instruction. After the instruction is
decoded execution begins.
- If the operand is in general purpose register ,execution
is performed immediately. I,e in one clock cycle.
- If an instruction is contains data or operand address ,
then CPU has to perform some read operations to get
the desired data.
- In some instruction write operation is performed. In
write cycle data are sent from the CPU to the memory
of an o/p device.
- In some cases execute cycle may involve one or more
read or write cycle or both.










Fig. inst. Cycle showing FC, EC, IC



F
i
g
.

i
n
s
t
.

C
y
c
l
e

s
h
o
w
i
n
g


F
C
,

E
C
,

I
C



Fetch execution overlap:



F
F2
E1
E2
I1
I2
t1 t2
t3





Machine cycle: It is defined as the time required to
complete one operation of accessing memory , i/p, o/p or
acknowledging and external request. This cycle may
consists of 3 to 6 T states.

T-states: It is defined as one sub division of the operation
performed in one clock period. These sub division are
internal states synchronized with system clock and each T
states precisely equal to one clock period.

Timing diagram: The necessary steps which are carried in a
machine cycle can represented graphically. Such graphical
representation is called timing diagram.

Timing Diagram:

F
i
g
.

F
e
t
c
h

c
y
c
l
e

Signal
T1 T2 T3 T4
CLK
IO/M
S0, S1
A8 - A15
AD0 - AD7
ALE
RD
Out
In






- The 8085 puts a low in the IO/M lines of the system
indicating memory operation.
- The 8085 sets S
o
=1 and S
1
=1 on the system bus
indicating memory fetch operations.
- The 8085 places the pc high byte on the A8 to A15
lines and the PC low bytes on the AD0- AD7 lines of
the system bus. The 8085 also sets ALE signal to high
as soon as ALE signal goes low the AD
0
to AD
7
lines
are used as data lines for reading the upcode.
- At the beginning of T2 the 8085 puts the RD lines to
low indicating a read operations. After some time the
8085 loads the upcode into the instruction registers.
- During T4 clock period the 8085 decodes the
instructions.


Timing diagram for memory read cycle:

















I/O read:


Signal
T1 T2 T3
CLK
IO/M
S1
A8 - A15
AD0 - AD7
ALE
RD
Out
In
S0





I/O write:


Signal
T1 T2 T3
CLK
IO/M
S0
A8 - A15
AD0 - AD7
ALE
WR
Out
In
S1









General Control signal:

IO/M RD WR
Signals generated
0 0 1 MEMR
0 1 0 MEMW
1 0 1 IOR
1 1 0 IOW

MOV A, B =1MC opcode fetch 4 T state
MVI A, 32H =2MC opcode fetch, 1 memory read 7 T
states
STA 2050H- 4 MC- opcode fetch, 2 memory read , 1
memory write.
MOV A, M- 2 MC- 1 opcode fetch, 1 memroy write.
IN 84H 3 MC opcode fetch, 1 memory read, i/o read.
OUT 02H 3 MC opcode fetch, 1 memory read, 1 i/o
write.
J MP 2050 3 MC opcode fetch, 2 memory read. (when
condition satisfied)
- 2 MC- opcode fetch, 1 memory read. (When condition
unsatisfied)
ADI 12H- 2MC- opcode feth, 1 memory read.













Assembly language Programming: Among three different
programming language of the computer , assembly language
programming represents the programming level in between
the machine language and the high level language. Since
machine language program consists of either binary or
hexadecimal opcodes, programming microprocessor with it
is difficult because one must deal with numbers programs in
assembly and high level languages are represented by
instructions that use English language type statement. Thus
it is more convenient to write programs in assembly
language then in machine language. However the
microprocessor can only understands the binary numbers
and hence a translator is used to convert assembly or high
level program into binary machine language so that
microprocessor can execute the program.

Linker: A large program is generally divided into smaller
programs known as modules. It is easier to develop to test
and debug smaller program.
A linker is a program which links smaller program
together to form a large program while developing a
program , subroutines which are stored in the library file are
frequently used in the program. The linker links these
subroutines with the main program. It converts object codes
into executable form.

Assembler: It is a program that translates assembly
language mnemonics or source code into binary code or
object code. This translation requires that the source
program be written strictly according to the specified syntax
of the assembler.


Assembly language format:

Label opcode operand comments

jump MOV A, B

A typical assembly language format is divided into four
parts called fields. They are level, opcode, operand and
comments.

- The assembler statements have free field format
which means that no of blanks can be left between the
fields.
- Comments are optional but help for good
documentation.
- A level for and instruction is also optional but it's use
greatly facilitates specifying the jump location.
eg. Label opcode operand comments
Start: LXI sp, 20FFH ; initialize
the stack pointer.

These fields are separated by delimeters . Typical delimeters
use are
Space- between each field
Comma- between two operand
Colon- After label
Semicolon- Before comment


1.Write a program to perform the following :
a). Load the no: 1BH in D
b) Load the no. B5H in B
C). Increment the content of B by 1.
d). Decrement the content of D by 1.
e). Subtract the content of D from the content of B.
f). Display the result at OUT port 1.

MVI D,1BH
MVI B,B5H
INR B
DCR D
MOV A, B
SUB D
OUT PORT 1
HLT

2 Wap to load the data byte in the register C. Mask the
high- order bits (D7-D4) and display the low order bits
(D3-D0) at outport. Exclusive-OR the result with 57H
and display at OUT PORT2.
Solution: MVI C, A8H
MOV A, C
ANI OFH
OUT PORT1
XRI 57H
OUT PORT 2
HLT
3. Wap to load the byte 8EH in register D and F7H in
register E. Mask the higher order bits (D7 D4) from
both the data bytes , EX-OR the low order bit (D3-D0)
and display the answer.
Solution: MVI D, 8EH
MOI A, D
ANI
MVI D, 8EH
MVI E, F7H
MOV A, D
ANI OFH
MOV D, A
MOV A, E
ANI OFH
XRA D
OUT PORT 1
HLT
4. Write a program to load two unsigned nos in register B
and C respectively . Subtract c from B. If the result in 2's
complement convert the result in absolute magnitude and
display it port 1. Otherwise display the result.
Solution: MVI B, byte 1
MVI C, byte 2
MOV A, B
SUB C
J NC label 1
CMA
ADI 01H
Label 1 OUT PORT 1
HLT
5. Write an ALP to do the following:
a) Load A with byte 1.
b) Load B with byte 2.
c) Compare the equality of the contents of A and B
d) If two nos . are equal , display 01 otherwise display
00H at port 1.
Solution: MVI A, byte 1
MVI B, byte 2
SUB B
J NZ loop
MVI A, 01H
OUT PORT 1
HLT
Loop MVI A, 00H
OUT PORT
HLT
6. The following block of data is stored in memory location
from CO55 to C05A H. Transfer the entire block of data
to the locations C080 to C085 H in reverse order.
Data: 22, A5, B2, 99, 7F, 37
Solution: LXI H, C055 H
LXI D, C085 H
MOV B, 06H
Next MVI A, M
STAX D
INX H
DCX D
DCR B
J NZ next
HLT.
7. Write a program to find larger of two nos. 1
st
no in C001
and 2
nd
no in C002 and result in C003 H.
Solution: LXI H, C001 H
MOV A, M
INX H
CMP M
J NC loop
MOV A, M
Loop STA C003 H
HLT
8. Write an ALP to find the smallest no in a data array. Data
from location C000H to C005 H.
Solution: LXI H, C000H
MVI C, 06H
MOV A, M
DCR C
Loop INX H
CMP M
J C loop1
MOV A, M
Loop1 DCR C
J NZ loop
STA C0C0 H
HLT.
9. Write an ALP to multiply two nos: eg 05 H 08 H
Solution: MVI A, 00H
MVI B, 08H
MVI C, 05H
Loop ADD B
DCR C
J NZ loop
STA C000H
HLT
10. Write an ALP for the following addition.
1
2
+2
2
+3
2
+4
2
+5
2
+6
2
+7
2
+8
2
+9
2

Solution: MVI A, 00H
MVI B, 09H
Loop 1 MOV C, B
Loop 2 ADD B
DCR C
J NZ loop2
DCR B
J NZ loop 1
OUT PORT 1
HLT
11. Write an ALP to count the no of 1 in the given string
'10100110' and display the result at COCOH
Solution: MVI A, A6 H
MVI B, 00H
MVI C, 08H
Loop1 RAL
J NC loop2
INR B
Loop2 DCR C
J NZ loop 1
MOV A, B
STA COCOH
HLT
12. The following datas are stored in memory location
starting from C0B0 to C0B9 H . Take a test no. 48. Find
out how many times the no 48 is repeated. Display the
result at C0C0H .
DADA: 12, 23, 34, 45, 48, 56, 48, 67, 48, 89.
Solution: LXI H, C0B0 H
MVI B, 00H
MVI C, 0A H
Loop 1 MOV A, M
CPI 48 H
J NZ loop2
INR B
Loop 2 INX H
DCR C
J NZ loop1
MOV A,B
STA COCO H
HLT
13. 8 bit multiplication , product is 16 bit . The multiplicand
is loaded in the two consecutive memory locations 2501
and 2502 H . The multiplier is stored in 2053 H. Store the
product in 2504 and 2505 H.
Solution: LHLD 2501 H
XCHG
LDA 2503 H
LXI H, 0000
MVI C, 08
Loop1 DAD H
RAL
J NC loop2
DAD D
Loop 2 DCR C
J NZ loop1
SHLD 2504 H
HLT
14. Write an ALP to divide two nos. The dividend is in C001
and divisor is in C002. Store the quotient in C0C0 H and
remainder in C0C1.

Solution: LXI H, C001 H
MOV A,M
INX H
MOV B,M
MVI C, 00H
Loop1 CMP B
J C Loop2
INR C
SUB B
J NZ Loop 1
Loop2 STA COC1 H
MOV A, C
STA COCO H
HLT
15. To arrange 54 , EB, 85, A8 & 99 in descending order.
These numbers are stored in the memory location 2501 to
2505 H. The count =05 is restored in 2500 H. Results
are to be stored in 2601 to 2605 H.
Solution:
LXI D, 2601 H
LXI H, 2500 H
MOV B, M
Start CALL Subroutine 1
STAX D
CALL Subroutine 2
INX D
DCR B
J NZ start
HLT
Subroutine 1:
LXI H, 2500 H
SUB A
Loop1: INX H
CMP M
J NC loop 2
MOV A, M
Loop2: DCR C
J NZ Loop 1
RET
Subroutin2:
LXI H, 2500H
MOV C, M
Loop1 INX H
CMP M
J Z Loop2
DCR C
J NZ Loop1
Loop2 MVI A, 00H
MOV M, A
RET
Note: Subroutine 1 gives the largest number of array.
Subroutine 2 find the largest number and replace it by 00.


Counter and delay:

Timing delay using one register:

MVI C, FFH ---------- 7 T state
Loop DCR C -------------- 4 T state
J NZ Loop -------- 10 or 7 T state
Consider a micro computer with 2 MHZ frequency
Clock period , T =1/f = =0.5 sec
Delay for inst. Outside the loop T
o
=No of T
s
state T
=7 0.5
= 3.5 sec


Delay for inst inside the loop, T
L
=No of T state T * (N
10
)
= ( 140.5 10
-6
255)
= 1785 sec
Now T
LA
= T
L
-30.5
=1785 1.5
=1.7835 ms

T
D
=T
0
+T
L

= 3.5 +1785
=1788.5
= 1.7885 ms

Time delay for register pair:
LXI B, 2384 H . 10 T state
Loop DCX B . 6 Tstate
MOV A, C .. 4 T state
ORA B 4 T state
J NZ loop . 10/7

Delay calculation:

T
0
=T state * T
=10 0.5 10
-3

= 109 ms
T
L
= No of T state * T * (N
10
)
= 24 * 0.5 * 90.92

Total Delay = T
0
+T
L

=

Time delay using a loop within a loop:

MVI B, 38 H .. 7 T
Loop2 MVI C, FFH 7 T
Loop 1 DCR C..4 T
J NZ loop1 ------10/7 T
DCR B ------ 4 T
J NZ loop2 ------ 10/7 T

Delay calculation:

T
o
=7 * 0.5 =3.5 sec
T
L1
=14 * 0.5 * 255 3*0.5
T
L2
=( T
L1
+21*0.5)
N10
3
Total dealy =T
o
+T
L2

Q. Write a program to count continuously in hexadecimal
from FFH to 00H in a system with a 0.5 s clock period.
Use register C to set up a 1 ms delay between each count
and display the number at one of the o/p ports.
MVI B, 00H
Next DCR B
MVI C, count
Delay DCR C
J NZ delay
MOV A, B
OUT port 1
J MP Next

Delay calculation:

T
L
= T state * T* (T
10
)
= 14 0.5 count
=7 count s
T
o
= 35 T
= 35 0.5
=17.5 s

T
D
= T
L
+T
o

1 ms = 7 * count * 10
-6
+17.5 * 10
-6

Count =140.35
=8C H

Q. Write a program to generate a continuous square wave
with the period 500 sec. Assume the system clock period
is 325 sec and use bit D
o
to output the square wave.

Solution:
MVI D, AA
ROTATE MOV A, D
RLC
MOV D, A
ANI 01 H
OUT PORT 1
MVI B, count
Delay DCR B
J NZ delay
J MP ROTATE

Delay calculation:
T
L
=14 * 325 * 10
-9
* count or 14 * 325 * (count - 1) +
11 T-state * 325
T
0
=46 * 325 * 10
-9

T
D
=T
L
+T
0

250 = (52.4)
10
=34 H

Types of Assemblers:

1. One pass assembler
2. Two pass assembler

One pass assembler:
This assembler goes through the assembly language
programs one and translate the assembly language program
into machine language program .
This assembler has the problem of defining forward
references this means that a jump instruction using an
address that appears latter in the program must be defined by
the program after the program is assembled

Two pass assembler:
This assembler scan the assembly language twice. In
the 1
st
pass, the first memory location is determined from the
ORG statement and the counter knows the location i,e
counter is initialized . Then the assembler scans each
instruction and records location in the address column. The
address location counter keeps tracks of the byte in the
program. The assembler also generates a symbol table in the
1
st
pass. When it comes across the label , it records the label
and location.
In the second pass each instruction is examined
and menominocs and label are replaced by the machine
code.
e.g PORT 0 EQU 00H
PORT 1 EQU 01H
ORG 2000H
Start, IN PORT 0
OUT PORT 1
J MP start
END

When this program is assembled by one pass assembled the
program is converted into its machine code in the 1
st
pass
only.
In case of two pass assembler the task is shown as below.

Pass 1:
Address Machine
code
Label Opcode Operand Symbol
table
2000
2002
2004
start IN
OUT
J MP
PORT 0
PORT 1
start
PORT 0
00H
PORT 1
01H
Start
2000H

Pass 2:
2000 D3 00
2002 D3 01
2004 C3 00,20


The assembler Directives:
Assembler directive are the instruction to the
assembler concerning the program being assemble l they are
also called pseudo instruction or pseudo upcode. They
define the way according to which micro computer is
directed to perform a specific task. These instruction are
neither translated into machine code nor assigned any
memory location in the object file. Few assembler directive
are explained below.

ORG (Origin): The pseudo instruction lets the programmer
place the program anywhere in the memory. Internally the
assembler maintains a program counter type registor called
address counter . This counter maintains the address of the
next instruction or the data to be processed e.g
ORG 7000 H
MVI A, 02

The 8085 assembler will generate the following code for this
statement
7000 3E
7001 02

EQU ( equate): This pseudo instruction assigns a value in
its operand field to an address in its label field. This allows
the user to assign numeric value to a symbolic name. The
user can then use the symbolic value in the program instead
of its numeric value.
START EQU 0200H
This assign the value 0200H to the label start.

2000------J ump
2001------00
2002------02

PORT A EQU 40H: Here PORT A is assign value 40 H.

DB ( Define byte):
This pseudo instruction is used to initialized a area
byte by byte. Assembled bytes of data are stored in
successive memory location until all values are stored.
e.g ORG 2000H
Data: DB 20H, 30H, 40H, 50H

DW( Define word): This pseudo instruction is used to
assign a 16 bit value to two memory location. e.g ORG
7000H, START DW 4AC2 H

A
C
4 7001
2 7000

This will assign C2 to location 700H and 4A to 700H and
4A to 7001 H location. It is assumed that assembler will
assign low byte first (C2) and high byte (4A).

END: This pseudo instruction is used to define the end of
assembly. The HLT instruction suggest the end of a program
but that does not mean that it is the end of the assembly.

Bus structure and memory devices:

1. Data bus
2. Address bus
3. Control bus.

Data bus: Data bus provides a path for monitoring data
between the system modules. The data bus consist of
number of separate line 8, 16, 32, or 64. The number of lines
is referred as a width of data bus. Since each line can carry
only one bit at a time. The number of lines determine how
many bits can be transmitted at a time. the width of the bus
is key factor in determining the overall system performance.

Address bus: The address bus are used designate the source
or destination of the data on data bus . Examples: if the CPU
requires to read a word (8, 16 or 32) bits of data from
memory, it puts the address of the desire word on the
address bus. The width of the address bus determines the
maximum possible memory capacity of the system. The
address bus is also used to address input output ports. The
higher order bits are used to select a particular modules on
the bus and the lower order bits select memory location or
input / output port within the module.

Control bus: The control bus is a group of lines used to
control the access to and the use of data and address bus
since data and address buses are shared by all components of
micro processor system control signal transmit command
and timing information between the system module. The
timing signal indicate the validity of data and address
information where as command signal specify operation to
be performed. Some of the control signals are :
- Memory read.
- Memory write.
- Input/ output write.
- Transfer acknowledgement.
- Bus request.
- Bus grant.
- Interrupt request.
- Interrupt ack.

Synchronous Bus: In synchronous bus the occurance of the
events on the bus is determined by a clock. The clock
transmits a regular sequences of zeroes and one of equal
duration. A single zero-one or 1-0 transmission is called
clock cycle and defines a time slot. All other devices on the
bus can read the clock live and all events starts at the
beginning of clock cycle.

Clock
Start
Read
Address
Data bus
ACK signal


The above diagram describes the following steps.
- The CPU issues a START signal to indicate the
presence of address of control information on bus.
- Then it issues memory read signal and places the
memory address on the address bus.
- The addressed memory module recognizes the address
and often a delay of one clock cycle it places the data
signals on the buses.

Asynchronous bus: In an asynchronous bus the timing is
maintained in a such a way that occurrence of one events on
the bus follows and depends on the occurance of the
previous events.

Read
Master
synchronous
(MSYNC)
Databus
Address



- The CPU places the memory read and the address
signals on the bus.
- After allowing for these two signals to stabilized, it
issues master synchronous signal ( M SYNC) to
indicate the presence of valid address of control
signals on the bus.
- The addressed memory module responds with the data
and the slave synchronous ( SSYNC).













Memory:
A memory unit is a collection of storage cells
together with associated circuits needed to transfer
information in out of storage. The memory stores binary
information in groups of bits called words. A memory is a
group of 1s and 0s and may represent a number, an
instruction code one or more alphanumeric characters or any
other binary-coded information. A group of 8 bits is called a
byte. The capacity of memories in commercial computers is
usually stated as the total number of bytes that can be stored.
For 8 bit micro-computer system memory word and
memory byte are the same. A memory word is identified by
an address. The 8 bit microprocessor uses 16 bit address to
access memory word. This provides a maximum of 2
16
=
65536 memory addresses ranging from 0000H to FFFF H.
Thus , the memory capacity for this Micro-computer system
is 64K.

Memory can be classified as non-volatile memory or
volatile memory. Non-volatile memory retains the stored
data even when there is no power. On the other hand volatile
memory losses its contents when the power is removed. Few
examples are:

Non volatile: ROM, PROM, EPROM, Floppy disk, hard
disk etc.
Volatile: RAM ( static dynamic), CCD ( Charge coupled
devices etc).

In broad sense, a microcomputers memory system can be
divided into three groups;
i. Processor memory
ii. Primary memory
iii. Secondary memory.


Processor Memory:
Processor memory refers to a set of
microprocessor registers. They are used to hold temporary
results when a computation is in progress Although use of
such registers enhances the execution speed, the cost
involved in the approach forces a micro-computer designer
to include only a few registers include the processor. In 8085
we have registers like A, B, C, D, E, H, L, SP, PC etc to
store data temporarily.

Primary Memory:
It is the storage area where all programs
are executed. The microprocessor can directly access only
those items that are stored in the primary memory. Hence,
all programs and data must be within the primary memory
prior to execution. Usually, the size of the primary memory
is much larger than that of processor memory and its
operating speed is much slower than processors registers.

Primary memories can be divided into two main groups:
1. Read only memory (ROM)
2. Random Access memory. (RAM)

Read only memory (ROM):

ROM is a non volatile memory and can be read
only. It is used to store data and programs that are not to be
altered. Among other things ROM is needed for storing an
initial program called boot strap loader. The bootstrap loader
is a program whose function is to start the computer
software operating when power is turned on. Since RAM is
volatile, its contents are destroyed when power is turned off.
The contents of ROM remain unaltered after power is turned
off and on again. The startup of a computer consists of
turning the power on and starting the execution of an initial
program. Thus when power is turned on, the hardware of the
computer sets the program counter to the first address of the
bootstrap loader. The bootstrap program loads a portion of
the operation of the operating system from disk to main
memory and control is then transferred to the operating
system, which prepares the computer for general use.
The principle on which ROM is based can
be explained with the help of figure below. This ROM is
constructed with diodes.

D3 D2 D1 D0
R0
R1
R3
R4
R2
R5
R6
R7
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
+5v

Fig. simple diode ROM

Here, each horizontal row is a register or memory location.
The R
o
register contains three diodes, the R
1
register has one
diode, and so on. The output of the ROM is the word.
D =D
3
D
2
D
1
D
0


In switch position 0, a high voltage turns on the diodes in R
0

register; all other diodes are off. This means that a high
output appears at D
2
, D
1,
D
0
. Therefore the word stored at
memory location 0 is
D =0111
When the switch is moved to position 1. The diode in the
register R1 conducts; all other diodes are off. Thus the word
stored at memory location 1 is
D =1000

Similarly, datas in other registers are stored with integrated
circuits manufacturer stores the word at the time of
fabrication. The words are permanently stored once the
diodes are wired in place. In fabrication ROMs the
manufacturer may use bipolar transistors or MOSFETS.
But the idea is still basically the same, the transistors or
MOSFETs act like the diodes in the figure above. ROMs can
be classified as below:

Masked ROM: In this ROM, a bit pattern is permanently
stored. Memory manufactures are generally equipped to do
this.

PROM ( Programmable ROM): This memory has
nichrome or polysilicon wires arranged in a matrix . These
wires can be funcitionally viewed as diode or fuse. This
memory can be programmed by the user with a special
PROM programmer that selectively burns the fuses (
applying high current) according to the bit patters to be
stored. The process is known as burning the PROM, and
the information stored is permanent.

EPROM (Erasable PROM): EPROM uses MOSFETS.
Data is stored with PROM programmer. Later data can be
erased with ultraviolet light. The light posses through a
quarts windows in C package on the chip, where it releases
stored charges. The effect is to wipe out the stored contents.
In other word, the EPROM is ultraviolet-light-erasable and
electrically programmable. Once the chip is programmed the
window is covered with opaque tape to avoid accidental
erasing.

EEPROM ( Electrically erasable PROM): This is non-
volatile like EPROM but does not require U-V rays to be
erased. It can be completely erased or have certain byes
changed, using electrical pulses. Writing to EEPROM is
slower than writing to RAM, so it can not be used in high
speed circuits.

FLASH MEMORY: This is a modified EEPROM. The
difference is the erasure procedure. EEPROM can be erased
at a register level, but flash memory must be erased either in
its entirety or at the sector (block) level.


Random Access memory OR Read/Write memory: It is a
volatile memory and is used in store programs and datas for
immediate use of the processor. Data can be readily written
into and read from a RAM at any selected address in any
sequence. Two types of read/write memories are available:
- Static RAM
- Dynamic RAM

Static RAM: This memory is made up of flip flops; and
stores the bits as voltage. Each memory cell requires six
transistors. This memory is more expensive and power
consuming than dynamic memory. It is called static
because the information doesnt need a constant update.
These memories are commonly used for cache memory.
This types of memory is very fast with access time is 15 to
30 nanoseconds but is physically bulky.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM) : Dynamic random-access
memory is an improvement over the expensive and bulky
SRAM. DRAM uses a different approach to store data.
Information is stored as charges in a very small capacitor. If
a charge exists in a capacitor, its interpreted as 1. The
absence of a charge will be interpreted as 0.
Because DRAM uses capacitors there is a chance of
leakage of charge. Thus it needs to use a constant refresh
signal to keep the information in the memory (every few
millisecond). DRM technology allows several memory
units, called cells to be packed at very high density.
Therefore, these chips can hold very large amount of
information. Most PCs today use DRAM. Access time for
DRAM is 80 nanoseconds or more, slower than SRAM, and
two or three times faster than ROM.
The memory can be classified even as: random access
memory and sequential access memory.
The term random-access memory simply means a memory
system in which any memory location can be accessed as
easily as any other. Most of todays microprocessor
memory system are random access. It includes RAM and
ROMs both. Originally RAM, was used to refer to random
access memory but now it is used to designate a read/write
memory.
Sequential-access memory means a memory in which to
access a memory location you must access every memory
location between the presents memory location you are
addressing and the memory location that you want to read
from a or write to. One cant jump to the desired location
Sequential access is mostly used for mass storage of data.
For example, information recorded on a reel of magnetic
tape is stored in sequential access form.
Some mass storage device such as floppy disk use a
combination of random access and sequential access. Two
major semiconductor technologies are used in integrated-
circuit memory devices, which are used to build memory
system for todays memory. There are bipolar and MOS
(metal-oxide semiconductor) technology.

Bipolar memories: They are used with microprocessor
systems. The advantage of bipolar memories is then very
fast access time. They have a number of disadvantages when
compared with MOs memories. They draw a great deal of
power, and there are fewer memory bits for the same silicon
chip size. The fabrication is much more complicated and
thus are much more expensive than Mos memories. For
these reasons bipolar memory is used only for applications
which can afford its great cost.

MOS Memory: It is the most common microcomputer
memory. The Mos memory cells are structurally simple and
economical. The MOS cell needs an area of about 25% to
50% of the area required by the bipolar cell. Hence they can
be more densely packed. Mos cell consume much less power
than bipolar cells.

Todays RAM cell are, in common of two types depending
upon the storage elements. MOS technology is applied in
both cases. These are
- Static RAM cell
- Dynamic RAM cell.

Static RAM Cell:

D
D
+VDD
Q1
Q2
QA
Q4
QA
Q3
Select line

Fig. static RAM cell

- The figure above shows a NMOS static memory cell
which consists of six NMOS transistors.
- The transistors Q
A
, is called the access transistors are
used to access the data during the read and write
operation.
- The transistors Q3 and Q4 are pull up load transistors
and their cross connection with Q2 and Q1
respectively forms a flip flop.
- The D and D are data lines. There is external driving
circuitry which forces D and D to opposite values.
When reading the bit from the cell the D and D serve
as output lines, while writing a bit on the cell they
serve as forced input.
- Before reading or writing on cell, the cell must be
selected, and the select line is used for the purpose.

Working on Cell:
- The access transistor Q
A
s are turned on via the row
select line (high).
- The data lines are forced into a state with D high and
D low.
- The MOSFET Q1 will be turned on and Q2 off.
- When forcing signals are removed Q1 will continue to
hold D low (i,e Q1 will be on) and will keep Q2 off
and D output high.
- The forced state is thus self-sustaining and stable.
A similar stable state exists with D low and D high. For
either cases, the stored data will be hold by the flip-flop
until it is either changed by new forcing singles. Or until
the power to the ckt is removed.

Reading from Cell:
- Q
A
s are turned on via select line ( high).
- The stored data appears on D and D respectively
from Q1 and Q2.






Dynamic RAM Cell:


Q
Cs (storage Capacity)
Data line
Select line

Fig. Dynamic RAM cell

The figure above shows a dynamic RAM cell which consists
of one MOSFET and one capacitor.
- The capacitor is to store the bit.
- The transistor acts as a switch.

Write Operation:
- The data line is high (to store 1)
- The select line is high.
- The MOSFET is turned ON and the capacitor is
charged.
- When data and selection line goes low the MOSFET
open (turns off) and the capacitor retains its charge.

Read Operation:
- The select line is high.
- The data in the capacitor is then received at the data
line.

The advantage of this types of cell are:
1. Very simple , allows very large memory arrays to be
constructed on a chip at a low cost per bit.
2. Power consumption is low.

The disadvantage is :
- The storage capacitor cannot hold its charge over an
extended period of time and losses the stored data bit
unless its charge is refreshed periodically.
- This process of refreshing requires additional memory
circuitry and complicates the operation of the dynamic
RAM.

Interfacing Devices:
These devices are semiconductor chips that are
needed to connect peripherals to the bus system. Several
type of interfacing devices are necessary to interconnect the
component of a bus oriented system. The commonly used
devices are tri-state , buffer, encoder, decoder and latches.

Tri- state devices: In general a logic device has two states:
logic 1 and logic 0. The tri-state device has a third state too,
high impedance state. The devices has a third line (other
than input and output) called enable. When this line is
activated, the tri-state device functions the same way as
ordinary logic devices. When the third line is disabled, the
logic device goes into the high impedance state as if it were
disconnected from the system. Ordinarily , current is
required to drive a device in logic 0 and logic 1 states. In
the high impedance state 1 practically no current is drawn
from the system.

Enable (active high)
Input
Output
Enable (active low)
Input Output

Fig. tri-state buffer

In a micro-compurter systems, peripherals are connected in
parallel between the address bus and data bus. However
because of tri-state interfacing devices, peripherals do not
load the system buses. The microprocessor communicates
with one device at a time by enabling the tri-state line of the
interfacing device. Tri-state logic is critical to proper
functioning of the microcomputer.

Buffer: The buffer is a logic ckt that amplifies the current or
power. It has one input line and one output line. The logic
level of the output is same as hat of the input; logic 1 input
provides logic 1 output. The buffer is used primarily to
increase the driving capability of a logic circuit. It is also
known as driver.


Input
Output

Fig. A buffer

Tri-state buffer: This is the buffer with a third line enable
to activate the device. When the line is activated it acts as an
ordinary buffer when disabled the buffer goes into high
impedance state. This buffer in commonly used to increase
the driving capability of the data bus and the address bus.

Input
Output
Enable (active low)


As the address bus is unidirectional, this device is
commonly used as a driver. The octal buffer 74LS244 is a
typical example of a tri-state buffer.
The data bus of a c is bi-directional , therefore it requires
a buffer that allows data to flow in both directional. A
combination of two buffers in different direction combines
to form a bi-directional buffer. The bi-directional buffer
47LS245 is a typical example and is used commonly as a
driver for the data bus.

Enable
Input/Output Output/input


Fig. Bidirectional buffer

Decoder: The decoder is a logic ckt that identifies each
combination of the signals present to its input. If the input to
a decoder has n lines, the decoder will have 2
n
output lines.
For example if the input has two binary lines the output lines
would be 4. The two lines can assume four combinations of
input signals. 00, 01, 10, 11 with each combination
identified by the output lines 0 to3. If the input is 11, the
output logic 3 will be at logic 1 and otherwise will remain at
logic 0 . This is called decoding . Various types of decodes
are available; for example 3 to 8 , 4 to 16 , etc. In general
decoders have enable lines too. The decoder will not
function unless enable lines are activated.

2-to-4
Decoder
Enable
3
2
1
0
Output
Input

3-to-8
Decoder
Enable
2
Output
0
1
3
4
5
6
7
Input


Encoder: The encoder is a logic ckt that provide the
appropriate code( binary, BCD etc) as output for each input
signal. The process is the reverse of decoding . Figure below
shows an 8 to 3 encoder; it has eight active low inputs and
three output lines.

2
0
1
3
4
5
6
7
A2
A1
A0
Input Output


When 0 goes low , the output is 000, when the input line 5
goes low the output is 101. Encoder are commonly used
with keyboards. For each key pressed, the corresponding
binary code is placed on the data bus.

Latches: A latch is used commonly to interface output
devices. When the PU sends an output, data are available
on the data bus for only few micro-seconds ; therefore a
latch is used to hold data for display.
In its simples form, a latch is a D flip flop. We are having
other latches( flip flops) like; RS flip flop, J K flip flop and
Master slave flip flop etc.
Flip flop even form a cell of memory.




Internal structure of memory:
The internal structure of a 8 8
memory is shown below. Every memory unit has the similar
types of structure.

Register 4
Register 7
Register 6
Register 5
Register 3
Register 2
Register 1
Register 0
Input buffer
Output buffer
I7
I0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
O7 O0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A0
A1
A2
111
110
101
100
011
010
001
000
CS
CS
WR
RD
Data lines

Fig. A 88 memory unit


Internally a memory consists of:
~ address decoder
~ input buffer
~ output buffer
~ registers
With
~ address lines
~ data lines
~ RD, WR, CS control lines.

The number of address lines will be determined by the
memory capacity. The number of data lines will be
determined by memory size. For example for memory
capacity 1k8 will have 10 address lines and data lines. 2k
4 chip will have 11 address lines and 4 data lines. For 2
n
k
m memory capacity the number of address lines =n and
number of data lines =m.

Lets consider the 8 8 memory device with 8 register , a 3
to 8 decoder, an input buffer and an outpur buffer. The
device will have 3 address lines and eight data lines. It will
also have control lines RD, WR and CS .
- To write an 8 bit word the p places the register
address on the three address line e.g to write in the
register 7, p places 111 on the address lines.
- The decoder decodes the address and selects the
register 7.
- Then the p places the data on the data bus and sends
the active low WR control signal.
- The control signal enables the input buffer and data
are placed in the selected register.
- To read from this memory, the process is similar to
that of write operation except that output buffer is
enabled with RD active low signal.
- The remaining address lines of the p address bus are
used to select the chip (CS ).


Basic concept in memory interfacing:

The primary function of memory interfacing is that
two microprocessor should be able to read from and write
into a given register of a memory chip. To perform this
operation the micro processor should.
1. Be able to select the chip
2. Identify the register.
3. Enable the appropriate buffer.

Let us consider a RAM chip (6.6) to be interfaced with 8085
P. The interfacing ckt is shown below:


E2 WE OE
CS
E1
E3
A11
A12
A13
A0
A10
D0 D7 . . . . .
Data lines
RD
WR
IO/M
A14 A15
6//6
RW memory
20486
3 - to - 8
decoder
O1



Fig. Interfacing R/W memory

For interfacing the chip with 8085 p we just need and
additional 3 to 8 decoder to select the chip. The register
inside the chip can be identified by the internal address
decoder and input or output buffers can be enabled by the
control signals RD or WR.

The memory chip 2048 8 requires 11 address lines
to identify the 2048 register. Therefore the lower address
lines A
10
A
0
form the P are connected to the chip. The
remaining address line ( A
15
A
11
) should be decoded to
generate a chip select (CS ) signal unique for that chip.
The remaining five lines are connected to the decoder ( 3 to
8 decoder) as shown is the figure above.
- The decoder is enabled by M IO/ signal is addition to
address lines A
15
and A
14

- The output O
1
of the decoder is connected to CS of the
memory chip.
- The input line lines to the decoder are A
15
, A
12
, and
A
11
. These activate the output O
1
to select the memory
chip.
- Thus to select the memory chip we must have the
output O
1
to selected by the 3 to 8 decoder, which
means we need A
13
=0
A
12
=0
A
11
=1
- Also to enable the 3 to 8 decoder we need M IO/ low
and A
14
=0 , A
15
=1
Thus the chip is selected by 10001 at lines A
15
A
11
of
the address bus. And hence the range of address for the
memory chip would be
10001 00000000000 =8800 H
10001 11111111111 =8FFF H

Thus for interfacing the 6116 ( RAM chip) the 8 data lines
of p are connected to 8- data lies of the chip.

- The lower address lines A
10
A
0
are connected to that
of the chip.
- The higher address lines A
15
A
11
are connected to
the 3-to-8 line decoder.
- The chip is selected by the output O
1
of the 3-to-8 line
decoder being connected to the CS pin of the chip.
Similarly the EPROM can be interfaced with 8085. The only
difference would be, there would be no WR lines connection,
as this memory is not used for write operation. The
interfacing is as shown below.
E2 OE
CS
E1
E3
A14
A0
A11
D0 D7 . . . . .
Data bus
MEMR
O1
A12
A13
A15
3 -to- 8
Decoder
+5v
2732
EPROM
40968


Fig. interfacing 2732 EPROM

Four interrupts TRAP, RST 7.5, 6.5, 5.5 are automatically
vectored (transferred) to specific locations on without any
external hardware. They do not require INTA signal or an
input port; the necessary hardware is already implemented
inside the 8085. These interrupts and their call locations are:

Call locations
TRAP 0024 H
RST 7.5 003C H
RST 6.5 0034 H
RST 5.5 002CH

The TRAP has the highest priority, followed by RST 7.5,
6.5, 5.5 and INTR. Figure below shows the schematic
diagram of 8085 Interrupts.

I/O interface:
Input and output interfaces provide a method
for transferring information between internal storage and
external I/O devices. Peripherals connected to a computer
need special communication links for interfacing them with
central processing unit. The purpose of the communication
link is to resolve the difference that exist between the
processor and each peripheral. The major differences are:

1. Peripherals are electromechanical and electromagnetic
devices and their manner of operation is different
form the operation of the CPU and memory, which
are electronic devices. Therefore a conversion of
signal value may be required.
2. The data transfer rate of peripherals is usually slower
than the transfer rate of the CPU, and consequently a
synchronization mechanism may needed.
3. Data codes and formats in peripherals differ from the
word format in the CPU and memory.
4. The operating modes of peripherals are different from
each other and each must be controlled so as not to
disturb the operation of the other peripherals
connected to the CPU.
To resolve these differences computes systems include
special hardware components between the CPU and
peripherals to supervise and synchronize all inputs and
outputs transfers. These components are called interface
units because they interface between the processor bus and
peripheral devices. The two major types of I/O interface
are:
1. Serial interface.
2. Parallel interface.

Serial interface: A serial interface exchanges data with the
peripheral in serial mode, where data are transmitted one bit
at a time along a simple communication link. Serial
transmission is slow but inexpensive to implement as far as
the number of wires is connected.
The function of serial I/O interface
is to deal with the data on the bus in the parallel mode and to
communicate with the connected device in the serial mode.
If the bus has n data lines the serial i/o interface accepts n
bits of datas simultaneously form the bus . These n bits are
put to the I/O devices one bit at a time requiring n time slot
for transmission. The reverse process takes place during
reception of data form the device.

Parallel interface: Some I/O devices can handle data at
speeds that can not be supported with serial interfaces so
such a case a parallel interface must be used, where n bits of
the data are handled simultaneously by the bus an on the
links to the device. This achieves a faster interchange of data
but becomes expensive due to the need of multiple wires. If
any I/O devices particularly those requiring high data
transfer rate use this arrangement.

Communication can be broadly defined as an unilateral or
bipolar transfer of meaningful data between two points
through a mediums. Communication can be in
1. Simplex mode
2. Half duplex mode
3. Full duplex mode.

The simplex mode: This mode allows the transmission of
data over a single channel in one direction only. The data
can be transmitted only from point A to point B not form
point B to point A as shown in figure below. Physically two
wire are required for transmission of data. One is signal wire
and other is ground return wire.

Transmitter
Receiver
A
B

Fig. Simplex mode


The half duplex mode: This mode is also known as two
way alternate transmission. This mode allows the
transmission of data over a single channel in both directions
but not simultaneously. In this mode too, just two wires are
required, but additional circuitry is needed to determine and
establish the direction of flow of information..

Transmitter
Receiver
A
B
OR
Transmitter
Channel
Channe2
Receiver


Fig. Half duplex mode


The full duplex mode: This mode allows the transmission
of data in both directions simultaneously but on two separate
channels. Two signal wires and two ground return wires are
required in this mode. A disadvantage of this mode is the
additional cost of the second channel. It is however possible
to offer simultaneously two way communication on a single
channel using complex circuitry.
Channel
Channe2
Transmitter
Receiver
Receiver
Transmitter


Fig. Full duplex mode

Method of communication:

Parallel data transfer: When a word of n bits is to be
transmitted in parallel each bit is transmitted on a separate
line along with a common ground line with respect to which
the status of each line is measured. Thus, a channel
comprises of (n+1) lines.

D0
Transmitter Receiver
1 0 1
1 1 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
D7

Fig. parallel data transfer

Here, the time required to transfer one word is equal to the
time taken to transmit a bit. Parallel data transmission is
impractical over long distances because of prohibitive cost
of installing a large number of lines.

Serial data transfer: In serial data transfer, each bit of the
word is sent in succession, one at a time over a single pair of
wires. A parallel to serial converters is used to convert the
incoming parallel data to serial form and then the data is sent
out with the lest significant bit D
o
first and most significant
bit D
7
coming last of all. If the bit rate is retained after the
parallel to serial conversion, the time taken to transmit a
word in serial data transmission will be n times more than
the time taken in parallel data transmission. If the word in
the above example were to sent serially, the data on the
channel will appear as in figure below.

Transmitter Receiver
Word 3 to be generated
1 1 1 1
Word 2
Word 1
1 1 1
1
1
0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0

Fig. serial data transfer


There are tow types of serial transfers. They are:
1. Asynchronous serial data transfer.
2. Synchronous data transfer.

Asynchronous transfer:
In this types of transmission, the
receiving device does not need to be synchronized with the
transmitting device. The transmitting device can send one or
more data units when it is ready to send. Each data unit must
be formatted. In other words, each data unit must contain a
start bit and stop bit(or bits) indicating the beginning and
the end of each data unit . In asynchronous transmission the
data message is sent one word at a time.
- When no datas are sent over the time it is maintained
at an idle value; a logic 1.
- Start bit is a logic 0.
- The stop bit is a logical 1.


Both the transmitter and receiver are given separate clocking
signals. It is not essential that they both be of exactly the
same frequency. The data is sent out of the transmitter
synchronous with its own clock input and the data is
similarly received and assembled at the receiver.


CLK
IDLE
IDLE
Start Start
Start
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
CLK
Transmitter Receiver


Fig. Asynchronous communication.

When a character is to be transmitted, the transmitter first
sends out a low bit. This transition is perceived by the
receiver and it gets ready to receive the data.
The transmitter then sends out the word bit by bit, one after
the other, synchronous with its clock.
The receiver assembles the data one by one synchronous
with its clock. The receiver must known beforehand the
transmission Baud Rate(bits per seconds) for proper
assembling at its end. After all the bit of a character are sent,
the transmitter sends out a stop bit which is the idle value (
logic 1) to indicate the end of transmission.

D1 D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2
stop
bit
D0
start
bit
To receiver
data
From
Transmitter


Fig. Transmission format for Asynchronous transfer

Asynchronous communication is a start-stop type of
communication and is used where the source of data may
not be providing a steady stream of new characters. The
data thus comes to the receiver at unevenly spaced intervals
without reference to a master clock, hence the name
Asynchronous.

Asynchronous transmission: Synchronous communication
is used for transferring large amount of data at a stretch
without frequent start or stops. In synchronous systems to ,
the line is maintained at the idle value when no data is being
transmitted. The transmission begins with a block header
which is a predetermined pattern of bits. The receiver
identifies the pattern and gets ready to receive the
characters.
The transmitter sends the data character by character, bit by
bit. After sending all the characters, the transmitter sends
another pattern of bits to indicate the end of transmission.
sync sync. syncsync
Postamble
Preamble
data
From
Transmitter
To receiver

Fig. Transmission format for synchronous transfer

This format is generally used for high speed transmission (
more then 20 kbps). Here the receiver and transmitter are
synchronized by a master clock i.e both function depending
upon the same clock signal.


Baud Rate: The rate at which the bits are transmitted (bits
per seconds) is called a baud; technically, however it is
defined as the number of signal changes/ second. Each piece
of equipment has its own band requirements.


Bus Interface standards: The microcomputer is a bus
oriented system where by subsystems or peripherals are
interconnected through the bus architecture. Peripheral and
computers are designed and manufactured by various
manufactures. Therefore, a common understanding must exit
, among various manufacturing and user groups, that can
ensure compatibility among different equipment. When this
understanding is defined and generally accepted in industry (
and by users) , it is known as a standard. In the field of
electronics, these standards are generally defined by
professional organizations such as IEEE; EIAC ( Electronic
industries Association or the standards are forced upon the
industry either by a dominant manufacturer or by common
practice. Various bus standards are defined till now. We
would be dealing RS 232C and GPIB here.

RS 232C: This interface standard is most widely used
standard for serial communication between microcomputers
and peripheral devices. The interface, defined by EIA,
relates essentially to two types of equipment. The first is
known as data terminal equipment. While the second is
referred as data communication equipment (DTE). The data
terminal equipment (e.g a microcomputer) is capable of
sending and/or receiving data via the serial interface. The
data communication equipment on the other hand is
generally through of as a device which can facilitate serial
data communications (e.g modems).

- RS 232C works in a negative logic. The standard
specifies that the logic one level is a voltage
between -3 and -15 v and the logic zero is a voltage
between +3 and +15 V. The commonly used voltages
are +12v and -12V.
- The transmission line normally used a twisted pair of
shielded wire with a line capacitance of more than
1200PF and no less than 300Pf. The standard
specifies the line length to 50 feets only.
- The standard describes the function of 25 signal and
hansake pins for serial data transfer. It also specifies
that the DTE connector should be male and the DCE
connector should be female. Usually 9 pin and 25 pin
connectors are available.

Among the 25 pins of RS232C the independent pin numbers
are:

Pin no. Signals Functions
2 Transmit data, TXD Output ,
transmit data from DTE to DCE
3 Receive data RXD Input, DTE receive
data from DCE
4 request to send, RTS General purpose
output from DTE
5 Clear to send,CTS Input to DTE, used as
handshake
6 Data set ready, DSR Input to DTE,
indicate that DCE is ready
7 Singal ground,GND Common
reference bet. DTE and DCE
8 Data carrier detect, DCD Used by DTE to
disable data reception
20 Data terminal ready, DTR Output means
DTE is ready.

The main problem with RS-232C is that it can only transfer
data reliably about 50ft (16.4m) at its maximum rate of 20k
band. If longer lines are used the transmission rate has to be
drastically reduced. For higher rate of transfers and for
longer distance we have another standards defined.

Standards Speed Distances Voltage Range
RS 232C 20k band 50ft 15V
RS-422A 10Mbaud at 40ft 4000ft 7
100 Kbaud at 4000ft
RS-485A 100K baud at 30ft
1 kbaud at 4000ft 4000ft 12V


RS 232C interface with DTE and DCE: The figure below
shows a interfacing with minimum lines.


2
2
3 3
7 7
TTL
DTE DCE
Transmit
MC 1488
MC 1489
AND AND
MC 1489
MC 1488
receive
receive
Transmit
RS 232C cable
TTL

Fig. RS 232C interface

The signaling in RS-232C is not compatible with the TTL
logic level. For TTL 0 v to 0.2V is considered a logic 0 and
3.4 v to 5v as logic 1. But RS-232C works in a negative
logic -3 to -15v considered as logic 1 and +3 to +15v as
logic 0. Because of this incompatibility of the data lines with
the TTL logic, voltage translators called line drivers and line
receivers are required to interface TTL logic with RS-232C
signals.
The line driver MC 1488 converts logic 1 into approx -9V
and logic 0 into +9v. Before it is received by the DCE it is
again converted by the line receiver MC 1489 into TTL-
Compatible logic.
The minimum interface required both a computer and a
peripheral device requires three lines; pin 2,3 and 7. These
lines are defined in relation to the DTE; the terminal
transmits on pin 2 and receives as pin 3. On the other hand
the DCE transmits on pin 3 and receives on pin 1. Pin 7 is
ground pin.


GPIB ( General purpose instrumentation bus ) ~ IEE-
488 standard
~HPIB (Hewlette puckard interface bus)

This is the most widely used industrial bus format. It was
developed to facilitate interface of computers with various
instruments as printers, tape recorders, digital voltmeters,
frequency counters, function generators etc. Some of the
features of this bus are:
1. Data transfer among the interconnected devices in
digital format.
2. Allows 8 bit parallel bi-directional communication.
3. Fifteen devices may be connected to one
continuous bus.
4. Total transmission path is limited to 20 metres or
two meters per device.
5. Data transfer rate on any single line is limited to
1M-byte/sec
6. The bus as 24 signals: eight bidirectional data
lines.
: eight control lines.
: eight ground lines.

This standard describes four types of devices which may be
interface to GPIB.

a. Listners: These devices can receive data band
control signals from other devices connected to the
bus but are not capable of generating data. e.g
printers.
b. Talkers: These devices are only capable of placing
data on the bus and can not receive data. Only one
talker can be active at a given time but fourteen
devices can listen at a time. Example for talkers are:
scanners, tape readers, voltmeters etc.


Talkers/ listners: Talkers and listners can both send and
receive data to/from the bus. A digital multimeters is a
typical example. Data is sent to it in order to change ranges
and returned to the bus in the form of digitized readings of
voltage, current and resistances.

Controller: controllers are used to supervise the flow of
data on the bus and provide processing facilities. The
controller within an IEE-488 system is a microcomputer.

I/O ports addressing: A number of microprocessor have
distinct memory and I/O address spaces. These processors
generally have special instruction to access a port. A
separate control line is used to distinguish between I/O and
memory operations. In 8085 IO/M line is used for this
purpose. The address of the I/O port (XXH) is put on both
the lower and upper eight lines of the address bus during T
1

of the machine cycle. I/O device can be interfaced to an
CO85A system in two ways: 1. I/O mapped I/O mode
2.Memory mapped I/O mode.


I/O mapped I/O mode (standard I/O): In this mode, the
IO/M signal of the 8085A is used to distinguish between
I/O read/write and memory Read/write operations. The I/O
device an be accessed during IN and OUT instructions ( a 1
byte address is specified in the instruction).

Memory mapped I/O mode: In this mode the IO/M signal
output is not used to distinguish between memory and I/O
devices. The microprocessor communicates with an I/O
device as if it were one of the memory location. Hence the
I/O devices are address as memory.

Interfacing: The objective of interfacing an output device is
to get information or a result out of the processor and to
display it, similarly the input device is interfaced to get
information into the processor. To do that three common
steps are undertaken.

1. Decode the address bus to generates a unique pulse
corresponding to the device address on the bus; this is
called I/O address pulse.
2. Combine (AND) the device address pulse with the
control signal to generate a device select (I/O select)
pulse that is generated only when both signals are
applied.
3. Use the I/O select pulse to active the interfacing
device (I/O ports)

The diagram below illustrates the steps:

Decoder
A0
Latch or
buffer
AND
Data bus
IOR
IOADR
Enable
OISEL
IOW
A1

The address lines A
7
A
0
are connected to a decoder which
will generate a unique pulse corresponding to each address
on the address lines. This pulse is combined with the control
signal to generate a device select pulse. Which is used to
enable an output latch or an input buffer.

Interfacing output display: The figure below shows an
output interfacing ckt for LED display.

A7
D0
D7
+5v
A0
IOW
IOADR
74LS30
74LS373
octal
latch
74LS02



Here:
- The address bus A
7
A
0
is decoded by using an 8
input NAND gate.
- The output of the NAND gate goes low only when the
address line carry the address FF H.
- The output of the NAND gate combines with the
microprocessor control signal IOW in a NOR gate
(connected as a negative AND). The output of NOR
gate (74LS02) goes high to generate on I/O select
pulse when both inputs are low(or both signals are
asserted).
- Mean while the contents of the accumulator have been
put on the data bus.
- The I/O select pulse is used to activate the latch and
data are latched and displayed on the diodes.(LEDs)


Interfacing an Input device (DIP switches): The figure
below shows an input interfacing ckt for DIP switches.

A3
A4
A5
A6
+5v
E1
A1
A2
E2 E3
IOADR
IOR
D7
D0
A0
3-to-8
decoder
Octal
Buffer
Data
bus
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0


Here:
- The address bus A
7
A
0
is decoded using an decoder.
- The output of the decoder (O
4
) goes low only when
the address line carry the address 84H.
- The output of the decoder combines with the P
control signal IOR in a negative NAND gate. The
output of this gate goes low to generate an I/O select
pulse when both inputs are low.
- The I/O select pulse is used to activate the buffer and
the data from the DIP switches (F8H) is put on the
data.

The 8085- serial I/O lines: SOD and SID:
- The 8085 P has two pins specially designed for
software controlled serial I/O. One is called SOD
(serial output data) and the other is called SID(serial
input data).
- Data transfer is controlled through two instructions:
SIM and RIM

SOD: The instruction SIM is necessary to output data
serially from SOD line. It can be interpreted for serial output
as below:


D5 D7 D6 D4
1=enable SOD
0=disable SOD
D3 D2
D1
D0
SODSDE
Serial
output
data
X
For interrupts



SID: The instruction RIM is used to input serial data
through the SID line. It can be interpreted for serial input as
below.

Serial input data
D5 D7 D6 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0
SID
Interrupts status



SID and SOD lines eliminates the use of input and output
port in the software controlled serial I/O. SID is a 1-bit input
port and SOD is a 1-bit output port.

Interrupt:
An interrupt is a signal that a peripheral board sends to the
central processor in order to request attention. In response to
an interrupt, the processor stops what it is currently doing
and executes a service routine. When the execution of the
service routine is terminated, the original process may
resume its previous operation.
The interrupt is initiated by an external device and is
asynchronous, meaning that it an be initiated at any time
without reference to system clock. However , the response to
an interrupt request is directed or controlled by the
microprocessor.

Interrupts are primarily issued on:
~ initiation of I/O operation.
~ completion of I/O operation.
~ occurrence of hardware or software errors.

Process of interrupt operation:
1. The I/O unit issues an interrupt signal to the
processor. An interrupt signal from I/O is the request
for exchange of data with the processor.
2. The processor finishes execution of the current
instruction before responding to the interrupt.
3. The processor testes for an interrupt, determines that
there is one, and sends an acknowledgement signal to
the device that issued the interrupt. After receiving
this acknowledgement, the device retains its interrupts
signal.
4. The processor now begins to transfer the control to the
routine which serves the interrupt request from the
device. This routine is called Interrupt service
routine and it resides at a specified memory location.
For this process, the CPU needs to save information needed
to reassume the current program at the point of interrupt.
The minimum information required is i) the status of the
processor, which contained by the processor status word
(PSW) and ii) the location of the next instruction to be
executed which is contained by the program counter (PC),
these all are pushed onto the stack.
5. The processor then loads the program counter with the
entry location of the interrupt service routine that will
respond to this interrupt. Once the program counter
has been loaded, the control is transferred to the
interrupt handler program.
6. The fundamental requirement of the interrupt service
routine is that it should begin by saving the contents
of all the registers on the stack( as state of the main
program should be safe).
Suppose the user program is interrupted after the instruction
at location N. The contents of all the registers plus the
address of the next instruction are saved on the stack. The
stack pointed is updated and the programs counter is updated
to point to the beginning of the interrupt service routine.
7. The interrupt handler now proceeds to process the
interrupt. This will include an examination of status
information relating to the I/O operation or the other
event that caused an interrupt. It may also involve
sending additional commands or acknowledgement to
the I/O unit.
8. When interrupt processing is complete the saved
registers value ( of the main program) are retrieved
from the stack and restored to the register.
9. The final function is to restore the PSW and program
counter values from the stack. As a result the next
instruction to be executed will be from the previously
interrupted main program.

Types of interrupt:
There are three major types of interrupts that
cause a break in the normal execution of a program. They
can be classified as:

1. External interrupts
2. Internal interrupts
3. Software interrupts.

External interrupts: External interrupts are initiated via
the microprocessors interrupt pins by external devices such
I/O devices, timing device, circuit monitoring the power
supply etc. Causes of these interrupts may be; I/O device
requesting transfer of data, I/O device finished transfer of
data, elasped time of an event, or power failure. Timeout
interrupt may result from a program that is an endless loop
and thus exceeded its time allocation. Power failure interrupt
may have as its service routine a program that transfers the
complete state of the CPU into a non-destructive memory in
few milliseconds before power ceases.

External interrupts can be further divided into two types:
1. Maskable interrupt.
2. Non-maskable interrupt.

Maskable interrupt: A maskable interrupt is one which
cab be enabled or disabled by executing instructions such as
EI ( enable interrupts)and DI (Disable interrupt). If the
microprocessors interrupt enable flip flop is disabled, it
ignores a maskable interrupt. In 8085, the 1 byte instruction
EI sets the interrupt enable flip flop and enables the interrupt
process. Similarly the 1 byte instruction DI resets the
interrupt enable flip flop and disables the interrupt process.
No maskable interrupts are recognized by the processor
when the interrupt is disabled.

Non maskable interrupt: This type of interrupt cannot be
enabled or disabled by instructions. This types has higher
priority over the maskable interrupt. This means that if both
the makable and non maskable interrupts are activated at the
same time, then the processor will service the non-maskable
interrupt first. In 8085 TRAP is an example of non maskable
interrupt.

Internal interrupt: Internal interrupt arise form illegal or
erroneous use of an instruction or data. Cause of this
interrupt may be: register overflow, attempt to divide by
zero, an invalid operation code, stack overflow etc. These
error conditions usually occur as a result of premature
termination of the instruction execution. These are even
termed as exceptions.
The difference between internal and external interrupt is
that the internal interrupt is initiated by some exceptional
conditions caused by the program itself rather than by an
external events. Internal interrupts are synchronous with the
program, while external interrupts are asynchronous. If the
program is return, the internal interrupt will occur in the
same place each time. External interrupts depends on
external conditions that are independent of the program
being executed at the time.

Software interrupt: External and internal interrupts are
initiated from signal that occur in the hardware of the cpu. A
software interrupt is initiated by executing an instruction.
Software interrupt is a special call instruction that behaves
like an interrupt rather than a subroutine call. It can be used
by the programmer to initiate an interrupt procedure at any
desired point in the program. The most common use of
software interrupt is associated with a supervisor call
instruction. This instruction provides means for switching
from a CPU user mode to the supervisor mode. Certain
operations in the computer may be assigned to the
supervisor mode only, as for example, a complex input or
output transfer procedure. In 8085 the instruction like RST0,
RST1, RST2, RST3..etc. causes a software interrupt.

Interrupt priority: Data transfer between the CPU and an
I/O device is initiated by the CPU. However , the CPU
cannot start the transfer unless the device is ready to
communicate with the CPU. The readiness of the device can
be determined from an interrupt signal. The CPU responds
to the interrupt request by storing the return address form
PC into a memory stack and then the program branches to a
service routine that process the required transfer.
In micro-computer a number of I/O device are attached to
the processor, with each device being able to originate an
interrupt request. The first task of the interrupt system is to
indemnify the source of the interrupt. There is also the
possibility that several sources will request service
simultaneously. In this case the system must also decide
which device to service first.
An interrupt priority is a system that established a
priority over the various sources to determine which
condition is to be serviced first when two or more request
arrive simultaneously. The system may also determine
which conditions are permitted to interrupt the computer
while another interrupt is being serviced. Higher-priority
interrupt levels are assigned to request which, if delayed or
interrupted, could have serious consequences. Device with
higher speed transfers such as magnetic disks are given high
priority, and slow devices such as keyboards receive low
priority. When two devices interrupt the processor at the
same time, the processor service the device, with the higher
priority first.
There are mainly two ways of servicing multiple interrupts.
These are:
1. Polled interrupt.
2. Chained (Vectored) interrupt.

Polled interrupt: Polled interrupt are handled using
software and are therefore slower compared to vectored
(hardware) interrupts. In this method there is one common
branch address for all interrupts. The program that takes care
of interrupts begins at the branch address and polls the
interrupts sources in sequence. The order in which they are
tested determines the priority of each interrupt. The highest
priority source is tested first, and if its interrupt signal is on,
control branches to a service routine for this source. Other
wise the next lower priority source is tested, and so on.
Thus, the initial service routine for all interrupts consists of a
program that test the interrupt sources in sequence and
branches to one of many possible service routines.
Polled interrupts are very simple . But or large number of
devices, the time required to poll each device may exceed
the to service the device. In such case, the faster mechanism
called chained interrupt is used.

Chained interrupt: This is hardware concept of handling
the multiple interrupts. In this technique, the devices are
connected in a chain fashion as shown in figure below for
setting up the priority system.

. . . .
Processor
INTA
INT
D0 - D7
Device 1 Device 2
Device3 Device n



Here the device with he highest priority placed in the fist
position, followed by lower priority devices. Suppose that
one or more devices interrupt the processor at a time. In
response, the processor saves its current status and then
generates an interrupt acknowledge (INTA) signal to the
highest priority device, which is device 1 in our case. If this
device has generated the interrupt it will accept the INTA
signal from the processor; otherwise, it will pass INTA on to
the next device until the INTA is accepted by the
interrupting device.
Once accepted, the device provides a means to the
processor for finding the interrupt address vector using
external hardware. Usually the requesting device responds
by placing a word on the data lines. With the help of
hardware it generates interrupts vector address. This word is
referred to as vector, which the processor used as a pointer
to the appropriate device service routine.
This avoids the need to execute a general interrupt service
routine first. So this technique is also referred to as vectored
interrupts.


Interrupts of 8085: The 8085 has five interrupts:
i. TRAP
ii. RST 7.5
iii. RST 6.5
iv. RST 5.5
v. INTR


The four interrupts TRAP, RST 7.5, 6.5,5.5 are
automatically vectored (transferred) to specific locations on
without any external hardware. They do not require INTA
signal or an input port; the necessary hardware is already
implemented inside the 8085. These interrupts and their call
locations are:

TRAP Call location
TRAP 0024 H
RST 7.5 003 CH
RST 6.5 0034 H
RST 5.5 002C H.

The TRAP has the highest, followed by RST 7.5, 6.5, 5.5
and INTR. Figure below shows the schematic diagram of
8085 interrupts.


INTR:
This interrupt is maskable. It can be enabled by
instruction EI and can be disabled by instruction DI. The
INTR interrupt requires external hardware to transfer
program sequence to specific CALL locations. There are 8
numbers of CALL-Locations for INTR interrupt. The
hardware circuit generate RST codes for this purpose and
places that on the data bus externally.
When the microprocessor is executing a program, it
checks the INTR line (when interrupt enable flip flop is
enabled using EI instruction) during the execution of each
instruction. If the line is high and the interrupt is enabled,
the microprocessor completes the currents instruction,
disabled the interrupt enable flip flop and sends a INTA
signal. The processor does not accept any interrupt requests
until the interrupt flip flop is enabled again.
The signal INTA is used to insert a Restart (RST)
instruction, ( it saves the memory address of the next
instruction to the stack. The program is transferred to the cal
location.). The RST instruction and their call locations are :

Instruction Hex-code Call location
RST 0 C7 0000
RST 1 CF 0008
RST 2 D7 0010
RST 3 DF 0018
RST 4 E7 0020
RST 5 EF 0028
RST 6 F7 0030
RST 7 FF 0038

- bit D
3
is a control bit and should be 1 for bits D
0
, D
1
,
and D
2
to be effective.
- Logic 0 on D
0
, D
1
, and D
2
will enable the
corresponding interrupts and logic 1 will disable the
interrupts.
ii) The second function is to reset RST 7.5 flip flop.
Bit D
4
is additional control for RST 7.5
- If D
4
=1, RST 7.5 is reset. This is used to ignore
RST 7.5 without servicing it.
iii) The third function is to implement serial I/O. Bit
D
7
and D
6
are used for serial I/O and do not effect
the interrupts.


SOD SDE X
1
R7.5MSEM7.5M6.5M5.5
0 2 3 4 5 6 7
RST7.5 0=available
RST6.5 1=masked
RST5.5
Most set enable
Rset RST 7.5, if 1 reset disable
If 1,bit 7 is output to serial output data
Serial output data; ignored if bit 6 =0
Ingored



Assuming that the task to be performed is written as a
subroutine at the specified location the processor performs a
task. This service routine includes the instruction EI to
enable the interrupt again and RE-instruction to retrieve the
memory address where the program has interrupted. Then
the execution goes to the main program again.

TRAP:
It is a non maskable interrupt. It has the highest
priority among the interrupt signal. It need not be enabled
and it cannot be disabled. When this interrupt is triggered
the program control is transferred to the location 0024 H
without any external hardware or the interrupt enable
instruction. TRAP is generally used for such critical events
as power failure and emergency shut off.
RST 7.5, 6.5, 5.5: These interrupts are maskable and are
enabled by software using instructions EI and SIM ( set
interrupt mask). The execution of the instruction SIM
enables/disables the interrupts according to the bit pattern of
the accumulator.

SET Interrupt Mask (SIM) instruction:
- This is 1 byte instruction.
- Can be used for three different functions:
i). One function is set mask for RST 7.5, 6.6 and 5.5
interrupts. This instruction reads the content of the
accumulator and enables or disables the interrupts.

Pending interrupts:
When one interrupt request is being served, other
interrupt may occur resulting in a pending request. When
more than one interrupts occur. Simultaneously the
interrupts having higher priority is served and the interrupts
with lower priority remain pending. The 8085 has an
instruction RIM using which the programmer can know the
current status of pending interrupts. This instructions gives
the current status of only maskable interrupts.

Instruction RIM:
- Read interrupt Mask.
- 1 byte instruction.
- Can be used for the followings.

a. To read interrupt mask. This instruction loads the
accumulator with 8-bits indicating the current status
of the interrupts.
b. To identify the pending interrupts. Bits D
4,
D
5,
and D
6

identify the pending interrupts .
c. To receive serial data. Bit D
7
is used to receive serial
data.


SID I 7.5
1
M7.5M6.5M5.5
0 2 3 4 5 6 7
I 6.5 I 5.5 IE
Interupt masks
1 =masked
Interupt enable
1 =enabled
Pending Interupt
1 =pending
Serial input
data, if any




I/O interface:

8255 programmable peripheral interface (PPI):
A programmable peripheral interface is a multipart
device. The part may be programmed in a variety of ways as
required by the programmer. The device is very useful for
interfacing peripheral devices. It has 3 8- bit ports, namely
port A, port B and port C. The port C has been further divide
into two of 4-bit ports, and port C upper and port C lower.
Thus a total of 4 ports are available, two 8-bit ports and two
4-bit ports. Each part can be programmed either as an i/p
port or an o/p port.

PA
0
PA
7
- 8 pins of port A
PB
0
PB
7
- 8 pins of port B
PC
0
PC
3
- 4 pins of port C
lower

PC
4
PC
7
- 4 pins of port C
upper.



D0-D7
PA0 - PA7
PC4 - PC7
PC0 - PC3
PB0 - PB7
Vcc
GND
RESET
A0
A1
RD
CS
WR
Intel
8255


Operating modes of 8255:
8255 has 3 modes of operation which are selected by
s/w.
Mode 0 - Simple input/output
Mode 1 Strobed input/output
Mode 2 Bidirectional port.

Mode 0: In this mode of operation, a port can be operated as
a simple o/p or i/p port. Each of the four ports of 8255 can
be programmed to be either an i/p or o/p port.

Mode 1: Mode 1 is strobed input/output mode of operation.
The port A and port B are designed to operate in this mode
of operation. When port A and port B are programmed in
mode 1, six pins of port c are used for their control. PC
0
,PC
1

and PC
2
are used for control of port B which can be used as
input or output port. If the port A is operated as an input I/P
or O/P port If the port A is operated as an input port. PC
3
,
PC
4
, and PC
5
are used for its control. The remaining pins of
port C, i.e PC
6
and PC
7
can be used as either input or output.
When port A is operated as an output port, pins PC
3
, PC
6

and PC
7
are used for its control. The pins PC
4
and PC
5
can
be used either as input or output.

Mode 2: Mode 2 is strobed bidirectional mode of operation.
In this mode port A can be programmed to operate as a
bidirectional port. The mode 2 operation is only for port A.
When port A is programmed in mode 2, the port B can be
used in either mode 1 or mode 0. For mode 2 operation PC
3

to PC
7
are used for the control of port A.

8279 (Programmable keyboard/display interface): 8279
is a programmable keyboard interfacing device. It has been
designed for the purpose of 8-bit P . It has two sections
namely keyboard section and display section. The function
of the keyboard section is to interface the keyboard which is
used as i/p device for the P. The purpose of the display
section is to drive alphanumeric displays or indication lights.
Some important features are: simultaneous - keyboard
display operations, scanned sensor mode, scanned.
Keyboard mode, 8 character keyboard FIFO, 2 key lock
out or N key roll over with contact debouched, single 16-
character display, dual 8 or 16 numerical display,
programmable scan timing and mode programmable from
CPU.

8279 block diagram:

Keyboard section: This section has eight lines ( RL
0

RL
7
)that can be connected to 8 columns of a keyboard, plus
two additional lines shift and CNTL/STB (control/strobe).
The keys are automatically debouched and the keyboard can
operate in two modes; two-key lockout or N-key rollover. In
two-key lockout mode, if two keys are pressed almost
simultaneously only the first key is recognized. In the N-key
rollover mode, simultaneous keys are recognized and their
codes are stored in the internal buffer. It can also be set up
so that no key is recognized until only one key remains
pressed.
This section also includes 8 8 FIFO RAM, that store
keyboard entries and provides IRQ (interrupt request).
Signal when FIFO is not empty.

Data
Buffer
CLK
RESET
I RQ
I/O
control
FI FO/
senser
RAM
Status
I nternal data bus (8)
168
Display
RAM
Display
Address
regi ster
Control&
Timing
Register
Display
registers
88
FI FO/
senser
RAM
Keyboard
Debounce
and control
Timing and
Control
Scan
counter
Return
OUT AD0 - A3
OUT B0 -B3
SLo - SL3
RLo - RL3 CNTL/STB
shift
DB0 - DB7
RD WR CSAo


Scan section: The scan section has scan counter and 4 scan
lines (SL
0
SL
3
). These 4 scan lines can be decoded using a
4- to 16 decoder to generate 16 lines for scanning.

Display section: The display section has eight output lines
divided into two groups A
0
A
3
and B
0
B
3
. These lines can
be used, either as a group of eight lines or as two groups of
four, in conjunction with the scan line, for a multiplexed
display. The display can be blanked by using the BD line.
This section includes 16 8 display RAM.

MPU Interface section: This section includes eight
bidirectional data lines ( DB
0
DB
7
), one interrupt request
(IRQ) line, and 6 lines for interfacing , including the buffer
address line (A
0
) .
When A
0
is high, signals are interpreted as control words or
status; when A
0
is low, signals are interpreted as data. The
IRQ line goes high whenever data entries are stored in the
FIFO indicating the availability of data.

8251A programmable communication Interface:.
The 8251A is a programmable chip designed
for synchronous and asynchronous serial data
communication, packed in a 28-pin DIP. Figure shows the
block diagram of 8251A. It includes 5 sections: Read/write
control logic, Transmitter, Receiver, Data bus buffer, and
Modem control.

Data
Bus
Buffer
Transmit
Buffer
Transmit
Control
Receive
Buffer
Receive
Control
Read/Write
Control
Logic
Modem
Control
TxD
TxRDY
TxE
RxRDY
RxD
SYNDET
RxC
D7 -D0
RESET
CLK
RD
WR
C/D
CS
DSR
DTR
CST
RTS



The control logic interfaces the chip with the MPU. The
transmitter section converts a parallel word received from
MPU into serial bits and transmit them over the TXD line to
a peripheral. The receiver section receives serial bits from a
peripheral, converts them into a parallel word and transfers
back to the MPU. The modern control is used to establish
data communication through modems over telephone lines.

Read/ control logic and registers: This section includes R/W
control logic , six i/p signals, and 3 buffer registers: data
register, control register and status registers.

D7 - D0
R/w
control
Logic
Data
Buffer
Regi ster
Control
Regi ster
16
Status
Register
Transmitter
Receiver
RESET
CLK
RD
WR
C/D
CS
C/D =0
RD or WR
C/D=1
WR=0
C/D=1
RD =0



CS - Chip select: when signal goes low, 8251A is selected
by MPU for communication.
D C / - control/ data: When this signal is high , control
register or the status register is selected. When low data
buffer is addressed.

CS D C / RD WR
Function
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
X
1
0
1
0
X
0
1
0
1
X
MPU writes inst into control reg
MPU reads status from status reg.
MPU o/ps data to the data buffer
MPU accepts data from data buffer.
USART is not selected

Transmitter Section:



The transmitter accepts parallel data from the MPU and
converts into serial data. It has two register: a buffer register
to hold eight bits and an o/p register to convert eight bits
into a stream of serial bits. The MPU writes a byte in the
buffer register; whenever the o/p register is empty, the
contents of the buffer register are transmitted to the o/p
register. This section transmits data on the TxD pin with the
start and stop bits.

Receiver section: The receiver accepts serial data on the
RxD line from a peripheral and converts them into parallel
data. This section has two registers; the receiver i/p register
and the buffer register. When RxD line goes low, the i/p
register accepts the data and loads it into the buffer register.
Subsequently, the parallel byte is transferred to the MPU
when requested.