Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms



Kinematics
of
Machines
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms




ABOUT THE SUBJECT
This subject mainly deals with mechanisms of various machines which
include position displacement velocity and acceleration that we come across
in our day to day life without giving much importance to FORCE or MASS.
The subject also deals with graphical and analytical interpretation. The other
chapters of interest are Velocity and Acceleration of mechanisms by
Complex Numbers, gears, gear trains, and analysis of Cam profiles.

Special emphasis is given to velocity and acceleration followed by
Cams as these problems are solved on drawing sheets in the University
Exams.

Faculty : Sunith Babu. L
Email : sunithbabu@pes.edu


Student Assistant : Daniel Naveenchandra Sunath
Email: danimsun@gmail.com




Subject Code : ME44
Hrs/Week : 04
Total Hours : 52
IA Marks : 25
Exam Hours : 03
Exam Marks : 100

Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms

1. Introduction:

1.1 Definitions : Link or Element, Pairing of Elements with degrees of freedom,
Grublers criterion (without derivation), Kinematic chain, Mechanism,
Mobility of Mechanism, Inversions, Machine. 2 hrs

1.2 Kinematic Chains and Inversions : Kinematic chain with three lower pairs,
Four bar chain, Single slider crank chain and Double slider crank chain and
their inversions. 4 hrs

1.3 Mechanisms:
i) Quick return motion mechanisms Drag link mechanism,
Whitworth mechanism and Crank and slotted lever mechanism
ii) Straight line motion mechanisms Peaceliers mechanism and
Roberts mechanism.
iii) Intermittent motion mechanisms Geneva mechanism and Ratchet
& Pawl mechanism.
iv) Toggle mechanism, Pantograph, Hookes joint and Ackerman
Steering gear mechanism.


2. Velocity and Acceleration analysis of mechanisms (Graphical Methods):

2.1 Velocity and acceleration analysis by vector polygons: Relative velocity
and accelerations of particles in a common link, relative velocity and
accelerations of coincident particles on separate link, Coriolis component of
acceleration.


2.2 Velocity analysis by Instantaneous centre method: Definition, Kennedys
Theorem, Determination of velocity using instantaneous centre method.
(Complex mechanisms are not included in 2.1 and 2.2.)


2.3 Analysis of velocity and acceleration of single slider crank mechanism by
using Kleins construction. 7 hrs


3. Velocity and acceleration analysis by complex numbers:
Analysis of single slider crank mechanism and four bar mechanism by loop
closure equations and complex numbers. 4 hrs


4. Spur Gears:
Law of gearing, Involutometry, Definitions, Characteristics of involute action,
Path of Contact, Arc of Contact, Contact Ratio, Interference in involute gears,
Methods of avoiding interference, Back lash, Comparison of involute and
cycloidal teeth. 8 hrs
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms


5. Gear trains:
Simple gear trains, Compound gear trains for large speed reduction, Epicyclic
gear trains, Algebraic and tabular methods of finding velocity ratio of epicyclic
gear trains, Tooth load and torque calculations in epicyclic gear trains.
Differential mechanism of an automobile. 6 hrs


6. Cams:
Type of cams, Type of followers, Displacement, Velocity and acceleration time
curves for cam profiles, Disc cam with reciprocating follower having knife edge,
roller follower, Follower motions including SHM, Uniform velocity, Uniform
acceleration and retardation and Cycloidal motion. 8 hrs




TEXT BOOKS:

1. Theory of Machines by Rattan S.S., Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing company Ltd., New Delhi, 1993.
2. Theory of Machines by Sadhu Singh, Pearson education
(Singapore) Pte. Ltd., Indian Branch, New Delhi, 2002.


Reference Books:

1. Mechanism and Dynamics of Machinery by Mabie, H.H. and Reinholtz C.F., 4
th

edition, John Wiley and sons, New York, 1987.
2. The Theory of Machines by Bevan, T., CBS Publishers and Distributors, New
Delhi, 1984.
3. Mechanism and Machine Theory by Rao, J.S., and Dukkipati R.V., 2
nd
edition,
New Age International (P) Ltd. Publishers, New Delhi, 1992.
4. Theory of Machines I by A.S. Ravindra, Sudha Publications, Bangalore.
5. Theory of Mechanism and Machines by Ghosh. A. and Mallik. A., 3
rd
edition,
Affiliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1998.
6. Theory of Machines and Mechanisms by Shigley. J. V. and Uicker. J.J., 2
nd

edition, McGraw-Hill International, 1995.


Scheme of Examination:
Suggested Question Paper Pattern.

Chapter
Numbers


1

2

3

4

5

6

Questions


2

2

1

1

1

1
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms

Introduction

1.1 Definitions:

Link or element:

A mechanism is made of a number of resistant bodies out
of which some may have motions relative to the others. A
resistant body or a group of resistant bodies with rigid
connections preventing their relative movement is known as a
link. A link may also be defined as a member or a combination of
members of a mechanism, connecting other members and having
motion relative to them, thus a link may consist of one or more
resistant bodies. A link is also known as Kinematic link or an
element.

Links can be classified into
1) Binary
2) Ternary
3) Quarternary, etc.

Binary Link Ternary Link




Quarternary Link


Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms

Kinematic Pair:

A Kinematic Pair or simply a pair is a joint of two links
having relative motion between them.

Example:

In the above given Slider crank mechanism, link 2 rotates relative
to link 1 and constitutes a revolute or turning pair. Similarly, links 2, 3
and 3, 4 constitute turning pairs. Link 4 (Slider) reciprocates relative to
link 1 and its a sliding pair.

Types of Kinematic Pairs:
Kinematic pairs can be classified according to
i) Nature of contact.
ii) Nature of mechanical constraint.
iii) Nature of relative motion.

i) Kinematic pairs according to nature of contact :
a) Lower Pair: A pair of links having surface or area contact
between the members is known as a lower pair. The contact
surfaces of the two links are similar.
Examples: Nut turning on a screw, shaft rotating in a
bearing, all pairs of a slider-crank mechanism, universal
joint.
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms

b) Higher Pair: When a pair has a point or line contact
between the links, it is known as a higher pair. The contact
surfaces of the two links are dissimilar.

Examples: Wheel rolling on a surface cam and follower
pair, tooth gears, ball and roller bearings, etc.


ii) Kinematic pairs according to nature of mechanical constraint.

a) Closed pair: When the elements of a pair are held together
mechanically, it is known as a closed pair. The contact
between the two can only be broken only by the destruction
of at least one of the members. All the lower pairs and
some of the higher pairs are closed pairs.

b) Unclosed pair: When two links of a pair are in contact
either due to force of gravity or some spring action, they
constitute an unclosed pair. In this the links are not held
together mechanically. Ex.: Cam and follower pair.


iii) Kinematic pairs according to nature of relative motion.

a) Sliding pair: If two links have a sliding motion relative to
each other, they form a sliding pair. A rectangular rod in a
rectangular hole in a prism is an example of a sliding pair.

b) Turning Pair: When on link has a turning or revolving
motion relative to the other, they constitute a turning pair or
revolving pair.

c) Rolling pair: When the links of a pair have a rolling motion
relative to each other, they form a rolling pair. A rolling
wheel on a flat surface, ball ad roller bearings, etc. are
some of the examples for a Rolling pair.
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms


d) Screw pair (Helical Pair): if two mating links have a
turning as well as sliding motion between them, they form
a screw pair. This is achieved by cutting matching threads
on the two links.
The lead screw and the nut of a lathe is a screw
Pair

e) Spherical pair: When one link in the form of a sphere turns
inside a fixed link, it is a spherical pair.
The ball and socket joint is a spherical pair.

Degrees of Freedom:

An unconstrained rigid body moving in space can describe
the following independent motions.
1. Translational Motions along any three mutually
perpendicular axes x, y and z,
2. Rotational motions along these axes.

Thus a rigid body possesses six degrees of freedom. The
connection of a link with another imposes certain constraints on their
relative motion. The number of restraints can never be zero (joint is
disconnected) or six (joint becomes solid).
Degrees of freedom of a pair is defined as the number of
independent relative motions, both translational and rotational, a pair
can have.
Degrees of freedom = 6 no. of restraints.
To find the number of degrees of freedom for a plane mechanism
we have an equation known as Grublers equation and is given by






Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
F = 3 ( n 1 ) 2 j
1
j
2


F = Mobility or number of degrees of freedom
n = Number of links including frame.
j
1
= Joints with single (one) degree of freedom.
j
1
= Joints with two degrees of freedom.

If F > 0, results a mechanism with F degrees of freedom.
F = 0, results in a statically determinate structure.
F < 0, results in a statically indeterminate structure.

The degrees of freedom for various joints are given by:

Type of joint Nature of Motion. Degrees of freedom.
Hinges (Revolute)

Slider (prismatic)

Cylindrical, Cam, Gear,
Ball Bearings

Rolling Contact

Spherical
Pure rolling

Pure Sliding

Rolling and Sliding


Pure Rolling
1

1

2


1

3
Note: A revolute joint connecting m links at the same point must be considered as (m-1) joints.



























Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms


Kinematic Chain:

A Kinematic chain is an assembly of links in which the relative
motions of the links is possible and the motion of each relative to the
others is definite (fig. a, b, and c.)



In case, the motion of a link results in indefinite motions of other
links, it is a non-kinematic chain. However, some authors prefer to call
all chains having relative motions of the links as kinematic chains.

Linkage, Mechanism and structure:

A linkage is obtained if one of the links of kinematic chain is
fixed to the ground. If motion of each link results in definite motion of
the others, the linkage is known as mechanism.
If one of the links of a redundant chain is fixed, it is known as a
structure.
To obtain constrained or definite motions of some of the links of
a linkage, it is necessary to know how many inputs are needed. In some
mechanisms, only one input is necessary that determines the motion of
other links and are said to have one degree of freedom. In other
mechanisms, two inputs may be necessary to get a constrained motion
of the other links and are said to have two degrees of freedom and so
on.
The degree of freedom of a structure is zero or less. A structure
with negative degrees of freedom is known as a Superstructure.
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
(i) Motion
Absolute motion Relative motion
Plane motion Rectilinear
motion
Helical or
screw motion
Spherical
motion
Continuous
motion
Reciprocating
motion
Oscillatory
motion
Intermittent
motion
(iv) Motion
Uniform motion Simple Harmonic
motion
Variable motion
(ii) Motion
(iii) Motion
(iv) Motion
Completely
Constrained
motion
Incompletely
Constrained
motion
Partially
Constrained
motion
Motion and its types:




































Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
The tree main types of constrained motion in kinematic pair are,

(i) Completely constrained motion :
If the motion between a pair of links is limited to a definite
direction, then it is completely constrained motion.
E.g.: Motion of a shaft or rod with collars at each end in a hole
as shown in fig.



(ii) Incompletely Constrained motion :
If the motion between a pair of links is not confined to a
definite direction, then it is incompletely constrained motion.
E.g.: A spherical ball or circular shaft in a circular hole may
either rotate or slide in the hole as shown in fig.

Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms


(iii) Successfully constrained motion or Partially constrained
motion.
If the motion in a definite direction is not brought about by
itself but by some other means, then it is known as
successfully constrained motion.
E.g.: Foot step Bearing.



Inversions:
By fixing each link at a time we get as many mechanisms
as the number of links, then each mechanism is called Inversion of the
original Kinematic Chain.

Machine:
It is a combination of resistant bodies with successfully
constrained motion which is used to transmit or transform motion to do
some useful work.
E.g.: Lathe, Shaper, Steam Engine, etc.





Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
1.2 Kinematic chains and Inversions:

Kinematic chain with three lower pairs

It is impossible to have a kinematic chain consisting of
three turning pairs only. But it is possible to have a chain which
consists of three sliding pairs or which consists of a turning, sliding and
a screw pair.
The figure shows a kinematic chain with three sliding pairs.
It consists of a frame B, wedge C and a sliding rod A. Hence the three
sliding pairs are, one between the wedge C and the frame B, second
between wedge C and sliding rod A and the frame B.



This figure shows the mechanism of a fly press. The element B
forms a sliding with A and turning pair with screw rod C which in turn
forms a screw pair with A. When link A is fixed, the required fly press
mechanism is obtained.

Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms



Types of Kinematic Chain:
1) Four bar chain
2) Single slider chain
3) Double Slider chain

1) Four bar Chain:

The chain has four links and it looks like a cycle
frame and hence it is also called quadric cycle chain. It is
shown in the figure. In this type of chain all four pairs will
be turning pairs.


Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms


Inversions of four bar chain mechanism:

There are three inversions:
1) Beam Engine or Crank and lever mechanism.
2) Coupling rod of locomotive or double crank mechanism.
3) Watts straight line mechanism or double lever mechanism.

1) Beam Engine:
When the crank AB rotates about A, the link CE
pivoted at D makes vertical reciprocating motion at end E.
This is used to convert rotary motion to reciprocating
motion and vice versa. It is also known as Crank and lever
mechanism. This mechanism is shown in the figure below.



2) Coupling rod of locomotive
In this mechanism the length of link AD = length of
link C. Also length of link AB = length of link CD. When
AB rotates about A, the crank DC rotates about D. this
mechanism is used for coupling locomotive wheels. Since
links AB and CD work as cranks, this mechanism is also
known as double crank mechanism. This is shown in the
figure below.

Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms



3) Watts straight line mechanism or Double lever mechanism.
In this mechanism, the links AB & DE act as levers
at the ends A & E of these levers are fixed. The AB & DE
are parallel in the mean position of the mechanism and
coupling rod BD is perpendicular to the levers AB & DE.
On any small displacement of the mechanism the tracing
point C traces the shape of number 8, a portion of which
will be approximately straight. Hence this is also an
example for the approximate straight line mechanism. This
mechanism is shown below.




Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms

2) Slider crank Chain:

It is a four bar chain having one sliding pair and three
turning pairs. It is shown in the figure below the purpose of
this mechanism is to convert rotary motion to reciprocating
motion and vice versa.

Inversions of a Slider crank chain:
There are four inversions in a single slider chain
mechanism. They are:
1) Reciprocating engine mechanism (1
st
inversion)
2) Oscillating cylinder engine mechanism (2
nd
inversion)
3) Crank and slotted lever mechanism (2
nd
inversion)
4) Whitworth quick return motion mechanism (3
rd
inversion)
5) Rotary engine mechanism (3
rd
inversion)
6) Bull engine mechanism (4
th
inversion)
7) Hand Pump (4
th
inversion)

1) Reciprocating engine mechanism :

In the first inversion, the link 1 i.e., the cylinder and the
frame is kept fixed. The fig below shows a reciprocating engine.



Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms


A slotted link 1 is fixed. When the crank 2 rotates about O,
the sliding piston 4 reciprocates in the slotted link 1. This
mechanism is used in steam engine, pumps, compressors, I.C.
engines, etc.

2) Crank and slotted lever mechanism:

It is an application of second inversion. The crank and
slotted lever mechanism is shown in figure below.



In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider (link 1)
reciprocates in oscillating slotted lever (link 4) and crank (link 2)
rotates. Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram (link 6). The ram with
the cutting tool reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The
ram with the tool reverses its direction of motion when link 2 is
perpendicular to link 4. Thus the cutting stroke is executed during
the rotation of the crank through angle and the return stroke is
executed when the crank rotates through angle or 360 .
Therefore, when the crank rotates uniformly, we get,

Time to cutting
=

=
.
Time of return 360
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms

This mechanism is used in shaping machines, slotting
machines and in rotary engines.

3) Whitworth quick return motion mechanism

Third inversion is obtained by fixing the crank i.e. link 2.
Whitworth quick return mechanism is an application of third
inversion. This mechanism is shown in the figure below. The
crank OC is fixed and OQ rotates about O. The slider slides in the
slotted link and generates a circle of radius CP. Link 5 connects
the extension OQ provided on the opposite side of the link 1 to
the ram (link 6). The rotary motion of P is taken to the ram R
which reciprocates. The quick return motion mechanism is used
in shapers and slotting machines.



The angle covered during cutting stroke from P
1
to P
2
in
counter clockwise direction is or 360 - 2. During the return
stroke, the angle covered is 2 or .
Therefore,
Time to cutting
=
360 - 2
=
180
Time of return 2

=

=
.
360
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
4) Rotary engine mechanism or Gnome Engine

Rotary engine mechanism or gnome engine is another
application of third inversion. It is a rotary cylinder V type internal
combustion engine used as an aero engine. But now Gnome
engine has been replaced by Gas turbines. The Gnome engine has
generally seven cylinders in one plane. The crank OA is fixed and
all the connecting rods from the pistons are connected to A. In this
mechanism when the pistons reciprocate in the cylinders, the whole
assembly of cylinders, pistons and connecting rods rotate about the
axis O, where the entire mechanical power developed, is obtained in
the form of rotation of the crank shaft. This mechanism is shown in
the figure below.



Double slider crank chain:

A four bar chain having two turning and two sliding pairs
such that two pairs of the same kind are adjacent is known as double
slider crank chain.
Inversions of Double slider Crank chain:
It consists of two sliding pairs and two turning pairs. They
are three important inversions of double slider crank chain.
1) Elliptical trammel.
2) Scotch yoke mechanism.
3) Oldhams Coupling.
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms

1) Elliptical Trammel:

This is an instrument for drawing ellipses. Here the slotted
link is fixed. The sliding block P and Q in vertical and horizontal
slots respectively. The end R generates an ellipse with the
displacement of sliders P and Q.

The co-ordinates of the point R are x and y.
From the fig. cos = x .
PR

and Sin = y .
QR

Squaring and adding (i) and (ii) we get

x
2
+ y
2
= cos
2
+ sin
2

(PR)
2
(QR)
2


x
2
+ y
2
= 1
(PR)
2
(QR)
2

The equation is that of an ellipse, Hence the instrument
traces an ellipse.
Path traced by mid-point of PQ is a circle. In this case, PR
= PQ.

x
2
+ y
2
= 1
(PR)
2
(QR)
2

Its an equation of circle with PR = QR = radius of a circle.

Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms



2) Scotch yoke mechanism:
This mechanism, the slider P is fixed. When PQ rotates
above P, the slider Q reciprocates in the vertical slot. The
mechanism is used to convert rotary to reciprocating mechanism.



3) Oldhams coupling:

The third inversion of obtained by fixing the link
connecting the 2 blocks P & Q. If one block is turning through an
angle, the frame and the other block will also turn through the
same angle. It is shown in the figure below.
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms

An application of the third inversion of the double slider
crank mechanism is Oldhams coupling shown in the figure. This
coupling is used for connecting two parallel shafts when the
distance between the shafts is small. The two shafts to be
connected have flanges at their ends, secured by forging. Slots
are cut in the flanges. These flanges form 1 and 3. An
intermediate disc having tongues at right angles and opposite
sides is fitted in between the flanges. The intermediate piece
forms the link 4 which slides or reciprocates in flanges 1 & 3.
The link two is fixed as shown. When flange 1 turns, the
intermediate disc 4 must turn through the same angle and
whatever angle 4 turns, the flange 3 must turn through the same
angle. Hence 1, 4 & 3 must have the same angular velocity at
every instant. If the distance between the axis of the shaft is x, it
will be the diameter if the circle traced by the centre of the
intermediate piece. The maximum sliding speed of each tongue
along its slot is given by
v = x
where,
= angular velocity of each shaft in rad/sec
v = linear velocity in m/sec




Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms

1.3 Mechanisms:

i) Quick return motion mechanisms:
Many a times mechanisms are designed to perform
repetitive operations. During these operations for a certain
period the mechanisms will be under load known as
working stroke and the remaining period is known as the
return stroke, the mechanism returns to repeat the operation
without load. The ratio of time of working stroke to that of
the return stroke is known a time ratio. Quick return
mechanisms are used in machine tools to give a slow
cutting stroke and a quick return stroke. The various quick
return mechanisms commonly used are
i) Whitworth
ii) Drag link.
iii) Crank and slotted lever mechanism


i) Whitworth quick return mechanism:

Whitworth quick return mechanism is an application of
third inversion of the single slider crank chain. This mechanism
is shown in the figure below. The crank OC is fixed and OQ
rotates about O. The slider slides in the slotted link and generates
a circle of radius CP. Link 5 connects the extension OQ provided
on the opposite side of the link 1 to the ram (link 6). The rotary
motion of P is taken to the ram R which reciprocates. The quick
return motion mechanism is used in shapers and slotting
machines.


Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms


The angle covered during cutting stroke from P
1
to P
2
in
counter clockwise direction is or 360 - 2. During the return
stroke, the angle covered is 2 or .
Therefore,
Time to cutting
=
360 - 2
=
180
Time of return 2

=

=
.
360


ii) Drag link mechanism :



Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
This is four bar mechanism with double crank in which the
shortest link is fixed. If the crank AB rotates at a uniform speed,
the crank CD rotate at a non-uniform speed. This rotation of link
CD is transformed to quick return reciprocatory motion of the
ram E by the link CE as shown in figure. When the crank AB
rotates through an angle in Counter clockwise direction during
working stroke, the link CD rotates through 180
o
. We can
observe that / > / . Hence time of working stroke is /
times more or the return stroke is / times quicker.

Shortest link is always stationary link. Sum of the shortest
and the longest links of the four links 1, 2, 3 and 4 are less than
the sum of the other two. It is the necessary condition for the drag
link quick return mechanism.

3) Crank and slotted lever mechanism:

It is an application of second inversion. The crank and
slotted lever mechanism is shown in figure below.



In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider (link 1)
reciprocates in oscillating slotted lever (link 4) and crank (link 2)
rotates. Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram (link 6). The ram with
the cutting tool reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
ram with the tool reverses its direction of motion when link 2 is
perpendicular to link 4. Thus the cutting stroke is executed during
the rotation of the crank through angle and the return stroke is
executed when the crank rotates through angle or 360 .
Therefore, when the crank rotates uniformly, we get,

Time to cutting
=

=
.
Time of return 360

This mechanism is used in shaping machines, slotting
machines and in rotary engines.


(ii) Straight line Motion machines:
The easiest way to generate a straight line motion is by
using a sliding pair but in precision machines sliding pairs are not
preferred because of wear and tear. Hence in such cases different
methods are used to generate straight line motion mechanisms:
1) Exact straight line motion mechanism.
Ex.: Peaucellier mechanism.
Hart mechanism.
Scott Russell mechanism.
2) Approximate straight line motion mechanisms.
Ex.: Watt mechanism
Grasshoppers mechanism
Roberts mechanism
Tchebicheffs mechanism











Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
1) Peaucillier mechanism :



The pin Q is constrained to move long the
circumference
of a circle by means of the link OQ. The link OQ and the fixed
link are equal in length. The pins P and Q are on opposite corners
of a four bar chain which has all four links QC, CP, PB and BQ
of equal length to the fixed pin A. i.e., link AB = link AC. The
product AQ x AP remain constant as the link OQ rotates may be
proved as follows:

Join BC to bisect PQ at F; then, from the right angled
triangles AFB, BFP, we have
AB
2
= AF
2
+ FB
2
and BP
2
= BF
2
+ FP
2


Subtracting,
AB
2
- BP
2
= AF
2
- FP
2
= (AF FP) (AF+FP)
= AQ x AP
Since AB and BP are links of a constant length, the product
AQ x AP is constant. Therefore the point P traces out a straight
path normal to AR.



Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
2) Roberts mechanism :

This is also a four bar chain. The link PQ and RS are
of
equal length and the tracing pint O is rigidly attached to the link
QR on a line which bisects QR at right angles. The best position
for O may be found by making use of the instantaneous centre of
QR. The path of O is clearly approximately horizontal in the
Roberts mechanism.




iii) Intermittent motion mechanism:

1) Ratchet and Pawl mechanism:
This mechanism is used in producing intermittent
rotary
Motion member. A ratchet and Pawl mechanism consists of a
ratchet
wheel 2 and a pawl 3 as shown in the figure. When the lever 4
carrying pawl is raised, the ratchet wheel rotates in the counter
clock wise direction (driven by pawl). As the pawl lever is
lowered the pawl slides over the ratchet teeth. One more pawl 5
is used to prevent the ratchet from reversing. Ratchets are used in
feed mechanisms, lifting jacks, clocks, watches and counting
devices.
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms


2) Geneva mechanism:
Geneva mechanism is an intermittent motion
mechanism.
It consists of a driving wheel D carrying a pin P which engages in
a slot of follower F as shown in figure. During one quarter
revolution of the driving plate, the Pin and follower remain in
contact and hence the follower is turned by one quarter of a turn.
During the remaining time of one revolution of the driver, the
follower remains in rest locked in position by the circular arc.


3) Pantograph:
Pantograph is used to copy the curves in reduced or
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
enlarged scales. Hence this mechanism finds its use in copying
devices such as engraving or profiling machines.



This is a simple figure of a Pantograph. The links are
pin jointed at A, B, C and D. AB is parallel to DC and AD is
parallel to BC.
Link BA is extended to fixed pin O. Q is a point on
the link AD. If the motion of Q is to be enlarged then the link BC
is extended to P such that O, Q and P are in a straight line.
Then it can be shown that the points P and Q always
move parallel and similar to each other over any path straight or
curved. Their motions will be proportional to their distance from
the fixed point.
Let ABCD be the initial position. Suppose if point Q
moves to Q
1
, then all the links and the joints will move to the
new positions (such as A moves to A
1
, B moves to Q
1
, C moves
to Q
1
, D moves to D
1
and P to P
1
) and the new configuration of
the mechanism is shown by dotted lines. The movement of Q (Q
Q
1)
will be enlarged to PP1 in a definite ratio.





Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
4) Toggle Mechanism:


In slider crank mechanism as the crank approaches
one of its dead centre position, the slider approaches zero. The
ratio of the crank movement to the slider movement approaching
infinity is proportional to the mechanical advantage. This is the
principle used in toggle mechanism. A toggle mechanism is used
when large forces act through a short distance is required. The
figure below shows a toggle mechanism. Links CD and CE are of
same length.

Resolving the forces at C vertically

F Sin = P
Cos 2

Therefore, F = P . (because Sin /Cos = Tan )
2 tan
Thus for the given value of P, as the links CD and CE
approaches collinear position ( O), the force F rises rapidly.


5) Hookes joint:
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms



Hookes joint used to connect two parallel intersecting shafts as shown
in figure. This can also be used for shaft with angular misalignment
where flexible coupling does not serve the purpose. Hence Hookes
joint is a means of connecting two rotating shafts whose axes lie in the
same plane and their directions making a small angle with each other. It
is commonly known as Universal joint. In Europe it is called as Cardan
joint.

5) Ackermann steering gear mechanism:




Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms

This mechanism is made of only turning pairs and is made of
only turning pairs wear and tear of the parts is less and cheaper in
manufacturing. The cross link KL connects two short axles AC and BD
of the front wheels through the short links AK and BL which forms bell
crank levers CAK and DBL respectively as shown in fig, the longer
links AB and KL are parallel and the shorter links AK and BL are
inclined at an angle .

When the vehicles steer to the right as shown in the figure,
the short link BL is turned so as to increase , where as the link LK
causes the other short link AK to turn so as to reduce .

The fundamental equation for correct steering is,
Cot Cos = b / l.

In the above arrangement it is clear that the angle through
which AK turns is less than the angle through which the BL turns and
therefore the left front axle turns through a smaller angle than the right
front axle.
For different angle of turn , the corresponding value of
and (Cot Cos ) are noted. This is done by actually drawing the
mechanism to a scale or by calculations. Therefore for different value
of the corresponding value of and are tabulated. Approximate value
of b/l for correct steering should be between 0.4 and 0.5. In an
Ackermann steering gear mechanism, the instantaneous centre I does
not lie on the axis of the rear axle but on a line parallel to the rear axle
axis at an approximate distance of 0.3l above it.

Three correct steering positions will be:
1) When moving straight
2) When moving one correct angle to the right corresponding
to the link ratio AK/AB and angle .
3) Similar position when moving to the left.
(In all other positions pure rolling is not obtainable.)


Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
SOME OF THE MECHANISMS WHICH ARE USED IN
DAY TO DAY LIFE.
(SOURCE : WWW.FLYING-PIG.CO.UK)
BELL CRANK:




The bell crank is used to convert the direction of
reciprocating movement. By varying the angle of the
crank piece it can be used to change the angle of
movement from 1 degree to 180 degrees.
The bell crank was originally used in large house
to operate the servants bell, hence the name.

Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
GENEVA STOP:




The Geneva stop is named after the Geneva
cross, a similar shape to the main part of the
mechanism.
The Geneva stop is used to provide intermittent
motion, the orange wheel turns continuously, the dark
blue pin then turns the blue cross quarter of a turn for
each revolution of the drive wheel.
The crescent shaped cut out in dark orange section
lets the points of the cross past, then locks the wheel
in place when it is stationary.
The Geneva stop mechanism is used commonly
in film
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms

ELLIPTICAL TRAMMEL



This fascinating mechanism converts rotary
motion to reciprocating motion in two axis.
Notice that the handle traces out an ellipse rather
than a circle. A similar mechanism is used in ellipse
drawing tools.



Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
PISTON ARRANGEMENT





This mechanism is used to convert between
rotary motion and reciprocating motion, it works
either way. Notice how the speed of the piston
changes. The piston starts from one end, and
increases its speed. It reaches maximum speed in the
middle of its travel then gradually slows down until it
reaches the end of its travel.




Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
RACK AND PINION

The rack and pinion is used to convert between
rotary and linear motion. The rack is the flat, toothed
part, the pinion is the gear. Rack and pinion can
convert from rotary to linear of from linear to rotary.
The diameter of the gear determines the speed
that the rack moves as the pinion turns. Rack and
pinions are commonly used in the steering system of
cars to convert the rotary motion of the steering
wheel to the side to side motion in the wheels.
Rack and pinion gears give a positive motion
especially compared to the friction drive of a wheel
in tarmac. In the rack and pinion railway a central
rack between the two rails engages with a pinion on
the engine allowing the train to be pulled up very
steep slopes.

RATCHET
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms



The ratchet can be used to move a toothed wheel
one tooth at a time. The part used to move the ratchet
is known as the pawl.
The ratchet can be used as a way of gearing
down motion. By its nature motion created by a
ratchet is intermittent. By using two pawls
simultaneously this intermittent effect can be almost,
but not quite, removed.
Ratchets are also used to ensure that motion only
occurs in only one direction, useful for winding gear
which must not be allowed to drop. Ratchets are also
used in the freewheel mechanism of a bicycle.
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
WORM GEAR

A worm is used to reduce speed. For each
complete turn of the worm shaft the gear shaft
advances only one tooth of the gear.
In this case, with a twelve tooth gear, the speed
is reduced by a factor of twelve. Also, the axis of
rotation is turned by 90 degrees.
Unlike ordinary gears, the motion is not
reversible, a worm can drive a gear to reduce speed
but a gear cannot drive a worm to increase it.
As the speed is reduced the power to the drive
increases correspondingly. Worm gears are a
compact, efficient means of substantially decreasing
speed and increasing power. Ideal for use with small
electric motors.
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
WATCH ESCAPEMENT.



The watch escapement is the centre of the time
piece. It is the escapement which divides the time
into equal segments.

The balance wheel, the gold wheel, oscillates
backwards and forwards on a hairspring (not shown)
as the balance wheel moves the lever is moved
allowing the escape wheel (green) to rotate by one
tooth.
The power comes through the escape wheel
which gives a small 'kick' to the palettes (purple) at
each tick.
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
GEARS.

Gears are used to change speed in rotational
movement. In the example above the blue gear has
eleven teeth and the orange gear has twenty five. To
turn the orange gear one full turn the blue gear must turn
25/11 or 2.2727r turns.
Notice that as the blue gear turns clockwise the orange
gear turns anti-clockwise.

In the above example the number of teeth on
the orange gear is not divisible by the number of teeth
on the blue gear. This is deliberate. If the orange gear
had thirty three teeth then every three turns of the blue
gear the same teeth would mesh together which could
cause excessive wear. By using none divisible numbers
the same teeth mesh only every seventeen turns of the
blue gear.
Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
CAM FOLLOWER.


Cams are used to convert rotary motion into
reciprocating motion. The motion created can be simple
and regular or complex and irregular.
As the cam turns, driven by the circular
motion, the cam follower traces the surface of the cam
transmitting its motion to the required mechanism.
Cam follower design is important in the way
the profile of the cam is followed. A fine pointed
follower will more accurately trace the outline of the
cam. This more accurate movement is at the expense of
the strength of the cam follower.

Kinematics of Machines - Notes, Tutorials

Mechanisms
STEAM ENGINE.


Steam engines were the backbone of the
industrial revolution. In this common design high
pressure steam is pumped alternately into one side of the
piston, then the other forcing it back and forth. The
reciprocating motion of the piston is converted to useful
rotary motion using a crank.
As the large wheel (the fly wheel) turns a
small crank or cam is used to move the small red control
valve back and forth controlling where the steam flows.
In this animation the oval crank has been made
transparent so that you can see how the control valve
crank is attached.