Raster

Package raster
July 2, 2014
Type Package
Title raster: Geographic data analysis and modeling
Version 2.2-31
Date 2014-3-6
Depends methods, sp (>= 1.0-13), R (>= 2.15.0)
Suggests rgdal (>= 0.8-12), rgeos (>= 0.3-1), ncdf, ncdf4, igraph,snow, tcltk, rasterVis
Description
Reading, writing, manipulating, analyzing and modeling of gridded spatial data. The pack-
age implements basic and high-level functions. Processing of very large les is supported.
License GPL (>= 3)
URL http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/raster/
ByteCompile TRUE
Author Robert J. Hijmans [cre, aut],Jacob van Etten [ctb],Matteo Mattiuzzi [ctb],Michael Sum-
ner [ctb],Jonathan A. Greenberg [ctb],Oscar Perpinan Lamigueiro [ctb],Andrew Be-
van [ctb],Etienne B. Racine [ctb],Ashton Shortridge [ctb]
Maintainer Robert J. Hijmans <r.hijmans@gmail.com>
Repository CRAN
Repository/R-Forge/Project raster
Repository/R-Forge/Revision 2975
Repository/R-Forge/DateTimeStamp 2014-03-06 16:07:45
Date/Publication 2014-03-07 16:01:31
NeedsCompilation yes
1
2 R topics documented:
R topics documented:
raster-package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
addLayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
adjacent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
alignExtent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
animate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
approxNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Arith-methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
as.data.frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
as.logical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
as.matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
as.raster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
atan2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
autocorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
barplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
bind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
blockSize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
boxplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
buffer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
calc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
cellFrom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
cellsFromExtent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
cellStats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
clamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
clearValues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
click . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
clump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
cluster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Compare-methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
compareCRS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
compareRaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
contour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
corrLocal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
crop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
crosstab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
cv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
datasource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
dataType . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
dim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
R topics documented: 3
direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
disaggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
distanceFromPoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
draw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
drawExtent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
erase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
extend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
extent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Extent coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Extent math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Extent-class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
extract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Extract by index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
extremeValues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
lename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
lledContour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
ip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
owPath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
focal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
focalWeight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
freq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Gain and offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
getData . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
getValues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
getValuesBlock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
getValuesFocal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
gridDistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
hdr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
hillShade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
hist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
inile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
initialize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
interpolate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
intersect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
isLonLat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
KML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
layerize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
layerStats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Logic-methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Math-methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
merge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4 R topics documented:
metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
modal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
mosaic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
movingFun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
NAvalue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
ncell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
nlayers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
overlay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
persp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
plotRGB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
pointDistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
predict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
projectRaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
quantile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
raster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Raster-class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
rasterFromCells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
rasterFromXYZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
rasterize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
rasterTmpFile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
rasterToContour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
rasterToPoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
rasterToPolygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
readAll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
reclassify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
rectify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
resample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
RGB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
rotate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
rotated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
round . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
rowFromCell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
SampleInt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
sampleRandom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
sampleRegular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
sampleStratied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
scalebar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
R topics documented: 5
select . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
setExtent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
setMinMax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
setValues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
shapele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Slope and aspect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
spplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
stackApply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
stackSave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
stackSelect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
stretch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
subset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
substitute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Summary-methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
symdif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
unstack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
update . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
validCell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
validNames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
weighted.mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
which . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
which.min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
writeFormats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
writeRaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
writeValues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
xyFromCell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
z-values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
zApply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
zonal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
zoom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Index 216
6 raster-package
raster-package Overview of the functions in the raster package
Description
The raster package provides classes and functions to manipulate geographic (spatial) data in raster
format. Raster data divides space into cells (rectangles; pixels) of equal size (in units of the coor-
dinate reference system). Such continuous spatial data are also referred to as grid data, and be
contrasted with discrete (object based) spatial data (points, lines, polygons).
The package should be particularly useful when using very large datasets that can not be loaded
into the computers memory. Functions will work correctly, because they they process large les in
chunks, i.e., they read, compute, and write blocks of data, without loading all values into memory
at once.
Below is a list of some of the most important functions grouped by theme. See the vignette for more
information and some examples (you can open it by running this command: vignette(Raster))
Details
The package implements classes for Raster data (see Raster-class) and supports
Creation of Raster* objects from scratch or from le
Handling extremely large raster les
Raster algebra and overlay functions
Distance, neighborhood (focal) and patch functions
Polygon, line and point to raster conversion
Model predictions
Summarizing raster values
Easy access to raster cell-values
Plotting (making maps)
Manipulation of raster extent, resolution and origin
Computation of row, col and cell numbers to coordinates and vice versa
Reading and writing various raster le types
.
I. Creating Raster* objects
RasterLayer, RasterStack, and RasterBrick objects are, as a group, referred to as Raster* objects.
Raster* objects can be created, from scratch, les, or from objects of other classes, with the follow-
ing functions:
raster To create a RasterLayer
stack To create a RasterStack (multiple layers)
brick To create a RasterBrick (multiple layers)
raster-package 7
subset Select layers of a RasterStack/Brick
addLayer Add a layer to a Raster* object
dropLayer Remove a layer from a RasterStack or RasterBrick
unstack Create a list of RasterLayer objects from a RasterStack

II. Changing the spatial extent and/or resolution of Raster* objects
merge Combine Raster* objects with different extents (but same origin and resolution)
mosaic Combine RasterLayers with different extents and a function for overlap areas
crop Select a geographic subset of a Raster* object
extend Enlarge a Raster* object
trim Trim a Raster* object by removing exterior rows and/or columns that only have NAs
aggregate Combine cells of a Raster* object to create larger cells
disaggregate Subdivide cells
resample Warp values to a Raster* object with a different origin or resolution
projectRaster project values to a raster with a different coordinate reference system
shift Move the location of Raster
flip Flip values horizontally or vertically
rotate Rotate values around the date-line (for lon/lat data)
t Transpose a Raster* object

III. Raster algebra
Arith-methods Arith functions (+, -, *, ^, %%, %/%, /)
Math-methods Math functions like abs, sqrt, trunc, log, log10, exp, sin, round
Logic-methods Logic functions (!, &, |)
Summary-methods Summary functions (mean, max, min, range, prod, sum, any, all)
Compare-methods Compare functions (==, !=, >, <, <=, >=)

IV. Cell based computation
calc Computations on a single Raster* object
overlay Computations on multiple RasterLayer objects
cover First layer covers second layer except where the rst layer is NA
mask Use values from rst Raster except where cells of the mask Raster are NA
cut Reclassify values using ranges
subs Reclassify values using an is-becomes matrix
8 raster-package
reclassify Reclassify using a from-to-becomes matrix
init Initialize cells with new values
stackApply Computations on groups of layers in Raster* object
stackSelect Select cell values from different layers using an index RasterLayer

V. Spatial contextual computation
distance Shortest distance to a cell that is not NA
gridDistance Distance when traversing grid cells that are not NA
distanceFromPoints Shortest distance to any point in a set of points
direction Direction (azimuth) to or from cells that are not NA
focal Focal (neighborhood; moving window) functions
edge Edge detection
clump Find clumps (patches)
adjacent Identify cells that are adjacent to a set of cells on a raster
area Compute area of cells (for longitude/latitude data)
terrain Compute slope, aspect and other characteristics from elevation data
Moran Compute global or local Moran or Geary indices of spatial autocorrelation

VI. Model predictions
predict Predict a non-spatial model to a RasterLayer
interpolate Predict a spatial model to a RasterLayer

VII. Data type conversion
You can coerce Raster* objects to Spatial* objects using as, as in as(object, SpatialGridDataFrame)
raster RasterLayer from SpatialGrid*, image, or matrix objects
rasterize Rasterizing points, lines or polygons
rasterToPoints Create points from a RasterLayer
rasterToPolygons Create polygons from a RasterLayer
rasterToContour Contour lines from a RasterLayer
rasterFromXYZ RasterLayer from regularly spaces points
rasterFromCells RasterLayer from a Raster object and cell numbers
raster-package 9

VIII. Summarizing
cellStats Summarize a Raster cell values with a function
summary Summary of the values of a Raster* object (quartiles and mean)
freq Frequency table of Raster cell values
crosstab Cross-tabulate two Raster* objects
unique Get the unique values in a Raster* object
zonal Summarize a Raster* object by zones in a RasterLayer

IX. Accessing values of Raster* object cells
Apart from the function listed below, you can also use indexing with [ for cell numbers, and [[ for
row / column number combinations
getValues Get all cell values (fails with very large rasters), or a row of values (safer)
getValuesBlock Get values for a block (a rectangular area)
getValuesFocal Get focal values for one or more rows
as.matrix Get cell values as a matrix
as.array Get cell values as an array
extract Extract cell values from a Raster* object (e.g., by cell, coordinates, polygon)
sampleRandom Random sample
sampleRegular Regular sample
minValue Get the minimum value of the cells of a Raster* object (not always known)
maxValue Get the maximum value of the cells of a Raster* object (not always known)
setMinMax Compute the minimum and maximum value of a Raster* object if these are not known

X. Plotting
See the rasterVis package for additional plotting methods for Raster* objects using methods from
lattice and other packages.
Maps
plot Plot a Raster* object. The main method to create a map
plotRGB Combine three layers (red, green, blue channels) into a single real color image
spplot Plot a Raster* with the spplot function (sp package)
image Plot a Raster* with the image function
persp Perspective plot of a RasterLayer
contour Contour plot of a RasterLayer
10 raster-package
filledContour Filled contour plot of a RasterLayer
text Plot the values of a RasterLayer on top of a map
.
Interacting with a map
zoom Zoom in to a part of a map
click Query values of Raster* or Spatial* objects by clicking on a map
select Select a geometric subset of a Raster* or Spatial* object
drawPoly Create a SpatialPolygons object by drawing it
drawLine Create a SpatialLines object by drawing it
drawExtent Create an Extent object by drawing it
.
Other plots
plot x-y scatter plot of the values of two RasterLayer objects
hist Histogram of Raster* object values
barplot barplot of a RasterLayer
density Density plot of Raster* object values
pairs Pairs plot for layers in a RasterStack or RasterBrick
boxplot Box plot of the values of one or multiple layers

XI. Getting and setting Raster* dimensions
Basic parameters of existing Raster* objects can be obtained, and in most cases changed. If there
are values associated with a RasterLayer object (either in memory or via a link to a le) these are
lost when you change the number of columns or rows or the resolution. This is not the case when
the extent is changed (as the number of columns and rows will not be affected). Similarly, with
projection you can set the projection, but this does not transform the data (see projectRaster for
that).
ncol The number of columns
nrow The number of rows
ncell The number of cells (can not be set directly, only via ncol or nrow)
res The resolution (x and y)
nlayers How many layers does the object have?
names Get or set the layer names
xres The x resolution (can be set with res)
yres The y resolution (can be set with res)
xmin The minimum x coordinate (or longitude)
xmax The maximum x coordinate (or longitude)
ymin The minimum y coordinate (or latitude)
ymax The maximum y coordinate (or latitude)
extent The extent (minimum and maximum x and y coordinates)
origin The origin of a Raster* object
projection The coordinate reference system (map projection)
isLonLat Test if an object has a longitude/latitude coordinate reference system
filename Filename to which a RasterLayer or RasterBrick is linked
band layer (=band) of a multi-band le that this RasterLayer is linked to
nbands How many bands (layers) does the le have?
raster-package 11
compareRaster Compare the geometry of Raster* objects
NAvalue Get or set the NA value (for reading from a le)

XII. Computing row, column, cell numbers and coordinates
Cell numbers start at 1 in the upper-left corner. They increase within rows, from left to right, and
then row by row from top to bottom. Likewise, row numbers start at 1 at the top of the raster, and
column numbers start at 1 at the left side of the raster.
xFromCol x-coordinates from column numbers
yFromRow y-coordinates from row numbers
xFromCell x-coordinates from row numbers
yFromCell y-coordinates from cell numbers
xyFromCell x and y coordinates from cell numbers
colFromX Column numbers from x-coordinates (or longitude)
rowFromY Row numbers from y-coordinates (or latitude)
rowColFromCell Row and column numbers from cell numbers
cellFromXY Cell numbers from x and y coordinates
cellFromRowCol Cell numbers from row and column numbers
cellsFromExtent Cell numbers from extent object
coordinates x and y coordinates for all cells
validCell Is this a valid cell number?
validCol Is this a valid column number?
validRow Is this a valid row number?

XIII. Writing les
Basic
setValues Put new values in a Raster* object
writeRaster Write all values of Raster* object to disk
KML Save raster as KML le
.
Advanced
blockSize Get suggested block size for reading and writing
writeStart Open a le for writing
writeValues Write some values
writeStop Close the le after writing
update Change the values of an existing le

12 raster-package
XIV. Manipulation of SpatialPolygons* and other vector type Spatial* objects
Some of these functions are in the sp package. The name in bold is the equivalent command in Ar-
cGIS. These functions build on the geometry ("spatial features") manipulation functions in package
rgeos. These functions are extended here by also providing automated attribute data handling.
bind append combine Spatial* objects of the same (vector) type
erase or "-" erase parts of a SpatialPolygons* object
intersect or "*" intersect SpatialPolygons* objects
union or "+" union SpatialPolygons* objects
cover update and identity a SpatialPolygons object with another one
symdif symmetrical difference of two SpatialPolygons* objects
aggregate dissolve smaller polygons into larger ones
disaggregate explode: turn polygon parts into separate polygons (in the sp package)
crop clip a Spatial* object using a rectangle (Extent object)
select select - interactively select spatial features
click identify attributes by clicking on a map
merge Join table (in the sp package)
over spatial queries between Spatial* objects
extract spatial queries between Spatial* and Raster* objects
as.data.frame coerce coordinates of SpatialLines or SpatialPolygons into a data.frame

XV. Extent objects
extent Create an extent object
intersect Intersect two extent objects
union Combine two extent objects
round round/oor/ceiling of the coordinates of an Extent object
alignExtent Align an extent with a Raster* object
drawExtent Create an Extent object by drawing it on top of a map (see plot)

XVI. Miscellaneous
rasterOptions Show, set, save or get session options
getData Download and geographic data
pointDistance Distance between points
readIniFile Read a (windows) ini le
hdr Write header le for a number of raster formats
trim Remove leading and trainling blanks from a character string
extension Get or set the extentsion of a lename
cv Coefcient of variation
modal Modal value
addLayer 13
sampleInt Random sample of (possibly very large) range of integer values
showTmpFiles Show temporary les
removeTmpFiles Remove temporary les

XVII. For programmers
canProcessInMemory Test whether a le can be created in memory
pbCreate Initialize a progress bar
pbStep Take a progress bar step
pbClose Close a progress bar
readStart Open le connections for efcient multi-chunck reading
readStop Close le connections
rasterTmpFile Get a name for a temporary le
inMemory Are the cell values in memory?
fromDisk Are the cell values read from a le?

Acknowledgements
Extensive contributions were made by Jacob van Etten, Jonathan Greenberg, Matteo Mattiuzzi,
and Michael Sumner. Signicant help was also provided by Phil Heilman, Agustin Lobo, Oscar
Perpinan Lamigueiro, Stefan Schlaffer, Jon Olav Skoien, Steven Mosher, and Kevin Ummel. Con-
tributions were also made by Jochen Albrecht, Neil Best, Andrew Bevan, Roger Bivand, Isabelle
Boulangeat, Lyndon Estes, Josh Gray, Tim Haering, Herry Herry, Paul Hiemstra, Ned Hornig,
Mayeul Kauffmann, Bart Kranstauber, Rainer Krug, Alice Laborte, John Lewis, Lennon Li, Justin
McGrath, Babak Naimi, Carsten Neumann, Joshua Perlman, Richard Plant, Edzer Pebesma, Eti-
enne Racine, David Ramsey, Shaun Walbridge, Julian Zeidler and many others.
Author(s)
Except where indicated otherwise, the functions in this package were written by Robert J. Hijmans
addLayer Add or drop a layer
Description
Add a layer to a Raster* object or drop a layer from a RasterStack or RasterBrick. The object
returned is always a RasterStack (unless nothing to add or drop was provided, in which case the
original object is returned).
14 adjacent
Usage
addLayer(x, ...)
dropLayer(x, i, ...)
Arguments
x Raster object
i Indices of the layers to be dropped
... Additional arguments (none)
Value
RasterStack
See Also
subset
Examples
file <- system.file("external/test.grd", package="raster")
s <- stack(file, file, file)
r <- raster(file)
s <- addLayer(s, r/2, r*2)
s
s <- dropLayer(s, c(3, 5))
nlayers(s)
adjacent Adjacent cells
Description
Identify cells that are adjacent to a set of cells on a raster.
Usage
adjacent(x, cells, directions=4, pairs=TRUE, target=NULL, sorted=FALSE,
include=FALSE, id=FALSE)
Arguments
x Raster* object
cells vector of cell numbers for which adjacent cells should be found. Cell numbers
start with 1 in the upper-left corner and increase from left to right and from top
to bottom
adjacent 15
directions the number of directions in which cells should be connected: 4 (rooks case),
8 (queens case), 16 (knight and one-cell queen moves), or bishop to connect
cells with one-cell diagonal moves. Or a neigborhood matrix (see Details)
pairs logical. If TRUE, a matrix of pairs of adjacent cells is returned. If FALSE, a vector
of cells adjacent to cells is returned
target optional vector of target cell numbers that should be considered. All other adja-
cent cells are ignored
sorted logical. Should the results be sorted?
include logical. Should the focal cells be included in the result?
id logical. Should the id of the cells be included in the result? (numbered from 1
to length(cells)
Details
A neighborhood matrix identies the cells around each cell that are considered adjacent. The matrix
should have one, and only one, cell with value 0 (the focal cell); at least one cell with value 1 (the
adjacent cell(s)); All other cells are not considered adjacent and ignored.
Function adjacency is obsolete and should not be used
Value
matrix or vector with adjacent cells.
Author(s)
Robert J. Hijmans and Jacob van Etten
Examples
r <- raster(nrows=10, ncols=10)
adjacent(r, cells=c(1, 55), directions=8, pairs=TRUE)
a <- adjacent(r, cell = c(1,55,90), directions=4, sorted=TRUE)
a
r[c(1,55,90)] <- 1
r[a] <- 2
plot(r)
# same result as above
rook <- matrix(c(NA, 1, NA,
1, 0, 1,
NA, 1, NA), ncol=3, byrow=TRUE)
adjacent(r, cells = c(1,55,90), directions=rook, sorted=TRUE)
# Count the number of times that a cell with a certain value
# occurs next to a cell with a certain value
16 aggregate
set.seed(0)
r <- raster(ncol=10, nrow=10)
r[] <- round(runif(ncell(r)) * 5)
a <- adjacent(r, 1:ncell(r), 4, pairs=TRUE)
tb <- table(r[a[,1]], r[a[,2]])
tb
plot(raster(tb[], xmn=-0.5, xmx=5.5, ymn=-0.5, ymx=5.5))
aggregate Aggregate raster cells or polygons
Description
Raster* objects:
Aggregate a Raster* object to create a new RasterLayer or RasterBrick with a lower resolution
(larger cells). Aggregation groups rectangular areas to create larger cells. The value for the resulting
cells is computed with a user-specied function.
SpatialPolygons:
Aggregate (dissolve) SpatialPolygons, optionally by combining polygons that have the same at-
tributes for one or more variables.
Usage
## S4 method for signature Raster
aggregate(x, fact=2, fun=mean, expand=TRUE, na.rm=TRUE, filename=, ...)
## S4 method for signature SpatialPolygons
aggregate(x, vars=NULL, sums, dissolve=TRUE, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
fact integer. Aggregation factor expressed as number of cells in each direction (hor-
izontally and vertically). Or two integers (horizontal and vertical aggregation
factor). See Details
fun function used to aggregate values
expand logical. If TRUE the output Raster* object will be larger then the input Raster*
object if a division of the number of columns or rows with factor is not an
integer
na.rm logical. If TRUE, NA cells are removed from calculations
filename character. Output lename (optional)
... if x is a Raster* object, additional arguments as for writeRaster
vars character or integer. The variables (column names or numbers) that should be
used to aggregate (dissolve) the SpatialPolygons by only maintaining unique
combinations of these variables. The default setting is to use no variables and ag-
gregate all polygons. You can also supply a vector with a length of length(row.names(x))
aggregate 17
sums list with function(s) and variable(s) to summarize. This should be a list of
lists in which each element of the main lists has two items. The rst item
is function (e.g. mean), the second element is a vector of column names (or
indices) that need to summarize with that function. Be careful with charac-
ter and factor variables (you can use, e.g. rst function(x)x[1] or last
function(x)x[length(x)] or modal for these variables
dissolve logical. If TRUE overlapping polygons are dissolved into single features (requires
package rgeos)
Details
Aggregation of a Raster* object will result in a Raster* object with fact*fact fewer cells; if
necessary this number is adjusted according to the value of expand. For example, fact=2 will
result in a new Raster* object with 2*2=4 times fewer cells. If two numbers are supplied, e.g.,
fact=c(2,3), the rst will be used for aggregating in the horizontal direction, and the second for
aggregating in the vertical direction, and the new RasterLayer will have 2*3=6 times fewer cells.
Aggregation starts at the upper-left end of a raster. If a division of the number of columns or
rows with factor does not return an integer, the extent of the resulting Raster object will either
be somewhat smaller or somewhat larger then the original RasterLayer. For example, if an input
RasterLayer has 100 columns, and fact=12, the output Raster object will have either 8 columns
(expand=FALSE) (using 8 x 12 = 96 of the original columns) or 9 columns (expand=TRUE). In
both cases, the maximum x coordinate of the output RasterLayer would, of course, also be adjusted.
The function fun should take multiple numbers, and return a single number. For example mean,
modal, min or max. It should also accept a na.rm argument (or ignore it as one of the dots argu-
ments).
Value
RasterLayer or RasterBrick, or a SpatialPolygons* object
Author(s)
See Also
disaggregate, resample. For SpatialPolygons* disaggregate
Examples
r <- raster()
# a new aggregated raster, no values
ra <- aggregate(r, fact=10)
r <- setValues(r, runif(ncell(r)))
# a new aggregated raster, max of the values
ra <- aggregate(r, fact=10, fun=max)
# multiple layers
18 alignExtent
s <- stack(r, r*2)
x <- aggregate(s,2)
#SpatialPolygons
if (require(rgdal) & require(rgeos)) {
p <- shapefile(system.file("external/lux.shp", package="raster"))
p
pa0 <- aggregate(p)
pa0
pa1 <- aggregate(p, vars=NAME_1, sums=list(list(mean, ID_2)))
pa1
}
alignExtent Align an extent (object of class Extent)
Description
Align an Extent object with the (boundaries of the) cells of a Raster* object
Usage
alignExtent(extent, object, snap=near)
Arguments
extent Extent object
object Raster* object
snap Character. One of near, in, or out, to determine in which direction the
extent should be aligned. To the nearest border, inwards or outwards
Details
Aligning an Extent object to another object assures that it gets the same origin and resolution. This
should only be used to adjust objects because of imprecision in the data. alignExtent should not be
used to force data to match that really does not match (use e.g. resample or (dis)aggregate for this).
Value
Extent object
See Also
extent, drawExtent, Extent-class
animate 19
Examples
r <- raster()
e <- extent(-10.1, 9.9, -20.1, 19.9)
ea <- alignExtent(e, r)
e
extent(r)
ea
animate Animate layers of a Raster* object
Description
Animate (sequentially plot) the layers of a RasterStack or RasterBrick* object to create a movie
Usage
## S4 method for signature RasterStackBrick
animate(x, pause=0.25, main, zlim, maxpixels=50000, n=10, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
pause numeric. How long should be the pause be between layers?
main title for each layer. If not supplied the z-value is used if available. Otherwise the
names are used.
zlim numeric vector of lenght 2. Range of values to plot
maxpixels integer > 0. Maximumnumber of cells to use for the plot. If maxpixels < ncell(x),
sampleRegular is used before plotting
n integer > 0. Number of loops
... Additional arguments passed to plot
Value
None
Author(s)
Robert J. Hijmans
See Also
plot, spplot, plotRGB
20 approxNA
Examples
b <- brick(system.file("external/rlogo.grd", package="raster"))
animate(b, n=1)
approxNA Estimate values for cell values that are NA by interpolating between
layers
Description
approxNA uses the stats function approx to estimate values for cells that are NA by interpolation
across layers. Layers are considered equidistant, unless an argument z is used, or getZ returns
values, in which case these values are used to determine distance between layers.
For estimation based on neighbouring cells see focal
Usage
approxNA(x, filename="", method="linear", yleft, yright,
rule=1, f=0, ties=mean, z=NULL, NArule=1, ...)
Arguments
x RasterStack or RasterBrick object
method species the interpolation method to be used. Choices are "linear" or "constant"
(step function; see the example in approx
yleft the value to be returned before a non-NA value is encountered. The default is
dened by the value of rule given below
yright the value to be returned after the last non-NA value is encountered. The default
is dened by the value of rule given below
rule an integer (of length 1 or 2) describing how interpolation is to take place at for
the rst and last cells (before or after any non-NA values are encountered). If
rule is 1 then NAs are returned for such points and if it is 2, the value at the
closest data extreme is used. Use, e.g., rule = 2:1, if the left and right side
extrapolation should differ
f for method = "constant" a number between 0 and 1 inclusive, indicating a com-
promise between left- and right-continuous step functions. If y0 and y1 are the
values to the left and right of the point then the value is y0*(1-f)+y1*f so that
f = 0) is right-continuous and f = 1 is left-continuous
ties Handling of tied z values. Either a function with a single vector argument
returning a single number result or the string "ordered"
z numeric vector to indicate the distance between layers (e.g., time, depth). The
default is 1:nlayers(x)
area 21
NArule single integer used to determine what to do when only a single layer with a non-
NA value is encountered (and linear interpolation is not possible). The default
value of 1 indicates that all layers will get this value for that cell; all other values
do not change the cell values
... additional arguments as for writeRaster
Value
RasterBrick
See Also
focal
Examples
r <- raster(ncols=5, nrows=5)
r1 <- setValues(r, runif(ncell(r)))
r5 <- setValues(r, NA)
r1[6:10] <- NA
r2[5:15] <- NA
r3[8:25] <- NA
s <- stack(r1,r2,r3,r4,r5,r6)
s[1:5] <- NA
x1 <- approxNA(s)
x2 <- approxNA(s, rule=2)
x3 <- approxNA(s, rule=2, z=c(1,2,3,5,14,15))
area Size of cells
Description
Compute the approximate surface area of cells in an unprojected (longitude/latitude) Raster object.
It is an approximation because area is computed as the height (latitudial span) of a cell (which is
constant among all cells) times the width (longitudinal span) in the (latitudinal) middle of a cell.
The width is smaller at the poleward side than at the equator-ward side of a cell. This variation is
greatest near the poles and the values are thus not very precise for very high latitudes.
22 Arith-methods
Usage
## S4 method for signature RasterLayer
area(x, filename="", na.rm=FALSE, weights=FALSE, ...)
area(x, filename="", na.rm=FALSE, weights=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
filename character. Filename for the output Raster object (optional)
na.rm logical. If TRUE, cells that are NA are ignored
weights logical. If TRUE, the area of each cells is divided by the total area of all cells that
are not NA
Details
If x is a RasterStack/Brick, a RasterBrick will be returned if na.rm=TRUE. However, if na.rm=FALSE,
a RasterLayer is returned, because the values would be the same for all layers.
Value
RasterLayer or RasterBrick. Cell values represent the size of the cell in km2, or the relative size if
weights=TRUE
Examples
r <- raster(nrow=18, ncol=36)
a <- area(r)
Arith-methods Arithmetic with Raster* objects
Description
Standard arithmetic operators for computations with Raster* objects and numeric values. The fol-
lowing operators are available: +, -, *, /, ^, %%, %/%
The input Raster* objects should have the same extent, origin and resolution. If only the extent dif-
fers, the computation will continue for the intersection of the Raster objects. Operators are applied
on a cell by cell basis. For a RasterLayer, numeric values are recycled by row. For a RasterStack
or RasterBrick, recycling is done by layer. RasterLayer objects can be combined RasterStack/Brick
objects, in which case the RasterLayer is recycled. When using multiple RasterStack or Raster-
Brick objects, the number of layers of these objects needs to be the same.
Arith-methods 23
In addition to arithmetic with Raster* objects, the following operations are supported for Spa-
tialPolygons* objects. Given SpatialPolygon objects x and y:
x+y is the same as union(x, y)
x*y is the same as intersect(x, y)
x-y is the same as erase(x, y)
Details
If the values of the output Raster* cannot be held in memory, they will be saved to a temporary le.
You can use options to set the default le format, datatype and progress bar.
Value
A Raster* object, and in some cases the side effect of a new le on disk.
See Also
Math-methods, overlay, calc
Examples
r1 <- raster(ncols=10, nrows=10)
r1[] <- runif(ncell(r1))
r2 <- setValues(r1, 1:ncell(r1) / ncell(r1) )
r3 <- r1 + r2
r2 <- r1 / 10
r3 <- r1 * (r2 - 1 + r1^2 / r2)
# recycling by row
r4 <- r1 * 0 + 1:ncol(r1)
# multi-layer object mutiplication, no recycling
b1 <- brick(r1, r2, r3)
b2 <- b1 * 10
# recycling by layer
b3 <- b1 + c(1, 5, 10)
# addition of the cell-values of two RasterBrick objects
b3 <- b2 + b1
# summing two RasterBricks and one RasterLayer. The RasterLayer is recycled
b3 <- b1 + b2 + r1
24 as.data.frame
as.data.frame Get a data.frame with raster cell values, or coerce SpatialPolygons,
Lines, or Points to a data.frame
Description
as.matrix returns all values of a Raster* object as a matrix. For RasterLayers, rows and columns
in the matrix represent rows and columns in the RasterLayer object. For other Raster* objects, the
matrix returned by as.matrix has columns for each layer and rows for each cell.
as.array returns an array of matrices that are like those returned by as.matrix for a RasterLayer
If there is insufcient memory to load all values, you can use getValues or getValuesBlock to
read chunks of the le. You could also rst use sampleRegular
The methods for Spatial* objects allow for easy creation of a data.frame with the coordinates and
attributes; the default method only returns the attributes data.frame
Usage
as.data.frame(x, row.names=NULL, optional=FALSE, xy=FALSE,
na.rm=FALSE, ...)
as.data.frame(x, row.names=NULL, optional=FALSE,
xy=FALSE, centroids=TRUE, sepNA=FALSE, ...)
## S4 method for signature SpatialLines
as.data.frame(x, row.names=NULL, optional=FALSE,
xy=FALSE, sepNA=FALSE, ...)
## S4 method for signature SpatialPoints
as.data.frame(x, row.names=NULL, optional=FALSE, xy=TRUE, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
row.names NULL or a character vector giving the row names for the data frame. Missing
values are not allowed
optional logical. If TRUE, setting row names and converting column names (to syntactic
names: see make.names) is optional
xy logical. If TRUE, also return the spatial coordinates
na.rm logical. If TRUE, remove rows with NA values. This can be particularly useful
for very large datasets with many NA values
centroids logical. If TRUE return the centroids instead of all spatial coordinates (only rele-
vant if xy=TRUE)
as.logical 25
sepNA logical. If TRUE the parts of the spatial objects are separated by lines that are NA
(only if xy=TRUE and, for polygons, if centroids=FALSE
Value
data.frame
Examples
r[] <- sqrt(1:ncell(r))
r[3:5] <- NA
as.data.frame(r)
s <- stack(r, r*2)
as.data.frame(s)
as.data.frame(s, na.rm=TRUE)
as.logical Change values to logical
Description
Change values of a Raster* object to logical values (zero becomes FALSE, all other values be-
come TRUE) You can provide the standard additional arguments: lename, format, overwrite, and
progress.
See Also
as.logical
Examples
r[] <- round(runif(ncell(r)))
r <- as.logical(r)
26 as.matrix
as.matrix Get a matrix with raster cell values
Description
as.matrix returns all values of a Raster* object as a matrix. For RasterLayers, rows and columns
in the matrix represent rows and columns in the RasterLayer object. For other Raster* objects, the
matrix returned by as.matrix has columns for each layer and rows for each cell.
as.array returns an array of matrices that are like those returned by as.matrix for a RasterLayer
If there is insufcient memory to load all values, you can use getValues or getValuesBlock to
read chunks of the le.
Usage
as.matrix(x, ...)
as.array(x, ...)
as.vector(x, mode="any")
Arguments
x Raster* or (for as.matrix and as.vector) Extent object
mode character string giving an atomic mode or "list", or "any"
... additional arguments:
maxpixels Integer. To regularly subsample very large objects
transpose Logical. Transpose the data? (for as.array only)
Value
matrix, array, or vector
Examples
r[] = 1:ncell(r)
as.matrix(r)
s <- stack(r,r)
as.array(s)
as.vector(extent(s))
as.raster 27
as.raster Coerce to a raster object
Description
Implementation of the generic as.raster function to create a raster (small r) object. NOT TO BE
CONFUSED with the Raster* (big R) objects dened by the raster package! Such objects can be
used for plotting with the rasterImage function.
Usage
as.raster(x, ...)
Arguments
x RasterLayer object
... Additional arguments.
maxpixels Integer. To regularly subsample very large objects
col Vector of colors. Default is col=rev(terrain.colors(255)))
Value
raster object
Examples
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
as.raster(r)
atan2 Two argument arc-tangent
Description
For RasterLayer arguments x and y, atan2(y, x) returns the angle in radians for the tangent y/x,
handling the case when x is zero. See link[base]{Trig}
See Math-methods for other trigonometric and mathematical functions that can be used with Raster*
objects.
Usage
atan2(y, x)
28 autocorrelation
Arguments
y RasterLayer object
See Also
Math-methods
Examples
r1 <- r2 <- raster(nrow=10, ncol=10)
r1[] <- (runif(ncell(r1))-0.5) * 10
r2[] <- (runif(ncell(r1))-0.5) * 10
atan2(r1, r2)
autocorrelation Spatial autocorrelation
Description
Compute Morans I or Gearys C measures of global spatial autocorrelation in a RasterLayer, or
compute the the local Moran or Geary index (Anselin, 1995).
Usage
Geary(x, w=matrix(1, 3, 3))
Moran(x, w=matrix(1, 3, 3))
MoranLocal(x, w=matrix(1, 3, 3))
GearyLocal(x, w=matrix(1, 3, 3))
Arguments
x RasterLayer
w Spatial weights. Either a single number or a vector of two numbers to dene a
neighborhood (as in focal) or a rectangular matrix with uneven sides
Details
The default setting uses a 3x3 neighborhood to compute "Queens case" indices. You can use a lter
(weights matrix) to do other things, such as "Rooks case", or different lags.
Value
A single value (Morans I or Gearys C) or a RasterLayer (Local Moran or Geary values)
Author(s)
Robert J. Hijmans and Babak Naimi
bands 29
References
Moran, P.A.P., 1950. Notes on continuous stochastic phenomena. Biometrika 37:17-23
Geary, R.C., 1954. The contiguity ratio and statistical mapping. The Incorporated Statistician 5:
115-145
Anselin, L., 1995. Local indicators of spatial association-LISA. Geographical Analysis 27:93-115
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicators_of_spatial_association
See Also
The spdep package for additional and more general approaches for computing indices of spatial
autocorrelation
Examples
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
Moran(r)
# Rooks case
f <- matrix(c(0,1,0,1,0,1,0,1,0), nrow=3)
Moran(r, f)
Geary(r)
x1 <- MoranLocal(r)
# Rooks case
x2 <- MoranLocal(r, w=f)
bands Number of bands
Description
A band refers to a single layer for a possibly multi-layer le. Most RasterLayer objects will
refer to les with a single layer. The term band is frequently used in remote sensing to refer
to a variable (layer) in a multi-variable dataset as these variables typically reperesent reection in
different bandwidths in the electromagnetic spectrum. But in that context, bands could be stored in
a single or in separate les. In the context of the raster package, the term band is equivalent to a
layer in a raster le.
nbands returns the number of bands of the le that a RasterLayer points to (and 1 if it does not
point at any le). This functions also works for a RasterStack for which it is equivalent to nlayers.
band returns the specic band the RasterLayer refers to (1 if the RasterLayer points at single layer
le or does not point at any le).
30 barplot
Usage
nbands(x)
bandnr(x, ...)
Arguments
x RasterLayer
... Additional arguments (none at this time)
Value
numeric >= 1
See Also
nlayers
Examples
f <- system.file("external/rlogo.grd", package="raster")
r <- raster(f, layer=2)
nbands(r)
bandnr(r)
barplot Bar plot of a RasterLayer
Description
Create a barplot of the values of a RasterLayer. For large datasets a regular sample with a size of
approximately maxpixels is used.
Usage
barplot(height, maxpixels=1000000, digits=0, breaks=NULL, col=rainbow, ...)
Arguments
height RasterLayer
maxpixels integer. To regularly subsample very large objects
digits integer used to determine how to round the values before tabulating. Set to NULL
or to a large number if you do not want any rounding
breaks breaks used to group the data as in cut
col a color generating function such as rainbow, or a vector of colors
... additional arguments for plotting as in barplot
bind 31
Value
A numeric vector (or matrix, when beside = TRUE) of the coordinates of the bar midpoints, useful
for adding to the graph. See barplot
See Also
hist, boxplot
Examples
f <- system.file("external/test.grd", package="raster")
r <- raster(f)
barplot(r, digits=-2, las=2, ylab=Frequency)
op <- par(no.readonly = TRUE)
par(mai = c(1, 2, .5, .5))
barplot(r, breaks=10, col=c(red, blue), horiz=TRUE, digits=NULL, las=1)
par(op)
bind Bind Spatial* objects
Description
Bind (append) Spatial* objects into a single object. All objects must be of the same vector type
base class (SpatialPoints, SpatialLines, or SpatialPolygons)
Usage
## S4 method for signature SpatialPolygons,SpatialPolygons
bind(x, y, ..., keepnames=FALSE)
## S4 method for signature SpatialLines,SpatialLines
## S4 method for signature SpatialPoints,SpatialPoints
Arguments
x Spatial* object
y Spatial* object
... Additional Spatial* objects
keepnames Logical. If TRUE the row.names are kept (if unique)
32 blockSize
Value
Spatial* object
Examples
mersch <- p[p$NAME_2==Mersch, ]
diekirch <- p[p$NAME_2==Diekirch, ]
remich <- p[p$NAME_2==Remich, ]
remich$NAME_1 <- NULL
x <- bind(mersch, diekirch, remich)
plot(x)
data.frame(x)
}
blockSize Block size for writing les
Description
This function can be used to suggest chunk sizes (always a number of entire rows), and correspond-
ing row numbers, to be used when processing Raster* objects in chunks. Normally used together
with writeValues.
Usage
blockSize(x, chunksize, n=nlayers(x), minblocks=4, minrows=1)
Arguments
x Raster* object
chunksize Integer, normally missing. Can be used to set the block size; unit is number of
cells. Block size is then computed in units of number of rows (always >= 1)
n Integer. number of layers to consider. The function divides chunksize by n to
determine blocksize
minblocks Integer. Minimum number of blocks
minrows Integer. Minimum number of rows in each block
Value
A list with three elements:
rows, the suggested row numbers at which to start the blocks for reading and writing,
nrows, the number of rows in each block, and,
n, the total number of blocks
boundaries 33
See Also
writeValues
Examples
r <- raster(system.file("external/test.grd", package="raster"))
blockSize(r)
boundaries boundaries (edges) detection
Description
Detect boundaries (edges). boundaries are cells that have more than one class in the 4 or 8 cells
surrounding it, or, if classes=FALSE, cells with values and cells with NA.
Usage
boundaries(x, filename="", type=inner, classes=FALSE, directions=8, ...)
edge(x, ...)
edges(x, ...)
Arguments
filename Character. Filename for the output RasterLayer (optional)
type Character. inner or outer
classes Character. Logical. If TRUE all different values are (after rounding) distin-
guished, as well as NA. If FALSE (the default) only edges between NA and non-NA
cells are considered
directions Integer. Which cells are considered adjacent? Should be 8 (Queens case) or 4
(Rooks case)
... Additional arguments as for writeRaster
Value
RasterLayer. Cell values are either 1 (a border) or 0 (not a border), or NA
See Also
focal, clump
34 boxplot
Examples
r <- raster(nrow=18, ncol=36, xmn=0)
r[150:250] <- 1
r[251:450] <- 2
plot( boundaries(r, type=inner) )
plot( boundaries(r, type=outer) )
plot( boundaries(r, classes=TRUE) )
boxplot Box plot of Raster objects
Description
Box plot of layers in a Raster object
Usage
boxplot(x, maxpixels=100000, ...)
boxplot(x, y=NULL, maxpixels=100000, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
y If x is a RasterLayer object, y can be an additional RasterLayer to group the
values of x by zone
maxpixels Integer. Number of pixels to sample from each layer of large Raster objects
... Arguments passed to graphics::boxplot
See Also
pairs, hist
Examples
r1 <- r2 <- r3 <- raster(ncol=10, nrow=10)
r1[] <- rnorm(ncell(r1), 100, 40)
r2[] <- rnorm(ncell(r1), 80, 10)
r3[] <- rnorm(ncell(r1), 120, 30)
s <- stack(r1, r2, r3)
names(s) <- c(A, B, C)
boxplot(s, notch=TRUE, col=c(red, blue, orange), main=Box plot, ylab=random )
brick 35
brick Create a RasterBrick object
Description
A RasterBrick is a multi-layer raster object. They are typically created from a multi-layer (band)
le; but they can also exist entirely in memory. They are similar to a RasterStack (that can be
created with stack), but processing time should be shorter when using a RasterBrick. Yet they are
less exible as they can only point to a single le.
A RasterBrick can be created from RasterLayer objects, from a RasterStack, or from a (multi-layer)
le. The can also be created from SpatialPixels*, SpatialGrid*, and Extent objects, and from a
three-dimensional array.
Usage
## S4 method for signature character
brick(x, ...)
## S4 method for signature RasterStack
brick(x, values=TRUE, nl, filename=, ...)
## S4 method for signature RasterBrick
brick(x, nl, ...)
brick(x, ..., values=TRUE, nl=1, filename=)
## S4 method for signature missing
brick(nrows=180, ncols=360, xmn=-180, xmx=180, ymn=-90, ymx=90, nl=1, crs)
## S4 method for signature Extent
brick(x, nrows=10, ncols=10, crs=NA, nl=1)
## S4 method for signature array
brick(x, xmn=0, xmx=1, ymn=0, ymx=1, crs=NA, transpose=FALSE)
## S4 method for signature big.matrix
brick(x, template, filename=, ...)
## S4 method for signature SpatialGrid
brick(x)
## S4 method for signature SpatialPixels
brick(x)
36 brick
Arguments
x character (lename, see Details); Raster* object; missing; array; SpatialGrid*;
SpatialPixels*; Extent; or list of Raster* objects. Supported le types are the
native raster package format and those that can be read via rgdal (see readGDAL),
and NetCDF les (see details)
... see Details
values logical. If TRUE, the cell values of x are copied to the RasterBrick object that
is returned
nl integer > 0. How many layers should the RasterBrick have?
filename character. Filename if you want the RasterBrick to be saved on disk
nrows integer > 0. Number of rows
ncols integer > 0. Number of columns
xmn minimum x coordinate (left border)
xmx maximum x coordinate (right border)
ymn minimum y coordinate (bottom border)
ymx maximum y coordinate (top border)
crs character or object of class CRS. PROJ4 type description of a Coordinate Refer-
ence System (map projection). If this argument is missing, and the x coordinates
are withing -360 .. 360 and the y coordinates are within -90 .. 90, "+proj=longlat
+datum=WGS84" is used
transpose if TRUE, the values in the array are transposed
template Raster* object used to set the extent, number of rows and columns and CRS
Details
If x is a RasterLayer, the additional arguments can be used to pass additional Raster* objects.
If there is a filename argument, the additional arguments are as for writeRaster. The big.matrix
most have rows representing cells and columns representing layers.
If x represents a lename there is the following additional argument:
native: logical. If TRUE (not the default), reading and writing of IDRISI, BIL, BSQ, BIP, and Arc
ASCII les is done with native (raster package) drivers, rather then via rgdal.
In addition, if x is a NetCDF lename there are the following additional arguments:
varname: character. The variable name (e.g. altitude or precipitation. If not supplied and the
le has multiple variables are a guess will be made (and reported))
lvar: integer > 0 (default=3). To select the level variable (3rd dimension variable) to use, if the
le has 4 dimensions (e.g. depth instead of time)
level: integer > 0 (default=1). To select the level (4th dimension variable) to use, if the le has 4
dimensions, e.g. to create a RasterBrick of weather over time at a certain height.
To use NetCDF les the ncdf or the ncdf4 package needs to be available. If both are available,
ncdf4 is used. Only the ncdf4 package can read the most recent version (4) of the netCDF format
(as well as older versions), for windows it not available on CRAN but can be downloaded here. It
is assumed that these les follow, or are compatible with the CF convention.
buffer 37
Value
RasterBrick
See Also
raster
Examples
b
nlayers(b)
names(b)
extract(b, 870)
buffer buffer
Description
Calculate a buffer around all cells that are not NA.
Note that the distance unit of the buffer width parameter is meters if the RasterLayer is not projected
(+proj=longlat), and in map units (typically also meters) when it is projected.
Usage
buffer(x, width=0, filename=, doEdge=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
width Numeric. Number > 0. Unit is meter if x has a longitude/latitude CRS, or
mapunits in other cases
doEdge Logical. If TRUE, the edge function is called rst. This may be efcient in cases
where you compute a buffer around very large areas. Calling edge determines
the edge cells that matter for distance computation
Value
RasterLayer
See Also
distance, gridDistance, pointDistance
38 calc
Examples
r <- raster(ncol=36,nrow=18)
r[] <- NA
r[500] <- 1
b <- buffer(r, width=5000000)
#plot(b)
calc Calculate
Description
Calculate values for a new Raster* object from another Raster* object, using a formula.
If x is a RasterLayer, fun is typically a function that can take a single vector as input, and return
a vector of values of the same length (e.g. sqrt). If x is a RasterStack or RasterBrick, fun should
operate on a vector of values (one vector for each cell). calc returns a RasterLayer if fun returns
a single value (e.g. sum) and it returns a RasterBrick if fun returns more than one number, e.g.,
fun=quantile.
In many cases, what can be achieved with calc, can also be accomplished with a more intuitive
raster-algebra notation (see Arith-methods). For example, r <- r * 2 instead of
r <- calc(r, fun=function(x){x * 2}, or r <- sum(s) instead of
r <- calc(s, fun=sum). However, calc should be faster when using complex formulas on large
datasets. With calc it is possible to set an output lename and le type preferences.
See (overlay) to use functions that refer to specic layers, like (function(a,b,c){a + sqrt(b) / c})
Usage
## S4 method for signature Raster,function
calc(x, fun, filename=, na.rm, forcefun=FALSE, forceapply=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
fun function
na.rm Remove NA values, if supported by fun (only relevant when summarizing a
multilayer Raster object into a RasterLayer)
forcefun logical. Force calc to not use fun with apply; for use with ambiguous functions
and for debugging (see Details)
forceapply logical. Force calc to use fun with apply; for use with ambiguous functions and
for debugging (see Details)
calc 39
Details
The intent of some functions can be ambiguous. Consider:
library(raster)
r <- raster(volcano)
calc(r, function(x) x * 1:10)
In this case, the cell values are multiplied in a vectorized manner and a single layer is returned
where the rst cell has been multiplied with one, the second cell with two, the 11th cell with one
again, and so on. But perhaps the intent was to create 10 new layers (x*1, x*2, ...)? This can
be achieved by using argument forceapply=TRUE
calc(r, function(x) x * 1:10), forceapply=TRUE
Value
a Raster* object
Note
For large objects calc will compute values chunk by chunk. This means that for the result of fun
to be correct it should not depend on having access to _all_ values at once. For example, to scale
the values of a Raster* object by subtracting its mean value (for each layer), you would _not_ do,
for Raster object x:
calc(x, function(x)scale(x, scale=FALSE))
Because the mean value of each chunk will likely be different. Rather do something like
m <- cellStats(x, mean)
x - m
Author(s)
Robert J. Hijmans and Matteo Mattiuzzi
See Also
overlay , reclassify, Arith-methods, Math-methods
Examples
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
# multiply values with 10
fun <- function(x) { x * 10 }
rc1 <- calc(r, fun)
# set values below 100 to NA.
fun <- function(x) { x[x<100] <- NA; return(x) }
rc2 <- calc(r, fun)
40 cellFrom
# set NA values to -9999
fun <- function(x) { x[is.na(x)] <- -9999; return(x)}
rc3 <- calc(rc2, fun)
# using a RasterStack as input
s <- stack(r, r*2, sqrt(r))
# return a RasterLayer
rs1 <- calc(s, sum)
# return a RasterBrick
rs2 <- calc(s, fun=function(x){x * 10})
# recycling by layer
rs3 <- calc(s, fun=function(x){x * c(1, 5, 10)})
# use overlay when you want to refer to indiviudal layer in the function
# but it can be done with calc:
rs4 <- calc(s, fun=function(x){x[1]+x[2]*x[3]})
##
# Some regression examples
##
# create data
s1 <- s2<- list()
for (i in 1:12) {
s1[i] <- setValues(r, rnorm(ncell(r), i, 3) )
s2[i] <- setValues(r, rnorm(ncell(r), i, 3) )
}
s1 <- stack(s1)
s2 <- stack(s2)
# regression of values in one brick (or stack) with another
s <- stack(s1, s2)
# s1 and s2 have 12 layers; coefficients[2] is the slope
fun <- function(x) { lm(x[1:12] ~ x[13:24])$coefficients[2] }
x1 <- calc(s, fun)
# regression of values in one brick (or stack) with time
time <- 1:nlayers(s)
fun <- function(x) { lm(x ~ time)$coefficients[2] }
x2 <- calc(s, fun)
# get multiple layers, e.g. the slope _and_ intercept
fun <- function(x) { lm(x ~ time)$coefficients }
x3 <- calc(s, fun)
cellFrom Get cell, row, or column number
cellFrom 41
Description
Get cell number(s) of a Raster* object from row and/or column numbers. Cell numbers start at 1
in the upper left corner, and increase from left to right, and then from top to bottom. The last cell
number equals the number of cells of the Raster* object.
Usage
cellFromRowCol(object, rownr, colnr)
cellFromRowColCombine(object, rownr, colnr)
cellFromRow(object, rownr)
cellFromCol(object, colnr)
colFromX(object, x)
rowFromY(object, y)
cellFromXY(object, xy)
cellFromLine(object, lns)
cellFromPolygon(object, p, weights=FALSE)
fourCellsFromXY(object, xy, duplicates=TRUE)
Arguments
object Raster* object (or a SpatialPixels* or SpatialGrid* object)
colnr column number; or vector of column numbers
rownr row number; or vector of row numbers
x x coordinate(s)
y y coordinate(s)
xy matrix of x and y coordinates, or a SpatialPoints or SpatialPointsDataFrame
object
lns SpatialLines object
p SpatialPolygons object
weights Logical. If TRUE, the fraction of each cell that is covered is also returned
duplicates Logical. If TRUE, the same cell number can be returned twice (if the point in the
middle of a division between two cells) or four times (if a point is in the center
of a cell)
Details
cellFromRowCol returns the cell numbers obtained for each row / col number pair. In contrast,
cellFromRowColCombine returns the cell numbers obtained by the combination of all row and
column numbers supplied as arguments.
fourCellsFromXY returns the four cells that are nearest to a point (if the point falls on the raster).
Also see adjacent.
Value
vector of row, column or cell numbers. cellFromLine and cellFromPolygon return a list, fourCellsFromXY
returns a matrix.
42 cellsFromExtent
See Also
xyFromCell, cellsFromExtent, rowColFromCell
Examples
cellFromRowCol(r, 5, 5)
cellFromRowCol(r, 1:2, 1:2)
cellFromRowColCombine(r, 1:3, 1:2)
cellFromCol(r, 1)
cellFromRow(r, 1)
colFromX(r, 0.5)
rowFromY(r, 0.5)
cellFromXY(r, cbind(c(0.5,5), c(15, 88)))
fourCellsFromXY(r, cbind(c(0.5,5), c(15, 88)))
cds1 <- rbind(c(-180,-20), c(-160,5), c(-60, 0), c(-160,-60), c(-180,-20))
cds2 <- rbind(c(80,0), c(100,60), c(120,0), c(120,-55), c(80,0))
pols <- SpatialPolygons(list(Polygons(list(Polygon(cds1)), 1), Polygons(list(Polygon(cds2)), 2)))
cellFromPolygon(r, pols)
cellsFromExtent Cells from Extent
Description
This function returns the cell numbers for a Raster* object that are within a speced extent (rectan-
gular area), supply an object of class Extent, or another Raster* object.
Usage
cellsFromExtent(object, extent, expand=FALSE)
Arguments
object A Raster* object
extent An object of class Extent (which you can create with newExtent(), or another
Raster* object )
expand Logical. If TRUE, NA is returned for (virtual) cells implied by bndbox, that are
outside the RasterLayer (object). If FALSE, only cell numbers for the area
where object and bndbox overlap are returned (see intersect)
Value
a vector of cell numbers
cellStats 43
See Also
extent, cellFromXY
Examples
r <- raster()
bb <- extent(-5, 5, -5, 5)
cells <- cellsFromExtent(r, bb)
r <- crop(r, bb)
r[] <- cells
cellStats Statistics across cells
Description
Compute statistics for the cells of each layer of a Raster* object. In the raster package, functions
such as max, min, and mean, when used with Raster* objects as argument, return a new Raster*
object (with a value computed for each cell). In contrast, cellStats returns a single value, computed
from the all the values of a layer. Also see layerStats
Usage
cellStats(x, stat=mean, na.rm=TRUE, asSample=TRUE, ...)
cellStats(x, stat=mean, na.rm=TRUE, asSample=TRUE, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
stat The function to be applied. See Details
na.rm Logical. Should NA values be removed?
asSample Logical. Only relevant for stat=sd in which case, if TRUE, the standard devia-
tion for a sample (denominator is n-1) is computed, rather than for the popula-
tion (denominator is n)
... Additional arguments
Details
cellStats will fail (gracefully) for very large Raster* objects except for a number of known func-
tions: sum, mean, min, max, sd, skew and rms. skew (skewness) and rms (Root Mean Square)
must be supplied as a character value (with quotes), the other known functions may be supplied with
or without quotes. For other functions you could perhaps use a sample of the RasterLayer that can
be held in memory (see sampleRegular )
44 clamp
Value
Numeric
See Also
freq, quantile, minValue, maxValue, setMinMax
Examples
r[] <- runif(ncell(r)) * 10
# works for large files
cellStats(r, mean)
# same, but does not work for very large files
cellStats(r, mean)
# multi-layer object
cellStats(brick(r,r), mean)
clamp Clamp values
Description
Clamp values to a mininum and maximum value. That is, all values below the lower clamp value
and the upper clamp value become NA (or the lower/upper value if useValue=TRUE)
Usage
clamp(x, lower=-Inf, upper=Inf, useValues=TRUE, filename="", ...)
Arguments
x RasterLayer
lower numeric. lowest value
upper numeric. highest value
useValues logical. If FALSE values outside the clamping range become NA, if TRUE, they get
the extreme values
filename character. Filename for the output RasterLayer (optional)
Value
Raster object
clearValues 45
See Also
reclassify
Examples
values(r) <- 1:ncell(r)
rc <- clamp(r, 25, 75)
rc
clearValues Clear values
Description
Clear cell values of a Raster* object from memory
Usage
clearValues(x)
Arguments
x Raster* object
Value
a Raster* object
See Also
values, replacement
Examples
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
r <- clearValues(r)
46 click
click Query by clicking on a map
Description
Click on a map (plot) to get values of a Raster* or Spatial* object at that location; and optionally the
coordinates and cell number of the location. For SpatialLines and SpatialPoints you need to click
twice (draw a box).
Usage
click(x, n=Inf, id=FALSE, xy=FALSE, cell=FALSE, type="n", show=TRUE, ...)
click(x, n=1, id=FALSE, xy=FALSE, cell=FALSE, type="n", ...)
click(x, n=1, id=FALSE, xy=FALSE, type="n", ...)
click(x, ...)
click(x, ...)
Arguments
x Raster*, or Spatial* object (or missing)
n number of clicks on the map
id Logical. If TRUE, a numeric ID is shown on the map that corresponds to the row
number of the output
xy Logical. If TRUE, xy coordinates are included in the output
cell Logical. If TRUE, cell numbers are included in the output
type One of "n", "p", "l" or "o". If "p" or "o" the points are plotted; if "l" or "o" they
are joined by lines. See ?locator
show logical. Print the values after each click?
... additional graphics parameters used if type != "n" for plotting the locations. See
?locator
Value
The value(s) of x at the point(s) clicked on (or touched by the box drawn).
clump 47
Note
The plot only provides the coordinates for a spatial query, the values are read from the Raster* or
Spatial* object that is passed as an argument. Thus you can extract values from an object that has
not been plotted, as long as it spatialy overlaps with with the extent of the plot.
Unless the process is terminated prematurely values at at most n positions are determined. The
identication process can be terminated by clicking the second mouse button and selecting Stop
from the menu, or from the Stop menu on the graphics window.
See Also
select, drawExtent
Examples
#plot(r)
#click(r)
#now click on the plot (map)
clump Detect clumps
Description
Detect clumps (patches) of connected cells. Each clump gets a unique ID. NA and zero are used
as background values (i.e. these values are used to separate clumps). You can use queens or
rooks case, using the directions argument. For larger les that are processed in chunks, the
highest clump number is not necessarily equal to the number of clumps (unless you use argument
gaps=FALSE).
Usage
clump(x, filename="", directions=8, gaps=TRUE, ...)
Arguments
x RasterLayer
directions Integer. Which cells are considered adjacent? Should be 8 (Queens case) or 4
(Rooks case)
gaps Logical. If TRUE (the default), there may be gaps in the chunk numbers (e.g.
you may have clumps with IDs 1, 2, 3 and 5, but not 4). If it is FALSE, these
numbers will be recoded from 1 to n (4 in this example)
48 cluster
Value
RasterLayer
Note
This function requires that the igraph package is available.
Author(s)
Examples
set.seed(0)
r[] <- round(runif(ncell(r))*0.7 )
rc <- clump(r)
freq(rc)
plot(rc)
cluster Use a multi-core cluster
Description
beginCluster creates, and endCluster deletes a snow cluster object. This object can be used for
multi-core computing with those raster functions that support it.
beginCluster determines the number of nodes (cores) that are available and uses all of them (un-
less the argument n is used).
NOTE: beginCluster may fail when the package nws is installed. You can x that by removing
the nws package, or by setting the cluster type manually, e.g. beginCluster(type="SOCK")
endCluster closes the cluster and removes the object.
The use of the cluster is automatic in these functions: projectRaster, resample and in
extract when using polygons.
clusterR is a exible interface for using cluster with other functions. This function only works
with functions that have a Raster* object as rst argument and that operate on a cell by cell basis
(i.e., there is no effect of neigboring cells) and return an object with the same number of cells as
the input raster object. The rst argument of the function called must be a Raster* object. There
can only be one Raster* object argument. For example, it works with calc and it also works with
overlay as long as you provide a single RasterStack or RasterBrick as the rst argument.
This function is particularly useful to speed up computations in functions like predict, interpolate,
and perhaps calc.
Among other functions, it does _not_ work with merge, crop, mosaic, (dis)aggregate, resample,
projectRaster, focal, distance, buffer, direction. But note that projectRaster has a build-in capacity
for clustering that is automatically used if beginCluster() has been called.
cluster 49
Usage
beginCluster(n, type=SOCK, nice, exclude)
endCluster()
clusterR(x, fun, args=NULL, export=NULL, filename=, cl=NULL, m=2, ...)
Arguments
n Integer. The number of nodes to be used (optional)
type Character. The cluster type to be used
nice Integer. To set the prioirty for the workers, between -20 and 20 (UNIX like
platforms only)
exclude Character. Packages to exclude from loading on the nodes (because they may
fail there) but are required/loaded on the master
x Raster* object
fun function that takes x as its rst argument
args list with the arguments for the function (excluding x, which should always be
the rst argument
export character. Vector of variable names to export to the cluster nodes such that the
are visible to fun (e.g. a parameter that is not passed as an argument)
cl cluster object (do not use it if beginCluster() has been called
m tuning parameter to determine how many blocks should be used. The number is
rounded and multiplied with the number of nodes.
Value
beginCluster and endCluster: None. The side effect is to create or delete a cluster object.
clusterR: as for the function called with argument fun
Note
If you want to write your own cluster-enabled functions see getCluster, returnCluster, and
the vignette about writing functions.
Author(s)
Matteo Mattiuzzi and Robert J. Hijmans
Examples
## Not run:
beginCluster()
50 Compare-methods
r <- raster()
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
x <- clusterR(r, sqrt, verbose=T)
f1 <- function(x) calc(x, sqrt)
y <- clusterR(r, f1)
s <- stack(r, r*2, r*3)
f2 <- function(x) calc(x, range)
z <- clusterR(s, f2)
f3 <- function(d,e,f) (d + e) / (f * param)
param <- 122
ov <- clusterR(s, overlay, args=list(fun=f3), export=param)
pts <- matrix(c(0,0, 45,45), ncol=2, byrow=T)
d <- clusterR(r, distanceFromPoints, args=list(xy=pts))
values(r) <- runif(ncell(r))
m <- c(0, 0.25, 1, 0.25, 0.5, 2, 0.5, 1, 3)
m <- matrix(m, ncol=3, byrow=TRUE)
rc1 <- clusterR(r, reclassify, args=list(rcl=m, right=FALSE),
filename=rcltest.grd, datatype=INT2S, overwrite=TRUE)
# equivalent to:
rc2 <- reclassify(r, rcl=m, right=FALSE, filename=rcltest.grd, datatype=INT2S, overwrite=TRUE)
endCluster()
## End(Not run)
Compare-methods Compare Raster* objects
Description
These methods compare the location and resolution of Raster* objects. That is, they compare their
spatial extent, projection, and number of rows and columns.
For BasicRaster objects you can use == and !=, the values returned is a single logical value TRUE
or FALSE
For RasterLayer objects, these operators also compare the values associated with the objects, and
the result is a RasterLayer object with logical (Boolean) values.
The following methods have been implemented for RasterLayer objects:
==, !=, >, <, <=, >=
Value
A logical value or a RasterLayer object, and in some cases the side effect of a new le on disk.
compareCRS 51
Examples
r1 <- raster()
r1 <- setValues(r1, round(10 * runif(ncell(r1))))
r2 <- setValues(r1, round(10 * runif(ncell(r1))))
as(r1, BasicRaster) == as(r2, BasicRaster)
r3 <- r1 == r2
b <- extent(0, 360, 0, 180)
r4 <- setExtent(r2, b)
as(r2, BasicRaster) != as(r4, BasicRaster)
# The following would give an error. You cannot compare RasterLayer
# that do not have the same BasicRaster properties.
#r3 <- r1 > r4
compareCRS Partially compare two CRS objects
Description
Compare CRS objects
Usage
compareCRS(x, y, unknown=FALSE, verbatim=FALSE, verbose=FALSE)
Arguments
x CRS object, or object from which it can be extracted with projection, or
PROJ.4 format character string
y same as x
unknown logical. Return TRUE if x or y is TRUE
verbatim logical. If TRUE compare x and y, verbatim (not partially)
verbose logical. If TRUE, messages about the comparison may be printed
Value
logical
See Also
crs
52 compareRaster
Examples
compareCRS("+proj=lcc +lat_1=48 +lat_2=33 +lon_0=-100 +ellps=WGS84",
"+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84")
compareCRS("+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84 +no_defs +ellps=WGS84 +towgs84=0,0,0",
"+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84")
compareCRS("+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84 +no_defs +ellps=WGS84 +towgs84=0,0,0",
"+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84", verbatim=TRUE)
compareCRS("+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84", NA)
compareCRS("+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84", NA, unknown=TRUE)
compareRaster Compare Raster objects
Description
Evaluate whether a two or more Raster* objects have the same extent, number of rows and columns,
projection, resolution, and origin (or a subset of these comparisons).
all.equal is a wrapper around compareRaster with options values=TRUE, stopiffalse=FALSE and
showwarning=TRUE.
Usage
compareRaster(x, ..., extent=TRUE, rowcol=TRUE, crs=TRUE, res=FALSE, orig=FALSE,
rotation=TRUE, values=FALSE, tolerance, stopiffalse=TRUE, showwarning=FALSE)
Arguments
x Raster* object
... Raster* objects
extent logical. If TRUE, bounding boxes are compared
rowcol logical. If TRUE, number of rows and columns of the objects are compared
crs logical. If TRUE, coordinate reference systems are compared.
res logical. If TRUE, resolutions are compared (redundant when checking extent and
rowcol)
orig logical. If TRUE, origins are compared
rotation logical. If TRUE, rotations are compared
values logical. If TRUE, cell values are compared
tolerance numeric between 0 and 0.5. If not supplied, the default value is used (see
rasterOptions. It sets difference (relative to the cell resolution) that is per-
missible for objects to be considered equal, if they have a non-integer origin
or resolution. See all.equal.
stopiffalse logical. If TRUE, an error will occur if the objects are not the same
showwarning logical. If TRUE, an warning will be given if objects are not the same. Only
relevant when stopiffalse is TRUE
contour 53
Examples
r1 <- raster()
r2 <- r1
r3 <- r1
compareRaster(r1, r2, r3)
nrow(r3) <- 10
# compareRaster(r1, r3)
compareRaster(r1, r3, stopiffalse=FALSE)
compareRaster(r1, r3, rowcol=FALSE)
all.equal(r1, r2)
all.equal(r1, r3)
contour Contour plot
Description
Contour plot of a RasterLayer. This is a generic function, in this package implemented for Raster-
Layer objects.
Usage
contour(x, ...)
Arguments
x A Raster* object
... Any argument that can be passed to contour (graphics package)
Methods
contour(x, y=1, maxpixels=100000, ...)
y The layer number (integer > 0) if x is a RasterStack or RasterBrick
maxpixels Maximum number of pixels used to create the contours
... Any argument that can be passed to contour (graphics package)
See Also
persp, filledContour
The rasterVis package has more advanced plotting methods for Raster* objects.
54 corrLocal
Examples
plot(r)
contour(r, add=TRUE)
corrLocal Local correlation coefcient
Description
Local correlation coefcient for two RasterLayer objects
Usage
## S4 method for signature RasterLayer,RasterLayer
corLocal(x, y, ngb=5,
method=c("pearson", "kendall", "spearman"), test=FALSE, filename=, ...)
Arguments
x RasterLayer
y RasterLayer
ngb neighborhood size. Either a single integer or a vector of two integers c(nrow,
ncol)
method character indicating which correlation coefcient is to be used. One of "pearson",
"kendall", or "spearman"
test logical. If TRUE, return a p-value
Value
numeric
Note
NA values are omitted
See Also
cor, cor.test
cover 55
Examples
b <- stack(system.file("external/rlogo.grd", package="raster"))
b[[2]] <- flip(b[[2]], y)
x <- corLocal(b[[1]], b[[2]] )
plot(x)
# only cells where the p-value < 0.1
xm <- mask(x[[1]], x[[2]] < 0.1, maskvalue=FALSE)
plot(xm)
# for global correlation, use the cor function
x <- as.matrix(b)
cor(x, method="spearman")
# use sampleRegular for large datasets
x <- sampleRegular(b, 1000)
cor.test(x[,1], x[,2])
cover Replace NA values with values of other layers
Description
For Raster* objects: Replace NA values in the rst Raster object (x) with the values of the second (y),
and so forth for additional Rasters. If x has multiple layers, the subsequent Raster objects should
have the same number of layers, or have a single layer only (which will be recycled).
For SpatialPolygons* objects: Areas of x that overlap with y are replaced by (or intersected with)
y.
Usage
cover(x, y, ..., filename=)
## S4 method for signature RasterStackBrick,Raster
cover(x, y, ..., filename=)
cover(x, y, ..., identity=FALSE)
Arguments
x Raster* or SpatialPolygons* object
y Same as x
56 crop
... Same as x. If x is a Raster* object, also additional arguments as for writeRaster
identity logical. If TRUE overlapping areas are intersected rather than replaced
Value
RasterLayer or RasterBrick object, or SpatialPolygons object
Examples
# raster objects
r1 <- raster(ncols=36, nrows=18)
r1[] <- 1:ncell(r1)
r2 <- setValues(r1, runif(ncell(r1)))
r2[r2 < 0.5] <- NA
r3 <- cover(r2, r1)
#SpatialPolygons
b <- as(extent(6, 6.4, 49.75, 50), SpatialPolygons)
crs(b) <- crs(p)
b <- SpatialPolygonsDataFrame(b, data.frame(ID_1=9))
cv1 <- cover(p, b)
cv2 <- cover(p, b, identity=TRUE)
}
crop Crop
Description
crop returns a geographic subset of an object as specied by an Extent object (or object from which
an extent object can be extracted/created). If x is a Raster* object, the Extent is aligned to x. Areas
included in y but outside the extent of x are ignored (see extend if you want a larger area).
Usage
crop(x, y, filename="", snap=near, datatype=NULL, ...)
## S4 method for signature Spatial
crop(x, y, ...)
crop 57
Arguments
x Raster* object or SpatialPolygons*, SpatialLines*, or SpatialPoints* object
y Extent object, or any object from which an Extent object can be extracted (see
Details)
filename Character, output lename. Optional
snap Character. One of near, in, or out, for use with alignExtent
datatype Character. Output dataType (by default it is the same as the input datatype)
Details
Objects from which an Extent can be extracted/created include RasterLayer, RasterStack, Raster-
Brick and objects of the Spatial* classes from the sp package. You can check this with the extent
function. New Extent objects can be also be created with function extent and drawExtent by
clicking twice on a plot.
Value
RasterLayer or RasterBrick object; or SpatialLines or SpatialPolygons object.
Note
values within the extent of a Raster* object can be set to NA with mask
See Also
extend, merge
Examples
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
e <- extent(-160, 10, 30, 60)
rc <- crop(r, e)
# crop Raster* with Spatial* object
crs(b) <- crs(r)
rb <- crop(r, b)
# crop a SpatialPolygon* object with another one
pb <- crop(p, b)
}
58 crosstab
crosstab Cross-tabulate
Description
Cross-tabulate two RasterLayer objects, or mulitiple layers in a RasterStack or RasterBrick to create
a contingency table.
Usage
## S4 method for signature Raster,Raster
crosstab(x, y, digits=0, long=FALSE, useNA=FALSE, progress=, ...)
## S4 method for signature RasterStackBrick,missing
crosstab(x, digits=0, long=FALSE, useNA=FALSE, progress=, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
y Raster* object if x is a RasterLayer; Can be missing if x is a RasterStack or
RasterBrick
digits integer. The number of digits for rounding the values before cross-tabulation
long logical. If TRUE the results are returned in long format data.frame instead of a
table
useNA logical, indicting if the table should includes counts of NA values
progress character. "text", "window", or "" (the default, no progress bar), only for large
les that cannot be processed in one step
... additional arguments. none implemented
Value
A table or data.frame
See Also
freq, zonal
Examples
r <- raster(nc=5, nr=5)
s <- setValues(r, runif(ncell(r)) * 3)
crosstab(r,s)
rs <- r/s
r[1:5] <- NA
cut 59
s[20:25] <- NA
x <- stack(r, s, rs)
crosstab(x, useNA=TRUE, long=TRUE)
cut Convert values to classes
Description
Cut uses the base function cut to classify the values of a Raster* object according to which interval
they fall in. The intervals are dened by the argument breaks. The leftmost interval corresponds
to level one, the next leftmost to level two and so on.
Usage
cut(x, ...)
Arguments
x A Raster* object
... additional arguments. See cut
Value
Raster* object
See Also
subs, reclassify, calc
Examples
r[] <- rnorm(ncell(r))
breaks <- -2:2 * 3
rc <- cut(r, breaks=breaks)
60 datasource
cv Coefcient of variation
Description
Compute the coefcient of variation (expressed as a percentage). If there is only a single value, sd
is NA and cv returns NA if aszero=FALSE (the default). However, if (aszero=TRUE), cv returns 0.
Usage
## S4 method for signature ANY
cv(x, ..., aszero=FALSE, na.rm = FALSE)
cv(x, ..., aszero=FALSE, na.rm = FALSE)
Arguments
x A vector of numbers (typically integers for modal), or a Raster* object
... additional (vectors of) numbers, or Raster objects
aszero logical. If TRUE, a zero is returned (rather than an NA) if the cv of single value
is computed
na.rm Remove (ignore) NA values
Value
vector or RasterLayer
Examples
data <- c(0,1,2,3,3,3,3,4,4,4,5,5,6,7,7,8,9,NA)
cv(data, na.rm=TRUE)
datasource Are values in memory and/or on disk?
Description
These are helper functons for programmers and for debugging that provide information about
whether a Raster object has associated values, and if these are in memory or on disk.
fromDisk is TRUE if the data source is a le on disk; and FALSE if the object only exists in memory.
inMemory is TRUE if all values are currently in memory (RAM); and FALSE if not (in which case
they either are on disk, or there are no values).
hasValues is TRUE if the object has cell values.
dataType 61
Usage
fromDisk(x)
inMemory(x)
hasValues(x)
Arguments
x Raster* object
Value
Logical value
Examples
rs <- raster(system.file("external/test.grd", package="raster"))
inMemory(rs)
fromDisk(rs)
rs <- readAll(rs)
inMemory(rs)
fromDisk(rs)
rs <- rs + 1
inMemory(rs)
fromDisk(rs)
rs <- raster(rs)
inMemory(rs)
fromDisk(rs)
rs <- setValues(rs, 1:ncell(rs))
inMemory(rs)
fromDisk(rs)
rs <- writeRaster(rs, filename=test, overwrite=TRUE)
inMemory(rs)
fromDisk(rs)
dataType Data type
Description
Get the datatype of a RasterLayer object. The datatype determines the interpretation of values
written to disk. Changing the datatype of a Raster* object does not directly affect the way they are
stored in memory. For native le formats (.grd/.gri les) it does affect how values are read from le.
This is not the case for le formats that are read via rgdal (such as .tif and .img les) or netcdf.
If you change the datatype of a RasterLayer and then read values from a native format le these
may be completely wrong, so only do this for debugging or when the information in the header le
was wrong. To set the datatype of a new le, you can give a datatype argument to the functions
that write values to disk (e.g. writeRaster).
62 dataType
Usage
dataType(x)
dataType(x) <- value
Arguments
x A RasterLayer object
value A data type (see below)
Details
Setting the data type is useful if you want to write values to disk. In other cases use functions such
as round()
Datatypes are described by 5 characters. The rst three indicate whether the values are integers,
decimal number or logical values. The fourth character indicates the number of bytes used to save
the values on disk, and the last character indicates whether the numbers are signed (i.e. can be
negative and positive values) or not (only zero and positive values allowed)
The following datatypes are available:
Datatype denition minimum possible value maximum possible value
LOG1S FALSE (0) TRUE (1)
INT1S -127 127
INT1U 0 255
INT2S -32,767 32,767
INT2U 0 65,534
INT4S -2,147,483,647 2,147,483,647
INT4U 0 4,294,967,296
FLT4S -3.4e+38 3.4e+38
FLT8S -1.7e+308 1.7e+308
For all integer types, except the single byte types, the lowest (signed) or highest (unsigned) value is
used to store NA. Single byte les do not have NA values. Logical values are stored as signed single
byte integers, they do have an NA value (-127)
INT4U is available but they are best avoided as R does not support 32-bit unsigned integers.
Value
Raster* object
Examples
dataType(r)
s <- writeRaster(r, new.grd, datatype=INT2U, overwrite=TRUE)
dataType(s)
density 63
density Density plot
Description
Create density plots of values in a Raster object
Usage
density(x, layer, maxpixels=100000, plot=TRUE, main, ...)
Arguments
x Raster object
layer numeric. Can be used to subset the layers to plot in a multilayer object (Raster-
Brick or RasterStack)
maxpixels the maximum number of (randomly sampled) cells to be used for creating the
plot
plot if TRUE produce a plot, else return a density object
main main title for each plot (can be missing)
... Additional arguments passed to plot
Value
density plot (and a density object, returned invisibly if plot=TRUE)
Examples
logo <- stack(system.file("external/rlogo.grd", package="raster"))
density(logo)
dim Dimensions of a Raster* object
Description
Get or set the number of rows, columns, and layers of a Raster* object. You cannot use this function
to set the dimensions of a RasterStack object.
When setting the dimensions, you can provide a row number, or a vector with the row and the
column number (for a RasterLayer and a RasterBrick), or a row and column number and the number
of layers (only for a RasterBrick)
64 direction
Usage
## S4 method for signature BasicRaster
dim(x)
Arguments
x Raster(* object
Value
Integer or Raster* object
See Also
ncell, extent, res
Examples
r <- raster()
dim(r)
dim(r) <- c(18)
dim(r)
dim(r) <- c(18, 36)
dim(r)
b <- brick(r)
dim(b)
dim(b) <- c(10, 10, 5)
dim(b)
direction Direction
Description
The direction (azimuth) to or from the nearest cell that is not NA. The direction unit is in radians,
unless you use argument degrees=TRUE.
Usage
direction(x, filename=, degrees=FALSE, from=FALSE, doEdge=FALSE, ...)
disaggregate 65
Arguments
filename Character. Output lename (optional)
degrees Logical. If FALSE (the default) the unit of direction is radians.
from Logical. Default is FALSE. If TRUE, the direction from (instead of to) the nearest
cell that is not NA is returned
where you compute the distance to large blobs. Calling edge determines the
edge cells that matter for distance computation
Value
RasterLayer
See Also
distance, gridDistance
For the direction between (longitude/latitude) points, see the azimuth function in the geosphere
package
Examples
r[] <- NA
r[306] <- 1
b <- direction(r)
#plot(b)
disaggregate Disaggregate
Description
Disaggregate a RasterLayer to create a new RasterLayer with a higher resolution (smaller cells).
The values in the new RasterLayer are the same as in the larger original cells unless you specify
method="bilinear", in which case values are locally interpolated (using the resample function).
Usage
disaggregate(x, fact=NULL, method=, filename=, ...)
66 distance
Arguments
x a Raster object
fact integer. amount of disaggregation expressed as number of cells (horizontally and
vertically). This can be a single integer or two integers c(x,y), in which case the
rst one is the horizontal disaggregation factor and y the vertical disaggreation
factor. If a single integer value is supplied, cells are disaggregated with the same
factor in x and y direction
method Character. or bilinear. If bilinear, values are locally interpolated
(using the resample function
Value
Raster object
Author(s)
Robert J. Hijmans and Jim Regetz
See Also
aggregate
Examples
rd <- disaggregate(r, fact=c(10, 2))
ncol(rd)
nrow(rd)
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
rd <- disaggregate(r, fact=c(4, 2), method=bilinear)
distance Distance
Description
Calculate the distance, for all cells that are NA, to the nearest cell that is not NA.
The distance unit is in meters if the RasterLayer is not projected (+proj=longlat) and in map units
(typically also meters) when it is projected.
Usage
distance(x, filename=, doEdge=TRUE, ...)
distanceFromPoints 67
Arguments
where you compute the distance to large blobs. Calling edge determines the
edge cells that matter for distance computation
Value
RasterLayer
See Also
distanceFromPoints, gridDistance, pointDistance
See the gdistance package for more advanced distances, and the geosphere package for great-
circle distances (and more) between points in longitude/latitude coordinates.
Examples
r[] <- NA
r[500] <- 1
dist <- distance(r)
#plot(dist / 1000)
distanceFromPoints Distance from points
Description
The function calculates the distance from a set of points to all cells of a RasterLayer.
The distance unit is in meters if the RasterLayer is not projected (+proj=longlat) and in map units
(typically meters) when it is projected.
Usage
distanceFromPoints(object, xy, filename=, ...)
Arguments
object RasterLayer object
xy Matrix of x and y coordinates, or a SpatialPoints* object.
filename Filename for the output RasterLayer
68 draw
Value
RasterLayer object
See Also
distance, gridDistance, pointDistance
Examples
xy = c(0,0)
dist <- distanceFromPoints(r, xy)
#plot(dist)
draw Draw a line or polygon
Description
Draw a line or polygon on a plot (map) and save it for later use. After calling the function, start
clicking on the map. To nish, right-click and select stop.
Usage
drawPoly(sp=TRUE, col=red, lwd=2, ...)
drawLine(sp=TRUE, col=red, lwd=2, ...)
Arguments
sp logical. If TRUE, the output will be a sp object (SpatialPolygons or SpatialLines).
Otherwise a matrix of coordinates is returned
col the color of the lines to be drawn
lwd the width of the lines to be drawn
... additional arguments padded to locator
Value
If sp==TRUE a SpatialPolygons or SpatialLines object; otherwise a matrix of coordinates
See Also
locator
drawExtent 69
drawExtent Create an Extent object by drawing on a map
Description
Click on two points of a plot (map) to obtain an object of class Extent (bounding box)
Usage
drawExtent(show=TRUE, col="red")
Arguments
show logical. If TRUE, the extent will be drawn on the map
col sets the color of the lines of the extent
Value
Extent
Examples
## Not run:
r1 <- raster(nrow=10, ncol=10)
r1[] <- runif(ncell(r1))
plot(r1)
# after running the following line, click on the map twice
e <- drawExtent()
# after running the following line, click on the map twice
mean(values(crop(r1, drawExtent())))
## End(Not run)
erase Erase parts of a Spatial* object
Description
Erase parts of a Spatial* objects with another Spatial* object
Usage
erase(x, y, ...)
70 extend
Arguments
x Spatial* object
y Spatial* object
Value
Spatial*
Author(s)
Robert J. Hijmans
Examples
projection(b) <- projection(p)
e <- erase(p, b)
plot(e)
}
extend Extend
Description
Extend returns an Raster* object with a larger spatial extent. The output Raster object has the outer
minimum and maximum coordinates of the input Raster and Extent arguments. Thus, all of the
cells of the original raster are included. See crop if you (also) want to remove rows or columns.
There is also an extend method for Extent objects to enlarge (or reduce) an Extent. You can also
use algebraic notation to do that (see examples)
This function has replaced function "expand" (to avoid a name conict with the Matrix package).
Usage
extend(x, y, value=NA, filename=, ...)
extend(x, y, ...)
extend 71
Arguments
x Raster or Extent object
y If x is a Raster object, y should be an Extent object, or any object that is or
has an Extent object, or an object from which it can be extracted (such as sp
objects). Alternatively, you can provide a numeric vector of length 2 indicating
the number of rows and columns that need to be added (or a single number when
the number of rows and columns is equal)
If x is an Extent object, y should be a numeric vector of 1, 2, or 4 elements
value value to assign to new cells
filename Character (optional)
Value
RasterLayer or RasterBrick, or Extent
Author(s)
Robert J. Hijmans and Etienne B. Racine (Extent method)
See Also
crop, merge
Examples
r <- raster(xmn=-150, xmx=-120, ymx=60, ymn=30, ncol=36, nrow=18)
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
e <- extent(-180, 0, 0, 90)
re <- extend(r, e)
# extend with a number of rows and columns (at each side)
re2 <- extend(r, c(2,10))
# Extent object
e <- extent(r)
e
extend(e, 10)
extend(e, 10, -10, 0, 20)
e + 10
e * 2
72 extent
extension Filename extensions
Description
Get or change a lename extension
Usage
extension(filename, value=NULL, maxchar=10)
extension(filename) <- value
Arguments
filename A lename, with or without the path
value A le extension with or without a dot, e.g., ".txt" or "txt"
maxchar Maximum number of characters after the last dot in the lename, for that string
to be considered a lename extension
Value
A le extension, lename or path.
If ext(filename) is used without a value argument, it returns the le extension; otherwise it
returns the lename (with new extensions set to value
Examples
fn <- "c:/temp folder/filename.exten sion"
extension(fn)
extension(fn) <- ".txt"
extension(fn)
fn <- extension(fn, .document)
extension(fn)
extension(fn, maxchar=4)
extent Extent
Description
This function returns an Extent object of a Raster* or Spatial* object (or an Extent object), or
creates an Extent object from a 2x2 matrix (rst row: xmin, xmax; second row: ymin, ymax),
vector (length=4; order= xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax) or list (with at least two elements, with names
x and y)
bbox returns a sp package like bbox object (a matrix)
Extent coordinates 73
Usage
extent(x, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* or Extent object, a matrix, or a vector of four numbers
... Additional arguments. When x is a single number representing xmin, you can
pass three additional numbers (xmax, ymin, ymax)
When x is a Raster* object, you can pass four additional arguments to crop the
extent: r1, r2, c1, c2, representing the rst and last row and column number
Value
Extent object
Author(s)
Robert J. Hijmans; Etienne Racine wrote the extent function for a list
See Also
extent, drawExtent
Examples
r <- raster()
extent(r)
extent(c(0, 20, 0, 20))
#is equivalent to
extent(0, 20, 0, 20)
extent(matrix(c(0, 0, 20, 20), nrow=2))
x <- list(x=c(0,1,2), y=c(-3,5))
extent(x)
#crop the extent by row and column numbers
extent(r, 1, 20, 10, 30)
Extent coordinates Coordinates of the Extent of a Raster object
Description
These functions return or set the extreme coordinates of a Raster* object.
74 Extent math
Usage
xmin(x)
xmax(x)
ymin(x)
ymax(x)
xmin(x) <- value
xmax(x) <- value
ymin(x) <- value
ymax(x) <- value
Arguments
x A Raster* object
value A new x or y coordinate
Value
a single number
See Also
extent, dimensions
Examples
r <- raster(xmn=-0.5, xmx = 9.5, ncols=10)
xmin(r)
xmax(r)
ymin(r)
ymax(r)
xmin(r) <- -180
xmax(r) <- 180
Extent math round Extent coordinates
Description
use round(x, digits=0) to round the coordinates of an Extent object to the number of digits
specied. This can be useful when dealing with a small imprecision in the data (e.g. 179.9999
instead of 180). floor and ceiling move the coordiantes to the outer or inner whole integer
numbers.
It is also possible to use Arithmetic functions with Extent objects (but these work perhaps unex-
pectedly!)
See Math-methods for these (and many more) methods with Raster* objects.
Extent-class 75
Usage
floor(x)
ceiling(x)
Arguments
x Extent object
See Also
Math-methods
Examples
e <- extent(c(0.999999, 10.000011, -60.4, 60))
round(e)
ceiling(e)
floor(e)
Extent-class Class "Extent"
Description
Objects of class Extent are used to dene the spatial extent (extremes) of objects of the BasicRaster
and Raster* classes.
Objects from the Class
You can use the extent function to create Extent objects, or to extract them from Raster* and
Spatial* objects.
Slots
xmin: minimum x coordinate
xmax: maximum x coordinate
ymin: minumum y coordinate
ymax: maximum y coordinate
Methods
show display values of a Extent object
See Also
extent, setExtent
76 extract
Examples
ext <- extent(-180,180,-90,90)
ext
extract Extract values from Raster objects
Description
Extract values from a Raster* object at the locations of other spatial data (that is, perform a spatial
query). You can use coordinates (points), lines, polygons or an Extent (rectangle) object. You can
also use cell numbers to extract values.
If y represents points, extract returns the values of a Raster* object for the cells in which a set of
points fall. If y represents lines, the extract method returns the values of the cells of a Raster*
object that are touched by a line. If y represents polygons, the extract method returns the values
of the cells of a Raster* object that are covered by a polygon. A cell is covered if its center is inside
the polygon (but see the weights option for considering partly covered cells; and argument small
for getting values for small polygons anyway).
Usage
## S4 method for signature Raster,matrix
extract(x, y, method=simple, buffer=NULL, small=FALSE, cellnumbers=FALSE,
fun=NULL, na.rm=TRUE, layer, nl, df=FALSE, factors=FALSE, ...)
## S4 method for signature Raster,SpatialLines
extract(x, y, fun=NULL, na.rm=FALSE, cellnumbers=FALSE, df=FALSE, layer,
nl, factors=FALSE, along=FALSE, sp=FALSE, ...)
## S4 method for signature Raster,SpatialPolygons
extract(x, y, fun=NULL, na.rm=FALSE, weights=FALSE, cellnumbers=FALSE,
small=FALSE, df=FALSE, layer, nl, factors=FALSE, sp=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
y points represented by a two-column matrix or data.frame, or SpatialPoints*;
SpatialPolygons*; SpatialLines; Extent; or a numeric vector representing
cell numbers
method character. simple or bilinear. If simple values for the cell a point
falls in are returned. If bilinear the returned values are interpolated from
the values of the four nearest raster cells.
buffer numeric. The radius of a buffer around each point from which to extract cell
values. If the distance between the sampling point and the center of a cell is less
than or equal to the buffer, the cell is included. The buffer can be specied as
extract 77
a single value, or as a vector of the length of the number of points. If the data
are not projected (latitude/longitude), the unit should be meters. Otherwise it
should be in map-units (typically also meters).
small logical. If TRUE and y represents points and a buffer argument is used, the
function always return a number, also when the buffer does not include the cen-
ter of a single cell. The value of the cell in which the point falls is returned if
no cell center is within the buffer. If y represents polygons, a value is also re-
turned for relatively small polygons (e.g. those smaller than a single cell of the
Raster* object), or polygons with an odd shape, for which otherwise no values
are returned because they do not cover any raster cell centers. In some cases,
you could alternatively use the centroids of such polygons, for example using
extract(x, coordinates(y)) or extract(x, coordinates(y), method=bilinear).
fun function to summarize the values (e.g. mean). The function should take a single
numeric vector as argument and return a single value (e.g. mean, min or max),
and accept a na.rm argument. Thus, standard R functions not including an na.rm
argument must be wrapped as in this example: fun=function(x,...)length(x). If
y represents points, fun is only used when a buffer is used (and hence multiple
values per spatial feature would otherwise be returned).
na.rm logical. Only useful when an argument fun is supplied. If na.rm=TRUE (the
default value), NA values are removed before fun is applied. This argument may
be ignored if the function used has a ... argument and ignores an additional
na.rm argument
cellnumbers logical. If cellnumbers=TRUE, cell-numbers will also be returned (if no fun
argument is supplied, and when extracting values with points, if buffer is NULL)
df logical. If df=TRUE, results will be returned as a data.frame. The rst column is
a sequential ID, the other column(s) are the extracted values.
weights logical. If TRUE, the function returns, for each polygon, a matrix with the cell
values and the approximate fraction of each cell that is covered by the poly-
gon(rounded to 1/100). The weights can be used for averaging; see examples.
This option can be useful (but slow) if the polygons are small relative to the cells
size of the Raster* object.
factors logical. If TRUE, factor values are returned, else their integer representation is
returned
layer integer. First layer for which you want values (if x is a multilayer object)
nl integer. Number of layers for which you want values (if x is a multilayer object)
along boolean. Should returned values be ordered to go along the lines?
sp boolean. Should the extracted values be added to the data.frame of the Spa-
tial* object y? This only applies if y is a Spatial* object and, for SpatialLines
and SpatialPolygons, if fun is not NULL. In this case the returned value is the
expanded Spatial object
... additional arguments (none implemented)
Value
A vector for RasterLayer objects, and a matrix for RasterStack or RasterBrick objects. A list (or a
data.frame if df=TRUE) if y is a SpatialPolygons* or SpatialLines* object or if a buffer argument
78 extract
is used (but not a fun argument). If sp=TRUE and y is a Spatial* object and fun is not NULL a
Spatial* object is returned. The order of the returned values corresponds to the order of object y. If
df=TRUE, this is also indicated in the rst variable (ID).
See Also
getValues, getValuesFocal
Examples
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
###############################
# extract values by cell number
###############################
extract(r, c(1:2, 10, 100))
s <- stack(r, sqrt(r), r/r)
extract(s, c(1, 10, 100), layer=2, n=2)
###############################
# extract values with points
###############################
xy <- cbind(-50, seq(-80, 80, by=20))
extract(r, xy)
sp <- SpatialPoints(xy)
extract(r, sp, method=bilinear)
# examples with a buffer
extract(r, xy[1:3,], buffer=1000000)
extract(r, xy[1:3,], buffer=1000000, fun=mean)
## illustrating the varying size of a buffer (expressed in meters)
## on a longitude/latitude raster
z <- extract(r, xy, buffer=1000000)
s <- raster(r)
for (i in 1:length(z)) { s[z[[i]]] <- i }
## compare with raster that is not longitude/latitude
projection(r) <- "+proj=utm +zone=17"
xy[,1] <- 50
z <- extract(r, xy, buffer=8)
for (i in 1:length(z)) { s[z[[i]]] <- i }
plot(s)
# library(maptools)
# data(wrld_simpl)
# plot(wrld_simpl, add=TRUE)
###############################
# extract values with lines
###############################
Extract by index 79
cds1 <- rbind(c(-50,0), c(0,60), c(40,5), c(15,-45), c(-10,-25))
cds2 <- rbind(c(80,20), c(140,60), c(160,0), c(140,-55))
lines <- SpatialLines(list(Lines(list(Line(cds1)), "1"), Lines(list(Line(cds2)), "2") ))
extract(r, lines)
###############################
# extract values with polygons
###############################
cds1 <- rbind(c(-180,-20), c(-160,5), c(-60, 0), c(-160,-60), c(-180,-20))
cds2 <- rbind(c(80,0), c(100,60), c(120,0), c(120,-55), c(80,0))
polys <- SpatialPolygons(list(Polygons(list(Polygon(cds1)), 1),
Polygons(list(Polygon(cds2)), 2)))
#plot(r)
#plot(polys, add=TRUE)
v <- extract(r, polys)
v
# mean for each polygon
unlist(lapply(v, function(x) if (!is.null(x)) mean(x, na.rm=TRUE) else NA ))
# v <- extract(r, polys, cellnumbers=TRUE)
# weighted mean
# v <- extract(r, polys, weights=TRUE, fun=mean)
# equivalent to:
# v <- extract(r, polys, weights=TRUE)
# sapply(v, function(x) if (!is.null(x)) {sum(apply(x, 1, prod)) / sum(x[,2])} else NA )
###############################
# extract values with an extent
###############################
e <- extent(150,170,-60,-40)
extract(r, e)
#plot(r)
#plot(e, add=T)
Extract by index Indexing to extract values of a Raster* object
Description
These are shorthand methods that call other methods that should normally be used, such as getValues,
extract, crop.
object[i] can be used to access values of a Raster* object, using cell numbers. You can also use
row and column numbers as index, using object[i,j] or object[i,] or object[,j]. In addition
you can supply an Extent, SpatialPolygons, SpatialLines or SpatialPoints object.
80 extremeValues
If drop=TRUE (the default) cell values are returned (a vector for a RasterLayer, a matrix for a Raster-
Stack or RasterBrick). If drop=FALSE a Raster* object is returned that has the extent covering the
requested cells, and with all other non-requested cells within this extent set to NA.
If you supply a RasterLayer, its values will be used as logical (TRUE/FALSE) indices if both Raster
objects have the same extent and resolution; otherwise the cell values within the extent of the
RasterLayer are returned.
Double brackes [[ ]] can be used to extract one or more layers from a multi-layer object.
Methods
x[i]
x[i,j]
Arguments
x a Raster* object
i cell number(s), row number(s), a (logical) RasterLayer, Spatial* object
j column number(s) (only available if i is (are) a row number(s))
drop If TRUE, cell values are returned. Otherwise, a Raster* object is returned
See Also
getValues, setValues, extract, crop, rasterize
Examples
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
r[1]
r[1:10]
r[1,]
r[,1]
r[1:2, 1:2]
s <- stack(r, sqrt(r))
s[1:3]
s[[2]]
extremeValues Minimum and maximum values
Description
Returns the minimum or maximum value of a RasterLayer or layer in a RasterStack
factors 81
Usage
minValue(x, ...)
maxValue(x, ...)
Arguments
x RasterLayer or RasterStack object
... Additional argument: layer number (for RasterStack or RasterBrick objects)
Details
If a Raster* object is created from a le on disk, the min and max values are often not known
(depending on the le format). You can use setMinMax to set them in the Raster* object.
Value
a number
Examples
r <- raster()
r <- setValues(r, 1:ncell(r))
minValue(r)
maxValue(r)
r <- setValues(r, round(100 * runif(ncell(r)) + 0.5))
minValue(r)
maxValue(r)
minValue(r)
maxValue(r)
factors Factors
Description
These functions allow for dening a RasterLayer as a categorical variable. Such a RasterLayer
is linked to other values via a "Raster Attribute Table" (RAT). Thus the cell values are an index,
whereas the actual values of interest are in the RAT. The RAT is a data.frame. The rst column
in the RAT ("ID") has the unique cell values of the layer; this column should normally not be
changed. The other columns can be of any basic type (factor, character, integer, numeric or logical).
The functions documented here are mainly available such that les with a RAT can be read and
processed; currently there is not too much further support. Whether a layer is dened as a factor or
not is currently ignored by almost all functions. An exception is the extract function (when used
with option df=TRUE).
Function levels returns the RAT for inspection. It can be modied and set using levels <- value
(but use caution as it is easy to mess things up).
82 factors
as.factor and ratify create a layer with a RAT table. Function deratify creates a single layer
for a (or each) variable in the RAT table.
Usage
is.factor(x)
as.factor(x)
levels(x)
factorValues(x, v, layer=1, att=NULL, append.names=FALSE)
ratify(x, filename=, count=FALSE, ...)
deratify(x, att=NULL, layer=1, complete=FALSE, drop=TRUE, fun=mean, filename=, ...)
asFactor(x, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
v integer cell values
layer integer > 0 indicating which layer to use (in a RasterStack or RasterBrick)
att numeric or character. Which variable(s) in the RAT table should be used. If
NULL, all variables are extracted. If using a numeric, skip the rst two default
columns
append.names logical. Should names of data.frame returned by a combination of the name of
the layer and the RAT variables? (can be useful for multilayer objects
filename character. Optional
count logical. If TRUE, a columns with frequencies is added
complete logical. If TRUE, the layer returned is no longer a factor
drop logical. If TRUE a factor is converted to a numerical value if possible
fun character. Used to get a single value for each class for a weighted RAT table.
mean, min, max, smallest, or largest
Value
Raster* object; list (levels); boolean (is.factor); matrix (factorValues)
Note
asFactor is deprecated and should not be used
lename 83
Examples
set.seed(0)
is.factor(r)
r <- round(r)
f <- as.factor(r)
is.factor(f)
x <- levels(f)[[1]]
x
x$code <- letters[10:20]
levels(f) <- x
levels(f)
f
r[] = 1
r[51:100] = 2
r[3:6, 1:5] = 3
r <- ratify(r)
rat <- levels(r)[[1]]
rat$landcover <- c(Pine, Oak, Meadow)
rat$code <- c(12,25,30)
levels(r) <- rat
r
# extract values for some cells
i <- extract(r, c(1,2, 25,100))
i
# get the attribute values for these cells
factorValues(r, i)
# write to file:
rr <- writeRaster(r, test.grd, overwrite=TRUE)
rr
# create a single-layer factor
x <- deratify(r, landcover)
x
is.factor(x)
levels(x)
filename Filename
84 lledContour
Description
Get the lename of a Raster* object. You cannot set the lename of an object (except for Raster-
Stack objects); but you can provide a lename= argument to a function that creates a new Raster-
Layer or RasterBrick* object.
Usage
filename(x)
Arguments
x A Raster* object
Value
a Raster* object
Examples
r <- raster( system.file("external/test.grd", package="raster") )
filename(r)
filledContour Filled contour plot
Description
Filled contour plot of a RasterLayer. This is a wrapper around filled.contour for RasterLayer
objects.
Usage
filledContour(x, y=1, maxpixels=100000, ...)
Arguments
x A Raster* object
y Integer. The layer number of x (if x has multiple layers)
maxpixels The maximum number of pixels
... Any argument that can be passed to filled.contour (graphics package)
See Also
filled.contour, persp, plot
ip 85
Examples
filledContour(r)
flip Flip
Description
Flip the values of a Raster* object by inverting the order of the rows (direction=y) or the columns
direction=x.
Usage
flip(x, direction, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
direction Character. y or x; or 1 (=x) or 2 (=y)
Value
RasterLayer or RasterBrick
See Also
transpose: t, rotate
Examples
m <- matrix(1:ncell(r), nrow=18)
r[] <- as.vector(t(m))
rx <- flip(r, direction=x)
r[] <- as.vector(m)
ry <- flip(r, direction=y)
86 owPath
flowPath Flow path
Description
Compute the ow path (drainage path) starting at a given point. See package gdistance for more
path computations.
Usage
flowPath(x, p, ...)
Arguments
x RasterLayer of ow direction (as can be created with terrain
p starting point. Either two numbers: x (longitude) and y (latitude) coordinates;
or a single cell number
Value
numeric (cell numbers)
Author(s)
Ashton Shortridge
Examples
data(volcano)
v <- raster(volcano, xmn=2667400, xmx=2668010, ymn=6478700, ymx=6479570, crs="+init=epsg:27200")
fd <- terrain(v, opt = "flowdir")
path <- flowPath(fd, 2407)
xy <- xyFromCell(fd, path)
plot(v)
lines(xy)
focal 87
focal Focal values
Description
Calculate focal ("moving window") values for the neighborhood of focal cells using a matrix of
weights, perhaps in combination with a function.
Usage
focal(x, w, fun, filename=, na.rm=FALSE, pad=FALSE, padValue=NA, NAonly=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
x RasterLayer
w matrix of weights (the moving window), e.g. a 3 by 3 matrix with values 1;
see Details. The matrix does not need to be square, but the sides must be odd
numbers. If you need even sides, you can add a column or row with weights of
zero
fun function (optional). The function fun should take multiple numbers, and return
a single number. For example mean, modal, min or max. It should also accept a
na.rm argument (or ignore it, e.g. as one of the dots arguments. For example,
length will fail, but function(x, ...){na.omit(length(x))} works.
filename character. Filename for a new raster (optional)
na.rm logical. If TRUE, NA will be removed from focal computations. The result will
only be NA if all focal cells are NA. Except for some special cases (weights of 1,
functions like min, max, mean), using na.rm=TRUE is generally not a good idea
in this function because it will unbalance the effect of the weights
pad logical. If TRUE, additional virtual rows and columns are padded to x such that
there are no edge effects. This can be useful when a function needs to have
access to the central cell of the lter
padValue numeric. The value of the cells of the padded rows and columns
NAonly logical. If TRUE, only cell values that are NA are replaced with the computed
focal values
Details
focal uses a matrix of weights for the neighborhood of the focal cells. The default function is sum.
It is computationally much more efcient to adjust the weights-matrix than to use another function
through the fun argument. Thus while the following two statements are equivalent (if there are no
NA values), the rst one is faster than the second one:
a <- focal(x, w=matrix(1/9, nc=3, nc=3))
88 focal
b <- focal(x, w=matrix(1,3,3), fun=mean)
There is, however, a difference if NA values are considered. One can use the na.rm=TRUE option
which may make sense when using a function like mean. However, the results would be wrong
when using a weights matrix.
Laplacian lter: filter=matrix(c(0,1,0,1,-4,1,0,1,0), nrow=3)
Sobel lter: filter=matrix(c(1,2,1,0,0,0,-1,-2,-1) / 4, nrow=3)
see the focalWeight function to create distance based circular, rectangular, or Gaussian lters.
Value
RasterLayer
See Also
focalWeight
Examples
r <- raster(ncols=36, nrows=18, xmn=0)
r[] <- runif(ncell(r))
# 3x3 mean filter
r3 <- focal(r, w=matrix(1/9,nrow=3,ncol=3))
# 5x5 mean filter
r5 <- focal(r, w=matrix(1/25,nrow=5,ncol=5))
# Gaussian filter
gf <- focalWeight(r, 2, "Gauss")
rg <- focal(r, w=gf)
# The max value for the lower-rigth corner of a 3x3 matrix around a focal cell
f = matrix(c(0,0,0,0,1,1,0,1,1), nrow=3)
f
rm <- focal(r, w=f, fun=max)
# global lon/lat data: no edge effect for the columns
xmin(r) <- -180
r3g <- focal(r, w=matrix(1/9,nrow=3,ncol=3))
## Not run:
## focal can be used to create a cellular automaton
# Conways Game of Life
w <- matrix(c(1,1,1,1,0,1,1,1,1), nr=3,nc=3)
gameOfLife <- function(x) {
f <- focal(x, w=w, pad=TRUE, padValue=0)
# cells with less than two or more than three live neighbours die
x[f<2 | f>3] <- 0
# cells with three live neighbours become alive
focalWeight 89
x[f==3] <- 1
x
}
# simulation function
sim <- function(x, fun, n=100, pause=0.25) {
for (i in 1:n) {
x <- fun(x)
plot(x, legend=FALSE, asp=NA, main=i)
dev.flush()
Sys.sleep(pause)
}
invisible(x)
}
# Gosper glider gun
m <- matrix(0, nc=48, nr=34)
m[c(40, 41, 74, 75, 380, 381, 382, 413, 417, 446, 452, 480,
486, 517, 549, 553, 584, 585, 586, 619, 718, 719, 720, 752,
753, 754, 785, 789, 852, 853, 857, 858, 1194, 1195, 1228, 1229)] <- 1
init <- raster(m)
# run the model
sim(init, gameOfLife, n=150, pause=0.05)
## End(Not run)
focalWeight Focal weights matrix
Description
Calculate focal ("moving window") weight matrix for use in the focal function. The sum of the
values adds up to one.
Usage
focalWeight(x, d, type=c(circle, Gauss, rectangle))
Arguments
x Raster* object
d numeric. If type=circle, the radius of the circle (in units of the CRS). If
type=rectangle the dimension of the rectangle (one or two numbers). If type=Gauss
the size of sigma, and optionally another number to determine the size of the
matrix returned (default is 3 times sigma)
type character indicating the type of lter to be returned
90 freq
Value
matrix that can be used in focal
Examples
r <- raster(ncols=36, nrows=18, xmn=0)
# Gaussian filter for square cells
gf <- focalWeight(r, 2, "Gauss")
freq Frequency table
Description
Frequency table of the values of a RasterLayer.
Usage
freq(x, digits=0, value=NULL, useNA=ifany, progress=, ...)
freq(x, digits=0, value=NULL, useNA=ifany, merge=FALSE, progress=, ...)
Arguments
x RasterLayer
digits non-negative integer for rounding the cell values. Argument is passed to round
value numeric, logical or NA. An optional single value to only count the number of
cells with that value
useNA character. What to do with NA values? Options are "no", "ifany", "always". See
to table
progress character to specify a progress bar. Choose from text, window, or (the
default, no progress bar)
merge logical. If TRUE the list will be merged into a single data.frame
Value
matrix (RasterLayer). List of matrices (one for each layer) or data.frame (if merge=TRUE) (Raster-
Stack or RasterBrick)
See Also
crosstab and zonal
Gain and offset 91
Examples
r[1:5] <- NA
r <- r * r * r * 5
freq(r)
freq(r, value=2)
s <- stack(r, r*2, r*3)
freq(s, merge=TRUE)
Gain and offset Gain and offset of values on le
Description
These functions can be used to get or set the gain and offset parameters used to transform values
when reading them from a le. The gain and offset parameters are applied to the raw values using
the formula below:
value <- value * gain + offset
The default value for gain is 1 and for offset is 0. gain is sometimes referred to as scale.
Note that setting gain and/or offset are intended to be used with values that are stored in a le. For
a Raster* object with values in memory, assigning gain or offset values will lead to the inmediate
computation of new values; in such cases it would be clearer to use Arith-methods.
Usage
gain(x)
gain(x) <- value
offs(x)
offs(x) <- value
Arguments
x Raster* object
value Single numeric value
Value
Raster* object or numeric value(s)
92 getData
Examples
gain(r)
offs(r)
r[1505:1510]
gain(r) <- 10
offs(r) <- 5
r[1505:1510]
getData Get geographic data
Description
Get geographic data for anywhere in the world. Data are read from les that are rst downloaded if
necessary.
Usage
getData(name, download=TRUE, path=, ...)
Arguments
name Data set name, currently supported are GADM, countries, SRTM, alt, and
worldclim. See Details for more info
download Logical. If TRUE data will be downloaded if not locally available
path Character. Path name indicating where to store the data. Default is the current
working directory
... Additional required (!) parameters. These are data set specic. See Details
Details
alt stands for altitude (elevation); the data were aggregated from SRTM 90 m resolution data be-
tween -60 and 60 latitude. GADM is a database of global administrative boundaries. worldclim
is a database of global interpolated climate data. SRTM refers to the hole-lled CGIAR-SRTM(90
m resolution). countries has polygons for all countries at a higher resolution than the wrld_simpl
data in the maptools pacakge .
If name is alt or GADM you must provide a country= argument. Countries are specied by
their 3 letter ISO codes. Use getData(ISO3) to see these codes. In the case of GADM you must
also provide the level of administrative subdivision (0=country, 1=rst level subdivision). In the
case of alt you can set mask to FALSE. If it is TRUE values for neighbouring countries are set to
NA. For example:
getData(GADM, country=FRA, level=1)
getData(alt, country=FRA, mask=TRUE)
getValues 93
If name is SRTM you must provide lon and lat arguments (longitude and latitude). These
should be single numbers somewhere within the SRTM tile that you want.
getData(SRTM, lon=5, lat=45)
If name=worldclim you must also provide a variable name var=, and a resolution res=. Valid
variables names are tmin, tmax, prec and bio. Valid resolutions are 0.5, 2.5, 5, and 10 (min-
utes of a degree). In the case of res=0.5, you must also provide a lon and lat argument for a tile; for
the lower resolutions global data will be downloaded. In all cases there are 12 (monthly) les for
each variable except for bio which contains 19 les.
getData(worldclim, var=tmin, res=0.5, lon=5, lat=45)
getData(worldclim, var=bio, res=10)
Value
A spatial object (Raster* or Spatial*)
References
http://www.worldclim.org
http://www.gadm.org
http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/
http://diva-gis.org/gdata
getValues Get raster cell values
Description
getValues returns all values or the values for a number of rows of a Raster* object. Values returned
for a RasterLayer are a vector. The values returned for a RasterStack or RasterBrick are always a
matrix, with the rows representing cells, and the columns representing layers
values is a shorthand version of getValues (for all rows).
Usage
getValues(x, row, nrows, ...)
values(x, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
row Numeric. Row number, should be between 1 and nrow(x), or missing in which
case all values are returned
nrows Numeric. Number of rows. Should be an integer > 0, or missing
... Additional arguments. When x is a RasterLayer: format to speciy the output
format. Either "matrix" or, the default "", in which case a vector is returned
94 getValuesBlock
Value
vector or matrix of raster values
See Also
getValuesBlock, getValuesFocal, setValues
Examples
r
v <- getValues(r)
length(v)
head(v)
getValues(r, row=10)
getValuesBlock Get a block of raster cell values
Description
getValuesBlock returns values for a block (rectangular area) of values of a Raster* object.
Usage
getValuesBlock(x, row=1, nrows=1, col=1, ncols=(ncol(x)-col+1), format=)
getValuesBlock(x, row=1, nrows=1, col=1, ncols=(ncol(x)-col+1), lyrs)
getValuesBlock(x, row=1, nrows=1, col=1, ncols=(ncol(x)-col+1), lyrs)
Arguments
x Raster* object
row positive integer. Row number to start from, should be between 1 and nrow(x)
nrows postive integer. How many rows? Default is 1
col postive integer. Column number to start from, should be between 1 and ncol(x)
ncols postive integer. How many columns? Default is the number of colums left after
the start column
format character. If format=matrix, a matrix is returned instead of a vector
lyrs integer (vector). Which layers? Default is all layers (1:nlayers(x))
getValuesFocal 95
Value
matrix or vector (if (x=RasterLayer), unless format=matrix)
See Also
getValues
Examples
b <- getValuesBlock(r, row=100, nrows=3, col=10, ncols=5)
b
b <- matrix(b, nrow=3, ncol=5, byrow=TRUE)
b
logo <- brick(system.file("external/rlogo.grd", package="raster"))
getValuesBlock(logo, row=35, nrows=3, col=50, ncols=3, lyrs=2:3)
getValuesFocal Get focal raster cell values
Description
This function returns a matrix (or matrices) for all focal values of a number of rows of a Raster*
object
Usage
getValuesFocal(x, row, nrows, ngb, names=FALSE, padValue=NA, array=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
row Numeric. Row number, should be between 1 and nrow(x). Can be omitted to
get all rows
nrows Numeric. Number of rows, should be a positive integer smaller than row+nrow(x).
Should be omitted if row is omitted
ngb Neighbourhood size. Either a single integer or a vector of two integers c(nrow, ncol)
names logical. If TRUE, the matrix returned has row and column names
padValue numeric. The value of the cells of the "padded" rows and columns. That is
virtual values for cells within a neighbourhood, but outside the raster
array logical. If TRUE and x has multiple layers, an array is returned in stead of a list
of matrices
96 gridDistance
Value
If x has a single layer, a matrix with one row for each focal cell, and one column for each neigh-
bourhood cell around it.
If x has multiple layers, an array (if array=TRUE) or a list of such matrices (one list element (matrix)
for each layer)
See Also
getValues, focal
Examples
r <- raster(nr=5, nc=5, crs=+proj=utm +zone=12)
r[] <- 1:25
as.matrix(r)
getValuesFocal(r, row=1, nrows=2, ngb=3, names=TRUE)
getValuesFocal(stack(r,r), row=1, nrows=1, ngb=3, names=TRUE, array=TRUE)
gridDistance Distance on a grid
Description
The function calculates the distance to cells of a RasterLayer when the path has to go through the
centers of neighboring raster cells (currently only implemented as a queen case in which cells
have 8 neighbors).
The distance is in meters if the coordinate reference system (CRS) of the RasterLayer is longi-
tude/latitude (+proj=longlat) and in the units of the CRS (typically meters) in other cases.
Distances are computed by summing local distances between cells, which are connected with their
neighbours in 8 directions.
Usage
gridDistance(x, origin, omit=NULL, filename="", ...)
Arguments
x RasterLayer
origin value(s) of the cells from which the distance is calculated
omit value(s) of the cells which cannot be traversed (optional)
filename character. output lename (optional)
hdr 97
Details
If the RasterLayer to be processed is big, it will be processed in chunks. This may lead to errors in
the case of complex objects spread over different chunks (meandering rivers, for instance). You can
try to solve these issues by varying the chunk size, see function setOptions().
Value
RasterLayer
Author(s)
Jacob van Etten and Robert J. Hijmans
See Also
See distance for as the crow ies distance. Additional distance measures and options (directions,
cost-distance) are available in the gdistance package.
Examples
#world lon/lat raster
r[] <- 1
r[48] <- 2
r[66:68] <- 3
d <- gridDistance(r,origin=2,omit=3)
plot(d)
#UTM small area
projection(r) <- "+proj=utm +zone=15 +ellps=GRS80 +datum=NAD83 +units=m +no_defs"
d <- gridDistance(r,origin=2,omit=3)
plot(d)
hdr Header les
Description
Write header les to use together with raster binary les to read the data in other applications.
Usage
hdr(x, format, extension=.wld)
98 head
Arguments
x RasterLayer or RasterBrick object associated with a binary values le on disk
format Type of header le: VRT, BIL, ENVI, ErdasRaw, IDRISI, SAGA,
RASTER, WORLDFILE, PRJ
extension File extension, only used with an ESRI worldle (format=WORLDFILE)
Details
The RasterLayer object must be associated with a le on disk.
You can use writeRaster to save a existing le in another format. But if you have a le in a
raster format (or similar), you can also only export a header le, and use the data le (.gri) that
already exists. The function can write a VRT (GDAL virtual raster) header (.vrt); an ENVI or
BIL header (.hdr) le; an Erdas Raw (.raw) header le; an IDRISI (.rdc) or SAGA (.sgrd). This
(hopefully) allows for reading the binary data (.gri), perhaps after changing the le extension, in
other programs such as ENVI or ArcGIS.
See Also
writeRaster, writeGDAL
Examples
r <- writeRaster(r, filename=export.grd, overwrite=TRUE)
hdr(r, format="ENVI")
head Show the head or tail of a Raster* object
Description
Show the head (rst rows/columns) or tail (last rows/columns) of the cell values of a Raster* object.
Usage
head(x, ...)
tail(x, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
... Additional arguments: rows=10 and cols=20, to set the maximum number of
rows and columns that are shown. For RasterStack and RasterBrick objects there
is an additional argument lyrs
hillShade 99
Value
matrix
See Also
getValuesBlock
Examples
r[] = 1:ncell(r)
head(r)
tail(r, cols=10, rows=5)
hillShade Hill shading
Description
Compute hill shade from slope and aspect layers (both in radians). Slope and aspect can be com-
puted with function terrain.
A hill shade layer is often used as a backdrop on top of which another, semi-transparent, layer is
drawn.
Usage
hillShade(slope, aspect, angle=45, direction=0, filename=, normalize=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
slope RasterLayer object with slope values (in radians)
aspect RasterLayer object with aspect values (in radians)
angle The the elevation angle of the light source (sun), in degrees
direction The direction (azimuth) angle of the light source (sun), in degrees
filename Character. Optional lename
normalize Logical. If TRUE, values below zero are set to zero and the results are multiplied
with 255
... Standard additional arguments for writing RasterLayer les
Author(s)
Andrew Bevan, Robert J. Hijmans
References
Horn, B.K.P., 1981. Hill shading and the reectance map. Proceedings of the IEEE 69(1):14-47
100 hist
See Also
terrain
Examples
## Not run:
alt <- getData(alt, country=CHE)
slope <- terrain(alt, opt=slope)
aspect <- terrain(alt, opt=aspect)
hill <- hillShade(slope, aspect, 40, 270)
plot(hill, col=grey(0:100/100), legend=FALSE, main=Switzerland)
plot(alt, col=rainbow(25, alpha=0.35), add=TRUE)
## End(Not run)
hist Histogram
Description
Create a histogram of the values of a RasterLayer. For large datasets a sample is used.
Usage
hist(x, layer, maxpixels=100000, plot=TRUE, main, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
layer integer (or character) to indicate layer number (or name). Can be used to subset
the layers to plot in a multilayer Raster* object
maxpixels integer. To regularly subsample very large objects
plot logical. Plot the histogram or only return the histogram values
main character. Main title(s) for the plot. Default is the value of names
... Additional arguments. See under Methods and at hist
Value
This function is principally used for the side-effect of plotting a histogram, but it also returns an S3
object of class histogram (invisibly if plot=TRUE).
See Also
pairs, boxplot
image 101
Examples
r1 <- raster(nrows=50, ncols=50)
rs <- r1 + r2
rp <- r1 * r2
par(mfrow=c(2,2))
plot(rs, main=sum)
plot(rp, main=product)
hist(rs)
a = hist(rp)
a
image Image
Description
Create an "image" type plot of a RasterLayer. This is an implementation of a generic function in
the graphics package. In most cases the plot function would be preferable because it produces a
legend (and has some additional options).
Usage
image(x, ...)
image(x, maxpixels=500000, useRaster=TRUE, ...)
image(x, y=1, maxpixels=100000, useRaster=TRUE, main, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
sampleRegular is used before plotting
useRaster If TRUE, the rasterImage function is used for plotting. Otherwise the image func-
tion is used. This can be useful if rasterImage does not work well on your system
(see note)
main character. Main plot title
... Any argument that can be passed to image (graphics package)
y If x is a RasterStack or RasterBrick: integer, character (layer name(s)), or miss-
ing to select which layer(s) to plot
102 inile
Note
raster uses rasterImage from the graphics package. For unknown reasons this does not work
on Windows Server and on a few versions of Windows XP. On that system you may need to use
argument useRaster=FALSE to get a plot.
See Also
plot, image, contour
Examples
image(r)
inifile Read a .ini le
Description
This function reads .ini les. These are text le databases that are organized in [sections]
containing pairs of "name = value".
Usage
readIniFile(filename, token==, commenttoken=;, aslist=FALSE, case)
Arguments
filename Character. Filename of the .ini le
token Character. The character that separates the "name" (variable name) from the
"value"
commenttoken Character. This token and everything that follows on the same line is considered
a comment that is not for machine consumption and is ignored in processing
aslist Logical. Should the values be returned as a list
case Optional. Function that operates on the text, such as toupper or tolower
Details
This function allows for using inistrings that have "=" as part of a value (but the token cannot be
part of the name of a variable!). Sections can be missing.
Value
A n*3 matrix of characters with columns: section, name, value; or a list if aslist=TRUE.
initialize 103
initialize Intitialize
Description
Create a new RasterLayer with values reecting a cell property: v from x, y, col, row, or
cell. Alternatively, a function can be used. In that case, cell values are initialized without refer-
ence to pre-existing values. E.g., initialize with a random number (fun=runif). Either supply an
argument to fun, or to v, but not both.
Usage
init(x, fun, v, filename="", ...)
Arguments
x A Raster* object
fun The function to be applied. This must be a function that can take the number of
cells as a single argument to return a vector of values with a length equal to the
number of cells
v x, y, row, col, or cell
filename Output lename
Value
RasterLayer
Examples
x <- init(r, v=cell)
y <- init(r, fun=runif)
# there are different ways to set all values to 1
# for large rasters:
set1f <- function(x){rep(1, x)}
z1 <- init(r, fun=set1f, filename=test.grd, overwrite=TRUE)
# equivalent to
z2 <- setValues(r, rep(1, ncell(r)))
# or
r[] <- rep(1, ncell(r))
# or
r[] <- 1
104 interpolate
interpolate Interpolate
Description
Make a RasterLayer with interpolated values using a tted model object of classes such as gstat
(gstat package) or Krige (elds pacakge). That is, these are models that have location (x and
y, or longitude and latitude) as independent variables. If x and y are the only independent
variables provide an empty (no associated data in memory or on le) RasterLayer for which you
want predictions. If there are more spatial predictor variables provide these as a Raster* object in
the rst argument of the function. If you do not have x and y locations as implicit predictors in your
model you should use predict instead.
Usage
interpolate(object, model, filename="", fun=predict, xyOnly=TRUE,
xyNames=c(x, y), ext=NULL, const=NULL, index=1, na.rm=TRUE, debug.level=1, ...)
Arguments
model model object
fun function. Default value is predict, but can be replaced with e.g. predict.se
(depending on the class of the model object)
xyOnly logical. If TRUE, values of the Raster* object are not considered as co-variables;
and only x and y (longitude and latitude) are used. This should match the model
xyNames character. variable names that the model uses for the spatial coordinates. E.g.,
c(longitude, latitude)
ext Extent object to limit the prediction to a sub-region of x
const data.frame. Can be used to add a constant for which there is no Raster object for
model predictions. This is particulary useful if the constant is a character-like
factor value
index integer. To select the column if predict.model returns a matrix with multiple
columns
na.rm logical. Remove cells with NA values in the predictors before solving the model
(and return NA for those cells). In most cases this will not affect the output. This
option prevents errors with models that cannot handle NA values
debug.level for gstat models only. See ?
... additional arguments passed to the predict.model function
Value
Raster* object
interpolate 105
See Also
predict, predict.gstat, Tps
Examples
## Not run:
## Thin plate spline interpolation with x and y only
library(fields)
ra <- aggregate(r, 10)
xy <- data.frame(xyFromCell(ra, 1:ncell(ra)))
v <- getValues(ra)
tps <- Tps(xy, v)
p <- raster(r)
p <- interpolate(p, tps)
p <- mask(p, r)
plot(p)
se <- interpolate(p, tps, fun=predict.se)
se <- mask(se, r)
plot(se)
## gstat examples
library(gstat)
data(meuse)
## inverse distance weighted (IDW)
data(meuse)
mg <- gstat(id = "zinc", formula = zinc~1, locations = ~x+y, data=meuse,
nmax=7, set=list(idp = .5))
z <- interpolate(r, mg)
z <- mask(z, r)
## kriging
coordinates(meuse) <- ~x+y
projection(meuse) <- projection(r)
## ordinary kriging
v <- variogram(log(zinc)~1, meuse)
m <- fit.variogram(v, vgm(1, "Sph", 300, 1))
gOK <- gstat(NULL, "log.zinc", log(zinc)~1, meuse, model=m)
OK <- interpolate(r, gOK)
# examples below provided by Maurizio Marchi
## universial kriging
vu <- variogram(log(zinc)~elev, meuse)
mu <- fit.variogram(vu, vgm(1, "Sph", 300, 1))
gUK <- gstat(NULL, "log.zinc", log(zinc)~elev, meuse, model=mu)
names(r) <- elev
UK <- interpolate(r, gUK, xyOnly=FALSE)
106 intersect
## co-kriging
gCoK <- gstat(NULL, log.zinc, log(zinc)~1, meuse)
gCoK <- gstat(gCoK, elev, elev~1, meuse)
gCoK <- gstat(gCoK, cadmium, cadmium~1, meuse)
gCoK <- gstat(gCoK, copper, copper~1, meuse)
coV <- variogram(gCoK)
plot(coV, type=b, main=Co-variogram)
coV.fit <- fit.lmc(coV, gCoK, vgm(model=Sph, range=1000))
coV.fit
plot(coV, coV.fit, main=Fitted Co-variogram)
coK <- interpolate(r, coV.fit)
plot(coK)
## End(Not run)
intersect Intersect
Description
Extent objects: Returns the intersection, i.e. the area of overlap of two Extent objects. The second
argument can also be any argument from which an Extent object can be extracted.
If the rst object is a Raster* object: this function is equivalent to crop.
SpatialPolygons* objects: Only the overlapping areas (if any) are returned. For SpatialPolygon-
DataFrame objects, the data.frames are also merged.
SpatialPoints* objects: Only the points that overlap with the extent of object y are returned.
Usage
## S4 method for signature Extent,ANY
intersect(x, y)
## S4 method for signature Raster,ANY
intersect(x, y)
intersect(x, y)
## S4 method for signature SpatialPoints,ANY
intersect(x, y)
Arguments
x Extent, Raster*, SpatialPolygons* or SpatialPoints* object
y same as x. Except when x is a Raster* or SpatialPoints* object, this should be
an Extent object, or any object from which an Extent can be extracted
isLonLat 107
Value
Extent, Raster*, or SpatialPolygons object
See Also
union, extent, crop
Examples
e1 <- extent(-10, 10, -20, 20)
e2 <- extent(0, 20, -40, 5)
intersect(e1, e2)
#SpatialPolygons
i <- intersect(p, b)
plot(p)
plot(b, add=TRUE, col=red)
plot(i, add=TRUE, col=blue, lwd=2)
}
isLonLat Is this longitude/latitude data?
Description
Test whether a Raster* or other object has a longitude/latitude coordinate reference system.
Usage
isLonLat(x)
Arguments
x Raster* object
Value
Logical
Examples
r <- raster()
isLonLat(r)
projection(r) <- "+proj=lcc +lat_1=48 +lat_2=33 +lon_0=-100 +ellps=WGS84"
isLonLat(r)
108 KML
KML Write a KML or KMZ le
Description
Export raster data to a KML le and an accompanying PNG image le. Multi-layer objects can be
used to create an animation. The function attempts to combine these into a single (and hence more
convenient) KMZ le (a zip le containing the KML and PNG les).
See package plotKML for more advanced functionality
Usage
KML(x, filename, col=rev(terrain.colors(255)),
colNA=NA, maxpixels=100000, blur=1, zip=, overwrite=FALSE, ...)
KML(x, filename, time=NULL, col=rev(terrain.colors(255)),
colNA=NA, maxpixels=100000, blur=1, zip=, overwrite=FALSE, ...)
KML(x, filename, zip=, overwrite=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
filename output lename
time character vector with time lables for multilayer objects. The length of this vector
should be nlayers(x) to indicate "when" or nlayers(x)+1 to indicate "begin-end"
col color scheme to be used (see image)
colNA The color to use for the background (default is transparent)
maxpixels maximum number of pixels. If ncell(raster) > maxpixels, sampleRegular is used
to reduce the number of pixels
blur Integer (default=1). Higher values help avoid blurring of isolated pixels (at the
expense of a png le that is blur^2 times larger)
zip If there is no zip program on your path (on windows), you can supply the full
path to a zip.exe here, in order to make a KMZ le
overwrite logical. If TRUE, overwrite the le if it exists
... If x is a Raster* object, additional arguments that can be passed to image
Value
None. Used for the side-effect les written to disk.
layerize 109
Author(s)
This function was adapted for the raster package by Robert J. Hijmans, with ideas from Tony Fis-
chbach, and based on functions in the maptools package by Duncan Golicher, David Forrest and
Roger Bivand.
Examples
## Not run:
# Meuse data from the sp package
data(meuse.grid)
b <- rasterFromXYZ(meuse.grid)
projection(b) <- "+init=epsg:28992"
# transform to longitude/latitude
p <- projectRaster(b, crs="+proj=longlat +datum=WGS84", method=ngb)
KML(p, file=meuse.kml)
## End(Not run)
layerize Layerize
Description
Create a RasterBrick with a Boolean layer for each class (value, or subset of the values) in a Raster-
Layer. For example, if the cell values of a RasterLayer indicate what vegetation type they are, this
function will create a layer (presence/absence; dummy variable) for each of these classes. Classes
and cell values are always truncated to integers.
You can supply a second spatially overlapping RasterLayer with larger cells (do not use smaller
cells!). In this case the cell values are counts for each class. A similar result might be obtained
more efciently by using layerize with a single RasterLayer followed by aggregate(x, , sum).
Usage
## S4 method for signature RasterLayer,missing
layerize(x, classes=NULL, falseNA=FALSE, filename=, ...)
layerize(x, y, classes=NULL, filename=, ...)
Arguments
x RasterLayer
y RasterLayer or missing
classes numeric. The values (classes) for which layers should be made. If NULL all
classes are used
falseNA logical. If TRUE, cells that are not of the class represented by a layer are NA rather
then FALSE
110 layerStats
Value
RasterBrick
Examples
r[] <- round(runif(ncell(r))*5)
r[1:5] <- NA
b <- layerize(r)
b2 <- layerize(r, r2)
layerStats Correlation and (weighted) covariance
Description
Compute correlation and (weighted) covariance for multi-layer Raster objects. Like cellStats this
function returns a few values, not a Raster* object (see Summary-methods for that).
Usage
layerStats(x, stat, w, asSample=TRUE, na.rm=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
x RasterStack or RasterBrick for which to compute a statistic
stat Character. The statistic to compute: either cov (covariance), weighted.cov
(weighted covariance), or pearson (correlation coefcient)
w RasterLayer with the weights (should have the same extent, resolution and num-
ber of layers as x) to compute the weighted covariance
asSample Logical. If TRUE, the statistic for a sample (denominator is n-1) is computed,
rather than for the population (denominator is n)
na.rm Logical. Should missing values be removed?
... Additional arguments (none implemetned)
Value
List with two items: the correlation or (weighted) covariance matrix, and the (weighted) means.
Logic-methods 111
Author(s)
Jonathan A. Greenberg & Robert Hijmans. Weighted covariance based on code by Mort Canty
References
For the weighted covariance:
Canty, M.J. and A.A. Nielsen, 2008. Automatic radiometric normalization of multitemporal
satellite imagery with the iteratively re-weighted MAD transformation. Remote Sensing of
Environment 112:1025-1036.
Nielsen, A.A., 2007. The regularized iteratively reweighted MAD method for change detec-
tion in multi- and hyperspectral data. IEEE Transactions on Image Processing 16(2):463-478.
See Also
cellStats, cov.wt, weighted.mean
Examples
layerStats(b, pearson)
layerStats(b, cov)
# weigh by column number
w <- init(b, v=col)
layerStats(b, weighted.cov, w=w)
Logic-methods Logical operators and functions
Description
The following logical (boolean) operators are available for computations with RasterLayer objects:
&, |, and !
The following functions are available with a Raster* argument:
is.na, is.nan, is.finite, is.infinite
Value
A Raster object with logical (TRUE/FALSE values)
Note
These are convenient operators/functions that are most usful for relatively small RasterLayers for
which all the values can be held in memory. If the values of the output RasterLayer cannot be held
in memory, they will be saved to a temporary le. In that case it could be more efcient to use calc
instead.
112 mask
See Also
Math-methods, overlay, calc
Examples
r1 <- r < 3 | r > 6
r2 <- !r1
r3 <- r >= 3 & r <= 6
r4 <- r2 == r3
r[r>3] <- NA
r5 <- is.na(r)
r[1:5]
r1[1:5]
r2[1:5]
r3[1:5]
mask Mask values in a Raster object
Description
Create a new Raster* object that has the same values as x, except for the cells that are NA (or other
maskvalue) in a mask. These cells become NA (or other updatevalue). The mask can be either
another Raster* object of the same extent and resolution, or a Spatial* object (e.g. SpatialPolygons)
in which case all cells that are not covered by the Spatial object are set to updatevalue. You can
use inverse=TRUE to set the cells that are not NA (or other maskvalue) in the mask, or not covered
by the Spatial* object, to NA (or other updatvalue).
Usage
mask(x, mask, filename="", inverse=FALSE, maskvalue=NA, updatevalue=NA, ...)
## S4 method for signature RasterStackBrick,RasterLayer
## S4 method for signature RasterLayer,RasterStackBrick
## S4 method for signature RasterStackBrick,RasterStackBrick
## S4 method for signature Raster,Spatial
mask(x, mask, filename="", inverse=FALSE, updatevalue=NA, ...)
match 113
Arguments
x Raster* object
mask Raster* object or a Spatial* object
inverse logical. If TRUE, areas on mask that are _not_ NA are masked. This option is only
relevant if ]codemaskvalue=NA
maskvalue numeric. The value in mask that indicates the cells of x that should become
maskvalue (default = NA)
updatevalue numeric. The value that cells of x should become if they are not covered by
mask (and not NA)
filename character. Optional output lename
... additional arguments as in writeRaster
Value
Raster* object
See Also
rasterize, crop
Examples
m <- raster(ncol=10, nrow=10)
m[] <- runif(ncell(r))
m[m < 0.5] <- NA
mr <- mask(r, m)
m2 <- m > .7
mr2 <- mask(r, m2, maskvalue=TRUE)
match Value matching for Raster* objects
Description
match returns a Raster* object with the position of the matched values. The cell values are the index
of the table argument.
%in% returns a logical Raster* object indicating if the cells values were matched or not.
Usage
match(x, table, nomatch = NA_integer_, incomparables = NULL)
x %in% table
114 Math-methods
Arguments
x Raster* object
table vector of the values to be matched against
nomatch the value to be returned in the case when no match is found. Note that it is
coerced to integer
incomparables a vector of values that cannot be matched. Any value in x matching a value
in this vector is assigned the nomatch value. For historical reasons, FALSE is
equivalent to NULL
Value
Raster* obeject
See Also
calc, match
Examples
r[] <- 1:100
m <- match(r, c(5:10, 50:55))
n <- r %in% c(5:10, 50:55)
Math-methods Mathematical functions
Description
Generic mathematical functions that can be used with a Raster* object as argument:
"abs", "sign", "sqrt", "ceiling", "floor", "trunc", "cummax", "cummin",
"cumprod", "cumsum", "log", "log10", "log2", "log1p", "acos", "acosh", "asin",
"asinh", "atan", "atanh", "exp", "expm1", "cos", "cosh", "sin", "sinh", "tan", "tanh".
Note
You can use the, somewhat more exible, function calc instead of the Math-methods.
See Also
Arith-methods, calc, overlay, atan2
merge 115
Examples
r1 <- setValues(r1, runif(ncell(r1)) * 10)
r2 <- sqrt(r1)
s <- stack(r1, r2) - 5
b <- abs(s)
merge Merge Raster* objects
Description
Merge Raster* objects to form a new Raster object with a larger spatial extent. If objects overlap,
the values get priority in the same order as the arguments, but NA values are ignored (except when
overlap=FALSE)
Usage
merge(x, y, ..., tolerance=0.05, filename="", overlap=TRUE, ext=NULL)
merge(x, ..., tolerance=0.05, filename="", ext=NULL)
## S4 method for signature Extent,ANY
merge(x, y, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* or Extent object
y Raster* if x is a Raster* object (or missing). If x is an Extent, y can be an Extent
or object from which an Extent can be extracted
... additional Raster or Extent objects (and/or arguments for writing les as in
writeRaster)
tolerance numeric. permissible difference in origin (relative to the cell resolution). See
all.equal
overlap logical. If FALSE values of overlapping objects are based on the rst layer, even
if they are NA
ext Extent object (optional) to limit the output to that extent
Details
The Raster objects must have the same origin and resolution. In areas where the Raster objects
overlap, the values of the Raster object that is rst in the sequence of arguments will be retained.
If you would rather use the average of cell values, or do another computation, you can use mosaic
instead of merge.
116 metadata
Value
Examples
r1 <- raster(xmx=-150, ymn=60, ncols=30, nrows=30)
r1[] <- 1:ncell(r1)
r2 <- raster(xmn=-100, xmx=-50, ymx=50, ymn=30)
res(r2) <- c(xres(r1), yres(r1))
r2[] <- 1:ncell(r2)
rm <- merge(r1, r2)
# if you have many RasterLayer objects in a list
# you can use do.call:
x <- list(r1, r2)
# add arguments such as filename
# x$filename <- test.tif
m <- do.call(merge, x)
metadata Metadata
Description
Get or set a metadata to a Raster object
Usage
metadata(x)
metadata(x) <- value
Arguments
x Raster* object
value list with named elements. Each element may be another list of named elements
(but these nested lists are not allowed to be lists themselves)
Value
Raster* object or list
Note
The matadata can contain single values or vectors of basic data types (character, integer, numeric)
and Date. Some other types may also be supported. You cannot use a matrix or data.frame as a
meta-data element.
modal 117
Examples
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
m <- list(wave=list(a=1, b=2, c=c(cool, important)), that=list(red=44, blue=1:5,
days=as.Date(c(2014-1-15,2014-2-15))), this=888 miles from here, today=NA)
metadata(r) <- m
x <- writeRaster(r, test.grd, overwrite=TRUE)
metax <- metadata(x)
identical(metax, m)
## Not run:
# nested too deep
badmeta1 <- list(wave=list(a=1, b=2, c=x), that=list(red=4, blue=list(bad=5)))
metadata(r) <- badmeta1
# missing names
badmeta2 <- list(wave=list(1, 2, c=x), that=list(red=44, blue=14), this=8m)
# matrix not allowed
badmeta3 <- list(wave=list(a=1, b=matrix(1:4, ncol=2), c=x), that=list(red=4))
## End(Not run)
modal modal value
Description
Compute the mode for a vector of numbers, or across raster layers. The mode, or modal value, is
the most frequent value in a set of values.
Usage
modal(x, ..., ties=random, na.rm=FALSE, freq=FALSE)
modal(x, ..., ties=random, na.rm=FALSE, freq=FALSE)
Arguments
x vector of numbers (typically integers for modal), or a Raster* object
... additional (vectors of) numbers, or additional Raster* objects
118 mosaic
ties character. Indicates how to treat ties. Either random, lowest, highest, or
NA
na.rm remove (ignore) NA values
freq return the frequency of the modal value, instead of the modal value
Value
vector or RasterLayer
Examples
data <- c(0,1,2,3,3,3,3,4,4,4,5,5,6,7,7,8,9,NA)
modal(data, na.rm=TRUE)
mosaic Merge Raster* objects using a function for overlapping areas
Description
Mosaic Raster* objects to form a new object with a larger spatial extent. A function is used to
compute cell values in areas where layers overlap (in contrast to the merge function which uses
the values of the upper layer). All objects must have the same origin, resolution, and coordinate
reference system.
Usage
mosaic(x, y, ..., fun, tolerance=0.05, filename="")
Arguments
x Raster* object
y Raster* object
... Additional Raster or Extent objects (and/or arguments for writing les as in
writeRaster)
fun Function. E.g. mean, min, or max. Must be a function that accepts a na.rm
argument
tolerance Numeric. permissible difference in origin (relative to the cell resolution). See
all.equal
Details
The Raster objects must have the same origin and resolution.
movingFun 119
Value
RasterLayer or RasterBrick object.
See Also
merge, extend
Examples
r1 <- crop(r, extent(-10, 11, -10, 11))
r2 <- crop(r, extent(0, 20, 0, 20))
r3 <- crop(r, extent(9, 30, 9, 30))
r1[] <- 1:ncell(r1)
r2[] <- 1:ncell(r2)
r3[] <- 1:ncell(r3)
m1 <- mosaic(r1, r2, r3, fun=mean)
s1 <- stack(r1, r1*2)
s2 <- stack(r2, r2/2)
s3 <- stack(r3, r3*4)
m2 <- mosaic(s1, s2, s3, fun=min)
movingFun Moving functions
Description
Helper function to compute moving functions, such as the moving average
Usage
movingFun(x, n, fun=mean, type=around, circular=FALSE, na.rm=FALSE)
Arguments
x A vector of numbers
n Size of the window, i.e. the number of sequential elements to use in the func-
tion
fun A function like mean, min, max, sum
type Character. One of around, to, or from. The choice indicates which values
should be used in the computation. The focal element is always used. If type
is around, the other elements are before and after the focal element. Alterna-
tively, you can select the elements preceding the focal element (to) or those
120 names
coming after it from. For example, to compute the movingFun with n=3 for
element 5 of a vector; around used elements 4,5,6; to used elements 3,4,5,
and from uses elements 5,6,7
circular Logical. If TRUE, the data are considered to have a circular nature (e.g. months
of the year), and the last elements in vector x are used in the computation of the
moving function of the rst element(s) of the vector, and the rst elements are
used in the computation of the moving function for the last element(s)
na.rm Logical. If TRUE, NA values should be ingored (by fun)
Value
Numeric
Author(s)
Robert J. Hijmans, inspired by Diethelm Wuertz rollFun function in the fTrading package
Examples
movingFun(1:12, 3, mean)
movingFun(1:12, 3, mean, to)
movingFun(1:12, 3, mean, from)
movingFun(1:12, 3, mean, circular=TRUE)
v <- c(0,1,2,3,3,3,3,4,4,4,5,5,6,7,7,8,9,NA)
movingFun(v, n=5)
movingFun(v, n=5, na.rm=TRUE)
names Names of raster layers
Description
Get or set the names of the layers of a Raster* object
Usage
names(x)
## S4 replacement method for signature Raster
names(x)<-value
labels(object)
NAvalue 121
Arguments
x Raster* object
value character (vector)
Value
Character
See Also
nlayers, bands
Examples
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
s <- stack(r, r, r)
nlayers(s)
names(s)
names(s) <- c(a, b, c)
names(s)[2] <- hello world
names(s)
s
labels(s)
NAvalue Set the NA value of a RasterLayer
Description
NAvalue returns the value that is used to write NA values to disk (in raster type les). If you set
the NA value of a Raster* object, this value will be interpreted as NA when reading the values from
a le. Values already in memory will not be affected.
If the NA value is smaller than zero, all values smaller or equal to that number will be set to NA.
Usage
NAvalue(x) <- value
NAvalue(x)
Arguments
x A Raster object
value the value to be interpreted as NA; set this before reading the values from the
le. Integer values are matched exactly; for decimal values les any value <=
the value will be interpreted as NA
122 ncell
Value
Returns or set the NA value used for storage on disk.
Examples
r1 <- raster(system.file("external/rlogo.grd", package="raster"))
r2 <- r1
NAvalue(r2)
NAvalue(r2) <- 255
#plot(r1)
#x11()
#plot(r2)
ncell Number or rows, columns, and cells of a Raster* object
Description
Get the number of rows, columns, or cells of a Raster* object.
Usage
ncol(x)
nrow(x)
ncell(x)
ncol(x) <- value
nrow(x) <- value
Arguments
x a Raster object
value row or column number (integer > 0)
Value
Integer
See Also
dim, extent, res
nlayers 123
Examples
r <- raster()
ncell(r)
ncol(r)
nrow(r)
dim(r)
nrow(r) <- 18
ncol(r) <- 36
# equivalent to
dim(r) <- c(18, 36)
nlayers Number of layers
Description
Get the number of layers in a Raster* object, typically used with a (multilayer) RasterStack or
RasterBrick object
Usage
nlayers(x)
Arguments
x Raster* object
Value
integer
See Also
names
Examples
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
s <- stack(r, r, r)
nlayers(s)
s <- stack(s,s)
nlayers(s)
s <- dropLayer(s, 2:3)
nlayers(s)
124 Options
Options Global options for the raster package
Description
Set, inspect, reset, save a number of global options used by the raster package.
Most of these options are used when writing les to disk. They can be ignored by specic functions
if the corresponding argument is provided as an argument to these functions.
The default location is returned by rasterTmpDir. It is the same as that of the R temp directory but
you can change it (for the current session) with rasterOptions(tmpdir="path").
To permanently set any of these options, you can add themto <your R installation>/etc/Rprofile.site>.
For example, to change the default directory used to save temporary les, add a line like this:
options(rasterTmpDir=c:/temp/) to that le. All temporary raster les in that folder that are
older than 24 hrs are deleted when the raster package is loaded.
Usage
rasterOptions(format, overwrite, datatype, tmpdir, tmptime, progress,
timer, chunksize, maxmemory, todisk, setfileext, tolerance,
standardnames, depracatedwarnings, addheader, default=FALSE)
Arguments
format character. The default le format to use. See writeFormats
overwrite logical. The default value for overwriting existing les. If TRUE, existing les
will be overwritten
datatype character. The default data type to use. See dataType
tmpdir character. The default location for writing temporary les; See rasterTmpFile
tmptime number > 1. The number of hours after which a temporary le will be deleted.
As les are deleted when loading the raster package, this option is only useful if
you save this option so that it is loaded when starting a new session
progress character. Valid values are "text", "window" and "" (the default in most func-
tions, no progress bar)
timer Logical. If TRUE, the time it took to complete the function is printed
chunksize integer. Maximum number of cells to read/write in a single chunk while pro-
cessing (chunk by chunk) disk based Raster* objects
maxmemory integer. Maximum number of cells to read into memory. I.e., if a Raster* object
has more than this number of cells, canProcessInMemory will return FALSE
todisk logical. For debugging only. Default is FALSE and should normally not be
changed. If TRUE, results are always written to disk, even if no lename is sup-
plied (a temporary lename is used)
setfileext logical. Default is TRUE. If TRUE, the le extension will be changed when writing
(if known for the le type). E.g. GTiff les will be saved with the .tif extension
origin 125
tolerance numeric. The tolerance used when comparing the origin and resolution of Raster*
objects. Expressed as the fraction of a single cell. This should be a number be-
tween 0 and 0.5
standardnames logical. Default is TRUE. Should names be standardized to be syntactically valid
names (using make.names)
depracatedwarnings
logical. If TRUE (the default) a warning is generated when a depracated (obso-
lete) function is used
addheader character. If not equal to (the default) an additional header le is written
when a raster format le (grd/gri) is written. Supported formats are as in hdr
default logical. If TRUE, all options are set to their default values
Value
list of the current options (invisibly). If no arguments are provided the options are printed.
See Also
options, rasterTmpFile
Examples
## Not run:
rasterOptions()
rasterOptions(chunksize=2e+07)
## End(Not run)
origin Origin
Description
Origin returns (or sets) the coordinates of the point of origin of a Raster* object. This is the point
closest to (0, 0) that you could get if you moved towards that point in steps of the x and y resolution.
Usage
origin(x, ...)
origin(x) <- value
Arguments
x Raster* object
value numeric vector of lenght 1 or 2
... additional arguments. None implemented
126 overlay
Value
A vector of two numbers (x and y coordinates), or a changed origin for x.
See Also
extent
Examples
r <- raster(xmn=-0.5, xmx = 9.5, ncols=10)
origin(r)
r
origin(r) <- 0
r
overlay Overlay Raster objects
Description
Create a new Raster* object, based on two or more Raster* objects. (You can also use a single
object, but perhaps calc is what you are looking for in that case).
You should supply a function fun to set the way that the RasterLayers are combined. The number of
arguments in the function must match the number of Raster objects (or take any number). For exam-
ple, if you combine two RasterLayers you could use multiply: fun=function(x,y){return(x*y)}
percentage: fun=function(x,y){return(100 * x / y)}. If you combine three layers you could
use fun=function(x,y,z){return((x + y) * z)}
Note that the function must work for vectors (not only for single numbers). That is, it must return
the same number of elements as its input vectors. Alternatively, you can also supply a function
such as sum, that takes n arguments (as ...), and perhaps also has a na.rm argument, like in
sum(..., na.rm).
If a single mutli-layer object is provided, its layers are treated as individual RasterLayer objects if
the argument "unstack=TRUE" is used. If multiple objects are provided, they should have the same
number of layers, or it should be possible to recycle them (e.g., 1, 3, and 9 layers, which would
return a RasterBrick with 9 layers).
Usage
overlay(x, y, ..., fun, filename="", recycle=TRUE)
## S4 method for signature Raster,missing
overlay(x, y, ..., fun, filename="", unstack=TRUE)
overlay 127
Arguments
x Raster* object
y Raster* object, or missing (only useful if x has multiple layers)
... Additional Raster objects (and/or arguments for writing les as in writeRaster)
fun Function to be applied. When using RasterLayer objects, the number of argu-
ments of the function should match the number of Raster objects, or it should
take any number of arguments. When using multi-layer objects the function
should match the number of layers of the RasterStack/Brick object (unless un-
stack=FALSE)
recycle Logical. Should layers from Raster objects with fewer layers be recycled?
unstack Logical. Should layers be ustacked before computation (i.e. does the fun refer
to individual layers in a multilayer object)?
Details
Instead of the overlay function you can also use aritmetic functions such as *, /, +, - with Raster
objects (see examples). In that case you cannot speciy an output lename. Moreover, the overlay
function should be more efcient when using large data les that cannot be loaded into memory, as
the use of the complex arithmetic functions might lead to the creation of many temporary les.
While you can supply functions such as sum or mean, it would be more direct to use the Raster*
objects as arguments to those functions (e.g. sum(r1,r2,r3))
See rasterize and extract for "overlays" involving Raster* objects and polygons, lines, or points.
Value
Raster* object
See Also
calc, Arith-methods
Examples
r1 <- init(r, fun=runif)
r2 <- init(r, fun=runif)
r3 <- overlay(r1, r2, fun=function(x,y){return(x+y)})
# long version for multiplication
r4 <- overlay(r1, r2, fun=function(x,y){(x*y)} )
#use the individual layers of a RasterStack to get a RasterLayer
s <- stack(r1, r2)
r5 <- overlay(s, fun=function(x,y) x*y )
# equivalent to
r5c <- calc(s, fun=function(x) x[1]*x[2] )
128 pairs
#Combine RasterStack and RasterLayer objects (s2 has four layers.
# r1 (one layer) and s (two layers) are recycled)
s2 <- stack(r1, r2, r3, r4)
b <- overlay(r1, s, s2, fun=function(x,y,z){return(x*y*z)} )
# use a single RasterLayer (same as calc function)
r6 <- overlay(r1, fun=sqrt)
# multiplication with more than two layers
# (make sure the number of RasterLayers matches the arguments of fun)
r7 <- overlay(r1, r2, r3, r4, fun=function(a,b,c,d){return(a*b+c*d)} )
# equivalent function, efficient if values can be loaded in memory
r8 <- r1 * r2 + r3 * r4
# Also works with multi-layer objects.
s1 <- stack(r1, r2, r3)
x <- overlay(s1, s1, fun=function(x,y)x+y+5)
# in this case the first layer of the shorter object is recycled.
# i.e., s2 is treated as stack(r1, r3, r1)
s2 <- stack(r1, r3)
y <- overlay(s1, s2, fun=sum)
pairs Pairs plot (matrix of scatterplots)
Description
Pair plots of layers in a RasterStack or RasterBrick. This is a wrapper around graphics function
pairs.
Usage
pairs(x, hist=TRUE, cor=TRUE, use="pairwise.complete.obs", maxpixels=100000, ...)
Arguments
x RasterBrick or RasterStack
hist Logical. If TRUE a histogram of the values is shown on the diagonal
cor Logical. If TRUE the correlation coefcient is shown in the upper panels
use Argument passed to the cor function
... Additional arguments (only cex and main)
persp 129
See Also
boxplot, hist, density
Examples
r <- raster(system.file("external/test.grd", package="raster") )
s <- stack(r, 1/r, sqrt(r))
pairs(s)
## Not run:
# to make indvidual histograms:
hist(r)
# or scatter plots:
plot(r, 1/r)
## End(Not run)
persp Perspective plot
Description
Perspective plot of a RasterLayer. This is an implementation of a generic function in the graphics
package.
Usage
persp(x, ...)
Arguments
x A Raster* object
... Any argument that can be passed to persp (graphics package)
Methods
persp(x, y=1, z=NULL, ...)
x a Raster* object
y a index of x = RasterStack
z values of z are ignored
...
See Also
persp, contour, plot
130 plot
Examples
persp(r)
plot Plot a Raster* object
Description
Plot (that is, make a map of) the values of a Raster* object, or make a scatterplot of their values.
Points, lines, and polygons can be drawn on top of a map using plot(..., add=TRUE), or with
functions like points, lines, polygons
See the rasterVis package for more advanced (trellis/lattice) plotting of Raster* objects.
Usage
## S4 method for signature Raster,ANY
plot(x, y, maxpixels=500000, col, alpha=1,
colNA=NA, add=FALSE, ext=NULL, useRaster=TRUE, interpolate=FALSE,
addfun=NULL, nc, nr, maxnl=16, main, ...)
plot(x, y, maxpixels=100000, cex=0.2, nc, nr,
maxnl=16, main, add=FALSE, gridded=FALSE, ncol=25, nrow=25, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
y If x is a RasterStack or RasterBrick: integer, character (layer name(s)), or miss-
ing to select which layer(s) to plot. If missing, all RasterLayers in the Raster-
Stack will be plotted (up to a maximum of 16). Or another Raster* object of the
same extent and resolution, to produce a scatter plot of the cell values.
sampleRegular is used before plotting. If gridded=TRUE maxpixels may be ig-
nored to get a larger sample
col A color palette, i.e. a vector of n contiguous colors generated by functions like
rainbow, heat.colors, topo.colors, bpy.colors or one or your own making, per-
haps using colorRampPalette. If none is provided, rev(terrain.colors(255))
is used unless x has a color table
alpha Number between 0 and 1 to set transparency. 0 is entirely transparent, 1 is not
transparent
colNA The color to use for the background (default is transparent)
plot 131
add Logical. Add to current plot?
ext An extent object to zoomin a region (see also zoom and crop(x, drawExtent())
useRaster If TRUE, the rasterImage function is used for plotting. Otherwise the image func-
tion is used. This can be useful if rasterImage does not work well on your system
(see note)
interpolate Logical. Should the image be interpolated (smoothed)? Only used when useRaster = TRUE
addfun Function to add additional items such as points or polygons to the plot (map).
Typically containing statements like "points(xy); plot(polygons, add=TRUE)".
This is particularly useful to add something to each map when plotting a multi-
layer Raster* object.
... Graphical parameters. Any argument that can be passed to image.plot and to
plot, such as axes=FALSE, main=title, ylab=latitude
nc Optional. The number of columns to divide the plotting device in (when plotting
multiple layers in a RasterLayer or RasterBrick object)
nr Optional. The number of rows to divide the plotting device in (when plotting
multiple layers in a RasterLayer or RasterBrick object)
maxnl integer. Maximum number of layers to plot (for a multi-layer object)
main character. Main plot title
cex Symbol size for scatter plots
gridded logical. If TRUE the scatterplot is gridded (counts by cells)
ncol integer. Number of columns for gridding
nrow integer. Number of rows for gridding
Details
Most of the code for the plot function for a single Raster* object was taken from image.plot (elds
package).
Raster objects with a color-table (e.g. a graphics le) are plotted according to that color table.
Note
raster uses rasterImage from the graphics package. For unknown reasons this does not work
on Windows Server and on a few versions of Windows XP. On that system you may need to use
argument useRaster=FALSE to get a plot.
See Also
The rasterVis package has lattice based methods for plotting Raster* objects (like spplot)
red-green-blue plots (e.g. false color composites) can be made with plotRGB
barplot, hist, text, persp, contour, pairs
132 plot
Examples
# RasterLayer
plot(r)
e <- extent(r)
plot(e, add=TRUE, col=red, lwd=4)
e <- e / 2
plot(e, add=TRUE, col=red)
# Scatterplot of 2 RasterLayers
r2 <- sqrt(r)
plot(r, r2)
plot(r, r2, gridded=TRUE)
# Multi-layer object (RasterStack / Brick)
s <- stack(r, r2, r/r)
plot(s, 2)
plot(s)
# two objects, different range, one scale:
r2 <- r/2
brks <- seq(0, 1, by=0.1)
nb <- length(brks)-1
cols <- rev(terrain.colors(nb))
par(mfrow=c(1,2))
plot(r, breaks=brks, col=cols, lab.breaks=brks, zlim=c(0,1), main=first)
plot(r2, breaks=brks, col=cols, lab.breaks=brks, zlim=c(0,1), main=second)
# breaks and labels
x <- raster(nc=10, nr=10)
x[] <- runif(ncell(x))
brk <- c(0, 0.25, 0.75, 1)
arg <- list(at=c(0.12,0.5,0.87), labels=c("Low","Med.","High"))
plot(x, col=terrain.colors(3), breaks=brk)
plot(x, col=terrain.colors(3), breaks=brk, axis.args=arg)
par(mfrow=c(1,1))
# color ramp
plot(x, col=colorRampPalette(c("red", "white", "blue"))(255))
# adding random points to the map
xy <- cbind(-180 + runif(10) * 360, -90 + runif(10) * 180)
points(xy, pch=3, cex=5)
# for SpatialPolygons do
# plot(pols, add=TRUE)
plotRGB 133
# adding the same points to each map of each layer of a RasterStack
fun <- function() {
points(xy, cex=2)
points(xy, pch=3, col=red)
}
plot(s, addfun=fun)
plotRGB Red-Green-Blue plot of a multi-layered Raster object
Description
Make a Red-Green-Blue plot based on three layers (in a RasterBrick or RasterStack). Three layers
(sometimes referred to as "bands" because they may reperesent different bandwidths in the electro-
magnetic spectrum) are combined such that they represent the red, green and blue channel. This
function can be used to make True (or false) color images from Landsat and other multi-band
satellite images.
Usage
plotRGB(x, r=1, g=2, b=3, scale, maxpixels=500000, stretch=NULL,
ext=NULL, interpolate=FALSE, colNA=white, alpha, bgalpha, addfun=NULL, zlim=NULL,
zlimcol=NULL, axes=FALSE, xlab=, ylab=, asp=NULL, add=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
r integer. Index of the Red channel, between 1 and nlayers(x)
g integer. Index of the Green channel, between 1 and nlayers(x)
b integer. Index of the Blue channel, between 1 and nlayers(x)
scale integer. Maximum (possible) value in the three channels. Defaults to 255 or to
the maximum value of x if that is known and larger than 255
maxpixels integer > 0. Maximum number of pixels to use
stretch character. Option to stretch the values to increase the contrast of the image: "lin"
or "hist"
ext An Extent object to zoom in to a region of interest (see drawExtent)
interpolate logical. If TRUE, interpolate the image when drawing
colNA color for the background (NA values)
alpha transparency. Integer between 0 (transparent) and 255 (opaque)
bgalpha Background transparency. Integer between 0 (transparent) and 255 (opaque)
134 pointDistance
addfun Function to add additional items such as points or polygons to the plot (map).
See plot
zlim numeric vector of lenght 2. Range of values to plot (optional)
zlimcol If NULL the values outside the range of zlim get the color of the extremes of the
range. If zlimcol has any other value, the values outside the zlim range get the
color of NA values (see colNA)
axes logical. If TRUE axes are drawn
xlab character. Label of x-axis
ylab character. Label of y-axis
asp numeric. Aspect (ratio of x and y. If NULL, and appropriate value is com-
puted to match data for the lonlat coordinate refernce system, and 1 for planar
coordinate reference systems
add logical. If TRUE add values to current plot
... graphical parameters as in plot or rasterImage
Author(s)
Robert J. Hijmans; stretch option based on functions by Josh Gray
See Also
plot
Examples
plotRGB(b)
plotRGB(b, 3, 2, 1)
plotRGB(b, 3, 2, 1, stretch=hist)
pointDistance Distance between points
Description
Calculate the geographic distance between two (sets of) points on a sphere (lonlat=TRUE) or on a
plane (lonlat=FALSE). If both sets do not have the same number of points, the distance between
each pair of points is given. If both sets have the same number of points, the distance between each
point and the corresponding point in the other set is given, except if allpairs=TRUE.
Usage
pointDistance(p1, p2, lonlat, allpairs=FALSE, ...)
pointDistance 135
Arguments
p1 x and y coordinate of rst (set of) point(s), either as c(x, y), matrix(ncol=2), or
SpatialPoints*.
p2 x and y coordinate of second (set of) second point(s) (like for p1). If this argu-
ment is missing, a distance matrix is computed for p1
lonlat logical. If TRUE, coordinates should be in degrees; else they should represent
planar (Euclidean) space (e.g. units of meters)
allpairs logical. If TRUE
... Additional arguments. Can be used to set the radius, r, of the world (modeled
as a sphere), when lonlat=TRUE Default is r=6378137
Value
A single value, or a vector, or matrix of values giving the distance in meters (lonlat=TRUE) or
map-units (for instance, meters in the case of UTM) If p2 is missing, a distance matrix is returned
Author(s)
See Also
distanceFromPoints, distance, gridDistance, spDistsN1. The geosphere package has
many additional distance functions and other functions that operate on spherical coordinates
Examples
a <- cbind(c(1,5,55,31),c(3,7,20,22))
b <- cbind(c(4,2,8,65),c(50,-90,20,32))
pointDistance(c(0, 0), c(1, 1), lonlat=FALSE)
pointDistance(c(0, 0), c(1, 1), lonlat=TRUE)
pointDistance(c(0, 0), a, lonlat=TRUE)
pointDistance(a, b, lonlat=TRUE)
#Make a distance matrix
dst <- pointDistance(a, lonlat=TRUE)
# coerce to dist object
dst <- as.dist(dst)
136 predict
predict Spatial model predictions
Description
Make a Raster object with predictions from a tted model object (for example, obtained with lm,
glm). The rst argument is a Raster object with the independent (predictor) variables. The names
in the Raster object should exactly match those expected by the model. This will be the case if the
same Raster object was used (via extract) to obtain the values to t the model (see the example).
Any type of model (e.g. glm, gam, randomForest) for which a predict method has been implemented
(or can be implemented) can be used.
This approach (predict a tted model to raster data) is commonly used in remote sensing (for the
classication of satellite images) and in ecology, for species distribution modeling.
Usage
predict(object, model, filename="", fun=predict, ext=NULL,
const=NULL, index=1, na.rm=TRUE, inf.rm=FALSE, factors=NULL,
format, datatype, overwrite=FALSE, progress=, ...)
Arguments
object Raster* object. Typicially a multi-layer type (RasterStack or RasterBrick)
model tted model of any class that has a predict method (or for which you can supply
a similar method as fun argument. E.g. glm, gam, or randomForest
fun function. Default value is predict, but can be replaced with e.g. predict.se
(depending on the type of model), or your own custom function.
ext Extent object to limit the prediction to a sub-region of x
const data.frame. Can be used to add a constant for which there is no Raster object for
model predictions. Particularly useful if the constant is a character-like factor
value for which it is currently not possible to make a RasterLayer
index integer. To select the column if predict.model returns a matrix with multiple
columns
na.rm logical. Remove cells with NA values in the predictors before solving the model
(and return a NA value for those cells). This option prevents errors with models
that cannot handle NA values. In most other cases this will not affect the output.
An exception is when predicting with a boosted regression trees model because
these return predicted values even if some (or all!) variables are NA
inf.rm logical. Remove cells with values that are not nite (some models will fail with
-Inf/Inf values). This option is ignored when na.rm=FALSE
predict 137
factors list with levels for factor variables. The list elements should be named with
names that correspond to names in object such that they can be matched. This
argument may be omitted for standard models such as glm as the predict func-
tion will extract the levels from the model object, but it is necessary in some
other cases (e.g. cforest models from the party package)
format character. Output le type. See writeRaster (optional)
datatype character. Output data type. See dataType (optional)
overwrite logical. If TRUE, "lename" will be overwritten if it exists
progress character. "text", "window", or "" (the default, no progress bar)
... additional arguments to pass to the predict.model function
Value
Note
There is a lot of general information about the use of the predict function in the species distribution
modeling vignette of the dismo package.
See Also
Use interpolate if your model has x and y as implicit independent variables (e.g., in kriging).
Examples
# A simple model to predict the location of the R in the R-logo using 20 presence points
# and 50 (random) pseudo-absence points. This type of model is often used to predict
# species distributions. See the dismo package for more of that.
# create a RasterStack or RasterBrick with with a set of predictor layers
logo <- brick(system.file("external/rlogo.grd", package="raster"))
names(logo)
## Not run:
# the predictor variables
par(mfrow=c(2,2))
plotRGB(logo, main=logo)
plot(logo, 1, col=rgb(cbind(0:255,0,0), maxColorValue=255))
plot(logo, 2, col=rgb(cbind(0,0:255,0), maxColorValue=255))
plot(logo, 3, col=rgb(cbind(0,0,0:255), maxColorValue=255))
par(mfrow=c(1,1))
## End(Not run)
# known presence and absence points
p <- matrix(c(48, 48, 48, 53, 50, 46, 54, 70, 84, 85, 74, 84, 95, 85,
66, 42, 26, 4, 19, 17, 7, 14, 26, 29, 39, 45, 51, 56, 46, 38, 31,
22, 34, 60, 70, 73, 63, 46, 43, 28), ncol=2)
138 predict
a <- matrix(c(22, 33, 64, 85, 92, 94, 59, 27, 30, 64, 60, 33, 31, 9,
99, 67, 15, 5, 4, 30, 8, 37, 42, 27, 19, 69, 60, 73, 3, 5, 21,
37, 52, 70, 74, 9, 13, 4, 17, 47), ncol=2)
# extract values for points
xy <- rbind(cbind(1, p), cbind(0, a))
v <- data.frame(cbind(xy[,1], extract(logo, xy[,2:3])))
colnames(v)[1] <- pa
#build a model, here an example with glm
model <- glm(formula=pa~., data=v)
#predict to a raster
r1 <- predict(logo, model, progress=text)
plot(r1)
points(p, bg=blue, pch=21)
points(a, bg=red, pch=21)
# use a modified function to get a RasterBrick with p and se
# from the glm model. The values returned by predict are in a list,
# and this list needs to be transformed to a matrix
predfun <- function(model, data) {
v <- predict(model, data, se.fit=TRUE)
cbind(p=as.vector(v$fit), se=as.vector(v$se.fit))
}
# predfun returns two variables, so use index=1:2
r2 <- predict(logo, model, fun=predfun, index=1:2)
## Not run:
# You can use multiple cores to speed up the predict function
# by calling it via the clusterR function
beginCluster()
r1c <- clusterR(logo, predict, args=list(model))
r2c <- clusterR(logo, predict, args=list(model=model, fun=predfun, index=1:2))
## End(Not run)
# principal components of a RasterBrick
# here using sampling to simulate an object too large
# too feed all its values to prcomp
sr <- sampleRandom(logo, 100)
pca <- prcomp(sr)
# note the use of the index argument
x <- predict(logo, pca, index=1:3)
plot(x)
## Not run:
library(randomForest)
Programming 139
rfmod <- randomForest(pa ~., data=v)
## note the additional argument "type=response" that is
## passed to predict.randomForest
r3 <- predict(logo, rfmod, type=response, progress=window)
## get a RasterBrick with class membership probabilities
vv <- v
vv$pa <- as.factor(vv$pa)
rfmod2 <- randomForest(pa ~., data=vv)
r4 <- predict(logo, rfmod2, type=prob, index=1:2)
spplot(r4)
# cforest example with factors argument
v$red <- as.factor(round(v$red/100))
logo[[1]] <- round(logo[[1]]/100)
library(party)
m <- cforest(pa~., control=cforest_unbiased(mtry=3), data=v)
f <- list(levels(v$red))
names(f) <- red
pc <- predict(logo, m, OOB=TRUE, factors=f)
# knn example, using calc instead of predict
library(class)
cl <- factor(c(rep(1, nrow(p)), rep(0, nrow(a))))
train <- extract(logo, rbind(p, a))
k <- calc(logo, function(x) as.integer(as.character(knn(train, x, cl))))
## End(Not run)
Programming Helper functions for programming
Description
These are low level functions that can be used by programmers to develop new functions. If in
doubt, it is almost certain that you do not need these functions as these are already embedded in all
other functions in the raster package.
canProcessInMemory is typically used within functions. In the raster package this function is used
to determine if the amount of memory needed for the function is available. If there is not enough
memory available, the function returns FALSE, and the function that called it will write the results
to a temporary le.
readStart opens le connection(s) for reading, readStop removes it.
pbCreate creates a progress bar, pbStep sets the progress, and pbClose closes it.
140 Programming
Usage
canProcessInMemory(x, n=4)
pbCreate(nsteps, progress, style=3, label=Progress, ...)
pbStep(pb, step=NULL, label=)
pbClose(pb, timer)
readStart(x, ...)
readStop(x, ...)
getCluster()
returnCluster()
Arguments
x RasterLayer or RasterBrick object (for connections) or RasterStack object (can-
ProcessInMemory)
n integer. The number of copies of the Raster* object cell values that a function
needs to be able to have in memory
nsteps integer. Number of steps the progress bar will make from start to end (e.g.
nrow(raster))
progress character. text, window, or
style style for text progress bar. See txtProgressBar
label character. Label for the window type prograss bar
... additional arguments (None implemented, except for silent=TRUE for read-
Start for les read with gdal, and other arguments passed to gdal.open)
pb progress bar object created with pbCreate
step which step is this ( 1 <= step <= nsteps ). If step is NULL, a single step is taken
timer logical. If TRUE, time to completion will be printed. If missing, the value will be
taken from the rasterOptions
Value
canProcessInMemory: logical
closeConnection: RasterLayer or RasterBrick object
getCluster: snow cluster object
Examples
canProcessInMemory(r, 4)
canProcessInMemory(r, 2)
projection 141
projection Get or set a coordinate reference system (projection)
Description
Get or set the coordinate reference system (CRS) of a Raster* object.
Usage
crs(x, asText=FALSE, ...)
crs(x) <- value
projection(x, asText=TRUE)
projection(x) <- value
Arguments
x Raster* or Spatial object
asText logical. If TRUE, the projection is returned as text. Otherwise a CRS object is
returned
... additional arguments (not implemented)
value CRS object or a character string describing a projection and datum in the PROJ.4
format
Details
projections are done by with the PROJ.4 library exposed by rgdal
Value
Raster*, Spatial*, CRS, or character object
Note
crs replaces earlier function projection. For compatibility with sp you can use proj4string
instead of crs.
See Also
projectRaster, CRS-class, spTransform-methods, projInfo
142 projectRaster
Examples
r <- raster()
crs(r)
crs(r) <- "+proj=lcc +lat_1=48 +lat_2=33 +lon_0=-100 +ellps=WGS84"
crs(r)
projectRaster Project a Raster object
Description
Project the values of a Raster* object to a new Raster* object with another projection (coordinate
reference system, (CRS)). You can do this by providing the new projection as a single argument in
which case the function sets the extent and resolution of the new object. To have more control over
the transformation, and, for example, to assure that the new object lines up with other datasets, you
can provide a Raster* object with the properties that the input data should be projected to.
projectExtent returns a RasterLayer with a projected extent, but without any values. This Raster-
Layer can then be adjusted (e.g. by setting its resolution) and used as a template to in projectRaster.
Usage
projectRaster(from, to, res, crs, method="bilinear",
alignOnly=FALSE, over=FALSE, filename="", ...)
projectExtent(object, crs)
Arguments
from Raster* object
to Raster* object with the parameters to which from should be projected
res single or (vector of) two numerics. To, optionally, set the output resolution if
to is missing
crs character or object of class CRS. PROJ.4 description of the coordinate refer-
ence system. In projectRaster this is used to set the output CRS if to is missing,
or if to has no valid CRS
method method used to compute values for the new RasterLayer. Either ngb (near-
est neighbor), which is useful for categorical variables, or bilinear (bilinear
interpolation; the default value), which is appropriate for continuous variables.
alignOnly logical. Use to or other parameters only to align the output (i.e. same origin
and resolution), but use the projected extent from from
over logical. If TRUE wrapping around the date-line is turned off. This can be de-
sirable for global data (to avoid mapping the same areas twice) but it is not
desireable in other cases
projectRaster 143
filename character. Output lename
Details
There are two approaches you can follow to project the values of a Raster object.
1) Provide a crs argument, and, optionally, a res argument, but do not provide a to argument.
2) Create a template Raster with the CRS you want to project to. You can use an existing object,
or use projectExtent for this or an existing Raster* object. Also set the number of rows and
columns (or the resolution), and perhaps adjust the extent. The resolution of the output raster should
normally be similar to that of the input raster. Then use that object as from argument to project the
input Raster to. This is the preferred method because you have most control. For example you can
assure that the resulting Raster object lines up with other Raster objects.
Projection is performed using the PROJ.4 library accessed through the rgdal package.
One of the best places to nd PROJ.4 coordinate reference system descriptions is http://www.
spatialreference.org.
You can also consult this page: http://www.remotesensing.org/geotiff/proj_list/ to nd
the parameter options and names for projections.
Also see projInfo(proj), projInfo(ellps), and projInfo(datum) for valid PROJ.4
values.
Value
RasterLayer or RasterBrick object.
Note
Vector (points, lines, polygons) can be transformed with spTransform.
projectExtent does not work very well when transforming projected circumpolar data to (e.g.)
longitude/latitude. With such data you may need to adjust the returned object. E.g. do ymax(object) <- 90
See Also
resample, CRS-class, projInfo, spTransform
Examples
# create a new (not projected) RasterLayer with cellnumbers as values
r <- raster(xmn=-110, xmx=-90, ymn=40, ymx=60, ncols=40, nrows=40)
projection(r)
# proj.4 projection description
newproj <- "+proj=lcc +lat_1=48 +lat_2=33 +lon_0=-100 +ellps=WGS84"
# we need the rgdal package for this
if (require(rgdal)) {
144 properties
#simplest approach
pr1 <- projectRaster(r, crs=newproj)
# alternatively also set the resolution
pr2 <- projectRaster(r, crs=newproj, res=20000)
# inverse projection, back to the properties of r
inv <- projectRaster(pr2, r)
# to have more control, provide an existing Raster object, here we create one
# using projectExtent (no values are transferred)
pr3 <- projectExtent(r, newproj)
# Adjust the cell size
res(pr3) <- 200000
# now project
pr3 <- projectRaster(r, pr3)
## Not run:
# using a higher resolution
res(pr1) <- 10000
pr <- projectRaster(r, pr1, method=bilinear)
inv <- projectRaster(pr, r, method=bilinear)
dif <- r - inv
# small difference
plot(dif)
## End(Not run)
}
properties Raster le properties
Description
Properties of the values of the le that a RasterLayer object points to
dataSize returns the number of bytes used for each value (pixel, grid cell) dataSigned is TRUE
for data types that include negative numbers.
Usage
dataSize(object)
dataSigned(object)
Arguments
quantile 145
Value
varies
See Also
filename
Examples
dataSize(r)
dataSigned(r)
dataType(r)
quantile Raster quantiles
Description
Compute quantiles for the cell values of a RasterLayer. If you want to compute quantiles for each
cell across a number of layers, you can use calc(x, fun=quantile).
Usage
quantile(x, ...)
Arguments
x Raster object
... Additional arguments: na.rm=TRUE, ncells=NULL, and additional arguments to
the stats::quantile function, see quantile ncells can be used to set the number
of cells to be sampled, for very large raster datasets.
Value
A vector of quantiles
See Also
density, cellStats
Examples
r[] <- rnorm(ncell(r), 0, 50)
quantile(r)
quantile(r, probs = c(0.25, 0.75), type=7,names = FALSE)
146 raster
raster Create a RasterLayer object
Description
Methods to create a RasterLayer object. RasterLayer objects can be created from scratch, a le,
an Extent object, a matrix, an image object, or from a Raster*, Spatial*, im (spatstat) asc, kasc
(adehabitat*), grf (geoR) or kde object.
In many cases, e.g. when a RasterLayer is created from a le, it does (initially) not contain any cell
(pixel) values in (RAM) memory, it only has the parameters that describe the RasterLayer. You can
access cell-values with getValues, extract and related functions. You can assign new values
with setValues and with replacement.
For an overview of the functions in the raster package have a look here: raster-package.
Usage
raster(x, band=1, ...)
raster(x)
raster(x, layer=0)
raster(x, layer=0)
raster(nrows=180, ncols=360, xmn=-180, xmx=180, ymn=-90, ymx=90,
crs, ext, resolution, vals=NULL)
raster(x, nrows=10, ncols=10, crs=NA, ...)
## S4 method for signature matrix
raster(x, xmn=0, xmx=1, ymn=0, ymx=1, crs=NA, template=NULL)
## S4 method for signature big.matrix
raster(x, xmn=0, xmx=1, ymn=0, ymx=1, crs=NA, template=NULL)
raster(x, origin, ...)
raster(x, layer=1, values=TRUE)
raster 147
## S4 method for signature SpatialPixels
raster(x, layer=1, values=TRUE)
Arguments
x lename (character), Extent, Raster*, SpatialPixels*, SpatialGrid*, object, im-
age, matrix, im, or missing. Supported le types are the native raster package
format and those that can be read via rgdal (see readGDAL
band integer. The layer to use in a multi-layer le
... Additional arguments, see Details
layer integer. The layer (variable) to use in a multi-layer le, or the layer to extract
from a RasterStack/Brick or SpatialPixelsDataFrame or SpatialGridDataFrame.
An empty RasterLayer (no associated values) is returned if layer=0
values logical. If TRUE, the cell values of x are copied to the RasterLayer object that
is returned
nrows integer > 0. Number of rows
ncols integer > 0. Number of columns
xmn minimum x coordinate (left border)
xmx maximum x coordinate (right border)
ymn minimum y coordinate (bottom border)
ymx maximum y coordinate (top border)
ext object of class Extent. If present, the arguments xmn, xmx, ymn and ynx are
ignored
crs character or object of class CRS. PROJ.4 type description of a Coordinate Refer-
ence System (map projection). If this argument is missing, and the x coordinates
are withing -360 .. 360 and the y coordinates are within -90 .. 90, "+proj=longlat
+datum=WGS84" is used. Also see under Details if x is a character (lename)
resolution numeric vector of length 1 or 2 to set the resolution (see res). If this argument
is used, arguments ncols and nrows are ignored
vals optional. Values for the newRasterLayer. Accepted formats are as for setValues
origin minimum y coordinate (bottom border)
template Raster* or Extent object used to set the extent (and CRS in case of a Raster*
object). If not NULL, arguments xmn, xmx, ymn, ymx and crs (unless template is
an Extent object) are ignored
Details
If x is a lename, the following additional variables are recognized:
sub: positive integer. Subdataset number for a le with subdatasets
native: logical. Default is FALSE except when package rgdal is missing. If TRUE, reading and
writing of IDRISI, BIL, BSQ, BIP, SAGA, and Arc ASCII les is done with native (raster package)
drivers, rather then via rgdal. raster and netcdf format les are always read with native drivers.
148 raster
RAT: logical. The default is TRUE, in which case a raster attribute table is created for les that have
one
offset: integer. To indicate the number of header rows on non-standard ascii les (rarely useful;
use with caution)
crs: character. PROJ.4 string to set the CRS. Ignored when the le provides a CRS description that
can be interpreted.
If x represents a NetCDF le, the following additional variable is recognized:
varname: character. The variable name, such as tasmax or pr. If not supplied and the le has
multiple variables are a guess will be made (and reported)
lvar: integer > 0 (default=3). To select the level variable (3rd dimension variable) to use, if the
le has 4 dimensions (e.g. depth instead of time)
level: integer > 0 (default=1). To select the level (4th dimension variable) to use, if the le has 4
dimensions, e.g. to create a RasterBrick of weather over time at a certain height.
To use NetCDF les the ncdf or the ncdf4 package needs to be available. If both are available,
ncdf4 is used. Only the ncdf4 package can read the most recent version (4) of the netCDF format
(as well as older versions), for windows it not available on CRAN but can be downloaded here. It is
assumed that these les follow, or are compatible with, the CF convention (The GMT format may
also work). If the ncdf le does not have a standard extension (which is used to recognize the le
format), you can use argument ncdf=TRUE to indicate the format.
If x is a Spatial or an Extent object, additional arguments are for the method with signature
missing
Value
RasterLayer
See Also
stack, brick
Examples
# Create a RasterLayer object from a file
# N.B.: For your own files, omit the system.file and package="raster" bits
# these are just to get the path to files installed with the package
f
r <- raster(f)
logo <- raster(system.file("external/rlogo.grd", package="raster"))
#from scratch
r1 <- raster(nrows=108, ncols=21, xmn=0, xmx=10)
Raster-class 149
#from an Extent object
e <- extent(r)
r2 <- raster(e)
#from another Raster* object
r3 <- raster(r)
s <- stack(r, r, r)
r4 <- raster(s)
r5 <- raster(s, 3)
## Not run:
# from NSIDC sea ice concentration file
baseurl <- "ftp://sidads.colorado.edu/pub/DATASETS/"
# southern hemisphere
f <- paste(baseurl, "nsidc0081_nrt_nasateam_seaice/south/nt_20130114_f17_nrt_s.bin", sep=)
# or northern hemisphere
# f <- paste(baseurl, "nsidc0081_nrt_nasateam_seaice/north/nt_20130105_f17_nrt_n.bin", sep=)
download.file(f, basename(f), mode = "wb")
ice <- raster(basename(f))
## End(Not run)
Raster-class Raster* classes
Description
A raster is a database organized as a rectangular grid that is sub-divided into rectangular cells of
equal area (in terms of the units of the coordinate reference system). The raster package denes a
number of "S4 classes" to manipulate such data.
The main user level classes are RasterLayer, RasterStack and RasterBrick. They all inherit
from BasicRaster and can contain values for the raster cells.
An object of the RasterLayer class refers to a single layer (variable) of raster data. The object can
point to a le on disk that holds the values of the raster cells, or hold these values in memory. Or it
can not have any associated values at all.
ARasterStack represents a collection of RasterLayer objects with the same extent and resolution.
Organizing RasterLayer objects in a RasterStack can be practical when dealing with multiple
layers; for example to summarize their values (see calc) or in spatial modeling (see predict).
An object of class RasterBrick can also contain multiple layers of raster data, but they are more
tightly related. An object of class RasterBrick can refer to only a single (multi-layer) data le,
whereas each layer in a RasterStack can refer to another le (or another band in a multi-band le).
This has implications for processing speed and exibility. A RasterBrick should process quicker
than a RasterStack (irrespective if values are on disk or in memory). However, a RasterStack
is more exible as a single object can refer to layers that have values stored on disk as well as in
memory. If a layer that does not refer to values on disk (they only exists in memory) is added to a
150 Raster-class
RasterBrick, it needs to load all its values into memory (and this may not be possible because of
memory size limitations).
Objects can be created from le or from each other with the following functions: raster, brick
and stack.
Raster* objects can also be created from SpatialPixels* and SpatialGrid* objects from the sp pack-
age using as, or simply with the function raster, brick, or stack. Vice versa, Raster* objects
can be coerced into a sp type object with as( , ), e.g. as(x, SpatialGridDataFrame) .
Common generic methods implemented for these classes include:
summary, show, dim, and plot, ...
[ is implemented for RasterLayer.
The classes described above inherit from the BasicRaster class which inherits from BasicRaster.
The BasicRaster class describes the main properties of a raster such as the number of columns and
rows, and it contains an object of the link[raster]{Extent-class} to describe its spatial extent
(coordinates). It also holds the coordinate reference system in a slot of class CRS-class dened
in the sp package. A BasicRaster cannot contain any raster cell values and is therefore seldomly
used.
The Raster* class inherits from BasicRaster. It is a virtual class; which means that you cannot
create an object of this class. It is used only to dene methods for all the classes that inherit from it
(RasterLayer, RasterStack and RasterBrick). Another virtual class is the RasterStackBrick
class. It is formed by a class union of RasterStack and RasterBrick. You cannot make objects of
it, but methods dened for objects of this class as arguments will accept objects of the RasterLayer
and RasterStack as that argument.
Classes RasterLayer and RasterBrick have a slot with an object of class RasterFile that de-
scribes the properties of the le they point to (if they do). RasterLayer has a slot with an ob-
ject of class SingleLayerData, and the RasterBrick class has a slot with an object of class
MultipleLayerData. These datalayer classes can contain (some of) the values of the raster cells.
These classes are not further described here because users should not need to directly access these
slots. The setter functions such as setValues should be used instead. Using such setter functions
is much safer because a change in one slot should often affect the values in other slots.
Objects from the Class
Objects can be created by calls of the formnew("RasterLayer", ...), or with the helper functions
such as raster.
Slots
Slots for RasterLayer and RasterBrick objects
title: Character
file: Object of class ".RasterFile"
data: Object of class ".SingleLayerData" or ".MultipleLayerData"
history: To record processing history, not yet in use
legend: Object of class .RasterLegend, Default legend. Should store preferences for plotting.
Not yet implemented except that it stores the color table of images, if available
rasterFromCells 151
extent: Object of Extent-class
ncols: Integer
nrows: Integer
crs: Object of class "CRS", i.e. the coordinate reference system. In Spatial* objects this slot is
called proj4string
Examples
showClass("RasterLayer")
rasterFromCells Subset a raster by cell numbers
Description
This function returns a new raster based on an existing raster and cell numbers for that raster. The
new raster is cropped to the cell numbers provided, and, if values=TRUE has values that are the cell
numbers of the original raster.
Usage
rasterFromCells(x, cells, values=TRUE)
Arguments
x Raster* object (or a SpatialPixels* or SpatialGrid* object)
cells vector of cell numbers
values Logical. If TRUE, the new RasterLayer has cell values that correspond to the cell
numbers of x
Details
Cell numbers start at 1 in the upper left corner, and increase from left to right, and then from top to
bottom. The last cell number equals the number of cells of the Raster* object.
Value
RasterLayer
See Also
rowFromCell
Examples
cells <- c(3:5, 210)
r <- rasterFromCells(r, cells)
cbind(1:ncell(r), getValues(r))
152 rasterFromXYZ
rasterFromXYZ Create a RasterLayer from x, y, z values
Description
Create a RasterLayer from x, y, and z values. x and y must be on a regular grid. If the resolution is
not supplied, it is assumed to be the minimum distance between x and y coordinates, but a resolution
of up to 10 times smaller is evaluated if a regular grid can otherwise not be created. If the exact
properties of the RasterLayer are known beforehand, it may be preferable to simply create a new
RasterLayer with the raster function instead, compute cell numbers and assign the values with these
(see example below).
Usage
rasterFromXYZ(xyz, res=c(NA,NA), crs=NA, digits=5)
Arguments
xyz matrix or data.frame with three columns: x and y coordinates, and value z
res numeric. The x and y cell resolution (optional)
crs CRS object or a character string describing a projection and datum in PROJ.4
format
digits numeric, indicating the requested precision for detecting whether points are on
a regular grid (a low number of digits is a low precision)
Value
RasterLayer
See Also
For random-like point distributions, see rasterize
Examples
r <- raster(nrow=10, ncol=10, xmn=0, xmx=10, ymn=0, ymx=10, crs=NA)
r[r<0.5] <- NA
xyz <- rasterToPoints(r)
r2 <- rasterFromXYZ(xyz)
# equivalent to:
r3 <- raster(nrow=10, ncol=10, xmn=0, xmx=10, ymn=0, ymx=10)
cells <- cellFromXY(r3, xyz[,1:2])
r3[cells] <- xyz[,3]
rasterize 153
rasterize Rasterize points, lines, or polygons
Description
Transfer values associated with object type spatial data (points, lines, polygons) to raster cells.
For polygons, values are transferred if the polygon covers the center of a raster cell. For lines,
values are transferred to all cells that are touched by a line. You can combine this behaviour by
rasterizing polygons as lines rst and then as polygons.
If x represents points, each point is assigned to a grid cell. Points that fall on a border between cells
are placed in the cell to the right and/or in the cell below. The value of a grid cell is determined by
the values associated with the points and function fun.
Usage
## S4 method for signature matrix,Raster
rasterize(x, y, field, fun=last, background=NA,
mask=FALSE, update=FALSE, updateValue=all, filename="", na.rm=TRUE, ...)
## S4 method for signature SpatialPoints,Raster
mask=FALSE, update=FALSE, updateValue=all, filename="", na.rm=TRUE, ...)
## S4 method for signature SpatialLines,Raster
mask=FALSE, update=FALSE, updateValue=all, filename="", ...)
## S4 method for signature SpatialPolygons,Raster
mask=FALSE, update=FALSE, updateValue=all, filename="",
getCover=FALSE, silent=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
x points (a SpatialPoints* object, or a two-column matrix (or data.frame)), Spa-
tialLines*, SpatialPolygons*, or an Extent object
y Raster* object
field numeric or character. The value(s) to be transferred. This can be a single num-
ber, or a vector of numbers that has the same length as the number of spatial
features (points, lines, polygons). If x is a Spatial*DataFrame, this can be the
column name of the variable to be transferred. If missing, the attribute index is
used (i.e. numbers from 1 to the number of features). You can also provide a
vector with the same length as the number of spatial features, or a matrix where
the number of rows matches the number of spatial features
154 rasterize
fun function or character. To determine what values to assign to cells that are cov-
ered by multiple spatial features. You can use functions such as min, max,
or mean, or one of the following character values: first, last, count,
sum, min or max. The default value is last.
If x represents points, fun must accept a na.rm argument, either explicitly or
through dots. This means that fun=length fails, but fun=function(x,...)length(x)
works, although it ignores the na.rm argument. To use the na.rm argument you
can use a function like this: fun=function(x, na.rm)if (na.rm) length(na.omit(x))
else (length(x), or use a function that removes NA values in all cases, like this
function to compute the number of unique values "richness": fun=function(x, ...) {length(unique(na.omit(x)))} .
If you want to knowthe number of points in each grid cell, you can use fun=count
or fun=function(x,...){length(x)}. For the number of unique values per
grid cell you can use: fun=function(x, ...){ length(unique(na.rm(x)))}.
You can also pass multiple functions using a statement like fun=function(x, ...) c(length(x),mean(x)),
in which case the returned object is a RasterBrick (multiple layers).
background numeric. Value to put in the cells that are not covered by any of the features of
x. Default is NA
mask logical. If TRUE the values of the input Raster object are masked by the spatial
features of x. That is, cells that spatially overlap with the spatial features retain
their values, the other cells become NA. Default is FALSE. This option cannot be
used when update=TRUE
update logical. If TRUE, the values of the Raster* object are updated for the cells
that overlap the spatial features of x. Default is FALSE. Cannot be used when
mask=TRUE
updateValue numeric (normally an integer), or character. Only relevant when update=TRUE.
Select, by their values, the cells to be updated with the values of the spatial
features. Valid character values are all, NA, and !NA. Default is all
na.rm If TRUE, NA values are removed if fun honors the na.rm argument
getCover logical. If TRUE, the fraction of each grid cell that is covered by the polygons
is returned (and the values of field, fun, mask, and update are ignored.
The fraction covered is estimated by dividing each cell into 100 subcells and
determining presence/absence of the polygon in the center of each subcell
silent Logical. If TRUE, feedback on the polygon count is suppressed. Default is FALSE
... Additional arguments for le writing as for writeRaster
Value
See Also
extract
rasterize 155
Examples
###############################
# rasterize points
###############################
n <- 1000
x <- runif(n) * 360 - 180
y <- runif(n) * 180 - 90
xy <- cbind(x, y)
# get the (last) indices
r0 <- rasterize(xy, r)
# prensence/absensce (NA) (is there a point or not?)
r1 <- rasterize(xy, r, field=1)
# how many points?
r2 <- rasterize(xy, r, fun=function(x,...)length(x))
vals <- runif(n)
# sum of the values associated with the points
r3 <- rasterize(xy, r, vals, fun=sum)
# with a SpatialPointsDataFrame
vals <- 1:n
p <- data.frame(xy, name=vals)
coordinates(p) <- ~x+y
r <- rasterize(p, r, name, fun=min)
#r2 <- rasterize(p, r, name, fun=max)
#plot(r, r2, cex=0.5)
###############################
# rasterize lines
###############################
cds1 <- rbind(c(-180,-20), c(-140,55), c(10, 0), c(-140,-60))
cds2 <- rbind(c(-10,0), c(140,60), c(160,0), c(140,-55))
cds3 <- rbind(c(-125,0), c(0,60), c(40,5), c(15,-45))
lines <- SpatialLines(list(Lines(list(Line(cds1)), "1"),
Lines(list(Line(cds2)), "2"), Lines(list(Line(cds3)), "3") ))
r <- rasterize(lines, r)
## Not run:
plot(r)
plot(lines, add=TRUE)
r <- rasterize(lines, r, fun=count)
plot(r)
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
r <- rasterize(lines, r, mask=TRUE)
plot(r)
156 rasterTmpFile
r[] <- 1
r[lines] <- 10
plot(r)
## End(Not run)
###############################
# rasterize polygons
###############################
p1 <- rbind(c(-180,-20), c(-140,55), c(10, 0), c(-140,-60), c(-180,-20))
hole <- rbind(c(-150,-20), c(-100,-10), c(-110,20), c(-150,-20))
p1 <- Polygons(list(Polygon(p1), Polygon(hole, hole=TRUE)), 1)
p2 <- Polygons(list(Polygon(rbind(c(-10,0), c(140,60), c(160,0), c(140,-55), c(-10,0)))), 2)
p3 <- Polygons(list(Polygon(rbind(c(-125,0), c(0,60), c(40,5), c(15,-45), c(-125,0)))), 3)
pols <- SpatialPolygons( list( p1 , p2, p3) )
r <- rasterize(pols, r, fun=sum)
## Not run:
plot(r)
plot(pols, add=T)
# add a polygon
p5 <- rbind(c(-180,10), c(0,90), c(40,90), c(145,-10),
c(-25, -15), c(-180,0), c(-180,10))
addpoly <- SpatialPolygons(list(Polygons(list(Polygon(p5)), 1)))
addpoly <- as(addpoly, "SpatialPolygonsDataFrame")
addpoly@data[1,1] <- 10
r2 <- rasterize(addpoly, r, field=1, update=TRUE, updateValue="NA")
plot(r2)
plot(pols, border="blue", lwd=2, add=TRUE)
plot(addpoly, add=TRUE, border="red", lwd=2)
# get the percentage cover of polygons in a cell
r3 <- raster(ncol=36, nrow=18)
r3 <- rasterize(pols, r3, getCover=TRUE)
## End(Not run)
rasterTmpFile Temporary les
Description
Functions in the raster package create temporary les if the values of an output RasterLayer cannot
be stored in memory (RAM). This can happen when no lename is provided to a function and in
functions where you cannot provide a lename (e.g. when using raster algebra).
rasterTmpFile 157
Temporary les are automatically removed at the start of each session. During a session you can
use showTmpFiles to see what is there and removeTmpFiles to delete all the temporary les.
rasterTmpFile returns a temporary lename. These can be useful when developing your own
functions. These lenames consist of prefix_date_time_pid_rn where pid is the process id re-
turned by Sys.getpid and rn is a 5 digit random number. This should make temples unique
if created at different times and also when created in parallel processes (different pid) that use
set.seed and call rasterTmpFile at the same time. It is possible, however, to create overlapping
names (see the examples), which is undesirable and can be avoided by setting the prex argument.
Usage
rasterTmpFile(prefix=raster_tmp_)
showTmpFiles()
removeTmpFiles(h=24)
Arguments
prefix Character. Prex to the lename (which will be followed by 10 random num-
bers)
h Numeric. The minimum age of the les in number of hours (younger les are
not deleted)
Details
The default path where the temporary les are stored is returned (can be changed with rasterOptions).
Value
rasterTmpFile returns a valid le name
showTmpFiles returns the names (.grd only) of the les in the temp directory
removeTmpFiles returns nothing
See Also
rasterOptions, tempfile
Examples
## Not run:
rasterTmpFile(mytemp_)
showTmpFiles()
removeTmpFiles(h=24)
# It is possible (but undesirable!) to create overlapping temp file names.
for (i in 1:10) {
set.seed(0)
print(rasterTmpFile())
}
That can be avoided by using a prefix
for (i in 1:10) {
158 rasterToContour
set.seed(0)
print(rasterTmpFile(prefix=paste(i, i, _, sep=)))
}
## End(Not run)
rasterToContour Raster to contour lines conversion
Description
RasterLayer to contour lines. This is a wrapper around contourLines
Usage
rasterToContour(x, maxpixels=100000, ...)
Arguments
x a RasterLayer object
maxpixels Maximum number of raster cells to use; this function fails when too many cells
are used
... Any argument that can be passed to contourLines
Details
Most of the code was taken frommaptools::ContourLines2SLDF, by Roger Bivand &Edzer Pebesma
Value
SpatialLinesDataFrame
Examples
r <- raster(f)
x <- rasterToContour(r)
class(x)
plot(r)
plot(x, add=TRUE)
rasterToPoints 159
rasterToPoints Raster to points conversion
Description
Raster to point conversion. Cells with NA are not converted. A function can be used to select a
subset of the raster cells (by their values).
Usage
rasterToPoints(x, fun=NULL, spatial=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
x A Raster* object
fun Function to select a subset of raster values
spatial Logical. If TRUE, the function returns a SpatialPointsDataFrame object
... Additional arguments. Currently only progress to specify a progress bar. "text",
"window", or "" (the default, no progress bar)
Details
fun should be a simple function returning a logical value.
E.g.: fun=function(x){x==1} or fun=function(x){x>3}
Value
A matrix with three columns: x, y, and v (value), or a SpatialPointsDataFrame object
Examples
r[r>8] <- NA
p <- rasterToPoints(r)
p <- rasterToPoints(r, fun=function(x){x>6})
#plot(r)
#points(p)
160 rasterToPolygons
rasterToPolygons Raster to polygons conversion
Description
Raster to polygons conversion. Cells with NA are not converted. A function can be used to select a
subset of the raster cells (by their values).
Usage
rasterToPolygons(x, fun=NULL, n=4, na.rm=TRUE, digits=12, dissolve=FALSE)
Arguments
x a Raster* object
fun function to select a subset of raster values (only allowed if x has a single layer)
n The number of nodes for each polygon. Only 4, 8, and 16 are allowed
na.rm If TRUE, cells with NA values in all layers are ignored
digits number of digits to round the coordinates to
dissolve logical. If TRUE, polygons with the same attribute value will be dissolved into
multi-polygon regions. This option requires the rgeos package
Details
fun should be a simple function returning a logical value.
E.g.: fun=function(x){x==1} or fun=function(x){x>3 & x<6}
Value
SpatialPolygonsDataFrame
Examples
r[r>8] <- NA
pol <- rasterToPolygons(r, fun=function(x){x>6})
#plot(r)
#plot(pol, add=T, col=red)
readAll 161
readAll Read values from disk
Description
Read all values from a raster le associated with a Raster* object into memory. This function
should normally not be used. In most cases getValues or getValuesBlock is more appropriate as
readAll will fail when there is no le associated with the RasterLayer (values may only exist in
memory).
Usage
readAll(object)
Arguments
object a Raster* object
See Also
getValues, getValuesBlock, extract
Examples
r <- readAll(r)
reclassify Reclassify
Description
Reclassify values of a Raster* object. The function (re)classies groups of values to other values.
For example, all values between 1 and 10 become 1, and all values between 11 and 15 become 2
(see functions subs and cut for alternative approaches).
Reclassication is done with matrix rcl, in the row order of the reclassify table. Thus, if there are
overlapping ranges, the rst time a number is within a range determines the reclassication value.
Usage
reclassify(x, rcl, filename=, include.lowest=FALSE, right=TRUE, ...)
162 rectify
Arguments
x Raster* object
rcl matrix for reclassication. This matrix must have 3 columns. The rst two
columns are "from" "to" of the input values, and the third column "becomes"
has the new value for that range. (You can also supply a vector that can be
coerced into a n*3 matrix (with byrow=TRUE)). You can also provide a two
column matrix ("is", "becomes") which can be useful for integer values. In that
case, the right argument is automatically set to NA
include.lowest logical, indicating if a value equal to the lowest value in rcl (or highest value
in the second column, for right = FALSE) should be included. The default is
FALSE
right logical, indicating if the intervals should be closed on the right (and open on the
left) or vice versa. The default is TRUE. A special case is to use right=NA. In this
case both the left and right intervals are open
Value
Raster* object
See Also
subs, cut, calc
Examples
# reclassify the values into three groups
# all values >= 0 and <= 0.25 become 1, etc.
m <- c(0, 0.25, 1, 0.25, 0.5, 2, 0.5, 1, 3)
rclmat <- matrix(m, ncol=3, byrow=TRUE)
rc <- reclassify(r, rclmat)
# equivalent to
rc <- reclassify(r, c(-Inf,0.25,1, 0.25,0.5,2, 0.5,Inf,3))
rectify rectify a Raster object
Description
rectify changes a rotated Raster* object into a non-rotated (rectangular) object. This is wrapper
function around resample.
replacement 163
Usage
rectify(x, ext, res, method=ngb, filename=, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object to be rectied
ext Optional. Extent object or object from which an Extent object can be extracted
res Optional. Single or two numbers to set the resolution
method Method used to compute values for the new RasterLayer, should be "bilinear"
for bilinear interpolation, or "ngb" for nearest neighbor
filename Character. Output lename
Value
RasterLayer or RasterBrick object
replacement Replace cell values or layers of a Raster* object
Description
You can set values of a Raster* object, when i is a vector of cell numbers, a Raster*, Extent, or
Spatial* object.
These are shorthand methods that work best for relatively small Raster* objects. In other cases you
can use functions such as calc and rasterize.
Methods
x[i] <- value
x[i,j] <- value
Arguments:
x a Raster* object
i cell number(s), row number(s), Extent, Spatial* object
j columns number(s) (only available if i is (are) a row number(s))
value new cell value(s)
See Also
calc, rasterize
164 resample
Examples
r[] <- 1:ncell(r) * 2
r[1,] <- 1
r[,1] <- 2
r[1,1] <- 3
s <- stack(r, sqrt(r))
s[s<5] <- NA
resample Resample a Raster object
Description
Resample transfers values between non matching Raster* objects (in terms of origin and resolution).
Use projectRaster if the target has a different coordinate reference system (projection).
Before using resample, you may want to consider using these other functions instead: aggregate,
disaggregate, crop, extend, merge.
Usage
resample(x, y, method="bilinear", filename="", ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object to be resampled
y Raster* object with parameters that x should be resampled to
method method used to compute values for the new RasterLayer, should be "bilinear"
for bilinear interpolation, or "ngb" for using the nearest neighbor
Value
RasterLayer or RasterBrick object
See Also
aggregate, disaggregate, crop, extend, merge, projectRaster
resolution 165
Examples
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
s <- raster(nrow=10, ncol=10)
s <- resample(r, s, method=bilinear)
#par(mfrow=c(1,2))
#plot(r)
#plot(s)
resolution Resolution
Description
Get (or set) the x and/or y resolution of a Raster* object
Usage
xres(x)
yres(x)
res(x)
res(x) <- value
Arguments
x Raster* object
value Resolution (single number or vector of two numbers)
Value
A single numeric value or two numeric values.
See Also
extent, ncell
Examples
xres(r)
yres(r)
res(r)
res(r) <- 1/120
# set yres differently
res(r) <- c(1/120, 1/60)
166 RGB
RGB Create a Red-Green-Blue Raster object
Description
Make a Red-Green-Blue object that can be used to create images.
Usage
RGB(x, filename=, col=rainbow(25), breaks=NULL, alpha=FALSE,
colNA=white, zlim=NULL, zlimcol=NULL, ext=NULL, ...)
Arguments
col Acolor palette, that is a vector of n contiguous colors generated by functions like
rainbow, heat.colors, topo.colors, bpy.colors or one or your own making, per-
haps using colorRampPalette. If none is provided, rev(terrain.colors(255))
is used unless x has a color table
breaks numeric. A set of nite numeric breakpoints for the colours: must have one
more breakpoint than colour and be in increasing order
alpha If TRUE a fourth layer to set the background transparency is added
colNA color for the background (NA values)
zlim vector of lenght 2. Range of values to plot
zlimcol If NULL the values outside the range of zlim get the color of the extremes of the
range. If zlimcol has any other value, the values outside the zlim range get the
color of NA values (see colNA)
ext An Extent object to zoom in to a region of interest (see drawExtent)
See Also
plotRGB
Examples
x <- RGB(r)
plot(x, col=gray(0:9/10))
plotRGB(x)
rotate 167
rotate Rotate
Description
Rotate a Raster* object that has x coordinates (longitude) from 0 to 360, to standard coordinates
between -180 and 180 degrees. Longitude between 0 and 360 is frequently used in data from global
climate models.
Usage
rotate(x, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
Value
RasterLayer or a RasterBrick object
See Also
flip
Examples
m <- matrix(1:ncell(r), nrow=18)
r[] <- as.vector(t(m))
extent(r) <- extent(0, 360, -90, 90)
rr <- rotate(r)
rotated Do the raster cells have a rotation?
Description
Do the raster cells have a rotation?
Usage
rotated(x)
168 round
Arguments
x A Raster* object
Value
Logical value
See Also
rectify
Examples
r <- raster()
rotated(r)
round Integer values
Description
These functions take a single RasterLayer argument x and change its values to integers.
ceiling returns a RasterLayer with the smallest integers not less than the corresponding values of
x.
floor returns a RasterLayer with the largest integers not greater than the corresponding values of
x.
trunc returns a RasterLayer with the integers formed by truncating the values in x toward 0.
round returns a RasterLayer with values rounded to the specied number of digits (decimal places;
default 0).
Details
see ?base::round
Value
a RasterLayer object
Methods
ceiling(x) oor(x) trunc(x, ...) round(x, digits = 0)
a RasterLayer object
x digits integer indicating the precision to be used
... additional arguments
rowFromCell 169
See Also
round
Examples
s <- round(r)
rowFromCell Row or column number from a cell number
Description
These functions get the row and/or column number from a cell number of a Raster* object)
Usage
colFromCell(object, cell)
rowFromCell(object, cell)
rowColFromCell(object, cell)
Arguments
cell cell number(s)
Details
The colFromCell and similar functions accept a single value, or a vector or list of these values, Cell
numbers start at 1 in the upper left corner, and increase from left to right, and then from top to
Value
row of column number(s)
See Also
cellFrom
Examples
colFromCell(r, c(5,15))
rowFromCell(r, c(5,15))
rowColFromCell(r, c(5,15))
170 sampleRandom
SampleInt Sample integer values
Description
Take a random sample from a range of integer values between 1 and n. Its purpose is similar to that
of sample, but that function fails when n is very large.
Usage
sampleInt(n, size, replace=FALSE)
Arguments
n Positive number (integer); the number of items to choose from
size Non-negative integer; the number of items to choose
replace Logical. Should sampling be with replacement?
Value
vector of integer numbers
Examples
sampleInt(1e+12, 10)
# this may fail:
# sample.int(1e+12, 10)
# sample.int(1e+9, 10)
sampleRandom Random sample
Description
Take a random sample from the cell values of a Raster* object (without replacement).
Usage
sampleRandom(x, size, na.rm=TRUE, ext=NULL,
cells=FALSE, rowcol=FALSE, xy=FALSE, sp=FALSE, asRaster=FALSE, ...)
sampleRegular 171
Arguments
x Raster* object
size positive integer giving the number of items to choose
na.rm logical. If TRUE (the default), NA values are removed from random sample
ext Extent object. To limit regular sampling to the area within the extent
cells logical. If TRUE, sampled cell numbers are also returned
rowcol logical. If TRUE, sampled row and column numbers are also returned
xy logical. If TRUE, coordinates of sampled cells are also returned
sp logical. If TRUE, a SpatialPointsDataFrame is returned
asRaster logical. If TRUE, a Raster* object is returned with random cells with values, all
other cells with NA
... Additional arguments as in writeRaster. Only relevant when asRaster=TRUE
Details
With argument na.rm=TRUE, the returned sample may be smaller than requested
Value
A vector, matrix (if cells=TRUE or x is a multi-layered object), or a SpatialPointsDataFrame (if
sp=TRUE )
See Also
sampleRegular, sampleStratified
Examples
sampleRandom(r, size=10)
s <- stack(r, r)
sampleRandom(s, size=5, cells=TRUE, sp=TRUE)
sampleRegular Regular sample
Description
Take a systematic sample from a Raster* object.
Usage
sampleRegular(x, size, ext=NULL, cells=FALSE, xy=FALSE, asRaster=FALSE,
sp=FALSE, useGDAL=FALSE, ...)
172 sampleStratied
Arguments
x Raster object
size positive integer giving the number of items to choose.
ext Extent. To limit regular sampling to the area within that box
cells Logical. Also return sampled cell numbers (if asRaster=FALSE)
xy logical. If TRUE, coordinates of sampled cells are also returned
asRaster Logical. If TRUE, a RasterLayer or RasterBrick is returned, rather then the sam-
pled values
useGDAL Logical. If TRUE, GDAL is used to sample in some cases. This is quicker, but
can result in values for a different set of cells. Only for rasters that are accessed
via rgdal, are not rotated, and when cells=FALSE
... Additional arguments. None implemented
Value
A vector (single layer object), matrix (multi-layered object; or if cells=TRUE, or xy=TRUE), Raster*
object (if asRaster=TRUE), or SpatialPointsDataFrame (if sp=TRUE)
See Also
sampleRandom, sampleStratied
Examples
v <- sampleRegular(r, size=100)
x <- sampleRegular(r, size=100, asRaster=TRUE)
sampleStratified Stratied random sample
Description
Take a stratied random sample from the cell values of a Raster* object (without replacement).
An attempt is made to sample size cells from each stratum. The values in the RasterLayer x are
rounded to integers; with each value representing a stratum.
Usage
sampleStratified(x, size, exp=10, na.rm=TRUE, xy=FALSE, ext=NULL, sp=FALSE, ...)
scale 173
Arguments
x Raster* object, with values (rounded to integers) representing strata
size positive integer giving the number of items to choose
exp numeric >= 1. Expansion factor that is multiplied with size to get an intial
sample. Can be increased when you get an insufcient number of samples for
small strata
na.rm logical. If TRUE (the default), NA values are removed from random sample
xy logical. Return coordinates of cells rather than cell numbers
ext Extent object. To limit regular sampling to the area within the extent
... Additional arguments. None implemented
Details
The function may not work well when the size (number of cells) of some strata is relatively small.
Value
matrix of cell numbers (and optionally coordinates) by stratum
See Also
sampleRandom, sampleRegular
Examples
names(r) <- stratum
r[] <- round((runif(ncell(r))+0.5)*3)
sampleStratified(r, size=3)
scale Scale values
Description
Center and/or scale raster data
Usage
scale(x, center=TRUE, scale=TRUE)
174 scalebar
Arguments
x Raster* object
center logical or numeric. If TRUE, centering is done by subtracting the layer means
(omitting NAs), and if FALSE, no centering is done. If center is a numeric vector
with length equal to the nlayers(x), then each layer of x has the corresponding
value from center subtracted from it.
scale logical or numeric. If TRUE, scaling is done by dividing the (centered) layers
of x by their standard deviations if center is TRUE, and the root mean square
otherwise. If scale is FALSE, no scaling is done. If scale is a numeric vector
with length equal to nlayers(x), each layer of x is divided by the corresponding
value. Scaling is done after centering.
Value
Raster* object
See Also
scale
Examples
bs <- scale(b)
scalebar scalebar
Description
Add a scalebar to a plot
Usage
scalebar(d, xy = NULL, type = "line", divs = 2, below = "",
lonlat = NULL, label, adj=c(0.5, -0.5), lwd = 2, ...)
Arguments
d distance covered by scalebar
xy x and y coordinate to place the plot. Can be NULL. Use xy=click() to make
this interactive
type "line" or "bar"
divs Number of divisions for a bar type. 2 or 4
below Text to go below scalebar (e.g., "kilometers")
select 175
lonlat Logical or NULL. If logical, TRUE indicates if the plot is using longitude/latitude
coordinates. If NULL this is guessed from the plots coordinates
adj adjustment for text placement
label Vector of three numbers to label the scale bar (beginning, midpoint, end)
lwd line width for the "line" type scalebar
... arguments to be passed to other methods
Value
None. Use for side effect of a scalebar added to a plot
Author(s)
Robert J. Hijmans; partly based on a function by Josh Gray
See Also
plot
Examples
r <- raster(f)
plot(r)
scalebar(1000)
scalebar(1000, xy=c(178000, 333500), type=bar, divs=4)
select Geometric subsetting
Description
Geometrically subset Raster* or Spatial* objects by drawing on a plot (map).
Usage
select(x, use=rec, ...)
select(x, use=rec, draw=TRUE, col=cyan, size=2, ...)
176 select
Arguments
x Raster*, SpatialPoints*, SpatialLines*, or SpatialPolygons*
use character: rec or pol. To use a rectangle or a polygon for selecting
draw logical. Add the selected features to the plot?
col color to use to draw the selected features (when draw=TRUE)
size integer > 0. Size to draw the selected features with (when draw=TRUE))
Value
Raster* or Spatial* object
See Also
click, crop
Examples
## Not run:
# select a subset of a RasterLayer
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
plot(r)
s <- select(r) # now click on the map twice
# plot the selection on a new canvas:
x11()
plot(s)
# select a subset of a SpatialPolygons object
p1 <- rbind(c(-180,-20), c(-140,55), c(10, 0), c(-140,-60), c(-180,-20))
hole <- rbind(c(-150,-20), c(-100,-10), c(-110,20), c(-150,-20))
p2 <- rbind(c(-10,0), c(140,60), c(160,0), c(140,-55), c(-10,0))
p3 <- rbind(c(-125,0), c(0,60), c(40,5), c(15,-45), c(-125,0))
pols <- SpatialPolygons( list( Polygons(list(Polygon(p1), Polygon(hole)), 1),
Polygons(list(Polygon(p2)), 2), Polygons(list(Polygon(p3)), 3)))
pols@polygons[[1]]@Polygons[[2]]@hole <- TRUE
plot(pols, col=rainbow(3))
ps <- select(pols) # now click on the map twice
ps
## End(Not run)
setExtent 177
setExtent Set the extent of a RasterLayer
Description
setExtent sets the extent of a Raster* object. Either by providing a new Extent object or by setting
the extreme coordinates one by one.
Usage
setExtent(x, ext, keepres=FALSE, snap=FALSE)
extent(x) <- value
Arguments
x A Raster* object
ext An object of class Extent (which you can create with extent, or an object that
has an extent (e.g. a Raster* or Spatial* object) )
keepres logical. If TRUE, the resolution of the cells will stay the same after adjusting
the bounding box (by adjusting the number of rows and columns). If FALSE,
the number of rows and columns will stay the same, and the resolution will be
adjusted.
snap logical. If TRUE, the extent is adjusted so that the cells of the input and output
RasterLayer are aligned
value An object of class Extent (which you can create with extent )
Value
a Raster* object
See Also
extent, Extent-class
Examples
r <- raster()
bb <- extent(-10, 10, -20, 20)
extent(r) <- bb
r <- setExtent(r, bb, keepres=TRUE)
178 setValues
setMinMax Compute min and max values
Description
The minimum and maximum value of a RasterLayer are computed (from a le on disk if necessary)
and stored in the returned Raster* object.
Usage
setMinMax(x)
Arguments
x A Raster* object
Value
a Raster* object
See Also
getValues
Examples
r
r <- setMinMax(r)
r
setValues Set values of a Raster object
Description
You can use the setValues function to assign values to a Raster* object. While you can access
the values slot of the objects directly, you would do that at your own peril because when setting
values, multiple slots need to be changed; which is what these functions do.
setValues 179
Usage
setValues(x, values, ...)
setValues(x, values, layer=-1, ...)
setValues(x, values, layer=-1, ...)
## S4 method for signature RasterLayerSparse
setValues(x, values, index=NULL, ...)
values(x) <- value
Arguments
x A Raster*
values Cell values to associate with the Raster* object. There should be values for all
cells
value Cell values to associate with the Raster* object. There should be values for all
cells
layer Layer number (only relevant for RasterBrick and RasterStack objects). If miss-
ing, the values of all layers is set
index Cell numbers corresponding to the values
... Additional arguments (none implemented)
Value
a Raster* object
See Also
replacement
Examples
vals <- 1:ncell(r)
r <- setValues(r, vals)
# equivalent to
r[] <- vals
180 shift
shapefile Read or write a shapele
Description
Reading and writing of "ESRI shapele" format spatial data. Only the three vector types (points,
lines, and polygons) can be stored in shapeles. These are simple wrapper functions around
readOGR and writeOGR (rgdal package).
Usage
shapefile(x, stringsAsFactors=FALSE, verbose=FALSE, ...)
shapefile(x, filename=, overwrite=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
x character (a le name, when reading a shapele) or Spatial* object (when writ-
ing a shapele)
filename character. Filename to write a shapele
overwrite Logical. Overwrite existing shapele?
verbose Logical. If TRUE, information about the le is printed
stringsAsFactors
Logical. If TRUE, strings are converted to factors
... Additional arguments passed to rgdal functions readOGR or writeOGR
Value
Spatial*DataFrame (reading). Nothing is returned when writing a shapele.
shift Shift
Description
Shift the location of a Raster* of vector type Spatial* object in the x and/or y direction
Slope and aspect 181
Usage
shift(object, x=0, y=0, filename=, ...)
shift(object, x=0, y=0, ...)
Arguments
object Raster* or Spatial* object
x numeric. The shift in horizontal direction
y numeric. The shift in vertical direction
filename character le name (optional)
... if object is a Raster* object: additional arguments as for writeRaster
Value
Same object type as x
See Also
flip, rotate, and the elide function in the maptools package
Examples
r <- raster()
r <- shift(r, x=1, y=-1)
Slope and aspect Slope and aspect
Description
This is a deprecated function. Use terrain instead.
Usage
slopeAspect(dem, filename=, out=c(slope, aspect), unit=radians,
neighbors=8, flatAspect, ...)
182 spplot
Arguments
dem RasterLayer object with elevation values in map units, or in meters when the crs
is longitude/latitude
filename Character. Filename. optional
out Character vector containing one or more of these options: slope, aspect
unit Character. degrees or radians
neighbors Integer. Indicating how many neighboring cells to use to compute slope for any
cell. Either 8 (queen case) or 4 (rook case), see Details
flatAspect Numeric or NA. What value to use for aspect when slope is zero (and hence the
aspect is undened)? The default value is 90 degrees (or 0.5*pi radians)
... Standard additional arguments for writing RasterLayer les
See Also
terrain
spplot Use spplot to plot a Raster* object
Description
A wrapper function around spplot (sp package). With spplot it is easy to map several layers with
a single legend for all maps. ssplot is itself a wrapper around the levelplot function in the lattice
package, and see the help for these functions for additional options.
One of the advantages of these wrapper functions is the additional maxpixels argument to sample
large Raster objects for faster drawing.
Methods
spplot(obj, ..., maxpixels=50000, as.table=TRUE)
obj A Raster* object
... Any argument that can be passed to spplot and levelplot
See Also
plot, plotRGB
The rasterVis package has more advanced plotting methods for Raster objects
Examples
stack 183
s <- stack(r, r*2)
names(s) <- c(meuse, meuse x 2)
spplot(s)
stack Create a RasterStack object
Description
A RasterStack is a collection of RasterLayer objects with the same spatial extent and resolution. A
RasterStack can be created from RasterLayer objects, or from raster les, or both. It can also be
created from SpatialPixels or SpatialGrid objects.
Usage
stack(x, ..., bands=NULL, varname="", native=FALSE, RAT=TRUE, quick=FALSE)
stack(x, ...)
stack(x)
## S4 method for signature list
stack(x, bands=NULL, native=FALSE, RAT=TRUE, ...)
Arguments
x lename (character), Raster* object, missing (to create an empty RasterStack),
SpatialGrid*, SpatialPixels*, or list (of lenames and/or Raster* objects). If x
is a list, additional arguments ... are ignored
bands integer. which bands (layers) of the le should be used (default is all layers)
native logical. If TRUE native drivers are used instead of gdal drivers (where available,
such as for BIL and Arc-ASCII les)
RAT logical. If TRUE a raster attribute table is created for les that have one
quick logical. If TRUE the extent and resolution of the objects are not compared. This
speeds up the creation of the RasteStack but should be use with great caution.
Only use this option when you are absolutely sure that all the data in all the les
are aligned, and you need to create RasterStack for many (>100) les
varname character. To select the variable of interest in a NetCDF le (see raster
... additional lenames or Raster* objects
184 stackApply
Value
RasterStack
See Also
addLayer, dropLayer, raster, brick
Examples
# file with one layer
fn <- system.file("external/test.grd", package="raster")
s <- stack(fn, fn)
r <- raster(fn)
s <- stack(r, fn)
nlayers(s)
# file with three layers
slogo <- stack(system.file("external/rlogo.grd", package="raster"))
nlayers(slogo)
slogo
stackApply Apply a function on subsets of a RasterStack or RasterBrick
Description
Apply a function on subsets of a RasterStack or RasterBrick. The layers to be combined are indi-
cated with the vector indices. The function used should return a single value, and the number of
layers in the output Raster* equals the number of unique values in indices. For example, if you
have a RasterStack with 6 layers, you can use indices=c(1,1,1,2,2,2) and fun=sum. This will
return a RasterBrick with two layers. The rst layer is the sum of the rst three layers in the input
RasterStack, and the second layer is the sum of the last three layers in the input RasterStack. See
calc if you want to use a function that returns multiple layers based on _all_ layers in the Raster*
object.
Usage
stackApply(x, indices, fun, filename=, na.rm=TRUE, ...)
Arguments
x A Raster* object
indices A vector of length nlayers(x) containing all integer values between 1 and the
number of layers of the output Raster*
fun A function that returns a single value, e.g. mean or min, and that takes an na.rm
argument
na.rm Logical. If TRUE, NA cells are removed from calculations
stackSave 185
filename Character. Optional output lename
Value
A new Raster* object, and in some cases the side effect of a new le on disk.
See Also
calc, stackSelect
Examples
r[]=1:ncell(r)
s <- brick(r,r,r,r,r,r)
s <- s * 1:6
b1 <- stackApply(s, indices=c(1,1,1,2,2,2), fun=sum)
b1
b2 <- stackApply(s, indices=c(1,2,3,1,2,3), fun=sum)
b2
stackSave Save or open a RasterStack le
Description
A RasterStack is a collection of RasterLayers with the same spatial extent and resolution. They can
be created from RasterLayer objects, or from le names. These two functions allow you to save the
references to raster les and recreate a rasterStack object later. They only work if the RasterStack
points to layers that have their values on disk. The values are not saved, only the references to the
les.
Usage
stackOpen(stackfile)
stackSave(x, filename)
Arguments
stackfile Filename for the RasterStack (to save it on disk)
x RasterStack object
filename File name
Details
When a RasterStack is saved to a le, only pointers (lenames) to raster datasets are saved, not the
data. If the name or location of a raster le changes, the RasterStack becomes invalid.
186 stackSelect
Value
RasterStack object
See Also
writeRaster, stack, addLayer
Examples
s <- stack(c(file, file))
s <- stackSave(s, "mystack")
# note that filename adds an extension .stk to a stackfile
## Not run:
s2 <- stackOpen("mystack.stk")
s2
## End(Not run)
stackSelect Select cell values from a multi-layer Raster* object
Description
Use a Raster* object to select cell values from different layers in a multi-layer Raster* object. The
object to select values y should have cell values between 1 and nlayers(x). The values of y are
rounded.
See extract for extraction of values by cell, point, or otherwise.
Usage
## S4 method for signature RasterStackBrick,Raster
stackSelect(x, y, recycle=FALSE, type=index, filename=, ...)
Arguments
x RasterStack or RasterBrick object
y Raster* object
recycle Logical. Recursively select values (default = FALSE. Only relevant if y has mul-
tiple layers. E.g. if x has 12 layers, and y has 4 layers, the indices of the y layers
are used three times.
type Character. Only relevant when recycle=TRUE. Can be index or truefalse. If it
is index, the cell values of y should represent layer numbers. If it is truefalse
layer numbers are indicated by 0 (not used, NA returned) and 1 (used)
stretch 187
Value
Raster* object
See Also
stackApply, extract
Examples
r[] <- 1
s <- stack(r, r+2, r+5)
r[] <- round((runif(ncell(r)))*3)
x <- stackSelect(s, r)
stretch Stretch
Description
Linear strech of values in a Raster object
Usage
stretch(x, minv=0, maxv=255, minq=0, maxq=1, filename=, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
minv numeric >= 0 and smaller than maxv. lower bound of streched value
maxv numeric <= 255 and larger than maxv. upper bound of streched value
minq numeric >= 0 and smaller than maxq. lower quitile bound of original value
maxq numeric <= 1 and larger than minq. upper quitile bound of original value
filename character. Filename for the output Raster object (optional)
Value
Raster* object
See Also
stretch argument in plotRGB
188 subset
Examples
r[] <- 1:100 * 10
stretch(r)
s <- stack(r, r*2)
stretch(s)
subset Subset layers in a Raster* object
Description
Extract a set of layers from a RasterStack or RasterBrick object.
Usage
subset(x, subset, drop=TRUE, filename=, ...)
subset(x, subset, drop=TRUE, filename=, ...)
Arguments
x RasterBrick or RasterStack object
subset integer or character. Should indicate the layers (represented as integer or by their
name)
drop If TRUE, a selection of a single layer will be returned as a RasterLayer
Value
Raster* object
See Also
dropLayer
substitute 189
Examples
s <- stack(system.file("external/rlogo.grd", package="raster"))
sel <- subset(s, 2:3)
# Note that this is equivalent to
sel2 <- s[[2:3]]
# and in this particular case:
sel3 <- dropLayer(s, 1)
nlayers(s)
nlayers(sel)
# effect of drop=FALSE when selecting a single layer
sel <- subset(s, 2)
class(sel)
sel <- subset(s, 2, drop=FALSE)
class(sel)
substitute Substitute values in a Raster* object
Description
Substitute (replace) values in a Raster* object with values in a data.frame. The data.frame
should have a column to identify the key (ID) to match with the cell values of the Raster* object,
and one or more columns with replacement values. By default these are the rst and second column
but you can specify other columns with arguments by and which. It is possible to match one table
to multiple layers, or to use multiple layers as a single key, but not both.
Usage
## S4 method for signature Raster,data.frame
subs(x, y, by=1, which=2, subsWithNA=TRUE, filename=, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
y data.frame
by column number(s) or name(s) identifying the key (ID) to match rows in data.frame
y to values of the Raster object
which column number or name that has the new (replacement) values
subsWithNA logical. If TRUE values that are not matched become NA. If FALSE, they retain
their original value (which could also be NA). This latter option is handy when
you want to replace only one or a few values. It cannot be used when x has
multiple layers
190 Summary
Details
You could obtain the same result with reclassify, but subs is more efcient for simple replace-
ment. Use reclassify if you want to replace ranges of values with new values.
You can also replace values using a tted model. E.g. t a model to glm or loess and then call
predict
Value
Raster object
See Also
reclassify, cut
Examples
r[] <- round(runif(ncell(r)) * 10)
df <- data.frame(id=2:8, v=c(10,10,11,11,12:14))
x <- subs(r, df)
x2 <- subs(r, df, subsWithNA=FALSE)
df$v2 <- df$v * 10
x3 <- subs(r, df, which=2:3)
s <- stack(r, r*3)
names(s) <- c(first, second)
x4 <- subs(s, df)
x5 <- subs(s, df, which=2:3)
Summary Summary
Description
Summarize a Raster* object. A sample is used for very large les.
Usage
summary(object, maxsamp=100000, ...)
Summary-methods 191
Arguments
maxsamp positive integer. Sample size used for large datasets
Value
matrix with (an estimate of) the median, minimumand maximumvalues, the rst and third quartiles,
and the number of cells with NA values
See Also
cellStats, link[raster]{quantile}
Summary-methods Summary methods
Description
The following summary methods are available for Raster* objects:
mean, max, min, range, prod, sum, any, all
All methods take na.rm as an additional logical argument. Default is na.rm=FALSE. If TRUE, NA
values are removed from calculations. These methods compute a summary statistic based on cell
values of RasterLayers and the result of these methods is always a single RasterLayer (except for
range, which returns a RasterBrick with two layers). See calc for functions not included here (e.g.
median) or any other custom functions.
You can mix RasterLayer, RasterStack and RasterBrick objects with single numeric or logical val-
ues. However, because generic functions are used, the method applied is chosen based on the rst
argument: x. This means that if r is a RasterLayer object, mean(r, 5) will work, but mean(5, r)
will not work.
To summarize all cells within a single RasterLayer, see cellStats and maxValue and minValue
Value
a RasterLayer
See Also
calc
192 symdif
Examples
r <- max(r1, r2, r3)
r <- range(r1, r2, r3, 1.2)
s <- stack(r1, r2, r3)
r <- mean(s, 2)
symdif Symetrical difference
Description
Symetrical difference of SpatialPolygons* objects
Usage
symdif(x, y, ...)
Arguments
x SpatialPolygons* object
y SpatialPolygons* object
... Additional SpatialPolygons* object(s)
Value
SpatialPolygons*
Author(s)
Robert J. Hijmans
See Also
erase
terrain 193
Examples
#SpatialPolygons
sd <- symdif(p, b)
plot(sd, col=red)
}
terrain Terrain characteristics
Description
Compute slope, aspect and other terrain characteristics from a raster with elevation data. The ele-
vation data should be in map units (typically meter) for projected (planar) raster data. They should
be in meters when the coordinate reference system (CRS) is longitude/latitude.
This function is the replacement for the deprecated function slopeAspect
Usage
terrain(x, opt=slope, unit=radians, neighbors=8, filename=, ...)
Arguments
x RasterLayer object with elevation values. Values should have the same unit as
the map units, or in meters when the crs is longitude/latitude
opt Character vector containing one or more of these options: slope, aspect, TPI,
TRI, roughness, owdir (see Details)
unit Character. degrees or radians. Only relevant for slope and aspect
neighbors Integer. Indicating how many neighboring cells to use to compute slope for any
cell. Either 8 (queen case) or 4 (rook case). Only used for slope and aspect, see
Details
filename Character. Filename. optional
... Standard additional arguments for writing Raster* objects to le
Details
When neighbors=4, slope and aspect are computed according to Fleming and Hoffer (1979) and
Ritter (1987). When neigbors=8, slope and aspect are computed according to Horn (1981). The
Horn algorithm may be best for rough surfaces, and the Fleming and Hoffer algorithm may be
better for smoother surfaces (Jones, 1997; Burrough and McDonnell, 1998). If slope = 0, aspect is
set to 0.5*pi radians (or 90 degrees if unit=degrees). When computing slope or aspect, the CRS
(projection) of the RasterLayer x must be known (may not be NA), to be able to safely differentiate
between planar and longitude/latitude data.
194 terrain
owdir returns the ow direction (of water), i.e. the direction of the greatest drop in elevation (or
the smallest rise if all neighbors are higher). They are encoded as powers of 2 (0 to 7). The cell to
the right of the focal cell x is 1, the one below that is 2, and so on:
32 64 128
16 x 1
8 4 2
If two cells have the same drop in elevation, a random cell is picked. That is not ideal as it may
prevent the creation of connected ow networks. ArcGIS implements the approach of Greenlee
(1987) and I might adopt that in the future.
The terrain indices are according to Wilson et al. (2007), as in gdaldem. TRI (Terrain Ruggedness
Index) is the mean of the absolute differences between the value of a cell and the value of its 8
surrounding cells. TPI (Topographic Position Index) is the difference between the value of a cell
and the mean value of its 8 surrounding cells. Roughness is the difference between the maximum
and the minimum value of a cell and its 8 surrounding cells.
Such measures can also be computed with the focal function:
f <- matrix(1, nrow=3, ncol=3)
TRI <- focal(x, w=f, fun=function(x, ...) sum(abs(x[-5]-x[5]))/8, pad=TRUE, padValue=NA)
TPI <- focal(x, w=f, fun=function(x, ...) x[5] - mean(x[-5]), pad=TRUE, padValue=NA)
rough <- focal(x, w=f, fun=function(x, ...) max(x) - min(x), pad=TRUE, padValue=NA, na.rm=TRUE)
References
Burrough, P., and R.A. McDonnell, 1998. Principles of Geographical Information Systems. Oxford
University Press.
Fleming, M.D. and Hoffer, R.M., 1979. Machine processing of landsat MSS data and DMA to-
pographic data for forest cover type mapping. LARS Technical Report 062879. Laboratory for
Applications of Remote Sensing, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.
Greenlee, D.D., 1987. Raster and vector processing for scanned linework. Photogrammetric Engi-
neering and Remote Sensing 53:1383-1387
Horn, B.K.P., 1981. Hill shading and the reectance map. Proceedings of the IEEE 69:14-47
Jones, K.H., 1998. A comparison of algorithms used to compute hill slope as a property of the
DEM. Computers & Geosciences 24: 315-323
Ritter, P., 1987. A vector-based slope and aspect generation algorithm. Photogrammetric Engineer-
ing and Remote Sensing 53: 1109-1111
Wilson, M.F.J., OConnell, B., Brown, C., Guinan, J.C., Grehan, A.J., 2007. Multiscale terrain anal-
ysis of multibeam bathymetry data for habitat mapping on the continental slope. Marine Geodesy
30: 3-35.
See Also
hillShade
text 195
Examples
## Not run:
elevation <- getData(alt, country=CHE)
x <- terrain(elevation, opt=c(slope, aspect), unit=degrees)
plot(x)
# TPI for different neighborhood size:
tpiw <- function(x, w=5) {
m <- matrix(1/(w^2-1), nc=w, nr=w)
m[ceiling(0.5 * length(m))] <- 0
f <- focal(x, m)
x - f
}
tpi5 <- tpiw(elevation, w=5)
## End(Not run)
text Add labels to a map
Description
Plots labels, that is a textual (rather than color) representation of values, on top an existing plot
(map).
Usage
text(x, labels, digits=0, fun=NULL, ...)
text(x, labels, digits=0, fun=NULL, ...)
text(x, labels, ...)
text(x, labels, ...)
Arguments
x Raster*, SpatialPoints* or SpatialPolygons* object
labels Character. Optional. Vector of labels with length(x) or a variable name from
names(x)
digits Integer. how many digits should be used?
fun Function to subset the values plotted (as in rasterToPoints)
... Additional arguments to pass to graphics function text
196 transpose
See Also
text, plot
Examples
plot(r)
text(r)
plot(r, col=bpy.colors(5))
text(r, fun=function(x){x<5 | x>12}, col=c(red, white), vfont=c("sans serif", "bold"), cex=2)
transpose Transpose
Description
Transpose a Raster* object
Usage
t(x)
Arguments
x a Raster* object
Value
See Also
transpose: flip, rotate
Examples
r[] <- 1:ncell(r)
rt <- t(r)
trim 197
trim Trim
Description
Trim (shrink) a Raster* object by removing outer rows and columns that all have the same value
(e.g. NA).
Or remove the whitespace before or after a string of characters (or a matrix, or the chracter values
in a data.frame).
Usage
trim(x, padding=0, values=NA, filename=, ...)
trim(x, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object or a character string
values numeric. Value(s) based on which a Raster* should be trimmed
padding integer. Number of outer rows/columns to keep
... If x is a Raster* object: additional arguments as for writeRaster
Value
A RasterLayer or RasterBrick object (if x is a Raster* object) or a character string (if x is a character
string).
Author(s)
Examples
r[39:49] <- 1
r[113:155] <- 2
r[200] <- 6
s <- trim(r)
trim(" hi folks ")
198 union
union Union Extent or SpatialPolygons* objects
Description
Extent objects: Objects are combined into their union. See crop and extend to union a Raster
object with an Extent object.
SpatialPolygons* objects. Overlapping polygons are intersected, other spatial objects are appended.
Tabular attributes are joined.
Usage
## S4 method for signature Extent,Extent
union(x, y)
union(x, y)
Arguments
x Extent or SpatialPolygons* object
y Same as x
Value
Extent or SpatialPolygons object
See Also
intersect, extent, setExtent
merge for merging a data.frame with attributes of Spatial objects and +,SpatialPolygons,SpatialPolygons-method
for an algebraic notation
Examples
e1 <- extent(-10, 10, -20, 20)
e2 <- extent(0, 20, -40, 5)
union(e1, e2)
#SpatialPolygons
p0 <- aggregate(p)
u <- union(p0, b)
plot(u, col=2:4)
}
unique 199
unique Unique values
Description
This function returns the unique values in a RasterLayer, or the unique combinations of values in a
multi-layer raster object.
Usage
## S4 method for signature RasterLayer,missing
unique(x, incomparables=FALSE, ...)
unique(x, incomparables=FALSE, ...)
Arguments
x Raster object
incomparables ignored. Must be missing
... additional arguments. One implemented: progress, as in writeRaster
Value
vector or matrix
See Also
unique
Examples
r[] <- round(runif(ncell(r))*10)
unique(r)
unique(stack(r, round(r/2)))
200 update
unstack Unstack
Description
Create a list of RasterLayer objects from a RasterStack or RasterBrick
Usage
unstack(x, ...)
Arguments
x a RasterStack object
... not used. further arguments passed to or from other methods
Value
A list of RasterLayer objects
See Also
stack
Examples
s <- stack(file, file)
list1 <- unstack(s)
b <- brick(s)
list2 <- unstack(b)
update Update raster cells of les (on disk)
Description
Update cell values of a le (i.e., cell values on disk) associated with a RasterLayer or RasterBrick.
User beware: this function _will_ make changes to your le (rst make a copy if you are not sure
what you are doing).
Writing starts at a cell number cell. You can write a vector of values (in cell order), or a matrix.
You can also provide a vector of cell numbers (of the same length as vector v) to update individual
cells.
See writeFormats for supported formats.
validCell 201
Usage
update(object, ...)
Arguments
object RasterLayer or RasterBrick that is associated with a le
... Additional arguments.
v - vector or matrix with new values
cell - cell from where to start writing. Or a vector of cell numbers if v is a
vector of the same length.
band - band (layer) to update (for RasterBrick objects).
Value
Examples
# setting up an example RasterLayer with file
r[] = 0
r <- writeRaster(r, test, overwrite=TRUE, datatype=INT2S)
as.matrix(r)
# update with a vector starting a cell
r <- update(r, v=rep(1, 5), cell=6)
# 99.99 gets rounded because this is an integer file
r <- update(r, v=9.99, cell=50)
as.matrix(r)
# update with a vector of values and matching vector of cell numbers
r <- update(r, v=5:1, cell=c(5,15,25,35,45))
as.matrix(r)
# updating with a marix, anchored at a cell number
m = matrix(1:10, ncol=2)
r <- update(r, v=m, cell=2)
as.matrix(r)
validCell Validity of a cell, column or row number
Description
Simple helper functions to determine if a row, column or cell number is valid for a certain Raster*
object
202 validNames
Usage
validCell(object, cell)
validCol(object, colnr)
validRow(object, rownr)
Arguments
cell cell number(s)
colnr column number; or vector of column numbers
rownr row number; or vector of row numbers
Value
logical value
Examples
#using a new default raster (1 degree global)
r <- raster()
validCell(r, c(-1, 0, 1))
validRow(r, c(-1, 1, 100, 10000))
validNames Create valid names
Description
Create a set of valid names (trimmed, no duplicates, not starting with a number).
Usage
validNames(x, prefix=layer)
Arguments
x character
prefix character string used if x is empty
Value
character
See Also
make.names
weighted.mean 203
Examples
validNames(c(a, a, , 1, NA, b, a))
weighted.mean Weighted mean of rasters
Description
Computes the weighted mean for each cell of a number or raster layers. The weights can be spatially
variable or not.
Usage
## S4 method for signature RasterStackBrick,vector
weighted.mean(x, w, na.rm=FALSE, filename=, ...)
## S4 method for signature RasterStackBrick,RasterStackBrick
weighted.mean(x, w, na.rm=FALSE,filename=, ...)
Arguments
x RasterStack or RasterBrick
w Avector of weights (one number for each layer), or for spatially variable weights,
a RasterStack or RasterBrick with weights (should have the same extent, reso-
lution and number of layers as x)
na.rm Logical. Should missing values be removed?
Value
RasterLayer
See Also
Summary-methods, weighted.mean
Examples
# give least weight to first layer, most to last layer
wm1 <- weighted.mean(b, w=1:3)
# spatially varying weights
# weigh by column number
w1 <- init(b, v=col)
204 which
# weigh by row number
w2 <- init(b, v=row)
w <- stack(w1, w2, w2)
wm2 <- weighted.mean(b, w=w)
which Which cells are TRUE?
Description
Which returns a RasterLayer with TRUE or FALSE setting cells that are NA to FALSE (unless na.rm=FALSE).
If the RasterLayer has numbers, all values that are 0 become FALSE and all other values become
TRUE. The function can also return the cell numbers that are TRUE
Usage
Which(x, cells=FALSE, na.rm=TRUE, ...)
Arguments
x RasterLayer
cells logical. If TRUE, cell numbers are returned, otherwise a RasterLayer is returned
na.rm logical. If TRUE, NA values are treated as FALSE, otherwise they remain NA (only
when cells=FALSE)
... Additional arguments (none implemented)
Value
RasterLayer
See Also
which.max, which.min
Examples
set.seed(0)
r[r < 0.2 ] <- 0
r[r > 0.8] <- 1
r[r > 0 & r < 1 ] <- 0.5
Which(r, cells=TRUE)
Which(r > 0.5, cells=TRUE)
which.min 205
s1 <- r > 0.5
s2 <- Which(r > 0.5)
s1[1:15]
s2[1:15]
# this expression
x1 <- Which(r, na.rm=FALSE)
# is the inverse of
x2 <- r==0
which.min Where is the min or max value?
Description
Which cells have the minumum / maximum value (for a RasterLayer), or which layer has the mini-
mum/maximum value (for a RasterStack or RasterBrick)?
Usage
which.min(x)
which.max(x)
Arguments
x Raster* object
Value
vector of cell numbers (if x is a RasterLayer) or (if x is a RasterStack or RasterBrick) a RasterLayer
giving the number of the rst layer with the minimum or maximum value for a cell
See Also
Which
Examples
## Not run:
r <- which.min(b)
i <- which.min(b[[3]])
xy <- xyFromCell(b, i)
plot(b[[3]])
points(xy)
## End(Not run)
206 writeRaster
writeFormats File types for writing
Description
List supported le types for writing RasterLayer values to disk.
When a function writes a le to disk, the le format is determined by the format= argument if
supplied, or else by the le extension (if the extension is known). If other cases the default format is
used. The factory-fresh default format is raster, but this can be changed using rasterOptions.
Usage
writeFormats()
Details
writeFormats returns a matrix of the le formats (the "drivers") that are supported.
Supported formats include:
File type Long name default extension Multiband support
raster Native raster package format .grd Yes
ascii ESRI Ascii .asc No
SAGA SAGA GIS .sdat No
IDRISI IDRISI .rst No
CDF netCDF (requires ncdf) .nc Yes
GTiff GeoTiff (requires rgdal) .tif Yes
ENVI ENVI .hdr Labelled .envi Yes
EHdr ESRI .hdr Labelled .bil Yes
HFA Erdas Imagine Images (.img) .img Yes
See Also
GDALDriver-class
Examples
writeFormats()
writeRaster Write raster data to a le
writeRaster 207
Description
Write an entire Raster* object to a le, using one of the many supported formats. See writeValues
for writing in chunks (e.g. by row).
When writing a le to disk, the le format is determined by the format= argument if supplied, or
else by the le extension (if the extension is known). If other cases the default format is used. The
default format is raster, but this setting can be changed (see rasterOptions).
Usage
## S4 method for signature RasterLayer,character
writeRaster(x, filename, format, ...)
## S4 method for signature RasterStackBrick,character
writeRaster(x, filename, format, bylayer, suffix=numbers, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
format Character. Output le type. See writeFormats. If this argument is not pro-
vided, it is attempted to infer it from the lename extension. If that fails, the
default format is used. The default format is raster, but this can be changed
using rasterOptions
... Additional arguments:
datatypeCharacter. Output data type (e.g. INT2S or FLT4S). See dataType.
If no datatype is specied, FLT4S is used, unless this default value was changed
with rasterOptions
overwrite: Logical. If TRUE, "lename" will be overwritten if it exists
NAflag: Numeric. To overwrite the default value used to represent NA in a le
bandorder: Character. BIL, BIP, or BSQ. For native le formats only.
For some other formats you can use the options argument (see below)
options: Character. File format specic GDAL options. E.g., when writing a
geotiff le you can use: options=c("COMPRESS=NONE", "TFW=YES")
You can use options=c("PROFILE=BASELINE") to create a plain tif with no
GeoTIFF tags. This can be useful when writing les to be read by applications
intolerant of unrecognised tags. (see http://www.gdal.org/frmt_gtiff.html)
NetCDF les have the following additional, optional, arguments: varname,
varunit, longname, xname, yname, zname, zunit
bylayer if TRUE, write a seperate le for each layer
suffix numbers or names to determine the sufx that each le gets when bylayer=TRUE;
either a number between 1 and nlayers(x) or names(x)
Details
See writeFormats for supported le types ("formats", "drivers").
208 writeRaster
The rgdal package is needed, except for these le formats: raster, BIL, BIP, BSQ, SAGA,
ascii, IDRISI, and CDF. Some of these formats can be used with or without rgdal (idrisi,
SAGA, ascii). You need the ncdf library for the CDF format.
In multi-layer les (i.e. les saved from RasterStack or RasterBrick objects), in the native raster
format, the band-order can be set to BIL (Bands Interleaved by Line), BIP (Bands Interleaved by
Pixels) or BSQ (Bands SeQuential). Note that bandorder is not the same as letype here.
Supported le types include:
File type Long name default extension Multiband support
raster Native raster package format .grd Yes
ascii ESRI Ascii .asc No
SAGA SAGA GIS .sdat No
IDRISI IDRISI .rst No
CDF netCDF (requires ncdf) .nc Yes
GTiff GeoTiff (requires rgdal) .tif Yes
ENVI ENVI .hdr Labelled .envi Yes
EHdr ESRI .hdr Labelled .bil Yes
HFA Erdas Imagine Images (.img) .img Yes
Value
This function is used for the side-effect of writing values to a le.
See Also
writeFormats, writeValues
Examples
# take a small part
r <- crop(r, extent(179880, 180800, 329880, 330840) )
# write to an integer binary file
rf <- writeRaster(r, filename="allint.grd", datatype=INT4S, overwrite=TRUE)
# make a brick and save multi-layer file
b <- brick(r, sqrt(r))
bf <- writeRaster(b, filename="multi.grd", bandorder=BIL, overwrite=TRUE)
# write to a new geotiff file (depends on rgdal)
if (require(rgdal)) {
rf <- writeRaster(r, filename="test.tif", format="GTiff", overwrite=TRUE)
bf <- writeRaster(b, filename="multi.tif", options="INTERLEAVE=BAND", overwrite=TRUE)
}
# write to netcdf
writeValues 209
if (require(ncdf)) {
rnc <- writeRaster(r, filename=netCDF.nc, format="CDF", overwrite=TRUE)
}
writeValues Write values to a le
Description
Functions for writing blocks (>= 1 row(s)) of values to les. Writing has to start at the rst cell of a
row (identied with argument start) and the values written must represent 1 or more entire rows.
Begin by opening a le with writeStart, then write values to it in chunks. When writing is done
close the le with writeStop.
If you want to write all values of a Raster* object at once, you can also use writeRaster which
is easier to use but more limited. The functions described here allow writing values to le using
chunks of different sizes (e.g. 1 or 10 rows). Function blockSize can be used to suggest a chunk
size to use.
Usage
writeStart(x, filename, ...)
writeValues(x, v, start)
writeStop(x)
Arguments
x Raster* object
v vector (RasterLayer) or matrix (RasterBrick) of values
start Integer. Row number (counting starts at 1) from where to start writing v
Value
See Also
writeRaster, blockSize, update
210 xyFromCell
Examples
# write to a new binary file in chunks
s <- raster(r)
#
tr <- blockSize(r)
tr
s <- writeStart(s, filename=test.grd, overwrite=TRUE)
for (i in 1:tr$n) {
v <- getValuesBlock(r, row=tr$row[i], nrows=tr$nrows[i])
s <- writeValues(s, v, tr$row[i])
}
s <- writeStop(s)
if(require(rgdal)){
s2 <- writeStart(s, filename=test2.tif, format=GTiff, overwrite=TRUE)
# writing last row first
for (i in tr$n:1) {
v <- getValuesBlock(r, row=tr$row[i], nrows=tr$nrows[i])
s2 <- writeValues(s2, v, tr$row[i])
}
# row number 5 once more
v <- getValuesBlock(r, row=5, nrows=1)
writeValues(s2, v, 5)
s2 <- writeStop(s2)
}
## write values of a RasterStack to a RasterBrick
s <- stack(system.file("external/rlogo.grd", package="raster"))
# create empty brick
b <- brick(s, values=FALSE)
b <- writeStart(b, filename="test.grd", format="raster",overwrite=TRUE)
tr <- blockSize(b)
for (i in 1:tr$n) {
v <- getValuesBlock(s, row=tr$row[i], nrows=tr$nrows[i])
b <- writeValues(b, v, tr$row[i])
}
b <- writeStop(b)
# note that the above is equivalent to
# b <- writeRaster(s, filename="test.grd", format="raster",overwrite=TRUE)
xyFromCell Coordinates from a row, column or cell number
Description
These functions get coordinates of the center of raster cells for a row, column, or cell number of a
Raster* object.
xyFromCell 211
Usage
xFromCol(object, col=1:ncol(object))
yFromRow(object, row=1:nrow(object))
xyFromCell(object, cell, spatial=FALSE)
xFromCell(object, cell)
yFromCell(object, cell)
Arguments
cell cell number(s)
col column number; or vector of column numbers
row row number; or vector of row numbers
spatial return a SpatialPoints object (sp package) instead of a matrix
Details
Cell numbers start at 1 in the upper left corner, and increase from left to right, and then from top to
Value
xFromCol, yFromCol, xFromCell, yFromCell: vector of x or y coordinates
xyFromCell: matrix(x,y) with coordinate pairs
See Also
cellFromXY
Examples
#using a new default raster (1 degree global)
r <- raster()
xFromCol(r, c(1, 120, 180))
yFromRow(r, 90)
xyFromCell(r, 10000)
xyFromCell(r, c(0, 1, 32581, ncell(r), ncell(r)+1))
#using a file from disk
r
cellFromXY(r, c(180000, 330000))
#xy for corners of a raster:
xyFromCell(r, c(1, ncol(r), ncell(r)-ncol(r)+1, ncell(r)))
212 zApply
z-values Get or set z-values
Description
Initial functions for a somewhat more formal approach to get or set z values (e.g. time) associated
with layers of Raster* objects. In development.
Usage
setZ(x, z, name=time)
getZ(x)
Arguments
x Raster* object
z vector of z values of any type (e.g. of class Date)
name character label
Value
setZ: Raster* object
getZ: vector
Examples
s <- stack(lapply(1:3, function(x) setValues(r, runif(ncell(r)))))
s <- setZ(s, as.Date(2000-1-1) + 0:2)
s
getZ(s)
zApply z (time) apply
Description
Experimental function to apply a function over a (time) series of layers of a Raster object
Usage
zApply(x, by, fun=mean, name=, ...)
zonal 213
Arguments
x Raster* object
by aggregation indices or function
fun function to compute aggregated values
name character label of the new time series
... additional arguments
Value
Raster* object
Author(s)
Oscar Perpinan Lamigueiro & Robert J. Hijmans
Examples
# 12 values of irradiation, 1 for each month
G0dm=c(2.766,3.491,4.494,5.912,6.989,7.742,7.919,7.027,5.369,3.562,2.814,2.179)*1000;
# RasterBrick with 12 layers based on G0dm + noise
s <- brick(lapply(1:12, function(x) setValues(r, G0dm[x]+100*rnorm(ncell(r)) )))
# time
tm <- seq(as.Date(2010-01-15), as.Date(2010-12-15), month)
s <- setZ(s, tm, months)
# library(zoo)
# x <- zApply(s, by=as.yearqtr, fun=mean, name=quarters)
zonal Zonal statistics
Description
Compute zonal statistics, that is summarized values of a Raster* object for each "zone" dened by
a RasterLayer.
If stat is a true function, zonal will fail (gracefully) for very large Raster objects, but it will in
most cases work for functions that can be dened as by a character argument (mean, sd, min,
max, or sum). In addition you can use count to count the number of cells in each zone (only
useful with na.rm=TRUE, otherwise freq(z) would be more direct.
If a function is used, it should accept a na.rm argument (or at least a ... argument)
214 zonal
Usage
zonal(x, z, fun=mean, digits=0, na.rm=TRUE, ...)
## S4 method for signature RasterStackBrick,RasterLayer
zonal(x, z, fun=mean, digits=0, na.rm=TRUE, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* object
z RasterLayer with codes representing zones
fun function to be applied to summarize the values by zone. Either as character:
mean, sd, min, max, sum; or, for relatively small Raster* objects, a
proper function
digits integer. Number of digits to maintain in zones. By default averaged to an
integer (zero digits)
na.rm logical. If TRUE, NA values in x are ignored
... additional arguments. One implemented: progress, as in writeRaster
Value
A matrix with a value for each zone (unique value in zones)
See Also
See cellStats for global statistics (i.e., all of x is considered a single zone), and extract for
summarizing values for polygons
Examples
r[] <- runif(ncell(r)) * 1:ncell(r)
z <- r
z[] <- rep(1:5, each=20)
# for big files, use a character value rather than a function
zonal(r, z, sum)
# for smaller files you can also provide a function
## Not run:
zonal(r, z, mean)
zonal(r, z, min)
## End(Not run)
# multiple layers
zonal(stack(r, r*10), z, sum)
zoom 215
zoom Zoom in on a plot
Description
Zoom in on a plot (map) by providing a new extent, by default this is done by clicking twice on the
map
Usage
zoom(x, ...)
zoom(x, ext=drawExtent(), maxpixels=100000, layer=1, new=TRUE, useRaster=TRUE, ...)
zoom(x, ext=drawExtent(), new=TRUE, ...)
Arguments
x Raster* or Spatial* (vector type) object
ext Extent object
maxpixels Maximum number of pixels used for the map
layer Positive integer to select the layer to be used if x is a mutilayer Raster object
new Logical. If TRUE, the zoomed in map will appear on a new device (window)
useRaster Logical. If TRUE, a bitmap raster is used to plot the image instead of polygons
... additional paramters for plot
Value
Extent object (invisibly)
See Also
drawExtent, plot
Index
!,Raster-method (Logic-methods), 111
!=,BasicRaster,BasicRaster-method
(Compare-methods), 50
Topic classes
Extent-class, 75
Raster-class, 149
readAll, 161
Topic le
extension, 72
inifile, 102
Topic math
Arith-methods, 22
atan2, 27
Compare-methods, 50
cv, 60
Logic-methods, 111
Math-methods, 114
modal, 117
Topic methods
aggregate, 16
animate, 19
area, 21
Arith-methods, 22
as.data.frame, 24
as.logical, 25
as.matrix, 26
as.raster, 27
atan2, 27
barplot, 30
bind, 31
blockSize, 32
boundaries, 33
brick, 35
calc, 38
clearValues, 45
Compare-methods, 50
contour, 53
corrLocal, 54
cover, 55
crosstab, 58
erase, 69
extract, 76
Extract by index, 79
factors, 81
filledContour, 84
Gain and offset, 91
getValues, 93
getValuesBlock, 94
getValuesFocal, 95
head, 98
hist, 100
image, 101
interpolate, 104
intersect, 106
Logic-methods, 111
mask, 112
match, 113
Math-methods, 114
merge, 115
mosaic, 118
overlay, 126
persp, 129
plot, 130
plotRGB, 133
predict, 136
quantile, 145
raster, 146
rasterFromXYZ, 152
rasterize, 153
replacement, 163
RGB, 166
setMinMax, 178
setValues, 178
spplot, 182
stack, 183
stackApply, 184
stackSelect, 186
substitute, 189
216
INDEX 217
Summary, 190
Summary-methods, 191
symdif, 192
text, 195
union, 198
unstack, 200
update, 200
writeRaster, 206
writeValues, 209
Topic package
raster-package, 6
Topic spatial
addLayer, 13
adjacent, 14
aggregate, 16
alignExtent, 18
animate, 19
approxNA, 20
area, 21
Arith-methods, 22
as.data.frame, 24
as.logical, 25
as.matrix, 26
as.raster, 27
autocorrelation, 28
bands, 29
barplot, 30
bind, 31
blockSize, 32
boundaries, 33
boxplot, 34
brick, 35
buffer, 37
calc, 38
cellFrom, 40
cellsFromExtent, 42
cellStats, 43
clamp, 44
clearValues, 45
click, 46
clump, 47
cluster, 48
compareCRS, 51
compareRaster, 52
contour, 53
corrLocal, 54
cover, 55
crop, 56
crosstab, 58
cut, 59
datasource, 60
dataType, 61
density, 63
dim, 63
direction, 64
disaggregate, 65
distance, 66
distanceFromPoints, 67
draw, 68
drawExtent, 69
erase, 69
extend, 70
extent, 72
Extent coordinates, 73
Extent math, 74
Extent-class, 75
extract, 76
extremeValues, 80
factors, 81
filename, 83
filledContour, 84
flip, 85
flowPath, 86
focal, 87
focalWeight, 89
freq, 90
Gain and offset, 91
getData, 92
getValues, 93
getValuesBlock, 94
getValuesFocal, 95
gridDistance, 96
hdr, 97
head, 98
hillShade, 99
hist, 100
image, 101
initialize, 103
interpolate, 104
intersect, 106
isLonLat, 107
KML, 108
layerize, 109
mask, 112
match, 113
218 INDEX
Math-methods, 114
merge, 115
metadata, 116
mosaic, 118
movingFun, 119
names, 120
NAvalue, 121
ncell, 122
nlayers, 123
Options, 124
origin, 125
overlay, 126
pairs, 128
persp, 129
plot, 130
plotRGB, 133
pointDistance, 134
predict, 136
Programming, 139
projection, 141
projectRaster, 142
properties, 144
quantile, 145
raster, 146
Raster-class, 149
raster-package, 6
rasterFromCells, 151
rasterFromXYZ, 152
rasterize, 153
rasterTmpFile, 156
rasterToContour, 158
rasterToPoints, 159
rasterToPolygons, 160
readAll, 161
reclassify, 161
rectify, 162
replacement, 163
resample, 164
resolution, 165
RGB, 166
rotate, 167
rotated, 167
round, 168
rowFromCell, 169
SampleInt, 170
sampleRandom, 170
sampleRegular, 171
sampleStratified, 172
scale, 173
scalebar, 174
select, 175
setExtent, 177
setMinMax, 178
setValues, 178
shapefile, 180
shift, 180
Slope and aspect, 181
spplot, 182
stack, 183
stackApply, 184
stackSave, 185
stackSelect, 186
stretch, 187
subset, 188
substitute, 189
Summary, 190
Summary-methods, 191
symdif, 192
terrain, 193
text, 195
transpose, 196
trim, 197
union, 198
unique, 199
unstack, 200
update, 200
validCell, 201
which, 204
which.min, 205
writeFormats, 206
writeRaster, 206
writeValues, 209
xyFromCell, 210
z-values, 212
zApply, 212
zonal, 213
zoom, 215
Topic univar
cellStats, 43
cv, 60
freq, 90
modal, 117
*,SpatialPolygons,SpatialPolygons-method
(Arith-methods), 22
+,SpatialPolygons,SpatialPolygons-method
(Arith-methods), 22
INDEX 219
-,SpatialPolygons,SpatialPolygons-method
(Arith-methods), 22
==,BasicRaster,BasicRaster-method
(Compare-methods), 50
[,Raster,Extent,missing-method
(Extract by index), 79
[,Raster,RasterLayer,missing-method
[,Raster,Spatial,missing-method
[,Raster,logical,missing-method
[,Raster,matrix,missing-method
[,Raster,missing,missing-method
[,Raster,missing,numeric-method
[,Raster,numeric,missing-method
[,Raster,numeric,numeric-method
[<-,Raster,Extent,missing-method
(replacement), 163
[<-,Raster,Spatial,missing-method
(replacement), 163
[<-,Raster,logical,missing-method
(replacement), 163
[<-,Raster,matrix,missing-method
(replacement), 163
[<-,Raster,missing,numeric-method
(replacement), 163
[<-,Raster,numeric,missing-method
(replacement), 163
[<-,Raster,numeric,numeric-method
(replacement), 163
[<-,RasterLayer,RasterLayer,missing-method
(replacement), 163
[<-,RasterLayer,missing,missing-method
(replacement), 163
[<-,RasterStackBrick,Raster,missing-method
(replacement), 163
[<-,RasterStackBrick,missing,missing-method
(replacement), 163
[[,Raster,ANY,ANY-method (Extract by
index), 79
[[<-,RasterBrick,numeric,missing-method
(replacement), 163
[[<-,RasterStack,numeric,missing-method
(replacement), 163
[[<-,RasterStackBrick,character,missing-method
(replacement), 163
$,Raster-method (replacement), 163
$<-,Raster-method (replacement), 163
%in% (match), 113
%in%,Raster-method (match), 113
addLayer, 7, 13, 184, 186
addLayer,Raster-method (addLayer), 13
adjacent, 8, 14, 41
aggregate, 7, 12, 16, 66, 109, 164
aggregate,Raster-method (aggregate), 16
aggregate,SpatialPolygons-method
(aggregate), 16
alignExtent, 12, 18, 57
all.equal, 52, 115, 118
all.equal,Raster,Raster-method
(compareRaster), 52
animate, 19
animate,RasterStackBrick-method
(animate), 19
approx, 20
approxNA, 20
approxNA,RasterStackBrick-method
(approxNA), 20
area, 8, 21
area,RasterLayer-method (area), 21
area,RasterStackBrick-method (area), 21
area,SpatialPolygons-method (area), 21
Arith-methods, 7, 22, 39
as.array, 9
as.array (as.matrix), 26
as.array,RasterLayer-method
(as.matrix), 26
as.array,RasterStackBrick-method
(as.matrix), 26
as.character,CRS-method (projection),
141
as.data.frame, 12, 24
as.data.frame,Raster-method
(as.data.frame), 24
as.data.frame,SpatialLines-method
(as.data.frame), 24
as.data.frame,SpatialPoints-method
(as.data.frame), 24
as.data.frame,SpatialPolygons-method
(as.data.frame), 24
220 INDEX
as.factor (factors), 81
as.factor,RasterLayer-method (factors),
81
as.logical, 25, 25
as.logical,Raster-method (as.logical),
25
as.matrix, 9, 26
as.matrix,Extent-method (as.matrix), 26
as.matrix,RasterLayer-method
(as.matrix), 26
as.matrix,RasterStackBrick-method
(as.matrix), 26
as.raster, 27, 27
as.raster,RasterLayer-method
(as.raster), 27
as.vector (as.matrix), 26
as.vector,Extent-method (as.matrix), 26
as.vector,Raster-method (as.matrix), 26
asFactor (factors), 81
asFactor,RasterLayer-method (factors),
81
atan2, 27, 114
atan2,RasterLayer,RasterLayer-method
(atan2), 27
autocorrelation, 28
band, 10
bandnr (bands), 29
bandnr,RasterLayer-method (bands), 29
bands, 29, 121
barplot, 10, 30, 30, 31, 131
barplot,RasterLayer-method (barplot), 30
BasicRaster-class (Raster-class), 149
bbox,Extent-method (extent), 72
bbox,Raster-method (extent), 72
beginCluster (cluster), 48
bind, 12, 31
bind,SpatialLines,SpatialLines-method
(bind), 31
bind,SpatialPoints,SpatialPoints-method
(bind), 31
bind,SpatialPolygons,SpatialPolygons-method
(bind), 31
blockSize, 11, 32, 209
boundaries, 33
boundaries,RasterLayer-method
(boundaries), 33
boxplot, 10, 31, 34, 34, 100, 129
boxplot,RasterLayer-method (boxplot), 34
boxplot,RasterStackBrick-method
(boxplot), 34
bpy.colors, 130, 166
brick, 6, 35, 148, 150, 184
brick,array-method (brick), 35
brick,big.matrix-method (brick), 35
brick,character-method (brick), 35
brick,Extent-method (brick), 35
brick,grf-method (brick), 35
brick,kasc-method (brick), 35
brick,list-method (brick), 35
brick,missing-method (brick), 35
brick,RasterBrick-method (brick), 35
brick,RasterLayer-method (brick), 35
brick,RasterStack-method (brick), 35
brick,SpatialGrid-method (brick), 35
brick,SpatialPixels-method (brick), 35
buffer, 37
buffer,RasterLayer-method (buffer), 37
calc, 7, 23, 38, 48, 59, 111, 112, 114, 126,
127, 145, 149, 162, 163, 184, 185,
191
calc,Raster,function-method (calc), 38
canProcessInMemory, 13, 124
canProcessInMemory (Programming), 139
ceiling,Extent-method (Extent math), 74
ceiling,RasterLayer-method (round), 168
cellFrom, 40, 169
cellFromCol (cellFrom), 40
cellFromLine (cellFrom), 40
cellFromPolygon (cellFrom), 40
cellFromRow (cellFrom), 40
cellFromRowCol, 11
cellFromRowCol (cellFrom), 40
cellFromRowColCombine (cellFrom), 40
cellFromXY, 11, 43, 211
cellFromXY (cellFrom), 40
cellsFromExtent, 11, 42, 42
cellStats, 9, 43, 110, 111, 145, 191, 214
cellStats,RasterLayer-method
(cellStats), 43
cellStats,RasterStackBrick-method
(cellStats), 43
clamp, 44
clamp,Raster-method (clamp), 44
clearValues, 45
click, 10, 12, 46, 176
click,missing-method (click), 46
INDEX 221
click,Raster-method (click), 46
click,SpatialGrid-method (click), 46
click,SpatialLines-method (click), 46
click,SpatialPixels-method (click), 46
click,SpatialPoints-method (click), 46
click,SpatialPolygons-method (click), 46
clump, 8, 33, 47
clump,RasterLayer-method (clump), 47
cluster, 48
clusterR (cluster), 48
colFromCell (rowFromCell), 169
colFromX, 11
colFromX (cellFrom), 40
colorRampPalette, 130, 166
Compare-methods, 7, 50
compareCRS, 51
compareRaster, 11, 52
contour, 9, 53, 53, 102, 129, 131
contour,RasterLayer-method (contour), 53
contour,RasterStackBrick-method
(contour), 53
contourLines, 158
coordinates, 11
cor, 54, 128
cor.test, 54
corLocal (corrLocal), 54
corLocal,RasterLayer,RasterLayer-method
(corrLocal), 54
corrLocal, 54
cov.wt, 111
cover, 7, 12, 55
cover,RasterLayer,RasterLayer-method
(cover), 55
cover,RasterStackBrick,Raster-method
(cover), 55
cover,SpatialPolygons,SpatialPolygons-method
(cover), 55
crop, 7, 12, 56, 70, 71, 79, 80, 106, 107, 113,
131, 164, 176, 198
crop,Raster-method (crop), 56
crop,Spatial-method (crop), 56
crosstab, 9, 58, 90
crosstab,Raster,Raster-method
(crosstab), 58
crosstab,RasterStackBrick,missing-method
(crosstab), 58
CRS, 141
crs, 51
crs (projection), 141
crs,ANY-method (projection), 141
crs<- (projection), 141
cut, 7, 30, 59, 59, 161, 162, 190
cut,Raster-method (cut), 59
cv, 12, 60
cv,ANY-method (cv), 60
cv,Raster-method (cv), 60
dataSigned (properties), 144
dataSize (properties), 144
datasource, 60
dataType, 57, 61, 124, 137, 207
dataType<- (dataType), 61
density, 10, 63, 129, 145
density,Raster-method (density), 63
deratify (factors), 81
dim, 63, 122
dim,BasicRaster-method (dim), 63
dim,RasterStackBrick-method (dim), 63
dim<-,BasicRaster-method (dim), 63
dim<-,RasterBrick-method (dim), 63
dim<-,RasterLayer-method (dim), 63
dimensions, 74
direction, 8, 64
direction,RasterLayer-method
(direction), 64
disaggregate, 7, 12, 17, 65, 164
disaggregate,Raster-method
(disaggregate), 65
distance, 8, 37, 65, 66, 68, 97, 135
distance,RasterLayer-method (distance),
66
distanceFromPoints, 8, 67, 67, 135
draw, 68
drawExtent, 10, 12, 18, 47, 57, 69, 73, 131,
133, 166, 215
drawLine, 10
drawLine (draw), 68
drawPoly, 10
drawPoly (draw), 68
dropLayer, 7, 184, 188
dropLayer (addLayer), 13
dropLayer,RasterBrick-method
(addLayer), 13
dropLayer,RasterStack-method
(addLayer), 13
edge, 8, 37, 65, 67
222 INDEX
edge (boundaries), 33
edges (boundaries), 33
endCluster (cluster), 48
erase, 12, 23, 69, 192
erase,SpatialPolygons,SpatialPolygons-method
(erase), 69
extend, 7, 56, 57, 70, 119, 164, 198
extend,Extent-method (extend), 70
extend,Raster-method (extend), 70
extension, 12, 72
extension<- (extension), 72
Extent, 69, 76, 133, 166
Extent (Extent-class), 75
extent, 10, 12, 18, 43, 57, 64, 72, 7375, 107,
122, 126, 165, 177, 198
Extent coordinates, 73
Extent math, 74
extent,BasicRaster-method (extent), 72
extent,Extent-method (extent), 72
extent,GridTopology-method (extent), 72
extent,list-method (extent), 72
extent,matrix-method (extent), 72
extent,numeric-method (extent), 72
extent,Spatial-method (extent), 72
Extent-class, 75
extent<- (setExtent), 177
extract, 9, 12, 48, 76, 79, 80, 127, 146, 154,
161, 186, 187, 214
extract,Raster,data.frame-method
(extract), 76
extract,Raster,Extent-method (extract),
76
extract,Raster,matrix-method (extract),
76
extract,Raster,SpatialLines-method
(extract), 76
extract,Raster,SpatialPoints-method
(extract), 76
extract,Raster,SpatialPolygons-method
(extract), 76
extract,Raster,vector-method (extract),
76
extremeValues, 80
factors, 81
factorValues (factors), 81
filename, 10, 83, 145
filled.contour, 84
filledContour, 10, 53, 84
flip, 7, 85, 167, 181, 196
flip,RasterLayer-method (flip), 85
flip,RasterStackBrick-method (flip), 85
floor,Extent-method (Extent math), 74
floor,RasterLayer-method (round), 168
flowPath, 86
focal, 8, 20, 21, 28, 33, 87, 89, 90, 96, 194
focal,RasterLayer-method (focal), 87
focalWeight, 88, 89
fourCellsFromXY (cellFrom), 40
freq, 9, 44, 58, 90
freq,RasterLayer-method (freq), 90
freq,RasterStackBrick-method (freq), 90
fromDisk, 13
fromDisk (datasource), 60
gain (Gain and offset), 91
Gain and offset, 91
gain<- (Gain and offset), 91
Geary (autocorrelation), 28
GearyLocal (autocorrelation), 28
getCluster, 49
getCluster (Programming), 139
getData, 12, 92
getValues, 9, 24, 26, 7880, 93, 95, 96, 146,
161, 178
getValues,RasterBrick,missing,missing-method
(getValues), 93
getValues,RasterBrick,numeric,missing-method
(getValues), 93
getValues,RasterBrick,numeric,numeric-method
(getValues), 93
getValues,RasterLayer,missing,missing-method
(getValues), 93
getValues,RasterLayer,numeric,missing-method
(getValues), 93
getValues,RasterLayer,numeric,numeric-method
(getValues), 93
getValues,RasterLayerSparse,missing,missing-method
(getValues), 93
getValues,RasterLayerSparse,numeric,missing-method
(getValues), 93
getValues,RasterLayerSparse,numeric,numeric-method
(getValues), 93
getValues,RasterStack,missing,missing-method
(getValues), 93
getValues,RasterStack,numeric,missing-method
(getValues), 93
INDEX 223
getValues,RasterStack,numeric,numeric-method
(getValues), 93
getValuesBlock, 9, 24, 26, 94, 94, 99, 161
getValuesBlock,RasterBrick-method
(getValuesBlock), 94
getValuesBlock,RasterLayer-method
getValuesBlock,RasterLayerSparse-method
getValuesBlock,RasterStack-method
getValuesFocal, 9, 78, 94, 95
getValuesFocal,Raster,missing,missing,numeric-method
(getValuesFocal), 95
getValuesFocal,Raster,numeric,numeric,numeric-method
getValuesFocal,Raster-method
getZ, 20
getZ (z-values), 212
gridDistance, 8, 37, 65, 67, 68, 96, 135
gridDistance,RasterLayer-method
(gridDistance), 96
hasValues (datasource), 60
hdr, 12, 97, 125
head, 98
head,RasterLayer-method (head), 98
head,RasterStackBrick-method (head), 98
head,Spatial-method (head), 98
heat.colors, 130, 166
hillShade, 99, 194
hist, 10, 31, 34, 100, 100, 129, 131
hist,Raster-method (hist), 100
image, 9, 101, 101, 102, 108
image,RasterLayer-method (image), 101
image,RasterStackBrick-method (image),
101
image.plot, 131
inifile, 102
init, 8
init (initialize), 103
initialize, 103
inMemory, 13
inMemory (datasource), 60
interpolate, 8, 104, 137
interpolate,Raster-method
(interpolate), 104
intersect, 12, 23, 42, 106, 198
intersect,Extent,ANY-method
(intersect), 106
intersect,Raster,ANY-method
(intersect), 106
intersect,SpatialPoints,ANY-method
(intersect), 106
intersect,SpatialPolygons,SpatialPolygons-method
(intersect), 106
is.factor (factors), 81
is.factor,Raster-method (factors), 81
is.factor,RasterStack-method (factors),
81
is.finite,Raster-method
(Logic-methods), 111
is.infinite,Raster-method
is.na,CRS-method (projection), 141
is.na,Raster-method (Logic-methods), 111
is.nan,Raster-method (Logic-methods),
111
isLonLat, 10, 107
isLonLat,ANY-method (isLonLat), 107
isLonLat,BasicRaster-method (isLonLat),
107
isLonLat,character-method (isLonLat),
107
isLonLat,CRS-method (isLonLat), 107
isLonLat,Spatial-method (isLonLat), 107
KML, 11, 108
KML,RasterLayer-method (KML), 108
KML,RasterStackBrick-method (KML), 108
KML,Spatial-method (KML), 108
labels,Raster-method (names), 120
layerize, 109
layerize,RasterLayer,missing-method
(layerize), 109
layerize,RasterLayer,RasterLayer-method
(layerize), 109
layerStats, 43, 110
length,BasicRaster-method (ncell), 122
levelplot, 182
levels (factors), 81
levels,Raster-method (factors), 81
levels,RasterStack-method (factors), 81
levels<- (factors), 81
levels<-,Raster-method (factors), 81
224 INDEX
locator, 68
log,Raster-method (Math-methods), 114
Logic,Raster,Raster-method
Logic-methods, 7, 111
make.names, 125, 202
mask, 7, 57, 112
mask,Raster,Spatial-method (mask), 112
mask,RasterLayer,RasterLayer-method
(mask), 112
mask,RasterLayer,RasterStackBrick-method
(mask), 112
mask,RasterStackBrick,RasterLayer-method
(mask), 112
mask,RasterStackBrick,RasterStackBrick-method
(mask), 112
match, 113, 114
match,Raster-method (match), 113
Math-methods, 7, 39, 114
maxValue, 9, 44, 191
maxValue (extremeValues), 80
maxValue,RasterBrick-method
(extremeValues), 80
maxValue,RasterLayer-method
(extremeValues), 80
maxValue,RasterStack-method
(extremeValues), 80
mean,Raster-method (Summary-methods),
191
merge, 7, 12, 57, 71, 115, 118, 119, 164, 198
merge,Extent,ANY-method (merge), 115
merge,Raster,Raster-method (merge), 115
merge,RasterStackBrick,missing-method
(merge), 115
metadata, 116
metadata<- (metadata), 116
minValue, 9, 44, 191
minValue (extremeValues), 80
minValue,RasterBrick-method
(extremeValues), 80
minValue,RasterLayer-method
(extremeValues), 80
minValue,RasterStack-method
(extremeValues), 80
modal, 12, 117
modal,ANY-method (modal), 117
modal,Raster-method (modal), 117
Moran, 8
Moran (autocorrelation), 28
MoranLocal (autocorrelation), 28
mosaic, 7, 115, 118
mosaic,Raster,Raster-method (mosaic),
118
movingFun, 119
names, 10, 100, 120, 123, 125, 136
names,Raster-method (names), 120
names,RasterStack-method (names), 120
names<- (names), 120
names<-,Raster-method (names), 120
NAvalue, 11, 121
NAvalue<- (NAvalue), 121
nbands, 10
nbands (bands), 29
ncell, 10, 64, 122, 165
ncell,ANY-method (ncell), 122
ncell,BasicRaster-method (ncell), 122
ncol, 10
ncol (ncell), 122
ncol,BasicRaster-method (ncell), 122
ncol<- (ncell), 122
nlayers, 10, 29, 30, 121, 123
nlayers,BasicRaster-method (nlayers),
123
nlayers,Raster-method (nlayers), 123
nlayers,RasterBrick-method (nlayers),
123
nlayers,RasterStack-method (nlayers),
123
nlayers,Spatial-method (nlayers), 123
nrow, 10
nrow (ncell), 122
nrow,BasicRaster-method (ncell), 122
nrow<- (ncell), 122
offs (Gain and offset), 91
offs<- (Gain and offset), 91
Options, 124
options, 23, 125
origin, 10, 125
origin,BasicRaster-method (origin), 125
origin<- (origin), 125
origin<-,BasicRaster-method (origin),
125
over, 12
overlay, 7, 23, 38, 39, 48, 112, 114, 126
INDEX 225
overlay,Raster,missing-method
(overlay), 126
overlay,Raster,Raster-method (overlay),
126
pairs, 10, 34, 100, 128, 128, 131
pairs,RasterStackBrick-method (pairs),
128
pbClose, 13
pbClose (Programming), 139
pbCreate, 13
pbCreate (Programming), 139
pbStep, 13
pbStep (Programming), 139
persp, 9, 53, 84, 129, 129, 131
persp,RasterLayer-method (persp), 129
persp,RasterStackBrick-method (persp),
129
plot, 9, 10, 19, 63, 84, 101, 102, 129, 130,
131, 134, 175, 182, 196, 215
plot,Extent,missing-method (plot), 130
plot,Raster,ANY-method (plot), 130
plot,Raster,Raster-method (plot), 130
plotRGB, 9, 19, 131, 133, 166, 182, 187
plotRGB,RasterStackBrick-method
(plotRGB), 133
pointDistance, 12, 37, 67, 68, 134
predict, 8, 104, 105, 136, 149, 190
predict,Raster-method (predict), 136
predict.gstat, 105
print,Raster-method (Raster-class), 149
print,Spatial-method (Raster-class), 149
Programming, 139
proj4string (projection), 141
proj4string<- (projection), 141
projectExtent (projectRaster), 142
projection, 10, 51, 141, 193
projection<- (projection), 141
projectRaster, 7, 10, 48, 141, 142, 164
projInfo, 141, 143
properties, 144
quantile, 44, 145, 145
quantile,Raster-method (quantile), 145
rainbow, 30, 130, 166
raster, 6, 8, 37, 146, 150, 183, 184
raster,asc-method (raster), 146
raster,BasicRaster-method (raster), 146
raster,big.matrix-method (raster), 146
raster,character-method (raster), 146
raster,Extent-method (raster), 146
raster,grf-method (raster), 146
raster,GridTopology-method (raster), 146
raster,im-method (raster), 146
raster,kasc-method (raster), 146
raster,kde-method (raster), 146
raster,list-method (raster), 146
raster,matrix-method (raster), 146
raster,missing-method (raster), 146
raster,RasterBrick-method (raster), 146
raster,RasterLayer-method (raster), 146
raster,RasterLayerSparse-method
(raster), 146
raster,RasterStack-method (raster), 146
raster,Spatial-method (raster), 146
raster,SpatialGrid-method (raster), 146
raster,SpatialPixels-method (raster),
146
Raster-class, 6, 149
raster-package, 6
RasterBrick-class (Raster-class), 149
rasterFromCells, 8, 151
rasterFromXYZ, 8, 152
rasterImage, 27, 102, 131, 134
rasterize, 8, 80, 113, 127, 152, 153, 163
rasterize,data.frame,Raster-method
(rasterize), 153
rasterize,Extent,Raster-method
(rasterize), 153
rasterize,matrix,Raster-method
(rasterize), 153
rasterize,SpatialLines,Raster-method
(rasterize), 153
rasterize,SpatialPoints,Raster-method
(rasterize), 153
rasterize,SpatialPolygons,Raster-method
(rasterize), 153
RasterLayer-class (Raster-class), 149
RasterLayerSparse-class (Raster-class),
149
rasterOptions, 12, 52, 157, 206, 207
rasterOptions (Options), 124
RasterStack-class (Raster-class), 149
RasterStackBrick-class (Raster-class),
149
rasterTmpFile, 13, 124, 125, 156
226 INDEX
rasterToContour, 8, 158
rasterToPoints, 8, 159, 195
rasterToPolygons, 8, 160
ratify (factors), 81
readAll, 161
readAll,RasterBrick-method (readAll),
161
readAll,RasterLayer-method (readAll),
161
readAll,RasterStack-method (readAll),
161
readGDAL, 36, 147
readIniFile, 12
readIniFile (inifile), 102
readStart, 13
readStart (Programming), 139
readStart,Raster-method (Programming),
139
readStart,RasterStack-method
(Programming), 139
readStop, 13
readStop (Programming), 139
readStop,Raster-method (Programming),
139
readStop,RasterStack-method
(Programming), 139
reclassify, 8, 39, 45, 59, 161, 190
reclassify,Raster-method (reclassify),
161
rectify, 162, 168
removeTmpFiles, 13
removeTmpFiles (rasterTmpFile), 156
replacement, 45, 146, 163, 179
res, 10, 64, 122, 147
res (resolution), 165
res,BasicRaster-method (resolution), 165
res<- (resolution), 165
resample, 7, 17, 18, 48, 65, 66, 143, 162, 164
resample,Raster,Raster-method
(resample), 164
resolution, 165
returnCluster, 49
returnCluster (Programming), 139
RGB, 166
RGB,RasterLayer-method (RGB), 166
rotate, 7, 85, 167, 181, 196
rotate,Raster-method (rotate), 167
rotated, 167
round, 12, 30, 90, 168, 169
round,RasterLayer-method (round), 168
rowColFromCell, 11, 42
rowColFromCell (rowFromCell), 169
rowFromCell, 151, 169
rowFromY, 11
rowFromY (cellFrom), 40
sample, 170
SampleInt, 170
sampleInt, 13
sampleInt (SampleInt), 170
sampleRandom, 9, 170, 172, 173
sampleRandom,Raster-method
(sampleRandom), 170
sampleRegular, 9, 24, 43, 171, 171, 173
sampleRegular,Raster-method
(sampleRegular), 171
sampleStratified, 171, 172, 172
sampleStratified,RasterLayer-method
(sampleStratified), 172
scale, 173, 174
scale,Raster-method (scale), 173
scalebar, 174
select, 10, 12, 47, 175
select,Raster-method (select), 175
select,Spatial-method (select), 175
set.seed, 157
setExtent, 75, 177, 198
setMinMax, 9, 44, 81, 178
setMinMax,RasterBrick-method
(setMinMax), 178
setMinMax,RasterLayer-method
(setMinMax), 178
setMinMax,RasterStack-method
(setMinMax), 178
setValues, 11, 80, 94, 146, 147, 178
setValues,RasterBrick-method
(setValues), 178
setValues,RasterLayer-method
(setValues), 178
setValues,RasterLayerSparse-method
(setValues), 178
setValues,RasterStack-method
(setValues), 178
setZ (z-values), 212
shapefile, 180
shapefile,character-method (shapefile),
180
INDEX 227
shapefile,Spatial-method (shapefile),
180
shift, 7, 180
shift,Raster-method (shift), 180
shift,SpatialLines-method (shift), 180
shift,SpatialPoints-method (shift), 180
shift,SpatialPolygons-method (shift),
180
show,BasicRaster-method (Raster-class),
149
show,Extent-method (Extent-class), 75
show,RasterBrick-method (Raster-class),
149
show,RasterLayer-method (Raster-class),
149
show,RasterStack-method (Raster-class),
149
showTmpFiles, 13
showTmpFiles (rasterTmpFile), 156
Slope and aspect, 181
slopeAspect, 193
slopeAspect (Slope and aspect), 181
SpatialLines, 76
SpatialPoints, 76
SpatialPolygons, 76
spDistsN1, 135
spplot, 9, 19, 131, 182, 182
spplot,Raster-method (spplot), 182
spplot,SpatialPoints-method (spplot),
182
spTransform, 143
stack, 6, 35, 148, 150, 183, 186, 200
stack,character-method (stack), 183
stack,kasc-method (stack), 183
stack,list-method (stack), 183
stack,missing-method (stack), 183
stack,Raster-method (stack), 183
stack,SpatialGridDataFrame-method
(stack), 183
stack,SpatialPixelsDataFrame-method
(stack), 183
stackApply, 8, 184, 187
stackOpen (stackSave), 185
stackSave, 185
stackSelect, 8, 185, 186
stackSelect,RasterStackBrick,Raster-method
(stackSelect), 186
stretch, 187
subs, 7, 59, 161, 162
subs (substitute), 189
subs,Raster,data.frame-method
(substitute), 189
subset, 7, 14, 188
subset,Raster-method (subset), 188
subset,RasterStack-method (subset), 188
substitute, 189
Summary, 190
summary, 9
summary,RasterLayer-method (Summary),
190
summary,RasterStackBrick-method
(Summary), 190
Summary-methods, 7, 191
symdif, 12, 192
symdif,SpatialPolygons,SpatialPolygons-method
(symdif), 192
Sys.getpid, 157
t, 7, 85
t (transpose), 196
t,RasterLayer-method (transpose), 196
t,RasterStackBrick-method (transpose),
196
table, 90
tail (head), 98
tail,RasterLayer-method (head), 98
tail,RasterStackBrick-method (head), 98
tail,Spatial-method (head), 98
tempfile, 157
terrain, 8, 86, 99, 100, 181, 182, 193
text, 10, 131, 195, 195, 196
text,RasterLayer-method (text), 195
text,RasterStackBrick-method (text), 195
text,SpatialPoints-method (text), 195
text,SpatialPolygons-method (text), 195
tolower, 102
topo.colors, 130, 166
toupper, 102
Tps, 105
transpose, 196
trim, 7, 12, 197
trim,character-method (trim), 197
trim,data.frame-method (trim), 197
trim,matrix-method (trim), 197
trim,Raster-method (trim), 197
trunc,RasterLayer-method (round), 168
txtProgressBar, 140
228 INDEX
union, 12, 23, 107, 198
union,Extent,Extent-method (union), 198
union,SpatialPolygons,SpatialPolygons-method
(union), 198
unique, 9, 199, 199
unique,RasterLayer,missing-method
(unique), 199
unique,RasterStackBrick,missing-method
(unique), 199
unstack, 7, 200
unstack,RasterBrick-method (unstack),
200
unstack,RasterStack-method (unstack),
200
update, 11, 200, 209
update,RasterBrick-method (update), 200
update,RasterLayer-method (update), 200
validCell, 11, 201
validCol, 11
validCol (validCell), 201
validNames, 202
validRow, 11
validRow (validCell), 201
values, 45
values (getValues), 93
values,Raster-method (getValues), 93
values<- (setValues), 178
values<-,RasterBrick-method
(setValues), 178
values<-,RasterLayer-method
(setValues), 178
values<-,RasterLayerSparse-method
(setValues), 178
values<-,RasterStack-method
(setValues), 178
VectorLayer-class (Raster-class), 149
weighted.mean, 111, 203, 203
weighted.mean,RasterStackBrick,RasterStackBrick-method
(weighted.mean), 203
weighted.mean,RasterStackBrick,vector-method
(weighted.mean), 203
Which, 205
Which (which), 204
which, 204
Which,RasterLayer-method (which), 204
which.max, 204
which.max (which.min), 205
which.max,RasterLayer-method
(which.min), 205
which.max,RasterStackBrick-method
(which.min), 205
which.min, 204, 205
which.min,RasterLayer-method
(which.min), 205
which.min,RasterStackBrick-method
(which.min), 205
writeFormats, 124, 200, 206, 207, 208
writeGDAL, 98
writeRaster, 11, 16, 21, 22, 33, 3638, 44,
47, 49, 54, 56, 57, 61, 6567, 71, 82,
85, 87, 96, 98, 103, 110, 113, 115,
118, 127, 137, 143, 154, 162164,
166, 167, 171, 181, 185188, 190,
197, 199, 203, 206, 209, 214
writeRaster,RasterLayer,character-method
(writeRaster), 206
writeRaster,RasterStackBrick,character-method
(writeRaster), 206
writeStart, 11
writeStart (writeValues), 209
writeStart,RasterBrick,character-method
(writeValues), 209
writeStart,RasterLayer,character-method
(writeValues), 209
writeStop, 11
writeStop (writeValues), 209
writeStop,RasterBrick-method
(writeValues), 209
writeStop,RasterLayer-method
(writeValues), 209
writeValues, 11, 32, 33, 207, 208, 209
writeValues,RasterBrick,matrix-method
(writeValues), 209
writeValues,RasterLayer,vector-method
(writeValues), 209
xFromCell, 11
xFromCell (xyFromCell), 210
xFromCol, 11
xFromCol (xyFromCell), 210
xmax, 10
xmax (Extent coordinates), 73
xmax,BasicRaster-method (Extent
coordinates), 73
xmax,Extent-method (Extent
coordinates), 73
INDEX 229
xmax<- (Extent coordinates), 73
xmin, 10
xmin (Extent coordinates), 73
xmin,BasicRaster-method (Extent
coordinates), 73
xmin,Extent-method (Extent
coordinates), 73
xmin<- (Extent coordinates), 73
xres, 10
xres (resolution), 165
xres,BasicRaster-method (resolution),
165
xyFromCell, 11, 42, 210
yFromCell, 11
yFromCell (xyFromCell), 210
yFromRow, 11
yFromRow (xyFromCell), 210
ymax, 10
ymax (Extent coordinates), 73
ymax,BasicRaster-method (Extent
coordinates), 73
ymax,Extent-method (Extent
coordinates), 73
ymax<- (Extent coordinates), 73
ymin, 10
ymin (Extent coordinates), 73
ymin,BasicRaster-method (Extent
coordinates), 73
ymin,Extent-method (Extent
coordinates), 73
ymin<- (Extent coordinates), 73
yres, 10
yres (resolution), 165
yres,BasicRaster-method (resolution),
165
z-values, 212
zApply, 212
zonal, 9, 58, 90, 213
zonal,RasterLayer,RasterLayer-method
(zonal), 213
zonal,RasterStackBrick,RasterLayer-method
(zonal), 213
zoom, 10, 131, 215
zoom,Raster-method (zoom), 215
zoom,Spatial-method (zoom), 215

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