NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
MODULE 1
UNIT 1 Meaning of Educaion
1!" In#oducion
Education and comparative education as concepts can be
given diferent interpretation. The reason is that diferent
people from diferent angles will see them from diferent
perspectives. In other words, there can be as many
defnitions to the concepts of Education
and Comparative Education.
$!" O%&eci'e
At the end of this unit, students should be able to provide
an acceptable defnition to Education.
(!" T)e Conen
(!1!1 Educaion
Education is very dicult to pin to a particular defnition,
because the concept may be perceived from diferent
angles. The concept has been traced to two !atin words.
The !atin words are "a# educere and "b# educare. $hile
educere can be interpreted as %to draw out% or %to lead
out%, Educare on the other hand means %to nourish% %to
bring up or %to raise%.
The interpretations of two !atin words no doubt, are more
than what can be ofered by the school alone.
Adesina "&'()# noted that education is always related to
variable such as purpose of the learner, the aim of the
teacher as well as the technological problems of the
society. *e, therefore, defnes education as+
The tool for the integration of the individual efectively
into a society so that the individual
can achieve self,reali-ation, develop national
consciousness, promote unity and strive for
social, economic, political, scientifc cultural and
technological process.
$hile relating education to culture, .du/a "&'(0# sees the
concept as the process of cultural transmission of the
people at least part of such culture from one generation to
the ne1t.
Education, according to !ester 2mith cited by 3so/oya
"&'(4#, is the culture which each generation purposely
gives to those who are to be its successors in order to
5ualify them for at least /eeping, and if possible for
raising the level of improvement which has been attained.
*orton, cited by A/inpelu "&'(6# sees education as an
enabling agency by which the Africans could restore their
self confdence, and ma/e those who doubted the
humanity of Africans begin to revise their views and learn
to respect Africans.
Education according to .yerere "&'(0# is the transmission
of accumulated wisdom and /nowledge of the society
from one generation to the ne1t and also to prepare the
young people for their future membership of the society in
which they fnd themselves.
At this 7uncture, we can defne education as a process
through which an individual becomes integrated into his
society, becomes a promoter of his societal culture,
contributor to the development of his society and
becomes an adult who will be able to stand on his own.
(!1!$ T)e Meaning of Co*+a#ai'e Educaion
.aturally, human beings are in the habit of ma/ing
comparison of the things that are around them
particularly when such things e1ist in diferent places. This
may be done as a result of man8s desire to /now the
relationship e1isting between, or among the things being
compared.
9an may also involve himself in this /ind of a business
when he wants to choose between two things before him.
The idea of comparison is not peculiar to the people in the
business
of education alone. The children at home or anywhere do
ma/e comparison between their parents because one of
them may be more loving than the other. The school
pupils also ma/e a comparison of their
teachers particularly when the teachers are not with
them. The parents themselves can ma/e a comparison of
their children morally and academically.
Comparison can ta/e place wherever we have two or more
things at the same time either for the purpose of having a
better understanding of the relationship e1isting between
them or for the purpose of having a better choice.
'
!i/e other concepts, comparative education is a concept
that attracts varied interpretations or defnitions. In other
words, there are as many defnitions as there are many
Educational Comparativists.
Adeyin/a "&''6# gives the following defnitions for the
concept.
"a# A study of two or more education systems.
"b# A study of how the philosophy, ob7ectives and
aims, policy and practice of education in other
countries in:uence the general development, policy
and practice of education in a particular country.
"c# A study of how the development of education in
the past, across the ages and continents, has
in:uenced the development of education in
particular countries.
"d# A study of the school systems of two or more
countries, and of the administrative machineries set
up to implement or to control the implementation of
government policies at various levels of education
systems.
Comparative Education according to ;ood "&'<0# is a feld
of study dealing with the comparison of current
educational theory and practice in diferent countries for
the purpose of broadening and deepening understanding
of educational problems beyond the boundaries of one8s
own country. =rom the above defnitions, the study of
Comparative education allows the person involved to have
a better understanding of the system of education outside
his own country.
To >andel "&')4#, Comparative Education is the
comparison of various philosophies of education based not
only on theories but the actual practices which prevail
=rom this above defnition, >andel is of the opinion that
comparative education goes beyond the comparison of
education philosophies but also includes the comparison
of the real education practices. ?erhaps, from the
defnition, comparative Education can be regarded as
being pragmatic.
In his own contribution to the concept of comparative
Education, 9allinson "&'4)# defnes the sub7ect as+
a systematic e1amination of other cultures and other
systems of education deriving from those cultures in order
to discover resemblances and diferences, and why
variant solutions have beenattempted "and with what
result# to problems thatare often common to all.
In his own remar/ on the concept of Comparative
education,Ade7umobi "&''6# defnes the concept as a
critical study of educationalsimilarities and diferences
prevailing with a particular society or cultureor among
various societies and cultures.
=rom the defnition given by Ade7umobi, it is obvious that
the ideaof comparing educational systems is not peculiar
to countries or societiesalone but it can as well ta/e place
within a country or society.
In the same vein, 3so/oya "&''0# observed that+
Comparative Education could be the comparisonof
educational theory and practice within a
society, state, region and nations ... that scholarscould
engage in the comparison of educationalprogrammes,
theories and practices even withinone society. Therefore,
there could be acomparative study of educational
programmeswithin the local governments of a state,
betweenstates of a country and between countries of
acontinent.
Alabietal "&''(# sees comparative education as@ a way
ofcomparing and contrasting diferent educational
systems at national,infra,national as well as international
levels.
The ma7or implications of their defnition is that
comparison ofeducational philosophies, systems and
practices is not peculiar to twocultures or countries alone
but it can also be locali-ed as it has beenrightly pointed
out by the other scholars in the feld.
In his own reaction to the concept of Comparative
education,Awolola "&'(<# defnes the sub7ect as the study
of aims and ob7ectives ofeducation, the curriculum
methods of teaching, teacher A studentrelationships,
school calendar, mode of discipline, design of
schoolbuildings, school administration among others
which may be at the
international or national levels.
Uni $ SCOPE OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
1!" In#oducion
E1posing students to the scope of comparative education
will
aford the students the opportunity to have an idea of
other disciplines
from where comparative education draws ideas or points.
$!" O%&eci'e,
At the end of this unit, you should be able to do the
following+
"a# E1plain the scope of comparative education.
"b# Biscuss the purpose of comparative education
"c# E1plain the reasons for studying comparative
education.
(!" T)e Conen
(!$!1 T)e Sco+e of Co*+a#ai'e Educaion
The term %scope% according to !ongman dictionary
ofcontemporary English could mean+
"a# The area within the limit of a 5uestion, sub7ect, action
etc.
"b# 2pace or chance for actions or thought.
=rom the above, scope of comparative education means
the area orareas covered by the discipline. The scope of
the sub7ect also connotesthe various sub7ects or
disciplines from where Comparative educationdraws its
information directly or indirectly.
A critical loo/ at the various defnitions of the discipline no
doubtreveals that Comparative Education is an
interdisciplinary sub7ect sinceit relies on other sub7ects to
be able to accomplish its ob7ectives. As aninterdisciplinary
sub7ect, its scope covers the historical development
ofeducation right from the Coman as well as the ;ree/
civili-ation. It also
includes the historical development of non,formal
education in anycountry of study. The discipline has its
scope e1tended to the purpose orpurposes of education
systems of the countries being studied, aninvestigation
into the similarities as well as diferences e1isting in
theeducational practices of the countries under
investigation.
*owever, sub7ects from where Comparative Education
draws its contents include the following+
"a# *istory of Education
"b# ?hilosophy of Education
"c# 2ociology of Education
"d# Anthropology
"e# Economics
"f# ;eography
"g# ?sychology
"h# 2tatistics
"i# !iterature
"7# ?olitical geography
"/# ?olitical science and
"l# International relations.
above e1planation clearly shows that the sub7ect is not
independent of other sub7ects@ it is a discipline that
relates to other sub7ects for the accomplishment of its
aims and ob7ectives. It may be reasonably concluded that
the interdisciplinary nature of the sub7ect has contributed
to the wideness of the discipline.
(!$!$ T)e Pu#+o,e of Co*+a#ai'e Educaion
Comparative education li/e other disciplines being ofered
in the education institutions is not a purposeless sub7ect.
In other words, the sub7ect has some goals which it aims
at achieving. $hile giving the purpose of comparative
education, *ans "&''0#
concludes that+
The analytical study of these factors from historical
perspective and the comparison of
attempted solution of resultant problems are the main
purpose of comparative education.
It can be concluded from the above that comparative
education tries to compare educational problems as well
as the solutions applied to such problems with a view to
helping one8s educational practices.
The purpose of Comparative Education was given by
9allinson"&'4)# when he noted that+To become familiar
with what is being done in some countries ... and why it is
done, is a
necessary part of the training of all students ofeducational
issues of the day. 3nly in that waywill they be properly
ftted to study andunderstand their own systems and plan
intelligently for the future which given the basiccultural
changes that have ta/en place with suchastonishing
throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, is
going to be one where weare thrown into ever closer
contact with otherpeoples and other cultures.
=rom the above, it is evident that the study of
ComparativeEducation assists the learners to understand
their educational systemsbetter.
In his own contribution to the purpose of comparative
education,9arc , Antoine Dullien de ?aris "&(&4# cited in
*ans "&''0# notes that+
The purpose of Comparative Education is to perfect
national systems with modifcations
and changes which the circumstances and local conditions
would demand.
!i/e other Education Comparativists, the purpose given
above is a pointer to the fact that the study of
Comparative education assists in the :e1ibility of
educational systems of one8s country.
In the same vein, >andel cited by *ans "&''0# was of the
opinion that the primary purpose of comparative
education is to discover not only the diferences e1isting
in the Education systems of two countries but also the
factors that bring about such diferences in the
educational system.
Also, to *ans "&''0# the purpose of Comparative
Education is to discover the underlying principles which
govern the development of all national education
systems.
(!$!( O)e# #ea,on, fo# Sud-ing Co*+a#ai'e
Educaion inc.ude/
"a# To assist in the understanding of one8s educational
institutions
as well as educational practices.
"b# To assist in the understanding of the factors that are
responsible for various educational changes.
"c# To educate the students and teachers on the procedure
through which educational changes occur.
"d# To contribute not only to the educational development
of the society but also to the general development of the
society.
"e# To serve as an academic discipline.
"f# To assist in solving one8s educational problems
"g# To open one8s eyes to the educational philosophies,
theories and practices of other countries.
"h# To assist both the students and teachers of discipline
in gathering reliable information concerning educational
system.
"i# To assist in the ?romotion of international relationship.
"7# To contribute to the formulation of a country8s
educational systems.
0!" Conc.u,ion
Comparative education is an interdisciplinary course as it
borrows
ideas from other sub7ects. As a course of study, it has
reasons for being
taught by teachers and being learnt by the students.
1!" Su**a#-
In this unit, you have learnt about the scope of
comparative
education, the purpose of comparative education and
other reasons for
studying comparative education.
2!" Tuo# Ma#3ed A,,ign*en
9ention fve reasons for studying comparative education.
Uni (/ Hi,o#ica. De'e.o+*en of Co*+a#ai'e
Educaion
1!" In#oducion
The historical development of comparative education can
be
divided into three stages. They are+ descriptive stage,
predictive stage
and scientifc stage.
$!" O%&eci'e
At the end of this unit, you should be able to e1plain the
historical
development of comparative education.
(!" T)e Conen
(!(!1 Hi,o#ica. 4ac3g#ound
In the beginning, Comparative Education was not
reallyComparative but descriptive as the people were
mostly concerned withthe description of educational
systems of each country withoutnecessarily comparing
one educational systems with another. *owever,the &'th
Century witnessed an increased interest in the study
ofComparative Education as education started to be
studied in aComparative form.
As a matter of fact, what can be regarded as serious
studies in thefeld of Comparative Education could be
traced to the early &'th centuryafter the .apoleonic wars.
2ince there was no war among theEuropeans, there was
peace among them and they needed somethingthat could
enhance their interaction with one another. Therefore,
aconsideration was given to the study of comparative
education as astrong channel through which the youths of
various European countriescould be more unifed. To this
end, Dohn ;riscom travelled to Europeand on his return, he
published his fndings on educational institutionsin the
countries visited such as ;reat Eritain, =rance,
2wit-erland, Italy
as well as *olland between &(&( and &(&'.
In the same vein, Fictor Cousin, a representative of the
=rench9inister of education visited ?russia in &'G& and
also on return home,published his fndings on the ?russian
educational institutions andpractices, *is fndings were
later translated to English and enhanced the
educational development in =rance, England as well as in
America.
Another pioneer in the feld of Comparative Education was
*orace 9ann of America who after a si1,month visit to
Europe alsopublished his fndings in &(6G on educational
institutions and practicesin England, 2cotland, Ireland,
=rance, ;ermany as well as *olland. *isreport was purely
on the comparison of the school organi-ation and
methods of instruction.
9atthew Arnold of England visited both =rance and
;ermany in&()' and &(<). 3n his return home, he made
some remar/s particularlyon the educational institutions
and practices in both =rance and;ermany. !i/e others, he
advised that some useful aspects of theeducational
system of =rance and ;ermany should be integrated
intothe systems of education in England.
$hat can be viewed as second generation in the study
ofComparative Education could be traced to 2ir 9ichael
2adler who inone of his publications+ how far can we learn
anything of practical valuefrom the study of =oreign
2ystems of Education which was published in
&'HH, went further than other pioneers before him who
were moreutilitarian and straight forward in the
description of the foreigneducational systems studied by
them.
$hile contributing to the development of Comparative
Educationstudy, >andel cited by *ans "&')(# observed
that+The chief value of a Comparative approach
toeducational problems lies in an analysis of thecauses
which have produced them, in acomparison of the
diferences between the varioussystems and the reasons
underlying them andfnally, in a study of the solutions
attempted. Inother words, the comparative approach
demands
frst and appreciation of the intangible,impalpable spiritual
and cultural forces which
underlie an educational system, the factors andforces
outside the school matter even more thanwhat goes
inside it.
In the same vein, =riedrich 2chneider, a ;erman spea/ing
andBirector of the Institute of Comparative Education,
2al-burg started theediting of the international Ceview of
Education in four languages in&'GH.
In his &'64 publication, he gave the following as the
factors thatcan in:uence the educational theory and
practice of any country+
"a# .ational character
"b# ;eographical space
"c# Culture
"d# 2ciences
"e# ?hilosophy
"f# Economic life and politics
"g# Celigion
"h# *istory
"i# =oreign in:uences and
"7# The development of pedagogies
!i/e others, he applied historical approach to the problems
ofeducation of all the countries visited by him.In his own
contribution to the development of Comparative
Education, 2erius *essen, a Cussian ?hilosopher loo/ed
atComparative Education from a ?hilosophical Education
point of view.
In his boo/ published in &'0(, he selected four problems
as an
educational policy focus. The problems are "a# compulsory
education "b#The school and the 2tate "c# The school and
the church and "d# Theschool and economic life. *essen
was perhaps the frst educationphilosopher to apply
philosophical approach.
Also, the Comparative Education 2ociety, introduced by
Eric/man,
. came into being at a conference in .ew Ior/ in &')<.
This society
assists in the publication of 7ournal called %The
Comparative Education
Ceview%. In addition, it holds national as well as regional
conferencesand seminars.
In &'<&, a similar society was established in Europe after
launching
the new society in !ondon. The membership of the 2ociety
was
e1tended to the e1perts in the feld of Comparative or
International
Education in the tertiary Institutions or the International
organi-ations.!i/e others, it holds its conferences every
two years and publishes theproceedings of its
conferences. 9eanwhile, similar societies have
beenestablished in Canada, >orea as well as Dapan.
?erhaps $orld,$idetoday, the discipline is one of the
sub7ects being ofered in all theJniversities and Colleges
of Education. The 2ociety for Comparative
Education was founded in .igeria in &'(G while the $orld
congress on
the discipline came into being in the year &'(0 for
Cooperation among
the people involved in the study of the sub7ect as well as
the general
development of Comparative Education.
(!(!$ faco#, #e,+on,i%.e fo# inc#ea,ed ine#e, in
)e ,ud- of
Co*+a#ai'e Educaion.
3so/oya, ? ; "&''0# gives the following as the other
factors
responsible for increased interest in the study of
Comparative
Education.
"a# The emergency of newly independent states and
developing
countries who wanted a good educational system as soon
as
possible. =or instance, the newly introduced educational
system in .igeria <,G,G,6 which was borrowed from
America
too/ the .igerian delegation to schools and companies
manufacturing the educational e5uipment in 2weden.
"b# The greater fre5uency of travel to attend conferences,
seminars as well as wor/shops abroad.
"c# The improvement in the modern means of transport as
well
as communication.
"d# The awareness of scientifc and technological
achievements
in the advanced countries such as Cussia and 2putni/.
"e# The socio,economic and political problems facing other
countries.
(!(!( P)a,e, in )e De'e.o+*en of Co*+a#ai'e
Educaion
The phases in the historical development of Comparative
Education can be divided into three namely+ "a#
Bescriptive and
borrowing stage "b# ?redictive stage "c# 2cientifc stage.
Fi#, +)a,e
Buring the frst phase of the development of Comparative
Education, the educational comparativists involved in this
stage include+
9arc,Anthony Dullien de ?aris, &(&4, 9athew Arnold of
England,
Fictor cousin of =rance, !eo Tolstoy and >.B. Aushins/y of
Cussia,
Bomingo 2ermiento of Argentina, *orace 9ann and *enry
Earbard ofAmerica. At the borrowing stage, the education
data collected would becompared so as to ma/e use of it
for the best educational practice of thecountry studied for
the purpose of transplanting it to other countries.
(!(!0 Second P)a,e
The second phase in the study of comparative education
too/ place
in the frst half of the 0Hth century. The stage could be
regarded as astage of ?rediction because at this stage,
the study of comparativeeducation has gone beyond the
borrowing stage. At this stage, theeducational
comparativists studying the educational institutions
andpractices of another country will be in the position to
predict what isli/ely to be the success or failure of
adopting the educational practices ofthe country studied
by his own country. It should be remembered byboth the
students and the teachers of comparative education that
thestudents and the teachers of comparative education
that the basis onwhich a country8s educational practice is
based may not necessary be thesame thing with that of
education comparatives studying the educationsystem of
other countries.
The educational comparativists involved in this stage
included+
=riedrich 2chneider and =ran- *il/er of ;ermany, Isaac
>andel as well
as Cobert Jlich of America., .icholas *ans as well as
Doseph !anwerysof England including ?edro Cosselo of
2wit-erland. They tried to fndout the reasons behind the
educational practices of the country visitedby them and
they became more careful in transplanting the
educationalpractices of another country to their own.
(!(!1 T)i#d P)a,e
The third stage can be regarded as the scientifc period or
analytical period. This stage too/ place in the second half
of the 0Hthcentury. The period witnessed rigorous analysis
as well as ob7ectivity inthe study of educational practices
of other countries. At this stage, beforetransplanting the
educational practices of another country to one8scountry,
such educational practices have to be sub7ected to a
criticaanalysis unli/e the frst stage when the educational
practices of thecountry visited can be borrowed or the
second stage when theimplication of transplanting the
educational practices of another countrycan be easily
predicted.
The comparativists involved in this stage included+
2chneider,>andel as well as Jich.
Uni 0 A++#oac)e, o )e ,ud- of co*+a#ai'e
educaion.
1!" In#oducion
There are many approaches that can be used to study
comparative
education. They include+
"a# ?roblem approach
"b# Case study approach
"c# Area study approach
"d# *istorical approach
"e# Bescriptive approach
"f# ?hilosophical approach
"g# International approach
"h# ;astronomic approach
$!" O%&eci'e
At the end of this unit, you should be able to mention and
discuss
some of the approaches to the study of comparative
education.
(!" T)e Conen
(!0!1 A++#oac)e, o )e Sud- of Co*+a#ai'e
Educaion
Awolola "&'(<# identifed eight approaches to the study of
Comparative Education. They are+
"a# ?roblem Approach or Thematic approach
"b# Case study approach
"c# Area study approach
"d# *istorical approach
"e# Bescriptive approach
"f# ?hilosophical approach
"g# International approach and
"h# Castronomic approach
(!0!$ T)e*aic o# P#o%.e* A++#oac)
*ere, the investigator will frst of all identify a particular
educational problem in his own country. Then, he will
begin to loo/ foranother country that has the same
problem. The researcher will alsostudy the education
problem of another country in relation to theirculture. The
researcher will not only study the education problem
ofanother country but he will also e1amine the solution
applied to suchproblem by the afected country. =rom this,
he will thin/ of how he willbe able to solve their own
educational problem as well. It should benoted that
Culture, economic, 2ocio ?olitical factors vary from
onecountry to another as a result of which educational
problems andsolutions may not necessarily be the same.
(!0!( Ca,e Sud- A++#oac)
In this approach, an education Comparativist from .igeria
can go
to Ira5 to study the primary education !evel of the
country. *is report
"is believed# will be very comprehensive for his readers to
understand. Ift is possible for the researcher, he can ta/e
all the educational systems ofthe country and compare
such educational system with his owneducational system.
The problem with this approach is that as a humanbeing,
the investigator may not be totally ob7ective in his report.
(!0!0 A#ea Sud- A++#oac)
The world area here could refer to a village, a town or
country
depending on the educational comparativist who wants to
carry out thestudy. Jnder this approach, the educational
comparativist will engagehimself in the educational
practices of only one country, if it is a countrythat he has
chosen. The investigator is going to involve himself
inseveral activities as a result of which he is going to
arrive at a body ofgenerali-ations on the educational
system he is studying. The studyunder this approach is
always based on geographical, linguistic or
racialboundaries.
*owever, Eereday "&')(# is of the opinion that %one of the
oldestand clearest ways of introducing the sub7ect
"Comparative Education# isto study one geographical area
at a time% *e therefore identifed thefollowing stages in
the area study approach+
"a# Descriptive Stage - At this stage, an Educational
Comparativist
can ma/e a description of his own educational system as
wellas practices. The researcher has to start by
readinge1tensively. *e will start by reviewing the available
literatureon the educational system of the country being
studied. Toenable the investigator have on the spot
assessment, he canpersonally visit the country whose
educational system isstudying.
"b# Interpretation Stage - At this stage of the study,
theinvestigator will now collate and analyse the data
gatheredfrom various sources to enable him do 7usticeto
the educational system of the area being studied.
"c# Juxtaposition Stage - At this stage of the study, the
investigator
will put side by side the result obtained from
theinterpretation stage with the educational system of his
owncountry.
"d# Comparative Stage - At this stage of the investigation,
theresearcher will ob7ectively compare and contrast
theeducational practices of the country being studied
withthat of his own. It is at this stage of the study that
whateverhypotheses that might have been formulated by
the
researcher that will be re7ected or accepted.
(!0!1 Hi,o#ica. A++#oac)
Jnder this approach, an investigator will only ta/e a
village, town
or country for the e1amination of its educational historical
development
right from the frst day when education was introduced
into the place
and the time of study. This approach will enable the
researcher to
identify the factors that are responsible for the current
educational
system of the country being studied. *owever, the
problem with this
approach is that greater emphasis is always placed on the
past.
(!0!2 De,c#i+i'e A++#oac)
*ere, the investigator will have to describe everything he
fnds on
ground. 2uch things to be described could include+
.umber of schools,
student enrolment, number of teachers, number of the
school buildings
including classrooms as well as the number of sub7ects
being ofered.
*owever, the approach is not very popular among the
modern
educational Comparativists.
(!0!5 Ine#naiona. A++#oac)
This is an approach whereby all the variations e1isting
from one
area to another within the same country are ta/en into
consideration
while comparing the system of education of a foreign
country with one8s
educational system.
(!0!6 Ga,#ono*ic A++#oac)
This is a method whereby both the diet as well as the
eating habit
of the people in a particular country are related to the
practices of their
education, the approach is not very popular among the
modern
educational comparativists.
(!0!7 T)e Fie.d Sud- A++#oac)
This approach is not new in the area of the sub7ect. 3n
thisapproach, Eric/man "&'<<# cited by Alabi and 3yelade
"&''(# observedthat+
Fisitation of foreign countries whether for thepurpose of
commerce, conversation curiosity orcon:ict, goes bac/ to
ancient history, travelers in allhistorical periods must have
brought bac/ facts andimpression concerning the cultures
of the othercountries they had visited, included in their
reportsmust have been comments relating to the young
and
their upbringing. They may also have made someremar/s
regarding the similarities and diferences inthe ways of
educating children. 2ome, indeed, mayhave arrived at
conclusions involving the e1pression
of value 7udgments.In using this approach for studying
comparative education *alls"&'<)# cited by Alabi and
3yelade "&''(# identifes three stages in thefeld study of
approach. They are+
&. ?reparatory stage
0. Investigatory and analytical stage as well as
G. Evaluatory and Comparative stage.
P#e+a#ao#- Sage
This is the stage in which the investigator will have to
preparehimself very well before traveling to his country of
interest. *e has to befamiliar with the country he wants to
visit by reading very e1tensivelyabout the country.
In'e,igao#- and Ana.-ica. Sage
At this stage, the researcher will have to formulate
somehypotheses on the educational practices of the
country he wants tostudy. The formulation of these
hypotheses will give him a focus onwhat to loo/ for.
E'a.uao#- Co*+a#ai'e Sage
At this stage, the investigator after coming bac/ from his
travel tothe foreign country, will now e1amine the
practices of education of thecountry he has visited in
relation to the educational practices of his own
country with a view to establishing the similarities as well
as thediferences e1isting in the educational practices of
the two countries it is
also at this stage that the hypotheses earlier on
formulated will either bere7ected or accepted. The feld
study approach unli/e area study
approach, concerns itself with the study of the educational
systems of
many countries at the same time. It also involves visiting
the foreign
countries of interest to enable the investigator ma/e an
ob7ective
comparison between the foreign educational practices and
that of his
country.
(!0!1" T)e Scieni8c A++#oac)
This is an approach in which the study of comparative
education
is carried out empirically by formulating hypotheses,
defning the
important concepts, setting out the variables as well as
the conditions
for establishing the validity of the hypotheses formulated.
2ince in any
scientifc research, data collection its interpretation with
the help of
statistics of analysis are very important,. These must not
also be lac/ing
in the study of Comparative Education to enhance the
5uality and
credibility of whatever may be the result of the
investigation.
0'
(!0!11 T)e Ineg#aed A++#oac)
This is an approach in which other disciplines such as
history,
philosophy, geography@ economics, anthropology and
statistics are
integrated in to the study of Comparative Education
because of their
usefulness. As it has already been stated, it is not possible
for
Comparative Education as a discipline to stand on its own
as it has to
draw from other sub7ects which include the disciplines
mentioned
above.
(!0!1$ T)e P)i.o,o+)ica. A++#oac)
A Cussian ?hilosopher by name 2erguis *essen was the
frst man
to apply philosophical approach to the study of
Comparative Education
when he published his boo/ in &'0( which he tittled
%>ritische
Fergleichung des 2chulwesens der Anderen >uturstaaten%.
In the boo/,
he chose four main philosophical problems. The problems
chosen by
him are+
"a# Compulsory education
"b# The 2chool and the 2tate
"c# The school and the Church and
"d# The 2chool and Economic life.
*e analysed the underlying principles and later followed it
by
giving a critical account of modern legislation in many
countries.
>osemani "&'')# believes that philosophical approach is a
step
forward to solve the problems in the national character
approach.
According to him, there are two ma7or problems involved
in the
application of philosophical approach to the study of
comparative
education. The problems are+
"a# Biference in emphasis as a result of which it may be
dicult to
use the same criterion "national ideology# for the
comparison. "b#
There are many countries without clear cut national
ideologies.
"c# =rom the above, it could be deduced that with
philosophical
approach, hypotheses could be formulated, be tested and
could
also be empirically validated for better e1planation of
educational practices of various countries.
GH
(!0!1( T)e Co*+a#ai'e A++#oac)
In this approach, the reader must not be made to do the
comparison of various educational practices by himself,
rather, the
comparison and conclusion have to be done by the
investigator himself.
Bata on the educational practices to be compared must
have been
gathered and reviewed. In addition, hypotheses should
have also been
formulated to assist in the gathering of data. Then, the
educational
practices of the country under study will be put side by
side with the
educational practices of another country slated for
comparison.
The ne1t stage after Du1taposition is the comparison of the
educational practices of the countries that have been put
side by side. It
is at stage of comparison that the hypotheses that had
been formulated
earlier on will be re7ected or accepted.
0!" Conc.u,ion
The /nowledge of diferent approaches to the study of
comparative education will help the learners in better
understanding the
discipline.
2!" Tuo# Ma#3ed A,,ign*en
9ention two approaches to the study of comparative
education
and discuss one of them.
Uni 1/ Dee#*inan, of Naiona. Educaion S-,e*
1!" In#oducion
Every system of education is determined by some factors.
2uch
factors include@ language, geography, economy, history,
religion,
politics, social, racial and trade unions among others.
(!" T)e Conen
(!1!1 Language Faco#
!anguage is one of the things that can ma/e man to be
diferent
from the lower animals. There is no tribe in the world that
does not haveits own original language which may be
diferent from other tribes.
.aturally, children learn better and faster when their local
language is
used to teach them. At the national level, each country
also has national
language or languages. Ey implication, citi-ens of such a
country will be
e1pected to learn their national languages not only for
ocial purpose
but also for efective communication. In .igeria for
instance, three
.igerian languages have been formally recogni-ed. They
are+ Ioruba,
Igbo and *ausa languages. At the secondary school level,
a child is
e1pected to ta/e another language in addition to his own
local language.
At the primary school level, teachers are allowed to use
the local
language of the pupils to teach them.
(!1!$ T)e Geog#a+)ica. Faco#
3ne may begin to wonder as to how or why geography is
relevant
in the development of a country8s educational system.
Apart from the
fact that the climate of a country afects the school
buildings as well as
the e5uipment, what can be easily done in one climatic
area may not be
so in another place. ?erhaps, this is one of the reasons
why open air
schools are rarely possible in the .orthern part of .igeria.
There is no
doubt about it, the constant change in the .igerian school
calendar year
can be attributed to climatic reason. It should be
remembered that the
school calendar was changed from Danuary , Becember,
and later,
changed to 2eptember , Duly. The reason for these
changes in the school
academic year could be that there is always heavy rain in
.igeria
between Duly and August, and to avoid disaster, the pupils
are sent on
long holidays so that they can stay at home with their
parents. In
addition, the months of Duly and August are the periods for
the
preparation of the hamattan farming and since the pupils
will be with
their parents this time, they will be in the position to assist
them on theirfarms. The weather may also in:uence the
school dressings, the schoolfood, as well as the school
time table.
(!1!( T)e Econo*ic Faco#
The state of country8s economy determines the national
education
system of that country. At the beginning of every year, a
budget is
always prepared and presented by the federal
government as it happens
in .igeria. In the budget, certain percentage of the total
budget is
always allocated to each of the social amenities to be
provided by the
government. It should be noted that when the economy of
a country is
in a good shape, a better percentage of the budget will go
to education.
Eut when the economy is poor, this may afect the
percentage of the
budget that will go to education. Also, all formulated
educational
policies need substantial amount of money for their
implementation.
This can only be possible when the country8s economy is
Cooperative.
This means that when the country8s economy is not good,
the
formulated educational policies may not be fully
implemented, if it is
implemented at all.
In addition if the economy of the country is heavily
concentrated
in a particular location of such a country, there is
possibility that people
may begin to migrate from their place where economy is
not
concentrated to an economically concentrated area. This
is one of the
reasons responsible for the migration of .igerians from
rural areas to
the urban centres as a result of which schools in the urban
areas are not
only greater in number than the rural areas, but such
schools in the
urban centers are always over populated and en7oy more
5ualifed
teachers than the rural schools.
(!1!0 T)e Hi,o#ica. Faco#
As a matter of fact, history, which is the record of past
events, has
a lot to do with the educational development of a country
or nation.
Apart from the traditional system of education which is as
old as its
locality or society, western formal education which is the
focus of our
study here is always borrowed from one place or the
other. Education in
most if not all the African countries can have its origin
traced to the
Colonial 9aster of each of these African countries. =or
instance, it is
often said that the southerners in .igeria are much more
advanced
educationally than the .ortherners. The reason for this
can be traced to
the historical development of formal education in the
.orthern .igeria.
G)
Ey the time $estern Education was brought to .igeria,
the .ortherners
were already used to Islamic Education and they found it
dicult to
change. 3n the other hand, the 2outherners who were not
seriously
used to Islamic education easily embraced the $estern
Education that
was brought to .igeria.
*owever, a critical loo/ at the system of education in
.igeria
before and after independence shows an adaptation of
Eritish
educational system. Eecause of the failure of the inherited
educational
system from the .igerian colonial masters to meet
the.igerian
aspirations and needs, a new system of education was put
in place. The
historical development of education in .igeria goes for
other countries
not only in Africa but in many countries of the world. =or
instance, the
socialist character of education in the old Cussia as well as
China was as
a result of their history. Also, the seculari-ation of
education in China
and Cussia was due to the oppressive feudal regimes "!aw
relating to
the systems by which people held land, and protection in
return for
giving wor/ or military help#. After the ?ersian war, Athens
had to
change its cosmopolitan society "consisting of people from
many
diferent parts of the world#. =inally, it is obvious that the
centrali-ed
system in =rance is as a result of their historical
bac/ground.
(!1!1 T)e Re.igiou, Faco#
The importance of religion in the development of a
country8s
educational system or policies cannot be overemphasi-ed.
=or instance,
the earliest schools in .igeria were founded, administered
and fnanced
by the Christian missions. !ater, 9oslems established
schools for their
children and the children of the converts. 2uch schools
include+ Eaptist
2chools, Islamic 2chools, *ammadiya 2chool, C.A.C.
2chools, 9ethodist
2chools, Catholic 2chools among others.
In the same vein, the northerners who were already used
to
Islamic education, reluctantly embraced western
Education when it was
introduced into .igeria. Jp till today, perhaps, $estern
=ormal
Education is not as popular as Islamic education as a
result of which
there is an education gap between the .orth and the
2outh. The
contribution of religion to the development of .igerian
educational
system was well ac/nowledged by the =ederal
;overnment not only at
the ?rimary and 2econdary Education levels but also at
tertiary
education level. In fact, the two prominent religions are
being ofered in
most of the public schools in .igeria and teachers are
always recruited
by the government for the teaching of the two religions
regardless of
whether such schools belong to the 9oslems or Christians.
The two
religions are always put into consideration whenever
politicalappointment is to be given e.g. ?resident, Fice
?resident, 9inisters,
;overnors, Beputy,;overnors, Commissioners etc.
(!1!2 T)e Po.iica. Faco#
The type of leadership, his interest, his agenda for the
citi-ens of
the country, the type of administration he wants to run,
the programmesof his party through which he becomes
the leader among other things toa great e1tent determine
the national system of a country8s education. Itis not an
over , statement to say that the educational system of
anysociety is a re:ection of its political ideology. =or
instance, the socialismideology in the J.2.2.C. contributed
to the introduction of free andcompulsory education in the
country. Tan-ania which is an Africancountry had its
national education system in:uenced by her political
ideology socialism. It was this political ideology that gave
way for
introduction of the new, education ideology popularly
/nown as
education for self,reliance. 2ince a greater percentage of
the Tan-anians
are farmers and live in the rural areas and for every
Tan-anian to be self
reliant in line with the new educational policy, everybody
is being
e1posed not only to farming but also to the life in the rural
areas. This
ma/es the new educational system in the country to truly
represent the
social, economic, cultural as the political reality of the
country.
Till 0HH<, .igeria as a country has been able to produce
only three
civilian presidents since &'<H when it got her
independence. They are
.namdi A-i/iwe "ceremonial# the frst Civilian ?resident till
&'<<,
Alha7i 2heu 2hagari, &'4' , &'(G and Chief 3lusegun
3basan7o who
became the third Civilian ?resident on 9ay 0',&''' and
9ay 0HHG.
2cince &'<H .igeria was most of the years under the
military rule.
This means that the country has been under the military
rule with
Becrees more than the constitution. The implication of
this is that
instability in the political system is bound to bring about
educational
instability as well. =or instance in .igeria, there was a
time when the
payment of ?rimary 2chool Teachers8 salaries was being
done by the
=ederal ;overnment and later it was transferred to the
local
governments. As a result of delay in payment, primary
school teachers
in some local government areas went on stri/e for several
months. Therewas a time in .igeria again when all ?rivate
2econdary 2chools wereta/en over by the government.
!ater, another government gave
approval for the establishment of private secondary
schools. Even some
schools were also returned to their owners.
The school calendar is always changed from time to time
in
.igeria. The new system of education popularly /nown as
<,G,G,6
education system was initiated by the ;owon regime but
the launching
of the new system of secondary education was done by
Alha7i 2heu
2hagari in &'(0 in !agos. Jp till 0HH< the system has not
been fully
implemented. All these educational problems are the
manifestation of
political instability.
(!1!5 T)e Socia. Faco#
In every society, there is social stratifcation. This means
that
naturally, people in any society do not belong to only one
group or class.
In most cases, grouping is always dependent on race,
economy, level of
education, one8s profession or the profession of one8s
parents, the
location of one8s residence, one8s family bac/ground
among others. It is
not uncommon to see people of the same grouping or
class or their
children moving together and doing things together. 2uch
children are
li/ely to en7oy better and have rapid education than the
children whose
parents are not educated or whose parents are farmers or
traders who
have little or no maens for the education of their children.
Eecause of theinability of the children from a poor
bac/ground to learn at the same
rate with the children from a better schools for the
children who are
better educationally to enable them to go at their own
pace while an
opportunity will also be given to the slow learners. Also, in
.igeria
today, because the .ortherners are mostly nomads by
profession, it
became compulsory for the government not only to
introduce .omadic
Education but also to establish nomadic schools for the
children of these
cattle rearrers.
In terms of employment, profession, education, the
children of the
rich and elite are better placed. In most cases, because of
the social
stratifcation, the schools being attended by the children
of the rich,
elites are far better than the schools being attended by
the children of thepoor.
(!1!6 T)e E)nic o# Racia. Faco#
This simply means a group of people from the same
geographical
location see themselves as one and begin to discriminate
against others
who are not from their geographical location. This is very
common in
.igeria. There are many schools in .igeria where such
schools are being
dominated by the people within the schools location.
In order to overcome this problem of ethnicity or racial,
the federal
government introduced .ational youth 2ervice Corps
2cheme, =ederal
;overnment Colleges, Jnity 2chools, Kuota 2ystem for
anything
=ederal so that every 2tate of the =ederation will be ta/en
care of.
In the 2outh Africa, the Africans who were the sons of the
land
were heavily discriminated against by the whites. The
schools being
attended by the children of the whites were superior to
the schools beingattended by the children of the blac/s.
Also, the .egroes in the Jnited 2tates of America despite
the fact
that they are Americans culturally, religiously,
linguistically yet, the
Americans discriminated against them because they are
regarded as
people who are inferior in every respect. Eecause of this
view about the
.egroes, separate schools were designed for the
Americans as well as
the .egroes and this was constitutionally supported by
the government.
In everything, they are discriminated against and they
receive things
that are inferior when compared with the Americans.
In the same vein, the =rench policy even in Africa was
aimed at
transforming the Africans into Elac/ =renchmen. The
reason behind this
was that the African culture was seen as being inferior to
that of the
=rench people.
(!1!7 T)e Acade*ic o# P#ofe,,iona. A,,ociaion,
There are academic associations which directly in:uence
the
development of national educational systems such
academic
associations include+
"a# Association of the Jniversity !ecturers
"b# Association of the ?olytechnic !ecturers
"c# Association of !ecturers in the Colleges of Education
"d# Association of both ?rimary and 2econdary 2chool
Teachers.
In .igeria for instance, we have
"a# Academic 2taf Jnion of Jniversities
"b# Academic 2taf Jnion of ?olytechnics
"c# Academic 2taf Jnion of Colleges of Education as well
as
"d# .igerian Jnion of Teachers ".JT#.
$e also have the association of principals of 2econdary
2chools,
the Association of ;raduate Teachers, the association of
.ational
Certifcate of Education "..C.E.# teachers and the
association of ;rade II
teachers all within the .igeria Jnion of Teachers.
In addition, some sub7ects have an association each, such
associations include+
"a# 2cience Teachers Association "2TA.#
"b# 9athematics Teachers Association of .igeria
"c# 2ocial 2tudies Teachers Association of .igeria.
"d# .igerian Association for Comparative Education among
others
They assist in the writing of te1tboo/s on their sub7ects.
They also
assist in the improvement, seminars, wor/shops as well as
conferences
for the teachers of their sub7ects.
0!" Conc.u,ion
The unit above discusses some of the factors that can
determine the
education system of any country.
1!" Su**a#-
In the last unit, you have learnt about the following
factors+ "a#
!anguage "b# ;eographical "c# Economic "d# *istorical "e#
Celigious "f#
?olitics "g# 2ocial "h# Ethnic or racial and "i# trade unions
and
professional associations.
2!" Tuo# Ma#3ed A,,ign*en
9ention and discuss any two factors that can determine
the
education system of any nation.
Uni 2 faco#, )a can ,u,ain )e eac)ing and
.ea#ning of
co*+a#ai'e educaion
1!" In#oducion
There are certain factors that can sustain the teaching
and learning
of comparative education as a discipline. Also, there are
certain 5ualities
to be possessed by anybody who is teaching comparative
education.
$!" O%&eci'e
At the end of this unit, you should be able to identify and
discuss
factors that can sustain the teaching and learning of
comparative
education as well as the 5ualities to be possessed by the
teachers of
Comparative Education.
(!" T)e Conen
(!2!1 T)e Fuu#e of Co*+a#ai'e Educaion
=or comparative education to have its status enhanced,
the
following suggestions have to be ta/en into consideration.
"a# It should be possible to establish through
ComparativeEducation, educational theories that will give
predictive power.
"b# The research techni5ues being used by the 2ociologist,
Economics, ?sychologists and ?hilosophers among
others
should be integrated into the approaches to the
study of comparative education even though their data
may not
necessarily be the same thing for the purpose of building
up a
theory.
"c# *ighly 5ualifed and e1perienced people from diferent
geographical areas should be involved in the study of
Comparative Education.
"d# Education Comparativists should e1tend their
cooperation to
the philosophers, sociologists, historians, economics,
natural
scientists, statisticians, linguistics as well as political
scientists
even though they wor/ in diferent felds, their
contributions
diferently when integrated together build up the body of
Comparative Education information.
"e# Eforts should be made to classify educational courses
at
various levels as well as defne the important
terminologies in
Comparative Education.
"f# A comparative education research should be carried
out before
conclusion and recommendations on educational policies.
"g# Eforts should be made to encourage applied research
in the
study of Comparative Education.
"h# In comparative education research, philanthropists,
national
governments as well as international agencies should
assist
fnancially and fnally+
"i# The people involved in the formulation of educational
policies
should wor/ hand in hand with the educational
comparativists
for a better and wor/able educational formulation.
(!2!$ T)e 9ua.iie, of a Good Educaiona.
Co*+a#ai'i,
As in any other discipline, there are certain 5ualities
e1pected of
anybody that wants to venture into the study of foreign
educational
theories and practice. 2uch 5ualities include the following+
"a# 3b7ectivity
"b# Ceadiness to visit foreign places
"c# Interest in reading education boo/s widely and fastly
"d# ;ood 5ualifcation in the sub7ect.
(!2!( O%&eci'i-
The frst 5uality of a good education comparativist is
ob7ectivity.
This means that the person researching into other
people8s education
theories and practices will not be biased against them
regardless of their
population, race, si-e, and comple1ion. It is what is found
on the ground
about their education theories and practices that will be
reported and
nothing more.
(!2!0 Vi,iing o)e# Coun#ie,
Anybody willing to engage in the study of foreign
educational
theories and practices should not always stay at home
relying on
information gathered from boo/s alone. *e should go
beyond this by
visiting the place whose educational theories and
practices he is
studying. If this is done, the ob7ective report of the study
will be
enhanced as he will be in the position to /now which of
the information
already gathered is correct about the educational theories
and practices
of the place being studied. *e must not be an arm,chair
researcher.
(!2!1 Ha'ing Ine#e,
Also, a very good education comparativist should have
special
interest in reading boo/s on forcing education systems.
.ot only within
his society but outside his country. *e must not limit his
reading to only
the boo/s on his country8s educational systems.
(!2!2 Ha'ing Good 9ua.i8caion
;ood 5ualifcation in Comparative Education or related
sub7ect is
very important for anybody who wants to engage in the
teaching of
Comparative Education. *aving a good 5ualifcation will
not only
enhance the 5uality of such a teacher but will also
enhance his
personality.
0!" Conc.u,ion
In the unit above, you have learnt the following+
"a# The future of Comparative Education
"b# Kualities e1pected of a good education comparativist.
1!" Su**a#-
The unit si1 discusses the factors that can sustain the
teaching and
learning of comparative education, as well as the 5ualities
which any
teacher of comparative education is e1pected to possess.
2!" Tuo# Ma#3ed A,,ign*en
9ention and discuss any two 5ualities e1pected of a
teacher of
comparative education.
Uni 1/ :a+ane,e Educaion S-,e*
1!" In#oducion
E1posing the students to education theory and practices
of other
countries will enhance their /nowledge about education
practices of
such countries.
$!" O%&eci'e
At the end of this unit, you should be able to discuss the
education
practices of Dapan.
(!" T)e Conen (!1!1 4ac3g#ound
Dapan has a total land area of G4(, HHH s5uare /ilometers.
Ey &''H,
Dapan had a population of &06 million. At all levels of
education,
Dapanese language is not only the ocial language but
also the medium
of instruction. The modern education in Dapan can be
traced to &(40.
Eefore this time, Dapanese education was concerned with
religion as well
as ethics "traditional education#. Initially, the Dapanese
education
followed the American education system.
$hat can be regarded as the primary ob7ectives of
Dapanese
education are stated below+
"a# The development of broad mindedness, a health body
and
creativity in individuals,
"b# The rearing of the spirit of freedom, self reliance and
public
awareness, and
"c# Educating the Dapanese individual to live in the global
human
society.
As a democratic state, educational opportunities are made
available to all citi-ens of Dapan. *owever, the Dapanese
education
system generally include+ "a# the formal school system "b#
the less formalsystem of education for the purpose of
administration, schools at alllevels are divided into "a#
2tate "b# !ocal "c# ?ublic and "d# ?rivate.
There is no diference in all the categories of schools in
Dapan
e1cept in the areas of administration and fnance. The frst
nine years of
Dapanese education is free and compulsory.
(!1!$ P#e;Sc)oo. Educaion in :a+an <(;1 Yea#,=
Elementary education in Dapan normally ta/es place in the
/indergarten schools. The primary ob7ective of pre,school
education in
Dapan is to give all round development to the Dapanese
children. The
curriculum for this level of education include+ *ealth,
2ocial 2tudies,
.ature study, !anguage, 9usic, Art, Arithmetic, $riting,
Ceading,
2ongs, Tales and ?hysical Education.
(!1!( :a+ane,e E.e*ena#- Educaion <2 Yea#,=
Elementary Education in Dapan was organi-ed on four
years
duration initially. In the year &((<, this level of education
was made free
and compulsory. Also in &'H(, the compulsory elementary
education
was raised to si1 years from the original four years.
According to the &'40 Education Ceform, education in
Dapan aims
at the following+
"a# To help people to ac5uire the abilities for building a
satisfactory
and spontaneous life.
"b# To adapt to social reality and the creative solution of
diculties.
=rom the above general aims, the following specifc
ob7ectives are
derived+
"a# The development of basic abilities in the young people
side
by side with a set of specifed vocational s/ills,
"b# The preparation of students to cope :e1ibly with rapid
progress in science and technology,
"c# The preparation of the students for social life.
The Dapanese elementary schools are designed for
children aged <,
&0 years. About '4L of the Dapanese children attend
public elementary
schools while only about GL go to private elementary
schools.
The curriculum for this level of education include,
Dapanese
language, social studies, Arithmetic, 2cience, 9usic, Art
and Craft,
home Education, ?hysical Education, 9oral Education, "in
public
schools# Celigious Education "in ?rivate 2chools#.
(!1!0 Seconda#- Educaion in :a+an
This level of education is divided into two cycles, namely+
"a# !ower or Dunior 2econdary+ This cycle of 2econdary
Education is
free and compulsory li/e elementary education. It lasts for
G years
and designed for children ages &0 to &) years. About '4L
of
Dapanese secondary schools age attend public lower
school while
about GL go to the private Dunior 2econdary 2chool.
The primary ob7ective of this level of education is to give
all round
development to the Dapanese children and to give
continuity to the
Dapanese elementary education. The curriculum for this
level of
education include+ Dapanese !anguage, 2ocial 2tudies,
9athematics,
;eneral 2cience, Focational and home Education, =oreign
!anguage,
Focational 2ub7ects, Agriculture, Industry, Commerce and
=isheries.
(!1!1 U++e# Seconda#- Sc)oo.,
It should be noted that Jpper 2econdary 2chool as well as
preschool
education are not free and compulsory for the Dapanese
children.
The primary ob7ective of this cycle of secondary education
is to give
general and speciali-ed education to the students. The
students wishing
to enter an upper secondary school will have to write an
entrance
e1amination. In addition to paying school fees, students
also have to buyte1tboo/s recommended by the 9inistry
of Education.
Easically, there are two types of upper secondary school
in Dapan.
They are+ "a# G years full time upper secondary schools
and "b# 6 years
part,time and correspondence upper school. This cycle of
secondary
education is terminal as its graduates can decide to wor/
with it or see/
an admission with it into a tertiary institution. Jpper
secondary
education curriculum include+ Dapanese !anguage, 2ocial
2tudies, Ethics,
Civics, ?olitical 2cience, Economics, 9athematics, ?hysical
Education,
=ine Arts, 9usic, *andicrafts and geography and =inally,
*ome
Education for girls.
(!1!2 Teac)e# Educaion in :a+an
Teachers for /indergarten schools are always trained in
the teacher
training Institutions while the secondary school teachers
are also trained
in the Jniversities. In the same vein, teachers for the
Dapanese higher
institutions are e5ually trained in the Jniversities. It
should be noted
that before a person can be appointed to teach in any
public tertiary
institution, such a person is e1pected to have a minimum
of 9asters
degree in the area where he wants to teach.
(!1!5 Adu. Educaion
Adult education in Dapan is regarded as social education.
This /ind
of education is always organi-ed by the 9inistry of
Education for the
Dapanese citi-ens who are not in the formal school.
Towards this
education, the 9inistry of Education always provides
correspondence
courses. 2uch correspondence courses are in vocational,
technical,
agricultural, fshery as well as forestry sub7ects.
The ministry eforts are always complemented with radio
and
television programmes particularly in the area of general
education.
.ongovernmental bodies also assist in Dapanese adult
education.
(!1!6 S+ecia. Educaion
Cight from the year &'4G, an ocial recognition was
accorded the
education of special children in Dapan. !i/e other levels of
education,
special education has its own ob7ectives. Its ob7ectives
include the
following+
"a# To identify and give appropriate educational
programmes to
the afected children,
"b# To establish national centres for research and training,
"c# =or the integration, whenever possible of the
handicapped with
normal children and
"d# To render other possible assistance to the handicapped
children.
(!1!7 Te#ia#- Educaion
In Dapan, there are three categories of tertiary institution.
They are+
"a# Jniversity "b# Dunior College and "c# College of
technology. In the
Jniversity, degrees are awarded and students spend
between 6,< years
depending on their course of study.
At the Dunior College, degrees are not awarded unli/e in
the
6(
Jniversities. As stated above, colleges of technology are
another form of
tertiary institution in Dapan. In this institution, educational
technology
and engineering education are provided. This /ind of
education is
primarily designed for the graduates of 7unior or lower
secondary
education. It has duration of fve years.
(!1!1" Financing Educaion
All public schools in Dapan are highly centrali-ed.
;enerally,
schools are administered in the following order+
"a# The 9inistry of Education at the top
"b# The ?refectural Education Eoards
"c# The 9unicipal Education Eoards at the grassroots level
or local
level.
At the national level, the 9inistry of Education, 2cience
and
Culture always assists in the preparation of education
budget,
formulation of educational laws, and maintenance of
educational
standard.
The 9inistry of Education, 2cience and Culture is also
saddled
with the responsibility of giving an approval for the
establishment of
higher institutions and also to supervise various tertiary
institutions in
the whole of Dapan.
2!" Tuo# Ma#3ed A,,ign*en
Identify the ma7or types of education in Dapan.
Uni $ ; T)e S-,e* of Educaion in 4#a>i.
1!" In#oducion
Biscussing the system of education in Era-il will enhance
the
students8 understanding of education and practices of
foreign countries.
$!" O%&eci'e
At the end of this unit, you should be able to discuss the
education
practices of Era-il.
(!" Conc.u,ion
The unit above discusses the education theory and
practice of
Era-il.
(!$!1 4ac3g#ound
Era-il which is the largest country in the whole of 2outh
America
was formally a federation of states but later divided into
manymunicipalities as well as local districts. It should be
noted that more than(HL of the Era-ilian population are
Catholics and this to some e1tentprevents the blac/s from
being discriminated against. !i/e most
democratic states, primary education in Era-il is not only
free but also
compulsory. This factor, among others, ma/es it possible
for over 4H
percent of the Era-ilian population to be literates. The
government also
pays attention to other forms of education such as adult
as well as .onformaleducation with the aid of radio and
television.
(!$!$ P#e;P#i*a#- Educaion
Jnli/e some African countries, this level of education is for
children ages 0 to < years. ?re,?rimary schools are being
handled by the
private individuals. At this level of education, children
have to pay
school fees.
(!$!( P#i*a#- Educaion
?rimary education in Era-il is for children aged 4 to &6
years. As
stated earlier, this level of education is not only free but
also compulsory
in Era-il. $ith the &'4& Easic Education !aw in the
country, pupils in
primary schools are to spend ( years. This level of
education is divided
into two stages and each stage lasts for four years. Buring
the frst stage,the pupils will be e1posed to general
studies while in the last stage "),(years# pupils will be
e1posed to vocational studies.
(!$!0 Seconda#- Educaion
This level of education in Era-il is designed for Era-ilians
aged &)
years. This level of education is purely academic. 3n the
other hand,
students who are interested in vocational education will
be admitted
into vocational schools where such sub7ects are being
ofered.
2econdary school students in Era-il can run their
secondaryeducation on either full time or part time basis.
2tudents may spendthree years on the programme and
part time students on the other handmay also spend four
years.
2ince ma7ority of Era-ilians are Catholics, as it may be
e1pected,
ma7ority of the private secondary schools belong to the
Catholics.
(!$!1 Hig)e# Educaion
*igher education in Era-il was in the past a way through
which
the educated and rich Era-ilians used to integrate their
children into
their parents highly stratifed society. In the Era-il,
political activities
have been a permanent feature of university life. In Era-il,
there are bothprivate and public universities. In most
cases, best Era-ilians in
academics and perhaps in character have access to public
universities
while on the other hand, poor academically students, if
not admitted by
the public universities, may go to the private universities.
In the
Era-ilian universities, both academic as well as
professional sub7ects are
being ofered.
The &'G& university legislation empowered the Era-ilians
approved universities to teach and also to award degree
to 5ualifed
students. *owever, there was another legislation in &'<(.
The number of university graduates produced rose from
almost
-ero in &'<Hs to about 6H,HHH in &'(<. In the same vein,
the percentage ofuniversity teachers with doctoral degree
rose from <.<L in &'46 to &0.4L
in &'(4 while teachers with master8s degree rose from
'.4L to 0&.0L
within the same period.
(!$!2 Teac)e# Educaion
?rimary school teachers in Era-il are e1pected to be
professionally
trained before they could be allowed to teach. It should be
noted that in
a few cases, untrained teachers might be allowed to teach
particularly
where there are inade5uate 5ualifed primary school
teachers.
2econdary school teachers must not only be trained but
also, they
are e1pected to receive their professional training in the
university.
*owever, li/e in some other places, secondary school
teachers could alsoreceive their professional training in
the Teachers8 Colleges.
Jniversity teachers in addition to having a second
university
degree in most cases should also develop interest in
research wor/. Theyare encouraged to develop
themselves while still on the 7ob.
(!$!5 Educaiona. Ad*ini,#aion
In &'((, a new constitution was put in place by the
Era-ilian
government. $ith this constitution, all public schools are
to be tuition
free. ;enerally, many educational decrees or educational
laws were put
in place by the government in order to enhance the
educational
administration in Era-il.
The formulation of the country8s educational policy is the
responsibility of the =ederal Council of Education in
collaboration with
9inistry of Education. The 9inistry of Education is also
e1pected to
supervise schools, to provide necessary assistance to
federal universities.
(!$!6 Finance of Educaion
The government funds the public schools at all levels
while the
private schools at all levels are also funded by their
owners. Easically,
bul/ of the money spent on education in the country
comes from various
ta1es including the compulsory private contributions.
*igher
institutions in Era-il at times receive aids from foreign
individuals and
organi-ations. *igher institutions are also encouraged by
the
government to generate fund internally to complement
the money they
receive from the government.
Jnit above discusses the education theory and practice of
Era-il.
1!" Tuo# Ma#3ed A,,ign*en
9ention the ma7or types of education in Era-il.
Uni (/ Educaion in Eng.and
1!" In#oducion
E1posing the learners to education theory and practice in
England
will aford them the opportunity of comparing the
practices of education
in .igeria with that of England.
(!" T)e Conen
(!(!1 4ac3g#ound
Education in English at the initial stage, was provided
byvoluntary agencies including the churches. *owever,
such schoolsfounded by the voluntary agencies were
fnancially aided by thegovernment. $ith the rapid growth
in population as well as thee1pansion in the Industrial
2ector and the enactment of education Act of&(4H,
schools8 boards were established to assist the Foluntary
2chools,later, the parliamentary Acts Elementary
Education made elementaryeducation compulsory and
free.
The beginning of a national education system in Eritain
can betraced to the *AB3$ CE?3CT of &'0<. It was this
report that broughtabout the reorgani-ation of the
elementary education. In the same vein,the 2?E.2 report
of &'G( also assisted the reorgani-ation of theelementary
education and the recommendation of technical
secondaryeducation.
In the development of education in ;reat Eritain, the
Catholicplayed signifcant roles as 5uite a number of the
Foluntary 2chools werefounded by them. *owever, the
education Act of &'H0 gave thefollowing three levels of
education.
(!(!$ <a= T)e E.e*ena#- Sc)oo.
This school is designed for the children aged ),&6 years,
in order to
ensure that ma7ority of the children attend elementary
school, elementary education in England was not only
tuition free but it is also
compulsory for all the children who are within the age of )
and &6 years.
(!(!( <%= Seconda#- Sc)oo.
This school was designed for children who have
alreadycompleted the elementary education. It is
designed for children whoseparents are rich enough to
pay the school fees. Jnli/e elementaryeducation, it is not
compulsory at all. 2econdary education aftergraduation
ofers the products clerical 7obs among others.
(!(!0 <c= P#e+a#ao#- and Pu%.ic Sc)oo.,
These schools were very e1pensive and were meant for
children of
the upper class "the Aristocrats#. These preparatory and
public schools
gave birth to the establishment of both the Jniversity of
31ford and the
Cambridge Jniversity.
T-+e, of Sc)oo., in Eng.and
The following types of schools are in e1istence in England.
(!(!1 <a= Nu#,e#- Educaion
A nursery school is school designed for children aged G,)
years.
.ursery school also serves as a temporary home for the
children whose
parents are wor/ing. .ursery education can be dated bac/
to &()H,
through the eforts of =riedrich =robel as well as 9aria
9ontessori.
It should be noted that day,nurseries where the children
of
wor/ing parents are /ept are not the same thing as
nursery school. The
reason is that, real nursery education is for the children
aged G,) years
and it is also part of the school system. It is tuition free.
The *adow
Ceport of &'GG and ?lowden report of &'<4 greatly
enhanced the
development and improvement of nursery education in
England.
(!(!2 P#i*a#- Educaion
The Ealfour,9orant Act of &'H6 gave the following as the
ob7ectives of primary education in England.M
"a# Cecognising the child from 4,&& is a total being whose
character,
intelligence as well as physical abilities are moulded and
trained.
"b# Arousing in the pupils a lively interest in man8s
ideals,achievements, literature, history as well as
language.
"c# Beveloping an awareness in the pupils limitation@ and
"d# Bemonstrating to the pupils how to ac5uire
/nowledgeas well as learning for themselves.
?rimary school in England could be divided into+
"a# Elementary and
"b# *igher elementary schools.
"c# According to statistics, about 'G percent of the
children within
the age of twelve years were in the elementary school.
The =isher education, Act of &'&( made primary education
compulsory for children up to the age of fourteen years
and it also
recommended the re,organi-ation of primary education.
2imply,
primary education in England can be described as the
education of
young children below the age of eleven years.
=or the purpose of administration, all the public primary
schools
were being administered by the local education
Authorities. It was also
the responsibility of the !ocal Education Authorities to
control all forms
of secular education in the privately owned "Foluntary#
primary
schools.
Also in England, there are some primary schools called
Birect
;rant 2chool. ?arents pay school fees in these schools.
?rimary school
head is always given contract appointment.
Inspectors only visit schools on re5uest. ?rimary school
sub7ects
include+ *istory, ;eography, .ature study, Crafts, Arts
and ?hysical
Education, =rench, Celigious Education. Also, the e1tra
school activities
include+ ;ynamastic, 2wimming, music among others.
The &'66 Act increased the compulsory education in
England to 15
years. It also recommended that the number of pupils in
each class
should be reduced to ma/e it more manageable.
The plowing report of &'<4 had recommended a change in
the age
at which school pupils may transfer from eleven to
twelve8s years. It was
also recommended that the 7unior schools were
recommended for pupil
aged (,&0 years or ',&G years to enable the !ocal
Authorities have a better reorgani-ation of the secondary
schools.
(!(!5 Seconda#- Educaion
2econdary school in England maybe day or boarding
school which
ofers to each of its scholars, up to and beyond the age of
&<, a general,
education, physical, mental and moral, given through a
complete
graded course of instruction of wider scope and more
advanced degree
than that in elementary schools.
About four types of secondary education can be identifed
in
England. They are+
"a# 2econdary 9odern 2chools
"b# 2econdary ;rammar 2chools
"c# Technical *igh 2chool and
"d# Comprehensive 2chool
"a# 2econdary 9odern 2chools are designed for students
who are
not academically inclined after their ?rimary Education.
2econdary 9odern 2chools cater for secondary education
for
academically wea/ students up to the age of ffteen "&)#
years.
"b# 2econdary ;rammar 2chools are designed for the
students
who are academically inclined after their primary
education.
These schools in addition to giving sound formal
education to
the students, also serve as the Custodian of English
Tradition.
"c# Technical *igh 2chools are provided for students who
have
an intension of wor/ing in the industry later in life. In
other
words, these schools are established to cater for the
needs of
commerce and industry. The products of this school are
admitted into the faculties of engineering for engineering
courses in the Eritish Jniversities.
"d# Comprehensive 2chools+ These schools are established
to cater
for children aged &&,&( years. The students in these
schools
ofer the same sub7ects up to their second year. At the
end of
their third year, the students will be e1pected to choose
three
sub7ects apart from English language and 9athematics
which
they will li/e to study in their last two years.
In the school, the students will have opportunity of
learning one
vocation or the other. As from the third year, the students
will be
e1posed to one vocation or the other which he may want
to do later in
life. To assist the students, career ocers are always
provided by the
school for the purpose of counseling the students on their
future
vocation.
(!(!6 Tec)nica. o# Fu#)e# Educaion in Eng.and
These are the institutions provided for young persons for
the
purpose of assisting them to develop their various
aptitudes and also to
train them to become responsible adults in life. 2uch
schools among
others include physical, practical as well as vocational
training. An
increased interest in the development of Eritish Industry
after the $orld
war II for the training of s/illed manpower in the area of
technology
greatly contributed to the development of further or
technical educationin England. At the end of the course,
the students could be presented forthe e1amination of the
city and guilds of !ondon Institute or any otherrelated
professional e1aminations.
=or children under the age of si1teen years, tuition is free
whilethose who are above the age of &< years and are
wor/ing have to payfees. Technical colleges or further
education are run on both part timeand full time basis.
(!(!7 Teac)e# Educaion in Eng.and
Teacher education is the professional training designed for
teachers of all categories starting from the nursery school
to the
university. ?erhaps, the frst teachers8 College for the
training of
secondary school teachers was the college of preceptors
which was
founded in the year &(6<.
$ith efect from &'H6, the local education authorities
were allowed
to establish their Teachers Colleges. As from &'0&, the
Eritish
Jniversities include Teacher education programme in their
curricula.
=or the degree in education, students would spend three
years and the
fourth year would be for their teaching practice after
which a university
diploma or certifcate in education would be awarded.
In &'6G, the Eoard of education recommended that more
Teacher8s
colleges should be founded so as to be able to solve the
problem of
inade5uate 5ualifed teachers.
The 9e .air report of &'66 among others, recommended
that
universities as well as Teacher Training Colleges should
wor/ hand in
hand for the general improvement of teacher education.
*owever,
before the education Act of &'66, the primary school
teachers were of
four categories+
"a# Certifcated
"b# Jncertifcated
"c# 2upplementary and
"d# 2pecialist teachers.
In case of secondary schools, the teachers are e1pected to
speciali-e in a particular sub7ect.
$hile the teachers for the old elementary schools were
trained in
the two,year colleges after their secondary education, the
secondary
school teachers were trained in a one,year teachers8
diploma course at
the university departments after graduating either from
the faculty of
Arts or 2cience. 3n the other hand, the teachers of
independent public
schools were degree holders.
(!(!1" Adu. Educaion in Eng.and
Adult education in England can be described as education
designed for people who have left school, ade5uate
facilities for leisuretime
occupation in organi-ed cultural training and recreative
activities
for persons who are above compulsory school age and can
beneft from
such educational programmes.
The beginning of Adult education in both England and
$ales
could be traced to the activities of Eritish ?hilanthropists
who initiated
the idea by frst of all establishing 2unday schools for the
!iteracy
Education of both the children as well as the adults. 9any
children and
adults profted from this /ind of education. The success
recorded from
this /ind of education led to the establishment of !ondon
9echanics
Institution for the training of 9echanics in &(0G. $ithin a
very short
time, similar institutions were cited in both England and
$ales.
The formation of the wor/ers8 educational Association
which was
aliated to the 31ford Jniversity also contributed to the
development
of Adult Education in England. The association used to
organi-e tutorial
classes for its members in England.
$ith efect from &'H4, the Eoard of Education in England
started
to assist the university tutorial classes for general
enhancement of Adult
education. Also, for the promotion of Adult education, an
Adult
education Committee was set up in &'0&. ?rimarily, the
committee was
to assist in the co,ordination of all the Adult education
Foluntar
Agencies.
To crown it all, an open Jniversity was founded between
&'<H and
&'4H to provide better education for both the Adults as
well as the
wor/ers. $ith the open Jniversity education, wor/ers in
particular,
were able to improve their wor/ing condition even though
such 3pen
Jniversity education was not tuition free.
(!(!11 Uni'e#,i- Educaion in Eng.and
*igher institutions in both England and $ales include+ the
Jniversities, colleges of education as well as the
polytechnics. The most
popular universities are the 31ford Jniversity founded in
&&() and
Cambridge Jniversity in &0GH. The two oldest universities
were
founded by the Church of England.
In order to brea/ the monopoly of both the 31ford
Jniversity and
the Jniversity of Cambridge, !ondon Jniversity was
established in
&(0(. 2chool fees are being charged by the universities
with which the
universities are being fnanced in addition to fnancial aid
from the
public. Each university is autonomous in respect of
admission,
e1amination and award of degrees among others.
(!(!1$ Ad*ini,#aion of Educaion in Eng.and
The Education 9inister is always appointed by the prime
9inister. The 9inister has ?ermanent 2ecretaries to help
him in
carrying out his ocial duties. The 9inister is the
controller as well as
the Birector of Education Eoard. *e has the power to
organi-e the
schools at any time. The !ocal Education Authorities are
elected bodies
for the purpose of controlling schools under them. They
also have
voluntary schools under them. They employed teachers
and pay their
salaries as well.
Each school has the power to select the te1tboo/s for the
use of its
pupils. *owever, unli/e primary and secondary schools,
higher
institutions are not under control of the 9inistry of
Education.
(!(!1( Financing of Educaion
9oney is always voted for the 9inistry of Education from
the
national revenue by the parliament. The 9inister of
Education will also
disburse part of the money inform of grants to local
Education
Uni 0/ Educaion in )e Unied Sae, of A*e#ica
1!" In#oducion
Biscussing education in America will give the students the
opportunity to compare and contrast the system of
education in America
and .igeria.
$!" O%&eci'e
At the end of this unit, you should be able to discuss the
system of
education in America.
(!" T)e Conen (!0!1 4ac3g#ound
Each 2tate in America has the power to establish its own
system of
education. The local districts under the 2tates also have
the power to
establish schools boards and to found schools as well. The
power of the
2tates to set up schools does not in any way, prevent the
church from
establishing schools in any of the states.
The Education !evels in America include+
"a# .ursery Education
"b# Elementary or ?rimary Education
"c# 2econdary Education
"d# Teacher Education and
"e# Jniversity and Adult Education.
(!0!$ <a= Nu#,e#- Educaion
At the beginning, nursery education was part of primary
school
between &(<( and &(4G. Ey &(((, nursery education had
spread to many
places in America. The !anham education Act of &'6H also
enhanced the
development of nursery education in America by giving
subventions
from the federal government to nursery education.
!ater, individuals who had interest in the education of
children
started to part,ta/e in the running of nursery schools.
Also, the churches
were participating in the running of nursery school.
(!0!( T)e P#i*a#- Educaion
?rimary Education in America is the education given to
the
children which has the duration of si1 years. The purpose
of American
primary education includes+
"a# turning out well,ad7usted citi-ens
"b# helping the children to be active participants in the
building
3ftheir own lives and also to assist them in understanding
the
roles e1pected of them in establishing a better American
society.
The primary school sub7ects include+ 9athematics,
2cience,
;eography, *istory, 2ocial 2tudies, English language,
English literature,
=rench, ;erman and 2panish. *owever, religious sub7ects
are not
included in the school curriculum as Americans have
freedom of
worship. In the primary schools, the promotion of the
pupils is always
based on continuous assessment and not on any
promotion e1amination.
It is the duty of the !ocal 2chools Eoard to provide some
of the school
materials.
A public primary school is headed by the principal who is
the
administrative head of the school. $hile the primary
school teachers aree1pected to have a university degree,
the principals are in addition
e1pected to have masterNs degree of educational
administration and
supervision.
The failure of the =ederal ;overnment to include Celigious
Instructions in the school curriculum was one of the
reasons that forced
the Catholic to establish their own schools where religious
instruction
was included in the school curriculum. Ey implication,
there are both
private and public primary schools in America.
(!0!0 Seconda#- Sc)oo., in A*e#ica
2econdary education in America is the type of education
given to
the adolescents on the basis of three years in the Dunior
2econdary 2chooland three years in the 2enior 2econdary
2chool. This can be referred toas G , G secondary
education system.
The aims and ob7ectives of American 2econdary Education
include+
"a# Creating a strong egalitarian society where everybody
will have
e5ual opportunity.
"b# ?reparing students for survival in the future
"c# ?reparing the students for their colleges and
universities. 2ome
2tates in America provide free secondary education and
free
te1tboo/s for their citi-ens particularly up to the age of
si1teen
years. The products of primary schools are always
admitted into
the secondary schools.
There are both public as well as private secondary schools
in
America. The 3rdinance Act &4() which made it
mandatory for each
township to set its si1teenth section for the use of
education as well as
the .orth $est 3rdinance of &((4 greatly enhanced the
development ofeducation in America.
*owever, the problem of sub,standardi-ed secondary
schools and
willingness to provide secondary education for many
American
children led to the introduction of Dunior *igh 2chool.
In the Dunior *igh 2chool, the students are e1pected to
spend three
years after their primary education that is between the
age of &0,&)
years. After successfully completing the Dunior 2econdary
Education,
the students will start their 2enior *igh 2chool Education
which is
meant for the students, who are academically inclined.
The public senior high schools are tuition free. ?rovision of
learning materials for schools and the general fnancing of
schools are
responsibilities of the local schools district.
In America, private high schools or secondary schools are
also
allowed by the constitution. *owever, unli/e the public
high schools,
tuition is not free and the teaching of religious education
is allowed.
It is on record that America has started operating <,G,G,6
education
system, yet, the old system of (,6 years is still in
operation "eight years
of primary education and four years of secondary
education#.
(!0!1 Teac)e# Educaion in )e Unied Sae, of
A*e#ica
Teacher education in America li/e in other places refer to
the
professional training being given to the would,be
teachers. The aims
and ob7ectives of American Teacher Education include+
"a# ?reparing teachers for the needs and aspirations of
American as
a democratic nation.
"b# ?reparing teachers who will later assist in the training
of
American children for the purpose of promoting their
culture. The
establishment of Deferson College in $ashington
amongothers in the &(HHs mar/s the beginning of teacher
education inAmerica.
The preparation of primary school teachers is always done
by the
normal schools. These normal schools are recogni-ed by
the 2tate
Eoards of Education for the training of primary school
teachers.
The sub7ects being ofered in thee training institutions
include+
Administration, psychology, philosophy, *istory of
education.
3n the other hand, the secondary school teachers are
e1pected to
be university degree holders after a period of four years
either in a
college or in the university.
In most cases, teachers8 appointment is always on
contract basis
and it is renewable yearly, provided the concerned
teacher is still
interested in wor/ing in his school. At the same time, the
school district
board of education has the constitutional power to
terminate the
contract appointment of any of its teachers.
(!0!2 T)e A*e#ican Uni'e#,i- Educaion
In America, higher education is provided in the colleges of
education, higher technical institutes and universities. In
&(<0, the
American ;overnment passed the 9orrill Act which made
it
compulsory for the Americans to ma/e land available to
the American
=ederal ;overnment for the development of Jniversities
and higher
institutions of learning.
There are two ma7or categories of higher education in
America,
they are+
"a# The state universities and colleges which are
maintained by
the state and
"b# Independent universities and colleges which are run by
various churches and private individuals. In these private
colleges and universities, high school fees are changed. A
degree programme lasts for four years.
(!0!5 Adu. Educaion in A*e#ica
The beginning of Adult education can be traced to the
establishment of !yceum in 9assachusetts in &(0<. Also,
the 2mith
!ever Act of &'&6 as well as the Adult education
Association of the
Jnited 2tates in &')& greatly contributed to the
development of Adult
Education in America. Adult education in American is run
by private
individuals such as lawyers, physicians, architects,
teachers and
musicians for the purpose of self culture, community
instruction as well
as the mutual discussion of common public interest.
In &'H<, the university e1tension was started and this has
been
e1tended to most of the universities in America.
(!0!6 Tec)nica. Educaion
There have been some technical institutions as early as
the middle
of &'th century. Eut there was no serious attempt to
promote technical
education until when the 9osco technical school was able
to perform
creditably well at the international e1hibitions in the
&'4Hs. Thereafter,
more technical institutions began to spring up in America.
Also, the 9orill Act of &(<0 assisted in the development of
technical education, private individuals started founding
both
commercial as well as business colleges.
The 2mith,*ughes Act among other things recommended
that a
=ederal Eoard of vocational education should be set up. It
was on the
basis of this that the =ederal Eoard of vocational
education was
established in which a substantial amount of money was
set aside by the
federal government for the general promotion of
vocational and
technical education throughout America.
(!0!7 Ad*ini,#aion of Educaion in A*e#ica
Education in America is decentrali-ed. Therefore, it is the
responsibility of each estate as well as the private
individuals to ta/e
care of their schools. In &(<4, the .ational 3cer of
Education was set
up and it is being headed by the Education Commissioner
who is an
appointee of the president of America. The federal
government always
assists the state governments in the funding of technical
and vocational
education. The state universities are fnancially aided by
the =ederal
;overnment.
At the 2tate level, there is a state department of
education under
the headship of Education Birector who is elected by the
people within
the state for a period of two to four years.
!ocally, each local government has a local board of
education,
usually headed by a 2uperintendent of schools in the
district. *is duties
include+ appointing teachers and other personnel who will
be wor/ing
with him. *e also wor/s on the fnance of schools founded
by the local
government.
(!0!1" Finance of Educaion in A*e#ica
In the whole of America, less than <H per cent of the total
cost of
both public primary and secondary schools comes from
the ta1es levied
by the local schools boards. Also, the state government
always sets aside
about 6H per cent of its annual budget for the running of
the public
schools. The bul/ of this money is generated from the
state ta1es as well
as the ta1es paid by the state wor/ers.
In the private schools, starting from the primary school up
to the
university, the students pay school fees in addition to the
ta1es being
paid by the parents. Also, some well to,do individuals in
America
always assist the private schools fnancially.
Uni 1/ Educaion in F#ance
1!" In#oducion
The treatment of education in =rance will aford the
learners the
opportunity to compare and contrast the practices of
education in both
.igeria and =rance.
$!" O%&eci'e
At the end of this unit, you should be able to discuss the
system of
education in =rance.
(!" T)e Conen
(!1!1 4ac3g#ound
=or 5uite a long time, =rench education was under the
control of
the church. This made it possible for the church not only
to integrate
Christianity into the school curriculum but also to
indoctrinate the
school children. .apoleon could be regarded as an
educational
revolutionist in =rance. *is contributions to the
development of
education in =rance cannot be overemphasi-ed. =or
instance, in &(H0,
schools of Arts and Trades were founded by him. Apart
from the fact
that he contributed to the development of the two schools
of
Engineering as well as the 9ining founded before &(H0, he
was also, the
founder of the Jniversity of =rance.
In =rance, there are two types of education, they are+
"a# The state schools as well as
"b# ?rivate or independent schools founded by the private
individuals or groups or religious bodies. The two types of
education are not only centrali-ed but are also similar in
both
methods and structure.
*owever, the seculari-ation laws "laws preventing the
church or
religious bodies from controlling the schools# of &((0 and
that of &'H6
assisted the public or state schools to be independent of
the church. The
same laws also made the catholic schools not only to be
voluntary but
also independent of the state. $hile the Catholic schools
were
established by individual teachers as well as groups of
parents under the
control of the church on the other hand, the state schools
belong to the
government and such schools are being attended by well
over 4HL of thecompulsory age groups in =rance. Tuition
was free in the state schools,whereas it is not free at all in
the private or Catholic schools. Theeducation law of &()H
allowed the private individuals to open secondaryschools.
The education law of &(4) allowed for the establishment
ofprivate higher institutions, that of &((< gave legal
bac/ing for thefounding of private primary schools and
the education law of &'&' gavelegal bac/ing for the
establishment of private technical institutions.The
compulsory education designed for children aged < and
&Gyears by the education law of &((0 was e1tended to &6
years by the
education law of &'G<. This was increased to &< years by
the education
decree of &')'.
(!1!( Educaion Ad*ini,#aion
Education administration in =rance is centrally done.
=rance as a
whole is divided into regions and each region is blessed
with some
departments /nown as academic. A Cector is the head of
each academic
who is always appointed by the president. The Cector is
responsible to
the Education 9inister and he has powers over institutions
under his
control including the supervision of private schools. Cector
is supported
by the inspectors of academy. In addition, each district ha
a primary
Inspector who is responsible to the Inspector of Academy.
=or pre4H
school institutions, there are special sub,inspectors
ma7ority of whom
are women. Also, for general supervision of teaching,
there are special
inspectors of national education who are not only
specialists in diferent
sub7ects but also supervise their diferent sub7ects in the
whole country.
Each level of Education such as primary, secondary,
technical and
higher institutions is being controlled by a directorate of
such a !evel of
education particularly in the areas of supervision of
teaching, staf
among others.
(!1!0 Financing of Educaion
In the area of educational fnance as it afects secondary,
technical
as well as higher education, the state is responsible for
the lion share of
the e1penditure while the remaining comes from school
fees paid by the
students and private sources. Also, members of the
universities
academic staf who are also civil servants receive their
salaries from the
budget of the 9inistry of .ational Education. =or primary
education,
about GH per cent of its e1penses is catered for by the
local authorities.
The teachers8 salaries are paid by the state and they are
all regarded as
civil servants. Also, both the communes as well as the
municipalities are
7ointly responsible for the school buildings, electricity,
teacherNs
accommodation, the teaching e5uipment among others.
The private
schools on the other hand, charge school fees which they
use for the
maintenance of their schools.
The Cectors of universities appointed by the Education
9inisters
still remain the rectors of the academics. The professors of
the university
are always appointed by the Education 9inister and such
appointment
is based on the recommendation of the faculties.
(!1!1 T-+e, of Educaion
*owever, the new education plan in =rance divides higher
education into three "G# diferent stages. The stages are+
"a# The frst education cycle "&( , 0H# which is designed
for learned
professions and of technical, normal schools training
teachers as
well as technicians of intermediate grades.
"b# The second education cycle "aged 0H , 00# is for the
purpose of
preparing students for the frst degrees.
4&
"c# The third or the last education cycle includes the
;randes Ecoles
d8 Application. This category of education cycle prepares
the
students not only for aggregation but also for the research
wor/.
(!1!2 Teac)e# Educaion
In the area of teacher training, the primary school
teachers received
their professional training in Ecoles .ormales after
passing the
e1amination for the Erevet Elementaire at the age of &<
years. In this
training Institution, they will spend three "G# years after
which they will
be awarded the Erevet 2uperieure. $ith this award, the
trainees will be
given a temporary teaching appointment as primary
school teachers.
After the probationary period, if the temporary appointees
are found to
be appointable, their temporary appointment will be
confrmed and they
will subse5uently become permanent.
3n the other hand, the secondary school teachers are
e1pected to
pass the Eaccalaureate and are also e1pected to have
professional
training from the universities "the teaching licence#. This
will give them
the opportunity to be given a temporary appointment to
teach their
sub7ect of speciali-ation. =or any temporary appointee
who wants his
appointment to be confrmed or to become a permanent
one, needs to
have an additional 5ualifcation of aggregation among
other things. It
should be noted that this aggregation is made highly
competitive by the
state so that the number of the successful candidates will
tally with the
available vacancies in the secondary schools. Also, the
two categories of
teachers have diferent conditions of service as well as
diferent
professional training. 2ince they have diferent conditions
of service and
diferent licence, it is not possible for them to interchange.
Ey
implication, teachers serving in a private school cannot
transfer their
service to a state school. This is not good enough for
teaching profession.
Uni 2/ T)e S-,e* of Educaion in :a*aica
1!" In#oducion
E1posing students to the theory and practices of
education in
Damaica will enhance their /nowledge about comparative
education.
$!" O%&eci'e
At the end of the unit, you should be able to discuss the
system of
education in Damaica.
(!" T)e Conen
(!2!1 4ac3g#ound
Damaica, the third largest of the Caribbean Island is
situated &66
/ilometre south of Cuba as well as <HH /ilometres south of
=lorida. It
became a Eritish colony in &<)). $ell over 'H per cent of
its population isof African origin while the rest came from
East Indians, Chinese 2yrians,!ebanese as well as whites.
The &'(0 census put the Damaica8s
population as 0,&'H,G)4. !i/e other Eritish colonies,
English is its ocial
language. It, however, got her independent in &'<0.
(!2!$ In#oducion of Fo#*a. Educaion
The earliest schools in Damaica were mostly controlled by
trustees
who were elected by the voters of a parish or by Anglican
Clergymen.
*owever, the establishment of .egro Education ;rant
brought the
education administration under the various Christian
9issions through
the committee that were set up by their missionary
head5uarters in
England. It is the responsibility of each religious society to
supervise its
schools, to provide te1tboo/s and also to recommend
appropriate
teaching methods.
The negro Education ;rant was stopped in &(6) as a
result of
which the colonial legislatures were saddled with the
responsibility of
providing education for the people in the country. This
change in the
provision of education led the legislatures to give
preference to
industrial education. Ey &()H, perhaps the frst
;overnment .ormal
2chool of Industry was founded.
The oce of superintendent of schools as well as
education
department was set up after Damaica had become a Crown
colony in
&(<<. It was this department that saw to the eciency of
education
through supervision and collection of school fees. Eased
on the
recommendation made by the Coyal Commission of &((),
an education
board was set up in &('0 with the representatives of the
religious
organi-ations as members of the board as well as
Education
2uperintendent as the E1,ocio chairman. 9anagers were
the local
administrators of school since ma7ority of such managers
were the
proprietors of schools.
In order to involve the Damaica8s local people in the
educational
administration, fourteen parish school boards were
founded in the year
&'&6. The membersN appointment was done by the
governor on the basis
of the recommendations made by the schools8 managers
as well as
another local government body. Also, twenty,one district
school boards
were appointed based on the recommendation made by
the parish
school boards.
*owever, after the reorgani-ation of the school board as a
result of
the recommendations made by the legislative committee
of &'0<, the
following were to see to the improvement of education
department.
"a# Birector of Education
"b# Beputy Birector of Education
"c# G Chief Inspectors of Education
"d# Inspectors of Education and
"e# Assistant Inspectors of Education
(!2!( Sage, of Educaion
The system of education in Damaica was a resemblance of
the
traditional Eritish education system. The education
curriculum was
made to be relevant to the needs and aspirations of the
Damaicans
particularly at the primary education level. After
independence, the
Eritish e1ternal e1aminations were replaced with the
Damaican regional
e1ternal e1aminations.
2tructurally, the Damaican education !evels include "a#
primary "b#
secondary and "c# Tertiary level of education. =ormal
education in
Damaica is always provided by both the state as well as
the private
individuals particularly the religious organi-ations. ?rimary
education
in Damaica is designed for children aged <,&& years and it
lasts for si1
years. 9a7ority of the Damaican children attend the state
or public
schools where tuition is free. !i/e the primary schools,
there are state
secondary schools as well as private secondary schools. In
the early
years of Damaican education history, secondary education
was not
recogni-ed as a continuation of primary education,
because secondary
education was believed to be superior.
(!2!0 Ad*ini,#aion
.o wonder then why secondary schools were under the
supervision of the Damaican schools commission while
both the primary
education as will as teacher training were put under the
2upervision of
the Eoard of Education and the department of education.
*owever,
based on the >ansel commission in &'6G, a central
education authority
was set up in the year &')H to perform the duties
assigned to the school
commission as well as the Eoard of Education. Also, in
&')<, the central
Education Authority was dissolved and a statutory body of
education
advisory council was set up. The council was primarily to
advise the
Education 9inister on Education issues. $ith efect from
&'<), the
management as well as the supervision of education had
been put under
the control of the Education 9inistry.
2econdary education in Damaica generally consists of two
cycles.
The frst cycle designed for children aged &0,&6 years
comprised of
grades 4 ,' while the second cycle lasts for only two years
with grades
&H , &&. In a few cases, some secondary schools have
grade &G which can
be regarded as the si1th form.
(!2!1 Te#ia#- Educaion
Jnli/e both the primary and secondary education, the
provision of
tertiary education in Damaica is almost the responsibility of
the state. At
this level of education, there are universities ofering
degrees, diplomas,
professional certifcates as well as other forms of tertiary
institutions in
Damaica.
(!2!2 Financing of Educaion
To be able to ade5uately fnance education in Damaica, the
government allocates a substantial part of its annual
budget to
education. Also, the little money reali-ed from the tuition
fee assists in
the funding of education. It should be noted that primary
education
which is designed for the children aged <,&) years is free
particularly in
all the public primary schools.
0!" Conc.u,ion
The unit above discusses the system of education in
Damaica. This
includes+ bac/ground, levels of education, fnancing of
education as well
as education administration.
Uni 5/ Teac)e# Educaion in Nige#ia and Tan>ania
1!" In#oducion
The treatment of teacher education in .igeria and
Tan-ania will
put the students in a good position to compare and
contrast the teacher
education in the two countries.
$!" O%&eci'e
At the end of this unit, you should be able to compare and
contrast
the Teacher Education in .igeria with that of Tan-ania.
(!" T)e Conen
(!5!1 Teac)e# Educaion a )e P#i*a#- Sc)oo. Le'e.
The history of teacher training institutions in .igeria can
be dated
bac/ to &()' when the frst teacher training college was
founded in
Abeo/uta by the Church 9issionary 2ociety "=afunwa,
&'46#. The
college was moved to !agos in &(<4 and later transferred
to 3yo in &('<
where it became 2t. Andrews College, 3yo. 3ther
Christian missions
such as the Eaptist, the $esleyan 9ethodist and the
?resbyterian
Church of 2cotland among others.
The students for the early teacher training institutions
were ta/en
from standard FI for a two year professional programme.
2uch pupils
were e1pected to have been pupil teachers for about two
years, they
must have passed the pupil teacher e1amination and they
must have
also acted as assistant teachers.
The elementary training institutions for the lower primary
school
teachers lasted for a period of two years, leading to the
award of ;rade
III teachers certifcate while the higher elementary
training institutions
which also lasted for a duration of two years leading to
the award of
;rade II Teachers8 certifcate.
*owever, both the Teacher ;rade III and ;rade II colleges
have
been phased out in many states of .igeria as the .igeria
certifcate in
education has become the minimum teaching 5ualifcation
in all primary
schools. In other words, only the colleges of education
produce the
lowest cadre of teachers for the .igerian primary schools.
Tanganyi/a which became independent on 'th Becember,
&'<H
within the Eritish common wealth of nations became a
Cepublic in &'<&
with a former school teacher, Dulius .yerere as the frst
E1ecutive
president of the country. *owever, in &'<6, Oan-ibar as
well as
Tanganyi/a became one under a new name, Tan-ania.
In Tan-ania, by the year &'6), there were about one
thousand and
one hundred teacher trainees. These teacher trainees
were for only the
primary schools.
(!5!$ Educaion Cu##icu.u*
The curriculum of primary school teachers8 institution
include
among others, national service with an emphasis on
military training
and nation building, J7ama political education, school
organi-ation,
educational psychology, adult education, youth
leadership, academic
sub7ects as well as teaching methodology.
(!5!( In#oducion of UPE
In the country, the introduction of Jniversal primary
education
policy led to an increase in the pupilsN enrolment in the
primary schools.
The increase in the enrolment made Tan-ania government
to reduce the
training period by one year. In addition, the government
organi-ed
wor/shops and seminars for her teachers in the primary
schools in order
to improve the Tan-anian primary education standard.
All teacher training institutes in Tan-ania contribute to
their own
up /eep. Each College has a farm which provides the food
eaten by the
school community. To some e1tent, the welfare of the
teacher trainees
depends on the farm output.
(!5!0 Teac)e# Educaion a )e Seconda#- ,c)oo.
Le'e.
In .igeria, the Christian 9issions did not pay much
attention to
the training of secondary school teachers. They were
mostly concerned
with the training of primary school teachers. Any other
education apart
from primary was super:uous as they only needed
interpreters and a
few .igerians who could serve them.
*owever, the establishment of the Iaba *igher College in
&'G0
brought about the introduction of the diploma in
education programme
which too/ care of secondary school teachers.
Also, the university college, Ibadan, which was founded in
&'6(,
introduced the diploma programme in education in
&')4P)( academic
year. The Jniversity in addition to its eforts on teacher
training started
a one year associationship course for .igerian ;rade II
Teachers in &'<&
immediately after dependence.
The Jniversity of .igeria, .su//a, also in 2eptember,
&'<&,
introduced a degree programme in education with about
ffty students.
The frst set of education students at .su//a, however,
graduated in
Dune, &'<6. The Jniversity of Ibadan introduced degree in
education in
&'<G, Ahmadu Eello Jniversity in &'<4. Jntil 0HH< there
are over 6H
universities in .igeria. ?erhaps out of all these
universities, it is only in
the Jniversities of Agriculture and Technology that
degrees in
education are not being ofered.
*olders of 22CE or its e5uivalent spend four years while
holders
of ;CE QA8 !evel or .igerian Certifcate in education ".CE#
or its
e5uivalent spend three years for the frst degree. Also,
9asters degree in
education and Boctorate degree in education are now
available in
almost all the conventional universities.
After independence, Advanced Teachers Colleges were
founded
initially by the =ederal ;overnment but later, state started
establishing
their own ;rade I colleges. 2uch colleges are now "a#
=ederal
government colleges of Education and "b# 2tate colleges
of Education. A
few ones are also owned by private individuals. Buration
in these
Colleges ranges between three to four years depending on
the
5ualifcation with which a candidate is admitted.
The candidate with fve ;CE or e5uivalent passes spend
only three
years. The programme leads to the award of the .igerian
Certifcate in
Education.
(!5!1 Teac)e# Educaion in Tan>ania
In Tan-ania, teacher education for secondary school
teachers could
be divided into three groups+
"a# The university of Bare 2alaam which was established
in &'4H
and the Jniversity of Agriculture, 2o/oine which is also a
degree awarding institution ofer programmes that can
lead to
4'
the award of undergraduate degree, master8s degrees,
doctoral
degree as well as certifcates and diplomas.
"b# The non degree,ofering institutions+ 2uch institutions
ofer
diplomas and advanced diplomas. Courses being ofered
include teacher education.
"c# The institutions which speciali-e in other areas at the
certifcate
level.
It should be noted that the Jniversity of Bares 2alaam has
a
department of education particularly for the training of
secondary
school teachers.
Also, the Biploma teachers who spend si1 years in the
secondary
school and one year in the teachers college teach
academic and technical
sub7ects in Tan-anian secondary schools. The teacher
trainees in the
Tan-anian teacher training institutions have a farm each
which provides
the food eaten by the teacher trainee themselves. This is
to ma/e the
students to have interest and love for anything farming.
(!5!2 Teac)e# Educaion fo# Teac)e#, in )e Hig)e#
In,iuion,
*igher Education according to the .ational ?olicy on
Education
"&'(&# covers the post secondary section of the .ational
Education
2ystem which is given in Jniversities, polytechnics and
Colleges of
Technology including such courses as are given by the
Colleges of
Education, the Advanced Teacher Training Colleges,
Correspondence
Colleges and such institution as may be allied to them.
(!5!5
In .igeria, teacher education for higher education
teachers to some
e1tent depends largely on the Jniversities. *owever, the
highest
5ualifcation of the .igerian *igher Education teachers
depends on the
type of higher education in which one is wor/ing.
The teachers wor/ing in the .igerian Jniversities are
being
trained in the .igerian Jniversities or elsewhere. Eefore a
teacher can beemployed to teach in the university, he
must have at least a 9asters
degree in the relevant discipline.
Also, teachers for polytechnics, colleges of Technology are
beingtrained in the Jniversities or ?olytechnics. A frst
degree holder or itse5uivalent could be
appointed.*owever, li/e universities, masters and
doctorate degree holdersare preferred in the colleges of
education. 9oreover, a professionalcertifcate in education
is a must for all lecturers in the colleges ofeducation
particularly for the few ones among them who did not
studyeducation.
(!5!6
In Tan-ania, higher institutions include+ the university of
Bares
2alaam, 2o/oine Jniversity of Agriculture, Biplomas and
Advanced
Biploma awarding institutions, three technical institutes,
Teachers
education inflites and colleges of science Teacher
education for each
tertiary institution largely depends on the certifcate being
awarded by
such institutions. The teachers for the non,degree
programmes are
always trained in the two universities. =irst degree holders
can teach in
any of the non degree awarding institutions. 9aster
degree holders can
also teach in such institutions. *owever, the degree
obtained by such
teachers must be related to their feld.
(!5!7
=or the university teachers in Tan-anian degree awarding
institutions, the would,be,lecturers are always recruited
after the frst
class and in a few cases upper class degrees. The
lecturers in this
category who are recruited by the university are always
given
scholarships to study overseas for their masterNs degree
as well as their
doctoral degree programme.
$ith masterNs degree, such lecturers will be appointed
Assistant
lecturers and they will be upgraded to lecturers after they
must have
obtained their ?h.B.
Eefore Jniversity !ecturer can move to the ne1t ran/,
such a
lecturer must have served for a minimum of three years.
*e must also
certify the promotion conditions which include+ acceptable
level of
teaching as well as publication.
9embers of both academic and non academic staf have
their
diferent professional bodies which cater for their welfare.
The Tan-anian government also encourages special
education by
sending the teachers who are interested in that /ind of
education abroadfor training.
It should be noted that an education Eoard has been set
up by the
Tan-anian government particularly to fnd a way through
which the
money being spent on higher education by the
government will be
reduced.
0!" Conc.u,ion
The unit above e1poses the learners to Teacher Education
in both
.igeria and Tan-ania.
1!" Su**a#-
In the unit, you have learnt about+
"a# Teacher education at the primary school level.
"b# Teacher education at the secondary school level.
"c# Teacher education at the tertiary level.
2!" Tuo# Ma#3ed A,,ign*en
Identify the ma7or groups of Teacher Education in
Tan-ania.
Uni 6/ Educaion in Afg)ani,an
1!" In#oducion
The treatment of education in Ira5 will enhance the
learners8
understanding of education in the foreign nations.
$!" O%&eci'e
At the end of this unit, you should be able to discuss the
theory and
practices of education in Afghanistan.
(!" T)e Conen
(!6!1 4ac3g#ound
Afghanistan is lying in Central Asia. Asia being the largest
continent,
the country is bounded on the .orth by the J.2.2.C
"$estern Tur/istan#,
on the e1treme .orth East by China "Eastern Tur/istan# on
the East and
2outh by ?a/istan and on the $est by Iran. It has an
estimated areas of
0)&,44G s5m <)0,H'H s5./m. Its e1treme length from East
to $est is 44H
miles while itR greatest width from .orth to 2outh is over
)HH miles.
?ushto is the mother language. .e1t to ?ushto is ?ersian
which isspo/en by a considerable number of people. There
are also &( other dialectsspo/en by various groups and
Jrdu is also spo/en and understood in theba-aars of >abul
and >andhar. The capital is >abul and the country
isdivided into 06 provinces each under a governor.
Two main historical periods are the pre,Islamic and the
Islamic
which have in:uenced the development of Afghanistan8s
educational
system and deep in:uence on Afghan thin/ing, as well as
their cultural
patterns.
The pre,Islamic period lasted from ancient times up to the
seventh
century A.B. Buring this period, education curriculum was
centered on
Fedas, "an Aryan religious boo/# the earliest *indu sacred
writings and
later on Euddha teaching. The primary aim of education
during this periodwas to provide moral enlightenment for
citi-en. ;rammar and astronomywere also given some
attention. Education was for boys and men only andtoo/
place at the courts of the royal palaces.
Buring the Islamic period, the Arabs reached Afghanistan
and Islam
became the predominant religion. The mos5ue became
the center for
education and the mullas "religious leaders# were the
teachers. Instructioncentered on 9uhammad8s teachings,
as found in the >oran and includedIslamic history and
literature as well as grammar, logic and philosophy.
Islamic education reached its pea/ in Afghanistan during
the
eleventh century. At this time, geography and
mathematics were includedin the curriculum. In &'H6, the
frst modern school was established in >abulover the
ob7ections of the Islamic clerics "mullas# and it was named
after hisfounder, *abibulah >han who ruled the country
between &'H& and &'&',*abibiyyah 2chool. *abibiyyah
2chool was at frst patterned after theAligarh 9uslim
Jniversity, India and it ofered both religious and
secularsub7ects. *abibullah also founded Teacher Training
Colleges, 9ilitaryAcademy and 2chool for Army 3cers.
The frst vocational schools and a girl school were opened
and a
number of primary schools for boys were started in rural
and urban areas.
Buring this time, *abibiyyah 2chool became a high school
patterned afterthe =rench !ycee 2chool. Three more
schools were established in &'0G. Thisevent laid the
groundwor/ for co,education, which was 7ust beginning
toTroot in the &'<H8s.
The =rench educational pattern was introduced to
Afghanistan in
&'0H8s through contact with Tur/ey. 2tudents were sent
abroad to study in=ranco, ;ermany, Italy and Tur/ey.
The Afghan graduates from these foreign universities were
recruited
to staf Afghan *igh 2chools. After &'0', students were
sent to study in theJnited 2tates and Dapan, and after
$orld $ar II, teachers from Englandand America were
recruited to teach in Afghanistan.
The Jnited 2tates is predominant sources of foreign
educational
assistance to Afghanistan. In &')6, Teachers College of
Columbia
Jniversity accepted as contract from the J.2. Agency for
International
Bevelopment to assist the government of Afghanistan in
improving
education through assistance to teacher education.
(!6!$ Educaiona. S#ucu#e of Afg)ani,an
The education system in Afghanistan is divided into four
general
sections+ primary, secondary, vocational and post
secondary. 2econdary
schools e1ist in >abul and in provincial capital. Technical
commercial and
medical schools also e1ist for higher education.
(!6!( P#i*a#- Educaion
?rimary education is compulsory and it is for a period of <
years in
mother language, which is ?ershian and ?ushto. ?ershain
in the frst threesession "& , G# and ?ushto in the second
three session "Classes 6 , <#.The pupils are also taught
Arabic in order to read Kuran since ''L
population are 9uslims and the main religion is Islam.
2chools are not co,educational, separate schools for girls
were
established. ?rimary education ta/es place either in
village schools or in
primary schools. The village school "grade I through G#
usually has only
one teacher for its three grades. This teacher is always
the village religiousleader and the village mos5ue serves
as the school.
In the primary school ";rades I through <# there is one
teacher for
each of frst three grades. In grades 6,), and <, there is a
special teacher foreach sub7ect. ?rimary teachers in the
ma7or cities are usually graduates ofthe teacher training
colleges ";rade &0#. 3utside the ma7or cities,
primaryschool teachers are most often graduates of the
middle schools or theemergency teacher training colleges
and a small percentage of primaryschool.
The age of primary school pupils ranges from seven to &'
years. Ey
&'<<, there were &,HHH primary schools with 6)H,HHH
pupils in Afghan
primary schools.
The curriculum of primary schools in grades 1,2, and G
includes+ the
>oran, theology reading of the mother tongue "either
pushto or Bari#, handwriting, arithmetic, natural science
and hygiene, drawing and handicraftand physical
education.
The curriculum in grades 6, ) and < also includes a second
language
"Bari or ?ersia# history and geography in addition to the
sub7ects taught inthe frst three grades.
Teaching in primary schools is based on memori-ation as
well as rote
learning.
(!6!0 Seconda#- Educaion
Jnder secondary education, there is a unit called the
middle school
and another one called the !ycee. The middle school
"grades 4, ( S '#
prepares students for admission to the !ycee or for
vocational training. Thestudents who successfully pass
primary school e1amination are 5ualifedfor admission
into secondary schools which are either+ vocational
schoolsin >abul which train youth or can also gain
admission into Technicalschool. The middle school
teachers should have been trained in the *igherTeacher
College at >abul "grades &G and &6#.
The !ycee is the e5uivalent of an American *igh 2chool
with grades
&H,&& and &0. Its main purpose among others is to
prepare students for theuniversity education. Ey &'<<,
there are &)H,HHH in a few hundred
secondary schools in Afghanistan.
The curriculum for middle schools includes+ The >oran,
theology,
?ushto, Bari, Arabic, =oreign language ;erman, =rench,
Algebra,
geometry, chemistry, physics, biology, history, geography,
economics,
drawing and physical education. The main emphasis is on
mathematics,
science, history, geography and languages.
Also, the curriculum for !ycee includes+ the >oran,
theology, pushto,
Bari, foreign language, algebra, trigonometry, calculus,
geometry,
geography and logic. The main emphasis is on
mathematics, natural
sciences, social science and languages.
!i/e in primary schools, teaching method is memori-ation
and rote
leaning.
(!6!1 Vocaiona. Educaion in Afg)ani,an
After completing education in the middle school, students
who are
interested and 5ualifed may go to the vocational schools
in >abul which
train youths in agriculture, commerce, theology, teaching,
secretariat
studies, Arts and Crafts.
In the agricultural !ycee, students are specially trained to
develop
agricultural production for the country.
Focational training is also provided in mechanical and
crafts schools,
which begin after primary education and continues
through grade &H.
These schools train students for mechanical, technical and
craft
occupations.
In the Islamic school, grade &H through &0, students
concentrate on
Islamic religion. They are prepared to help in the
interpretation of the lawin the 7udicial department of the
government, teach religion in the schools,serve as ocials
in the mos5ues or go on to further religious study at
theJniversity.
In the same vein, the special schools for training teachers
"grades &H
to &0# ofer a three,year programme "two years of general
studies and oneyear of professional studies#. Bue to the
increasing demand for primaryteachers, and emergency
teacher training colleges are paid small monthlyallowance
and provided free tuition, room, board, clothing and
boo/s.
The technical school %the Afghan Institute of Technology%
"grades &H
through &G# is designed to train technicians. The technical
school involvesthe mechanics and mathematics. Ey &'<<,
there were 60 vocational schoolswith &G,0H& students in
Afghanistan.
(!6!2 Po, Seconda#- Educaion in Afg)ani,an
There is the institute of industrial management to further
commercial
training, which provides a G year programme for students
after the
completion of grade &0 of the commercial !ycee.
The institute trains students for managerial positions in
industry,
ban/s and public administration.
>abul university was established in &'6< while its frst
faculty, was
that of medicine. The university is composed of the
following faculties+
Islamic !awP !etters, !aw and ?olitical 2ciences,
Economics, 2ciences,
9edicine, ?harmacy, Education "closely associated with
the Institute of
Education#, Agriculture and Engineering. The ?olytechnic
Institute is also
part of the Jniversity. There is co,education in all the
faculties e1cept
engineering and Islamic law.
In &'<G, a college of 9edicine was formally established in
Dalalabab.
A si1,year course beyond grade &0 is re5uired for the 9.B.
degree
9.E.E.2#.
Another post secondary institution, the academy of
Teacher Training
was also established in &'<6, the colleges serves as a
demonstration schoolfor teacher education trainees who
are university graduates with one yearteaching and
guiding the B9A students. These teacher education
studentslearn how to direct and supervise the B9A
students preparing to becometeachers.
(!6!5 Adu. Educaion
This is established by the 9inistry of Education and it is
designed for
wor/ers, so it ta/es place after daily8s wor/.
(!6!6 Ad*ini,#ai'e O#gani>aion
Jnder Article G6 of the Afghan constitution adopted in
&'<6, it is
government8s responsibility to prepare and implement a
universal
education programme.
All matters dealing with education are under the
7urisdiction of Coyal
Afghan 9inistry of Education. The 9inister of Education
who is also a
member of the ?rime 9inister8s cabinet, is the chief
administrative ocer,and he is blessed with two deputy
ministers.
In addition, the presidents of the various departments are
under the
deputy ministers. Afghanistan is divided politically into
provinces and
each province has an educational director who is e5ually
responsible to thecentral ministry and who happens to be
the chief administrative ocer forall provincial education
matters. The president of Jniversity of >abul isdirectly
responsible to the Education 9inister.
0!" Conc.u,ion
The unit above has e1posed the learners to the system of
education in
Afghanistan.
1!" Su**a#-
In this unit, you have learnt the following+
"a# *istory of Afghanistan
"b# The structure of education in Afghanistan
"c# Administration of education in Afghanistan.
"d# Focational Education in Afghanistan.
2!" Tuo# Ma#3ed A,,ign*en
Identify the ma7or structure of education in Afghanistan.
5!" Refe#ence
!awal, E.3. "0HH6# Comparative Education. 3sogbo, 2wift
?ublishers
.ig !td.