NAWCWPNS TP 8347

1 April 1997
w / Rev 2 of 1 April 1999

and later changes

ELECTRONIC WARFARE
AND RADAR SYSTEMS
ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

NAVAL AIR SYSTEMS COMMAND

Avionics Department
AIR-4.5
EW Class Desk
Washington, D.C. 20361

NAVAL AIR WARFARE CENTER

Weapons Division
Avionics Department
Electronic Warfare Division
Point Mugu, CA 93042

Approved for public release: distribution is unlimited.

Navy Warfare and Radar Systems Handbook

Index by chapter

1. ABBREVIATIONS and ACRONYMS

1.1 Acronyms

2. FUNDAMENTALS
2.2 - Constants, Conversions, and Characters
2.2 - Mathematics Notation
2.3 - Frequency Spectrum
2.4 - Decibel (dB)
2.5 - Duty Cycle
2.6 - Doppler Shift
2-.7 - Electronic Formulas
2.8 - Missile and Electronic Equipment Designations
2.9 - Radar Horizon / Line of Sight
2.10 - Propagation Time / Resolution
2.11 - Modulation
2.12 - Transforms / Wavelets

3. ANTENNAS
3.1 - Antenna Introduction / Basics
3.2 - Polarization
3.3 - Radiation Patterns
3.4 - Frequency / Phase Effects of Antennas
3.5 -Antenna Near Field
3.6 -Radiation Hazards (Electromagnetic)

4. RADAR EQUATIONS
4.1 - Field Intensity and Power Density
4.2 - Power Density - 5/99
4.3 - One-Way Radar Equation / RF Propagation
4.4 - Two-Way Radar Equation (Monostatic)
4.5 - Alternate Two-Way Radar Equation
4.6 - Two-Way Radar Equation (Bistatic)
4.7 - Jamming to Signal (J/S) Ratio - Constant Power (Saturated) Jamming
4.8 - Burn-Through / Crossover Range
4.9 - Support Jamming
4.10 - Jamming to Signal (J/S) Ratio - Constant Gain (Linear) Jamming
4.11 - Radar Cross Section (RCS)
4.12 - Emission Control (EMCON)

5. RADAR AND RECEIVER CHARACTERISTICS & TEST

5.1 - RF Atmospheric Absorption / Ducting
5.2 - Receiver Sensitivity and Noise
5.3 - Receiver Types and Characteristics
5.4 - Radar Modes - 6/99
5.5 - General Radar Display Types
5.6 - IFF - Identification - Friend or Foe
5.7 - Receiver Tests
5.8 - Signal Sorting and Direction Finding

0.1

6. MICROWAVE / RF COMPONENTS
6.1 - Microwave Waveguides and Coaxial Cable
6.2 - Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) / Reflection Coefficient / Return Loss / Mismatch Loss
6.3 - Microwave Coaxial Connectors
6.4 - Power Dividers and Directional Couplers
6.5 - Attenuators / Filters / DC Blocks
6.6 - Terminations / Dummy Loads
6.7 - Circulators and Diplexers
6.8 - Mixers and Frequency Discriminators
6.9 - Detectors
6.10 - Microwave Measurements

7. ELECTRO-OPTICS AND IR
7.1 - Electro-Optics AND IR
7.2 - Laser Safety

8. AIRCRAFT DYNAMICS CONSIDERATIONS

8.1 - Free Fall / Aircraft Drag
8.2 - Mach Number and Airspeed vs Altitude
8.3 - Maneuverability
8.4 - EMP / Aircraft Dimensions

9. DATA TRANSFER BUSSES

9.1 - Data Busses
9.2 - RS-232 Interface
9.3 - RS-422 Balanced Voltage Interface
9.4 - RS-485 Interface
9.5 - IEEE-488 Interface Bus (HP-IB/GP-IB)
9.6 - MIL-STD-1553 and 1773 Data Bus

10. GLOSSARY
10.1 Glossary

0.2

ABBREVIATIONS and ACRONYMS

Acceleration or atto (10-18 multiplier)
Ampere, Area, Altitude, Angstrom (),
Antenna Aperture, or Aerial (U.K.)
A-799
No evidence of failure report
A/A, A-A, AA Air-to-Air or Anti-Aircraft
AA-()
Air-to-Air missile number ()
AAA
Anti-Aircraft Artillery
AAAA
Army Aviation Association of America
AAED
Advanced Airborne Expendable Decoy
AAM
Air-to-Air Missile
AARGM
Advanced Anti-Radiation Guided
Missile (concept)
AAW
Anti-Air Warfare
A-BIT
Automatic Built-in-Test
ABM
Air Breathing Missile or
Anti-ballistic Missile
A/C
Aircraft (also acft.)
AC
Alternating Current
ACA
Associate Contractor Agreement or
Airspace Coordination Area
ACAT
Acquisition Category
ACCB
Aircraft Configuration Control Board
Acft
Aircraft (also A/C)
ACLS
Aircraft Carrier Landing System
ACM
Advanced Cruise Missile or Air
Combat Maneuvering
ACQ
Acquisition
ACS
Antenna Coupler Set
ACTD
Advanced Concept Technology
Demonstration
A/D
Analog to Digital
Ada
Not an acronym. Ada is the DoD
standard programming language.
ADM
Advanced Development Model
ADP
Automatic Data Processing or
Advanced Development Program
ADVCAP
Advanced Capability
AEC
Aviation Electronic Combat (Army)
AEGIS
Automatic Electronic Guided Intercept
System
AEL
Accessible Emission Limit
AEW
Airborne Early Warning
AF
Antenna Factor, Air Force, or Audio
Frequency
AFB
Air Force Base or Airframe Bulletin
AFC
Automatic Frequency Control or
Airframe Change

a
A

AFIPS
AFOTEC
A/G
AGB
AGC
AGI
AGL
AGM
AGS
AHWS
AI
AIAA
AIC
AIM
AIRLANT
AIRPAC
AJ
A-Kit

AM
AMD
AMES
AMLV
Amp
AMRAAM
ANSI
ANT
Ao
AO
AOA

AOC
AOT
APC

1-1.1

Automated Financial Information

Processing System
Air Force Operational T&E Center
Air-to-Ground
Autonomous Guided Bomb
Automatic Gain Control
Auxiliary General Intelligence
(Intelligence-gathering Ship)
Above Ground Level
Air-to-Ground Missile
Angle Gate Stealer
Advanced Helicopter Weapons System
Artificial Intelligence, Air Intercept, or
Airborne Interceptor
American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics
Air Intercept Control
Air Intercept Missile
Commander, U.S. Naval Air Forces,
Atlantic Fleet
Commander, U.S. Naval Air Forces,
Pacific Fleet
Anti-jamming or Anti-Jam
Aircraft wiring kit for a system
(includes cabling, racks, etc. excluding
WRAs)
Amplitude Modulation
Aircraft Maintenance Department
Advanced Multiple Environment
Simulator
Advanced Memory Loader/Verifier
Amplifier
Advanced, Medium-Range, Air-to-Air
Missile
American National Standards Institute
Antenna
Operational Availability
Acousto-Optical
Angle of Arrival, Angle of Attack, or
Analysis of Alternatives (similar to
COEA)
Association of Old Crows (Professional
EW Society) or Award of Contract
Angle Only Track, Angle Off Tail, or
Acquisition-on-Target
Amphenol Precision Connector or
Armored Personnel Carrier

APN
APO
APU
AR
ARM
ARO
A/S, A-S, AS
ASCM
ASE

ASIC
ASK
ASM
ASO
A-Spec
ASPJ
ASPO
ASR
ASRAAM
ASTE
ASW
ATA
ATARS
ATC
ATD
ATE
ATEDS
ATF
ATIMS

ATIRCM
ATP
ATR
ATRJ
AUTODIN
AUTOVON
AUX
avdp.

Aircraft Procurement, Navy

Armed Forces (or Army or Air) Post
Office, Acquisition Program Office
Auxiliary Power Unit
Anti-reflection or Aspect Ratio
Anti-radiation Missile
After Receipt of Order
Air-to-Surface
Anti-ship Cruise Missile
Aircraft Survivability (or Survival)
Equipment, Allowable Steering Error,
or Automatic Support Equipment
Application Specific Integrated Circuit
Amplitude Shift Keying
Air-to-Surface Missile
Aviation Supply Office
System Specification
Airborne Self-Protection Jammer
Avionics Support (also Systems)
Project Office (also Officer)
Advanced Special Receiver or
Airport/Airborne Surveillance Radar
Advanced Short Range Air-to-Air
Missile
Advanced Strategic and Tactical
Expendables
Anti-submarine Warfare
Advanced Tactical Aircraft
Advanced Tactical Air Reconnaissance
System
Air Traffic Control
Advanced Technology Demonstration
Automatic Test Equipment
Advanced Technology Expendables
and Dispenser Systems
Advanced Tactical Fighter
Airborne Turret Infrared Measurement
System or Airborne Tactical
Information Management System
Advanced Threat Infrared
Countermeasures
Acceptance Test Procedure
Autonomous Target Recognition,
Airborne Transportable Rack
Advanced Threat Radar Jammer
Automatic Digital Network
Automatic Voice Network (now DSN)
Auxiliary
Avoirdupois (system of measures)

Avg
AWACS
AZ

Average
Airborne Warning and Control System
Azimuth (also Az)

Bandwidth (also BW) or Magnetic

inductance
Best and Final Offer
Bat Bulletin - former VX-9 tactics
newsletter now called "On Target"
Bus Adapter Unit
Bus Controller
Battle Damage Assessment
Battle Damage Indication
Beat Frequency Oscillator
Background Investigation
Battlefield Identification, Friend, or Foe
Built-in-Test, Binary Digit or
Battlefield Information Technology
Built-in-Test Equipment
Bus Interface Unit
Avionics "Black Box" WRAs
Bombardier/Navigator
Bayonet Navy Connector
Basic Ordering Agreement
Swedish chaff dispenser in a launcher
Band Pass Filter
Bits Per Second
Bureau of Medicine (Navy)
Bureau Number (aircraft)
Bottom Up Review
Beyond Visual Range
Beamwidth (referring to an antenna) or
sometimes Bandwidth
Backward Wave Amplifier
Backward Wave Oscillator

BAFO
BATBULL
BAU
BC
BDA
BDI
BFO
BI
BIFF
BIT
BITE
BIU
B-Kit
B/N
BNC
BOA
BOL
BPF
BPS
BUMED
BUNO
BUR
BVR
BW
BWA
BWO

C2
1-1.2

Speed of Light = 3x108 meters/sec =

1.8x1012 furlongs per fortnight or 1.8
terafurlongs per fortnight, or centi
(10-2) multiplier
Electron Charge, Coulomb,
Capacitance, Celsius, Centigrade,
Confidential, Roman numeral for 100,
or a programming language (also C+
and C++)
Command and Control

C3
C3CM
C3I
CAD
CAE
CAG
CAGE
CAIV
CAL
CAM
CAO
CAP
CAS
CASS
CAT
CB
CBD
CBIT
CBO
CCA
CCB
CCD
CCM
CCN
CCU
cd
CD
CDC
CDR
CDRL
CE
CECOM
CEP
CFA
CFAR
CFE
CG

CI

Command, Control, and

Communications
C3-Countermeasures
Command, Control, Communications,
and Intelligence
Computer-Aided Design
Computer-Aided Engineering
Carrier Air Group
Commercial and Government Entry
Cost as an Independent Variable
Calibration
Computer-Aided Manufacturing or
Constant Addressable Memory
Competency Aligned Organization or
Contract Administrative Officer
Combat Air Patrol
Close Air Support or Calibrated
Airspeed
Consolidated Automated Support
System
Catapult or Cockpit Automation
Technology
Citizens Band (also see Seabee)
Commerce Business Daily
Continuous Built-in-Test
Congressional Budget Office
Circuit Card Assembly
Configuration Control Board
Charge Coupled Device
Counter-Countermeasures
Contract Change Number or
Configuration Change Notice
Cockpit Control Unit
Candela (SI unit of luminous intensity)
Compact Disk or Control and Display
Combat Direction Center
Critical Design Review
Contract Data Requirements List
Conducted Emission
Communications and Electronics
Command (Army)
Circular Error Probability
Cognizant Field Activity
Constant False Alarm Rate
Contractor Furnished Equipment
Center of Gravity, Commanding
General, Command Guidance, or
Cruiser
Configuration Item

CIA
CIC
CID
CILOP
CINC
CIS

CIWS
CJ
CLC
cm
CM
CMC
CMDS
CMOS
CMP
CMWS
CNAL
CNAP
CNI
CO

COB
COEA
COG
COMM
COMSEC
CONSCAN
CONUS
CO-OP
Cos
COSRO
COTS
CP
CPS
1-1.3

Central Intelligence Agency

Combat Information Center (now called
CDC)
Combat Identification or Charge
Injection Device
Conversion in Lieu of Procurement
Commander in Chief
Commonwealth of Independent States
(11 of 15 former Soviet Union
territories except Estonia, Georgia,
Latvia, and Lithuania)
Close-In Weapon System
Coherent Jamming
Command Launch Computer
Centimeter
Countermeasures or Configuration
Management
Command Mission Computer or
Commandant Marine Corps
Countermeasure Dispensing System
Complementary Metal-Oxide
Semiconductor
Configuration Management Plan
Common Missile Warning System
Commander, Naval Air Forces Atlantic
(COMNAVAIRLANT)
Commander, Naval Air Forces Pacific
(COMNAVAIRPAC)
Communications, Navigation, and
Identification
Commanding Officer, Contracting
Officer, Change Order, or Carbon
Monoxide
Close of Business
Cost and Operational Effectiveness
Analysis
Center of Gravity or Cognizant
Communications
Communications Security
Conical Scanning Radar
Continental United States
Cooperative (countermeasures)
Cosine
Conical-Scan on Receive Only
Commercial Off-The-Shelf
(hardware/software)
Circularly Polarized (antenna), Central
Processor, or Command Post
Computer or Control Power Supply

CPU
CRC

CRFM
CRISD
CRLCMP
CRO
CRT
Crypto
CS
CSC
CSCI
C-Spec
CSS
CV
CVA
CVN
CVR
CW
CWBS
CWI
CY

d
D

da
D/A
DAB
DAC
DAR
DARPA
DB
dB
dBc
dBi
dBm

Central Processing Unit

Originally Chemical Rubber Company,
now published reference books by CRC
Press
Coherent RF Memory
Computer Resources Integrated
Support Document
Computer Resources Life Cycle
Management Plan
Countermeasures Response
Optimization
Cathode Ray Tube or Combat Rated
Thrust (afterburner)
Cryptographic
Conducted Susceptibility
Commodity Software Change
Computer Software Configuration Item
Product Specification
Contractor Support Services
Aircraft Carrier
Older designation for Attack Carrier
Nuclear Powered Aircraft Carrier
Crystal Video Receiver
Continuous Wave or Chemical Warfare
Contract Work Breakdown Structure
Continuous Wave Illuminator
Calendar Year

DBOF
dBsm
dBW
DC
DCE
DDI
DDS
DECM
deg
DEMVAL
DET
DF
DFT
DI
DIA
DID
DIRCM
DJ
D-Level
DM
DMA
DME
DNA

Distance, Diameter, or deci (10-1

multiplier)
Distance, Diameter, Electron
displacement, Detectivity, Doppler,
Density, or Roman numeral for 500
deca (100 multiplier)
Digital-to-Analog
Defense Acquisition Board
Digital to Analog Converter or Dept of
Army Civilian
Defense Acquisition Regulation
Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency
Database
Decibel
dB referenced to the Carrier Signal
Decibel antenna gain referenced to an
isotropic antenna
Decibel referenced to the power of one
milliwatt

DOA
DOD or DoD
DoDISS
DOM
DON
DOS
DPRO
DRB
DRFM
DSARC
DSN
DSO
DSP
D-Spec
DT (&E)

1-1.4

Defense Business Operations Fund

Decibel value of radar cross section
referenced to a square meter
Decibel referenced to the power of one
watt
Direct Current, Discrete Circuit, or
District of Columbia
Data Communication Equipment
Digital Display Indicator
Direct Digital Synthesizers
Deceptive Electronic Countermeasures
(also Defensive ECM)
Degree
Demonstration Validation (also
DEM/VAL)
Detachment
Direction Finding
Discrete Fourier Transform
Data Item
Defense Intelligence Agency or
Diameter
Data Item Description
Directed Infrared Countermeasures
Deceptive Jamming
Depot Level Maintenance
Data Management (also manager)
Direct Memory Address or Defense
Mapping Agency
Distance Measuring Equipment
Defense Nuclear Agency, Does Not
Apply, or Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Direction of Arrival
Department of Defense
DoD Index of Specifications and
Standards
Depth of Modulation
Department of the Navy
Disk Operating System
Defense Plant Representative Office
Defense Review Board
Digital RF Memory
Defense Systems Acquisition (and)
Review Council
Defense Switching Network
Dielectrically Stabilized Oscillator
Digital Signal Processor
Process Specification
Development or Developmental Test
(and Evaluation)

DTC
DTE
DTO

Design to Cost
Data Terminal Equipment
Digitally Tuned Oscillator or Defense
Technology Objectives

Electron charge or base of natural

logarithms (2.71828...)
Electric Field Intensity or Strength,
Energy, East, or Exa (1018 multiplier)
Electromagnetic Environmental Effects
Electronic Attack
(similar to older term of ECM)
Electronic Combat
Electromagnetic Compatibility
Analysis Center (DOD), now Joint
Spectrum Center
Electronic Counter-Countermeasures
(similar to newer term of EP)
Emitter Coupled Logic
Electronic Countermeasures
(similar to newer term of EA)
Engineering Change Notice
Engineering Change Order
Engineering Change Proposal or Egress
Control Point
Electronic Combat Range (China Lake)
or Electronic Combat &
Reconnaissance
Environmental Control System
Electronic Combat Simulation and
Evaluation Laboratory (NAWCWPNS)
Electronic Control Unit
Engineering Development Model
Electro-Explosive Device
Electrically Erasable/Programmable
Read-only Memory
Extremely High Frequency
(30 to 300 GHz)
Electronic Industries Associates
Emitter Identification Data
Effective Isotropic Radiated power
Elevation (also El)
Extremely Low Frequency
(3 Hz to 3 KHz)
Electronics Intelligence
Emitter Library Notation
Electromagnetic
Electronic Mail
Electromagnetic Compatibility

E
E3
EA
EC
ECAC

ECCM
ECL
ECM
ECN
ECO
ECP
ECR

ECS
ECSEL
ECU
EDM
EED
EEPROM
EHF
EIA
EID
EIRP
EL
ELF
ELINT
ELNOT
EM
E-Mail
EMC

EMCAB
EMCON
EMD
EME
EMI
EMP
EMR
EMS
EMV
EO
EOB
EOCM
EOF
EP
EPA
EPROM
ERAM

ERP
ES
ESD
ESM
ESSM
ET
ETI
ETR
EW
EWAT
EWIR
EWMP
EWO
EWOPFAC
EWRL
EWSI
EWSSA
EXP
1-1.5

EMC Advisory Board

Emission Control
Engineering and Manufacturing
Development
Electromagnetic Environment
Electromagnetic Interference
Electromagnetic Pulse
Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic Susceptibility
Electromagnetic Vulnerability
Electro-Optic, Electro-Optical, or
Engineering Order
Electronic Order of Battle or Expense
Operating Budget
Electro-Optic Countermeasures
Electro-Optical Frequency
(300 to 3 x 107 GHz)
Electronic Protection (similar to older
terms of DECM or ECCM)
Environmental Protection Agency
Electrically Programmable Read-only
Memory
Electronic Counter-Countermeasures
(also Protection) Requirements and
Assessment Manual
Effective Radiated Power
Electronic Surveillance (similar to older
term of ESM)
Electrostatic Discharge
Electronic Support Measures (similar to
newer term of ES)
Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile
Electronics Technician
Elapsed Time Indicator
Estimated Time to Repair
Electronic Warfare or Early Warning
Electronic Warfare Advanced
Technology
Electronic Warfare Integrated
Reprogramming (USAF database)
Electronic Warfare Master Plan
Electronic Warfare Officer
Electronic Warfare Operational
Reprogramming Facility
Electronic Warfare Reprogrammable
Library (USN)
EW Systems Integration
EW Software Support Activity
Expendable Countermeasure

f
F

F/A
FAA
FAC
FAR
FAX
fc
FCA
FCR
FDR
FEBA
FET
FEWSG
FFT
FIFO
FIPR
fl
FLAK

FLIR
FLPS
FLT
FM
FME
FMEA
FMS
FOC
FOD
FORCECAP
FOT&E
FOTD
FOUO
FOV
FPA
fps
FRACAS
FRB
FRD
FSD

femto (10-15 multiplier), Frequency

(also F), or lens f number
Frequency (also f), Force, Farad,
Faraday Constant, Female, Fahrenheit,
Noise Figure, Noise Factor or
"Friendly" on RWR display
Fighter/Attack
Federal Aviation Administration
Forward Air Controller
Federal Acquisition Regulations or
False Alarm Rate
Facsimile
Footcandle (unit of illuminance)
Functional Configuration Audit
Fire Control Radar
Frequency Domain Reflectometry
Forward Edge of the Battle Area
Field-Effect Transistor
Fleet Electronic Warfare Support
Group
Fast Fourier Transform
First In / First Out
Federal Information Processing
Resources
fluid
AAA Shrapnel, from the German
"Flieger Abwher Kanone" (AAA gun
that fires fast and furiously)
Forward Looking Infrared
Flightline Payload Simulator
Flight
Frequency Modulation or Failure Mode
Foreign Material Exploitation
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis
Foreign Military Sale(s)
Full Operational Capability
Foreign Object Damage
Force Combat Air Patrol
Follow-On Test and Evaluation
Fiber Optic Towed Device
For Official Use Only
Field of View
Focal Plane Array
feet per second
Failure, Reporting, Analysis, and
Corrective Actions System
Failure Review Board
Functional Requirements Document
Full Scale Development

FSED
FSK
FSU
ft
FTC
FTD
FWD
FY

Full Scale Engineering Development

Frequency Shift Keying
Former Soviet Union
Feet or Foot
Fast Time Constant
Foreign Technology Division (USAF)
Forward
Fiscal Year

g
G

Gravity (also G)
Universal Gravitational Constant (also
K), Giga (109 multiplier), Conductance,
or Gain
General and Administrative (expense)
Gallium Arsenide
Guidance and Control Information
Analysis Center (DoD)
Gallon
General Accounting Office
Guided Bomb Unit
Ground Controlled Approach
Ground Control Intercept
General Service
Generic Expendable
Government Furnished Equipment
GigaHertz
Government Issue
Government Industry Data Exchange
Program
Garbage In / Garbage Out
Government Owned Contract Operated
General Purpose
Ground Plane Interference
General Purpose Interface Bus
Global Positioning System
Ground Support Equipment

G&A
GaAs
GACIAC
gal
GAO
GBU
GCA
GCI
GENSER
GEN-X
GFE
GHz
GI
GIDEP
GIGO
GOCO
GP
GPI
GPIB
GPS
GSE

h
H
HARM
HAWK
HDBK
HDF
HE
1-1.6

hours, hecto (102 multiplier), Plank's

constant, or height (also H)
Height (also h), Henry (Inductance), or
Irradiance
High-speed Anti-Radiation Missile
Homing All the Way Killer
Handbook
High Duty Factor
High Explosive

HEF
HEL
HELO
HERF
HERO
HERP
HF
HIL
HOJ
HOL
HP-IB
HP-IL
HPM
HPRF
hr
HSDB
HUD
HV
H/W
HWIL
Hz

i
I

IADS
I&Q
IAS
IAW
IBIT
IBU
IC
ICD
ICMD
ICNIA
ICS
ICW
ID
IDA
IDAP

High Energy Frequency

(3x107 to 3x1014 GHz)
High Energy Laser
Helicopter
Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation
to Fuel
Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation
to Ordnance
Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation
to Personnel
High Frequency (3 - 30 MHz)
Hardware-in-the-Loop
Home-On-Jam
Higher Order Language
Hewlett-Packard Interface Bus
Hewlett-Packard Interface Loop
High Powered Microwave
High Pulse Repetition Frequency
hour
High Speed Data Bus
Heads-Up Display
High Voltage
Hardware
Hardware-in-the-loop
Hertz (Cycles per second)

IDECM
IEEE
IF
IFF
IFM
IFR
IG
IIR
I-Level
ILS

ILSMT
IM
IMA
in
INEWS
INS
INT
I/O
IOC
IOT&E
IPO
IPR
IPT

current (also I)
Current (also i), Intensity, Irradiance,
Intermediate, or Roman Numeral for
One
Integrated Air Defense System
In-Phase and Quadrature
Indicated Airspeed
In Accordance With
Initiated Built-in-Test
Interference Blanker Unit
Integrated Circuit
Interface Control Document
Improved Countermeasure Dispenser
Integrated Communication, Navigation,
Identification Avionics
Inverse Conical Scan or
Intercommunications System (aircraft)
In Compliance With
Identification
Institute For Defense Analysis
Integrated Defensive Avionics Program

IR
IR&D
IRCM
IRDS
IREXP
IRIG-B
IRLS
IRS

IRST
ISAR
ISO

ISP
ISR
1-1.7

Integrated Defensive Electronic

Countermeasures
Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers
Intermediate Frequency
Identification Friend-or-Foe
Instantaneous Frequency Measurement
Instrument Flight Rules
Inspector General
Imaging Infrared
Intermediate Level of Repair (also "I"
Level)
Integrated Logistic Support, Instrument
Landing System, or Inertial Locator
System
Integrated Logistic Support
Management Team
Intermodulation or Item Manager
Intermediate Maintenance Activity
Inch
Integrated Electronic Warfare System
Inertial Navigation System
Intensity
Input/Output
Initial Operational (also Operating)
Capability
Initial Operational Test and Evaluation
International Projects (Program) Office
In-Progress/Process Review
Integrated Product (also Program)
Team
Infrared
Independent Research and
Development
Infrared Countermeasures
Infrared Detecting System
IR Expendables
Inter-range Instrumentation Group B
Infrared Line Scanner
Interface Requirements Specification,
IR Suppression or Internal Revenue
Service
Infrared Search and Track
Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar
Derived from the Greek "isos" meaning
"equal", the official title is International
Organization for Standardization
Integrated Support Plan
Interference to Signal Ratio (also I/S)

ITU
IV&V
IW
J
JAAS
JAFF
JAG
JAMS
JASSM
JAST
JATO
JC2WC
JCS
JDAM
JED

JEM
JETS
JEWC
JMR
JOVIAL

JPATS
J/S
JSF
JSGCC
JSIR
JSOW
JSTARS
JTCG/AS
JTIDS
JV or J/V

International Telecommunications
Union
Independent Validation and
Verification
Information Warfare

k
K

KCAS
kg
kHz
KIA
KIAS
km
KSLOC

Jamming, Radiance, Current Density,

or Joules
Joint Architecture for Aircraft
Survivability
Jammer (illuminating) Chaff
Judge Advocate General
Jamming Analysis Measurement
System
Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile
Joint Advanced Strike Technology
Jet Assisted Takeoff or Jammer
Technique Optimization
Joint Command and Control Warfare
Center
Joint Chiefs of Staff or Joint Spectrum
Center (formerly ECAC)
Joint Direct Attack Munition
Journal of Electronic Defense
(Published by the Association of Old
Crows)
Jet Engine Modulation
Joint Emitter Targeting System
Joint EW Conference or Joint EW
Center (now JC2WC)
Jammer
Julius' Own Version of International
Algorithmic Language (Air Force
computer programming language)
Joint Primary Aircraft Training System
Jamming to Signal Ratio
Joint Strike Fighter
Joint Services Guidance and Control
Committee
Joint Spectrum Interference Resolution
(signal interference portion of MIJI)
Joint Stand-Off Weapon (AGM-154A)
Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar
System
Joint Technical Coordinating Group for
Aircraft Survivability
Joint Tactical Information Distribution
System
Joint Venture

kt
kW

l
L
LADAR
LAN
LANTIRN
LASER
LAT
lbs
LCC
LCD
LCP
LDF
LDS
LED
LEX
LGB
LF
LIC
LISP
LLL
lm
ln
LO
LOA
LOB
1-1.8

kilo (103 multiplier) or Boltzmann

Constant
Kelvin, Cathode, Universal
gravitational constant (also G), or
Luminous efficacy
Knots Calibrated Airspeed
kilogram
KiloHertz
Killed in Action
Knots Indicated Air Speed
Kilometer
Thousand Source Lines of Code
(software)
Knot (nautical miles per hour)
Kilowatt

length (also L) or liter

Length (also l), Loss, inductance,
Luminance, or Roman Numeral for fifty
Laser Detection and Ranging (i.e., laser
radar)
Local Area Network
Low Altitude Navigation & Targeting
Infrared for Night
Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
Latitude (0-90E N or S from equator)
pounds
Life Cycle Cost(s)
Liquid Crystal Display or Lowest
Common Denominator
Left-hand Circular Polarization
Low Duty Factor
Laser Detecting Set
Light-Emitting Diode
Leading Edge Extension
Laser Guided Bomb
Low Frequency (30 - 300 kHz)
Low Intensity Combat or Laser
Intercept Capability
List Processing (A programming
language used in artificial intelligence)
Low Light Level (as in LLL TV)
lumen (SI unit of luminous flux)
Natural Logarithm
Local Oscillator or Low Observable
Letter of Agreement (or Acceptance)
Line of Bearing (see also AOA)

LOG
LONG
LOR
LORA
LORAN
LORO
LOS
LPAR
LPD
LPI or LPOI
LPRF
LR
LRA
LRF
LRIP
LRU
LSA
LSAR
LSB
LSI
LSO
LSSO
LTBB
LWIR
LWR
lx
LZ

Logarithm to the base 10 (also log) or

Logistician
Longitude (0-180E E or W from
Greenwich, U.K.)
Level of Repair
Level of Repair Analysis
Long Range Navigation
Lobe on Receive Only
Line-of-Sight
Large Phased-Array Radar
Low Probability of Detection
Low Probability of Intercept
Low Pulse Repetition Frequency
Lethal Range
Line Replaceable Assembly
Laser Rangefinder
Low Rate Initial Production
Line Replaceable Unit
Logistic Support Analysis
Logistic Support Analysis Record
Least Significant Bit
Large Scale Integration
Landing Signal Officer
Laser System Safety Officer
Look Through Blanking Bus
Long Wave Infrared
Laser Warning Receiver
Lux (SI unit of illuminance)
Landing Zone

MAX
MBFN
MC
MCP
MDF
MDI
MDG
MDS
MDU
MF
MFD
MG
MHz
MIA
MIC
MICRON
MiG
MIGCAP
MIJI
mil
MIL
MILCON
MILSPEC
MILSTRIP

m
M
MA
MAD
MADD
MAF
MAG
MANPADS
M&S
MASER
MATE
MAW

milli (10-3 multiplier), meter, or

electron mass
Mega (106 multiplier), Male, Mach
number, or Roman numeral for 1,000
Missile Alert or Missile Active
Magnetic Anomaly Detection (also
Detector)
Microwave Acoustic Delay Device
Maintenance Action Form
Marine Aircraft Group or Magnetic
Man-portable Air Defense System
Modeling and Simulation
Microwave Amplification by Simulated
Emission of Radiation
Modular Automatic Test Equipment
Missile Approach Warning system
(also MAWS) or Marine Aircraft Wing

MIMIC
MIN
MIPPLE
MIPS
ML
MLC
MLV
MLVS
mm
MM
MMIC

1-1.9

Maximum or Maximum aircraft power

(afterburner)
Multiple Beam Forming Network
Mission Computer
Micro-Channel Plate
Mission Data File
Multiple Display Indicator or Miss
Distance Indicator
Mission Data Generator
Minimum Discernible Signal or
Minimum Detectable Signal
Multipurpose Display Unit
Medium Frequency
(300 kHz to 3 MHz)
Multifunction (video) Display
Missile Guidance
MegaHertz (106 Hz)
Missing in Action
Microwave Integrated Circuit or
Management Information Center
10-6 meter
Mikoyan-Gurevich (Soviet aircraft
manufacturer)
MiG Combat Air Patrol
Meaconing, Intrusion, Jamming, &
Interference (also see JSIR)
One-thousandth of an inch
Military power (100%, no afterburner)
or Military
Military Construction
Military Specification
Military Standard Requisitioning and
Issue Procedure(s)
Microwave Monolithic Integrated
Circuit (also MMIC)
Minimum
RWR display switching between
ambiguous emitters
Millions of (Mega) Instructions Per
Second
Missile Launch
Main Lobe Clutter
Memory Loader Verifier
Memory Loader Verifier Set
Millimeter
Man Month
Microwave Monolithic Integrated
Circuit (also MIMIC)

MMW

MOA
MOAT
MOE
MOM
MOP
MOPS
MOS

MOSAIC
MOU
MPD
MPE
mph
MPLC
MPM
MPPS
MPRF
mr or mrad
MRC
MRE's
ms
MSB
MSI

MSIC
MSL
MTBF
MTI
MTTR
MUXBUS
MVS
mw
mW
MWIR
MWS
MY

nano (10-9 multiplier) or number of

elements
N
Noise, Newton (force), Radiance,
North, or No
n/a
Not Applicable (also N/A)
NA
Numerical Aperture
NAC
Naval Avionics Center (now part of
NAWCAD)
NADC
Naval Air Development Center (now
part of NAWCAD)
NADEP
Naval Aviation Depot
NASA
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
NATC
Naval Air Test Center (now part of
NAWCAD)
NATO
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NATOPS
Naval Air Training and Operating
Procedures Standardization
NAV
Navigation
NAVAIR
Naval Air Systems Command (also
NAVAIRSYSCOM)
NAVSEA
Naval Sea Systems Command (also
NAVSEASYSCOM)
NAWCAD
Naval Air Warfare Center Aircraft
Division (formerly Trenton, NADC,
NAC, and NATC)
NAWCWPNS Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons
Division (formerly PMTC, NWC,
NWEF, and NOMTS)
NBC
Nuclear, Biological, Chemical
NCTR
Non-Cooperative Target Recognition
NDI
Non-Developmental Item or Non
Destructive Inspection
NEI
Noise Equivalent Power
NEMP
Nuclear Electromagnetic Pulse
NEOF
No Evidence of Failure
NEP
Noise Equivalent Power
NF
Noise Figure or Noise Factor (also F)
NFO
Naval Flight Officer
NIPO
Navy International Program Office
NIR
Near Infrared
NISC
Naval Intelligence Support Center
nm
nanometer or Nautical Mile (also NM
or NMI)
NM or NMI
Nautical Mile (also nm)
NOHD
Nominal Ocular Hazard Distance
NOMTS
Naval Ordnance Missile Test Station,
White Sands, NM (now part of
NAWCWPNS)

Millimeter Wave (40 GHz or higher per

IEEE, but commonly used down to 30
GHz)
Memorandum of Agreement
Missile on Aircraft Test (Phoenix test
on F-14)
Measure of Effectiveness
Methods of Moments (also MoM) or
Metal-Oxide-Metal
Modulation on Pulse or Measure of
Performance
Million Operations Per Second
Minimum Operational Sensitivity,
Military Occupational Specialty, MetalOxide Semiconductor, or Measure of
Suitability
Modeling System for Advanced
Investigation of Countermeasures
Memorandum of Understanding
Multi-Purpose Display or Microwave
Power Device
Maximum Permissible Exposure
Miles per Hour
Multi-Platform Launch Controller
Microwave Power Module
Million Pulses Per Second
Medium Pulse Repetition Frequency
Milliradian
Maintenance Requirement Card or
Medium Range CAP
Meals Ready to Eat
Milliseconds
Most Significant Bit
Multi-Sensor (also Source) Integration,
Management Support Issues, or
Medium Scale Integration
Missile and Space Intelligence Center
Mean Sea Level (altitude) or Missile
Mean Time Between Failures
Moving Target Indicator (or Indication)
Mean Time To Repair
Multiplex Bus
Minimum Visible Signal
Microwave
Milliwatt
Mid Wave Infrared
Missile Warning Set
Man Year

1-1.10

NORAD
NPG or NPGS
NRE
NRL
NRZ
NSA
nsec or ns
NSN
NSWC
nt
NVG
NWC
NWEF

NWIP
NWP

North American Air Defense Command

Naval Post Graduate School
Non-Recurring Engineering
Naval Research Laboratory
Non Return to Zero
National Security Agency
Nanosecond
National Stock Number
Naval Surface Weapons Center
Nit (SI unit of luminance)
Night Vision Goggles
Naval Weapons Center (China Lake)
now part of NAWCWPNS
Naval Weapons Evaluation Facility,
Albuquerque, NM (now part of
NAWCWPNS)
Naval Warfare Information Publication
Naval Warfare Publication

OSHA
OSIP
OSM
OT (&E)
OTD
OTH
OTH-B
OTH-R
OTH-T
OTRR
OUSD
oz

p
P
O
OADR
OAG
O&MN
OBE
OCA
OEWTPS
OFP
OJT
O-Level
OMA
OMB
OMEGA

ONR
OOK
OPEVAL
OPM
OPSEC
OPTEVFOR
OR
ORD
OSD

Optical
Originating Agency's Determination
Required
Operational Advisory Group
Operations and Maintenance, Navy
(also O&M,N)
Overtaken (Overcome) By Events
Offensive Counter Air
Organizational Electronic Warfare Test
Program Set
Operational Flight Program
On-the-Job Training
Organizational Level of Repair (also
"O" Level)
Organizational Maintenance Activity
Office of Management and Budget
Optimized Method for Estimating
Guidance Accuracy (VLF Navigation
System)
Office of Naval Research
On-Off Keying
Operational Evaluation
Office of Personnel Management
Operational Security
Operational Test and Evaluation Force
Operational Requirement or
Operationally Ready
Operational Requirements Document
Office of the Secretary of Defense

P3I
Pa
PA
PBIT
PC
PCA
PCM
Pd
PD
PDI
PDP
PDQ
PDR
PDW
PEL
PEM
PEO
pf
PFA
PGM
ph
Ph
pi
Pi
PID
PIN
1-1.11

Occupational Safety and Health Act

Operational Safety Improvement
Program
Operating System Memory or SMA
connector made by Omni-Spectra
Operational Test (and Evaluation)
Operational Test Director
Over the Horizon
Over-the-Horizon Backscatter
Over-the-Horizon Radar
Over-the-Horizon Targeting
Operational Test Readiness Review
Office of the Under Secretary of
Defense
ounce

pico (10-12 multiplier) or page

Power, Pressure, or Peta (1015
multiplier)
Pre-Planned Product Improvement
Pascal (pressure)
Public Address or Program Analyst
Periodic Built-in-Test
Pulse Compression, Personal
Computer, or Photoconductive
Physical Configuration Audit
Pulse Code Modulation
Probability of Detection
Pulse Doppler
PD Illuminator or Post Detection
Integration
Plasma Display Panel
Pretty Darn (sic) Quick
Preliminary Design Review
Pulse Descriptor Word
Personnel Exposure Limits
Photoelectromagnetic
Program Executive Officer
Power Factor or Pico Farads
Probability of False Alarm
Precision Guided Munition
Phot (unit of illuminance)
Probability of Hit
Greek letter B
Probability of Intercept (also POI)
Positive Identification
Personal Identification Number

PIP
Pixel
Pk
PLSS
PM
PMA
PMAWS
PMT
PMTC

P-N
PN or P/N
POC
POET
POI
POL
POM
POP
POST
PPI
PPS
PRF
PRI
PROM
PRR
PRT
Ps
P's & Q's
PSK
PUPS
PV
pw or PW
PWB

q
Q

QA

Product Improvement Plan or Predicted

Intercept Point
Picture Element
Probability of Kill or Peak
Precision Location Strike System
Phase Modulation or Program Manager
Program (also Project) Manager, Air
Passive Missile Approach Warning
System
Photomultiplier Tube
Pacific Missile Test Center
(PACMISTESTCEN) - now part of
NAWCWPNS
Positive to Negative Junction (also p-n)
Part Number
Point of Contact
Primed Oscillator Expendable
Transponder
Probability of Intercept (also PI)
Polarization
Program Objective Memorandum
Pulse-on-Pulse or Product Optimization
Program
Passive Optical Seeker Technology
(Stinger missile)
Plan Position Indicator
Pulses Per Second
Pulse Repetition Frequency
Priority or Pulse Repetition Interval
Programmable Read-only Memory
Production Readiness Review or Pulse
Repetition Rate
Pulse Repetition Time
Probability of Survival
Pints and Quarts (small details)
Phase-shift Keying
Portable Universal Programming
System
Photovoltaic
Pulse Width
Printed Wiring Board

QC
QED
QML
QPL
QRC
QRD
QRT

r or R
R
rad
R&D
RADAR
RADHAZ
RAM

R&M
R&R
RAT
RBOC
RCP
RCS
RCVR
RDT&E
RDY
RE
REC
RET
RF
RFEXP
RFI
RFP
RFQ
RFSS
RGPO
RGS
RGWO
RHAW

electron charge
Quantity Factor (figure of merit),
Quadrature, or Charge (coulomb), or
aerodynamic pressure
Quality Assurance

RHAWS
RINT
1-1.12

Quality Control
Quod Erat Demonstradum (end of
proof)(Satirically "quite easily done")
Qualified Manufacturer Listing
Qualified Parts List
Quick-Reaction Capability
Quick Reaction Demonstration
Quick-Reaction test

Radius or Range or Roentgen

Resistance or Reliability
Radian
Research and Development
Radio Detection and Ranging
Radiation Hazard
Random Access Memory, Radar
Absorbing Material, Rolling Airframe
Missile, or Reliability, Availability, and
Maintainability
Reliability and Maintainability
Rest and Recuperation (Relaxation)
Ram Air Turbine
Rapid Blooming Offboard Chaff
Right-hand Circular Polarization
Radar Cross Section
Receiver
Research, Development, Test, &
Evaluation
Ready
Radiated Emissions
Receive
Return
Radio Frequency
RF Expendables
Radio Frequency Interference, ReadyFor-Issue, or Request for Information
Request for Proposal
Request for Quotation
Radio Frequency Simulation System
(Army)
Range Gate Pull Off
Range Gate Stealer
Range Gate Walk Off (see RGPO)
Radar Homing and Warning Receiver
or Radar Homing All the Way
Radar Homing and Warning System
Radiation Intelligence

RIO
RM
rms or RMS
RNG
ROC
ROE
ROI
ROM
ROR
ROT
ROWG
RPG
RPM
RPT
RPV
RRT
RS
RSDS
RSO
RST
RT

RUG
RWR
Rx

Radar Intercept Officer

Radar Mile
Root Mean Square
Range
Required Operational Capability
Rules of Engagement
Return on Investment
Read-only Memory or Rough Order of
Magnitude
Range Only Radar or Rate of Return
(financial)
Rate of Turn
Response Optimization Working
Group
Receiver Processor Group
Revolutions per Minute
Repeat
Remotely Piloted Vehicle
Rapid Reprogramming Terminal (a
type of MLVS)
Radiated Susceptibility or Remote
Station
Radar Signal Detecting Set
Range Safety Officer or Receiver, Seton
Receiver Shadow Time
Remote Terminal, Termination
Resistance, or Receiver/Transmitter
(also R/T)
Radar Upgrade
Radar Warning Receiver
Receive

SAR

SATO
SATS
SAW
SBIR
SCI
SCIF
SCN
SCRB
SCUBA
SCUD
SE
SDLM
SDI
Seabee
SEAD
SEAL
sec
SECDEF
SEI
SEMA
SERD
SHAPE
SHF
SI

s, S, or sec
S

SA

SA-()
SAE
SAM
SA-N-()

SIF
SIGINT
SIJ
SIM
sin
SINCGARS

seconds
Signal Power, Surface Area, Secret,
Electrical conductance (siemens),
South, Scattering (as in S-parameters),
or Seconds
Situational Awareness, Semi-Active,
Spectrum Analyzer, or Surface-to-Air
(also S/A or S-A)
Surface-to-Air missile number ()
Society of Automotive Engineers
Surface-to-Air Missile
Naval Surface-to-Air missile number ()

SIRFC

SJ
S/J

1-1.13

Synthetic Aperture Radar, Special

Access Required, Semi-Active Radar,
Search and Rescue, or Specific
Absorption Rate
Scheduled Airline Traffic Office
Semi-Active Test System
Surface Acoustic Wave
Small Business Innovative Research
Sensitive Compartmented Information
Sensitive Compartmented Information
Facility
Specification Change Notice
Software Configuration Review Board
Self-Contained Underwater Breathing
Apparatus
Soviet short-range surface-to-surface
missile
Support Equipment
Standard Depot Level Maintenance
Strategic Defense Initiative
Someone in the Navy Construction
Battalion ("CB")
Suppression of Enemy Air Defense
(pronounced "seed" or "C add")
Sea-Air-Land (Navy special forces)
seconds (also S or s)
Secretary of Defense
Specific Emitter Identification
Special Electronic Mission Aircraft
Support Equipment Recommendation
Data
Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers
Europe (NATO military command)
Super High Frequency (3 to 30 GHz)
Special Intelligence or System
International (Units)
Selective Identification Feature
Signals Intelligence
Stand-In Jamming (also S/J)
Simulation
Sine
Single Channel Ground and Airborne
Radio System
Suite of Integrated RF
Countermeasures (includes ATRJ and
ATIRCM)
Support Jamming
Stand-In Jamming or Signal to
Jamming Ratio

SL
SLAM
SLAR
SLC
SLOC
SM
SMA
SMC
SML
SMS
S/N or SNR
SNORT
SNTK
SOF
SOJ
SONAR
SOO
SOP
SORO
SOS
SOW
SPAWAR
SPEC
SPIRITS
SPO
SPY
sq
sr
SRA
SRAM
SRB
SRBOC
SRD
SRS
SRU
SSA

SSB

Side lobe or Sea Level (also S.L.)

Standoff Land Attack Missile
Side-Looking Airborne Radar
Side Lobe Clutter
Source Lines of Code or Sea Lines of
Communication
Statute Mile (also sm) or Standard
Missile
Scheduled Maintenance Action or SubMiniature A connector
Sub-Miniature C connector
Support Material List
Stores Management Set or Status
Monitoring (sub-) System
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Supersonic Naval Ordnance Research
Track
Special Need to Know
Safety of Flight
Stand-off Jammer
Sound Navigation and Ranging
Statement of Objectives (replacing
SOW)
Standard Operating Procedures
Scan-on-Receive Only
"Save Our Ship" (distress call with easy
Morse code, i.e. C C C - - - C C C )
Statement of Work (being replaced by
SOO)
Space and Naval Warfare Systems
Command
Specification
Spectral Infrared Imaging of Targets
and Scenes
System Program Office
Radar on an AEGIS ship
Square
Steradian
Shop Replaceable Assembly
Static Random Access Memory
Software Review Board
Super Rapid Blooming Offboard Chaff
Systems Requirements Document
Software Requirements Specification
Shop Replaceable Unit
Software (also Special or System)
Support Activity, Source Selection
Activity, or Solid State Amplifier
Single Side Band

SSBN
SSGN
SSI
SSJ
SSM
SSN
SSRO
SSW
S&T
STANAG
STAR
stat
STBY
STC
STD
STOVL
STP

STR
STT
STU
SUBSAM
SUT
S/W
SWC
SWM
SYSCOM

t
T
TA
TAAF
TAC
TACAIR
TACAMO

TACAN
TACDS
TACTS

1-1.14

Nuclear Ballistic Missile Submarine

Nuclear Guided Missile Submarine
Small Scale Integration
Self Screening Jamming
Surface-to-Surface Missile
Nuclear Attack Submarine
Sector Scan Receive Only
Swept Square Wave
Science and Technology
Standardization Agreement (NATO)
System Threat Assessment Report
Statute
Standby
Sensitivity Time Control or Short Time
Constant or SHAPE Technical Center
Software Test Description, Standard, or
Sexually Transmitted Disease
Short Takeoff and Vertical Landing
Software Test Plan, or Standard
Temperature and Pressure (0EC at 1
atmosphere)
Software (also System) Trouble Report
Single Target Track
Secure Telephone Unit
Subsurface-to-Air Missile
System Under Test
Software (also SW)
Scan With Compensation
Swept Wave Modulation
Systems Command

Time (also T)
Time (also t), tera (1012 multiplier),
Temperature, or Telsa
Target Acquisition or Terrain
Avoidance
Teat, Analyze, and Fix
Tactical Air Command (Air Force)
Tactical Aircraft
Take Charge and Move Out (airborne
strategic VLF communications relay
system)
Tactical Air Navigation
Threat Adaptive Countermeasures
Dispensing System
Tactical Aircrew Combat Training
System

TAD

T&E
TALD
TAMPS
TAR
TARPS
TAS
TAWC
TBA
TBD
TBMD
TD
TDD
TDM
TE
TEA
TEAMS
TECHEVAL
TEL
TEM
TEMP
TEMPEST

TERPES
TGT
TIM
TM
TMD
TNC
TOA
TOJ
TOO
TOR
TOS
TOT
TOW
TPI
TPS

Threat Adaptive Dispensing,

Temporary Additional (also Active)
Duty, or Tactical Air Direction
Test & Evaluation
Tactical Air Launched Decoy
Tactical Automated (formerly Aircraft)
Mission Planning System
Target Acquisition Radar or Training
Administrative Reserve
Tactical Air Reconnaissance Pod
System (used on F-14)
True Airspeed
Tactical Air Warfare Center (Air Force)
To Be Announced
To Be Determined
Theater Ballistic Missile Defense
Technical Directive (also Director)
Target Detection Device
Time Division Multiplexing
Transverse Electric
Technology Exchange Agreement
Tactical EA-6B Mission Support
Technical Evaluation
Transporter Erector Launcher
Transverse Electromagnetic
Test and Evaluation Master Plan
Not an acronym. Certification of
reduced electromagnetic radiation for
security considerations
Tactical Electronic Reconnaissance
Processing and Evaluation System
Target
Technical Interchange Meeting
Telemetry, Transverse Magnetic, or
Technical Manual
Theater Missile Defense
Threaded Navy Connector
Time of Arrival
Track on Jam
Target of Opportunity (HARM
operating mode)
Tentative (also Tactical) Operational
Requirement or Time of Receipt
Time on Station
Time on Target
Tube-Launched, Optically-Tracked,
Wire-guided
Test Program Instruction
Test Program Set or Test Pilot School

TPWG
TQM
T/R
TRB
TRD
TREE
TRF
TRR
TS
TSS
TSSAM
TT
TTI
TTG
TTL
TTR
TV
TVC
TWS
TWSRO
TWT
TWTA
Tx
TYCOM

u
U
UAV
UCAV
UDF
UDFG
UDM
UHF
ULF
Fm
UN
UNK
UPS
us or Fs
U.S.
USA

1-1.15

Test Plan Working Group

Total Quality Management
Transmit / Receive
Technical Review Board
Test Requirements Document
Transient Radiation Effects on
Electronics
Tuned Radio Frequency
Test Readiness Review
Top Secret
Tangential Sensitivity
Tri-Service Standoff Attack Weapon
Target Track
Time To Impact/Intercept
Time-to-Go
Transistor-Transistor Logic
Target Tracking Radar
Television
Thrust Vector Control
Track While Scan or Tail Warning
System
Track While Scan on Receive Only
Travelling Wave Tube
Travelling Wave Tube Amplifier
Transmit
Type Commander
micron / micro (10-6 multiplier)
Unclassified, Unit, or Unknown (on
RWR display)
Unmanned (also uninhabited) Air (or
Aerial) Vehicle
Uninhabited Combat Air Vehicle (new
USAF term for UAV)
User Data File
User Data File Generator
User Data Module
Ultra High Frequency
(300 MHz to 3 GHz)
Ultra Low Frequency (3 to 30 Hz)
Micrometer
United Nations
Unknown (also U)
Uninterruptable Power Supply
Microseconds
United States
United States of America or United
States Army

USAF
USMC
USN
UTA
UUT
UV

United States Air Force

United States Marine Corps
United States Navy
Uninhabited Tactical Aircraft
Unit Under Test
Ultraviolet

wb
WBS
WC
WGIRB

v
V

Volts (also V), Velocity (also V or vt)

Volts (also v), Velocity (also v or vt),
Volume, or Roman Numeral for five
Veterans Administration, VoltAmperes, or prefix for a Navy attack
squadron
Prefix for Navy (or Marine) tactical
EW squadron
Validation and Verification
Voltage Controlled Oscillator
Volts Direct Current
Video Display Terminal
Value Engineering Change Proposal
Prefix for Navy fighter squadron
Variable Frequency Oscillator
Visual Flight Rules
Velocity Gate Pull Off
Velocity Gate Stealer
Velocity Gate Walk Off
Very High Frequency (30 - 300 MHz)
Very High Speed Integrated Circuit
Visual Identification
Very Low Frequency (3 to 30 kHz)
Very Large Scale Integration
Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit
Prefix for Navy patrol squadron
Prefix for Navy special mission
(usually reconnaissance) squadron
Video Random Access Memory
Velocity Search or Versus (also vs.)
Vertical/Short Take-off and Landing
(also VSTOL)
Velocity (also V or v)
Vertical Takeoff and Landing
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
Voltage Variable Attenuator

WOW

VA

VAQ
V&V
VCO
Vdc or VDC
VDT
VECP
VF
VFO
VFR
VGPO
VGS
VGWO
VHF
VHSIC
VID
VLF
VLSI
VLSIC
VP
VQ
VRAM
VS or vs
V/STOL
vt
VTOL
VSWR
VVA

W
W&T
WARM

WIA
WORM

WPAFB
WPN
WR
WRA
WRD
WSSA
WVR

x
X

Watts, Weight, or West

Warning & Targeting
Wartime Reserve Mode
1-1.16

Weber (magnetic flux)

Work Breakdown Structure
Waveguide, circular
Working Group on Infrared
Background
Wounded in Action
Write Once Read Many (times) (Refers
to optical disks)
Weight on/off Wheels (also WonW or
WoffW)
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base
Weapons Procurement, Navy or
Weapon
Waveguide, rectangular
Weapon Replaceable Assembly
Waveguide, rectangular double ridged
Weapons System Support Activity
Within Visual Range

X-EYE
XO
X-POL
XMIT

Multiplication symbol
Reactance, Experimental,
Extraordinary, Roman Numeral for ten,
or X axis
Cross Eye
Executive officer
Cross Polarization
Transmit

Y
YAG
yd
YIG

Yes or Y-Axis
Yttrium-Aluminum Garnet
Yard
Yttrium-Iron Garnet

Impedance, Zenith, or Z-Axis

1xLR, 2xLR
1v1 or 1-v-1

One (or two or three etc.) Times Lethal

Range
One versus One (Aerial engagement)

2D

Two Dimension

3D
3M

Three Dimension
Navy Maintenance and Material
Management System

CONSTANTS, CONVERSIONS, and CHARACTERS

DECIMAL MULTIPLIER PREFIXES
Prefix
exa
peta
tera
giga
mega
kilo
hecto
deka
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto

Symbol
E
P
T
G
M
k
h
da
d
c
m
F
n
p
f
a

EQUIVALENCY SYMBOLS
Symbol
%
-

Multiplier
1018
1015
1012
109
106
103
102
101
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12
10-15
10-18

1 inch (in)
1 foot (ft)
1 yard (yd)
1 meter (m)
1 kilometer (km)

1 statute mile
(sm or stat. mile)

=
=

2.54 centimeters (cm)

30.48 cm = 0.3048 m
0.9144 meter
39.37 inches

0.54 nautical mile

0.62 statute mile
1093.6 yards
3280.8 feet

1760 yards
5280 feet

1 nautical mile
(nm or naut. mile)

1.15 statute miles

1.852 kilometers
2025 yards
6076 feet

1 furlong

1/8 mi (220 yds)

Not equal
Much greater than
Greater than
Greater than or equal to
Much less than
Less than
Less than or equal to
Therefore
Degrees
Minutes or feet
Seconds or inches

>>
>
$
<<
<
#

E
r
"

UNITS OF SPEED
1 foot/sec (fps)

1000 fps
1 kilometer/hr
(km/hr)

0.87 nautical mile

1.61 kilometers
=
=

Nearly equal
Equal
Identical to, defined as

=
/

UNITS OF LENGTH

Meaning
Proportional
Roughly equivalent
Approximately

1 mile/hr (stat.)
(mph)

1 knot*

0.59 knot (kt)*

0.68 stat. mph
1.1 kilometers/hr
.

600 knots

0.54 knot
0.62 stat. mph
0.91 ft/sec
0.87 knot
1.61 kilometers/hr
1.47 ft/sec

1.15 stat. mph

1.69 feet/sec
1.85 kilometer/hr
0.515 m/sec
*A knot is 1 nautical mile per hour.

2-1.1

UNITS OF WEIGHT
1 kilogram (kg) 2.2 pounds (lbs)
1 pound 0.45 Kg

UNITS OF VOLUME
1 gallon

1 fl ounce

3.78 liters
231 cubic inches
0.1335 cubic ft
4 quarts
8 pints

1 oz

29.57 cubic centimeter (cc)

or milliliters (ml)

1 in3

1 sq in

16.387 cc

1,000,000 sq mil
0.001 inch

1 acre

43,560 sq ft

SCALES
OCTAVES
2N

"N" Octaves = Freq to Freq x

i.e. One octave would be 2 to 4 GHz
Two Octaves would be 2 to 8 GHz
Three octaves would be 2 to 16 GHz

TEMPERATURE
CONVERSIONS
EF = (9/5)EC + 32
EC = (5/9)(EF - 32)
EK = EC + 273.16

DECADES

EF = (9/5)(EK - 273) + 32
10N

"N" Decades = Freq to Freq x

i.e. One decade would be 1 to 10 MHz
Two decades would be 1 to 100 MHz
Three decades would be 1 to 1000 MHz

200 mg

1 stone (U.K.)

6.36 kg

33,000 ft-lbs/min
550 ft-lbs/sec
746 Watts
2,545 BTU/hr
(BTU = British Thermal Unit)

645 sq millimeters (mm)

=
=

1 carat

UNITS OF POWER / ENERGY

10.76 sq ft

1 mil

16 ounce (oz)
437.5 grains

NOTE: These are the U.S. customary (avoirdupois) equivalents, the troy
or apothecary system of equivalents, which differ markedly, was used long
ago by pharmacists.

UNITS OF AREA
1 sq meter

=
=

EC = EK - 273.16
EK = (5/9)(EF - 32) + 273

1 H.P.

=
=

1 BTU

1055 Joules
778 ft-lbs
0.293 Watt-hrs

UNITS OF TIME
1 year
1 fortnight
1 century
1 millennium

=
=
=
=

365.2 days
14 nights (2 weeks)
100 years
1,000 years

NUMBERS
1 decade = 10
1 Score = 20
1 Billion = 1 x 109 (U.S.)
(thousand million)
= 1 x 1012 (U.K.)

RULE OF THUMB FOR ESTIMATING DISTANCE TO LIGHTNING / EXPLOSION:

km - Divide 3 into the number of seconds which have elapsed between seeing the flash and hearing the noise.
miles - Multiply 0.2 times the number of seconds which have elapsed between seeing the flash and hearing the noise.
Note: Sound vibrations cause a change of density and pressure within a media, while electromagnetic waves do not. An audio
tone won't travel through a vacuum but can travel at 1100 ft/sec through air. When picked up by a microphone and used to modulate
an EM signal, the modulation will travel at the speed of light.

2-1.2

Physical Constant

Quoted Value

Avogadro constant

6.0221367 x 10

Bohr magneton
Boltzmann constant

S*
23

SI unit
-1

Symbol

36

mol

NA

9.2740154 x 10-24

31

JT-1

1.380658 x 10-23

12

JK-1

k(=R NA)

Electron charge

1.602177 33 x 10

-19

49

-e

Electron specific charge

-1.758819 62 x 1011

53

Ckg-1

-e/me

Electron rest mass

9.1093897 x 10-31

54

kg

me

Faraday constant

9.6485309 x 10

Gravity (Standard Acceleration)

Josephson frequency to voltage ratio

-1

29

Cmol

9.80665 or
32.174

m/sec2
ft/sec2

4.8359767 x 1014

HzV-1

2e/hg

61

Wb

No

-15

Magnetic flux quantum

2.06783461 x 10

Molar gas constant

8.314510

70

Jmol-1K-1

Natural logarithm base

2.71828

dimensionless

Newtonian gravitational constant

6.67259 x 10-11

85

m3kg-1s-2

G or K

Permeability of vacuum

4B x 10-7

H/m

Permittivity of vacuum

8.8541878 x 10-12

F/m

,o

Pi

3.141592654

dimensionless

Planck constant
Planck constant/2B

6.62659 x 10-34
1.05457266 x 10-34

40
63

Js
Js

h
h(=h2B)

Quantum of circulation

3.63694807 x 10-4

33

Jskg-1

h/2me

Radius of earth (Equatorial)

6.378 x 106 or
3963

Rydberg constant

1.0973731534 x 107
108

m
miles
13

m-1

RP

ms-1

Speed of light

2.9979246 x

Speed of sound
(dry air @ std press & temp)

331.4

ms-1

Standard volume of ideal gas

22.41410 x 10-3

19

m3mol-1

Vm

Stefan-Boltzmann constant
5.67051 x 10-8
19
WK-4m-2
* S is the one-standard-deviation uncertainty in the last units of the value, d is a defined value.
(A standard deviation is the square root of the mean of the sum of the squares of the possible deviations)

2-1.3

SPEED OF LIGHT
IN VARIOUS MEDIUMS

THE SPEED OF LIGHT

ACTUAL
8

2.9979246 x 10
299.79
3.27857 x 108
5.8275 x 108
1.61875 x 105
9.8357105 x 108

UNITS
m/sec

RULE OF THUMB
. 3 x 108

UNITS
m/sec

m/sec

. 300

m/sec
8

yd/sec

. 3.28 x 10

NM/hr

. 5.8 x 10

. 1.62 x 10

NM/sec

. 1 x 10

ft/sec

yd/sec
NM/hr

NM/sec

ft/sec

APPROXIMATE SPEED OF SOUND (MACH 1)

Sea Level (CAS/TAS)
1230 km/hr
Decreases
765 mph
Linearly
665 kts
To Y

36,000 ft* (TAS)

1062 km/hr
660 mph
573 kts

(CAS)
630 km/hr
391 mph
340 kts

* The speed remains constant until 82,000 ft, when it increases linearly to 1215 km/hr (755 mph, 656 kts) at
154,000 ft. Also see section 8-2 for discussion of Calibrated Air Speed (CAS) and True Airspeed (TAS) and
a plot of the speed of sound vs altitude.

The speed of EM radiation through a

substance such as cables is defined by the
following formula:
V = c/( r,r)1/2
Where:
r = relative permeability
,r = relative permittivity
The real component of ,r = dielectric
constant of medium.
EM propagation speed in a typical cable
might be 65-90% of the speed of light in a
vacuum.

SPEED OF SOUND
IN VARIOUS MEDIUMS
Substance
Speed (ft/sec)
Vacuum
Zero
Air
1,100
Fresh Water
4,700
Salt Water
4,900
Glass
14,800

DECIMAL / BINARY / HEX CONVERSION TABLE

Decimal

Binary

Hex

Decimal

Binary

Hex

Decimal

Binary

Hex

00001

01h

11

01011

0Bh

21

10101

15h

00010

02h

12

01100

0Ch

22

10110

16h

00011

03h

13

01101

0Dh

23

10111

17h

00100

04h

14

01110

0Eh

24

11000

18h

00101

05h

15

01111

0Fh

25

11001

19h

00110

06h

16

10000

10h

26

11010

1Ah

00111

07h

17

10001

11h

27

11011

1Bh

01000

08h

18

10010

12h

28

11100

1Ch

01001

09h

19

10011

13h

29

11101

1Dh

10

01010

0Ah

20

10100

14h

30

11110

1Eh

When using hex numbers it is always a good idea to use "h" as a suffix to avoid confusion with decimal numbers.
To convert a decimal number above 16 to hex, divide the number by 16, then record the integer resultant and the remainder. Convert
the remainder to hex and write this down - this will become the far right digit of the final hex number. Divide the integer you obtained
by 16, and again record the new integer result and new remainder. Convert the remainder to hex and write it just to the left of the first
decoded number. Keep repeating this process until dividing results in only a remainder. This will become the left-most character in
the hex number. i.e. to convert 60 (decimal) to hex we have 60/16 = 3 with 12 remainder. 12 is C (hex) - this becomes the right most
character. Then 3/16=0 with 3 remainder. 3 is 3 (hex). This becomes the next (and final) character to the left in the hex number, so
the answer is 3C.

2-1.4

GREEK ALPHABET
Upper

Lower

Greek
Alphabet
Name

"

alpha

<

nu

beta

>

xi

'

gamma

omicron

o7

delta

pi

epsilon

rho

zeta

sigma

eta

tau

2,h

theta

th

upsilon

iota

N, n

phi

ph

kappa

chi

ch

lambda

psi

ps

mu

omega

Case

Lower

Greek
Alphabet
Name

English
Equivalent

Case

English
Equivalent

Upper

LETTERS FROM THE GREEK ALPHABET COMMONLY USED AS SYMBOLS

Symbol
"
$
'
(
)
*
,
0
1
2 or h
7
8

<
B
D
E
F
I
J
M
N or n
Q
R
S
T

Name
alpha
beta
Gamma
gamma
Delta
delta
epsilon
eta
Theta
theta
Lambda
lambda
mu
nu
pi
rho
Sigma
sigma
Tau
tau
Phi
phi
Psi
psi
Omega
omega

Use
space loss, angular acceleration, or absorptance
3 dB bandwidth or angular field of view [radians]
reflection coefficient
electric conductivity, surface tension, missile velocity vector angle, or gamma ray
small change or difference
delay, control forces and moments applied to missile, or phase angle
emissivity [dielectric constant] or permittivity [farads/meter]
efficiency or antenna aperture efficiency
angle of lead or lag between current and voltage
azimuth angle, bank angle, or angular displacement
acoustic wavelength or rate of energy loss from a thermocouple
wavelength or Poisson Load Factor
micro 10 -6 [micron], permeability [henrys/meter], or extinction coefficient [optical region]
frequency
3.141592654+
charge/mass density, resistivity [ohm-meter], VSWR, or reflectance
algebraic sum
radar cross section [RCS], Conductivity [1/ohm-meter], or Stefan-Boltzmann constant
VSWR reflection coefficient
pulse width, atmospheric transmission, or torque
magnetic/electrical flux, radiant power [optical region], or Wavelet's smooth function [low pass filter]
phase angle, angle of bank, or beam divergence [optical region]
time-dependent wave function or Wavelet's detail function [high pass filter]
time-independent wave function, phase change, or flux linkage [weber]
Ohms [resistance] or solid angle [optical region]. Note: inverted symbol is conductance [mhos]
carrier frequency in radians per second

2-1.5

MORSE CODE and PHONETIC ALPHABET

A - alpha

C-

J - juliett

B - bravo

-CCC

K - kilo

-C-

C - charlie

-C-C

L - lima

C-CC

D - delta

-CC

M - mike

--

V - victor

E - echo

N - november

-C

W - whiskey

CC-C

O - oscar

---

G - golf

--C

P - papa

H - hotel

CCCC

I - india

CC

F - foxtrot

C---

CCC

S - sierra

C----

CC---

CC-

CCC--

CCC-

CCCC-

C--

CCCCC

X - x-ray

-CC-

-CCCC

C--C

Y - yankee

-C--

--CCC

Q - quebec

--C-

Z - zulu

--CC

---CC

R - romeo

C-C

-----

----C

T - tango
U - uniform

Note: The International Maritime Organization agreed to officially stop Morse code use by February 1999, however use may continue
by ground based amateur radio operators (The U.S. Coast Guard discontinued its use in 1995).

Basic Math / Geometry Review

LOGARITHMS

ax ay = ax+y

log (xy) = log x + log y

ax / ay = ax-y

log (x/y) = log x - log y

(ax)y = axy
a0

log

&

' x@x

1
2

=1

' x

1
(1& )
2

(xN)

sin x = cos (x-90E)

cos x = -sin (x-90E)

= N log x

tan x = sin x / cos x = 1 / cot x

If z = log x then x = 10z

sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
Examples: log 1 = 0
log 1.26 = 0.1 ; log 10 = 1

Example:

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

EXPONENTS

' x2 ' x

if 10 log N = dB#,
then 10(dB#/10) = N

A radian is the angular measurement of an arc which has an arc length equal to the radius of the given circle, therefore there
are 2B radians in a circle. One radian = 360E/2B = 57.296....E

ELLIPSE

RECTANGLULAR SOLID

CYLINDER

ANGLES

y
2

Area

Bab

Approx circumference
2
2
2B a + b
2

x
X

Volume Br2 h
Lateral surface
area
2Brh

Area lw
Volume lwh

2-1.6

Sin 2
Tan 2

y/r Cos 2 x/r

y/x r2 x2 + y 2

SPHERE

TRIANGLES
Angles: A + B + C
c2

a2 + b 2- 2ab cos C

Area

1/2 bh
c

Volume

1/2 ac sin B

d + h

Surface area

180E

4/3 Br 3

Cross Section (circle)

Area Br2
C

4Br

Circumference (c)

DERIVATIVES

2Br

INTEGRALS
Note: All integrals should have a constant of integration added

Assume: a = fixed real #; u, v & w are functions of x

Assume: a = fixed real #; u, & v are functions of x

d(a)/dx = 0 ; d(sin u)/dx = du(cos u)/dx

Iadx = ax and Ia f(x)dx = aIf(x)dx

d(x)/dx = 1 ; d(cos v)/dx = -dv(sin v)/dx

I (u +v)dx = Iudx + Ivdx ; Iexdx = ex

d(uvw)/dx = uvdw/dx + vwdu/dx + uwdv/dx +...etc

I(sin ax)dx = -(cos ax)/a ; I(cos ax)dx = (sin ax)/a

C
Square
Wave
Input
Signal

Vin

dv

Vout= - RC dt

Integrating Circuit
R

Vin

Vout = -

Period of input
larger than RC

Period of input
smaller than RC

Differentiating Circuit

Increasing rep rate reduces amplitude

of triangular wave.(DC offset unchanged)

1 v dt
RC
0

2-1.7

MATHEMATICAL NOTATION
The radar and Electronic Warfare communities generally accept some commonly used notation for the various parameters
used in radar and EW calculations. For instance, "P" is almost always power and "G" is almost always gain. Textbooks and
reference handbooks will usually use this common notation in formulae and equations.
A significant exception is the use of """ for space loss. Most textbooks don't develop the radar equation to its most
usable form as does this reference handbook, therefore the concept of """ just isn't covered.
Subscripts are a different matter. Subscripts are often whatever seems to make sense in the context of the particular
formula or equation. For instance, power may be "P", "PT", "Pt", or maybe "P1". In the following list, generally accepted
notation is given in the left hand column with no subscripts. Subscripted notation in the indented columns is the notation
used in this handbook and the notation often (but not always) used in the EW community.
"

=
Space loss
"1 =
One way space loss, transmitter to receiver
"2 =
Two way space loss, transmitter to target (including radar cross section) and back to the receiver
"1t =
One way space loss, radar transmitter to target, bistatic
"1r =
One way space loss, target to radar receiver, bistatic
Other notation such as "tm may be used to clarify specific losses, in this case the space loss between a target and
missile seeker, which could also be identified as "1r .
A
Ae

=
=
=

=
BIF =
BJ =
BMHz =
BN =
BV =

Antenna aperture (capture area)

Effective antenna aperture
Angstrom
Bandwidth (to 3dB points)
3 dB IF bandwidth of the receiver (pre-detection)
Bandwidth of the jamming spectrum
3 dB bandwidth in MHz
Equivalent noise bandwidth, a.k.a. B
3 dB video bandwidth of the receiver (post-detection) (Subscript V stands for video)

BF
BW

=
=

Bandwidth reduction factor (jamming spectrum wider than the receiver bandwidth)
Beamwidth (to 3 dB points)

Speed of Light

fc
fD
fR
fT

=
=
=
=
=

Frequency (radio frequency)

Footcandle (SI unit of illuminance)
Doppler frequency
Received frequency
Transmitted frequency

Gt
Gr
Gtr
GJ

=
=
=
=
=

Gain
Gain of the transmitter antenna
Gain of the receiver antenna
Gain of the transmitter/receiver antenna (monostatic radar)
Gain of the jammer

2-2.1

GJA
GJT
GJR
GF

=
=
=
=

Gain of the jammer antenna

Gain of the jammer transmitter antenna
Gain of the jammer receiver antenna
Gain of reflected radar signal due to radar cross section

hradar
htarget

=
=
=

Height or Planks constant

Height of radar
Height of target

=
=
=
=

Jamming signal (receiver input)

Jamming signal (constant gain jammer)
Jamming signal (constant power jammer)
Jamming to signal ratio (receiver input)

J
J1
J2
J/S

k
=
K1,2,3,4 =

Boltzmann constant
Proportionality constants, see Sections 4-3, 4-4, 4-5, and 4-1 respectively.

Lambda, Wavelength or Poisson factor

Loss (due to transmission lines or circuit elements)

Receiver equivalent noise input (kToB)

NF

Noise figure

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Power
Probability of detection
Power density
Power of a jammer transmitter
Probability of false alarm
Power received
Power of a transmitter

Pd
PD
PJ
Pn
Pr
Pt
R

=
R1 =
R2 =
RJ =
RNM =

=
SR =
Smin =

Range (straight line distance)

Bistatic radar transmitter to target range
Bistatic radar target to receiver range
Range of jammer to receiver (when separate from the target)
Range in nautical miles
Sigma, radar cross section (RCS)
Signal (receiver input)
Radar signal received by the jammer
Minimum receiver sensitivity

tint
tr
J

=
=
=
=

Time
Integration time
Pulse Rise Time
Pulse Width

Vr

=
=

Velocity
Radial velocity

2-2.2

FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
Figure 1, which follows, depicts the electromagnetic radiation spectrum and some of the commonly used or known
areas. Figure 2 depicts the more common uses of the microwave spectrum. Figure 3 shows areas of the spectrum which
are frequently referred to by band designations rather than by frequency.
Section 7-1 provides an additional breakdown of the EO/IR spectrum.
To convert from frequency (f) to wavelength (8) and vice versa, recall that f = c/8, or 8 = c/f;
where c = speed of light.
8meter '

3x10 8
3x105
300
0.3
'
'
'
f Hz
f kHz
f MHz
f GHz

or

f Hz '

3x10 8
8meter

f kHz '

3x105
8meter

Some quick rules of thumb follow:

Metric:
Wavelength in cm = 30 / frequency in GHz
For example: at 10 GHz, the wavelength = 30/10 = 3 cm
English:
Wavelength in ft = 1 / frequency in GHz
For example: at 10 GHz, the wavelength = 1/10 = 0.1 ft

Figure 1. Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum

2-3.1

f MHz '

300
8meter

f GHz '

0.3
8meter

0.3

0.4

0.5 0.6

0.8

1.0
GHz

1m

10
GHz

20

30

10 cm

40

50 60

80

100
GHz

1 cm

Figure 2. The Microwave Spectrum

FREQUENCY (MHz)
20

30

100

200

300

FREQUENCY (GHz)

500

1.5 2

3 4 5 6 8 10 15 20 30 40
12 18 27

60 80 100

200 300 400

110

VHF

HF

UHF

K*u K

K*a

U.S. INDUSTRY STANDARD BANDS (IEEE Radar Designation)

7 (HF)

8 (VHF)

9 (UHF)

10 (SHF)

11 (EHF)

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BANDS

250

H I

MILITARY STANDARD BANDS

* "u" stands for unabsorbed or under K; "a" stands for absorption region or above K

Figure 3. Frequency Band Designations

2-3.2

Millimeter

12

DECIBEL (dB)
The Decibel is a subunit of a larger unit called the bel. As originally used, the bel represented the power ratio of 10
to 1 between the strength or intensity i.e., power, of two sounds, and was named after Alexander Graham Bell. Thus a
power ratio of 10:1 = 1 bel, 100:1 = 2 bels, and 1000:1 = 3 bels. It is readily seen that the concept of bels represents a
logarithmic relationship since the logarithm of 100 to the base 10 is 2 (corresponding to 2 bels), the logarithm of 1000 to
the base 10 is 3 (corresponding to 3 bels), etc. The exact relationship is given by the formula
Bels = log(P2/P1)

[1]

where P2/P1 represents the power ratio.

Since the bel is a rather large unit, its use may prove inconvenient. Usually a smaller unit, the Decibel or dB, is used.
10 decibels make one bel. A 10:1 power ratio, 1 bel, is 10 dB; a 100:1 ratio, 2 bels, is 20 dB. Thus the formula becomes
Decibels (dB) = 10 log(P2/P1)

[2]

The power ratio need not be greater than unity as shown in the previous examples. In equations [1] and [2], P1 is
usually the reference power. If P2 is less than P1, the ratio is less then 1.0 and the resultant bels or decibels are negative.
For example, if P2 is one-tenth P1, we have
and

bels = log(0.1/1) = -1.0 bels

dB = 10 log(0.1/1) = -10 dB.

It should be clearly understood that the term decibel does not in itself indicate power, but rather is a ratio or
comparison between two power values. It is often desirable to express power levels in decibels by using a fixed power as
a reference. The most common references in the world of electronics are the milliwatt (mW) and the watt. The abbreviation
dBm indicates dB referenced to 1.0 milliwatt. One milliwatt is then zero dBm. Thus P1 in equations [1] or [2] becomes
1.0 mW. Similarly, The abbreviation dBW indicates dB referenced to 1.0 watt, with P2 being 1.0 watt, thus one watt in
dBW is zero dBW or 30 dBm or 60 dBW. For antenna gain, the reference is the linearly polarized isotropic radiator,
dBLI. Usually the L and/or I is understood and left out.
dBc is the power of one signal referenced to a carrier signal, i.e. if a second harmonic signal at 10 GHz is 3 dB lower
than a fundamental signal at 5 GHz, then the signal at 10 GHz is -3 dBc.

THE DECIBEL, ITS USE IN ELECTRONICS

The logarithmic characteristic of the dB makes it very convenient for expressing electrical power and power ratios.
Consider an amplifier with an output of 100 watts when the input is 0.1 watts (100 milliwatts); it has an amplification factor
of
P2/P1 = 100/0.1 = 1000
or a gain of:
10 log(P2/P1) = 10 log(100/0.1) = 30 dB.
(notice the 3 in 30 dB corresponds to the number of zeros in the power ratio)
The ability of an antenna to intercept or transmit a signal is expressed in dB referenced to an isotropic antenna rather
than as a ratio. Instead of saying an antenna has an effective gain ratio of 7.5, it has a gain of 8.8 dB (10 log 7.5).
2-4.1

A ratio of less than 1.0 is a loss, a negative gain, or attenuation. For instance, if 10 watts of power is fed into a cable
but only 8.5 watts are measured at the output, the signal has been decreased by a factor of
8.5/10 = .85
or
10 log(.85) = -0.7 dB.
This piece of cable at the frequency of the measurement has a gain of -0.7 dB. This is generally referred to as a loss
or attenuation of 0.7 dB, where the terms "loss" and "attenuation" imply the negative sign. An attenuator which reduces
its input power by factor of 0.001 has an attenuation of 30 dB. The utility of the dB is very evident when speaking of signal
loss due to radiation through the atmosphere. It is much easier to work with a loss of 137 dB rather than the equivalent
factor of 2 x 10-14.
Instead of multiplying gain or loss factors as ratios we can add them as positive or negative dB. Suppose we have
a microwave system with a 10 watt transmitter, and a cable with 0.7 dB loss connected to a 13 dB gain transmit antenna.
The signal loss through the atmosphere is 137 dB to a receive antenna with a 11 dB gain connected by a cable with 1.4 dB
loss to a receiver. How much power is at the receiver? First, we must convert the 10 watts to milliwatts and then to dBm:
10 watts = 10,000 milliwatts
and
10 log (10,000/1) = 40 dBm
Then
40 dBm - 0.7 dB + 13 dB - 137 dB + 11 dB - 1.4 dB = -75.1 dBm.
-71.1 dBm may be converted back to milliwatts by solving the formula:
mW = 10(dBm/10)
giving:

10(-75.1/10) = 0.00000003 mW

Voltage and current ratios can also be expressed in terms of decibels, provided the resistance remains constant. First
we substitute for P in terms of either voltage, V, or current, I. Since P=VI and V=IR we have:
P = I2R = V2/R
Thus for a voltage ratio we have:

dB = 10 log[(V22/R)/(V12/R)] = 10 log(V22/V12) = 10 log(V2/V1)2

= 20 log(V2/V1)

Like power, voltage can be expressed relative to fixed units, so one volt is equal to 0 dBV or 120 dBV.
Similarly for current ratio:

dB = 20 log(I2/I1)

Like power, amperage can be expressed relative to fixed units, so one amp is equal to 0 dBA or 120 dBA.
Decibel Formulas (where Z is the general form of R, including inductance and capacitance)
When impedances are equal:

dB ' 10 log

When impedances are unequal:

P2
P1

dB ' 10 log

P2
P1

' 20 log

E2
E1

' 20 log

' 20 log

E2 Z1
E1 Z2

2-4.2

I2
I1

' 20 log

I2 Z2
I1 Z1

SOLUTIONS WITHOUT A CALCULATOR

Solution of radar and EW problems requires the determination of logarithms (base 10) to calculate some of the
formulae. Common "four function" calculators don't usually have a log capability (or exponential or fourth root functions
either). Without a scientific calculator (or math tables or a Log-Log slide rule) it is difficult to calculate any of the radar
equations, simplified or "textbook". The following gives some tips to calculate a close approximation without a calculator.
DECIBEL TABLE
DB

Power Ratio

Voltage or
Current Ratio

DB

Power Ratio

Voltage or
Current Ratio

0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0

1.00
1.12
1.26
1.41
1.58
2.00
2.51
3.16
3.98
5.01
6.31
7.94

1.00
1.06
1.12
1.19
1.26
1.41
1.58
1.78
2.00
2.24
2.51
2.82

10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

10.0
31.6
100
316
1,000
10,000
105
106
107
108
109
1010

3.16
5.62
10
17.78
31.6
100
316
1,000
3,162
10,000
31,620
105

For dB numbers which are a multiple of 10

An easy way to remember how to convert dB values
that are a multiple of 10 to the absolute magnitude of the
power ratio is to place a number of zeros equal to that
multiple value to the right of the value 1.
i.e. 40 dB = 10,000 : 1 (for Power)

If the power in question is not a multiple of ten, then

some estimation is required. The following tabulation lists some
approximations, some of which would be useful to memorize.

DB RULES OF THUMB
Multiply
Multiply
Current / Voltage By
Power By:
if +dB
if -dB
dB
if +dB
if -dB
Minus dB moves the decimal point that many places
1
1
0
1
1
to the left of 1.
1.12
0.89
1
1.26
0.8
i.e. -40 dB = 0.0001 : 1 (for Power)
1.26
0.79
2
1.58
0.63
For voltage or current ratios, if the multiple of 10 is
1.4
0.707
3
2
0.5
even, then divide the multiple by 2, and apply the above
2.0
0.5
6
4
0.25
rules. i.e.
40 dB = 100 : 1 (for Voltage)
2.8
0.35
9
8
0.125
-40 dB = 0.01 : 1
3.16
0.316
10
10
0.1
4.47
0.22
13
20
0.05
10
0.1
20
100
0.01
100
0.01
40
10,000
0.0001
You can see that the list has a repeating pattern, so by remembering just three basic values such as one, three, and
10 dB, the others can easily be obtained without a calculator by addition and subtraction of dB values and multiplication
of corresponding ratios.
Example 1:
A 7 dB increase in power (3+3+1) dB is an increase of (2 x 2 x 1.26) = 5 times whereas
A 7 dB decrease in power (-3-3-1) dB is a decrease of (0.5 x 0.5 x 0.8) = 0.2.
2-4.3

Example 2:
Assume you know that the ratio for 10 dB is 10, and that the ratio for 20 dB is 100 (doubling the dB
increases the power ratio by a factor of ten), and that we want to find some intermediate value.
RATIO
(working down from 20 dB)
from Table (@100)

dB
20
19

-3 dB = 0.5x100 = 50

+ 3 dB = 2x20 = 40

14
13

-3 dB = 0.5x25 = 12.5

+ 3 dB = 2x40 = 80

17
16

-3 dB = 0.5x50 = 25

RATIO
(working up from 10 dB)

+3 dB = 2x10 = 20

11
10

from table (@10)

We can get more intermediate dB values by adding or subtracting one to the above, for example, to find the ratio
at 12 dB we can:
work up from the bottom; 12 = 1+11 so we have 1.26 (from table) x 12.5 = 15.75
alternately, working down the top 12 = 13-1 so we have 20 x 0.8 (from table) = 16
The resultant numbers are not an exact match (as they should be) because the numbers in the table are rounded off.
We can use the same practice to find any ratio at any other given value of dB (or the reverse).

dB AS ABSOLUTE UNITS
Power in absolute units can be expressed by using 1 Watt (or
1 milliwatt) as the reference power in the denominator of the equation
for dB. We then call it dBW or dBm. We can then build a table such
as the adjoining one.
From the above, any intermediate value can be found using the
same dB rules and memorizing several dB values i.e. for determining
the absolute power, given 48 dBm power output, we determine that 48
dBm = 50 dBm - 2 dB so we take the value at 50 dB which is 100W
and divide by the value 1.58 (ratio of 2 dB) to get:
100 watts/1.58 = 63 W or 63,291 mW.

dB AS ABSOLUTE UNITS
dBW
120
90
80
70
60
50
40
33
32
31

dBm
90
60
50
40
30
20
10
3
2
1

POWER
dBW
1 MW
60
1 kW
30
100 W
20
10 W
10
1 W (1000 mW)
0
100 mW
-10
10 mW
-20
2 mW
-27
1.58 mW
-28
1.26 mw
-29

Because dBW is referenced to one watt, the Log of the power

in watts times 10 is dBW. The Logarithm of 10 raised by any exponent
is simply that exponent. That is: Log(10)4 = 4. Therefore, a power
that can be expressed as any exponent of 10 can also be expressed in dBW as that exponent times 10. For example, 100
kW can be written 100,000 watts or 105 watts. 100 kW is then +50 dBW. Another way to remember this conversion is
that dBW is the number of zeros in the power written in watts times 10. If the transmitter power in question is conveniently
a multiple of ten (it often is) the conversion to dBW is easy and accurate.

2-4.4

DUTY CYCLE
Duty cycle (or duty factor) is a measure of the fraction of the time a radar is transmitting. It is important because
it relates to peak and average power in the determination of total energy output. This, in turn, ultimately effects the strength
of the reflected signal as well as the required power supply capacity and cooling requirements of the transmitter.
Although there are exceptions, most radio frequency (RF) measurements are either continuous wave (CW) or pulsed
RF. CW RF is uninterrupted RF such as from an oscillator. Amplitude modulated (AM), frequency modulated (FM), and
phase modulated (PM) RF are considered CW since the RF is continuously present. The power may vary with time due
to modulation, but RF is always present. Pulsed RF, on the other hand, is bursts (pulses) of RF with no RF present between
bursts. The most general case of pulsed RF consists of pulses of a fixed pulse width (PW) which come at a fixed time
interval, or period, (T). For clarity and ease of this discussion, it is assumed that all RF pulses in a pulse train have the same
amplitude. Pulses at a fixed interval of time arrive at a rate or frequency referred to as the pulse repetition frequency (PRF)
of so many pulse per second. Pulse repetition interval (PRI) and PRF are reciprocals of each other.
PRF = 1/T = 1/PRI

[1]

Power measurements are classified as either peak pulse power, Pp, or average power, Pave. The actual power in
pulsed RF occurs during the pulses, but most power measurement methods measure the heating effects of the RF energy
to obtain an average value of the power. It is correct to use either value for reference so long as one or the other is
consistently used. Frequently it is necessary to convert from Pp to Pave, or vice versa; therefore the relationship between
the two must be understood. Figure 1 shows the comparison between Pp and Pave.

PP

PAVE
PW or J

PRF

1
PRI

T or PRI

TIME
Figure 1. RF Pulse Train

The average value is defined as that level where the pulse area above the average is equal to area below average
between pulses. If the pulses are evened off in such a way as to fill in the area between pulses, the level obtained is the
average value, as shown in Figure 1 where the shaded area of the pulse is used to fill in the area between pulses. The area
of the pulse is the pulse width multiplied by the peak pulse power. The average area is equal to the average value of power
multiplied by the pulse period.
2-5.1

Since the two values are equal:

Pave x T = Pp x PW

[2]

or
Pave/Pp = PW/T
Using [1]
Pave/Pp = PW/T = PW x PRF = PW/PRI = duty cycle

[3]
[4]

(note that the symbol J represents pulse width (PW) in most reference books)
The ratio of the average power to the peak pulse power is the duty cycle and represents the percentage of time the
power is present. In the case of a square wave the duty cycle is 0.5 (50%) since the pulses are present 1/2 the time, the
definition of a square wave.
For Figure 1, the pulse width is 1 unit of time and the period is 10 units. In this case the duty cycle is:
PW/T = 1/10 = 0.1 (10%).
A more typical case would be a PRF of 1,000 and a pulse width of 1.0 microseconds. Using [4], the duty cycle is
0.000001 x 1,000 = 0.001. The RF power is present one-thousandth of the time and the average power is 0.001 times the
peak power. Conversely, if the power were measured with a power meter which responds to average power, the peak power
would be 1,000 time the average reading.
Besides expressing duty cycle as a ratio as obtained in equation [4], it is commonly expressed as either a percentage
or in decibels (dB). To express the duty cycle of equation [4] as a percentage, multiply the value obtained by 100 and add
the percent symbol. Thus a duty cycle of 0.001 is also 0.1%.
The duty cycle can be expressed logarithmically (dB) so it can be added to or subtracted from power measured in
dBm/dBW rather than converting to, and using absolute units.
Duty cycle (dB) = 10 log(duty cycle ratio)

[5]

For the example of the 0.001 duty cycle, this would be 10 log(0.001) = -30 dB. Thus the average power would
be 30 dB less than the peak power. Conversely, the peak power is 30 dB higher than the average power.
For pulse radars operating in the PRF range of 0.25-10 kHz and PD radars operating in the PRF range of 10-500
kHz, typical duty cycles would be:
Pulse
0.1 - 3%
=
0.001 - .03
= -30 to -15 dB
Pulse Doppler
5 - 50%
=
0.05 - .5
=
-13 to -3 dB
Continuous Wave 100%
=
1
=
0 dB
Intermediate Frequency Bandwidths of typical signals are:
Pulse
1 to 10 MHz
Chirp or Phase coded pulse
0.1 to 10 MHz
CW or PD
0.1 to 5 kHz
PRF is usually subdivided into the following categories: Low 0.25-4 kHz; Medium 8-40 kHz; High 50-300 kHz.

2-5.2

DOPPLER SHIFT
Doppler is the apparent change in wavelength (or frequency) of an electromagnetic or acoustic wave when there is relative
movement between the transmitter (or frequency source) and the receiver.
Summary RF Equation for the Two-Way (radar) case
2(VXmtr % VTgt) fXmt
f Rec ' fXmt % fD ' fXmt %
c

Summary RF Equation for the One-Way (ESM) case

V
f
f Rec ' fXmt % fD ' fXmt % Xmtr or Rec Xmt
c

Rules of Thumb for two-way signal travel

(divide in half for one-way ESM signal measurements)
At 10 GHz, fD
35 Hz per Knot
19 Hz per km/Hr
67 Hz per m/sec
61 Hz per yd/sec
20 Hz per ft/sec
To estimate fD at other frequencies, multiply these by:
fXmt (GHz)

10
The Doppler effect is shown in Figure 1. In everyday life this effect is commonly noticeable when a whistling train
or police siren passes you. Audio Doppler is depicted, however Doppler can also affect the frequency of a radar carrier
wave, the PRF of a pulse radar signal, or even light waves causing a shift of color to the observer.

Waves
Stretched

Waves
Compressed

Frequency
Increase

ZOOM !! Frequency
Decrease

Figure 1. Doppler Frequency Creation From Aircraft Engine Noise

How do we know the universe is expanding?
Answer: The color of light from distant stars is shifted to red (see Section 7-1: higher 8 or lower frequency means Doppler
shift is stretched, i.e. expanding).
A memory aid might be that the lights from a car (going away) at night are red (tail lights)!
2-6.1

Doppler frequency shift is directly proportional

to velocity and a radar system can therefore be
calibrated to measure velocity instead of (or
along with) range. This is done by measuring
the shift in frequency of a wave caused by an
object in motion (Figure 2).
* Transmitter in motion
* Reflector in motion
* Receiver in motion
* All three
For a closing relative velocity:
* Wave is compressed
* Frequency is increased
For an opening relative velocity:
* Wave is stretched
* Frequency is decreased

TRANSMITTER MOVING

RECEIVER MOVING

SURFACE ESM/RWR MEASURES DOPPLER

(One-way Doppler Change)

AIRBORNE ESM/RWR MEASURES DOPPLER

(One-way Doppler Change)

RECEIVER

TRANSMITTER

REFLECTOR MOVING

ALL THREE MOVING

SURFACE RADAR MEASURES DOPPLER

(Two-way Doppler Change)

AIRBORNE RADAR MEASURES DOPPLER

(Two-way Doppler Change)

REFLECTOR

REFLECTOR
TRANSMITTER &
RECEIVER

TRANSMITTER &
RECEIVER

To compute Doppler frequency we note that

velocity is range rate; V = dr/dt
For the reflector in motion case, You can
see the wave compression effect in Figure
3 when the transmitted wave peaks are one
wavelength apart. When the first peak
reaches the target, they are still one
wavelength apart (point a).
When the 2nd peak reaches the target, the
target has advanced according to its
velocity (vt) (point b), and the first
reflected peak has traveled toward the radar
by an amount that is less than the original
wavelength by the same amount (vt)
(point c).
As the 2nd peak is reflected, the
wavelength of the reflected wave is 2(vt)
less than the original wavelength (point d).

RECEIVER

TRANSMITTER

Figure 2. Methods of Doppler Creation

8
a

<J

<J b
c
8-2<J
d

Tx PHASE

STATIONARY
TARGET
M

Tx PHASE

Rx PHASE

M CONSTANT

CLOSING
TARGET
Rx PHASE

M VARIABLE

Figure 3. Doppler Compression Equivalent to Variable Phase Shift

The distance the wave travels is twice the target range. The reflected phase lags transmitted phase by 2x the round trip time.
For a fixed target the received phase will differ from the transmitted phase by a constant phase shift. For a moving target
the received phase will differ by a changing phase shift.
For the closing target shown in Figure 3, the received phase is advancing with respect to the transmitted phase and appears
as a higher frequency.

2-6.2

Doppler is dependent upon

closing velocity, not actual
radar or target velocity as
shown in Figure 4.
For the following equations
(except radar mapping), we
assume the radar and target are
moving directly toward one
another in order to simplify
calculations (if this is not the
case, use the velocity
component of one in the
direction of the other in the
formulas).

RADAR VELOCITY

A
CLOSING VELOCITY =
RADAR VELOCITY COS(A) + TARGET VELOCITY COS (B)

NOTE: If altitude is different, then additional

angular components will have to be considered

Figure 4. Doppler Depends upon Closing Velocity

For the case of a moving reflector, doppler frequency is proportional to 2x the transmitted frequency:
Higher rf = higher doppler shift
fD = (2 x VTarget)(f/c)
Likewise, it can be shown that for other cases, the following relationships hold:
For an airplane radar with an airplane target (The "all three moving" case)
fD = 2(VRadar + VTarget)(f/c)
For the case of a semi-active missile receiving signals (Also "all three moving")
fD = (VRadar + 2VTarget +VMissile)(f/c)

Speed of Light
Conversions
***
c 2.9979 x 108 m/sec
c 5.8275 x 108 nm/hr (knots)

For the airplane radar with a ground target (radar mapping) or vice versa.
fD = 2(VRadar Cos2 CosN)(f/c), Where 2 and N are the radar scan azimuth and depression angles.
For a ground based radar with airborne target - same as previous using target track crossing angle and ground radar
elevation angle.
For the ES/ESM/RWR case where only the target or receiver is moving (One-way doppler measurements)
fD = VReceiver or Target (f/c)

Note: See Figure 4 if radar and target are not moving directly towards or away from one another.

2-6.3

Figure 5 depicts the results

of a plot of the above
equation for a moving
reflector such as might be
measured with a ground
radar station illuminating a
moving aircraft.
It can be used for the
aircraft-to-aircraft case, if
the total net closing rate of
the two aircraft is used for
the speed entry in the figure.
It can also be used for the
ES/ESM case (one-way
doppler measurements) if
the speed of the aircraft is
used and the results are
divided by two.

55
50
16 GHz

45

DOPPLER FREQUENCY SHIFT

40
35

12 GHz

30

10 GHz

25
8 GHz
20

7 GHz

15

6 GHz
5 GHz

10
5
0
0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
CLOSING SPEED (KNOTS x 1000)

0.8

0.9

1.0

Figure 5. Two-Way Doppler Frequency Shift

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
(1) If a ground radar operating at 10 GHz is tracking an airplane flying at a speed of 500 km/hr tangential to it (crossing
pattern) at a distance of 10 km, what is the Doppler shift of the returning signal?
Answer: Since the closing velocity is zero, the Doppler is also zero.
(2) If the same aircraft turns directly toward the ground radar, what is the Doppler shift of the returning signal?
Answer: 500 km/hr = 270 kts from Section 2-1. From Figure 4 we see that the Doppler frequency is about 9.2 KHz.
(3) Given that a ground radar operating at 7 GHz is Doppler tracking an aircraft 20 km away (slant range) which is flying
directly toward it at an altitude of 20,000 ft and a speed of 800 ft/sec, what amount of VGPO switch would be required of
the aircraft jammer to deceive (pull) the radar to a zero Doppler return?
Answer: We use the second equation from the bottom of page 2-6.3 which is essentially the same for this application
except a ground based radar is tracking an airplane target (versus an airplane during ground mapping), so for our application
we use a positive elevation angle instead of a negative (depression) angle.
fD = 2(Vr Cos 2 Cos N)(f/c), where 2 is the aircraft track crossing angle and N is the radar elevation angle.
Since the aircraft is flying directly at the radar, 2 = 0E; the aircraft altitude = 20,000 ft = 6,096 meters.
Using the angle equation in Section 2-1, sin N = x/r = altitude / slant range, so:
N = sin-1 (altitude/slant range) = sin-1 (6,096 m / 20,000 m) = 17.7E
FD = 2(800 ft/sec Cos 0E Cos 17.7E)(7x109 Hz / 9.8357 x 109 ft/sec) = 10,845 Hz
2-6.4

ELECTRONIC FORMULAS
Ohm's Law Formulas for D-C Circuits.

P
' PR
I

E ' IR '

P ' I 2R ' EI '

E2
R

Ohm's Law Formulas for A-C Circuits and Power Factor.

P
'
E ' IZ '
I cos1

PZ
cos1

P ' I 2 Z cos1 ' IE cos1 '

E 2 cos1
Z

In the above formulas 1 is the angle of lead or lag between current and voltage and cos 1 = P/EI = power factor or pf.
Active power (in watts)
P
R
pf '
'
pf '
Apparent power (in volt&amps)
EI
Z
Note: Active power is the "resistive" power and equals the equivalent heating effect on water.

Voltage/Current Phase Rule of Thumb Remember "ELI the ICE man"

ELI:
ICE:

Voltage (E) comes before (leads) current (I) in an inductor (L)

Current (I) comes before (leads) Voltage (E) in a capacitor (C)

Resistors in Series

Rtotal ' R1 % R2 ' R3 % ...

Two Resistors in Parallel

Rt '

R1 R2

Resistors in Parallel, General Formula

R1 % R2

Rtotal '

1 1 1
% % %...
R1 R2 R3

Resonant Frequency Formulas *Where in the second formula f is in kHz and L and C are in microunits.
f '

or

f '

2B LC

Conductance

159.2(

L '

LC

G '

Reactance Formulas

Impedance Formulas

Q or Figure of Merit

1
R

1
,
4B2f 2C

G '

(for D&C circuit)

XC '

1
2Bf C

C '

Z ' R 2%(XL&XC)2

Q '

XL
R

or

or

L '

25,330(
f 2C

R
R %X 2
2

1
2Bf XC

(for series circuit)

XC
R

2-7.1

C '

1
,
4B2f 2L

or

C '

25,330(
f 2L

(for A&C circuit)

XL ' 2BfL

Z '

L '

RX
2

R %X

XL
2Bf

(for R and X in parallel)

2

Frequency Response
"Cartoon" memory aid

Inductor * Capacitor * Resister

DC

Pass

Block

DC
Blocked

Attenuate
DC
Passes

Low Freq Attenuate * Attenuate *

AC
High
Freq

Block

Pass

Attenuate
High Freq
Passes

Attenuate

High Freq
Blocked

* Attenuation varies as a function of the value of the each device and the frequency

Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents

Peak
Effective
Average

Effective value
= 0.707 x peak value
[Also known as Root-Mean Square (RMS) value]

TIME

Half Cycle Average value = 0.637 x peak value

Peak value

= 1.414 x effective value

Effective value

= 1.11 x average value

Three-phase AC Configurations
(120E phase difference between each voltage)
If the connection to a three phase AC configuration is miswired,
switching any two of the phases will put it back in the proper sequence.
Electric power for ships commonly uses the delta configuration, while
commercial electronic and aircraft applications commonly use the wye
configuration.
Color Code for House Wiring:
Black or red
White
Green or bare

PURPOSE:
HOT
NEUTRAL (Return)
GROUND

Color Code for Resistors:

First and second band:
(and third band # of zeros if not gold/silver)
0
Black
5
Green
1
Brown
6
Blue
2
Red
7
Violet
3
Orange
8
Gray
4
Yellow
9
White

Delta

Wye (Y) or Star

Color Code for Chassis Wiring:

Red
White
Black
Third band
Multiplier
.1
Gold
.01
Silver

Fourth band
Tolerance
5%
Gold
10% Silver
20% No color

The third color band indicates number of zeros to be added after figures given by first two color bands. But if third
color band is gold, multiply by 0.1 and if silver multiply by 0.01. Do not confuse with fourth color-band that indicates
tolerance. Thus, a resistor marked blue-red-gold-gold has a resistance of 6.2 ohms and a 5% tolerance.

2-7.2

MISSILE AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT DESIGNATIONS

Missiles are designated with three letters from the columns below plus a number (i.e. AIM-7M) Suffixes (M in
this case) indicate a modification.
First Letter
Launch Environment

Second Letter
Mission Symbols

Third Letter
Vehicle Type

A
B
C
H
L
M
P
R
U

D
E
G
I
Q
T
U
W

M Guided Missile
N Probe (non-orbital instruments)
R Rocket (without installed or remote
control guidance)

Air
Multiple
Coffin
Silo stored
Silo launched
Mobile
Soft Pad
Ship
Underwater

Decoy
Special electronic
Surface attack
Intercept, aerial
Drone
Training
Underwater attack
Weather

U.S. military electronic equipment is assigned an identifying alphanumeric designation that is used to uniquely
identify it. This system is commonly called the "AN" designation system, although its formal name is the Joint Electronics
Type Designation System (JETDS). The letters AN preceding the equipment indicators formerly meant "Army/Navy," but
now are a letter set that can only be used to indicate formally designated DOD equipment. The first three letters following
the "AN/" indicate Platform Installation, Equipment Type, and Equipment Function, respectively. The appropriate meaning
is selected from the lists below. The letters following the AN designation numbers provide added information about
equipment. Suffixes (A, B, C, etc.) indicate a modification. The letter (V) indicates that variable configurations are
available. The letter (X) indicates a development status. A parenthesis ( ) without a number within it indicates a generic
system that has not yet received a formal designation, e.g., AN/ALQ( ). Quite often the () is pronounced "bow legs" since
they look like the shape of cowboy legs.
First Letter
Platform Installation

Second Letter
Equipment Type

Third Letter
Function or Purpose

A Piloted aircraft
B Underwater mobile,
submarine
D Pilotless carrier
F Fixed ground
G General ground use
K Amphibious
M Mobile (ground)
P Portable
S Water
T Ground, transportable
U General utility
V Vehicular (ground)
W Water surface and underwater
combination
Z Piloted-pilotless airborne
vehicle combination

A
C
D
F
G
I
J
K
L
M
N
P
Q
R
S
T
V
W
X
Y

B Bombing
C Communications
D Direction finder, reconnaissance
and/or surveillance
E Ejection and/or release
G Fire control or searchlight directing
H Recording and/or reproducing
K Computing
M Maintenance and/or test assemblies
N Navigation aids
Q Special or combination of purposes
R Receiving, passive detecting
S Detecting and/or range and bearing,
search
T Transmitting
W Automatic flight or remote control
X Identification and recognition
Y Surveillance and control

Invisible light, heat radiation

Carrier
Radiac
Photographic
Telegraph or teletype
Interphone and public address
Electromechanical or inertial wire covered
Telemetering
Countermeasures
Meteorological
Sound in air
Radar
Sonar and underwater sound
Radio
Special or combinations of types
Telephone (wire)
Visual and visible light
Armament
Facsimile or television
Data Processing

2-8.1

RADAR HORIZON / LINE OF SIGHT

RADAR HORIZON

There are limits to the reach of radar

signals. At the frequencies normally used for
radar, radio waves usually travel in a straight
line. The waves may be obstructed by
weather or shadowing, and interference may
come from other aircraft or from reflections
from ground objects (Figure 1).
As also shown in Figure 1, an
aircraft may not be detected because it is
below the radar line which is tangent to the
earths surface.

WEATHER CLUTTER
INTERFERENCE

Some rules of thumb are:

Range (to horizon):
RNM ' 1.23 hradar

GROUND CLUTTER
SHADOWING

with h in ft

Range (beyond horizon / over earth

curvature):
RNM ' 1.23 hradar % htarget
with h in ft

Figure 1. Radar Horizon and Shadowing

In obtaining the radar horizon equations, it is common practice to assume a value for the Earth's radius that is 4/3 times the
actual radius. This is done to
SHADOW
account for the effect of the
atmosphere on radar propagation.
H
R
h
For a true line of sight, such as used
2
H = 0.672(R-1.22 h)
for optical search and rescue, the
ANTENNA
POINT "H"
constant in the equations changes
HEIGHT
250
250
10,000
10,000
from 1.23 to 1.06.
A
nomograph
for
determining maximum target range
is depicted in Figure 2. Although an
aircraft is shown to the left, it could
just as well be a ship, with radars on
a mast of height "h". Any target of
height (or altitude) "H" is depicted
on the right side.
See also Section 5-1 on
ducting and refraction, which may
increase range beyond these
distances.

200

200

150

150

5000

5000
4000

4000
3000

3000

2000

2000
100

100
1000

1000
500

50

200
100
50
25
0

500

50

25
0

h
FEET

R
NAUTICAL MILES

Figure 2. Earth Curvature Nomograph

2-9.1

200
100
50
0

H
FEET

450
RADAR AIRCRAFT ALTITUDE

This data was expanded

in Figure 3 to consider the
maximum range one aircraft can
detect another aircraft using:

400

40 k ft
30 k ft

350

RNM ' 1.23 hradar % htarget

20 k ft

(with h in feet)

300
10 k ft

It can be used for surface

targets if Htarget = 0. It should be
noted that most aircraft radars are
limited in power output, and
would not detect small or surface
objects at the listed ranges.

250

200

150
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

TARGET ALTITUDE (k feet)

Figure 3. Aircraft Radar vs Aircraft Target Maximum Range

Other general rules of thumb for surface "targets/radars" are:
For Visual SAR:
RVisual(NM) ' 1.05 Acft Alt in ft

For ESM:
RESM(NM) ' 1.5 Acft Alt in ft

12
11

Figure 4 depicts
the maximum range that a
ship height antenna can
detect a zero height object
(i.e. rowboat etc).

10
9
8

In this case "H" = 0, and

the general equation
becomes:
Rmax (NM) ' 1.23 hr
Where hr is the height of
the radar in feet.

7
6
5
4
10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

ANTENNA HEIGHT (feet)

Figure 4. Ships Radar Horizon with Target on the Surface

2-9.2

90

100

PROPAGATION TIME / RESOLUTION

1.

ROUND TRIP RANGE:

R '

ct
2

with t = time to reach target

Rules of Thumb

In one Fsec round trip time, a

wave travels to and from an object
at a distance of:
150 m
164 yd
500 ft
0.08 NM
0.15 km

2.

The time it takes to travel to and

from an object at a distance of:
1 m 0.0067 sec
1 yd 0.006 sec
1 ft 0.002 sec
1 NM 12.35 sec
1 km 6.7 sec

ONE WAY RANGE: R = ct with t = time to reach target

Time
1 milli sec (ms)
1 micro sec (s)
1 nano sec (ns)

Distance Traveled
165 NM
1000 ft
1 ft

3.
UNAMBIGUOUS RANGE
(DISTANCE BETWEEN PULSES):

Distance
1 NM
1 km
1 ft

c @ PRI
2
Normally a radar measures "distance" to the target by
measuring time from the last transmitted pulse. If the interpulse period (T) is long enough that isn't a problem as shown
in "A" to the right. When the period is shortened, the time to
the last previous pulse is shorter than the actual time it took,
giving a false (ambiguous) shorter range (figure "B").

Transmitted Pulse

R '

Target Return

PRI

1/PRF

TIME

Ambiguous
Range
Real Range
T

RANGE RESOLUTION
Rules of Thumb
500 ft per microsecond of pulse width
500 MHz IF bandwidth provides 1 ft of resolution.

5.

% Range

Rules of Thumb
RNM 81Pms
RKm 150Pms
Where Pms is PRI in milliseconds
4.

Time it Takes
6.18 sec
3.3 sec
1 nsec

BEST CASE PERFORMANCE:

The atmosphere limits the accuracy to 0.1 ft
The natural limit for resolution is one RF cycle.
2-10.1

PRI

1/PRF

TIME

MODULATION
Modulation is the process whereby some characteristic of one wave is varied in accordance with some characteristic
of another wave. The basic types of modulation are angular modulation (including the special cases of phase and frequency
modulation) and amplitude modulation. In
missile radars, it is common practice to
TIME DOMAIN PLOT
FREQUENCY DOMAIN
amplitude modulate the transmitted RF carrier
RF
Carrier
(e.g.
10
GHz)
wave of tracking and guidance transmitters by
using a pulsed wave for modulating, and to
frequency modulate the transmitted RF carrier
Carrier Frequency
Time
wave of illuminator transmitters by using a sine
at 10 GHz
wave.
Figure 1. Unmodulated RF Signal
Frequency Modulation (FM) - As shown
in Figure 1, an unmodulated RF signal in the
time domain has only a single spectral line at the
carrier frequency (fc) in the frequency domain. If
the signal is frequency modulated, as shown in
Figure 2, the spectral line will correspondingly
shift in the frequency domain.

TIME DOMAIN PLOT

RF Carrier

FREQUENCY DOMAIN

e.g. 5 GHz

e.g. 10 GHz

Time
t1

t2

t3

5
Occurs
from
t2 to t3

10

Frequency

Occurs
from
t1 to t2

GHz

Figure 2. RF Signal with Frequency Modulation

Amplitude Modulation (AM) - If
the signal in Figure 1 is amplitude
modulated by a sinewave as shown in
Figure 3, sidebands are produced in the
frequency domain at Fc FAM. AM other
than by a pure sine wave will cause
additional sidebands normally at Fc
nFAM, where n equals 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.

TIME DOMAIN PLOT

FREQUENCY DOMAIN

RF Carrier (FC), e.g. 10 GHz

Time
Amplitude Modulation Envelope

FC
10 GHz

Frequency
GHz

Lower
Upper
Sideband
Sideband
9,999,999,900 Hz 10,000,000,100 Hz
Detected Signal (FAM), e.g. 100 Hz

Figure 3. Sinewave Modulated RF Signal

Pulse modulation is a special case of AM wherein the carrier frequency is gated at a pulsed rate. When the
reciprocal of the duty cycle of the AM is a whole number, harmonics corresponding to multiples of that whole number will
be missing, e.g. in a 33.33% duty cycle, AM
TIME DOMAIN PLOT
FREQUENCY DOMAIN
wave will miss the 3rd, 6th, 9th, etc.
Upper
Lower
Square
Wave
AM
Envelope
harmonics, while a square wave or 50%
Sidebands
Sidebands
duty cycle triangular wave will miss the
2nd, 4th, 6th, etc. harmonic, as shown in
Time
Frequency
Figure 4. It has sidebands in the frequency
Carrier
RF Carrier
at
10
GHz
domain at Fc nFAM, where n = 1, 3, 5, etc.
The amplitude of the power level follows a
Carrier Amplitude Modulated by
a Square Wave
sine x / x type distribution.
Detected Signal
Figure 4. Square Wave Modulated RF Signal (50% Duty Cycle AM)
2-11.1

Figure 5 shows the pulse width (PW) in the time domain which defines the lobe width in the frequency domain
(Figure 6). The width of the main lobe is 2/PW, whereas the width of a side lobe is 1/PW. Figure 5 also shows the pulse
repetition interval (PRI) or its reciprocal, pulse repetition frequency (PRF), in the time domain. In the frequency domain,
the spectral lines inside the lobes are separated by the PRF or 1/PRI, as shown in Figures 7 and 8. Note that Figures 7 and
8 show actual magnitude of the side lobes, whereas in Figure 4 and 6, the absolute value is shown.
The magnitude of each spectral component for a rectangular pulse can be determined from the following formula:
J sin(n B J / T )
J ' pulse width (PW)
and A ' Amplitude of rectangular pulse [1]
a ' 2A
where:
n

T ' period (PRI)

n B J / T

RF Pulse
Spectrum Envelope

Modulating Pulse
Time

T
J

Pulse Width

1/PW

PRI

Frequency

2/PW

1/PRF

Figure 6. Sidelobes Generated by Pulse Modulation

(Absolute Value)

Figure 5. Pulse Width and PRI/PRF Waveforms

Figure 7 shows the spectral lines for a square wave (50% duty cycle), while Figure 8 shows the spectral lines for
a 33.33% duty cycle rectangular wave signal.
fc
fc
Note: 2nd, 4th, 6th, etc,
harmonics are missing ,
i.e. zero amplitude

Note: 3rd, 6th, 9th, etc.,

harmonics are missing,
i.e. zero amplitude

Spectral Line Spacing 1/PRI

Spectral Line Spacing 1/ PRI

Amplitude changes from + to at every 1/ PW interval

Amplitude changes from + to at every 1/PW interval

1/PRI
-3/PW

-2/PW -1/PW

Frequency

Frequency

1/PRI
1/PW

2/PW

-3/PW

3/PW

Figure 7. Spectral Lines for a Square Wave Modulated

Signal
Figure 9 shows that for square wave AM, a significant
portion of the component modulation is contained in the first
few harmonics which comprise the wave. There are twice as
many sidebands or spectral lines as there are harmonics (one
on the plus and one on the minus side of the carrier). Each
sideband represents a sine wave at a frequency equal to the
difference between the spectral line and fc .

-2/PW -1/PW

1/PW

2/PW

3/PW

Figure 8. Spectral Lines for a 33.3% Duty Cycle

Fundamental

3rd Harmonic

Resultant

5th Harmonic

Figure 9. Square Wave Consisting of Sinewave

Harmonics
2-11.2

A figure similar to Figure 9 can be created for any rectangular wave. The relative amplitude of the time domain
sine wave components are computed using equation [1]. Each is constructed such that at the midpoint of the pulse the sine
wave passes through a maximum (or minimum if the coefficient is negative) at the same time. It should be noted that the
"first" harmonic created using this formula is NOT the carrier frequency, fc , of the modulated signal, but at Fc FAM.
While equation [1] is for rectangular waves only, similar equations can be constructed using Fourier coefficients
for other waveforms, such as triangular, sawtooth, half sine, trapezoidal, and other repetitive geometric shapes.
PRI Effects - If the PW remains constant but PRI increases, the number of sidelobes remains the same, but the
number of spectral lines gets denser (move closer together) and vice versa (compare Figure 7 and 8). The spacing between
the spectral lines remains constant with constant PRI.
Pulse Width (PW) Effects - If the PRI remains constant, but the PW increases, then the lobe width decreases and
vice versa. If the PW approaches PRI, the spectrum will approach "one lobe", i.e., a single spectral line. The spacing of
the lobes remains constant with constant PW.
RF Measurements - If the receiver bandwidth is smaller than the PRF, the receiver will respond to one spectral line
at a time. If the receiver bandwidth is wider than the PRF but narrower than the reciprocal of the PW, the receiver will
respond to one spectral envelope at a time.
Jet Engine Modulation (JEM)
Section 2-6 addresses the Doppler shift in a transmitted
radar signal caused by a moving target. The amount of Doppler
shift is a function of radar carrier frequency and the speed of
the radar and target. Moving or rotating surfaces on the target
will have the same Doppler shift as the target, but will also
impose AM on the Doppler shifted return (see Figure 10).
Reflections off rotating jet engine compressor blades, aircraft
propellers, ram air turbine (RAT) propellers used to power
aircraft pods, helicopter rotor blades, and protruding surfaces
of automobile hubcaps will all provide a chopped reflection of
the impinging signal. The reflections are characterized by both
positive and negative Doppler sidebands corresponding to the
blades moving toward and away from the radar respectively.

Reflection of a
stationary 10 GHz
radar from a
stationary target
such as a metallic
balloon.
Reflection from a
target such as a
glider moving at
400 kts toward a
stationary
10 GHz radar.

FREQUENCY DOMAIN

10 GHz

14 kHz
10 GHz

Reflection from a
jet or prop target
moving at 400 kts
toward a stationary
10 GHz radar.

Frequency

Frequency

Therefore, forward/aft JEM doesn't vary with radar

carrier frequency, but the harmonics contained in the sidebands
Frequency
are a function of the PRF of the blade chopping action and its
Figure 10. Doppler Return and JEM
amplitude is target aspect dependent, i.e. blade angle,
intake/exhaust internal reflection, and jet engine cowling all
effect lateral return from the side. If the aspect angle is too far from head-on or tail-on and the engine cowling provides
shielding for the jet engine, there may not be any JEM to detect. On the other hand, JEM increases when you are orthogonal
(at a right angle) to the axis of blade rotation. Consequently for a fully exposed blade as in a propeller driven aircraft or
helicopter, JEM increases with angle off the boresight axis of the prop/rotor.

2-11.3

TRANSFORMS / WAVELETS
Transform Analysis
Signal processing using a transform analysis for calculations is a technique used to simplify or accelerate problem
solution. For example, instead of dividing two large numbers, we might convert them to logarithms, subtract them, then
look-up the anti-log to obtain the result. While this may seem a three-step process as opposed to a one-step division,
consider that long-hand division of a four digit number by a three digit number, carried out to four places requires three
divisions, 3-4 multiplication*s, and three subtractions. Computers process additions or subtractions much faster than
multiplications or divisions, so transforms are sought which provide the desired signal processing using these steps.
Fourier Transform
Fundamental

Other types of transforms include the Fourier transform, which is

used to decompose or separate a waveform into a sum of sinusoids of
different frequencies. It transforms our view of a signal from time based to
frequency based. Figure 1 depicts how a square wave is formed by summing
certain particular sine waves. The waveform must be continuous, periodic,
and almost everywhere differentiable. The Fourier transform of a sequence
of rectangular pulses is a series of sinusoids. The envelope of the amplitude
of the coefficients of this series is a waveform with a Sin X/X shape. For the
special case of a single pulse, the Fourier series has an infinite series of
sinusoids that are present for the duration of the pulse.

Third Harmonic

Fifth Harmonic

Sum - Approximation of
(Square Wave)

Figure 1. Harmonics
Digital Sampling of Waveforms
T

In order to process a signal digitally, we

need to sample the signal frequently enough to
create a complete picture of the signal. The
discrete Fourier transform (DFT) may be used in
this regard. Samples are taken at uniform time
intervals as shown in Figure 2 and processed.
If the digital information is multiplied by
the Fourier coefficients, a digital filter is created
as shown Figure 3. If the sum of the resultant
components is zero, the filter has ignored
(notched out) that frequency sample. If the sum
is a relatively large number, the filter has passed
the signal. With the single sinusoid shown, there
should be only one resultant. (Note that being
zero and relatively large may just mean below
or above the filter*s cutoff threshold)

X1

X3

X4

X2

Figure 2 Waveform Sampling

Samples

Sum Results

X2 X3 X4 X5

X1

Digital
Filter
Multiplication

Filter Coefficients
cos (w)
cos (2w)
cos (3w)
..
.
cos(yw)

Figure 3. Digital Filtering

2-12.1

X1 cos (w)
X2 cos (2w)
X3 cos (3w)
..
.
Xy cos(yw)

Figure 4 depicts the process

pictorially: The vectors in the figure
just happen to be pointing in a cardinal
direction
because
the
strobe
frequencies are all multiples of the
vector (phasor) rotation rate, but that is
not normally the case. Usually the
vectors will point in a number of
different directions, with a resultant in
some direction other than straight up.
In addition, sampling normally
has to taken at or above twice the rate
of interest (also known as the Nyquist
rate), otherwise ambiguous results may
be obtained.

Strobe Light
Filters

100 Hz

200 Hz

Phasor
Rotating
At
300 Hz
Represents
Signal of
Interest
0.02 sec = 2 strobes

300 Hz

0.02 sec = 4 strobes

0.02 sec = 6 strobes

0.02 sec = 8 strobes

Only the 300 Hz

Filter adds appreciably
in Phase

Filter Integration over a 0.02 second interval

400 Hz

= 0

+
+

= 0
+

Figure 4. Phasor Representation

Fast Fourier Transforms
One problem with this type of processing is the large number of additions, subtractions, and multiplications which
are required to reconstruct the output waveform. The Fast Fourier transform (FFT) was developed to reduce this problem.
It recognizes that because the filter coefficients are sine and cosine waves, they are symmetrical about 90, 180, 270, and
360 degrees. They also have a number of coefficients equal either to one or zero, and duplicate coefficients from filter to
filter in a multibank arrangement. By waiting for all of the inputs for the
bank to be received, adding together those inputs for which coefficients are
the same before performing multiplications, and separately summing those
combinations of inputs and products which are common to more than one
filter, the required amount of computing may be cut drastically.
C The number of computations for a DFT is on the order of N
squared.
C The number of computations for a FFT when N is a power of two
is on the order of N log2 N.
For example, in an eight filter bank, a DFT would require 512
computations, while an FFT would only require 56, significantly speeding up
processing time.
Windowed Fourier Transform
The Fourier transform is continuous, so a windowed Fourier
transform (WFT) is used to analyze non-periodic signals as shown in
Figure 5. With the WFT, the signal is divided into sections (one such section
is shown in Figure 5) and each section is analyzed for frequency content. If
2-12.2

Time
Figure 5. Windowed Fourier Transform

the signal has sharp transitions, the input data is windowed so that the sections converge to zero at the endpoints. Because
a single window is used for all frequencies in the WFT, the resolution of the analysis is the same (equally spaced) at all
locations in the time-frequency domain.
The FFT works well for signals with smooth or uniform frequencies, but it has been found that other transforms
work better with signals having pulse type characteristics, time-varying (non-stationary) frequencies, or odd shapes.
The FFT also does not distinguish sequence or timing information. For example, if a signal has two frequencies
(a high followed by a low or vice versa), the Fourier transform only reveals the frequencies and relative amplitude, not the
order in which they occurred. So Fourier analysis works well with stationary, continuous, periodic, differentiable signals,
but other methods are needed to deal with non-periodic or non-stationary signals.
Wavelet Transform
The Wavelet transform has been evolving for some time. Mathematicians theorized its use in the early 1900's.
While the Fourier transform deals with transforming the time domain components to frequency domain and frequency
analysis, the wavelet transform deals with scale analysis, that is, by creating mathematical structures that provide varying
time/frequency/amplitude slices for analysis. This transform is a portion (one or a few cycles) of a complete waveform,
hence the term wavelet.
The wavelet transform has the ability to identify
frequency (or scale) components, simultaneously with their
location(s) in time. Additionally, computations are directly
proportional to the length of the input signal. They require only
N multiplications (times a small constant) to convert the
waveform. For the previous eight filter bank example, this
would be about twenty calculations, vice 56 for the FFT.

Low
frequencies
are better
resolved in
frequency

High
frequencies
are better
resolved in
time

In wavelet analysis, the scale that one uses in looking

at data plays a special role. Wavelet algorithms process data at
different scales or resolutions. If we look at a signal with a
large "window," we would notice gross features. Similarly, if
we look at a signal with a small "window," we would notice
small discontinuities as shown in Figure 6. The result in
wavelet analysis is to "see the forest and the trees." A way to
achieve this is to have short high-frequency fine scale
functions and long low-frequency ones. This approach is
known as multi-resolution analysis.

Time
For many decades, scientists have wanted more
appropriate functions than the sines and cosines (base
Figure 6 Wavelet Transform
functions) which comprise Fourier analysis, to approximate
choppy signals. (Although Walsh transforms work if the
waveform is periodic and stationary). By their definition, sine and cosine functions are non-local (and stretch out to infinity),
and therefore do a very poor job in approximating sharp spikes. But with wavelet analysis, we can use approximating
functions that are contained neatly in finite (time/frequency) domains. Wavelets are well-suited for approximating data with
sharp discontinuities.
The wavelet analysis procedure is to adopt a wavelet prototype function, called an "analyzing wavelet" or "mother
wavelet." Temporal analysis is performed with a contracted, high-frequency version of the prototype wavelet, while
2-12.3

frequency analysis is performed with a dilated, low-frequency version of the prototype wavelet. Because the original signal
or function can be represented in terms of a wavelet expansion (using coefficients in a linear combination of the wavelet
functions), data operations can be performed using just the corresponding wavelet coefficients as shown in Figure 7.
If one further chooses the best
wavelets adapted to the data, or truncates
the coefficients below some given threshold,
the data is sparsely represented. This
"sparse coding" makes wavelets an excellent
tool in the field of data compression. For
instance, the FBI uses wavelet coding to
store fingerprints. Hence, the concept of
wavelets is to look at a signal at various
scales and analyze it with various
resolutions.

Samples
X1

X2 X4

X5

Sum Results

Digital
Filter
Multiplication

Varied
Depending on
Filter

T
NonUniform
Spacing

Wavelet Coefficients
(Vice sin/cos)

Figure 7. Wavelet Filtering

Analyzing Wavelet Functions

Fourier transforms deal with just two basis
functions (sine and cosine), while there are
an infinite number of wavelet basis
functions. The freedom of the analyzing
wavelet is a major difference between the
two types of analyses and is important in
determining the results of the analysis. The
wrong wavelet may be no better (or even
far worse than) than the Fourier analysis.
A successful application presupposes some
expertise on the part of the user. Some
prior knowledge about the signal must
generally be known in order to select the
most suitable distribution and adapt the
parameters to the signal. Some of the more
common ones are shown in Figure 8. There
are several wavelets in each family, and
they may look different than those shown.
Somewhat longer in duration than these
functions, but significantly shorter than
infinite sinusoids is the cosine packet
shown in Figure 9.

Daubechies Wavelet

Time

Coifman Wavelet (Coiflet)

Time

Harr Wavelet

Time

Symmlet Wavelet

Time

Figure 8. Sample Wavelet Functions

Wavelet Comparison With Fourier Analysis

While a typical Fourier transform provides frequency content information for samples within a given time interval,
a perfect wavelet transform records the start of one frequency (or event), then the start of a second event, with amplitude
added to or subtracted from, the base event.

2-12.4

Example 1.
Wavelets are especially
useful in analyzing transients or timevarying signals. The input signal
shown in Figure 9 consists of a
sinusoid whose frequency changes in
stepped increments over time. The
power of the spectrum is also shown.
Classical Fourier analysis will resolve
the frequencies but cannot provide
any information about the times at
which each occurs. Wavelets provide
an efficient means of analyzing the
input signal so that frequencies and
the times at which they occur can be
resolved.
Wavelets have finite
duration and must also satisfy
additional properties beyond those
normally associated with standard
Figure 9. Sample Wavelet Analysis
windows used with Fourier analysis.
The result after the wavelet transform
is applied is the plot shown in the lower right. The wavelet analysis correctly resolves each of the frequencies and the time
when it occurs. A series of wavelets is used in example 2.
Example 2. Figure 10 shows the
input of a clean signal, and one with
noise. It also shows the output of a
number of filters with each signal.
A 6 dB S/N improvement can be
seen from the d4 output. (Recall
from Section 4.3 that 6 dB
corresponds to doubling of detection
range.) In the filter cascade, the
HPFs and LPFs are the same at each
level. The wavelet shape is related
to the HPF and LPF in that it is the
impulse response of an infinite
cascade of the HPFs and LPFs.
Different wavelets have different
HPFs and LPFs. As a result of
decimating by 2, the number of
output samples equals the number of
input samples.

High Pass Filter

(HPF)

OUTPUTS of FILTERS

Wavelet

With No Noise Input

512 Samples

d1

Function

1024
Samples

d1
d2
d3
d4

Low Pass Filter

(LPF)

Signal

Scaling

INPUT

d5
HPF

256 Samples
HPF

Function

LPF

d2

HPF
LPF

d3

64 Samples
HPF

Signal Without Noise

LPF

32 Samples
HPF

d5
16

d1
d2

d6

d3
d4

LPF
Signal With -5 dB Noise
S/N = + 5 dB

With Noise Input

d4 S/N = + 11 dB

d4

or
decimate by 2

d6
s6

128 Samples

LPF

16

d5
s6

d6
s6

Figure 10. Example 2 Analysis Wavelet

Wavelet Applications Some fields that are making use of wavelets are: astronomy, acoustics, nuclear engineering, signal
and image processing (including fingerprinting), neurophysiology, music, magnetic resonance imaging, speech
discrimination, optics, fractals, turbulence, earthquake-prediction, radar, human vision, and pure mathematics applications.
See October 1996 IEEE Spectrum article entitled Wavelet Analysis, by Bruce, Donoho, and Gao.
2-12.5

ANTENNA INTRODUCTION / BASICS

Rules of Thumb:
1.

The Gain of an antenna with losses is given by:

4B0A
G
82

another is:

Where 0 ' Efficiency

A ' Physical aperture area
8 ' wavelength

G '

X 0
BWN BW2

Where BW2 and N are the elev & az

beamwidths in degrees.
For approximating an antenna pattern with:
(1) A rectangle; X'41253,0typical '0.7
(2) An ellipsoid; X'52525,0typical '0.55

2.

Gain of rectangular X-Band Aperture

G = 1.4 LW
Where: Length (L) and Width (W) are in cm

3.

Gain of Circular X-Band Aperture

G = d20 Where:
d = antenna diameter in cm
0 = aperture efficiency

4.

Gain of an isotropic antenna radiating in a uniform spherical pattern is one (0 dB).

5.

Antenna with a 20 degree beamwidth has a 20 dB gain.

6.

3 dB beamwidth is approximately equal to the angle from the peak of the power to
the first null (see figure at right).

7.

Parabolic Antenna Beamwidth:

Where:

BW '

3 dB Beamwidth

.5 power
.707 voltage

Peak power
to first null

Antenna
Radiation
Pattern

708
d

BW = antenna beamwidth; 8 = wavelength; d = antenna diameter.

The antenna equations which follow relate to Figure 1 as a

typical antenna. In Figure 1, BWN is the azimuth beamwidth and
BW2 is the elevation beamwidth. Beamwidth is normally measured
at the half-power or -3 dB point of the main lobe unless otherwise
specified. See Glossary.
The gain or directivity of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation
intensity in a given direction to the radiation intensity averaged over
all directions.

BW2

BW N

Azimuth and Elevation Beamwidths

Quite often directivity and gain are used interchangeably.

Figure 1. Antenna Aperture
The difference is that directivity neglects antenna losses such as
dielectric, resistance, polarization, and VSWR losses. Since these losses in most classes of antennas are usually quite small,
the directivity and gain will be approximately equal (disregarding unwanted pattern characteristics).
Normalizing a radiation pattern by the integrated total power yields the directivity of the antenna. This concept
in shown in equation form by:
D(2
2,N
N) ' 10 Log

4B
BP (2
2,N
N)

P (2
2,N
N) Sin 2 d2
2 dN
N
mm in

3-1.1

0 < N # 360E
E
0 < 2 # 180E
E

[1]

Where D(2,N) is the directivity in

(a) SPHERE (Isotropic source)
(b) HEMISPHERE
dB, and the radiation pattern power in a
specific direction is Pd(2,N), which is
Pin
PD =
normalized by the total integrated radiated
4 B R2
power. Another important concept is that
G = 0 dB
when the angle in which the radiation is
constrained is reduced, the directive gain
goes up. For example, using an isotropic
radiating source, the gain would be 0 dB by
definition (Figure 2(a)) and the power
(d) 1.5E SEGMENT
(c) QUARTER SPHERE
density (Pd) at any given point would be the
power in (Pin) divided by the surface area
4 Pin
of the imaginary sphere at a distance R
PD =
4 B R2
from the source. If the spacial angle was
G = +6 dB
decreased to one hemisphere (Figure 2(b)),
the power radiated, Pin, would be the same
but the area would be half as much, so the
gain would double to 3 dB. Likewise if the
angle is a quarter sphere, (Figure 2(c)), the
gain would be 6 dB. Figure 2(d) shows a
Figure 2. Antenna Gain
pencil beam. The gain is independent of
actual power output and radius (distance) at which measurements are taken.

Real antennas are different, however, and do not

have an ideal radiation distribution. Energy varies with
angular displacement and losses occur due to sidelobes.
However, if we can measure the pattern, and determine
the beamwidth we can use two (or more) ideal antenna
models to approximate a real antenna pattern as shown
in Figure 3.

Area of Sphere
Area of Antenna pattern

Elliptical
Model

G = +3 dB

PD =

18334 Pin
4 B R2

G = +43 dB

2D Views

Rectangular
Model
REAL ANTENNA PATTERN

-3 dB Beamwidth
( measured at the 0.5 power or 0.707 voltage points)

[2]

Figure 3. Antenna Beamwidth

It can be shown that:

G

2 Pin
4 B R2

IDEAL ANTENNA PATTERN

3D Views

Assuming the antenna pattern is uniform, the

gain is equal to the area of the isotropic sphere (4Br2)
divided by the sector (cross section) area.
G '

PD =

BW
4B
4B
or
where: Naz ' Azmith beamwidth in radians
BW2el ' Elevation beamwidth in radians
BWNazBW2el
N2 (radians)

From this point, two different models are presented:

(1) Approximating an antenna pattern using an elliptical area, and
(2) Approximating an antenna pattern using a rectangular area.

3-1.2

[3]

Approximating the antenna pattern as an elliptical area:

Area of ellipse = B a b = B[ (r sin 2)/2 ][ (r sin N)/2 ]= (B r2 sin 2 sin N)/4

b
2

G '

Area of Sphere
' (4 Br 2)
Area of Antenna pattern

4
B r sin2 sinN

'

16
sin2 sinN

Where 2=BW2, and N= BWN

For small angles, sin N = N in radians, so:

G '

16
16
16 360E 360E

'
sin N sin2
N 2 (radians)
N 2
2 B 2B

'

52525
52525
or
N 2 (degrees)
BWN BW2 (degrees)

[4]

The second term in the equation above is very close to equation [3].
For a very directional radar dish with a beamwidth of 1E and an average efficiency of 55%:
Ideally: G = 52525, or in dB form: 10 log G =10 log 52525 = 47.2 dB
With efficiency taken into account, G = 0.55(52525) = 28888, or in log form: 10 log G = 44.6 dB

Approximating the antenna pattern as a rectangular area:

a = r sin 2 , b = r sin N, area = ab = r2 sin 2 sin N

b
a

G '

Area of Sphere
4B r 2
4B
'
'
2
Area of Antenna pattern
sin2 sinN
r sin2 sinN

Where 2=BW 2, and N= BWN

G '

For small angles, sin N = N in radians, so:

4 B
4 B
4 B 360E 360E
'
'
sin N sin2
N 2 (radians)
N 2
2 B 2B

'

41253
41253
or
N 2 (degrees)
BWN BW2 (degrees)

[5]

The second term in the equation above is identical to equation [3].

Converting to dB, Gmax(dB) ' 10 Log

41253
BWN BW2

with BWN and BW2 in degrees

For a very directional radar dish with a beamwidth of 1E and an average efficiency of 70%:
Ideally (in dB form): 10 log G =10 log 41253 = 46.2 dB.
With efficiency taken into account, G = 0.7(41253) = 28877, or in log form: 10 log G = 44.6 dB

3-1.3

[6]

Comparison between elliptical and

rectangular areas for antenna pattern models
By using the rectangular model there is a
direct correlation between the development
of gain in equation [5] and the ideal gain of
equation [3]. The elliptical model has about
one dB difference from the ideal calculation,
but will yield the same real antenna gain
when appropriate efficiencies are assumed.
The upper plot of Figure 4 shows the gain
for an ideal antenna pattern using the
elliptical model. The middle plot shows the
gain for an ideal antenna using the
rectangular model. The lower plot of Figure
4 shows the gain of a typical real antenna
(rectangular model using an efficiency of
70%or elliptical model using an efficiency
of 47%).
Figure 4. . Antenna Sector Size vs Gain

Gain as a function of 8:
When 2 = 0, each wave source in Figure 5 is in phase with one
another and a maximum is produced in that direction.
Conversely, nulls to either side of the main lobe will occur when
the waves radiating from the antenna cancel each other. The first
null occurs when there is a phase difference of 8/2 in the wave
fronts emanating from the aperture. To aid in visualizing what
happens, consider each point in the antenna aperture, from A to C
in Figure 5, as a point source of a spherical wave front. If viewed
from infinity, the electromagnetic waves from each point interfere
with each other, and when, for a particular direction, 2 in Figure
5, each wave source has a corresponding point that is one-half
wavelength out of phase, a null is produced in that direction due
to destructive interference.

ANTENNA BORESIGHT

2
8

2
A

8/2

B
L

Figure 5. Directional Gain vs Wavelength

In Figure 5, the wave emanating from point A is out of phase with the wave from point B by one-half of a wavelength.
Hence, they cancel. Similarly, a point just to the right of point A cancels with a point just to the right of point B, and so
on across the entire aperture. Therefore, the first null in the radiation pattern is given by:
Sin 2 = 8/L and, in radians, 2 = 8/L (for small angles)

3-1.4

[7]

As the angle off boresight is increased beyond the first null, the intensity of the radiation pattern rises then falls, until the
second null is reached. This corresponds to a phase difference of two wavelengths between the left and right edges of the
aperture. In this case, the argument proceeds as before, except now the aperture is divided into four segments (point A
canceling with a point halfway between A and B, and so on).
The angle 2 is the angle from the center (maximum) of the radiation pattern to the first null. The null-to-null beam width
is 22. Generally, we are interested in the half-power (3 dB) beamwidth. It turns out that this beamwidth is approximately
one-half of the null-to-null beamwidth, so that:
BW3 dB . ()(22) = 8/L
[8]
Therefore, beamwidth is a function of the antenna dimension L and the wavelength of the signal. It can be expressed as
follows: Note: for circular antennas, L in the following equations = diameter
BwN(az) = 8/LAz eff and BW2(el) = 8/LEl eff

[9]

Substituting the two variations of equation [9] into equation [3] and since LAz eff times LEl eff = Ae (effective capture area
of the antenna), we have:
G

4B Laz Lel
4B Ae
4B
'
'
2
BWN BW2 (radians)
8
82

[10]

Note: Equation is approximate since aperture efficiency isnt included as is done later in equation [12].
The efficiency (discussed later) will reduce the gain by a factor of 30-50%, i.e. real gain = .5 to .7 times theoretical gain.
Unity Gain Antenna.
If a square antenna is visualized and G=1, Ae = 82 / 4B. When a dimension is greater than 0.28 8 (~8 ) it is known as
an electrically large antenna, and the antenna will have a gain greater than one (positive gain when expressed in dB).
Conversely, when the dimension is less than 0.28 8 (~8 )(an electrically small antenna), the gain will be less than one
(negative gain when expressed in dB). Therefore, a unity gain antenna can be approximated by an aperture that is 8 by
8.
Beamwidth as a Function of Aperture Length
It can be seen from Figure 5, that the wider the antenna aperture (L), the narrower the beamwidth will be for the same 8.
Therefore, if you have a rectangular shaped horn antenna, the radiation pattern from the wider side will be narrower than
the radiation pattern from the narrow side.
APERTURE EFFICIENCY, 0
The Antenna Efficiency, 0, is a factor which includes all reductions from the maximum gain. 0 can be expressed as a
percentage, or in dB. Several types of "loss" must be accounted for in the efficiency, 0:
(1)
Illumination efficiency which is the ratio of the directivity of the antenna to the directivity of a uniformly
illuminated antenna of the same aperture size,
(2)
Phase error loss or loss due to the fact that the aperture is not a uniform phase surface,
(3)
Spillover loss (Reflector Antennas) which reflects the energy spilling beyond the edge of the reflector into
the back lobes of the antenna,
(4)
Mismatch (VSWR) loss, derived from the reflection at the feed port due to impedance mismatch
(especially important for low frequency antennas), and
(5)
RF losses between the antenna and the antenna feed port or measurement point.

3-1.5

The aperture efficiency, 0a, is also known as the illumination factor, and includes items (1) and (2) above; it does not result
in any loss of power radiated but affects the gain and pattern. It is nominally 0.6-0.8 for a planer array and 0.13 to 0.8 with
a nominal value of 0.5 for a parabolic antenna, however 0 can vary significantly. Other antennas include the spiral
(.002-.5), the horn (.002-.8), the double ridge horn (.005-.93), and the conical log spiral (.0017-1.0).
Items (3), (4), and (5) above represent RF or power losses which can be measured. The efficiency varies and generally gets
lower with wider bandwidths. Also note that the gain equation is optimized for small angles - see derivation of wavelength
portion of equation [7]. This explains why efficiency also gets lower for wider beamwidth antennas.
EFFECTIVE CAPTURE AREA
Effective capture area (Ae) is the product of the physical aperture area (A) and the aperture efficiency (0) or:
Ae ' 0 A '

82G
4B

[11]

GAIN AS A FUNCTION OF APERTURE EFFICIENCY

The Gain of an antenna with losses is given by:
G '

4B0A
82

Where 0 ' Aperture Efficiency

A ' Physical aperture area
8 ' wavelength

[12]

Note that the gain is proportional to the aperture area and inversely proportional to the square of the wavelength.
For example, if the frequency is doubled, (half the wavelength), the aperture could be decreased four times to maintain the
same gain.
BEAM FACTOR
Antenna size and beamwidth are also related by the beam factor defined by:
Beam Factor = (D/8)@(Beamwidth)
where D = antenna dimension in wavelengths.
The beam factor is approximately invariant with antenna size, but does vary with type of antenna aperture illumination or
taper. The beam factor typically varies from 50-70E.
APERTURE ILLUMINATION (TAPER) The aperture illumination or illumination taper is the variation in amplitude
across the aperture. This variation can have several effects on the antenna performance:
(1)
reduction in gain,
(2)
reduced (lower) sidelobes in most cases, and
(3)
increased antenna beamwidth and beam factor.
Tapered illumination occurs naturally in reflector antennas due to the feed radiation pattern and the variation in distance
from the feed to different portions of the reflector. Phase can also vary across the aperture which also affects the gain,
efficiency, and beamwidth.
CIRCULAR ANTENNA GAIN Solving equation [12] in dB, for a circular antenna with area BD2/4, we have:
10 Log G = 20 Log (D/8) + 10 Log (0) + 9.94 dB ; where D = diameter

[13]

This data is depicted in the nomograph of Figure 6. For example, a six foot diameter antenna operating at 9 GHz would
have approximately 44.7 dB of gain as shown by the dashed line drawn on Figure 6. This gain is for an antenna 100%
efficient, and would be 41.7 dB for a typical parabolic antenna (50% efficient). An example of a typical antenna (with
losses) showing the variation of gain with frequency is depicted in Figure 7, and the variation of gain with antenna diameter
in Figure 8. The circle on the curves in Figure 7 and 8 correspond to the Figure 6 example and yields 42 dB of gain for the
6 ft dish at 9 GHz.

3-1.6

Figure 6. Antenna Gain Nomograph

Example Problem: If the two antennas in the drawing are welded together, how much power will be measured at point
A?
(Line loss L1 = L2 = 0.5, and 10log L1 or L2 = 3 dB)
Multiple choice:
A. 16 dBm
b. 28 dBm
c. 4 dBm
d. 10 dBm
e. < 4 dBm

L1

L2
6 dBi gain each
Point
A

+10 dBm Signal

Answer:

The antennas do not act as they normally would since the antennas are operating in the near field. They act as
inefficient coupling devices resulting in some loss of signal. In addition, since there are no active components, you cannot
end up with more power than you started with. The correct answer is e. < 4 dBm.
10 dBm - 3 dB - small loss -3 dB = 4 dBm - small loss
If the antennas were separated by 5 ft and were in the far field, the antenna gain could be used with space loss formulas to
calculate (at 5 GHz): 10 dBm - 3 dB + 6 dB - 50 dB (space loss) + 6 dB -3 dB = -34 dBm (a much smaller signal).

3-1.7

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

10

12

14

16

18

16

18

FREQUENCY (GHz)

EXAMPLE ONLY

Figure 7. Gain of a Typical 6 Foot Dish Antenna (With Losses)

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

EXAMPLE ONLY

10

12

14

DIAMETER (Feet)
Figure 8. Gain of a Typical Dish at 9 GHz (With Losses)

3-1.8

POLARIZATION
Table 1 shows the theoretical ratio of power transmitted between antennas of different polarization. These ratios
are seldom fully achieved due to effects such as reflection, refraction, and other wave interactions, so some practical ratios
are also included.
Table 1. Polarization Loss for Various Antenna Combinations
Transmit
Antenna
Polarization

Ratio of Power Received to Maximum Power

Receive Antenna
Polarization

Theoretical
Ratio in dB

as Ratio

Practical Horn
Ratio in dB

Vertical
Vertical
0 dB
1
*
Vertical
Slant (45E or 135E)
-3 dB

*
Vertical
Horizontal
- 4 dB
0
-20 dB
Vertical
Circular (right-hand or left-hand)
-3 dB

*
Horizontal
Horizontal
0 dB
1
*
Horizontal
Slant (45E or 135E)
-3 dB

*
Horizontal
Circular (right-hand or left-hand)
-3 dB

*
Circular (right-hand) Circular (right-hand)
0 dB
1
*
Circular (right-hand) Circular (left-hand)
- 4 dB
0
-20 dB
Circular (right or left) Slant (45E or 135E)
-3 dB

*
* Approximately the same as theoretical
Note: Switching transmit and receive antenna polarization will give the same results.

Practical Spiral

as Ratio

Ratio in dB

as Ratio

*
*
1/100
*
*
*
*
*
1/100
*

N/A
N/A
N/A
*
N/A
N/A
*
*
-10 dB
*

N/A
N/A
N/A
*
N/A
N/A
*
*
1/10
*

The polarization of an
electromagnetic wave is defined as the
orientation of the electric field vector.
Antenna with two
Recall that the electric field vector is
orthogonal conductors
Ey
perpendicular to both the direction of
Y
N
Ex
travel and the magnetic field vector.
Direction
The polarization is described by the
of Travel
geometric figure traced by the electric
field vector upon a stationary plane
N
X
perpendicular to the direction of
The sum of the E field vectors determines the sense of polarization
propagation, as the wave travels
through that plane. An electromagnetic
wave is frequently composed of (or can
Figure 1. Polarization Coordinates
be broken down into) two orthogonal
components as shown in Figure 1. This may be due to the arrangement of power input leads to various points on a flat
antenna, or due to an interaction of active elements in an array, or many other reasons.
The geometric figure traced by the sum of the electric field vectors over time is, in general, an ellipse as shown in
Figure 2. Under certain conditions the ellipse may collapse into a straight line, in which case the polarization is called linear.
In the other extreme, when the two components are of equal magnitude and 90E out of phase, the ellipse will
become circular as shown in Figure 3. Thus linear and circular polarization are the two special cases of elliptical
polarization. Linear polarization may be further classified as being vertical, horizontal, or slant.

3-2.1

Figure 2 depicts plots of the E field vector while varying the relative amplitude and phase angle of its component parts.
Ratio of
Ey
Ex

Wave is travelling toward viewer - Out of the paper

Vertical polarization

4
Counter Clockwise

Clockwise

2
RHCP

LHCP

1
1/2
Horizontal polarization
0
-180E

-135E

-90E

-45E
0E
+45E +90E
Phase angle between E Field Vectors

+135E

+180E

Figure 2. Polarization as a Function of Ey/Ex and Phase angle

For a linearly polarized antenna, the radiation pattern
is taken both for a co-polarized and cross polarized response.
The polarization quality is expressed by the ratio of these two
responses. The ratio between the responses must typically be
great (30 dB or greater) for an application such as crosspolarized jamming. For general applications, the ratio
indicates system power loss due to polarization mismatch. For
circularly polarized antennas, radiation patterns are usually
taken with a rotating linearly polarized reference antenna. The
reference antenna rotates many times while taking
measurements around the azimuth of the antenna that is being
tested. The resulting antenna pattern is the linear polarized
gain with a cyclic ripple. The peak-to-peak value is the axial
ratio, and represents the polarization quality for a circular
polarized antenna. The typical RWR antenna has a maximum
3 dB axial ratio within 45E of boresight.

B/2

6B

Ey

4B
2B

Ex

6B
4B

2B

B
0

Figure 3. Circular Polarization - E Field

For any antenna with an aperture area, as the aperture
is rotated, the viewed dimension along the axis remains
constant, while the other viewed dimension decreases to zero at 90E rotation. The axial ratio of an antenna will get worse
as the antenna is rotated off boresight because the field contribution from the axial component will remain fairly constant
and the other orthogonal component will decrease with rotation.

3-2.2

The sense of antenna polarization is defined from a viewer positioned behind an antenna looking in the direction
of propagation. The polarization is specified as a transmitting, not receiving antenna regardless of intended use.
We frequently use "hand rules" to describe the sense of
polarization. The sense is defined by which hand would be used in
order to point that thumb in the direction of propagation and point the
fingers of the same hand in the direction of rotation of the E field
vector. For example, referring to Figure 4, if your thumb is pointed
in the direction of propagation and the rotation is counterclockwise
looking in the direction of travel, then you have left hand circular
polarization.

Thumb In The
Direction
Of Propagation
Of Wave

Fingers in
The Direction
of Rotation of
E Field Vector

Optics people view an aperture from the front and therefore

use the opposite reference.
The polarization of a linearly polarized horn antenna can be
directly determined by the orientation of the feed probe, which is in
the direction of the E-field.

LEFT HAND POLARIZATION

Figure 4. Left Hand Polarization

In general, a flat surface or sphere will reflect a linearly polarized wave with the same polarization as received. A
horizontally polarized wave may get extended range because of water and land surface reflections, but signal cancellation
will probably result in "holes" in coverage. Reflections will reverse the sense of circular polarization.
If the desired antenna is used for receiving a direct transmission as shown in Figure 5 below, the same polarization
sense (specified if transmitting) is required for maximum signal reception in this situation. Buy two right-hand or two left-hand
circularly polarized antennas for this case. When you procure antennas, remember that the polarization is specified as if
transmitting, regardless of intended use.

Wave propagation between two identical antennas is analogous to being able to thread a nut from one bolt to an
identical opposite facing bolt.

XMTR

PG
t t

RHCP

PG
r r

RHCPTx Antenna

RCVR

RHCPTx Antenna

NOTE: This figure depicts an example only, all polarizations can be reversed.
In either case, the antennas should be identical.
Figure 5. Same Circular Polarization

3-2.3

If the desired antenna is used for a receiving a wave with a single or odd number of reflections, such as a bistatic
radar where separate antennas are used for transmit and receive as shown in Figure 6, then opposite circularly polarized
antennas would be used for maximum signal reception. In this case buy antennas of opposite polarization sense (one left hand
and one right hand).

XMTR

PG
t t

RHCP
Single
Reflector
Targets

RHCPTx Antenna
RCVR

PG
r r
LHCP

e.g. Flat Plate

or Sphere

LHCPTx Antenna
NOTE: This figure depicts an example only, all polarizations can be reversed.
In either case, the antennas should have opposite polarization.
Figure 6. Opposite Circular Polarization
In a corner reflector, waves reflect twice before returning to the receiver as shown in Figure 7, consequently they
return with the same sense as they were transmitted. In this case (or any even number of reflections) buy antennas of the
same polarization sense.

XMTR

PG
t t

RHCP

RHCPTx Antenna
RCVR

PG
r r

LHCP
RHCP

RHCPTx Antenna

Dihedral
Corner
Reflector
Targets
Note: A triangular trihedral
corner reflector would have
three reflections (odd number)
so Figure 6 would apply.

NOTE: This figure depicts an example only, all polarizations can be reversed.
In either case, the antennas should be identical.
Figure 7. Same Circular Polarization With Corner Reflector
An aircraft acts as both a corner reflector and a "normal" reflector so the return has mixed polarization. Most
airborne radars use the same antenna for transmitting and receiving in order to receive the corner reflections and help
exclude receipt of reflections from rain (single polarization reversal), however in doing so there is about a 5-9 dB loss from
the ideal receiver case. It should be noted that the return from raindrops is attenuated by approximately 20 dB.

3-2.4

RADIATION PATTERNS
The radiation pattern is a graphical depiction of the relative field strength transmitted from or received by the
antenna. Antenna radiation patterns are taken at one frequency, one polarization, and one plane cut. The patterns are
usually presented in polar or rectilinear form with a dB strength scale. Patterns are normalized to the maximum graph
value, 0 dB, and a directivity is given for the antenna. This means that if the side lobe level from the radiation pattern
were down -13 dB, and the directivity of the antenna was 4 dB, then the sidelobe gain would be -9 dB.
Figures 1 to 14 on the pages following depict various antenna types and their associated characteristics. The
patterns depicted are those which most closely match the purpose for which the given shape was intended. In other
words, the radiation pattern can change dramatically depending upon frequency, and the wavelength to antenna
characteristic length ratio. See section 3-4. Antennas are designed for a particular frequency. Usually the
characteristic length is a multiple of 8/2 minus 2-15% depending on specific antenna characteristics.
The gain is assumed to mean directional gain of the antenna compared to an isotropic radiator transmitting to
or receiving from all directions.
The half-power (-3 dB) beamwidth is a measure of the directivity of the antenna.
Polarization, which is the direction of the electric (not magnetic) field of an antenna is another important
antenna characteristic. This may be a consideration for optimizing reception or jamming.
The bandwidth is a measure of how much the frequency can be varied while still
obtaining an acceptable VSWR (2:1 or less) and minimizing losses in unwanted
directions. See Glossary, Section 10.
A 2:1 VSWR corresponds to a 9.5dB (or 10%) return loss - see Section 6-2.
Two methods for computing antenna bandwidth are used:
Narrowband by %, B '

Broadband by ratio, B '

FU & FL
FC

(100) , where FC = Center frequency

FU
FL

An antenna is considered broadband if FU / FL > 2. The table at the right shows

the equivalency of the two, however the shaded values are not normally used because of
the aforementioned difference in broadband/narrowband.

3-3.1

Bandwidth
%

Ratio

5
10
20
30
40
50
60

1.05 : 1
1.11 : 1
1.22 : 1
1.35 : 1
1.50 : 1
1.67 : 1
1.85 : 1

67
100
120
133
150
160
163

2:1
3:1
4:1
5:1
7:1
9:1
10 : 1

For an object that experiences a plane wave, the resonant mode is achieved when the dimension of the object is
n8/2, where n is an integer. Therefore, one can treat the apertures shown in the figure below as half wave length dipole
antennas for receiving and reflecting signals. More details are contained in section 8-4.

VERTICAL (Elevation)
n8/2

HORIZONTAL (Azimuth)
n8/2
n8/2
or

The following lists antenna types by page number. The referenced page shows frequency limits, polarizations, etc.
Type
4 arm conical spiral
alford loop
aperture synthesis
array
axial mode helix
biconical w/polarizer
biconical
cavity backed circuit fed slot
cavity backed spiral
circular loop
conical spiral
corner reflector
dipole array, linear
dipole
discone
dual polarized sinuous
guide fed slot
helix, normal mode
helix, axial mode
horn
linear dipole array

Page
3-3.6
3-3.4
3-3.8
3-3.8
3-3.5
3-3.6
3-3.6
3-3.9
3-3.5
3-3.4
3-3.5
3-3.9
3-3.8
3-3.3
3-3.4
3-3.6
3-3.9
3-3.5
3-3.5
3-3.7
3-3.8

Type
log periodic
loop, circular
loop, alfred
loop, square
luneberg lens
microstrip patch
monopole
normal mode helix
parabolic
patch
reflector
rhombic
sinuous, dual polarized
slot, guide fed
slot, cavity backed
spiral, 4 arm conical
spiral, conical
spiral, cavity backed
square loop
vee
yagi

3-3.2

Page
3-3.8
3-3.4
3-3.4
3-3.4
3-3.9
3-3.9
3-3.3
3-3.5
3-3.7
3-3.9
3-3.9
3-3.3
3-3.6
3-3.9
3-3.9
3-3.6
3-3.5
3-3.5
3-3.4
3-3.3
3-3.8

Antenna Type

Radiation Pattern

MONOPOLE

Characteristics
Polarization: Linear
Vertical as shown

Elevation:

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth

45 deg x 360 deg
Typical Gain: 2-6 dB at best
Bandwidth: 10% or 1.1:1

Azimuth:
Y

Frequency Limit
Lower: None
Upper: None

Ground Plane

Remarks: Polarization changes to

horizontal if rotated to horizontal

X
X

Polarization: Linear
Vertical as shown

8/2 DIPOLE

Elevation:

Z
Y

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth

80 deg x 360 deg
Typical Gain: 2 dB
Bandwidth: 10% or 1.1:1

L = 8 /2
Y

Frequency Limit
Lower: None
Upper: 8 GHz (practical limit)

Azimuth:
Y

Remarks: Pattern and lobing changes

significantly with L/f. Used as a gain
reference < 2 GHz.

X
X

Figure 1

Antenna Type

Radiation Pattern

Characteristics
Polarization: Linear
Vertical as shown

VEE

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth

60 deg x 60 deg

Z
Elevation &
Azimuth:

Typical Gain: 2 to 7 dB
Bandwidth: "Broadband"
Y

Frequency Limit
Lower: 3 MHz
Upper: 500 MHz (practical limits)
Remarks: 24KHz versions are known to
exist. Terminations may be used to
reduce backlobes.

Polarization: Linear
Vertical as shown

RHOMBIC

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth

60 deg x 60 deg

Z
Elevation &
Azimuth:

Typical Gain: 3 dB
Bandwidth: "Broadband"
Y

Frequency Limit
Lower: 3 MHz
Upper: 500 MHz
Remarks: Termination resistance
used to reduce backlobes.

Figure 2

3-3.3

Antenna Type

Radiation Pattern

Characteristics

CIRCULAR LOOP
(Small)

Polarization: Linear
Horizontal as shown

Elevation:

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

80 deg x 360 deg
Typical Gain: -2 to 2 dB

Azimuth:

Bandwidth: 10% or 1.1:1

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 50 MHz
Upper: 1 GHz

X
X
Z

Elevation:

SQUARE LOOP
(Small) Z

Polarization: Linear
Horizontal as shown
Y

Typical Gain: 1-3 dB

8/4
Azimuth:

8/4

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

100 deg x 360 deg

Bandwidth: 10% or 1.1:1

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 50 MHz
Upper: 1 GHz
X
X

Figure 3

Antenna Type

Radiation Pattern
Elevation:

DISCONE

Characteristics

Polarization: Linear
Vertical as shown

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

20-80 deg x 360 deg

Typical Gain: 0-4 dB

Y

Bandwidth: 100% or 3:1

Azimuth:

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 30 MHz
Upper: 3 GHz

X
X

Elevation:

ALFORD LOOP

Polarization: Linear
Horizontal as shown

Z
Y

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

80 deg x 360 deg
Typical Gain: -1 dB

Bandwidth: 67% or 2:1

Azimuth:
Y

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 100 MHz
Upper: 12 GHz

X
X

Figure 4
3-3.7
3-3.4

Antenna Type

Radiation Pattern

Characteristics
Polarization: Circular
Left hand as shown

AXIAL MODE HELIX

Z

dia. 8 / B

spacing
.8 / 4

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

50 deg x 50 deg

Elevation &
Azimuth

Typical Gain: 10 dB
Bandwidth: 52% or 1.7:1
Y

Frequency Limit
Lower: 100 MHz
Upper: 3 GHz

Remarks: Number of loops >3

Polarization:
Circular - with an ideal pitch to
diameter ratio.

NORMAL MODE HELIX

Elevation:

Z
Y

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

60 deg x 360 deg
Typical Gain: 0 dB

Azimuth:

Bandwidth: 5% or 1.05:1

Frequency Limit
Lower: 100 MHz
Upper: 3 GHz

X
X

Figure 5
3-3.8

Antenna Type

Radiation Pattern

Characteristics

CAVITY BACKED
SPIRAL (Flat Helix)

Polarization: Circular
Left hand as shown

Elevation &
Azimuth

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

60 deg x 90 deg
Typical Gain: 2-4 dB
Y

Bandwidth: 160% or 9:1

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 500 MHz
Upper: 18 GHz

CONICAL SPIRAL

Polarization: Circular
Left hand as shown

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

60 deg x 60 deg

Elevation &
Azimuth

Typical Gain: 5-8 dB

Y

Bandwidth: 120% or 4:1

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 50 MHz
Upper: 18 GHz

Figure 6
3-3.9
3-3.5

Antenna Type

Radiation Pattern

4 ARM CONICAL SPIRAL

Elevation:

Characteristics
Polarization: Circular
Left hand as shown

Z
Y

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

50 deg x 360 deg
Typical Gain: 0 dB

Azimuth:
Y

Bandwidth: 120% or 4:1

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 500 MHz
Upper: 18 GHz
X
X

Polarization: Dual vertical or

horizontal or dual Circular right hand
or left hand with hybrid

DUAL POLARIZED SINUOUS

Z

Elevation &
Azimuth

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

75 deg x 75 deg
Typical Gain: 2 dB
Y

Bandwidth: 163% or 10:1

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 500 MHz
Upper: 18 GHz

Figure 7

Antenna Type

Radiation Pattern

BICONICAL

Elevation:

Characteristics

Polarization: Linear,
Vertical as shown

Z
Y

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

20-100 deg x 360 deg
Typical Gain: 0-4 dB

Azimuth:

Bandwidth: 120% or 4:1

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 500 MHz
Upper: 40 GHz

X
X

BICONICAL W/POLARIZER

Elevation:

Polarization: Circular,
Direction depends on polarization
Y

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

20-100 deg x 360 deg
Typical Gain: -3 to 1 dB

Azimuth:
Y
Y

Bandwidth: 100% or 3:1

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 2 GHz
Upper: 18 GHz

X
X

Figure 8
3-3.11
3-3.6

Antenna Type

Radiation Pattern

Characteristics

Polarization: Linear

Elevation:

HORN
Z

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

40 deg x 40 deg

Typical Gain: 5 to 20 dB

3 dB beamwidth = 56 8E/dz

Bandwidth:
If ridged: 120% or 4:1
If not ridged: 67% or 2:1

dz
Y

Azimuth:

dx

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 50 MHz
Upper: 40 GHz

3 dB beamwidth = 70 8E/dx

HORN W / POLARIZER

Polarization: Circular,
Depends on polarizer

Elevation:

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

40 deg x 40 deg

Typical Gain: 5 to 10 dB
Bandwidth: 60% or 2:1
Y

Azimuth:

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 2 GHz
Upper: 18 GHz

Figure 9

Antenna Type

Radiation Pattern

Characteristics
Polarization:
Takes polarization of feed

PARABOLIC (Prime)
Z

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

1 to 10 deg
Elevation &
Azimuth

Typical Gain: 20 to 30 dB

Bandwidth: 33% or 1.4:1

limited mostly by feed
Frequency Limit:
Lower: 400 MHz
Upper: 13+ GHz

PARABOLIC

Polarization:
Takes polarization of feed

Gregorian

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

1 to 10 deg

Elevation &
Azimuth

Typical Gain: 20 to 30 dB
Y

Bandwidth: 33% or 1.4:1

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 400 MHz
Upper: 13+ GHz

Cassegrain
X

Figure 10
3-3.13
3-3.7

Antenna Type

Radiation Pattern

Characteristics

Polarization: Linear
Horizontal as shown

YAGI
Z
Y

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth

50 deg X 50 deg

Elevation:

Typical Gain: 5 to 15 dB
Azimuth:

Bandwidth: 5% or 1.05:1
Y

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 50 MHz
Upper: 2 GHz

Polarization: Linear

LOG PERIODIC

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

60 deg x 80 deg

Typical Gain: 6 to 8 dB

Elevation:

Bandwidth: 163% or 10:1

Azimuth:

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 3 MHz
Upper: 18 GHz

Remarks: This array may be formed

with many shapes including dipoles or
toothed arrays.

Figure 11
3-3.14

Antenna Type

Radiation Pattern

LINEAR DIPOLE ARRAY

Characteristics

Elevation:

(Corporate Feed)

Polarization: Element dependent

Vertical as shown

Z
Y

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

Related to gain
Typical Gain: Dependent on
number of elements

Azimuth:

Bandwidth: Narrow

Y
Y

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 10 MHz
Upper: 10 GHz

X
X

APERTURE SYNTHESIS
Z

All characteristics dependent on

elements
Elevation &
Azimuth
Y

Figure 12
3-3.15
3-3.8

Remarks: Excellent side-looking,

ground mapping where the aircraft is a
moving linear element.

Antenna Type

Radiation Pattern

Characteristics
Polarization: Linear, vertical as shown

CAVITY BACKED
CIRCUIT FED SLOT
( and Microstrip Patch )

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

80 deg x 80 deg
Typical Gain: 6 dB

Elevation &
Azimuth

Bandwidth: Narrow
Frequency Limit:
Y
Y

Lower: 50 MHz
Upper: 18 GHz

Remarks: The feed line is sometimes

separated from the radiator by a
dialetric & uses capacititive coupling.
Large conformal phased arrays can be
made this way.

Polarization: Linear,

GUIDE FED SLOT

Elevation:
Z

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth

Elevation: 45-50E
Azimuth: 80E
Typical Gain: 0 dB
Bandwidth: Narrow

Azimuth:
Y

Frequency Limit:
Lower: 2 GHz
Upper: 40 GHz
Remarks: Open RF Waveguide

Figure 13
3-3.16
Antenna Type

Radiation Pattern

Characteristics
Polarization:
Feed dependent

CORNER REFLECTOR

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth

40 deg x variable

Typical Gain: 10 dB above feed

Elevation: (Z-Y)
Azimuth: (X-Y)
Y

Bandwidth: Narrow

Dependent upon feed emitter

Frequency Limit
Lower: 1 GHz
Upper: 40 GHz
Remarks: Typically fed with a dipole
or colinear array.

Polarization:
Feed dependent

LUNEBURG LENS
Also "LUNEBERG"

Typical Half-Power Beamwidth:

System dependent

Elevation &
Azimuth

Typical Gain: System dependent

Bandwidth: Narrow

Frequency Limit
Lower: 1 GHz
Upper: 40 GHz
Remarks: Variable index dielectric
sphere.

Figure 14
3-3.17

3-3.9

FREQUENCY / PHASE EFFECTS OF ANTENNAS

The radiation patterns of the antennas presented in the previous section are for antenna geometries most commonly
used. The antenna should be viewed as a matching network that takes the power from a transmission line (50 ohm, for
example), and matches it to the free space "impedance" of 377 ohms. The most critical parameter is the change of VSWR
with frequency. The pattern usually does not vary much from acceptable to the start of unacceptable VSWRs (> 2:1). For
a given physical antenna geometric size, the actual radiation pattern varies with frequency.
The antenna pattern depicted in Figure 1 is for the dipole pictured in Section 3-3. The maximum gain is normalized
to the outside of the polar plot and the major divisions correspond to 10 dB change. In this example, the dipole length (in
wavelengths) is varied, but the same result can be obtained by changing frequency with a fixed dipole length. From the
figure, it can be seen that side lobes start to form at 1.258 and the side lobe actually has more gain than the main beam at
1.58. Since the radiation pattern changes with frequency, the gain also changes.

BW = 47.7E
L = 0.75 8

BW = 77.9E
L= 0.5 8

BW = 37.1E
L = 1.5 8

BW = 27.5E
L = 2.0 8

Figure 1. Frequency Effects

3-4.1

BW = 32.5E
L = 1.25 8

BW = 27.1E
L = 2.5 8

Figure 2 depicts phase/array effects, which are yet another method for obtaining varied radiation patterns. In the
figure, parallel dipoles are viewed from the end. It can be seen that varying the phase of the two transmissions can cause
the direction of the radiation pattern to change. This is the concept behind phased array antennas. Instead of having a
system mechanically sweeping the direction of the antenna through space, the phase of radiating components is varied
electronically, producing a moving pattern with no moving parts. It can also be seen that increasing the number of elements
further increases the directivity of the array. In an array, the pattern does vary considerably with frequency due to element
spacing (measured in wavelengths) and the frequency sensitivity of the phase shifting networks.
TWO /2 DIPOLES
Spacing = / 2

= 90

= 180

=0

FOUR /2 DIPOLES
Spacing = / 2

=0

END FIRE ARRAY

= 90
Progressive
Shift

Utilizing these techniques,

a phased array antenna
can be constructed by
simply electronically
varying the phase in a
progressive repetitive
manner in order to create a
specific scan pattern.

Figure 2. Phase / Array Effects

Two antennas that warrant special consideration are the phased array and the Rotman bootlace type lens. Both of
these antennas find wide application in EW, RADAR, and Communications. The phased array will be described first.

LINEAR PHASED ARRAY

The linear phased array with equal spaced elements is easiest to analyze and forms the basis for most array designs.
Figure 3 schematically illustrates a corporate feed linear array with element spacing d.

3-4.2

It is the simplest and is still

BROADSIDE
widely used. By controlling the phase
SCANNED BEAM
and amplitude of excitation to each
DIRECTION
2E
EQUIPHASE
element, as depicted, we can control
FRONT
the direction and shape of the beam
radiated by the array. The phase
)N= 2Bd sin 2o
excitation, N(n), controls the beam
d
8
pointing angle, 2o, in a phased array.
RADIATORS
A1 e j N 1 A0 e j N o
To produce a broadside beam, 2o=0,
An e j N n
requires phase excitation, N(n)=0.
0E - 360E
7
6
5
4
3
2
0E
PHASE
Other scan angles require an
)N
)N )N )N )N )N )N
SHIFTERS
excitation, N(n) = nkd sin(2o), for the
POWER
nth element where k is the wave
DISTRIBUTION
number (2B/8). In this manner a linear
NETWORK
phased array can radiate a beam in any
ANTENNA INPUT
scan direction, 2o, provided the
Figure 3. Corporate Fed Phased Array
element pattern has sufficient
beamwidth. The amplitude excitation, An, can be used to control beam shape and sidelobe levels. Often the amplitude
excitation is tapered in a manner similar to that used for aperture antennas to reduce the sidelobe levels. One of the
problems that can arise with a phased array is insufficient bandwidth, since the phase shift usually is not obtained through
the introduction of additional path length. However, it should be noted that at broadside the corporate feed does have equal
path length and would have good bandwidth for this scan angle.
The linear array described above would yield a narrow fan beam with
the narrow beamwidth in the plane of the array. To obtain a pencil beam it
would be necessary to array several of these line arrays. A problem associated
with all electronic scanning is beam distortion with scan angle. Figure 4
illustrates this phenomenon. It results in spread of the beam shape and a
consequent reduction in gain known as "scan loss". For an ideal array element,
scan loss is equal to the aperture size reduction (projected) in the scan
direction which varies as cos 2.
When elements are spaced greater than 8/2 apart, grating lobes are
possible when scanning. As the beam is scanned further from broadside, a
point is reached at which a second symmetrical main lobe is developed at the
negative scan angle from broadside. This condition is not wanted because
antenna gain is immediately reduced by 3 dB due to the second lobe. Grating
Figure 4. Beam Distortion
lobes are a significant problem in EW applications because the broad
frequency bandwidth requirements mean that at the high end of the frequency band, the elements may be spaced greater than
8/2.
There are many other factors to consider with a phased array such as coning, where the beam curves at large scan
angles, and mutual coupling between elements that affect match and excitation. They will not be covered in detail here.
Of interest is the gain of the array which is given by:

Array Gain ' Ge(2) @ j A(n) e jN(n) e jnkd sin2

N

Where each element is as described in Section 3-4.

n'1

Ge(2) is the element gain which in this case has been taken the same for all elements. Note that if we set A(n)=1,
and N(n)=0, then at broadside where sin(2) = 0, the gain would be (N Ge). This represents the maximum gain of the array,
which typically will not exceed nB, and is a familiar figure.
3-4.3

ROTMAN BOOTLACE LENS

Another method of feeding an array of
elements is to use a lens such as the Rotman
(rhymes with rotten) Bootlace type shown in
Figure 5. The lens consists of a parallel plate region
(nowadays microstrip or stripline construction) and
cables of specified length connecting the array of
elements to the parallel plate region. The geometry
of the lens and the cable lengths are designed so that
all ray paths traced from a beam port on the right
side to its associated wavefront on the left array port
side, are equal. This tailoring of the design is
accomplished at three focus points (beam ports 1, 4,
and 7 in Figure 5). Departure from perfect focus at
intermediate beam ports is negligible in most
designs.

1
2

Beam 1
Wavefront
F

3
4
5
6

Beam 7
Wavefront
F

Beam 1
Beam 7

Figure 5. Rotman Bootlace Lens

The Rotman lens provides both true time delay phase shift and amplitude taper in one lens component. The true
time delay is one of the distinct advantages of the lens over the phase shifted array since that makes it independent of
frequency. To understand how the taper is obtained requires knowledge of the parallel plate region. For a stripline design
the unit would consist of a large flat plate-like center conductor sandwiched between two ground planes, and having a shape
much like that of the plan view outline shown in Figure 5 with individual tapered launchers (connectors) attached to each
beam port and array port. If the antenna is in the receive mode, the energy intercepted on the array port side can be
controlled by the angle subtended by the tapered sections of the connector (launcher) much like a larger antenna would
intercept a larger portion of energy from free space.
Unlike the phased array with its fine beam steering, the Rotman lens provides only a distinct set of beams. Fine
steering is obtained by combining beams either equally or unequally to form intermediate beams. As can be seen in
Figure 6, this results in a broader beam with less gain but lower side lobes than the primary beams.
High transmit power can be obtained using a Rotman lens by placing a low power amplifier between each lens
output port and its antenna. In this case a separate Rotman lens would have to be used for receiving.

0
Primary Beam
Narrower
Higher Gain

-10

dB -20
Intermediate Beam
Wider
Lower Gain

-30
-40
-20

-10

10
Degrees

20

30

40

Figure 6. Primary and Intermediate Beam Formation in Lens Arrays

3-4.4

ANTENNA NEAR FIELD

As noted in the sections on RF propagation and the radar equation, electromagnetic radiation expands
spherically (Figure 1) and the power density at a long range (R) from the transmitting antenna is:

PD '

PtGt

[1]

4BR 2

When the range is large, the spherical surface of uniform power density appears flat to a receiving antenna
which is very small compared to the surface of the sphere. This is why the far field wave front is considered planar and
the rays approximately parallel. Also, it is apparent that at some shorter range, the spherical surface no longer appears
flat, even to a very small receiving antenna.
The distances where the planer, parallel ray approximation breaks down is known as the near field. The
crossover distance between near and far fields (Rff) is taken to be where the phase error is 1/16 of a wavelength, or
about 22.5E.

Rff '

2D 2
8

where 8 is the wavelength and D is the largest dimension of the transmit antenna.

[2]

If the same size antenna is used for multiple frequencies, Rff will increase with increasing frequency. However,
if various size antennas are used for different frequencies and each antenna is designed with D as a function of 8 (8/2 to
1008), then Rff will vary from c/2f to 20000c/f. In this case Rff will decrease with increasing frequency. For example:
a 108 antenna at 3 GHZ has a D of 100 cm and corresponding Rff of 20 m, while a 108 antenna at 30 GHz has a D of
10 cm and corresponding Rff of 2 m.
While the above analogy provides an image of
the difference between the near and far fields, the
relationship must be defined as a characteristic of the
transmitting antenna.
Actual antennas, of course, are not ideal point
source radiators but have physical dimensions. If the
transmitting antenna placed at the origin of Figure 1
occupies distance D along the Z-axis and is boresighted
along the Y-axis (N = 90), then the geometry of point P
on the sphere is represented in two dimensions by
Figure 2. For convenience, the antenna is represented by
a series of point sources in an array.

Figure 1 - Spherical Radiation to point "P" from an ideal

point source.

3-5.1

When point P is close to the antenna, as in

Figure 2, then the difference in distance of the two rays r
and R taken respectively from the center of the antenna
and the outer edge of the antenna varies as point P
changes.

P(y,z)
R
r

Derivation of equation [2] is given as follows:

From Figure 2, the following applies:

zt

r2 = z2 + y2

[3]

z = r cos 2

[4]

y = r sin 2

and

[5]

R ' y 2%(z&z ))2 ' y 2%z 2&2zz )%(z ))2

[6]

Substituting [3] and [4] into [6]

(z-zt)

N = 90E

Figure 2 - Near Field Geometry of point "P" for a nonideal radiator with dimension D.

R ' r 2%[&2(r cos 2)z ) %(z ))2]

[7]

which puts point P into spherical coordinates.

Equation [7] can be expanded by the binomial theorem which for the first three terms, reduces to:

R ' r & z ) cos 2 %

(z ))2sin2 2
% .......
2r

[8]

In the parallel ray approximation for far field calculations (Figure 3) the third term of [8] is neglected.
The distance where the far field begins (Rff) (or where the near field ends) is the value of r when the error in R
due to neglecting the third term of equation [8], equals 1/16 of a wavelength.
Rff is usually calculated on boresight, so 2 = 90E and the second term of equation [8] equals zero (Cos 90E =
0), therefore from Figure 3, where D is the antenna dimension, Rff is found by equating the third term of [8] to 1/16
wavelength.

(z ))2 sin2 2
8
'
2Rff
16

Sin 2 ' Sin 90 ' 1 and z ) ' D/2

so:

D 2
2
8
'
16
2Rff

Rff '

16(D/2)2
2D 2
'
28
8

Equation [9] is the standard calculation of far field given in all references.
Besides [9] some general rules of thumb for far field conditions are:
r >> D or r >> 8
3-5.2

[9]

If the sphere and point P are a very great distance from the antenna, then the rays are very nearly parallel and
this difference is small as in Figure 3.
Z

zt

N = 90E

ztcos 2

Figure 3 - Far Field Parallel Ray Approximation for Calculations.

The power density within the near field varies as a function of the type of aperture illumination and is less than
would be calculated by equation [1]. Thus, in the antenna near field there is stored energy. (The complex radiation
field equations have imaginary terms indicating reactive power.) Figure 4 shows normalized power density for three
different illuminations.
Curve A is for reference only and shows how power density would vary if it were calculated using
equation [1].
Curve B shows power density variations on axis for an antenna aperture with a cosine amplitude distribution.
This is typical of a horn antenna in the H-plane.
Curve C shows power density variations on axis for a uniformly illuminated antenna aperture or for a line
source. This is typical of a horn antenna in the E-plane.
Curve D shows power density variations on axis for an antenna aperture with a tapered illumination.
Generally the edge illumination is approximately -10 dB from the center illumination and is typical of a parabolic dish
antenna.
Point E - For radiation safety purposes, a general rule of thumb for tapered illumination is that the maximum
safe level of 10 mW/cm2 (-200 V/m) is reached in the near field if the level at Rff reaches 0.242 mW/cm2 as can be
verified by computing the power density at point E in Figure 4. (10 mW/cm2 at point E extrapolates to 0.242 mW/cm2
[16 dB lower] at R=Rff , or Y axis value =1). Figure 1 in Section 3-6 depicts more precise values for radiation hazard
exposure.
Point F - Far Field Point. At distances closer to the source than this point (near field), the power density from
any given antenna is less than that predicted using Curve A. At farther distances, (far field) power densities from all
types of antennas are the same.

3-5.3

X = Power Density in dB Normalized to Y = 1, i.e. Y = R / R ff for Near Field Measurements

Y = Near Field Distance Normalized to Far Field

Transition Point I.e. Y = R/(2D 2 /8) = R/R ff

Figure 4 - Antenna Near-Field On-Axis Power Density (Normalized)

For Various Aperture Illuminations

FOR FAR FIELD MEASUREMENTS:

ONE WAY SIGNAL STRENGTH (S)
S
6 dB
(1/4 pwr)

6 dB
(4x pwr)

S decreases by 6 dB
when the distance doubles
S increases by 6 dB
when the distance is half

TWO WAY SIGNAL STRENGTH (S)

2R
S decreases by 12 dB
12 dB
when the distance doubles
(1/16 pwr)
R
S

2R
R

12 dB

(16x pwr)

0.5 R

S increases by 12 dB
when the distance is half

R
0.5 R

When free space measurements are performed at a known distance from a source, it is often necessary to know
if the measurements are being performed in the far field. As can be seen from Curve A on Figure 4, if the distance is
halved (going from 1.0 to 0.5 on the Y axis), the power density will increase by 6 dB (going from 0 to 6 dB on the X
axis). Each reduction in range by results in further 6 dB increases. As previously mentioned, Curve A is drawn for
reference only in the near field region, since at distances less than Rff the power density increases less than 6 dB when
the range is halved. In the far field, all curves converge and Equation [1] applies.
When a measurement is made in free space, a good check to ensure that is was performed in the far field is to
repeat the measurement at twice the distance. The power should decrease by exactly 6 dB. A common error is to use 3
dB (the half power point) for comparison. Conversely, the power measurement can be repeated at half the distance, in
which case you would look for a 6 dB increase, however the conclusion is not as sure, because the first measurement
could have been made in the far field, and the second could have been made in the near field.
3-5.4

RADIATION HAZARDS
Radiation Hazard (RADHAZ) describes the hazards of electromagnetic radiation to fuels, electronic hardware,
ordnance, and personnel. In the military these hazards are segregated as follows:
1) Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Personnel (HERP)
2) Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Ordnance (HERO)
3) Hazards of Electromagnetic Radiation to Fuel (HERF)
The current industrial specifications for RADHAZ are contained in ANSI/IEEE C95.1-1992 which was used as
a reference to create the combined Navy regulation NAVSEA OP3565 / NAVAIR 16-1-529. Volume I contains HERP
and HERF limits - its current version is REV 5. Volume II (REV 6) covers HERO. These limits are shown in Figure 1
although all values have been converted to average power density.
OP 3565 specifies HERO
RADHAZ levels at frequencies below 1
GHz in peak value of electric field
strength (V/m), while levels above 200
MHz are specified in average power
density (mW/cm2) - note the
overlapping frequencies. Since Figure
1 depicts power density as the limits,
you must convert the average values to
peak field strength for use at lower
frequencies. Also many applications of
EMC work such as MIL-STD-461 use
limits based on the electric (E) field
strength in volts/meter. Remember that
P=E2/R, and from Section 4-2, we note
that R=377S for free space. It can also
be shown that the magnetic field
strength (H field in Amps/meter) = I/m
where I=E/R. Don't forget that RMS =
0.707 Peak. With the units of PD in
mW/cm2, E in V/m, and H in A/m, then
Figure 1. Radiation Hazards to Personnel and Ordnance
2
2
2
PD (mW/cm ) = E / 3770 = 37.7 H .
It should thus be noted that a 100 times increase in power (mW/cm2) is only a 10 times increase in V/m.
The potential dangers to ordnance and fuels are obvious because there could be an explosive "chain reaction"
by exploding; consequently, these limits are generally lower than personnel limits. There are three HERO categories.
The HERO limit 2 is for HERO "unsafe" or "unreliable" explosive devices with exposed wires arranged in optimum
(most susceptible) receiving orientation. This usually occurs during the assembly/disassembly of ordnance, but also
applies to new/untested ordnance until proven "safe" or "susceptible." The HERO limit 1 is for HERO susceptible
ordnance fully assembled undergoing normal handling and loading operations. HERO safe ordnance requires no RF
radiation precautions. A list of which specific ordnance (by NALC) falls into each category can be found in OP 3565
along with specific frequency restrictions for each piece of ordnance. For example, all missiles of one variety are
susceptible (HERO 1 limits), while another missile has both susceptible and safe variants (with no RADHAZ limits).
Other ordnance may be HERO unsafe (HERO 2 limits).

3-6.1

The danger of HERP occurs because the

body absorbs radiation and significant internal
heating may occur without the individuals
knowledge because the body does not have
internal sensation of heat, and tissue damage may
occur before the excess heat can be dissipated. As
shown in Figure 1, the current "restricted" limit is
for individuals more than 55" tall because they
have more body mass. In other words, all people
may be exposed to the lower limit, but only
persons taller than 55" may be exposed to the
higher limit of 10 mW/cm2.

163 A/m
61.4 V/m
AVERAGE
MAGNETIC
FIELD
STRENGTH

NAVSEA OP 3565 will be updated in the

future to be compatible with DoD INST 6055.11
dated Feb 21, 1995 which supersedes it. The
personnel radiation levels in Figures 2 and 3 were
taken from the new release of DoD INST 6055.11.
Unlike the existing "restricted limit" of
NAVSEA OP 3565 discussed above, in the
revised DoD instruction for personnel radiation
hazards, a different approach to exposure was
taken.

AVERAGE
ELECTRIC
FIELD
STRENGTH

614 V/m

27.5 V/m

Controlled Environment
Uncontrolled Environmnt

0.163 A/m
0.073 A/m

FREQUENCY - MHz

Figure 2. Lower Frequency HERP from DoD INST 6055.11

NOTE: Power density values below

100 MHz are not technically correct
for use in near field conditions.
Use E- or H-Field values instead.

Derived from H-Field limits

in figure 2, below 100 MHz
10 mW/cm 2
Derived from E-Field limits
in figure 2, below 100 MHz

1 mW/cm2

Controlled Environment
Uncontrolled Environmnt

0.2 mW/cm 2

FREQUENCY - MHz

Figure 3. Radiation Hazards to Personnel from DoD INST 6055.11

Two maximum hazard limits are defined;
1) Controlled Environments - where personnel are aware of the potential danger of RF exposure concurrently
with employment, or exposure which may occur due to incidental transient passage through an area, and;
2) Uncontrolled Environments - A lower maximum level where there is no expectation that higher levels should
be encountered, such as living quarters.
3-6.2

These Personnel Exposure Limits (PELs) are based on a safety factor of ten times the Specific Absorption Rate
(SAR) which might cause bodily harm. The term PEL is equivalent to the terms "Maximum Permissible Exposure
(MPE)" and "Radio Frequency Protection Guides (RFPG)" in other publications.
There are several exceptions to the maximum limits in Figures 2 and 3 (in some cases higher levels are permitted):
C High Power Microwave (HPM) system exposure in a controlled environment, which has a single pulse or
multiple pulses lasting less than 10 seconds, has a higher peak E-Field limit of 200 kV/m.
C EMP Simulation Systems in a controlled environment for personnel who are exposed to broad-band (0.1
MHz to 300 GHz) RF are limited to a higher peak E-Field of 100 kV/m.
C The given limits are also increased for pulsed RF fields. In this case the peak power density per pulse for
pulse durations < 100 msec and no more than 5 pulses in the period is increased to: PELPulse = PEL x TAVG
/ 5 x Pulse Width, and the peak E-field is increased to 100 kV/m. If there are more than 5 pulses or they are
greater then 100 msec, a time averaged PD should not exceed that shown in Figure 3.
C A rotating or scanning beam likewise reduces the hazard, so although an on-axis hazard might exist, there
may be none with a moving beam. The power density may be approximated with:
PDscan = PDfixed (2 x Beam Width / scan angle)
C Many other special limitations also apply, such as higher limits for partial body exposure, so if in doubt,
read the DoD Inst 6055.11 in detail. Field measurements may be measured in accordance with IEEE C95.31991.
The PELs listed in Figures 2 and 3 were selected for an average RF exposure time at various frequencies. In a
controlled environment, this averaging time was selected as 6 minutes for 0.003 to 15,000 MHz. If the exposure time is
less than 6 minutes, then the level may be increased accordingly. Similar time weighted averages apply to uncontrolled
environments, but it varies enough with frequency such that DoD INST 6055.11 should be consulted.
NAVSEA OP 3565 contains a list of Navy avionics which transmit RF as well as radars along with their
respective hazard patterns. Special training is required for individuals who work in areas which emit RF levels which
exceed the uncontrolled levels. Warning signs are also required in areas which exceed either the controlled or
uncontrolled limits.
Although E-Field, H-Field, and power density can be mathematically converted in a far-field plane wave
environment, the relations provided earlier do not apply in the near field, consequently the E- or H-field strength must
be measured independently below 100 MHz. It should be noted that the specifications in NAVSEA OP 3565 for lower
frequency HERO limits are listed as peak E-field values, whereas lower RF limits in DoD INST 6055.11 on HERP are
in average (RMS) E-field values. Upper frequency restrictions are based on average (RMS) values of power density in
both regulations except for certain circumstances.
HERF precautions are of more general concern to fuel truck operators. However, some general guidelines
include:
C Do not energize a transmitter (radar/comm) on an aircraft or motor vehicle being fueled or on an adjacent
aircraft or vehicle.
C Do not make or break any electrical, ground wire, or tie down connector while fueling.
C Radars capable of illuminating fueling areas with a peak power density of 5 W/cm2 should be shut off.
C For shore stations, antennas radiating 250 watts or less should be installed at least 50 ft from fueling areas
(at sea 500 watts is the relaxed requirement).
C For antennas which radiate more than 250 watts, the power density at 50 ft from the fueling operation
should not be greater than the equivalent power density of a 250 watt transmitter located at 50 ft.

3-6.3

FIELD INTENSITY and POWER DENSITY

Sometimes it is necessary to know the actual field intensity or power density at a given distance from a transmitter
instead of the signal strength received by an antenna. Field intensity or power density calculations are necessary when
estimating electromagnetic interference (EMI) effects, when determining potential radiation hazards (personnel safety), or
in determining or verifying specifications.
Field intensity (field strength) is a general term that usually means the magnitude of the electric field vector,
commonly expressed in volts per meter. At frequencies above 100 MHZ, and particularly above one GHz, power density
(PD) terminology is more often used than field strength.
Power density and field intensity are related by equation [1]:
PD '

E2
E2
E2
'
'
Z0
120B
377

[1]

where PD is in W/m2, E is the RMS value of the field in volts/meter and 377 ohms is the characteristic impedance of free
space. When the units of PD are in mW/cm2, then PD (mW/cm2) = E2/3770.
Conversions between field strength and power density when the impedance is 377 ohms, can be obtained from
Table 1. It should be noted that to convert dBm/m2 to dBFV/m add 115.76 dB. Sample calculations for both field intensity
and power density in the far field of a transmitting antenna are in Section 4-2 and Section 4-8. Refer to chapter 3 on
antennas for the definitions of near field and far field.
Note that the / term before m, m2, and cm2 in Table 1 mean per, i.e. dBm per m2, not to be confused with the
division sign which is valid for the Table 1 equation P=E2/Zo. Remember that in order to obtain dBm from dBm/m2 given
a certain area, you must add the logarithm of the area, not multiply. The values in the table are rounded to the nearest dBW,
dBm, etc. per m2 so the results are less precise than a typical handheld calculator and may be up to dB off.
VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
Coaxial cabling typically has input impedances of 50, 75, and 93S, (2) with 50S being the most common. Other
types of cabling include the following: TV cable is 75S (coaxial) or 300S (twin-lead), audio public address (PA) is 600S,
audio speakers are 3.2(4), 8, or 16S.
In the 50S case, power and voltage are related by:
P'

E2
E2
'
' 50I 2
Z0
50

[2]

Conversions between measured power, voltage, and current where the typical impedance is 50 ohms can be obtained
from Table 2. The dBFA current values are given because frequently a current probe is used during laboratory tests to
determine the powerline input current to the system .
MATCHING CABLING IMPEDANCE
In performing measurements, we must take into account an impedance mismatch between measurement devices
(typically 50 ohms) and free space (377 ohms).

4-1.1

Table 1. Conversion Table - Field Intensity and Power Density

PD = E2/Z0 ( Related by free space impedance = 377 ohms )
E
(Volts/m)

20 log 106 (E)

(dBV/m)

PD
(watts/m2)

10 Log PD
(dBW/m2)

Watts/cm2

dBW/cm2

mW/cm2

dBm/cm2

dBm/m2

7,000
5,000
3,000
4,000
1,000

197
194
190
186
180

130,000
66,300
23,900
10,600
2,650

+51
+48
+44
+40
+34

13
6.6
2.4
1.1
.27

+11
+8
+4
0
-6

13,000
6,630
2,390
1,060
265

+41
+38
+34
+30
+24

+81
+78
+74
+70
+64

700
500
300
200
100

177
174
170
166
160

1,300
663
239
106
27

+31
+28
+24
+20
+14

.13
.066
.024
.011
.0027

-9
-12
-16
-20
-26

130
66
24
11
2.7

+21
+18
+14
+10
+4

+61
+58
+54
+50
+44

70
50
30
20
10

157
154
150
146
140

13
6.6
2.4
1.1
.27

+11
+8
+4
+0
-6

1.3x10-3
6.6x10-4
2.4x10-4
1.1x10-4
2.7x10-5

-29
-32
-36
-40
-46

1.3
.66
.24
.11
.027

+1
-2
-6
-10
-16

+41
+38
+34
+30
+24

7
5
3
2
1

137
134
130
126
120

.13
.066
.024
.011
.0027

-9
-12
-16
-20
-26

1.3x10-5
6.6x10-6
2.4x10-6
1.1x10-6
2.7x10-7

-49
-52
-56
-60
-66

.013
66x10-4
24x10-4
11x10-4
2.7x10-4

-19
-22
-26
-30
-36

+21
+18
+14
+10
+4

0.7
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1

117
114
110
106
100

1.3x10-3
6.6x10-4
2.4x10-4
1.1x10-4
2.7x10-5

-29
-32
-36
-40
-46

1.3x10-7
6.6x10-8
2.4x10-8
1.1x10-8
2.7x10-9

-69
-72
-76
-80
-86

1.3x10-4
66x10-4
24x10-4
11x10-4
2.7x10-6

-39
-42
-46
-50
-56

+1
-2
-6
-10
-16

70x10-3
50x10-3
30x10-3
20x10-3
10x10-3

97
94
90
86
80

1.3x10-5
6.6x10-6
2.4x10-6
1.1x10-6
2.7x10-7

-49
-52
-56
-60
-66

1.3x10-9
6.6x10-10
2.4x10-10
1.1x10-10
2.7x10-11

-89
-92
-96
-100
-106

1.3x10-6
66x10-8
24x10-8
11x10-8
2.7x10-8

-59
-62
-66
-70
-76

-19
-22
-26
-30
-36

7x10-3
5x10-3
3x10-3
2x10-3
1x10-3

77
74
70
66
60

1.3x10-7
6.6x10-8
2.4x10-8
1.1x10-8
2.7x10-9

-69
-72
-76
-80
-86

1.3x10-11
6.6x10-12
2.4x10-12
1.1x10-12
2.7x10-13

-109
-112
-116
-120
-126

1.3x10-8
66x10-10
24x10-10
11x10-10
2.7x10-10

-79
-82
-86
-90
-96

-39
-42
-46
-50
-56

7x10-4
5x10-4
3x10-4
2x10-4
1x10-4

57
54
50
46
40

1.3x10-9
6.6x10-10
2.4x10-10
1.1x10-10
2.7x10-11

-89
-92
-96
-100
-106

1.3x10-13
6.6x10-14
2.4x10-14
1.1x10-14
2.7x10-15

-129
-132
-136
-140
-146

1.3x10-10
66x10-12
24x10-12
11x10-12
2.7x10-12

-99
-102
-106
-110
-116

-59
-62
-66
-70
-76

7x10-5
5x10-5
3x10-5
2x10-5
1x10-5

37
34
30
26
20

1.3x10-11
6.6x10-12
2.4x10-12
1.1x10-12
2.7x10-13

-109
-112
-116
-120
-126

1.3x10-15
6.6x10-16
2.4x10-16
1.1x10-16
2.7x10-17

-149
-152
-156
-160
-166

1.3x10-12
66x10-14
24x10-14
11x10-14
2.7x10-14

-119
-122
-126
-130
-136

-79
-82
-86
-90
-96

7x10-6
5x10-6
3x10-6
2x10-6
1x10-6

17
14
10
6
0

1.3x10-13
6.6x10-14
2.4x10-14
1.1x10-14
2.7x10-15

-129
-132
-136
-140
-146

1.3x10-17
6.6x10-18
2.4x10-18
1.1x10-18
2.7x10-19

-169
-172
-176
-180
-186

1.3x10-14
66x10-16
24x10-16
11x10-16
2.7x10-16

-139
-142
-146
-150
-156

-99
-102
-106
-110
-116

NOTE: Numbers in table rounded off

4-1.2

FIELD STRENGTH APPROACH

To account for the impedance difference, the antenna factor (AF) is defined as: AF=E/V, where E is field intensity
which can be expressed in terms taking 377 ohms into account and V is measured voltage which can be expressed in terms
taking 50 ohms into account. Details are provided in Section 4-12.
POWER DENSITY APPROACH
To account for the impedance difference , the antennas effective capture area term, Ae relates free space power
density PD with received power, Pr , i.e. Pr = PD Ae. Ae is a function of frequency and antenna gain and is related to AF
as shown in Section 4-12.
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
Section 4-2 provides sample calculations using power density and power terms from Table 1 and Table 2, whereas
Section 4-12 uses these terms plus field intensity and voltage terms from Table 1 and Table 2. Refer the examples in
Section 4-12 for usage of the conversions while converting free space values of power density to actual measurements with
a spectrum analyzer attached by coaxial cable to a receiving antenna.
Conversion Between Field Intensity (Table 1) and Power Received (Table 2).
Power received (watts or milliwatts) can be expressed in terms of
field intensity (volts/meter or v/meter) using equation [3]:
E2 c2
G
480B2 f 2

[3]

or in log form:

10 log Pr = 20 log E + 10 log G - 20 log f + 10 log (c2/480B2)

[4]

Then

10 log Pr = 20 log E1 + 10 log G - 20 log f1 + K4

[5]

Power received (Pr ) '

c2
@
480B2

Where K4 ' 10 log

conversions
(Watts to mW)
as required (volts to v)2 (Hz to MHz or GHz)2

Values of K4 (dB)

The derivation of equation [3] follows:

PD= E2/120B

Eq [1], Section 4-1, terms (v2/S)

Ae = 82G/4B

Eq [8], Section 3-1, terms (m2)

Pr = PDAe

Eq [2], Section 4-3, terms (W/m2)(m2)

Pr

= ( E2/120B

8 = c /f

)(

82G/4B)

terms

Pr

E1

f1 (Hz)

f1 (MHz)

f1 (GHz)

Watts
(dBW)

volts/meter

132.8

12.8

-47.2

v/meter

12.8

-107.2

-167.2

volts/meter

162.8

42.8

-17.2

v/meter

42.8

-77.2

-137.7

mW
(dBm)

(v2/m2S)(m2)

Section 2-3, terms (m/sec)(sec)

Pr = ( E2/480B2 )( c 2 G/f 2) which is equation [3]

terms (v2/m2S)( m2/sec2)(sec2) or v2/S = watts
4-1.3

Table 2. Conversion Table - Volts to Watts and dBFA

(Px = Vx2/Z - Related by line impedance of 50 S)
Volts

dBV

dBFV

Watts

dBW

dBm

dBFA

700
500
300
200
100

56.0
53.9
49.5
46.0
40.0

176.0
173.9
169.5
166.0
160.0

9800
5000
1800
800
200

39.9
37.0
32.5
29.0
23.0

69.9
67.0
62.5
59.0
53.0

142.9
140.0
135.5
132.0
126.0

70
50
30
20
10

36.9
34.0
29.5
26.0
20.0

156.9
154.0
149.5
146.0
140.0

98
50
18
8
2

19.9
17.0
12.5
9.0
3.0

49.9
47.0
42.5
39.0
33.0

122.9
120.0
115.5
112.0
106.0

7
5
3
2
1

16.9
14.0
9.5
6.0
0

136.9
134.0
129.5
126.0
120.0

0.8
0.5
0.18
0.08
0.02

0
-3.0
-7.4
-11.0
-17.0

29.9
27.0
22.5
19.0
13.0

102.9
100.0
95.6
92.0
86.0

0.7
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1

-3.1
-6.0
-10.5
-14.0
-20.0

116.9
114.0
109.5
106.0
100.0

9.8 x 10-3
5.0 x 10-3
1.8 x 10-3
8.0 x 10-4
2.0 x 10-4

-20.1
-23.0
-27.4
-31.0
-37.0

9.9
7.0
2.6
-1.0
-7.0

82.9
80.0
75.6
72.0
66.0

.07
.05
.03
.02
.01

-23.1
-26.0
-30.5
-34.0
-40.0

96.9
94.0
89.5
86.0
80.0

9.8 x 10-5
5.0 x 10-5
1.8 x 10-5
8.0 x 10-6
2.0 x 10-6

-40.1
-43.0
-47.4
-51.0
-57.0

-10.1
-13.0
-17.7
-21.0
-27.0

62.9
60.0
55.6
52.0
46.0

7 x 10-3
5 x 10-3
3 x 10-3
2 x 10-3
1 x 10-3

-43.1
-46.0
-50.5
-54.0
-60.0

76.9
74.0
69.5
66.0
60.0

9.8 x 10-7
5.0 x 10-7
1.8 x 10-7
8.0 x 10-8
2.0 x 10-8

-60.1
-63.0
-67.4
-71.0
-77.0

-30.1
-33.0
-37.4
-41.0
-47.0

42.9
40.0
35.6
32.0
26.0

7 x 10-4
5 x 10-4
3 x 10-4
2 x 10-4
1 x 10-4

-64.1
-66.0
-70.5
-74.0
-80.0

56.9
54.0
49.5
46.0
40.0

9.8 x 10-9
5.0 x 10-9
1.8 x 10-9
8.0 x 10-10
2.0 x 10-10

-80.1
-83.0
-87.4
-91.0
-97.0

-50.1
-53.0
-57.4
-61.0
-67.0

22.9
20.0
15.6
12.0
6.0

7 x 10-5
5 x 10-5
3 x 10-5
2 x 10-5
1 x 10-5

-84.1
-86.0
-90.5
-94.0
-100.0

36.9
34.0
29.5
26.0
20.0

9.8 x 10-11
5.0 x 10-11
1.8 x 10-11
8.0 x 10-12
2.0 x 10-12

-100.1
-103.0
-107.4
-111.0
-117.0

-70.1
-73.0
-77.4
-81.0
-87.0

2.9
0
-4.4
-8.0
-14.0

7 x 10-6
5 x 10-6
3 x 10-6
2 x 10-6
1 x 10-6

-104.1
-106.0
-110.5
-114.0
-120.0

16.9
14.0
9.5
6.0
0

9.8 x 10-13
5.0 x 10-13
1.8 x 10-13
8.0 x 10-14
2.0 x 10-14

-120.1
-123.0
-127.4
-131.0
-137.0

-90.1
-93.0
-97.4
-101.0
-107.0

-17.1
-20.0
-24.4
-28.0
-34.0

7 x 10-7
5 x 10-7
3 x 10-7
2 x 10-7
1 x 10-7

-124.1
-126.0
-130.5
-134.0
-140.0

-3.1
-6.0
-10.5
-14.0
-20.0

9.8 x 10-15
5.0 x 10-15
1.8 x 10-15
8.0 x 10-16
2.0 x 10-16

-140.1
-143.0
-147.4
-151.0
-157.0

-110.1
-113.0
-117.4
-121.0
-127.0

-37.1
-40.0
-44.4
-48.0
-54.0

4-1.4

POWER DENSITY
Radio Frequency (RF) propagation is defined as the travel of electromagnetic waves through or along a medium.
For RF propagation between approximately 100 MHz and 10 GHz, radio waves travel very much as they do in free space
and travel in a direct line of sight. There is a very slight difference in the dielectric constants of space and air. The dielectric
constant of space is one. The dielectric constant of air at sea level is 1.000536. In all but the highest precision calculations,
the slight difference is neglected.
From chapter 3, Antennas, an isotropic radiator is a theoretical, lossless, omnidirectional (spherical) antenna. That
is, it radiates uniformly in all directions. The power of a transmitter that is radiated from an isotropic antenna will have a
uniform power density (power per unit area) in all directions. The power density at any distance from an isotropic antenna
is simply the transmitter power divided by the surface area of a sphere (4BR2) at that distance. The surface area of the
sphere increases by the square of the radius, therefore the power density, PD, (watts/square meter) decreases by the square
of the radius.
Pt
where: Pt ' Transmitter Power
Power density from
[1]
' PD '
an isotropic antenna
2
R ' Range FromAntenna (i.e.radius of sphere)
4BR
Pt is either peak or average power depending on how PD is to be specified.
Radars use directional antennas to channel most of the radiated power in a particular direction. The Gain (G) of
an antenna is the ratio of power radiated in the desired direction as compared to the power radiated from an isotropic
antenna, or:
Maximum radiation intensity of actual antenna
G '
Radiation intensity of isotropic antenna with same power input
The power density at a distant point from a radar with an antenna gain of Gt is the power density from an isotropic
antenna multiplied by the radar antenna gain.
Power density from radar,

PD '

P tG t

[2]

4BR 2

Pt is either peak or average power depending on how PD is to be specified.

Another commonly used term is effective radiated power (ERP), and is defined as: ERP = Pt Gt
A receiving antenna captures a portion of this power determined by it's effective capture Area (Ae). The received
power available at the antenna terminals is the power density times the effective capture area (Ae) of the receiving antenna.
e.g. If the power density at a specified range is one microwatt per square meter and the antenna's
effective capture area is one square meter then the power captured by the antenna is one microwatt.
For a given receiver antenna size the capture area is constant no matter how far it is from the transmitter, as
illustrated in Figure 1. Also notice from Figure 1 that the received signal power decreases by 1/4 (6 dB) as the distance
doubles. This is due to the R2 term in the denominator of equation [2].

4-2.1

ONE WAY SIGNAL STRENGTH (S)

S

2R

6 dB
(1/4 pwr)

6 dB
(4x pwr)

S decreases by 6 dB
when the distance doubles

S increases by 6 dB
when the distance is half

Same Antenna
Capture Area

R
R
0.5 R

Range 1

Range 2

Received Signal

Received Signal

Figure 1. Power Density vs. Range

Sample Power Density Calculation - Far Field (Refer to Section 3-5 for the definition of near field and far field)
Calculate the power density at 100 feet for 100 watts transmitted through an antenna with a gain of 10.
Given: Pt = 100 watts

Gt = 10 (dimensionless ratio)

R = 100 ft

This equation produces power density in watts per square range unit.
PG
(100 watts) (10)
PD ' t t '
' 0.0080 watts/ft 2
2
2
4BR
4B (100 ft)
For safety (radiation hazard) and EMI calculations, power density is usually expressed in milliwatts per square cm.
That's nothing more than converting the power and range to the proper units.
100 watts = 1 x 102 watts = 1 x 105 mW
100 feet = 30.4785 meters = 3047.85 cm.
PG
(105mW) @ (10)
PD ' t t '
' 0.0086 mW/cm 2
2
2
4BR
4B (3047.85cm)
However, antenna gain is almost always given in dB, not as a ratio. It's then often easier to express ERP in dBm.

Pt (dBm) ' 10 Log

Pt watts
1 mW

Gt (dB) ' 10 Log

Gt
1

' 10 Log

100
' 50 dBm
.001

' 10 Log (10) ' 10 dB

ERP (dBm) = Pt (dBm) + Gt (dB) = 50 + 10 = 60 dBm

To reduce calculations, the graph in Figure 2 can be used. It gives ERP in dBm, range in feet and power density
in mW/cm2. Follow the scale A line for an ERP of 60 dBm to the point where it intersects the 100 foot range scale. Read
the power density directly from the A-scale x-axis as 0.0086 mW/cm2 (confirming our earlier calculations).
4-2.2

10,000
8
6
5
4
3
2
1000
8
6
5
4
3
2
100
8
6
5
4
3
2
10
A .000001
B
.01
100
C

3 4 5 6 8
.00001
.1
1000

3 4 5 6 8
.0001
1.0
10,000

3 4 5 6 8

3 4 56 8

.001
10
100,000

2
.01
100
1,000,000

3 4 5 6 8
0.1
1000
10,000,000

FREE SPACE POWER DENSITY (mW/cm2)

Figure 2. Power Density vs Range and ERP

Example 2
When antenna gain and power (or ERP) are given in dB and dBm, it's necessary to convert back to ratios in order
to perform the calculation given in equation [2]. Use the same values as in example 1 except for antenna gain.
Suppose the antenna gain is given as 15 dB: Gt (dB) = 10 Log (Gt)
Gt (dB)

Gt ' 10

Therefore:

PD '

PtGt
4BR 2

'

10

' 10

15
10

' 31.6228

(105 mW) (31.6228)

' 0.0271 mW/cm 2
2
4B (3047.85)

Follow the 65 dBm (extrapolated) ERP line and verify this result on the A-scale X-axis.

4-2.3

Example 3 - Sample Real Life Problem

Assume we are trying to
determine if a jammer will damage
the circuitry of a missile carried
onboard an aircraft and we cannot
perform an actual measurement.
Refer to the diagram at the right.
Given the following:
Jammer power: 500 W (Pt = 500)
Jammer line loss and antenna gain:
3 dB (Gt = 2)

10 ft

Missile antenna diameter: 10 in

Missile antenna gain: Unknown
Missile limiter protection (maximum antenna power input): 20 dBm (100mW) average and peak.

The power density at the missile antenna caused by the jammer is computed as follows:
P G
500W (2)
PD ' t t '
' 8.56W/m 2
2
2
4B[(10ft)(.3048m/ft)]
4BR
The maximum input power actually received by the missile is either:
Pr = PD Ae
(if effective antenna area is known) or
2
Pr = PD Gm8 /4B
(if missile antenna gain is known)
To cover the case where the missile antenna gain is not known, first assume an aperture efficiency of 0.7 for the missile
antenna (typical). Then:
Pr = PD A 0 = 8.56 W/m2 (B)[ (10/2 in)(.0254 m/in) ]2 (0.7) = 0.3 watts
Depending upon missile antenna efficiency, we can see that the power received will be about 3 times the maximum
allowable and that either better limiter circuitry may be required in the missile or a new location is needed for the missile
or jammer. Of course if the antenna efficiency is 0.23 or less, then the power will not damage the missile's receiver.
If the missile gain were known to be 25 dB, then a more accurate calculation could be performed. Using the given
gain of the missile (25 dB= numeric gain of 316), and assuming operation at 10 GHz (8 = .03m)
Pr = PD Gm 82 / 4B = 8.56 W/m2 (316)(.03)2/ 4B = .19 watts

4-2.4

(still double the allowable tolerance)

ONE-WAY RADAR EQUATION / RF PROPAGATION

The one-way (transmitter to receiver) radar equation is derived in this section. This equation is most commonly used in
RWR or ESM type of applications. The following is a summary of the important equations explored in this section:
ONE-WAY RADAR EQUATION
Peak Power at
PtGtAe
Receiver Input, Pr (or S) ' PDAe '
2

and Antenna Gain, G '

4BAe

4BR

82

So the one-way radar equation is :

S (orPr) '

Pt Gt Gr 82
(4BR)2

' Pt Gt Gr

c2
(4BfR)2

(Note: 8'

c
)
f

* keep 8, c, and R in the same units

On reducing to log form this becomes:
10log Pr = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr - 20log f R + 20log (c/4B)
or in simplified terms:
10log Pr = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr - "1 (in dB)
Where: "1 = one-way free space loss = 20log (f1R) + K1 (in dB)
and: K1 = 20log [(4B/c)(Conversion factors if units if not in m/sec, m, and Hz)]
Note: To avoid having to include additional terms for these calculations,
always combine any transmission line loss with antenna gain
Recall from Section 4-2 that the power density
at a distant point from a radar with an antenna gain of Gt
is the power density from an isotropic antenna
multiplied by the radar antenna gain.
Power density from radar, PD '

PtGt

or: Equivalent Area, Ae '

G82
4B

Values of K1 (in dB)

Range f1 in MHz f1 in GHz
K1 =
K1 =
(units)
NM
37.8
97.8
km
32.45
92.45
m
-27.55
32.45
yd
-28.33
31.67
ft
-37.87
22.13
______________________
Note: Losses due to antenna
polarization and atmospheric
absorption (Sections 3-2 & 5-1)
are not included in any of these
equations.

Same Antenna
Capture Area

[1]

4BR 2

If you could cover the entire spherical segment

with your receiving antenna you would theoretically
capture all of the transmitted energy. You can't do this
because no antenna is large enough. (A two degree
segment would be about a mile and three-quarters across
at fifty miles from the transmitter.)

Range 1

Range 2

Received Signal

Received Signal

Figure 1. Power Density vs. Range

A receiving antenna captures a portion of this power determined by it's effective capture Area (Ae). The received
power available at the antenna terminals is the power density times the effective capture area (Ae) of the receiving antenna.
For a given receiver antenna size the capture area is constant no matter how far it is from the transmitter, as
illustrated in Figure 1. This concept is shown in the following equation:

4-3.1

PR (or S) = P

PtGtAe

which is known as the one-way (beacon) equation

4BR 2

In order to maximize energy transfer between an antenna and transmitter or receiver, the antenna size shoul
correlate
8/4. Control o
beamwidth shape may become a problem when the size of the active element exceeds several wavelengths.
Th relation between an antenna's effectiv
capture area (Ae
is:
Antenna Gain, G '

4BAe
82

or: Equivalent Area, Ae '

G82
4B

[4]
Lower Frequency
Antenna Has
Larger Area

effective aperture is in units of length

s

Low Frequency
Antenna Area
Received Signal

squared,
proport
wavelength. This physically means that to maintain the
gain when doubling the frequency, the area i
reduced by 1/4. This concept is illustrated in Figure 2.

Higher Frequency
Antenna Has
Smaller Area

Higher Frequency
Antenna Area
Received Signal

Figure 2. Capture Area vs Frequency

If equation [4] is substituted into equation [2], the following relationship results:
Peak Power at Receiver Input ' S (or PR) '

to

PtGtGr82

'

(4B)2R 2

PtGtGr82

[5]

(4BR)2

is the signal calculated one-way from a transmitter to a receiver. For instance, a radar application might be
rmine the signal received by a RWR, ESM, or an ELINT receiver. It is a general purpose equation and could be

The free space travel of radio waves can, of course, be blocked, reflected, or distorted by objects in their path such

As
received signal power decreases by 1/4 (6 dB). This is due to the
2 term in equation [5].
illust

square on
radius is decreased by 1/2,
you further blow up the balloon, so the diameter or radius i
doubled, the square has quadrupled in area.

4-3.2

S
6 dB

(1/4 pwr)

6 dB

(4x pwr)

ONE WAY SIGNAL STRENGTH (S)

S decreases by 6 dB
when the distance doubles
S increases by 6 dB
when the distance is half

2R
R
R

0.5 R

The one-way free space loss factor ("1),

(sometimes called the path loss factor) is given by the term
(4BR2)(4B/82) or (4BR /8)2. As shown in Figure 3, the
loss is due to the ratio of two factors (1) the effective
radiated area of the transmit antenna, which is the surface
area of a sphere (4BR2) at that distance (R), and (2) the
effective capture area (Ae) of the receive antenna which has
a gain of one. If a receiving antenna could capture the
whole surface area of the sphere, there would be no
spreading loss, but a practical antenna will capture only a
small part of the spherical radiation. Space loss is
calculated using isotropic antennas for both transmit and
receive, so "1 is independent of the actual antenna. Using
Gr = 1 in equation [11] in section 3-1, Ae = 82/4B. Since
this term is in the denominator of "1, the higher the
frequency (lower 8) the more the space loss. Since Gt and
G r are part of the one-way radar equation, S (or Pr) is
adjusted according to actual antennas as shown in the last
portion of Figure 3. The value of the received signal (S) is:
S (or PR) '

PtGtGr82
(4BR)

' PtGtGr

82
(4BR)2

PHYSICAL CONCEPT - One-way Space Loss

TRANSMITTER

RECEIVER

Gr = 1
Pt

S ( or Pr )

Gt = 1

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT - One-way Space Loss

TRANSMITTER

RECEIVER

Pt

" , TRANSMITTER TO RECEIVER

1
ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

S ( or Pr )

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT - One-Way Space Loss with Actual Antennas

TRANSMITTER
Gt

Gr

Pt

"
1
RECEIVE
ANTENNA
GAIN

XMT
ANTENNA
GAIN

RECEIVER

S ( or Pr )

Figure 3. Concept of One-Way Space Loss

[6]

To convert this equation to dB form, it is rewritten as:

10 log(S orPr) ' 10log(PtGtGr) % 20 log

8
4BR

[7]

(( keep 8 and R in same units)

Since 8 = c / f, equation [7] can be rewritten as:

10 Log (S or Pr) = 10 Log(PtGtGr) - "1
Where the one-way free space loss, "1, is defined as:

"1 ' 20 Log

[8]

4Bf R *
c

[9]

The signal received equation in dB form is: 10log (Pr or S) = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr - "1

[10]

The one-way free space loss, "1, can be given in terms of a variable and constant term as follows:
"1 ' 20 Log

4Bf R
c

' 20Log f1 R % K1

[11]

(in dB)

The value of f1 can be either in MHz or GHz as shown with

commonly used units of R in the adjoining table.
where K1 ' 20 Log

4B
@ (Conversion units if not in m/sec, m, and Hz)
c

Note: To avoid having to include additional terms for these

calculations, always combine any transmission line loss with antenna gain.

4-3.3

Range
(units)
NM
km
m
yd
ft

Values of K1 (dB)
f 1 in MHz f 1 in GHz
K1 =
K1 =
37.8
97.8
32.45
92.45
-27.55
32.45
-28.33
31.67
-37.87
22.13

A value for the one-way free space loss ("1) can be obtained from:
(a) The One-way Free Space Loss graph (Figure 4). Added accuracy can be obtained using the Frequency
Extrapolation graph (Figure 5)
(b) The space loss nomograph (Figure 6 or 7)
(c) The formula for "1, equation [11].
FOR EXAMPLE:
Find the value of the one-way free space loss, "1, for an RF of 7.5 GHz at 100 NM.
(a) From Figure 4, find 100 NM on the X-axis and estimate where 7.5 GHz is located between the 1 and 10
GHz lines (note dot). Read "1 as 155 dB. An alternate way would be to read the "1 at 1 GHz (138 dB) and add the
frequency extrapolation value (17.5 dB for 7.5:1, dot on Figure 5) to obtain the same 155 dB value.
(b) From the nomogram (Figure 6), the value of "1 can be read as 155 dB (Note the dashed line).
(c) From the equation 11, the precise value of "1 is 155.3 dB.
Remember, "1 is a free space value. If there is atmospheric attenuation because of absorption of RF due to
certain molecules in the atmosphere or weather conditions etc., the atmospheric attenuation is in addition to the space
loss (refer to Section 5-1).
180
1

= 20 Log fR + 37.8 dB

100 GHz

f in MHz & R in NM

160

Point
From
Example

10 GHz
140
1 GHz
120
100 MHz
100
10 MHz
80
1 MHz

60
0.1

0.2 0.3

0.5

1.0

10
RANGE (NM)

20 30

Figure 4. One-Way Free Space Loss

4-3.4

50

100

200 300

dB
20

FOR USE WITH ONE-WAY FREE SPACE LOSS GRAPH

18
Point From
Example

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1

DELTA FREQUENCY (f )

10

[ where: F = (f ) x 10 ]

Figure 5. Frequency Extrapolation

Figure 6. One-Way Space Loss Nomograph For Distances Greater Than 10 Nautical Miles

4-3.5

Figure 7. One-Way Space Loss Nomograph For Distances Less Than 10 Nautical Miles

ERP

NOTE: Drawing not to scale

Note: In the example on page 4-3.16,
the receiver antenna gain is negative
vs positive.

PT
Space Loss
Approaching Receiver

If power is actually measured in this region,

it is stated in either power density (mW/cm2)
or field intensity (V/m)

PR
RWR / ESM
Receiver
10 log Pt + 10 log Gt

-"
SIGNAL POSITION IN SPACE

+ 10 log Gr = 10 log Pr

Figure 8. Visualization of One-Way Radar Equation

Figure 8 is the visualization of the losses occurring in one-way radar equation. Note: To avoid having to include
additional terms, always combine any transmission line loss with antenna gain. Losses due to antenna polarization and
atmospheric absorption also need to be included.

4-3.6

RWR/ESM RANGE EQUATION (One-Way)

The one-way radar (signal strength) equation [5] is rearranged to calculate the maximum range Rmax of
RWR/ESM receivers. It occurs when the received radar signal just equals Smin as follows:
2
Rmax Pt Gt Gr 8

(4B)2 Smin

1
2

or

Pt Gt Gr c 2
(4Bf )2 Smin

1
2

or

Pt Gt Ae

1
2

[12]

4BSmin

In log form:
20log Rmax = 10log Pt + 10log Gt - 10log Smin - 20log f + 20log(c/4B)

[13]

and since K1 = 20log{4B/c times conversion units if not in m/sec, m, and Hz} (Refer to section 4-3 for values of K1).
10log Rmax = [ 10log Pt + 10log Gt - 10log Smin - 20log f - K1]
( keep Pt and Smin in same units)
[14]
MdB
If you want to convert back from dB, then Rmax 10
, where M dB is the resulting number in the brackets of
20
equation 14.

From Section 5-2, Receiver Sensitivity / Noise, Smin is related to the noise factor S: Smin = (S/N)min (NF)KToB
The one-way RWR/ESM range equation becomes:
Rmax

1
2

Pt Gt Gr 82
(4B)2 (S/N)min(NF)KToB

or

Pt Gt Gr c 2
(4Bf )2 (S/N)min(NF)KToB

1
2

or

1
2

Pt Gt Ae

[15]

[16]

4B (S/N)min(NF)KToB

RWR/ESM RANGE INCREASE AS A RESULT OF A SENSITIVITY INCREASE

As shown in equation [12] Smin-1 % Rmax2 Therefore, -10 log Smin % 20 logRmax and the table below results:
% Range Increase: Range + (% Range Increase) x Range = New Range
i.e., for a 6 dB sensitivity increase, 500 miles +100% x 500 miles = 1,000 miles
Range Multiplier: Range x Range Multiplier = New Range i.e., for a 6 dB sensitivity increase 500 miles x 2 = 1,000
miles
dB Sensitivity
Increase

% Range
Increase

Range
Multiplier

dB Sensitivity
Increase

% Range
Increase

Range
Multiplier

+ 0.5
1.0
1.5
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

6
12
19
26
41
58
78
100
124
151
182

1.06
1.12
1.19
1.26
1.41
1.58
1.78
2.0
2.24
2.51
2.82

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

216
255
298
347
401
462
531
608
694
791
900

3.16
3.55
3.98
4.47
5.01
5.62
6.31
7.08
7.94
8.91
10.0

4-3.7

RWR/ESM RANGE DECREASE AS A RESULT OF A SENSITIVITY DECREASE

As shown in equation [12] Smin-1 % Rmax2 Therefore, -10 log Smin % 20 logRmax and the table below results:
% Range Decrease: Range - (% Range decrease) x Range = New Range
i.e., for a 6 dB sensitivity decrease, 500 miles - 50% x 500 miles = 250 miles
Range Multiplier: Range x Range Multiplier = New Range i.e., for a 6 dB sensitivity decrease 500 miles x .5 = 250
miles
dB Sensitivity
Decrease

% Range
Decrease

Range
Multiplier

dB Sensitivity
Decrease

% Range
Decrease

Range
Multiplier

- 0.5
- 1.0
- 1.5
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9

6
11
16
21
29
37
44
50
56
60
65

0.94
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.71
0.63
0.56
0.50
0.44
0.4
0.35

-10
- 11
- 12
- 13
- 14
- 15
- 16
- 17
- 18
- 19
- 20

68
72
75
78
80
82
84
86
87
89
90

0.32
0.28
0.25
0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.13
0.11
0.10

Example of One-Way Signal Strength: A 5 (or 7) GHz radar has a 70 dBm signal fed through a 5 dB loss
transmission line to an antenna that has 45 dB gain. An aircraft that is flying 31 km from the radar has an aft EW
antenna with -1 dB gain and a 5 dB line loss to the EW receiver (assume all antenna polarizations are the same).
Note: The respective transmission line losses will be combined with antenna gains, i.e.:
-5 +45 = 40 dB, -5 - 1 = -6 dB, -10 + 5 = -5 dB.
(1) What is the power level at the input of the EW receiver?
Answer (1): Pr at the input to the EW receiver = Transmitter power - xmt cable loss + xmt antenna gain - space
loss + rcvr antenna gain - rcvr cable loss.
Space loss (from section 4-3) @ 5 GHz = 20 log f R + K1 = 20 log (5x31) + 92.44 = 136.25 dB.
Therefore, Pr = 70 + 40 - 136.25 - 6 = -32.25 dBm @ 5 GHz (Pr = -35.17 dBm @ 7 GHz since "1 = 139.17 dB)
(2) If the received signal is fed to a jammer with a gain of 60 dB, feeding a 10 dB loss transmission line which
is connected to an antenna with 5 dB gain, what is the power level from the jammer at the input to the receiver of the 5
(or 7) GHz radar?
Answer (2): Pr at the input to the radar receiver = Power at the input to the EW receiver+ Jammer gain jammer cable loss + jammer antenna gain - space loss + radar rcvr antenna gain - radar rcvr cable loss .
Therefore, Pr = -32.25 + 60 - 5 - 136.25 + 40 = -73.5 dBm @ 5 GHz. (Pr = -79.34 dBm @ 7 GHz since
"1 = 139.17 dB and Pt = -35.17 dBm).
This problem continues in section 4-4, 4-7, and 4-10.

4-3.8

TWO-WAY RADAR EQUATION (MONOSTATIC)

In this section the radar equation is derived from the one-way equation (transmitter to receiver) which is then
extended to the two-way radar equation. The following is a summary of the important equations to be derived here:
TWO-WAY RADAR EQUATION (MONOSTATIC)
Peak power at the
PtGtGr82F
' PtGtGr
radar receiver input is: Pr '
3 4
(4B) R

Fc 2
(4B)3f 2 R 4

Note: 8'c/f and F' RCS

(keep 8 or c, F, and R in the same units

On reducing the above equation to log form we have:

10log Pr = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr + 10log F - 20log f - 40log R - 30log 4B + 20log c
or in simplified terms:

10log Pr = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr + GF - 2"1 (in dB)

Note: Losses due to antenna polarization and atmospheric absorption (Sections 3-2 and 5-1) are not included in these equations.
Target gain factor, GF = 10log F + 20log f 1 + K2 (in dB)
K2 Values
(dB)
RCS (F)
(units)
m2
ft2

f 1 in MHz
K2 =
-38.54
-48.86

One-way free space loss, "1 = 20log (f 1 R) + K1 (in dB)

K1 Values
(dB)

f 1 in GHz
K2 =
21.46
11.14

Figure 1 illustrates the

physical concept and equivalent circuit
for a target being illuminated by a
monostatic radar (transmitter and
receiver co-located).
Note the
similarity of Figure 1 to Figure 3 in
Section 4-3. Transmitted power,
transmitting and receiving antenna
gains, and the one-way free space loss
are the same as those described in
Section 4-3. The physical arrangement
of the elements is different, of course,
but otherwise the only difference is the
addition of the equivalent gain of the
target RCS factor.

Range
(units)
NM
Km
m
yd
ft

f 1 in MHz
K1 =
37.8
32.45
-27.55
-28.33
-37.87

f 1 in GHz
K1 =
97.8
92.45
32.45
31.67
22.13

PHYSICAL CONCEPT
TARGET

TRANSMITTER
Gt

Pt

"

Pr

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

GF
GAIN OF RCS

Gr

RECEIVER

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Pt

Gt

GF
TRANSMITTER TO TARGET
" , ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS
1

TRANSMITTER

GAIN OF RCS

TO RECEIVER
" TARGET
, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

RECEIVER

Pr

Gr

Figure 1. The Two-Way Monostatic Radar Equation Visualized

4-4.1

From Section 4-3, One-Way Radar Equation / RF Propagation, the power in the receiver is:
[1]

P G G 82
Received Signal
' t t r
at Target
(4BR)2
From equation [3] in Section 4-3:

Antenna Gain ,G '

4BAe

[2]

82

Similar to a receiving antenna, a radar target also intercepts a portion of the power, but reflects (reradiates) it in
the direction of the radar. The amount of power reflected toward the radar is determined by the Radar Cross Section (RCS)
of the target. RCS is a characteristic of the target that represents its size as seen by the radar and has the dimensions of
area (F) as shown in Section 4-11. RCS area is not the same as physical area. But, for a radar target, the power reflected
in the radar's direction is equivalent to re-radiation of the power captured by an antenna of area F (the RCS). Therefore,
the effective capture area (Ae) of the receiving antenna is replaced by the RCS (F).

Gr '

4BF
82

[3]

PtGt 82 4BF
Reflected Signal
'
from target
(4BR)282

so we now have:

[4]

The equation for the power reflected in the radar's direction is the same as equation [1] except that Pt Gt , which
was the original transmitted power, is replaced with the reflected signal power from the target, from equation [4]. This
gives:

P G 82 4BF
Gr 82
Reflected Signal Received Back
' t t
x
at Input to Radar Receiver
(4BR)282
(4BR)2
TWO WAY SIGNAL STRENGTH (S)

S
12 dB

(1/16 pwr)

12 dB

(16x pwr)

S decreases by 12 dB
when the distance doubles
S increases by 12 dB
when the distance is half

2R

If like terms are cancelled, the two-way radar equation

results. The peak power at the radar receiver input is:

Pr '

R
0.5 R

[5]

PtGtGr82F
(4B)3R 4

' PtGtGr

Fc 2
(4B)3f 2 R 4

[6]

* Note: 8=c/f and F = RCS. Keep 8 or c, F, and R in the same

units.
On reducing equation [6] to log form we have:

10log Pr = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr + 10log F - 20log f - 40log R - 30log 4B + 20log c

[7]

Target Gain Factor

If Equation [5] terms are rearranged instead of cancelled, a recognizable form results:

S (or Pr) ' (PtGtGr) @

82
4BF
82
@
@
(4BR)2
82
(4BR)2

[8]

In log form:

10log[S (or Pr)] ' 10 logPt % 10 logGt % 10 logGr % 20 log

4-4.2

8
4BF
8
% 10 log
% 20 log
2
4BR
4BR
8

[9]

The fourth and sixth terms can each be recognized as -", where " is the one-way free space loss factor defined in
Section 4-3. The fifth term containing RCS (F) is the only new factor, and it is the "Target Gain Factor".
In simplified terms the equation becomes:
10log [S (or Pr)] = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr + GF - 2"1 (in dB)

[10]

Where "1 and GF are as follows:

From Section 4-3, equation [11], the space loss in dB is given by:
"1 ' 20log

4Bf R
c

' 20log f1R % K1

where K1 ' 20log

* Keep c and R in the same units. The table of

values for K1 is again presented here for completeness. The
constant, K1, in the table includes a range and frequency
unit conversion factor.

4B
@(Conversion units if not in m/sec, m, and Hz)
c
One-way free space loss, "1 = 20log (f 1R) + K1 (in dB)
K1 Values
(dB)

f 1 in MHz
K1=
37.8
32.45
-27.55
-28.33
-37.87

Range
(units)
NM
Km
m
yd
ft

While it's understood that RCS is the antenna

aperture area equivalent to an isotropically radiated target
return signal, the target gain factor represents a gain, as
shown in the equivalent circuit of Figure 1. The Target
Gain Factor expressed in dB is GF as shown in equation [12].

GF ' 10log

4BF
4BFf 2
' 10log
' 10log F % 20log f1 % K2
82
c2

where: K2 ' 10log

[11]

f 1 in GHz
K1=
97.8
92.45
32.45
31.67
22.13

(in dB)

[12]

4B
Frequency and RCS (Hz to MHz or GHz)2
@
conversions
as required
c2
(meters to feet)2

The "Target Gain Factor" (GF) is a composite of RCS, frequency, and dimension conversion factors and is called
by various names: "Gain of RCS", "Equivalent Gain of RCS", "Gain of Target Cross Section", and in dB form "Gain-subSigma".
If frequency is given in MHz and RCS (F) is in m2, the formula for GF is:

GF ' 10log F % 20log f1 % 10log 4B@

or:

sec
3 x108 m

GF ' 10log F % 20log f1 & 38.54

For this example, the constant K2 is -38.54 dB.

This value of K2 plus K2 for other area units and frequency
multiplier values are summarized in the adjoining table.

@m 2 @

1x10 6
sec

[13]
[14]

(in dB)

Target gain factor, GF = 10log F + 20log f 1 + K2 (in dB)

K2 Values
(dB)
RCS (F)
(units)
m2
ft2

4-4.3

f 1 in MHz
K2=
-38.54
-48.86

f 1 in GHz
K2=
21.46
11.14

In the two-way radar equation, the one-way free space loss factor ("1) is used twice, once for the radar transmitter
to target path and once for the target to radar receiver path. The radar illustrated in Figure 1 is monostatic so the two path
losses are the same and the values of the two "1's are the same.
If the transmission loss in Figure 1 from Pt to Gt equals the loss from Gr to Pr , and Gr = Gt , then equation [10]
can be written as:
10log [S or Pr] = 10log Pt + 20log Gtr - 2"1 + GF (in dB)
[15]
The space loss factor ("1) and the target gain factor (GF) include all the necessary unit conversions so that they can
be used directly with the most common units. Because the factors are given in dB form, they are more convenient to use
and allow calculation without a calculator when the factors are read from a chart or nomograph.
Most radars are monostatic. That is, the radar transmitting and receiving antennas are literally the same antenna.
There are some radars that are considered "monostatic" but have separate transmitting and receiving antennas that are colocated. In that case, equation [10] could require two different antenna gain factors as originally derived:
10log [S or Pr] = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr - 2"1 + GF

(in dB)

[16]

Note: To avoid having to include additional terms for these calculations, always combine any transmission line loss with
antenna gain.
Figure 2 is the visualization of the path losses occurring with the two-way radar equation. Note: to avoid having to include
additional terms, always combine any transmission line loss with antenna gain. Losses due to antenna polarization and
atmospheric absorption also need to be included.

Note: Not to scale

ERP
PT

*If power is actually measured in region A or B, it is stated

in either power density (mW/cm 2) or field intensity (V/m)

B*

A*
Space Loss
Approaching Target

10 log Pt + 10 log G t

-"

Space Loss
Returning From Target

-"
SIGNAL POSITION IN SPACE
+ G F

PR
Radar
Receiver
+ 10 log G r

Figure 2. Visualization of Two-Way Radar Equation

4-4.4

10 log P r

RADAR RANGE EQUATION (Two-Way Equation)

The Radar Equation is often called the "Radar Range Equation". The Radar Range Equation is simply the Radar
Equation rewritten to solve for maximum Range. The maximum radar range (Rmax) is the distance beyond which the target
can no longer be detected and correctly processed. It occurs when the received echo signal just equals Smin .
The Radar Range Equation is then:

Rmax

PtGtGr 82F

(4B)3Smin

1
4

or

PtGtGr c 2F]
(4B)3 f 2Smin

1
4

or

PtGt Ae F

1
4

[17]

(4B)2 Smin

The first equation, of the three above, is given in Log form by:
40log Rmax 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr + 10log F - 10log Smin - 20log f - 30log 4B + 20log c

[18]

As shown previously, Since K1 = 20log [(4B/c) times conversion units if not in m/sec, m, and Hz], we have:
10log Rmax

[10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr + 10log F - 10log Smin - 20log f 1 - K1 - 10.99 dB]

If you want to convert back from dB, then Rmax

10

[19]

One-way free space loss, "1 = 20log (f 1R) + K1 (in dB)

MdB
40

K1 Values
(dB)

Where M dB is the resulting number within the brackets of

equation 19.

Range
(units)
NM
Km
m
yd
ft

f 1 in MHz
K1=
37.8
32.45
-27.55
-28.33
-37.87

f 1 in GHz
K1=
97.8
92.45
32.45
31.67
22.13

From Section 5-2, Receiver Sensitivity / Noise, Smin is related to the noise factors by: S ' (S/N) (NF)kT B
min
min
0

[20]

The Radar Range Equation for a tracking radar (target continuously in the antenna beam) becomes:
Rmax

Pt Gt Gr 82F
(4B)3(S/N)min(NF)kT0B

1
4

or

Pt Gt Gr c 2F
(4B)3f 2(S/N)min(NF)kT oB

1
4

or

Pt Gt Ae F

1
4

[21]

(4B)2(S/N)min(NF)kT oB

Pt in equations [17], [19], and [21] is the peak power of a CW or pulse signal. For pulse signals these equations
assume the radar pulse is square. If not, there is less power since Pt is actually the average power within the pulse width
of the radar signal. Equations [17] and [19] relate the maximum detection range to Smin , the minimum signal which can
be detected and processed (the receiver sensitivity). The bandwidth (B) in equations [20] and [21] is directly related to Smin.
B is approximately equal to 1/PW. Thus a wider pulse width means a narrower receiver bandwidth which lowers Smin ,
assuming no integration.
One cannot arbitrarily change the receiver bandwidth, since it has to match the transmitted signal. The "widest
pulse width" occurs when the signal approaches a CW signal (see Section 2-11). A CW signal requires a very narrow
bandwidth (approximately 100 Hz). Therefore, receiver noise is very low and good sensitivity results (see Section 5-2).
If the radar pulse is narrow, the receiver filter bandwidth must be increased for a match (see Section 5-2), i.e. a 1 s pulse
requires a bandwidth of approximately 1 MHz. This increases receiver noise and decreases sensitivity.
If the radar transmitter can increase its PRF (decreasing PRI) and its receiver performs integration over time, an
increase in PRF can permit the receiver to "pull" coherent signals out of the noise thus reducing S/Nmin thereby increasing
4-4.5

the detection range. Note that a PRF increase may limit the maximum range due to the creation of overlapping return echoes
(see Section 2-10).
There are also other factors that limit the maximum practical detection range. With a scanning radar, there is loss
if the receiver integration time exceeds the radar's time on target. Many radars would be range limited by line-of-sight/radar
horizon (see Section 2-9) well before a typical target faded below Smin. Range can also be reduced by losses due to antenna
polarization and atmospheric absorption (see Sections 3-2 and 5-1).
Two-Way Radar Equation (Example)
Assume that a 5 GHz radar has a 70 dBm (10 kilowatt) signal fed through a 5 dB loss transmission line to a
transmit/receive antenna that has 45 dB gain. An aircraft that is flying 31 km from the radar has an RCS of 9 m2. What
is the signal level at the input to the radar receiver? (There is an additional loss due to any antenna polarization mismatch
but that loss will not be addressed in this problem). This problem continues in Sections 4-3, 4-7, and 4-10.
Answer:
Starting with: 10log S = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr + GF - 2"1 (in dB)
We know that: "1 = 20log f R + K1 = 20log (5x31) + 92.44 = 136.25 dB
and that: GF = 10log F + 20log f1 + K2 = 10log 9 + 20log 5 + 21.46 = 44.98 dB (see Table 1)
(Note: The aircraft transmission line losses (-5 dB) will be combined with the antenna gain (45 dB) for
both receive and transmit paths of the radar)
So, substituting in we have: 10log S = 70 + 40 + 40 + 44.98 - 2(136.25) = -77.52 dBm @ 5 GHz
The answer changes to -80.44 dBm if the tracking radar operates at 7 GHz provided the antenna gains and the
aircraft RCS are the same at both frequencies.
"1 = 20log (7x31) + 92.44 = 139.17 dB, GF = 10log 9 + 20log 7 + 21.46 = 47.9 dB (see Table 1)
10log S = 70 + 40 + 40 + 47.9 - 2(139.17) = -80.44 dBm @ 7 GHz
Table 1. Values of the Target Gain Factor (GF) in dB for Various Values of Frequency and RCS
RCS - Square meters
10
100

Frequency (GHz)

0.05

0.5 GHz
1 GHz
5 GHz
7 GHz
10 GHz
20 GHz
40 GHz

2.44
8.46
22.44
25.36
28.46
34.48
40.50

22.42
28.46
42.44
45.36
48.46
54.48
60.48

24.98
31.0
44.98
47.9
51.0
57.02
63.04

Note: Shaded values were used in the examples.

4-4.6

25.44
31.46
45.44
48.36
51.46
57.48
63.5

35.44
41.46
55.44
58.36
61.46
67.48
73.5

1,000

10,000

45.44
51.46
65.44
68.36
71.46
77.48
83.5

55.44
61.46
75.44
78.36
81.46
87.48
93.5

TWO-WAY RADAR RANGE INCREASE AS A RESULT OF A SENSITIVITY INCREASE

As shown in equation [17] Smin-1

% Rmax4

Therefore, -10 log Smin

40 logRmax and the table below results:

% Range Increase: Range + (% Range Increase) x Range = New Range

i.e., for a 12 dB sensitivity increase, 500 miles +100% x 500 miles = 1,000 miles
Range Multiplier: Range x Range Multiplier = New Range i.e., for a 12 dB sensitivity increase 500 miles x 2 = 1,000 miles

dB Sensitivity
Increase

% Range
Increase

+ 0.5
1.0
1.5
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

3
6
9
12
19
26
33
41
50
58
68

Table 2. Effects of Sensitivity Increase

Range
dB Sensitivity
Multiplier
Increase
1.03
1.06
1.09
1.12
1.19
1.26
1.33
1.41
1.50
1.58
1.68

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

% Range
Increase

Range
Multiplier

78
88
100
111
124
137
151
166
182
198
216

1.78
1.88
2.00
2.11
2.24
2.37
2.51
2.66
2.82
2.98
3.16

TWO-WAY RADAR RANGE DECREASE AS A RESULT OF A SENSITIVITY DECREASE

As shown in equation [17] Smin-1

% Rmax4

Therefore, -10 log Smin

40 logRmax and the table below results:

% Range Decrease: Range - (% Range Decrease) x Range = New Range

i.e., for a 12 dB sensitivity decrease, 500 miles - 50% x 500 miles = 250 miles
Range Multiplier: Range x Range Multiplier = New Range i.e., for a 12 dB sensitivity decrease 500 miles x 0.5 = 250
miles
Table 3. Effects of Sensitivity Decrease
dB Sensitivity
% Range
Range
dB Sensitivity
% Range
Range
Decrease
Decrease
Multiplier
Decrease
Decrease
Multiplier
- 0.5
- 1.0
- 1.5
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9

3
6
8
11
16
21
25
29
33
37
40

0.97
0.94
0.92
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.75
0.71
0.67
0.63
0.60

-10
- 11
- 12
- 13
- 14
- 15
- 16
- 17
- 18
- 19
- 20

4-4.7

44
47
50
53
55
58
60
62
65
67
68

0.56
0.53
0.50
0.47
0.45
0.42
0.40
0.38
0.35
0.33
0.32

ALTERNATE TWO-WAY RADAR EQUATION

In this section the same radar equation factors are grouped differently to create different constants as is used by some
authors.
TWO-WAY RADAR EQUATION (MONOSTATIC)
P G G &2.
PtGtGr.c 2 
c
Peak power at the radar receiver input is: Pr  t t r
( Note: &  and . is RCS )

3 4
3 2 4
f
(4*) f R
(4*) R

[1]

* Keep & or c, ., and R in the same units. On reducing the above equation to log form we have:
or: 10log Pr = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr - 2

(in dB)

Where: 2 = 20log f 1R2 - 10log . + K3 , and K3 = -10log c2/(4*)3

Note: Losses due to antenna polarization and atmospheric absorption (Sections 3-2 and 5-1) are not included in these equations.
K3 Values:
(dB)

Range
Units
NM
km
m
yd
ft

f 1 in MHz
. in m2
114.15
103.44
-16.56
-18.1
-37.2

f 1 in GHz
. in m2
174.15
163.44
43.44
41.9
22.8

f 1 in MHz
. in ft2
124.47
113.76
-6.24
-7.78
-26.88

f 1 in GHz
. in ft2
184.47
173.76
53.76
52.22
33.12

In the last section, we had the basic radar equation given as equation [6] and it is repeated as equation [1] in the table
above.
In section 4-4, in order to maintain the concept and use of the one-way space loss coefficient, 1 , we didn't cancel
like terms which was done to form equation [6] there. Rather, we regrouped the factors of equation [5]. This resulted
in two minus 1 terms and we defined the remaining term as G. , which accounted for RCS (see equation [8] & [9]).
Some authors take a different approach, and instead develop an entirely new single factor 2 , which is used instead
of the combination of 1 and G..
If equation [1] is reduced to log form, (and noting that f = c/&) it becomes:
10log Pr = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr - 20log (f R2) + 10log . + 10log (c2/(4*)3)

[2]

We now call the last three terms on the right minus 2 and use it as a single term instead of the two terms 1 and G..
The concept of dealing with one variable factor may be easier although we still need to know the range, frequency
and radar cross section to evaluate 2. Additionally, we can no longer use a nomograph like we did in computing 1
and visualize a two-way space loss consisting of two times the one-way space loss, since there are now 3 variables vs
two.
Equation [2] reduces to: 10log Pr = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr - 2
Where 2 = 20log (f 1R2) - 10log . + K3

(in dB)

[3]

and where f 1 is the MHz or GHz value of frequency

and K3 = -10log (c2/(4*)3) + 20log (conversion for Hz to MHz or GHz)+ 40log (range unit conversions if not
in meters) - 20log (RCS conversions for meters to feet)
The values of K3 are given in the table above.
Comparing equation [3] to equation [10] in Section 4-4, it can be seen that 2 = 21 - G. .
4-5.1

TWO-WAY RADAR EQUATION (BISTATIC)

The following table contains a summary of the equations developed in this section.
TWO-WAY RADAR EQUATION (BISTATIC)
Peak power at the
P G G 82 F
' Pt Gt Gr
radar receiver input is: Pr ' t t r
(4B)

2
2
RTx
RRx

Fc 2
3

(4B) f

Note: 8 'c/f and F' RCS

( keep 8 or c, F, and R in the same units

2
2
RTx
RRx

On reducing the above equation to log form we have:

10log Pr = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr + 10log F - 20log f + 20log c - 30log 4B - 20log RTx - 20log RRx
or in simplified terms:

10log Pr = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr + GF - "Tx - "Rx (in dB)

Where "Tx corresponds to transmitter to target loss and "Rx corresponds to target to receiver loss.
Note: Losses due to antenna polarization and atmospheric absorption (Sections 3-2 and 5-1) are not included in these equations.
Target gain factor, GF = 10log F + 20log f 1 + K2 (in dB)
K2 Values
(dB)
RCS (F)
(units)
m2
ft2

f 1 in MHz
K2 =
-38.54
-48.86

One-way free space loss, "Tx or Rx = 20log (f 1RTx or Rx) + K1 (in dB)
K1 Values
(dB)

f 1 in GHz
K2 =
21.46
11.14

Range
(units)
NM
Km
m
yd
ft

f 1 in MHz
K1 =
37.8
32.45
-27.55
-28.33
-37.87

f 1 in GHz
K1 =
97.8
92.45
32.45
31.67
22.13

BISTATIC RADAR
PHYSICAL CONCEPT

There are also true bistatic radars radars where the transmitter and receiver are in
different locations as is depicted in Figure 1.
The most commonly encountered bistatic radar
application is the semi-active missile. The
transmitter is located on, or near, the launch
platform (surface or airborne), and the receiver
is in the missile which is somewhere between
the launch platform and the target.
The transmitting and receiving
antennas are not the same and are not in the
same location. Because the target-to-radar
range is different from the target-to-missile
range, the target-to-radar and target-to-missile
space losses are different.

t
TO TARGET
"TRANSMITTER
, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

P
t

Tx

G
F
GAIN OF RCS

TRANSMITTER

"

P
r

TARGET TO RECEIVER
, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

Rx

Gr

RECEIVER

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
P
t

RTx
t
TRANSMITTER TO TARGET
, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS
Tx

"

TRANSMITTER

RECEIVER

"

GF
GAIN OF RCS

TARGET TO RECEIVER
, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

Rx

P
r

Gr

Figure 1. Bistatic Radar Visualized

4-6.1

RRx

The peak power at the radar receiver input is :

Pr '

Pt Gt Gr 82 F
2
2
(4B)3RTx
RRx

' Pt Gt Gr

Fc 2
3

(4B) f

2
2 2
RTx RRx

( Note: 8'

c
and F' RCS)
f

[1]

* Keep 8 or c, F, and R in the same units.

On reducing the above equation to log form we have:
10log Pr = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr + 10log F - 20log f + 20log c - 30log 4B - 20log RTx - 20log RRx

[2]

or in simplified terms:
10log Pr = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr + GF - "Tx - "Rx

(in dB)

[3]

Where "Tx corresponds to transmitter to target loss and "Rx corresponds to target to receiver loss, or:
"Tx = 20log(f 1TTx) + K1 (in dB)

and

"Rx = 20log(f 1TRx) + K1 (in dB)

with K1 values provided on page 4-6.1 and with f 1 being the MHz or GHz value of frequency.
Therefore, the difference between monostatic and bistatic calculations is that two "'s are calculated for two
different ranges and different gains may be required for transmit and receive antennas.
To avoid having to include additional terms for these calculations, always combine any transmission line loss
with antenna gain.
As shown in Figure 2, it should also be noted that the bistatic RCS received by the missile is not always the
same as the monostatic RCS. In general, the target's RCS varies with angle. Therefore, the bistatic RCS and
monostatic RCS will be equal for receive and transmit antennas at the same angle to the target (but only if all three are
in a line, as RCS also varies with elevation angle).

SEMI-ACTIVE
TX
RX

Figure 2. Bistatic RCS Varies

4-6.2

JAMMING TO SIGNAL (J/S) RATIO - CONSTANT POWER [SATURATED] JAMMING

The following table contains a summary of the equations developed in this section.
JAMMING TO SIGNAL (J/S) RATIO (MONOSTATIC)
J/S = (Pj Gja4B R2) / (Pt Gt F)
10log

(ratio form)* or:

J/S = 10logPj + 10logGja - 10logPt - 10logGt - 10logF* + 10.99 dB + 20logR*

Note (1): Neither f nor 8 terms are part of these equations

If simplified radar equations developed in previous sections are used:

10log

J/S = 10logPj + 10logGja - 10logPt - 10logGt - GF + "1 (in dB)

Note (2): the 20log f 1 term in -GF cancels the 20log f 1 term in "1

JAMMING TO SIGNAL (J/S) RATIO (BISTATIC)

RTx is the range from the radar transmitter to the target. See note (1).
J/S = (Pj Gja4B RTx2) / (Pt Gt F) (ratio form) * or:
10log

J/S = 10logPj + 10logGja - 10logPt - 10logGt - 10logF* + 10.99 dB + 20logRTx*

If simplified radar equations developed in previous sections are used: see note (2).
10log

J/S = 10logPj + 10logGja - 10logPt - 10logGt - GF + "Tx (in dB)

* Keep R and F in same units

Target gain factor, (in dB)
GF = 10logF + 20log f 1 + K2
K2 Values (dB):
RCS (F)

f 1 in MHz

f 1 in GHz

(units)
m2
ft2

K2 =
-38.54
-48.86

K2 =
21.46
11.14

One-way free space loss (dB)

"1 or "Tx = 20log (f 1 R) + K1
K1 Values (dB):
Range

f 1 in MHz

f 1 in GHz

(units)
NM
km
m
ft

K1 =
37.8
32.45
-27.55
-37.87

K1 =
97.8
92.45
32.45
22.13

This section derives the J/S ratio from the one-way range equation for J and the two-way range equation for S,
and deals exclusively with active (transmitting) ECM devices or systems. Furthermore, the only purpose of the ECM
considered is to prevent, delay, or confuse the radar processing of target information.
By official definition, ECM can be either Jamming or Deception. This may be somewhat confusing because
almost any type of active ECM is commonly called "jamming", and the calculations of ECM signal in the radar
compared to the target signal in the radar commonly refer to the "jamming-to-signal" ratio ("J-to-S" ratio). Therefore
this section uses the common jargon and the term "jammer" refers to any ECM transmitter, and the term "jamming"
refers to any ECM transmission, whether Deception or Concealment.
Jamming: "Official" jamming should more aptly be called Concealment or Masking. Essentially,
Concealment uses ECM to swamp the radar receiver and hide the targets. Concealment (Jamming) usually uses some
form of noise as the transmitted ECM signal. In this section, Concealment will be called "noise" or "noise jamming".
Deception: Deception might be better called Forgery. Deception uses ECM to forge false target signals that
the radar receiver accepts and processes as real targets.
"J" designates the ECM signal strength whether it originates from a noise jammer or from a deception ECM
system.

4-7.1

Basically, there are two different methods

of employing active ECM against hostile radars:

SELF SCREENING JAMMING

Self Protection ECM

Support ECM

RADAR
TARGET
WITH
JAMMER

For most practical purposes, Self

Protection ECM is usually Deception and Support
ECM is usually noise jamming. As the name
implies, Self Protection ECM is ECM that is used
to protect the platform that it is on. Self
Protection ECM is often called "self screening
jamming", and also "DECM", which is an
acronym for either "Defensive ECM" or
"Deception ECM". The top half of Figure 1
shows self screening jamming (DECM).

ESCORT JAMMING

TARGET

RADAR
ESCORT
WITH
JAMMER

Figure 1. Self Protection and Escort Jamming

The bottom half of Figure 1 illustrates
escort jamming which is a special case of support
jamming. If the escort platform is sufficiently close to the target, the J-to-S calculations are the same as for DECM.

TARGET

RADAR

Support ECM is ECM radiated from one

platform and is used to protect other platforms.
Figure 2 illustrates two cases of support jamming stand-off jamming (SOJ) and stand-in jamming (SIJ).
For SOJ the support jamming platform is maintaining
an orbit at a long range from the radar - usually
beyond weapons range. For SIJ, a remotely piloted
vehicle is orbiting very close to the victim radar.
Obviously, the jamming power required for the SOJ to
screen a target is much greater than the jamming
power required for the SIJ to screen the same target.

STAND-OFF
JAMMER AIRCRAFT

STAND-OFF JAMMING

RADAR

TARGET

When factoring ECM into the radar equation,

the quantities of greatest interest are "J-to-S" and
Burn- Through Range.

STAND-IN
JAMMER RPV

STAND-IN JAMMING

"J-to-S" is the ratio of the signal strength of

the ECM signal (J) to the signal strength of the target
return signal (S). It is expressed as "J/S" and, in this
section, is always in dB. J usually (but not always) must exceed S by some amount to be effective, therefore the desired
result of a J/S calculation in dB is a positive number. Burn-through Range is the radar to target range where the target
return signal can first be detected through the ECM and is usually slightly farther than crossover range where J=S. It is
usually the range where the J/S just equals the minimum effective J/S (See Section 4-8).
Figure 2. Support Jamming

4-7.2

The significance of "J-to-S" is sometimes misunderstood. The effectiveness of ECM is not a direct
mathematical function of "J-to-S". The magnitude of the "J-to-S" required for effectiveness is a function of the
particular ECM technique and of the radar it is being used against. Different ECM techniques may very well require
different "J-to-S" ratios against the same radar. When there is sufficient "J-to-S" for effectiveness, increasing it will
rarely increase the effectiveness at a given range. Because modern radars can have sophisticated signal processing
and/or ECCM capabilities, in certain radars too much "J-to-S" could cause the signal processor to ignore the jamming,
or activate special anti-jamming modes. Increasing "J-to-S" (or the jammer power) does, however, allow the target
aircraft to get much closer to the threat radar before burn-through occurs, which essentially means more power is better
if it can be controlled when desired.
IMPORTANT NOTE: If the signal S is CW or PD and the Jamming J is amplitude modulated, then the J used in
the formula has to be reduced from the peak value (due to sin x/x frequency distribution). The amount of reduction
is dependent upon how much of the bandwidth is covered by the jamming signal. To get an exact value, integrals
would have to be taken over the bandwidth. As a rule of thumb however:
C If the frequency of modulation is less than the BW of the tracking radar reduce J/S by 10 Log(duty cycle).
C If the frequency of modulation is greater than the BW of the tracking radar reduce J/S by 20 Log(duty cycle).
For example; if your jamming signal is square wave chopped (50% duty cycle) at a 100 Hz rate while jamming a
1 kHz bandwidth receiver, then the J/S is reduced by 3 dB from the maximum. If the duty cycle was 33%, then the
reduction would be 4.8 dB. If the 50% and 33% duty cycle jamming signals were chopped at a 10 kHz (vice the
100 Hz) rate, the rule of thumb for jamming seen by the receiver would be down 6 dB and 9.6 dB, respectively,
from the maximum since the 10 kHz chopping rate is greater than the 1 kHz receiver BW.

J/S for DECM vs. MONOSTATIC RADAR

Figure 3 is radar jamming visualized. The Physical concept of Figure 3 shows a monostatic radar that is the
same as Figure 1, Section 4-4, and a jammer (transmitter) to radar (receiver) that is the same as Figure 3, Section 4-3.
In other words, Figure 3 is simply the combination of the previous two visual concepts where there is only one receiver
(the radar's).

PHYSICAL CONCEPT
RADAR
POWER

GAIN
OF RCS

GF
Pr

RADAR
ANTENNA
GAIN

"

, FREE SPACE LOSS

Gr
GJA

RADAR
RECEIVER

SIGNAL = POWER + GAINS - LOSSES

Figure 3. Radar Jamming Visualized

4-7.3

JAMMER
ANTENNA
GAIN

Pj

JAMMER
POWER

The equivalent circuit shown in Figure 4 applies to jamming monostatic radars with either DECM or support
ECM. For DECM (or escort) v.s. a monostatic radar, the jammer is on the target and the radar receive and transmit
antennas are collocated so the three ranges and three space loss factors ("'s) are the same.

MONOSTATIC
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
"

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

1 or Tx

P
t

TRANSMITTER
COLLOCATED

R
"1

"

RJx
"Jx

COLLOCATED

R Tx

GF

RADAR
ANTENNA
GAIN

For Monostatic
RTx
RRx
"Tx
"Rx

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

GAIN OF RCS

1 or Rx

R Rx

TARGET

RECEIVER
P
r
(TOTAL SIGNAL

"

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

1 or Jx

R Jx

J + S)
SIGNAL

POWER + GAINS - LOSSES (in dB)

JAMMER
ANTENNA
GAIN ( GJA )

G JA

Pt

JAMMER
POWER ( PJ )

Figure 4. Monostatic Radar ECM Equivalent Circuit

J-S Ratio (Monostatic) The ratio of the power received (Pr1 or J) from the jamming signal transmitted from the target
to the power received (Pr2 or S) from the radar skin return from the target equals J/S.
From the one way range equation in Section 4-3:

Pr1 or J '

Pj Gja Gr 82

[1]

(4BR)

Note: To avoid having to include additional terms for these calculations, always combine any transmission line
loss with antenna gain.
From the two way range equation in Section 4.4:

so

Pr2 or S '

P G G 82(4B)3R 4
P G 4BR 2
J
' j ja r
' j ja
S
Pt Gt F
Pt Gt Gr 82 F(4BR)2

Pt Gt Gr 82 F
3

(4B) R

[2]

(ratio form)

[3]

* Keep R and F in the same units.

On reducing the above equation to log form we have:

or

10log J/S = 10log Pj + 10log Gja - 10log Pt - 10log Gt - 10log F + 10log 4B + 20log R

[4]

10log J/S = 10log Pj + 10log Gja - 10log Pt - 10log Gt - 10log F + 10.99 dB + 20log R

[5]

Note: Neither f nor 8 terms are part of the final form of equation [3] and equation [5].

4-7.4

J/S Calculations (Monostatic) Using a One Way Free Space Loss - The simplified radar equations developed in
previous sections can be used to express J/S.
From the one way range equation Section 4-3:
10log (Pr1 or J) = 10log Pj + 10log Gja + 10log Gr - "1

(in dB)

[6]

From the two way range equation in Section 4.4:

10log (Pr2 or S) = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr + GF - 2"1

(in dB)

[7]

10log (J/S) = 10log Pj + 10log Gja - 10log Pt - 10log Gt - GF + "1

(in dB)

[8]

Note: To avoid having to include additional terms for these calculations, always combine any transmission line
loss with antenna gain. The 20log f 1 term in -GF cancels the 20log f 1 term in "1.
Target gain factor, GF = 10log F + 20log f 1 + K2
(in dB)

One-way free space loss, "1 = 20log (f 1R) + K1

(in dB)

K2 Values
(dB)
RCS (F) f 1 in MHz f 1 in GHz
K2 =
K2 =
(units)
m2
-38.54
21.46
ft2
-48.86
11.14

K1 Values
(dB)

Range
(units)
NM
km
m
yd
ft

f 1 in MHz f 1 in GHz
K1 =
K1 =
37.8
97.8
32.45
92.45
-27.55
32.45
-28.33
31.67
-37.87
22.13

J/S for DECM vs. BISTATIC RADAR

The semi-active missile illustrated in Figure 5 is
the typical bistatic radar which would require the target to
have self protection ECM to survive. In this case, the
jammer is on the target and the target to missile receiver
range is the same as the jammer to receiver range, but the
radar to target range is different. Therefore, only two of
the ranges and two of the "'s (Figure 6.) are the same.

SEMI-ACTIVE
TX
RX

In the following equations:

Figure 5. Bistatic Radar
"Tx = The one-way space loss from the radar transmitter
to the target for range RTx
"Rx = The one-way space loss from the target to the missile receiver for range RRx
Like the monostatic radar, the bistatic jamming and reflected target signals travel the same path from the target
and enter the receiver (missile in this case) via the same antenna. In both monostatic and bistatic J/S equations this
common range cancels, so both J/S equations are left with an RTx2 or 20 log RTx term. Since in the monostatic case
RTx = RRx and "Tx = "Rx , only R or "1 is used in the equations. Therefore, the bistatic J/S equations [11], [13], or
[14] will work for monostatic J/S calculations, but the opposite is only true if bistatic RTx and "Tx terms are used for R
or "1 terms in monostatic equations [3], [5], and [8].

4-7.5

The equivalent circuit shown in Figure 6 applies to jamming bistatic radar. For DECM (or escort) vs. a bistatic
radar, the jammer is on the target and the radar receive and transmit antennas are at separate locations so only two of
the three ranges and two of the three space loss factors ("'s) are the same.

For Bistatic
RRX = RJX RTX
"2 = "Rx = "Jx

BISTATIC
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
"

1 or Tx

P
t

TRANSMITTER

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

COLLOCATED

R Tx

GF

t
RADAR
ANTENNA
GAIN

"Tx and "1

"

2 or Rx

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

GAIN OF RCS
R Rx

TARGET

RECEIVER
SEPARATE
LOCATIONS

Pr

(TOTAL SIGNAL

"

2 or Jx

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

R Jx

J + S)
SIGNAL

JAMMER
ANTENNA
GAIN ( GJA )

POWER + GAINS - LOSSES (in dB)

Pt

G JA

JAMMER
POWER ( PJ )

Figure 6. Bistatic Radar ECM Equivalent Circuit

J-to-S Ratio (Bistatic) When the radar's transmit antenna is located remotely from the receiving antenna (Figure 6), the
ratio of the power received (Pr1 or J) from the jamming signal transmitted from the target to the power received (Pr2 or
S) from the radar skin return from the target equals J/S. For jammer effectiveness J normally has to be greater than S.
From the one way range equation in Section 4-3:

From the two way range equation in Section 4.4:

so

Pr1 or J '

Pr2 or S '

2
2
2
Pj Gja Gr 82(4B)3RTx
RRx
Pj Gja 4BRTx
J
'
'
S
Pt Gt F
Pt Gt Gr 82 F(4BRRx)2

Pj Gja Gr 82
(4BRRx)2

(RJx = RRx)

Pt Gt Gr 82 F
2
2
(4B)3 RTx
RRx

[9]

[10]

(ratio form)

[11]

* Keep R and F in the same units.

On reducing the above equation to log form we have:

or

10log J/S = 10log Pj + 10log Gja - 10log Pt - 10log Gt - 10log F + 10log 4B + 20log RTx

[12]

10log J/S = 10log Pj + 10log Gja - 10log Pt - 10log Gt - 10log F + 10.99 dB + 20log RTx

[13]

Note: To avoid having to include additional terms for these calculations, always combine any transmission line
loss with antenna gain. Neither f nor 8 terms are part of the final form of equation [11] and equation [13].

4-7.6

Bistatic J/S Calculations (Bistatic) Using a One Way Free Space Loss - The simplified radar equations developed in
previous sections can be used to express J/S.
From the one way range equation in Section 4-3:
10log (Pr1 or J) = 10log Pj + 10log Gja + 10log Gr - "Rx

(all factors dB)

[14]

From the two way range equation in Section 4-4:

10log (Pr2 or S) = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr + GF - "Tx - "Rx

(all factors dB)

[15]

10log (J/S) = 10log Pj + 10log Gja - 10log Pt - 10log Gt - GF + "Tx

(all factors dB)

[16]

Note: To avoid having to include additional terms for these calculations, always combine any transmission line
loss with antenna gain. The 20log f 1 term in -GF cancels the 20log f 1 term in "1.
Target gain factor, GF = 10log F + 20log f 1 + K2
(in dB)
K2 Values
(dB)
RCS (F) f 1 in MHz f 1 in GHz
(units)
K2 =
K2 =
2
m
-38.54
21.46
ft2
-48.86
11.14

"Tx or Rx
K1 Values
(dB)

One-way free space loss

= 20log f 1RTx or Rx + K1 (in dB)
Range
(units)
NM
km
m
yd
ft

f 1 in MHz f 1 in GHz
K1 =
K1 =
37.8
97.8
32.45
92.45
-27.55
32.45
-28.33
31.67
-37.87
22.13

Saturated J/S (Monostatic) Example (Constant Power Jamming)

Assume that a 5 GHz radar has a 70 dBm signal fed through a 5 dB loss transmission line to an antenna that
has 45 dB gain. An aircraft is flying 31 km from the radar. The aft EW antenna has -1 dB gain and a 5 dB line loss to
the EW receiver (there is an additional loss due to any antenna polarization mismatch but that loss will not be addressed
in this problem). The aircraft has a jammer that provides 30 dBm saturated output if the received signal is above -35
dBm. The jammer feeds a 10 dB loss transmission line which is connected to an antenna with a 5 dB gain. If the RCS
of the aircraft is 9 m2, what is the J/S level received by the tracking radar?
Answer: The received signal at the jammer is the same as the example in Section 4-3, i.e. answer (1) =
-32.3 dBm @ 5 GHz. Since the received signal is above -35 dBm, the jammer will operate in the saturated mode, and
equation [5] can be used. (See Section 4-10 for an example of a jammer operating in the linear region.)
10log J/S = 10log Pj + 10log Gja - 10log Pt - 10log Gt - 10log F + 10.99 dB + 20log R
Note: the respective transmission line losses will be combined with antenna gains,
i.e. -5 + 45 = 40 dB & -10 +5 = -5 dB.
10log J/S = 30 - 5 - 70 - 40 - 9.54 + 10.99 + 89.8 = 6.25 dB @ 5 GHz*
* The answer is still 6.25 dB if the tracking radar operates at 7 GHz provided the antenna gains and the aircraft
RCS are the same at both frequencies.
In this example, there is inadequate jamming power at each frequency if the J/S needs to be 10 dB or greater to
be effective. One solution would be to replace the jammer with one that has a greater power output. If the antenna of
the aircraft and the radar are not the proper polarization, additional power will also be required (see Section 3-2).
4-7.7

BURN-THROUGH / CROSSOVER RANGE

The burn-through equations are derived in this section. These equations are most commonly used in jammer type of
applications. The following is a summary of the important equations explored in this section:
* Keep Pt & Pj in same units
Keep R and F in same units

J/S CROSSOVER RANGE (MONOSTATIC) (J = S)

RJ=S = [ (Pt Gt F) / (Pj Gja 4B) ]1/2

(Ratio)*

K1 Values (dB):
Range f1 in MHz in GHz
(units)
K1=
K1=
m
-27.55
32.45
ft
-37.87
22.13

or 20 log RJ=S = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log F - 10log Pj - 10log Gja - 10.99 dB *

If simplified radar equations already converted to dB are used:
20 log RJ=S = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + GF - 10log Pj - 10log Gja - K1 - 20log f 1 (in dB)*
BURN-THROUGH RANGE (MONOSTATIC)
The radar to target range where the target return signal (S) can first be detected through
the ECM (J).
RBT = [ (Pt Gt F Jmin eff) / (Pj Gja 4B S) ]1/2
(Ratio)*
or 20logRBT = 10logPt + 10logGt + 10logF - 10logPj - 10logGja + 10log(Jmin eff/S) - 10.99 dB
*

If simplified radar equations already converted to dB are used:

Target gain factor (dB)

GF = 10log F + 20log f1+K2

K2 Values (dB):
RCS (F) f1 in MHz
(units)
K2=
m2
-38.54
ft2
-48.86

in GHz
K2=
21.46
11.14

20log RBT = 10logPt + 10logGt + GF - 10logPj - 10logGja - K1 + 10log(Jmin eff/S) - 20log f 1(in dB)*

f 1 is MHz or GHz value of frequency

BURN-THROUGH RANGE (BISTATIC)

RTx is the range from the radar transmitter to the target and is different from R Rx which is the range from the
target to the receiver. Use Monostatic equations and substitute R Tx for R
CROSSOVER RANGE and BURN-THROUGH RANGE
To present the values of J
and S, (or J/S) over a minimum to
maximum radar to target range of
interest, equation [1], section 4-7.
which has a slope of 20 log for J vs.
range and equation [2], section 4-7,
which has a slope of 40 log for S vs.
range are plotted. When plotted on
semi-log graph paper, J and S (or J/S)
vs. range are straight lines as
illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1 is a sample graph
- it cannot be used for data.

J/S CROSSOVER and BURN-THROUGH RANGES

(MONOSTATIC)

J=S+6dB (for this example)

-10

BURN-THROUGH, Where J is minimally effective

-20
-30

J=S

JAMMING P r or J = 20 dB/Decade

(CROSSOVER)

-40
-50

REQUIRED
J/S (6dB)

-60
SIGNAL Pr or S = 40 dB/Decade

-70
-80

The crossing of the J and S

lines (known as crossover) gives the
range where J = S (about 1.29 NM),
and shows that shorter ranges will
produce target signals greater than
the jamming signal.

-90
1.29

-100
1

EXAMPLE ONLY

5 6

8 10

20

30 40 50 60

RANGE FROM RADAR TO TARGET (NM)

(KIWTG 
 

5CORNG , CPF 5 )TCRJ

80 100

The point where the radar power overcomes the jamming signal is known as burn-through. The crossover point
where J = S could be the burn-through range, but it usually isn't because normally J/S > 0 dB to be effective due to the
task of differentiating the signal from the jamming noise floor (see receiver sensitivity section). For this example, the
J/S required for the ECM to be effective is given as 6 dB, as shown by the dotted line. This required J/S line crosses the
jamming line at about 2.8 NM which, in this example, is the burn-through range.
In this particular example, we have:

Pt = 80 dBm
Pj = 50 dBm
F = 18 m2

Gt = 42 dB
Gja = 6 dB
f = 5.9 GHz (not necessary for all calculations)

A radar can be designed with higher than necessary power for earlier burn-through on jamming targets.
Naturally that would also have the added advantage of earlier detection of non-jamming targets as well.
Note: To avoid having to include additional terms for the following
calculations, always combine any transmission line loss with antenna gain.

CROSSOVER AND BURN-THROUGH RANGE EQUATIONS (MONOSTATIC) - To calculate the crossover

range or burn-through range the J/S equation must be solved for range. From equation [3], section 4-7:
P G 4B R 2
P t Gt F J
J
Solving for R: R '
[1]
' j ja
(ratio form)
P t Gt F
S
Pj Gja 4B S

BURN-THROUGH RANGE (MONOSTATIC) - Burn-through Range (Monostatic) is the radar to target range where
the target return signal (S) can first be detected through the ECM (J). It is usually the range when the J/S just equals the
minimum effective J/S.

RBT '

P t Gt F Jmin eff
Pj Gja 4B S

(burn-through range)

or in dB form, (using 10log 4B = 10.99 dB):

20log RBT = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log F - 10log Pj - 10log Gja + 10log (Jmin eff/S) - 10.99 dB

[2]

[3]

RANGE WHEN J/S CROSSOVER OCCURS (MONOSTATIC) - The crossover of the jammer's 20 dB/decade power
line and the skin return signal's 40 dB/decade power line of Figure 1 occurs for the case where J = S in dB or J/S=1 in
ratio. Substituting into equation [1] yields:

R(J'S) '

P t Gt F

Pj Gja 4B

(Crossover range)

or in dB form:
20log RJ=S = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log F - 10log Pj - 10log Gja - 10.99 dB
Note: keep R and F in same units in all equations.

 

[4]

[5]

CROSSOVER AND BURN-THROUGH EQUATIONS (MONOSTATIC)

USING " - ONE WAY FREE SPACE LOSS
The other crossover burn-through range formulas can be confusing because a frequency term is subtracted (equations
[6], [7] and [8]), but both ranges are independent of frequency. This subtraction is necessary because when J/S is
calculated directly as previously shown, 82 or (c/f)2 terms canceled, whereas in the simplified radar equations, a
frequency term is part of the G F term and has to be cancelled if one solves for R. From equation [8], section 4-7:
10log J/S = 10log Pj + 10log Gja - 10log Pt - 10log Gt - GF + "1 (factors in dB)
or rearranging: "1 = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + GF - 10log Pj - 10log Gja + 10log (J/S)
from section 4-4:

"1 = 20log f 1R1 + K1

or

20log R1 = "1 - K1 - 20log f 1

then substituting for "1:

20log R1 = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + GF - 10log Pj - 10log Gja - K1 + 10log (J/S) - 20log f 1

(factors in dB)

[6]

EQUATION FOR BURN-THROUGH RANGE (MONOSTATIC) - Burn-through occurs at the range when the J/S just
equals the minimum effective J/S. GF and K1 are as defined on page 4-8.1.
20log RBT = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + GF - 10log Pj - 10log Gja - K1 + 10log (Jmin eff/S) - 20log f 1 (factors in dB) [7]
EQUATION FOR THE RANGE WHEN J/S CROSSOVER OCCURS (MONOSTATIC) - The J/S crossover range
occurs for the case where J = S , substituting into equation [6] yields:
20log RJ=S = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + GF - 10log Pj - 10log Gja - K1 - 20log f 1

(factors in dB)

[8]

BURN-THROUGH RANGE (BISTATIC)

Bistatic J/S crossover range is the radar-to-target range when the power received (S) from the radar skin return
from the target equals the power received (J) from the jamming signal transmitted from the target. As shown in Figure
6, section 4-7, the receive antenna that is receiving the same level of J and S is remotely located from the radar's transmit
antenna. Bistatic equations [11], [13], and [14] in section 4-7 show that J/S is only a function of radar to target range,
therefore J/S is not a function of wherever the missile is in its flight path provided the missile is in the antenna beam of
the target's jammer. The missile is closing on the target at a very much higher rate than the target is closing on the radar,
so the radar to target range will change less during the missile flight.
It should be noted that for a very long range air-to-air missile shot, the radar to target range could typically
decrease to 35% of the initial firing range during the missile time-of-flight, i.e. A missile shot at a target 36 NM away,
may be only 12 NM away from the firing aircraft at missile impact.

 

Figure 2 shows both the

jamming radiated from the target
and the power reflected from the
target as a function of radar-totarget range. In this particular
example, the RCS is assumed to be
smaller, 15 m2 vice 18m 2 in the
monostatic case, since the missile
will be approaching the target from
a different angle. This will not,
however, always be the case.
In this plot, the power
reflected is:
P G 4 BF
P ref ' t t
(4BR)2
Substituting the values
given previously in the example on
page 4-8.1, we find that the
crossover point is at 1.18 NM (due
to the assumed reduction in RCS).

J/S CROSSOVER and BURN-THROUGH RANGES

(BISTATIC)
60
50

Jamming = J

40

J=S

30

Required J/S (6 dB)

Burn-Through

(Crossover)

20
Signal Reflected Pref or Sref = 20 dB/Decade

10
0
-10
-20
1.18

-30
1

EXAMPLE ONLY

5 6

8 10

20

30 40 50 60

80 100

RANGE FROM RADAR TO TARGET (NM)

(KIWTG 

$KUVCVKE %TQUUQXGT CPF $WTP VJTQWIJ

CROSSOVER AND BURN-THROUGH RANGE EQUATIONS (BISTATIC)

To calculate the radar transmitter-to-target range where J/S crossover or burn-through occurs, the J/S equation
must be solved for range. From equation [11] in section 4-7:
2
P j Gja 4B R Tx
J
'
(ratio form)
P t Gt F
S
Solving for RTx:

RTx '

Pt G t F J

P j Gja 4B S

[9]

Note: Bistatic equation [10] is identical to monostatic equation [1] except R Tx must be substituted for R and a bistatic
RCS (F) will have to be used since RCS varies with aspect angle. The common explanations will not be repeated in this
section.
BURN-THROUGH RANGE (BISTATIC) - Burn-through Range (Bistatic) occurs when J/S just equals the minimum
effective J/S. From equation [9]:
Pt Gt F Jmin eff
[10]
(ratio form)
RTx(BT) '
P j Gja 4B S
or in dB form:
20log RTx(BT) = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log F - 10log Pj - 10log Gja + 10log (Jmin eff/S) - 10.99 dB

[11]

If using the simplified radar equations (factors in dB):

20log RTx(BT) = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + GF - 10log Pj - 10log Gja - K1 + 10log (Jmin eff/S) - 20log f 1
Where GF and K1 are defined on page 4-8.1

[12]

 

RANGE WHEN J/S CROSSOVER OCCURS (BISTATIC) - The crossover occurs when J = S in dB or J/S = 1 in ratio.

RTx(J'S) '

P t Gt F

Pj Gja 4B

[13]

(ratio)

or in log form:
20log RTx(J=S) = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log F - 10log Pj - 10log Gja - 10.99 dB

[14]

If simplified equations are used (with GF and K1 as defined on page 4-8.1) we have:
20log RTx(J=S) = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + GF - 10log Pj - 10log Gja - K1 - 20log f 1
(factors in dB)

[15]

Note: keep R and F in same units in all equations.

DETAILS OF SEMI-ACTIVE MISSILE J/S

Unless you are running a large scale computer simulation that includes maneuvering, antenna patterns, RCS,
etc., you will seldom calculate the variation in J/S that occurs during a semi-active missile's flight. Missiles don't fly
straight lines at constant velocity. Targets don't either - they maneuver. If the launch platform is an aircraft, it maneuvers
too. A missile will accelerate to some maximum velocity above the velocity of the launch platform and then decelerate.
The calculation of the precise variation of J/S during a
missile flight for it to be effective requires determination of all
the appropriate velocity vectors and ranges at the time of launch,
and the accelerations and changes in relative positions during the
fly out. In other words, it's too much work for too little return.
The following are simplified examples for four types of
intercepts.
In these examples, all velocities are constant, and are all
along the same straight line. The missile velocity is 800 knots
greater than the launch platform velocity which is assumed to be
400 kts. The missile launch occurs at 50 NM.

At Launch:
Intercept Type

J/S (dB)

)J/S (dB)

29

n/a

At 2 sec. to Intercept:

AAM Head-on:

23

-6

SAM Incoming Target:

25

-4

AAM Tail Chase:

29

SAM Outbound Target:

35

+6

For the AAM tail chase, the range from the radar to the target remains constant and so does the J/S. In these
examples the maximum variation from launch J/S is 6 dB. That represents the difference in the radar to target range
closing at very high speed (AAM head on) and the radar to target range opening at moderate speed (SAM outbound
target). The values shown above are examples, not rules of thumb, every intercept will be different.
Even for the simplified linear examples shown, graphs of the J and S will be curves - not straight lines. Graphs
could be plotted showing J and S vs. radar to target range, or J and S vs. missile to target range, or even J/S vs. time of
flight. If the J/S at launch is just barely the minimum required for effectiveness, and increasing it is difficult, then a
detailed graph may be warranted, but in most cases this isn't necessary.

 

SUPPORT JAMMING
The following table contains a summary of equations developed in this section:
Target gain factor,

MAIN LOBE JAMMING TO SIGNAL (J/S) RATIO (For SOJ/SIJ)

J/S = (Pj Gja 4B RTx4) / (Pt Gt F [BWJ/BWR] RJx2) (ratio form)*
10log J/S = 10log Pj - 10log[BWJ/BWR] + 10log Gja - 10log Pt - 10log Gt - 10log F + 10.99 dB +
40log RTx - 20log RJx *

or if simplified radar equations are used:

10log J/S = 10log Pj - BF + 10log Gja - "jx - 10log Pt - 10log Gt - GF + 2"1 (in dB)*

GF = 10LogF + 20Log f 1 + K2 (in dB)

K2 Values (dB):
RCS (F) f1 in MHz
9
(units)
K2 =
77
m2
-38.54
ft2
-48.86

One-way free space loss,

"1 or "Tx = 20Log(f1R) + K1 (in dB)

SIDE LOBE JAMMING TO SIGNAL (J/S) RATIO (For SOJ/SIJ)

J/S = (Pj Gja Gr(SL) 4B RTx4) / (Pt Gt Gr(ML) F [BWJ/BWR] RJx2) (ratio form)*
10log J/S = 10log Pj - BF + 10log Gja + 10log Gr(SL) - 10log Pt - 10log Gt - 10log Gr(ML) +
10.99 dB - 10log F + 40log RTx - 20log RJx *

or if simplified radar equations are used (in dB)*:

10log J/S = 10logPj - BF + 10logGja + 10logGr(SL) - "jx - 10logPt - 10logGt- 10logGr(ML)- GF + 2"1

RJx
RTx
BF
Gr(SL)
Gr(ML)
"JX
"1

K1 Values (dB):
Range f1 in MHz
69
(units)
K1 =
77
NM
37.8
Km
32.45
m
-27.55
yd
-28.33
ft
-37.87

Range from the support jammer transmitter to the radar receiver

Range between the radar and the target
10 Log of the ratio of BWJ of the noise jammer to BWR of the radar receiver
Side lobe antenna gain
Main lobe antenna gain
One way free space loss between SOJ transmitter and radar receiver
One way space loss between the radar and the target

Support jamming adds a few

geometric complexities. A SOJ platform
usually uses high gain, directional
antennas. Therefore, the jamming antenna
must not only be pointed at the victim
radar, but there must be alignment of
radar, targets, and SOJ platform for the
jamming to be effective. Two cases will
be described, main lobe-jamming and
side-lobe jamming.

f1 in GHz
K2 =
21.46
11.14

f1 in GHz
K1 =
97.8
92.45
32.45
31.67
22.13

* Keep R and F in same units

SOJ2

TARGET

SOJ1

Figure 1. Radar Antenna Pattern

Support jamming is usually applied against search and acquisition radars which continuously scan horizontally
through a volume of space. The scan could cover a sector or a full 360E. The horizontal antenna pattern of the radar
will exhibit a main lobe and side lobes as illustrated in Figure 1. The target is detected when the main lobe sweeps
across it. For main lobe jamming, the SOJ platform and the target(s) must be aligned with the radar's main lobe as it
sweeps the target(s).
For side lobe jamming, the SOJ platform may be aligned with one or more of the radar's side lobes when the
main lobe sweeps the target. The gain of a radar's side lobes are many tens of dB less (usually more than 30 dB less)
than the gain of the main lobe, so calculations of side lobe jamming must use the gain of the side lobe for the radar
receive antenna gain, not the gain of the main lobe. Also, because many modern radars employ some form of side lobe
blanking or side lobe cancellation, some knowledge of the victim radar is required for the employment of side lobe
jamming.

4-9.1

85% OF JAMMING IN RECEIVER

SPOT JAMMING

RADAR 3dB BANDWIDTH

Reducing jamming
in the receiver from
100% to 85%
reduces J/S by
0.7 dB.

JAMMER 3dB BANDWIDTH

JAMMER POWER
DENSITY SPECTRUM
RADAR SIGNAL
FREQUENCY

14% OF JAMMING IN RECEIVER

BARRAGE JAMMING
Reducing jamming
in the receiver from
100% to 14%
reduces J/S by
8.6 dB.

JAMMER
3dB BANDWIDTH

JAMMER POWER
DENSITY SPECTRUM

RADAR 3dB
BANDWIDTHS

RADARS

All radar receivers are frequency selective.

That is, they are filters that allow only a narrow
range of frequencies into the receiver circuitry.
DECM, by definition, creates forgeries of the real
signal and, ideally, are as well matched to the radar
receiver as the real signal. On the other hand, noise
jamming probably will not match the radar receiver
bandwidth characteristics. Noise jamming is either
spot jamming or barrage jamming. As illustrated in
Figure 2, spot jamming is simply narrowing the
bandwidth of the noise jammer so that as much of
the jammer power as possible is in the radar receiver
bandwidth. Barrage jamming is using a wide noise
bandwidth to cover several radars with one jammer
or to compensate for any uncertainty in the radar
frequency. In both cases some of the noise power is
"wasted" because it is not in the radar receiver filter.

Figure 2. Noise Jamming

In the past, noise jammers were often

described as having so many "watts per MHz". This is nothing more than the power of the noise jammer divided by the
noise bandwidth. That is, a 500 watt noise jammer transmitting a noise bandwidth of 200 MHz has 2.5 watts/MHz.
Older noise jammers often had noise bandwidths that were difficult, or impossible, to adjust accurately. These noise
jammers usually used manual tuning to set the center frequency of the noise to the radar frequency. Modern noise
jammers can set on the radar frequency quite accurately and the noise bandwidth is selectable, so the noise bandwidth is
more a matter of choice than it used to be, and it is possible that all of the noise is placed in the victim radar's receiver.
If, in the example above, the 500 watt noise jammer were used against a radar that had a 3 MHz receiver
bandwidth, the noise jammer power applicable to that radar would be:
3 MHz x 2.5 watts/MHz ' 7.5 watts Y 38.75 dBm

[1]

The calculation must be done as shown in equation [1] - multiply the watts/MHz by the radar bandwidth first
and then convert to dBm. You can't convert to dBm/MHz and then multiply. (See derivation of dB in Section 2-4)
An alternate method for dB calculations is to use the bandwidth reduction factor (BF). The BF is:

BFdB ' 10 Log

BWJ

[2]

BWR

where: BWJ is the bandwidth of the noise jammer, and BWR is the bandwidth of the radar receiver.
The power of the jammer in the jamming equation (PJ) can be obtained by either method. If equation [1] is
used then PJ is simply 38.75 dBm. If equation [2] is used then the jamming equation is written using (PJ - BF). All the
following discussion uses the second method. Which ever method is used, it is required that BWJ $ BWR. If BWJ <
BWR, then all the available power is in the radar receiver and equation [1] does not apply and the BF = 0.
Note: To avoid having to include additional terms for the following
calculations, always combine any transmission line loss with antenna gain.

4-9.2

MAIN LOBE STAND-OFF / STAND-IN JAMMING

The equivalent circuit shown in Figure 3 applies to main lobe jamming by a stand-off support aircraft or a
stand-in RPV. Since the jammer is not on the target aircraft, only two of the three ranges and two of the three space
loss factors ("'s) are the same. Figure 3 differs from the J/S monostatic equivalent circuit shown in Figure 4 in Section
4-7 in that the space loss from the jammer to the radar receiver is different.
For SOJ/SIJ
R Rx RTx R Jx
"1
"
" "Jx and "2

MAIN LOBE STAND-OFF / STAND-IN

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
"

P
t

TRANSMITTER
COLLOCATED

Rx

1 or Tx

SEPARATE
LOCATIONS

RTx

GF

RADAR
ANTENNA
GAIN

Tx

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

"

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

1 or Rx

R Rx

GAIN OF RCS
TARGET

RECEIVER
Pr

(TOTAL SIGNAL

"
r

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

2 or Jx

R Jx

J + S)
SIGNAL

POWER + GAINS - LOSSES (in dB)

JAMMER
ANTENNA
GAIN ( GJA )

P
t

G JA

SOJ/SIJ

JAMMER
POWER ( PJ )

Figure 3. Main Lobe Stand-Off / Stand-In ECM Equivalent Circuit

The equations are the same for both SOJ and SIJ. From the one way range equation in Section 4-3, and with
inclusion of BF losses:
P G G 82 BWR
[3]
Pr1 or J ' j ja r
(4BRJx)2 BWJ
From the two way range equation in Section 4.4: Pr2 or S '

Pt Gt Gr 82 F

4
4
P G G 82(4B)3RTx
BWR
P G 4BRTx
BWR
J
' j ja r
' j ja
S
Pt Gt Gr 82 F(4BRJx)2 BWJ
Pt Gt F RJx2 BWJ

so

[4]

4
(4B)3 RTx

(ratio form)

[5]

Note: Keep R and F in the same units. Converting to dB and using 10 log 4B = 10.99 dB:
10log

J/S = 10log Pj - 10log [BWj/BWR] + 10log Gja - 10log Pt - 10log Gt - 10log F + 10.99 dB + 40log RTx - 20log RJx

[6]

If the simplified radar equation is used, the free space loss from the SOJ/SIJ to the radar receiver is "Jx, then
equation [7] is the same as monostatic equation [6] in Section 4-7 except "Jx replaces ", and the bandwidth reduction
factor [BF] losses are included:
10log

J = 10log Pj - BF + 10log Gja + 10log Gr - "Jx

(factors in dB)

[7]

Since the free space loss from the radar to the target and return is the same both ways, "Tx = "Rx = "1 ,
equation [8] is the same as monostatic equation [7] in Section 4-7.
10log

and

10log

S = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr + GF - 2"1

J/S = 10log Pj - BF + 10log Gja - "Jx - 10log Pt - 10log Gt - GF + 2"1

(factors in dB)
(factors in dB)

Notice that unlike equation [8] in Section 4-7, there are two different "'s in [9] because the signal paths are different.

4-9.3

[8]
[9]

SIDE LOBE STAND-OFF / STAND-IN JAMMING

The equivalent circuit shown in Figure 4. It differs from Figure 3, (main lobe SOJ/SIJ) in that the radar
receiver antenna gain is different for the radar signal return and the jamming.

SIDE LOBE STAND-OFF / STAND-IN

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
"

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

1 or Tx

P
t

TRANSMITTER
COLLOCATED

Tx

SEPARATE
LOCATIONS

RTx

GF

RADAR
ANTENNA
GAIN

RECEIVER

G
r(ML)

Pr

"

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

1 or Rx

"

R Rx

R Jx

G
r(SL)
J + S)
SIGNAL

GAIN OF RCS
TARGET

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

2 or Jx

(TOTAL SIGNAL

For SOJ/SIJ
R Rx RTx R Jx
"1 "Rx
" "Jx and "2

POWER + GAINS - LOSSES (in dB)

JAMMER
ANTENNA
GAIN ( GJA )

Pt

G JA

SOJ/SIJ

JAMMER
POWER ( PJ )

Figure 4. Side Lobe Stand-Off / Stand-In ECM Equivalent Circuit

To calculate side lobe jamming, the gain of the radar antenna's side lobes must be known or estimated. The
gain of each side lobe will be different than the gain of the other side lobes. If the antenna is symmetrical, the first side
lobe is the one on either side of the main lobe, the second side lobe is the next one on either side of the first side lobe,
and so on. The side lobe gain is GSLn , where the 'n' subscript denotes side lobe number: 1, 2, ..., n.
The signal is the same as main lobe equations [4] and [8], except Gr = Gr(ML)
PGG
82 F
Pr2 or S ' t t r(ML)
(ratio form)
4
(4B)3 RTx
If simplified radar equations are used:
10log S = 10log Pt + 10log Gt + 10log Gr(ML) + GF - 2"1
(factors in dB)
The jamming equation is the same as main lobe equations [3] and [7] except Gr = Gr(SL): J '
10log J = 10log Pj - BF + 10log Gja + 10log Gr(SL) - "Jx

[10]

Pj Gja Gr(SL) 82 BWR

(factors in dB)

4
P G G 4BRTx
BWR
J
(ratio form)
' j ja r(SL)
2
S
Pt Gt Gr(ML) F RJx BWJ
Note: keep R and F in same units. Converting to dB and using 10log 4B = 10.99 dB:

so

10log

[11]

(4BRJx)2 BWJ

J/S = 10logPj - BF + 10logGja + 10logGr(SL) - 10logPt - 10logGt - 10logGr(ML) - 10logF + 10.99 dB + 40logRTx - 20logRJx
(factors in dB)

[12]
[13]

[14]

If simplified radar equations are used:

10log J/S = 10log Pj - BF + 10log Gja + 10log Gr(SL) - "Jx - 10log Pt - 10log Gt - 10log Gr(ML) - GF + 2"1 (in dB)[15]

4-9.4

JAMMING TO SIGNAL (J/S) RATIO - CONSTANT GAIN [LINEAR] JAMMING

JAMMING TO SIGNAL (J/S) RATIO (MONOSTATIC)

G
GG
82
G
GG
c2
J
' ja(Rx) j ja(Tx)
' ja(Rx) j ja(Tx)
S
4BF
4BFf 2

(ratio form)

Gja(Rx) = The Gain of the jammer receive antenna

Gj
= The gain of the jammer
Gja(Tx) = The Gain of the jammer transmit antenna
or:
10log J/S = 10log Gja(Rx) + 10log Gj + 10log Gja(Tx) - 10log (4BF/82)
or if simplified radar equations developed in previous sections are used:
10log J/S = 10log Gja(Rx) + 10log Gj + 10log Gja(Tx) - GF (dB)
* Keep 8 and F in same units.

Target gain factor,

GF = 10log F + 20log f1 + K2 (in dB)
K2 Values (dB):
RCS (F) f1 in MHz
K2 =
(units)
m2
-38.54
ft2
-48.86

f1 in GHz
K2 =
21.46
11.14

Note: 8 = c/f
JAMMING TO SIGNAL (J/S) RATIO (BISTATIC)

Same as the monostatic case except GF will be different since RCS (F) varies with aspect angle.
Since the jammer on the target
is amplifying the received radar signal
before transmitting it back to the radar,
both J and S experience the two way
range loss. Figure 1 shows that the
range for both the signal and constant
gain jamming have a slope that is 40
dB per decade. Once the jammer
output reaches maximum power, that
power is constant and the jamming
slope changes to 20 dB per decade
since it is only a function of one way
space loss and the J/S equations for
constant power (saturated) jamming
must be used.

SELF SCREENING/ESCORT JAMMING

0
RADAR: 80dBm + 42dB
JAMMER: 60dBm + 6dB
RF: 7 GHz

-10
-20

JAMMING
CONSTANT POWER
(SATURATED)

-30
-40
-50

CONSTANT GAIN
(LINEAR)

-60
-70
SIGNAL
-80
-90

Normally the constant gain

-100
(linear) region of a repeater jammer
1
2
3
4 5 6
8 10
20
30 40 50 60 80 100
occurs only at large distances from the
RANGE to TARGET (NM)
EXAMPLE ONLY
radar and the constant power
(saturated) region is reached rapidly as
Figure 1. Sample Constant Gain/Constant Power Graph
the target approaches the radar. When
a constant gain jammer is involved it
may be necessary to plot jamming twice - once using J from the constant power (saturated) equation [1] in Section 4-7 and
once using the constant gain (linear) equation [4], as in the example shown in Figure 1.

4-10.1

CONSTANT GAIN SELF PROTECTION DECM

Most jammers have a constant power output - that is, they always transmit the maximum available power
of the transmitter (excepting desired ECM modulation). Some jammers also have a constant gain (linear) region. Usually
these are coherent repeaters that can amplify a low level radar signal to a power that is below the level that results in
maximum available (saturated) power output. At some radar to target range, the input signal is sufficiently high that the
full jammer gain would exceed the maximum available power and the jammer ceases to be constant gain and becomes
constant power.
To calculate the power output of a constant gain jammer where:
SRj
= The Radar signal at the jammer input (receive antenna terminals)
Gja(Rx) = The Gain of the jammer receive antenna
Gj
= The gain of the jammer
"Tx
= The one-way free space loss from the radar to the target
PjCG = The jammer constant gain power output
Pj
= The maximum jammer power output
LR
= The jammer receiving line loss; combine with antenna gain Gja(Rx)
From equation [10], Section 4-3, calculate the radar power received by the jammer.
10log SRj = 10log Pt + 10log Gt - "Tx + 10log Gja(Rx)
The jammer constant gain power output is:
and, by definition:

(factors in dB)

[1]

10log PjCG = 10log SRj + 10log Gja

PjCG # Pj

[2]
[3]

MONOSTATIC
The equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2 is different from the constant power equivalent circuit in Figure 4 in
Section 4-7. With constant gain, the jamming signal experiences the gain of the jammer and its antennas plus the same
space loss as the radar signal.

JAMMER CONSTANT GAIN (LINEAR)

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT (MONOSTATIC)
"
G

TRANSMITTER
COLLOCATED

G ja(Rx)

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

1 or Tx

Pt

JAMMER RECEIVER
ANTENNA GAIN
S
RTx

"

RADAR
ANTENNA
GAIN

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

1 or Rx

GJ

GAIN OF RCS
R

Rx

JAMMER
AMPLIFIER

TARGET

RECEIVER
P
r

(TOTAL SIGNAL

"

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

1 or Jx

R Jx

J + S)
SIGNAL

G JA

JAMMER TRANSMITTER
ANTENNA GAIN ( GJA(Tx) )

POWER + GAINS - LOSSES (in dB)

For Monostatic: RRx = RTx

Rj

GF

"Rx = "Jx = "Tx = "1

Figure 2. Jammer Constant Gain ECM Equivalent Circuit (Monostatic)

4-10.2

To calculate J, the one way range equation from Section 4-3 is used twice:

Pt Gt Gja(Rx) 82 Gj Gja(Tx) Gr 82

J '

(4BR)
From the two way range equation in Section 4-4:

(4BR)
S '

Pt Gt Gr 82 F

[5]

(4B)3 R 4

Gja(Rx) Gj Gja(Tx) 82
J
'
S
4BF

Terms cancel when combined:

[4]

[6]

Keep 8 and F in same units

Or in dB form: 10log J/S = 10log Gja(Rx) + 10log Gj + 10log Gja(Tx) - 10log (4BF/82)

[7]

Since the last term can be recognized as minus GF from equation [10] in Section 4-4, where
the target gain factor, GF = 10log (4BF/82) = 10log (4BF f 2/c2), it follows that:
10log J/S = 10log Gja(Rx) + 10log Gj + 10log Gja(Tx) - GF (factors in dB)

[8]

Target gain factor, GF = 10log F + 20log f1 + K2 (in dB)

K2 Values
(dB)
RCS (F)
(units)
m2
ft2

f1 in MHz
K2 =
-38.54
-48.86

f1 in GHz
K2 =
21.46
11.14

BISTATIC
The bistatic equivalent circuit shown in Figure 3 is different from the monostatic equivalent circuit shown in
Figure 2 in that the receiver is separately located from the transmitter, RTx RRx or RJx and GF will be different since the
RCS (F) varies with aspect angle.

JAMMER CONSTANT GAIN (LINEAR)

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT (BISTATIC)
"

TRANSMITTER
SEPARATE LOCATIONS

G ja(Rx)

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

Tx

P
t

JAMMER RECEIVER
ANTENNA GAIN

S
RTx

RADAR
ANTENNA
GAIN

"

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

Rx

GAIN OF RCS
R Rx

TARGET

RECEIVER
Pr
(TOTAL SIGNAL

"

R Jx

J + S)
SIGNAL

G JA

POWER + GAINS - LOSSES (in dB)

For Bistatic: RRx = RJx RTx

GJ
JAMMER
AMPLIFIER

, ONE-WAY SPACE LOSS

Jx

Rj

G'F

"Rx = "Jx "Tx

Figure 3. Jammer Constant Gain ECM Equivalent Circuit (Bistatic)

4-10.3

JAMMER TRANSMITTER
ANTENNA GAIN ( GJA(Tx) )

To calculate J, the one way range equation from Section 4-3 is used twice:

J '

Pt Gt Gja(Rx) 82 Gj Gja(Tx) Gr 82
(4BRTx)2

From the two way range equation in Section 4-4:

Terms cancel when combined:

(4BRRx)2
S '

Pt Gt Gr 82 F)

[9]

(F is bistatic RCS)

[10]

Keep 8 and F in same units

[11]

2
2
(4B)3 RTx
RRx

G
GG
82
J
' ja(Rx) j ja(Tx)
S
4BF)

(RJx = RRx)

Or in dB form: 10log J/S = 10log Gja(Rx) + 10log Gj + 10log Gja(Tx) - 10log (4BF/82)

[12]

Since the last term can be recognized as minus GF from equation [10] in Section 4-4, where
the target gain factor, GF = 10log (4BF/82) = 10log (4BFf 2/c2 ), it follows that:
10log = 10log Gja(Rx) + 10log Gj + 10log Gja(Tx) - GF

(factors in dB)

[13]

Target gain factor, GF = 10log F + 20log f1 + K2 (in dB)

K2 Values
(dB)
RCS (F)
(units)
m2
ft2

f1 in MHz
K2 =
-38.54
-48.86

f1 in GHz
K2 =
21.46
11.14

Linear J/S (Monostatic) Example (Linear Power Jamming)

Assume that a 5 GHz radar has a 70 dBm signal fed through a 5 dB loss transmission line to an antenna that has
45 dB gain. An aircraft that is flying 31 km from the radar has an aft EW antenna with -1 dB gain and a 5 dB line loss to
the EW receiver (there is an additional loss due to any antenna polarization mismatch but that loss will not be addressed
in this problem). The received signal is fed to a jammer with a gain of 60 dB, feeding a 10 dB loss transmission line which
is connected to an antenna with 5 dB gain.
If the RCS of the aircraft is 9 m2, what is the J/S level received at the input to the receiver of the tracking radar?
Answer:
10log J/S = 10log Gja(Rx) + 10log Gj + 10log Gja(Tx) - GF
GF = 10log F + 20log f1 + K2 = 10log 9 + 20log 5 + 21.46 = 44.98 dB
Note: The respective transmission line losses will be combined with antenna gains, i.e. -1 -5 = -6 dB and -10 + 5 = -5 dB
10log J/S = -6 + 60 - 5 - 44.98 = 4.02 dB @ 5 GHz
The answer changes to 1.1 dB if the tracking radar operates at 7 GHz provided the antenna gains and aircraft RCS
are the same at both 5 and 7 GHz.
GF = 10log 9 + 20log 7 + 21.46 = 47.9 dB
10log J/S = -6 + 60 - 5 - 47.9 = 1.1 dB @ 7 GHz
Separate J (-73.5 dBm @ 5 GHz and -79.34 dBm @ 7 GHz) and S (-77.52 dBm @ 5 GHz and -80.44 dBm @ 7
GHz) calculations for this problem are provided in Sections 4-3 and 4-4, respectively. A saturated gain version of this
problem is provided in Section 4-7.
4-10.4

RADAR CROSS SECTION (RCS)

Radar cross section is the measure of a target's ability to reflect radar signals in the direction of the radar receiver, i.e. it
is a measure of the ratio of backscatter power per steradian (unit solid angle) in the direction of the radar (from the target)
to the power density that is intercepted by the target.
The RCS of a target can be viewed as a comparison of the
strength of the reflected signal from a target to the reflected
signal from a perfectly smooth sphere of cross sectional area of
1 m2 as shown in Figure 1 .
The conceptual definition of RCS includes the fact that not all of
the radiated energy falls on the target. A targets RCS (F) is
most easily visualized as the product of three factors:
F = Projected cross section x Reflectivity x Directivity .
RCS(F) is used in Section 4-4 for an equation representing power
reradiated from the target.
Reflectivity: The percent of intercepted power reradiated
(scattered) by the target.

Figure 1. Concept of Radar Cross Section

Directivity: The ratio of the power scattered back in the radar's direction to the power that would have been backscattered
had the scattering been uniform in all directions (i.e. isotropically).
Figures 2 and 3 show that RCS does not equal
geometric area. For a sphere, the RCS, F = Br2,
where r is the radius of the sphere.
The RCS of a sphere is independent of frequency
if operating at sufficiently high frequencies where
8<<Range, and 8<< radius (r). Experimentally,
radar return reflected from a target is compared to the
radar return reflected from a sphere which has a
frontal or projected area of one square meter (i.e.
diameter of about 44 in). Using the spherical shape
aids in field or laboratory measurements since
orientation or positioning of the sphere will not affect
radar reflection intensity measurements as a flat plate
would. If calibrated, other sources (cylinder, flat
plate, or corner reflector, etc.) could be used for
comparative measurements.

0.093m

Flat Plate

Small
Flat plate RCS
2
= 1 m at 10 GHz
or 0.01 m2 at 1 GHz

0.093m

F = 4 Bw2 h2/8
82
Sphere F = Br2

1m

Flat Plate RCS

= 14,000 m2 at 10 GHz
or 140 m2 at 1 GHz

1m

44 in
(1.13 m)

Sphere RCS = 1 m2
Independent
of Frequency*

* See creeping wave discussion for exception when 8 << Range and 8 << r

Figure 2. RCS vs Physical Geometry

To reduce drag during tests, towed spheres of 6", 14" or 22" diameter may be used instead of the larger 44" sphere, and the
reference size is 0.018, 0.099 or 0.245 m2 respectively instead of 1 m2. When smaller sized spheres are used for tests you
may be operating at or near where 8-radius. If the results are then scaled to a 1 m2 reference, there may be some
perturbations due to creeping waves. See the discussion at the end of this section for further details.

4-11.1

CORNER

SPHERE

F max = B r 2
Dihedral
Corner
Reflector

F max = 8B w2 h2
82

CYLINDER

F max = 2B r h

FLAT PLATE

F max = 4B w2 h2
8

TILTED PLATE
Same as above for
what reflects away
from the plate and
could be zero
reflected to radar

F max =

4B L
382

F max = 12B L4

82

F max =

15.6 B L

38
82

Figure 3. Backscatter From Shapes

In Figure 4, RCS patterns are shown as
objects are rotated about their vertical axes
(the arrows indicate the direction of the
radar reflections).

RELATIVE MAGNITUDE (dBsm)

360E Pattern

90E Pattern

60E Pattern

The sphere is essentially the same in all

directions.
The flat plate has almost no RCS except
when aligned directly toward the radar.
The corner reflector has an RCS almost as
high as the flat plate but over a wider angle,
i.e., over 60E. The return from a corner
reflector is analogous to that of a flat plate
always being perpendicular to your
collocated transmitter and receiver.

SPHERE

FLAT PLATE

CORNER

Figure 4. RCS Patterns

Targets such as ships and aircraft often

have many effective corners. Corners are sometimes used as calibration targets or as decoys, i.e. corner reflectors.
An aircraft target is very complex. It has a great many reflecting elements and shapes. The RCS of real aircraft must be
measured. It varies significantly depending upon the direction of the illuminating radar.

4-11.2

Figure 5 shows a typical RCS plot of a jet aircraft. The plot is an

azimuth cut made at zero degrees elevation (on the aircraft
horizon). Within the normal radar range of 3-18 GHz, the radar
return of an aircraft in a given direction will vary by a few dB as
frequency and polarization vary (the RCS may change by a factor
of 2-5). It does not vary as much as the flat plate.
As shown in Figure 5, the RCS is highest at the aircraft beam due
to the large physical area observed by the radar and perpendicular
aspect (increasing reflectivity). The next highest RCS area is the
nose/tail area, largely because of reflections off the engines or
propellers. Most self-protection jammers cover a field of view of
+/- 60 degrees about the aircraft nose and tail, thus the high RCS
on the beam does not have coverage. Beam coverage is
frequently not provided due to inadequate power available to
cover all aircraft quadrants, and the side of an aircraft is
theoretically exposed to a threat 30% of the time over the average
of all scenarios.

NOSE

1000 sq m
100
10

BEAM

BEAM

TAIL
E

Figure 5. Typical Aircraft RCS

Typical radar cross sections are as follows: Missile 0.5 sq m; Tactical Jet 5 to 100 sq m; Bomber 10 to 1000 sq m; and
ships 3,000 to 1,000,000 sq m. RCS can also be expressed in decibels referenced to a square meter (dBsm) which equals
10 log (RCS in m2).
Again, Figure 5 shows that these values can vary dramatically. The strongest return depicted in the example is 100 m2 in
the beam, and the weakest is slightly more than 1 m2 in the 135E/225E positions. These RCS values can be very misleading
because other factors may affect the results. For example, phase differences, polarization, surface imperfections, and
material type all greatly affect the results. In the above typical bomber example, the measured RCS may be much greater
than 1000 square meters in certain circumstances (90E, 270E).
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REDUCTION OF RCS
If each of the range or power equations that have an RCS (F) term is evaluated for the significance of decreasing RCS,
Figure 6 results. Therefore, an RCS reduction can increase aircraft survivability. The equations used in Figure 6 are as
follows:
2
Range (radar detection): From the 2-way range equation in Section 4-4: P ' Pt Gt Gr 8 F Therefore, R4 % F or F1/4 % R
r

(4B)3 R 4

2
Range (radar burn-through): The crossover equation in Section 4-8 has: RBT
'

Pt Gt F
Pj Gj 4B

Therefore, RBT2 % F or F1/2 % RBT

Power (jammer): Equating the received signal return (Pr) in the two way range equation to the received jammer signal (Pr)
in the one way range equation, the following relationship results:
Pt Gt Gr 82 F
Pj Gj Gr 82
Pr '

'

(4B)3 R 4
8
S

(4BR)2
8
J

Therefore, Pj % F or F % Pj Note: jammer transmission line loss is combined with the jammer antenna gain to obtain Gt.

4-11.3

1.0

0.9

-.46

Example

0.8

-.97

0.7

-1.55

0.6

-2.2

0.5

-3.0

0.4

-4.0

0.3

-5.2

0.2

-7.0

0.1

-10.0

0
1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

-4

RATIO OF REDUCTION OF RANGE (DETECTION) R'/R, RANGE (BURN-THROUGH) R'BT /R BT , OR POWER (JAMMER) P'j / Pj
dB REDUCTION OF RANGE
(DETECTION )

0.0

-1.8

-3.9

-6.2

-8.9

-12.0

-15.9

-21.0

-28.0

-40.0

-4

40 Log ( R' / R )

dB REDUCTION OF RANGE
(BURN-THROUGH)

0.0

-0.9

-1.9

-3.1

-4.4

-6.0

-8.0

-10.5

-14.0

-20.0

-4

20 Log ( R 'BT / RBT )

dB REDUCTION OF POWER
(JAMMER)

0.0

-0.46

-0.97

-1.55

-2.2

-3.0

-4.0

-5.2

-7.0

-10.0

-4

10 Log ( P 'j / Pj )

Figure 6. Reduction of RCS Affects Radar Detection, Burn-through, and Jammer Power
Example of Effects of RCS Reduction - As shown in Figure 6, if the RCS of an aircraft is reduced to 0.75 (75%) of its
original value, then (1) the jammer power required to achieve the same effectiveness would be 0.75 (75%) of the original
value (or -1.25 dB). Likewise, (2) If Jammer power is held constant, then burn-through range is 0.87 (87%) of its original
value (-1.25 dB), and (3) the detection range of the radar for the smaller RCS target (jamming not considered) is 0.93 (93%)
of its original value (-1.25 dB).
OPTICAL / MIE / RAYLEIGH REGIONS
Figure 7 shows the different regions applicable for computing the RCS of a sphere. The optical region (far field
counterpart) rules apply when 2Br/8 > 10. In this region, the RCS of a sphere is independent of frequency. Here, the RCS
of a sphere, F = Br2. The RCS equation breaks down primarily due to creeping waves in the area where 8-2Br. This area
is known as the Mie or resonance region. If we were using a 6" diameter sphere, this frequency would be 0.6 GHz. (Any
frequency ten times higher, or above 6 GHz, would give expected results). The largest positive perturbation (point A)
occurs at exactly 0.6 GHz where the RCS would be 4 times higher than the RCS computed using the optical region formula.
Just slightly above 0.6 GHz a minimum occurs (point B) and the actual RCS would be 0.26 times the value calculated by
using the optical region formula. If we used a one meter diameter sphere, the perturbations would occur at 95 MHz, so any
frequency above 950 MHz (-1 GHz) would give predicted results.
CREEPING WAVES
The initial RCS assumptions presume that we are operating in the optical region (8<<Range and 8<<radius). There is a
region where specular reflected (mirrored) waves combine with back scattered creeping waves both constructively and
destructively as shown in Figure 8. Creeping waves are tangential to a smooth surface and follow the "shadow" region of
the body. They occur when the circumference of the sphere - 8 and typically add about 1 m2 to the RCS at certain
frequencies.

4-11.4

10

RAYLEIGH REGION
F = [Br2][7.11(kr)4]

RAYLEIGH

MIE

OPTICAL*

1.0

where: k = 2B/8

MIE (resonance)
F = 4Br2 at Maximum (point A)
F = 0.26Br2 at Minimum (pt B)

F/B
Br

0.1
0.01

OPTICAL REGION
F = Br2
(Region RCS of a sphere is
independent of frequency)

0.001
0.1

10

1.0
2B
B r/8
8

* RF far field equivalent

Courtesy of Dr. Allen E. Fuhs, Ph.D.

Figure 7. Radar Cross Section of a Sphere

ADDITION OF SPECULAR AND CREEPING WAVES

SPECULAR

Constructive
interference
gives maximum

CREEPING

Specularly
E
Reflected
Wave

SPECULAR
Destructive
interference
gives minimum
CREEPING
Backscattered Creeping Wave
Courtesy of Dr. Allen E. Fuhs, Ph.D.

Figure 8. Addition of Specular and Creeping Waves

4-11.5

EMISSION CONTROL (EMCON)

When EMCON is imposed, RF emissions must not exceed -110 dBm/meter2 at one nautical mile. It is best if
systems meet EMCON when in either the Standby or Receive mode versus just the Standby mode (or OFF). If one assumes
antenna gain equals line loss, then emissions measured at the port of a system must not exceed -34 dBm (i.e. the stated
requirement at one nautical mile is converted to a measurement at the antenna of a point source - see Figure 1). If antenna
gain is greater than line loss (i.e. gain 6 dB, line loss 3 dB), then the -34 dBm value would be lowered by the difference and
would be -37 dBm for the example. The opposite would be true if antenna gain is less.

Seam or
Connector
Leakage

RF
System

MIL-STD-461B/C RE-02 or
MIL-STD-461D RE-102
70 dBV/m for externally mounted systems

Maximum
EMCON
Emissions

1 Meter

1 Nautical mile

-34 dBm (at RF port)

(For Line Loss = Antenna Gain)

P tG t
4BR 2

= -110 dBm/m

Figure 1. EMCON Field Intensity / Power Density Measurements

To compute the strength of emissions at the antenna port in Figure 1, we use the power density equation (see Section 4-2)

PD '

PtGt
4BR

[1]

PtGt = PD (4BR2)

or rearranging

[2]

Given that PD = -110 dBm/m2 = (10)-11 mW/m2, and R = 1 NM = 1852 meters.

PtGt = PD (4BR2) = (10-11mW/m2)(4B)(1852m)2 = 4.31(10)-4 mW = -33.65 . -34 dBm at the RF system antenna as given.
or, the equation can be rewritten in Log form and each term multiplied by 10:
10log Pt + 10log Gt = 10log PD + 10log (4BR2)

[3]

Since the m2 terms on the right side of equation [3] cancel, then:
10log Pt + 10log Gt = -110 dBm + 76.35 dB = -33.65 dBm . -34 dBm as given in Figure 1.
If MIL-STD-461B/C RE02 (or MIL-STD-461D RE-102) measurements (see Figure 2) are made on
seam/connector leakage of a system, emissions below 70 dBFV/meter which are measured at one meter will meet the
EMCON requirement. Note that the airframe provides attenuation so portions of systems mounted inside an aircraft that
measure 90 dBFV/meter will still meet EMCON if the airframe provides 20 dB of shielding (note that the requirement at
one nm is converted to what would be measured at one meter from a point source)
The narrowband emission limit shown in Figure 2 for RE02/RE102 primarily reflect special concern for local
oscillator leakage during EMCON as opposed to switching transients which would apply more to the broadband limit.

4-12.1

MIL-STD-461D RE-102 Navy/AF Internal

MIL-STD-461D RE-102 Army Int/Ext and Navy/AF External
MIL-STD-461B/C RE-02 AF and Navy Equipment
MIL-STD-461B/C RE-02 Army Equipment

Figure 2. MIL-STD-461 Narrowband Radiated Emissions Limits

Note that in MIL-STD-461D, the narrowband radiated emissions limits were retitled RE-102 from the previous
RE-02 and the upper frequency limit was raised from 10 GHz to 18 GHz. The majority of this section will continue to
reference RE02 since most systems in use today were built to MIL-STD-461B/C.

For the other calculation involving leakage (to obtain 70 dBFV/m) we again start with: P '
D
and use the previous fact that:

PtGt
4BR 2

10log (PtGt) = -33.6 dBm = 4.37x10-4 mW (see Section 2-4).

The measurement is at one meter so R2 = 1 m2

we have:

4.37x10 &4
mW/m 2 ' .348x10 &4 mW/m 2 ' &44.6 dBm/m 2 ' PD
4B

@ 1 meter

Using the field intensity and power density relations (see Section 4-1)

E ' PD Z ' 3.48x10 &8 @ 377S ' 36.2x10 &4 V/m

Changing to microvolts (1V = 106 FV) and converting to logs we have:
20 log (E) = 20 log (106 x 36.2x10-4) = 20 log (.362x104) = 71.18 dBFV/m . 70 dBFV/m as given in Figure 1.

4-12.2

Some words of Caution

A common error is to only use the one-way free space loss coefficient "1 directly from Figure 6, Section 4-3 to
calculate what the output power would be to achieve the EMCON limits at 1 NM. This is incorrect since the last term on
the right of equation [3] (10 Log(4BR2)) is simply the Log of the surface area of a sphere - it is NOT the one-way free space
loss factor "1. You cannot interchange power (watts or dBW) with power density (watts/m2 or dBW/m2).
The equation uses power density (PD), NOT received power (Pr). It is independent of RF and therefore varies only
with range. If the source is a transmitter and/or antenna, then the power-gain product (or EIRP) is easily measured and it's
readily apparent if 10log (Pt Gt) is less than -34 dBm. If the output of the measurement system is connected to a power
meter in place of the system transmission line and antenna, the -34 dBm value must be adjusted. The measurement on the
power meter (dBm) minus line loss (dB) plus antenna gain (dB) must not be higher than -34 dBm.
However, many sources of radiation are through leakage, or are otherwise inaccessible to direct measurement and
PD must be measured with an antenna and a receiver. The measurements must be made at some RF(s), and received signal
strength is a function of the antenna used therefore measurements must be scaled with an appropriate correction factor to
obtain correct power density.

RE-02 Measurements
When RE-02 measurements are made, several different antennas are chosen dependent upon the frequency range
under consideration. The voltage measured at the output terminals of an antenna is not the actual field intensity due to actual
antenna gain, aperture characteristics, and loading effects. To account for this difference, the antenna factor is defined as:
AF = E/V
[4]
where E = Unknown electric field to be determined in V/m ( or V/m)
V = Voltage measured at the output terminals of the measuring antenna
For an antenna loaded by a 50 S line (receiver), the theoretical antenna
factor is developed as follows:

PD Ae = Pr = V2/R = Vr2/50 or Vr = o 50PDAe

From Section 4-3 we see that Ae = Gr82/4B, and from Section 4-1, E2 = 377 PD therefore we have:

AF '

E
'
V

377 PD

'

50 PD (82 Gr / 4B)

9.73
8 Gr

[5]

Reducing this to decibel form we have:

20 log AF ' 20 logE & 20 logV ' 20 log

9.73
8 Gr

with 8 in meters and Gain numeric ratio (not dB)

This equation is plotted in Figure 3.

4-12.3

[6]

Since all of the equations in this section were developed using far field antenna theory, use only the indicated region.
30
60

50

100 MHz 200 300

500

1 GHz

10 GHz

20

50

30
60
50

40

40

Permissible
Region

30

30

20

20
Prohibited
Region

10
0
30

50

100 MHz 200 300

500

1 GHz

10 GHz

10

20

0
30

Radio Frequency
Figure 3. Antenna Factor vs Frequency for Indicated Antenna Gain

In practice the electric field is measured by attaching a field intensity meter or spectrum analyzer with a narrow
bandpass preselector filter to the measuring antenna, recording the actual reading in volts and applying the antenna factor.
20log E = 20log V + 20log AF

[7]

Each of the antennas used for EMI measurements normally has a calibration sheet for both gain and antenna factor
over the frequency range that the antenna is expected to be used. Typical values are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Typical Antenna Factor Values
Frequency Range
14 kHz - 30 MHz
20 MHz - 200 MHz
200 MHz - 1 GHz
1 GHz - 10 GHz
1 GHz - 18 GHz
18 GHz - 40 GHz

Antenna(s) used
41" rod
Dipole or Biconical
Conical Log Spiral
Conical Log Spiral or Ridged Horn
Double Ridged Horn
Parabolic Dish

4-12.4

Antenna Factor

Gain(dB)

22-58 dB
0-18 dB
17-26 dB
21-48 dB
21-47 dB
20-25 dB

0-2
0 - 11
0 - 15
0 - 28
0 - 32
27 - 35

The antenna factor can also be developed in terms of the receiving antenna's effective area. This can be shown as follows:

AF '

E
'
V

377 PD

'

50PD Ae

2.75

[8]

Ae

Or in log form:

20 logAF ' 20 logE & 20 logV ' 20 log

2.75

[9]

Ae

While this relation holds for any antenna, many antennas (spiral, dipole, conical etc.) which do not have a true
"frontal capture area" do not have a linear or logarithmic relation between area and gain and in that respect the parabolic
dish is unique in that the antenna factor does not vary with frequency, only with effective capture area. Consequently a
larger effective area results in a smaller antenna factor.
A calibrated antenna would be the first choice for making measurements, followed by use of a parabolic dish or
"standard gain" horn. A standard gain horn is one which was designed such that it closely follows the rules of thumb
regarding area/gain and has a constant antenna factor. If a calibrated antenna, parabolic dish, or "standard horn" is not
available, a good procedure is to utilize a flat spiral antenna (such as the AN/ALR-67 high band antennas). These antennas
typically have an average gain of 0 dB (typically -4 to +4 dB), consequently the antenna factor would not vary a lot and any
error would be small.
EXAMPLE:
Suppose that we want to make a very general estimation regarding the ability of a system to meet EMCON
requirements. We choose to use a spiral antenna for measurements and take one of our samples at 4 GHz. Since we know
the gain of the spiral is relatively flat at 4 GHz and has a gain value of approximately one (0 dB) in that frequency range.
The antenna is connected to a spectrum analyzer by 25 feet of RG9 cable. We want to take our measurements at 2 meters
from the system so our setup is shown below:

Spiral
Antenna

System(s)
Under Test

25 ft
RG9 Cable

Spectrum
Analyzer

2m

Our RG9 cable has an input impedance of 50S, and a loss of 5 dB (from Figure 5, Section 6-1).

4-12.5

First, let's assume that we measure -85 dBm at the spectrum analyzer and we want to translate this into the
equivalent strength at 1 NM. Our power received by the antenna is:
Pr = -85 dBm + 5 dB line loss = -80 dBm
also PD = Pr/Ae and Ae = G82/4B = (G/4B)C(c/f)2 = (1/4B)C(3x108/4x109)2 = 4.47x10-4 m2
in log form: 10 Log PD = 10 Log Pr - 10 Log Ae = -80 dBm + 33.5 = -46.5 dBm/m2 at our 2 meter measuring point
To convert this to a value at 1 NM, we use
Pt Gt = PD@1 nm 4BR12 = PD@2 m 4BR22 and we solve for PD@1 nm
in log form after cancelling the 4B terms:
10 Log PD@1 nm = 10 Log PD@2 m + 10 Log (R2m/R1nm)2 = -46.5 dBm/m2 - 59.3 dB = -105.8 dBm/m2 which is
more power than the maximum value of -110 dBm/m2 specified.
If we are making repetitive measurement as we might do when screening an aircraft on the flight line with numerous
systems installed, or when we want to improve (reduce) the leakage on a single system by changing antennas, lines,
connectors, or EMI gaskets or shielding, this mathematical approach would be unnecessarily time consuming since it would
have to be repeated after each measurement. A better approach would be to convert the -110 dBm/m2 value at 1 NM to
the maximum you can have at the measuring instrument (in this case a spectrum analyzer), then you could make multiple
measurements and know immediately how your system(s) are doing. It should be noted that -90 to -100 dBm is about the
minimum signal level that can be detected by a spectrum analyzer, so you couldn't take measurements much further away
unless you used an antenna with a much higher gain.
In order not to exceed EMCON, the power density must not exceed -110 dBm/m2 at 1 NM, which is 10-11 mW/m2.
Pt Gt = PD@1 nm 4BR12 = PD@2 m 4BR22
we solve for PD@2 m = 10-11(1852m)2/(2m)2 = 8.57 x 10-6 mW/m2 = -50.7 dBm/m2
We'll be using a spectrum analyzer, so we want to compute what the maximum power or voltage may be.
Method 1 - Using the Power Density Approach
Using logs/dB and the values of PD@2 m and Ae determined previously:
10 Log Pr = 10 Log PD + 10 Log Ae = -50.7 - 33.5 = -84.2 dBm
taking line loss into account we have: -84.2 - 5 dB = - 89.2 dBm as the maximum measurement reading.
If we wanted to calculate it in volts, and take into account our line impedance we would have the following:
Pr = PD Ae = V2/R = V2/50S also Ae = G82/4B so solving for V we have:
V '

PD

Gr82
4B

R '

PD

Gr c
4B f

R '

8.57x10 &9

1 3x10 8
4B 4x10 9

50S ' 1.38x10 &5 volts

(before line loss)

since our line loss is 5 dB, we have -5dB = 20 Log V2/V1 . Solving for V2 we get 7.79x10-6 volts or -89 dBm as a
maximum at our measurement device input. We can see immediately that our value of -85 dBm that we measured on the
previous page would not meet specifications, and neither would any signal with more power than -89 dBm.
4-12.6

Method 2 - Using the Antenna Factor Approach

Starting with the same value of power density that we obtained above (8.57x10-9 W/m2), we find the field intensity
from Table 1, Section 4-1 to be approximately 65 dBFv/m. Also from Figure 3 in this section, AF = 43 dB @ 4 GHz.
(by calculating with equation [6], the exact value is 42.3 dB)
From equation [6]:
20log V = 20log E - 20log AF
20log V = 65 - 43 = 22 dBFv/m.
Since dBFv/m = 20 log (V)(106) = 20 log V + 20 log 106 = 20 log V + 120 , we see that to get an answer in dBv we must
subtract 120 from the dBFv/m value so: VdB = 22 - 120 = -98dBv. We then subtract our line loss (-5dB) and we have:
V = -98 - 5 = -103 dBv = 17 dBFv = 7.1x10-6 volts
using the fact that P = V2/R and for the input line R = 50S, P = 1x10-12 W = -120 dBW = -90 dBm
Although this method is just as accurate as that obtained using method 1, the values obtained in Table 1, Section 4-1, and
Figure 3 must be interpolated, and may not result in values which are as precise as the appropriate formulas would produce.

Sample Problem: What is the approximate transmit power from a receiver?

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

1 nanowatt (nW)
10 nW
100 nW
1 microwatt (W)
10 W

F.
G.
H.
I.
J.

100 W
1 milliwatt (mW)
10 mW
100 mW
1 watt (W)

K.
L.
M.
N.
O.

10 W
100 W
1 kilowatt (kW)
10 kW
100 kW

The question may seem inappropriate since a receiver is supposedly a passive device which only receives a signal.
If the receiver was a crystal video receiver as shown in Section 5-3, it wouldn't transmit power unless a built-in-test (BIT)
signal was injected after the antenna to periodically check the integrity of the microwave path and components. The
potential exists for the BIT signal to leak across switches and couple back through the input path and be transmitted by the
receiver's antennas.
If the receiver uses a local oscillator (LO) and a mixer to translate the signal to an intermediate frequency (IF) for
processing (such as a superhet shown in Section 5-3), there is the potential for the CW LO signal to couple back through
the signal input path and be transmitted by the receiver's antenna. Normally a mixer has 20 dB of rejection for the reverse
direction. In addition, the LO may be further attenuated by receiver front end filters.
In both cases, the use of isolators described in Section 6-7 could be used to further attenuate any signals going in
the reverse direction, i.e. back to the antenna. A good receiver design should ensure that any RF leakage radiated by the
receiver will not exceed the EMCON level.
In answer to the initial question, "transmit" leakage power should be less than -34 dBm (0.4 W) to meet EMCON.
Therefore, the real answer may be "A", "B", or "C" if EMCON is met and could be "D" through possibly "G" if EMCON
is not met.

4-12.7

RF ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION / DUCTING

Signal losses are associated with each stage of signal processing in both the transmitting and receiving portions
of the system. The transmitting losses include power transmission efficiency, waveguide and antenna losses, and duplexer
losses. In the receiver, losses include antenna, waveguide, RF amplifier, mixer, and IF amplifier.
In addition to these losses, energy traveling through the atmosphere suffers from atmospheric attenuation caused
primarily by absorption by the gasses. For lower frequencies (below 10 GHz), the attenuation is reasonably predictable.
For high frequencies in the millimeter wave range, the attenuation not only increases, but becomes more dependent upon
peculiar absorbing characteristics of H2O, O2, and the like.
Figure 1 shows the areas of peak absorption in the millimeter wave spectrum. Figure 2 shows how the intensity
of precipitation can affect atmospheric attenuation.

Wavelength (mm)
30

20

15

10

1.5

1.0

0.8

100
40
20

Average Atmospheric
Absorption of Milimeter-Waves
(Horizontal Propagation)

10
4
2

Sea Level

1
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.04
0.02

O2

H2 O

H2O

O2

0.01
0.004
0.002
0.001

9150 Meters Altitude

H2 O
10

15

20

25

30

40

50

60

70 80 90100

150

Frequency (GHz)
Figure 1. Atmospheric Absorption of Millimeter Waves

5-1.1

200 250 300

400

ATMOSPHERIC ATTENUATION
50

100

20
10
5

50
25
12.5

Heavy Rain
Medium Rain

2.5

2
1
0.5

1.25
0.25

0.2
0.1
0.05

Light Rain
Drizzle

Rainfall rate
(mm/hr)

0.02
0.01
0.005
0.002
0.001

Tropical
Downpour

10

30

100

Frequency (GHz)
Figure 2. Atmospheric Attenuation

Ducting is an increase in range that an electromagnetic wave will travel due to a temperature inversion of the lower
atmosphere (troposphere) as shown in Figure 3. The temperature inversion forms a channel or waveguide (duct) for the
waves to travel in, and they can be trapped, not attenuating as would be expected from the radar equation. Ducting may
also extend range beyond what might be expected from limitations of the radar horizon (see Section 2-9).
The ducting phenomena is frequency sensitive. The thicker the duct, the lower the minimum trapped frequency.
UPPER ATMOSPHERE

EARTH

Figure 3. Ducting
A similar occurrence takes place with ionospheric refraction, however the greatest increase in range occurs in the
lower frequencies. This is familiar to amateur radio operators who are able to contact counterparts around the world.

5-1.2

RECEIVER SENSITIVITY / NOISE

RECEIVER SENSITIVITY
Sensitivity in a receiver is normally taken as the minimum input signal (Smin) required to produce a specified output
signal having a specified signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio and is defined as the minimum signal-to-noise ratio times the mean
noise power, see equation [1]. For a signal impinging on the antenna (system level) sensitivity is known as minimum
operational sensitivity (MOS), see equation [2]. Since MOS includes antenna gain, it may be expressed in dBLi (dB
referenced to a linear isotropic antenna). When specifying the sensitivity of receivers intended to intercept and process pulse
signals, the minimum pulse width at which the specified sensitivity applies must also be stated. See the discussion of postdetection bandwidth (BV) in Section 5-2 for significance of minimum pulsewidth in the receiver design.
Smin = (S/N)minkToB(NF)
or

receiver sensitivity ("black box" performance parameter)

MOS = (S/N)minkToB(NF)/G
where: S/Nmin
NF
k
To
B
G

=
=
=
=
=
=

system sensitivity i.e. the receiver is connected to an antenna

(transmission line loss included with antenna gain)
Minimum signal-to-noise ratio needed to process (vice just detect) a signal
Noise figure/factor
Boltzmann's Constant = 1.38 x 10-23 Joule/EK
Absolute temperature of the receiver input (EKelvin) = 290EK
Receiver Bandwidth (Hz)
Antenna/system gain

[1]
[2]

We have a lower MOS if temperature, bandwidth, NF, or S/Nmin decreases, or if antenna gain increases. For radar,
missile, and EW receivers, sensitivity is usually stated in dBm. For communications and commercial broadcasting receivers,
sensitivity is usually stated in micro-volts or dBv. See Section 4-1.
There is no standard definition of sensitivity level. The term minimum operational sensitivity (MOS) can be used
in place of Smin at the system level where aircraft installation characteristics are included. The "black box" term minimum
detectable signal (MDS) is often used for Smin but can cause confusion because a receiver may be able to detect a signal,
but not properly process it. MDS can also be confused with minimum discernable signal, which is frequently used when
a human operator is used to interpret the reception results. A human interpretation is also required with minimum visible
signal (MVS) and tangential sensitivity (discussed later). To avoid confusion, the terms Smin for "black box" minimum
sensitivity and MOS for system minimum sensitivity are used in this section. All receivers are designed for a certain
sensitivity level based on requirements. One would not design a receiver with more sensitivity than required because it
limits the receiver bandwidth and will require the receiver to process signals it is not interested in. In general, while
processing signals, the higher the power level at which the sensitivity is set, the fewer the number of false alarms which will
be processed. Simultaneously, the probability of detection of a "good" (low-noise) signal will be decreased.
Sensitivity can be defined in two opposite ways, so discussions can frequently be confusing. It can be the ratio of
response to input or input to response. In using the first method (most common in receiver discussions and used herein),
it will be a negative number (in dBm), with the more negative being "better" sensitivity, e.g. -60 dBm is "better" than -50
dBm sensitivity. If the second method is used, the result will be a positive number, with higher being "better." Therefore
the terms low sensitivity or high sensitivity can be very confusing. The terms Smin and MOS avoid confusion.
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE (S/N) RATIO
The Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N) (a.k.a. SNR) in a receiver is the signal power in the receiver divided by the mean
noise power of the receiver. All receivers require the signal to exceed the noise by some amount. Usually if the signal
power is less than or just equals the noise power it is not detectable. For a signal to be detected, the signal energy plus the
5-2.1

noise energy must exceed some threshold value. Therefore, just because N is in the denominator doesn't mean it can be
increased to lower the MOS. S/N is a required minimum ratio, if N is increased, then S must also be increased to maintain
that threshold. The threshold value is chosen high enough above the mean noise level so that the probability of random
noise peaks exceeding the threshold, and causing false alarms, is acceptably low.
Figure 1 depicts the concept of required S/N. It can be seen that the signal at time A exceeds the S/N ratio and
indicates a false alarm or target. The signal at time B is just at the threshold, and the signal at time C is clearly below it.
In the sample, if the temperature is taken as room temperature (To = 290EK), the noise power input is -114 dBm for a one
MHz bandwidth. Normally S/Nmin may be set higher than S/N shown in Figure 1 to meet false alarm specifications.
False alarm due to noise

DETECTION
THRESHOLD

TIME
C
S/N

AVERAGE
NOISE POWER

! PN

k To B

! Distribution is
Gaussian

Boltzman's Constant

To

Temperature (EK)

Bandwidth (Hz)

-23

1.38 x 10

Joules / EK

290 EK

PN

-114 dBm for a 1 MHz bandwidth

PN

-174 dBm for a 1 Hz bandwidth

Figure 1. Receiver Noise Power at Room Temperature

The acceptable minimum Signal-to-Noise ratio (or think of it as Signal above Noise) for a receiver depends on the
intended use of the receiver. For instance, a receiver that had to detect a single radar pulse would probably need a higher
minimum S/N than a receiver that could integrate a large number of radar pulses (increasing the total signal energy) for
detection with the same probability of false alarms. Receivers with human operators using a video display may function
satisfactorily with low minimum S/N because a skilled operator can be very proficient at picking signals out of a noise
background. As shown in Table 1, the setting of an acceptable minimum S/N is highly dependant on the required
characteristics of the receiver and of the signal.
Table 1. Typical Minimum S/N Required
Skilled Operator

Auto-Detection

Auto-detection with Amplitude,

TOA, and Frequency Measurements

AOA Phase
Interferometer

AOA Amplitude
Comparison

3 to 8 dB

10 to 14 dB

14 to 18 dB

14 to 18 dB

16 to 24 dB

A complete discussion of the subject would require a lengthy dissertation of the probability and statistics of signal
detection, which is beyond the scope of this handbook, however a simplified introduction follows. Let's assume that we
have a receiver that we want a certain probability of detecting a single pulse with a specified false alarm probability. We
can use Figure 2 to determine the required signal-to-noise ratio.
S/N EXAMPLE
If we are given that the desired probability of detecting a single pulse (Pd) is 98%, and we want the false alarm rate
(Pn) to be no more than 10-3, then we can see that S/N must be 12 dB (see Figure 2).
5-2.2

99.99
99.95
99.9
99.8
99.5
99
98

Example

95
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
5
2
1
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
0.01
0

10

12

14

16

18

Signal-to-Noise (S/N) Ratio - ( dB )

Figure 2. Nomograph of Signal-to-Noise (S/N) Ratio as a Function of Probability of Detection (Pd) and
Probability of False Alarm Rate (Pn)
MAXIMUM DETECTION RANGE (ONE-WAY)
From Section 4-3, the one way signal strength from a transmitter to a receiver is:

S (or PR)

PtGtGr82

(4B)2R 2
For calculations involving receiver sensitivity the "S" can be replaced by Smin. Since Smin = (S/N)min kToB(NF),
given by equation [1], the one-way radar equation can be solved for any of the other variables in terms of receiver
parameters. In communication, radar, and electronic warfare applications, you might need to solve for the maximum range
(Rmax) where a given radar warning receiver could detect a radiated signal with known parameters. We would then combine
and rearrange the two equations mentioned to solve for the following one-way equation:
Rmax

Pt Gt Gr 82
2

(4B) (S/N)min kTo B(NF)

or

Pt Gt Gr c 2
2

(4Bf ) (S/N)min kTo B(NF)

or

Pt Gt Ae

[3]

4B (S/N)min kT o B(NF)

We could use standard room temperature of 290E K as To, but NF would have to be determined as shown later.
In this calculation for receiver Rmax determination, Pt , Gt , and 8 are radar dependent, while Gr , S/Nmin, NF, and
B are receiver dependent factors.
Equation [3] relates the maximum detection range to bandwidth (B). The effects of the measurement bandwidth
can significantly reduce the energy that can be measured from the peak power applied to the receiver input. Additional
bandwidth details are provided in Sections 4-4, 4-7, and in other parts of this section

5-2.3

NOISE POWER, kToB

Thermal noise is spread more or less uniformly over the entire frequency spectrum. Therefore the amount of noise
appearing in the output of an ideal receiver is proportional to the absolute temperature of the receiver input system (antenna
etc) times the bandwidth of the receiver. The factor of proportionality is Boltzmann's Constant.
Mean noise power of ideal receiver = kToB = PN
Mean noise power of a real receiver = (NF)kToB

(Watts)
(Watts)

The convention for the temperature of To is set by IEEE standard to be 290EK, which is close to ordinary room
temperature. So, assuming To = 290EK, and for a bandwidth B = 1 Hz, kToB = 4x10-21 W = -204 dBW = -174 dBm.
For any receiver bandwidth, multiply 4x10-21 W by the bandwidth in Hz, or if using dB;
10 log kToB = -174 dBm + 10 Log (actual Bandwidth in Hz)
or

Table 2. Sample Noise Power Values (kToB)

-114 dBm + 10 Log (actual Bandwidth in MHz)

and so on, as shown by the values in Table 2.

Bandwidth

Bandwidth
Ratio (dB)

Watts

dBW

dBm

1 Hz

4x10-21

-204

-174

1 kHz

30

4x10-18

-174

-144

1 MHz

60

4x10-15

-144

-114

90

4x10-12

-114

-84

Typical values for maximum sensitivity of receivers would

be:
RWR
-65 dBm
Pulse Radar
-94 dBm
CW Missile Seeker
-138 dBm

1 GHz

If antenna contributions are ignored (see note in Table 4) for a CW receiver with a 4 GHz bandwidth, the ideal
mean noise power would be -174 dBm + 10 Log(4x109) = -174 dBm + 96 dB = -78 dBm. A skilled operator might only
be able to distinguish a signal 3 dB above the noise floor (S/N=3 dB), or -75 dBm. A typical radar receiver would require
a S/N of 3 to 10 dB to distinguish the signal from noise, and would require 10 to 20 dB to track. Auto tracking might
require a S/N of approximately 25 dB, thus, a receiver may only have sufficient sensitivity to be able to identify targets
down to -53 dBm. Actual pulse receiver detection will be further reduced due to sin x/x frequency distribution and the effect
of the measurement bandwidth as discussed in Sections 4-4 and 4-7. Integration will increase the S/N since the signal is
coherent and the noise is not.
Noise Bandwidth
Equivalent Noise Bandwidth (BN) - Set by minimum pulse width or maximum modulation bandwidth needed for
the system requirements. A choice which is available to the designer is the relationship of pre- and post-detection
bandwidth. Pre-detection bandwidth is denoted by BIF , while post-detection is denoted BV , where V stands for video. The
most affordable approach is to set the post-detection filter equal to the reciprocal of the minimum pulse width, then choose
the pre-detection passband to be as wide as the background interference environment will allow. Recent studies suggest
that pre-detection bandwidths in excess of 100 MHz will allow significant loss of signals due to "pulse-on-pulse"
conditions. Equations [4] and [5] provide BN relationships that don't follow the Table 3 rules of thumb.
Table 3. Rules of Thumb for BN a.k.a. B (Doesn't apply for S/N between 0 and 10 to 30 dB)
S/N out

Linear Detector

Square Law Detector

High S/N ( >15 to 20 dB )

BN = BV ( > 20 to 30 dB )

BN = 4 BV ( > 10 to 15 dB )

Low S/N (< 0 dB)

BN

( 2 BIF BV BV2 ) / 4 (S/N)out

5-2.4

BN

(2 BIF BV BV2) / (S/N)out

For a square law detector: (1)

BN

BV 2

( 2 BIF / BV )

[4]

(S/N)out

At high (S/N)out, the 1/(S/Nout) term goes to zero and we have:

BN

BV [ 2

At low (S/N)out, the 1/(S/Nout) term dominates, and we have:

BN

BV

For a linear detector: (1)

BN

BV
2

1
@ BV 4 BV
4

At high (S/N)out, the 1/(S/Nout) term goes to zero and we have: B

N
At low (S/N)out, the 1/(S/Nout) term dominates, and we have: B
N

4 BV

( 2 BIF / BV )

BV2

2 BIF BV

(S/N)out

H 2( 2BIF

H is a hypergeometric (statistical) function of (S/N)in

H = 2 for (S/N)in << 1
H = 1 for (S/N)in >> 1

4 ]

(S/N)out

BV )

[5]

(S/N)out

BV
2
1
@
4

1
4

BV (4BV)

BV H 2 ( 2BIF

BV

BV )

(S/N)out

2 BIF BV

BV2

4 (S/N)out

Note (1): From Klipper, Sensitivity of crystal Video Receivers with RF Pre-amplification, The Microwave Journal, August 1965.

TRADITIONAL "RULE OF THUMB" FOR NARROW BANDWIDTHS (Radar Receiver Applications)

Required IF Bandwidth For Matched Filter Applications:
BIF Pre detection RF or IF bandwidth
1
BIF
Where:
PWmin Specified minimum pulse width J
PW
min

Matched filter performance gives maximum probability of detection for a given signal level, but: (1) Requires
perfect centering of signal spectrum with filter bandwidth, (2) Time response of matched pulse does not stabilize at a final
value, and (3) Out-of-band splatter impulse duration equals minimum pulse width. As a result, EW performance with
pulses of unknown frequency and pulse width is poor.

Required Video Bandwidth Post Detection

Traditional "Rule of Thumb ))

BV

0.35
PWmin

Where: BV

Post detection bandwidth

Some authors define BV in terms of the minimum rise time of the detected pulse, i.e., BV = (0.35 to 0.5)/tr min,
where tr = rise time.
REVISED "RULE OF THUMB" FOR WIDE BANDWIDTHS (Wideband Portion of RWRs)
2 to 3
1
BIF
and
BV
PWmin
PWmin
The pre-detection bandwidth is chosen based upon interference and spurious generation concerns. The post-detection
bandwidth is chosen to "match" the minimum pulse width. This allows (1) Half bandwidth mistuning between signal and
filter, (2) Half of the minimum pulse width for final value stabilization, and (3) The noise bandwidth to be "matched" to
the minimum pulse width. As a result, there is (1) Improved EW performance with pulses of unknown frequency and pulse
width, (2) Measurement of in-band, but mistuned pulses, and (3) Rejection of out-of-band pulse splatter.
5-2.5

NOISE FIGURE / FACTOR (NF)

Electrical noise is defined as electrical energy of random amplitude, phase, and frequency. It is present in the output
of every radio receiver. At the frequencies used by most radars, the noise is generated primarily within the input stages of
the receiver system itself (Johnson Noise). These stages are not inherently noisier than others, but noise generated at the
input and amplified by the receiver's full gain greatly exceeds the noise generated further along the receiver chain. The noise
performance of a receiver is described by a figure of merit called the noise figure (NF). The term noise factor is
synonymous, with some authors using the term "factor" for numeric and "figure" when using dB notation. (The notation
"Fn" is also sometimes used instead of "NF".) The noise figure is defined as:
NF

Noise output of actual receiver

Noise output of ideal receiver

Nout

or in dB:

GNin

10 Log

Noise output of actual receiver

Noise output of ideal receiver

10log

Nout

GNin

A range of NF values is shown in Table 4.

Decimal

dB

Same as reciprocal of
gain value ex: 100
4
10 to 100

Same as dB
value ex: 20
6
10 to 20

1.012 to 1.4

0.05 to 1.5

Table 4. Typical Noise Figure / Factor Value

Passive lossy network (RF transmission line, attenuator, etc.)
Example: 20 dB attenuator (gain = 0.01)
Solid State Amplifier (see manufacturers specifications)
Traveling Wave Tube (see manufacturers specifications)
Antennas (Below . 100 MHz, values to 12 dB higher if pointed at the sun)
Note: Unless the antenna is pointed at the sun, its negligible NF can be ignored. Additionally,
antenna gain is not valid for NF calculations because the noise is received in the near field.

An ideal receiver generates no noise internally. The only noise in its output is received from external sources. That noise
has the same characteristics as the noise resulting from thermal agitation in a conductor. Thermal agitation noise is caused
by the continuous random motion of free electrons which are present in every conductor. The amount of motion is
proportional to the conductor's temperature above absolute zero. For passive lossy networks, the noise factor equals the
loss value for the passive element:
Where L Ratio Value of Attenuation
Nout
kTB
NF
L
i.e. For a 3 dB attenuator, G 0.5 and L 2
G Nin
1
NF 2 and 10 logNF 3 dB
kTB
L
A typical series of cascaded amplifiers is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Noise Factors for Cascaded Amplifiers (NFCA)

Loss (negative gain) can be used for the gain value of attenuators or transmission line loss, etc to calculate the noise
out of the installation as shown in the following equation:
Nout

Nin G NFCA

k TB1 (G1G2G3 .. .) NF1

B2(NF2 1)

B3(NF3 1)

B4(NF4 1)

B1G1

B1G1G2

B1G1G2G3

.. ..

(ratio form)

[6]

If the bandwidths of the amplifiers are the same, equation [6] becomes:
Nout

Nin G NFCA

k TB (G1G2G3. ..)

NF1

NF2 1

NF3 1

NF4 1

G1

G1G2

G!G2G3

5-2.6

. .. .

(ratio form)

[7]

Pre-amplifier Location Affects Receiver Input Noise

CASE 1

As shown in Figure 4, if a 2 to 12 GHz receiver installation

doesn't have enough sensitivity, it is best to install an additional
amplifier closer to the antenna (case 1) instead of closer to the
receiver (case 2). In both cases, the line loss (L) and the amplifier
gain (G) are the same, so the signal level at the receiver is the same.
For case 1, S1 = Pin + G - L. In case 2, S2 = Pin - L + G, so S1 = S2.
The noise generated by the passive transmission line when measured
at the receiver is the same in both cases. However, the noise
generated inside the amplifier, when measured at the receiver input,
is different.

S1, N1

L = 20 dB

Pin

Rx

G = 25 dB

CASE 2

S2, N2

L = 20 dB

Pin

Rx
G = 25 dB

Figure 4. Pre-Amp S/N

For this example, case 2 has a noise level at the input to the receiver
which is 19.7 dB higher than case 1 (calculations follow later).
Case 1 Gain

Case 1 NF

Table
5a

Amp

Amp

dB

25

-20

ratio

316.2

0.01

Case 2 Gain

Case 2 NF

Table
5b

Amp

Amp

6*

20

dB

-20

25

20

6*

4*

100

ratio

0.01

316.2

100

4*

* Amplifier NF value from Table 4.

Using equation [3] and the data in Tables 5a and 5b, the noise generated by the RF installation is shown in Tables
6a and 6b (the negligible noise contribution from the antenna is the same in both cases and is not included) (also see notes
contained in Table 4):
Table 6a. Case 1

G(NF)

316.2 (0.01) 4

100 1
316.7

Table 6b. Case 2

13.64

G(NF)

10 log G(NF) = 11.34 dB

0.01 (316.2) 100

4 1
0.01

1264.8

10 log G(NF) = 31 dB
Noise at receiver:

Nout 1 = -74 dBm + 11.34 dB = -62.7 dBm

Nout 2 = -74 dBm + 31 dB = -43 dBm

Nout 2 - Nout 1 = 19.7 dB. The input noise of -74 dBm was calculated using 10 log (kTB), where B = 10 GHz.
Note that other tradeoffs must be considered: (1) greater line loss between the antenna and amplifier improves
(decreases) VSWR as shown in Section 6-2, and (2) the more input line loss, the higher the input signal can be before
causing the pre-amplifier to become saturated (mixing of signals due to a saturated amplifier is addressed in Section 5-7).
Combining Receive Paths Can Reduce Sensitivity
If a single aircraft receiver processes both forward and aft signals as shown in Figure 5, it is desirable to be able
to use the receiver's full dynamic range for both directions. Therefore, one needs to balance the gain, so that a signal applied
to the aft antenna will reach the receiver at the same level as if it was applied to the forward antenna.
5-2.7

0 dBi *

+15

-5

A
B
-3 dB Hybrid

+10

Net = +20 dB

AFT

-20 dB

-10 dB

-7 dB

-2 dB
+10 0 +15
Net = +25 dB

Pre-Amp

FWD

Pre-Amp

* Antenna G and NF insignificant for this example

(see note in Table 4)

0 dBi *

Receiver

Figure 5. Example of Pre-Amplifier Affecting Overall Gain/Sensitivity

Common adjustable preamplifiers can be installed to account for the excessive transmission line loss. In this
example, in the forward installation, the level of the signal at the receiver is the same as the level applied to the antenna.
Since the aft transmission line has 5 dB less attenuation, that amount is added to the preamplifier attenuator to balance the
gain. This works fine for strong signals, but not for weaker signals. Because there is less loss between the aft preamplifier
and the receiver, the aft noise dominates and will limit forward sensitivity. If the bandwidth is 2-12 GHz, and if port A of
the hybrid is terminated by a perfect 50S load, the forward noise level would be -65.3 dBm. If port B is terminated, the
aft noise level would be -60.4 dBm. With both ports connected, the composite noise level would be -59.2 dBm (convert
to mw, add, then convert back to dBm). For this example, if the aft preamplifier attenuation value is changed to 12 dB, the
gain is no longer balanced (7 dB extra loss aft), but the noise is balanced, i.e. forward = -65.6 dBm, aft = -65.3 dBm, and
composite -62.4 dBm. If there were a requirement to see the forward signals at the most sensitive level, extra attenuation
could be inserted in the aft preamplifier. This would allow the forward noise level to predominate and result in greater
forward sensitivity where it is needed. Calculations are provided in Tables 7 and 8.
Table 7. Summary of Gain and NF Values for Figure 5 Components
Aft

Gain
NF

dB
ratio
dB
ratio

Fwd

RF Line

Amp

Attn

Amp

RF Line &
hybrid

-7
0.2
7
5

15
31.6
6
4

-5
0.32
5
3.16

10
10
6
4

-13
0.05
13
20

RF Line

Amp

Attn

Amp

RF Line
& hybrid

-2
0.63
2
1.585

15
31.6
6
4

0
0
0
0

10
10
6
4

-23
0.005
23
200

Aft NF = 22.79 therefore 10 log NF = 13.58 dB. Input noise level = -74 dBm + 13.58 dB = -60.42 dBm -60.4 dBm
Fwd NF = 7.495 therefore 10 log NF = 8.75 dB. Input noise level = -74 dBm + 8.75 dB = -65.25 dBm -65.3 dBm
The composite noise level at the receiver = -59.187 dBm -59.2 dBm
Table 8. Effect of Varying the Attenuation (shaded area) in the Aft Preamplifier Listed in Table 7.
Aft Attn
NF
0 dB
5
10
12
15
* Gain Balanced

Aft Attn
Gain
0 dB
-5
-10
-12
-15

Aft
Noise
-55.8 dBm
-60.4
-64.4
-65.6 **
-67.1

Fwd
Noise
-65.3 dBm
-65.3
-65.3
-65.3 **
-65.3

** Noise Balanced

Composite
Noise
-55.4 dBm
-59.2
-61.8
-62.4
-63.1

Min Signal
Received ***
-43.4 dBm
-47.2 *
-49.8
-50.4
-51.1

*** S/N was set at 12 dB

5-2.8

Aft
Input
-48.4 dBm
-47.2 *
-44.8
-43.4
-41.1

Fwd
Input
-43.4 dBm
-47.2 *
-49.8
-50.4
-51.1

TANGENTIAL SENSITIVITY
Tangential sensitivity (TSS) is the point where the
top of the noise level with no signal applied is level with the
bottom of the noise level on a pulse as shown in Figure 6. It
can be determined in the laboratory by varying the amplitude
of the input pulse until the stated criterion is reached, or by
various approximation formulas.

Noise

Pulse

No Signal
Level

The signal power is nominally 81 dB above the

Figure 6. Tangential Sensitivity
noise level at the TSS point. TSS depends on the RF
bandwidth, the video bandwidth, the noise figure, and the detector characteristic.
TSS is generally a characteristic associated with receivers (or RWRs), however the TSS does not necessarily
provide a criterion for properly setting the detection threshold. If the threshold is set to TSS, then the false alarm rate is
rather high. Radars do not operate at TSS. Most require a more positive S/N for track ( > 10 dB) to reduce false detection
on noise spikes.
SENSITIVITY CONCLUSION
When all factors effecting system sensitivity are considered, the designer has little flexibility in the choice of
receiver parameters. Rather, the performance requirements dictate the limit of sensitivity which can be implemented by the
EW receiver.
1. Minimum Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N) - Set by the accuracy which you want to measure signal parameters and by the
false alarm requirements.
2. Total Receiver Noise Figure (NF) - Set by available technology and system constraints for RF front end performance.
3. Equivalent Noise Bandwidth (BN) - Set by minimum pulse width or maximum modulation bandwidth needed to
accomplish the system requirements. A choice which is available to the designer is the relationship of pre- (BIF) and postdetection (BV) bandwidth. The most affordable approach is to set the post-detection filter equal to the reciprocal of the
minimum pulse width, then choose the pre-detection passband to be as wide as the background interference environment
will allow. Recent studies suggest that pre-detection bandwidths in excess of 100 MHz will allow significant loss of signals
due to "pulse-on-pulse" conditions.
4. Antenna Gain (G) - Set by the needed instantaneous FOV needed to support the system time to intercept requirements.

5-2.9

RECEIVER TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS

Besides the considerations of noise and noise figure, the capabilities of receivers are highly dependant on the type
of receiver design. Most receiver designs are trade-offs of several conflicting requirements. This is especially true of the
Electronic Support Measures (ESM) receivers used in Electronic Warfare.
This section consists of a figure and tables that provide a brief comparison of various common ESM receiver types.
Figure 1 shows block diagrams of four common ESM receivers. Table 1 is a comparison of major features of receivers.
Table 2 shows the receiver types best suited for various types of signals and Tables 3 and 4 compare several direction of
arrival (DOA) and emitter location techniques. Table 5 shows qualitative and quantitative comparisons of receiver
characteristics.

CRYSTAL VIDEO RECEIVER

RF AMPLIFIER

YIG TUNED NARROWBAND SUPERHET

COMPRESSIVE
VIDEO
AMPLIFIER
BAND 1
VIDEO

IF AMP
YIG
FILTER

BAND 2
VIDEO

TUNING
BAND 3
VIDEO

WIDEBAND SUPERHET

IF FILTER

LOG
VIDEO
AMP

VIDEO

YIG
OSCILLATOR

INSTANTANEOUS FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT

SIN
WIDEBAND
FILTER

FIXED
FREQUENCY
OSCILLATOR

VIDEO
CONVERSION

PHASE
DETECTOR

IF FILTER
LIMITING
AMPLIFIER

DELAY
LINE

COS

Figure 1. Common ESM Receiver Block Diagrams

5-3.1

FREQUENCY
INFORMATION

Table 1. Comparison of Major Features of Receivers

Receiver

Advantages

Disadvantages

Principal Applications

Wideband
crystal video

Simple, inexpensive, instantaneous,

High POI in frequency range

No frequency resolution
Poor sensitivity and Poor
simultaneous signal performance

RWR

Tuned RF
Crystal Video

Simple, Frequency measurement

Higher sensitivity than wideband

Slow response time

Poor POI

Option in RWR, Frequency

measurement in hybrid

IFM

Relatively simple
Frequency resolution
Instantaneous, high POI

Cannot sort simultaneous signals

Relatively poor sensitivity

Shipboard ESM,
Jammer power management,
SIGINT equipment

Narrow-band
scanning
Superhet

High sensitivity
Good frequency resolution
Simultaneous signals don't interfere

Slow response time

Poor POI
Poor against frequency agility

SIGINT equipment
Air and ship ESM
Analysis part of hybrid

Wide-band
Superhet

Better response time and POI

Spurious signals generated

Poorer sensitivity

Shipboard ESM
Tactical air warning

Channelized

Wide bandwidth, Near instantaneous,

Moderate frequency resolution

High complexity, cost; Lower

reliability; limited sensitivity

SIGINT equipment
Jammer power management

Microscan

Near instantaneous,
Good resolution and dynamic range,
Good simultaneous signal capability

High complexity,
Limited bandwidth
No pulse modulation information
Critical alignment

SIGINT equipment
Applications for fine freq
analysis over wide range

Acousto-optic

Near instantaneous, Good resolution,

Good simultaneous signal capability
Good POI

High complexity; new technology

Table 2. Receiver Types vs. Signal Types

Receiver Type
Signal
Type

Wide-Band
Crystal Video

TRF Crystal
Video

IFM

Narrow-Band
Superhet

Wide-Band
Superhet

Channelized

Microscan

Acousto-optic

CW

Special design
for CW

Special
design for
CW

Yes, but
interferes with
pulsed reception

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Pulsed

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Multiple
Frequency

No

No

No

Yes, but won't

recognize as
same source

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Frequency
Agile

Yes, doesn't
measure
frequency

No

Yes

No

Yes (within
passband)

Yes

Yes

No/Yes,
depending on
readout time

PRI
Agile

Yes

Yes

Yes

No/Yes,
depending on
scan rate

Yes

Yes

No/Yes,
imprecision
in TOA

No/Yes,
depending on
readout time

Chirped

Yes, within
acceptance
BW

No

Yes

No/Yes,
depending on
BW

Yes

Yes
(reduced
sensitivity)

No/Yes,
depending
on scan rate

Yes (reduced
sensitivity)

Spread
Spectrum

Yes, within
acceptance
BW

No

Yes

No

No/Yes,
depending
on BW

Yes
(reduced
sensitivity)

Yes
(reduced
sensitivity)

Yes (reduced
sensitivity)

5-3.2

Table 3. Direction of Arrival Measurement Techniques

Sensor Configuration

Amplitude Comparison

Phase Interferometer

Typically 4 to 6 Equal Spaced Antenna

Elements for 360E Coverage

2 or more RHC or LHC Spirals in Fixed

Array

DF Accuracy

DFACC .

12bW )CdB

DFACC .

24 S

8
)2
2 B d cos2

(Gaussian Antenna Shape)

DF Accuracy Improvement

Decrease Antenna BW; Decrease Amplitude

Mistrack; Increase Squint Angle

Increase Spacing of Outer Antennas;

Decrease Phase Mistrack

Typical DF Accuracy

3E to 10E rms

0.1E to 3E rms

Sensitivity to
Multipath/Reflections

High Sensitivity; Mistrack of Several dB Can

Cause Large DF Errors

Relatively Insensitive; Interferometer Can be

Made to Tolerate Large Phase Errors

Platform Constraints

Locate in Reflection Free Area

Reflection Free Area; Real Estate for Array;

Prefers Flat Radome

Applicable Receivers

Crystal Video; Channelizer; Acousto-Optic;

Compressive; Superheterodyne

Superheterodyne

)CdB= Amplitude Monopulse Ratio in dB

S= Squint Angle in degrees
2BW= Antenna Beamwidth in degrees

Table 4. Emitter Location Techniques

Measurement Technique

Advantages

Disadvantages

Triangulation

Single Aircraft

Non-instantaneous location
Inadequate accuracy for remote targeting
Not forward looking

Azimuth/elevation

Single Aircraft

Accuracy degrades rapidly at low altitude

Instantaneous location possible

Function of range

Time Difference of Arrival Very high precision

(Pulsed signals)

Very complex, diverse systems required,

at least 3 aircraft

Can support weapon delivery position

requirements

High quality receivers, DME (3 sites)

very wideband data link

Very rapid, can handle short on-time threat

Very high performance control processor;

requires very high reliability subsystems

5-3.3

Table 5. Qualitative Comparison of Receivers

From NRL Report 8737

Receiver Type
Feature

Wide-Band
Crystal Video

TRF Crystal
Video

IFM

Narrow-Band
Superhet

Wide-Band
Superhet

Channelized

Microscan

Acousto-optic

Instantaneous
Analysis
Bandwidth

Very
wide

Narrow

Very
wide

Narrow

Moderate

Wide

Wide

Moderate

Frequency
Resolution

Very
poor

Fair

Good

Very
good

Poor

Fair

Good

Good

Sensitivity

Poor
(No preamp)
Fair (preamp)

Fair/
good

Poor
(No preamp)
Fair (preamp)

Very
good

Fair

Fair/
good

Very
good

Good

Dynamic
Range

Fair

Fair/
good

Good

Very
good

Fair

Good

Fair

Poor

Speed of
Acquisition

Very
Fast

Slow

Very
Fast

Slow

Fast

Very
Fast

Very
Fast

Fast

Short pulse
Width
Capability

Good

Good

Good

Good

Very
good

Good

Fair

Fair

Retention of
Signal
Characteristics

Fair

Fair

Poor

Good

Fair/
good

Good

Poor

Fair/
good

Applicability
to Exotic
Signals

Poor/
fair

Poor

Good

Poor

Fair/
good

Good

Fair/
good

Fair/
good

High signal
Density
Performance

Poor (high
false alarm
rate from
background)

Fair/
good

Good

Poor

Fair/good,
Fair
depending on
(depending on
architecture
BW)
& processing

Good

Poor

Simultaneous
Signal
Capability

Poor

Fair/
good

Poor

Good

Fair
(depending on
BW)

Good

Good

Good

Processing
Complexity

Moderate
depending on
application

Moderate
depending on
application

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

Low-high
depending on
architecture

Complex

Simple signal
processing
complex data
processing

Immunity
to Jamming

Poor

Fair

Poor/
Fair

Good

Poor/
Fair

Good

Good

Good

Power
Requirements

Low

Low/
Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

Moderate

High

Moderate

Moderate/
High

RF Range
(GHz)

Multioctave
(0.5-40)

0.15-18
separate

>0.5 to 40

Max
Instantaneous Analysis
Bandwidth

Multioctave
(to 17.5
GHz)

As high as
desired with
equivalent
reduction in
resolution

Multioctave
(1 octave
per unit)

Measurement Measurement
accuracy no
accuracy no
better than
better than
analysis BW analysis BW

5-10 MHz

Frequency
Accuracy

0.5 to 18

0.5 to 60

<0.5 to 8

0.5-4 (0.5-18
channelized
and down
conversion)

50 MHz

500 MHz

~2 GHz
without
degradation,
17.5 GHz with
degradation

0.5 to 2
depending
on PW
limitation

1 GHz

0.5% to 1%

0.5 to 3 MHz

1 MHz

10 KHz

1 MHz

<0.01 to 40

5-3.4

Receiver Type
Feature

Wide-Band
Crystal Video

TRF Crystal
Video

Pulse Width
Range

CW to
50 ns

CW to
50 ns

Frequency
Resolution

~400 MHz
(no better
than BW)

25 MHz

1 MHz

<0.1 MHz

100-500
MHz

Sensitivity
(dBm)

-40 to -50
(no preamp)
-80 (with
preamp)

Better
than -80
with
preamp

-40 (no
preamp)
-75 (preamp) 4
GHz BW

-90, 1 MHz
BW

Maximum
Dynamic
Range (dB)

70

70-80

80 (w/preamp)
100+
(saturated)

Tuning
Time

50 ms

Signal ID
Time

100 ns

Minimum
Weight
(lb)

IFM

Narrow-Band
Superhet

Wide-Band
Superhet

Channelized

Microscan

Acousto-optic

CW to ~20 ns CW to 100 ns CW to 4 ns
CW to 30 ns
(depending
with 20 MHz with 500 MHz (depending
on resolution)
resolution
resolution
on resolution)

CW to 250
ns

CW to
0.5 s

10-125 MHz
(less with
freq vernier)

1 MHz

0.5 to 1
MHz

-80, 500 MHz

BW

-70, 10-50
MHz BW

-90, 5-10
MHz BW

-70 to -80

90

60

50-80

40-60

25-35

1.0 s
(1 octave)

.12 s
(200 MHz
band)

0.3 s
LO scan
time

0.5 ms
(integration
time)

50 ms

2-10 ms

~0.1 s

2.10ms

~1 s

20 (with
processor)

30

<20 (octave
unit)
65-75 (full
coverage)

60-75

35
(tuner
only)

1309-200
for 0.5
to 18 GHz
coverage

25

29-55

Size /
Minimum
Volume (in)

Small
300
(w/processor)

Small
375

Sm/Moderate
600-1000
~100
miniaturized

Moderate
1500-3000

Moderate
Several
thousand

Large
4000-8000
(0.5-18 GHz
coverage

Moderate
1200-2000

Small
800-1900

Minimum
Power
(W)

100 (with
processor) <10
without
processor

60 (without
processor)

~50
(octave
unit)

150

150
(tuner
only)

350 to 1200
for 0.5 to
18 GHz
coverage

70-80

200

Cost

Low

Low/
Moderate

Moderate

Moderate/
High

Moderate/
High

High

Moderate/
High

Low/
Moderate

5-3.5

RADAR MODES
Typical Radar modes are listed below in the general functional category for which they were designed. Not all of
these modes are applicable to all radars and certain radars have additional modes.
C NAVIGATION
Terrain avoidance - A mode in which the radar is set at a fixed depression angle and short range to continuously
sweep the ground area directly in front of the aircraft in order to avoid mountains. This is particularly useful during flight
into unfamiliar territory when clouds, haze, or darkness obscure visibility.
Ground mapping - A mode in which the radar uses a variety of techniques to enhance ground features, such as
rivers, mountains and roads. The mode is unlike air-to-air modes where ground return is rejected from the display.
Precision velocity update / Doppler navigation - A mode in which the radar again tracks ground features, using
Doppler techniques, in order to precisely predict aircraft ground speed and direction of motion. Wind influences are taken
into account, such that the radar can also be used to update the aircraft inertial navigation system.
C FIGHTER MISSIONS
Pulse search - Traditional pulse techniques are used to accurately determine range, angle, and speed of the target.
Limitations are easy deception by enemy jamming, and less range when compared to other modes.
Velocity search - A high PRF Pulse Doppler waveform is used for long range detection primarily against nose
aspect targets, giving velocity and azimuth information. Although velocity search can work against tail-on targets, the
Doppler return is weaker, consequently the maximum detection range is also much less. When the target is in the beam
(flying perpendicular to the fighter), the closure (Doppler) is the same as ground return and target return is almost zero.
Track While Scan (TWS) - A system that maintains an actual track on several aircraft while still searching for
others. Since the radar is sharing it's computing time between targets, the accuracy is less precise than for a single target
track (STT) mode of operation.
Raid assessment - A mode in which the radar has an STT on a single target, but is routinely driven off by a small
amount in order to determine if multiple aircraft exists in the immediate vicinity of the target aircraft.
Single-Target-Track (STT) (including air combat maneuvering modes) - Highly precise STT modes are used to
provide the most accurate information to the fire control computer so that accurate missile or gun firing can be accomplished. The fire control radar continuously directs energy at the target so that the fired missile locates and tracks on the
reflected energy from the target. Air combat maneuvering modes are automatic modes in which the radar has several sweep
patterns fixed about the aircraft axis, such that little or no work is required of the pilot in order to lock up a target.
C AIR-TO-GROUND MISSIONS
Weapons delivery - A mode in which ground features are tracked, and particular emphasis is placed on determining
range to the ground target, angle of dive, weapons ballistic tables, and aircraft speed.
Surveillance/tracking of ground forces/targets - Similar to the above with emphasis on multiple ground features
and less on weapons delivery data.
Reconnaissance - A specific navigational mode to aid in identifying specific targets.
C AIR-TO-SURFACE MISSIONS
ASW - Navigational techniques specializing in specific search patterns to aid in detection of enemy submarines.
5-4.1

GENERAL RADAR DISPLAY TYPES

There are two types of radar displays in common use today.
RAW VIDEO
Raw video displays are simply oscilloscopes that display the detected and amplified target return signal (and the
receiver noise). Raw video displays require a human operator to interpret the various target noise and clutter signals.
On the left hand display of Figure 1, an operator could readily identify three targets and a ghost (a ghost is a phony
target that usually fades in and out and could be caused by birds, weather, or odd temporary reflections - also referred to
as an angel). Target 3 is a weak return and hidden in the noise - an operator can identify it as a target by the "mouse under
the rug" effect of raising the noise base line.
SYNTHETIC VIDEO
Synthetic video displays use a computer to clean up the display by eliminating noise and clutter and creating it's
own precise symbol for each target.
On the right hand display target 1 comes and goes because it is barely above the receiver noise level - notice that
it is quite clear on the raw video. Target 3 wasn't recognized by the computer because it's to far down in the noise. The
computer validated the ghost as a target. The ghost might be a real target with glint or ECM characteristics that were
recognized by the computer but not the operator.

TGT 1

TGT 2

ANGEL
TGT 3 (GHOST)

ANGEL (GHOST) - see text

TGT 3

TGT 2

NOISE

TGT 1

RAW VIDEO
SYNTHETIC VIDEO
Figure 1. Radar Display Types

5-5.1

SEARCH AND ACQUISITION RADARS

They generally use either a PPI or a sector PPI display as shown in Figure 2. PPI displays can be either raw video
or synthetic video.
PPI scope (plan position indicator).
Polar plot of direction and distance.
Displays all targets for 360 degrees.
Sector PPI scope.
Polar plot of direction and distance.
Displays all targets within a specific sector.
Origin may be offset so that "your" radar position may be off the scope.

TRACKING RADARS
Usually use some combination of A, B, C, or E scope displays. There are many other types of displays that have
been used at one time or another - including meters - but those listed here are the most common in use today.
0E

270E

R
A
N
G
E

Azimuth
0
Target

90E

Target

180E

PPI
A
M
P
L
I
T
U
D
E

SECTOR PPI

Target
Noise

R
A
N
G
E

Target

RANGE or VELOCITY

(+)
(-)
0
AZIMUTH / ELEVATION

A-SCOPE

B-SCOPE / E-SCOPE

E
L
E
V
A
T
I
O
N

Figure 2. Common Radar Displays

5-5.2

Target

AZIMUTH

C-SCOPE

A-SCOPE
Target signal amplitude vs range or velocity.
Displays all targets along pencil beam for selected range limits.
Displays tracking gate. Usually raw video. Some modern radars have raw video a-scopes as an adjunct
to synthetic video displays.
Must be used with a separate azimuth and elevation display of some sort.
Also called a range scope (R-Scope).

B-SCOPE
Range vs azimuth or elevation. Displays targets within selected limits.
Displays tracking gate. May be raw or synthetic video.
Surface radars usually have two. One azimuth/one elevation which can result in confusion with multiple
targets.
C-SCOPE
Azimuth vs elevation. Displays targets within selected limits of az and el.
Displays tracking gate. May display bull's-eye or aim dot.
May have range indicator inserted typically as a marker along one side. Usually synthetic video.
Pilots eye view and very common in modern fighter aircraft heads up displays for target being tracked.
Could be used in any application where radar operator needs an "aiming" or "cross hair" view like a rifle
scope.
E-SCOPE
Elevation vs Range similar to a B-scope, with elevation replacing azimuth.

5-5.3

IFF - IDENTIFICATION - FRIEND OR FOE

Originated in WWII for just that purpose - a way for our secondary radars to identify U.S. aircraft from enemy aircraft by
assigning a unique identifier code to U.S. aircraft transponders.
The system is considered a secondary radar system since it operates completely differently and independently of the primary
radar system that tracks aircraft skin returns only, although the same CRT display is frequently used for both.
The system was initially intended to distinguish between enemy and friend but has evolved such that the term "IFF"
commonly refers to all modes of operation, including civil and foreign aircraft use.
There are four major modes of operation currently in use by military aircraft plus one submode.
C
Mode 1 is a nonsecure low cost method used by ships to track aircraft and other ships.
C
Mode 2 is used by aircraft to make carrier controlled approaches to ships during inclement weather.
C
Mode 3 is the standard system also used by commercial aircraft to relay their position to ground controllers
throughout the world for air traffic control (ATC).
C
Mode 4 is secure encrypted IFF (the only true method of determining friend or foe)
C
Mode "C" is the altitude encoder.
The non-secure codes are manually set by the pilot but assigned by the air traffic controller.
A cross-band beacon is used, which simply means that the interrogation pulses are at one frequency and the reply pulses
are at a different frequency. 1030 MHz and 1090 MHz is a popular frequency pair used in the U.S.
The secondary radar transmits a series of selectable coded pulses. The aircraft transponder receives and decodes the
interrogation pulses. If the interrogation code is correct, the aircraft transponder transmits a different series of coded pulses
as a reply.
The advantage of the transponder is that the coded pulses "squawked" by the aircraft transponders after being interrogated
might typically be transmitted at a 10 watt ERP, which is much stronger than the microwatt skin return to the primary radar.
Input power levels may be on the order of several hundred watts.
The transponder antenna is low gain so that it can receive and reply to a radar from any direction.
An adjunct to the IFF beacon is the altitude encoding transponder known as mode C - all commercial and military aircraft
have them, but a fair percentage of general aviation light aircraft do not because of cost. The number of transponder
installations rises around many large metropolitan areas where they are required for safety (easier identification of aircraft
radar tracks).
Air traffic control primary radars are similar to the two dimensional search radar (working in azimuth and range only) and
cannot measure altitude.
The expanded display in figure 1 is typical of an air traffic control IFF response. The aircraft was told to squawk a four
digit number such as "4732". The altitude encoded transponder provides the aircraft altitude readout to the ground
controllers display along with the coded response identifying that particular aircraft.

5-6.1

F1

Receiver

F2

Decode

Transmitter

TRANSPONDER
F1

Receiver

F2

Decode

Transmitter

Display

Select
Code

INTERROGATOR
Figure 1. IFF Transponder

5-6.2

RECEIVER TESTS
Two tone and spurious response (single signal) receiver tests should be performed on EW and radar receivers to
evaluate their spurious free dynamic range. A receiver should have three ranges of performance: (1) protection from
damage, (2) degraded performance permitted in the presence of a strong interfering signal(s) and no degradation when only
a strong desired signal is present, and (3) full system performance.
The original MIL-STD-461A design requirement and its companion MIL-STD-462 test requirement specified four
receiver tests. These standards allowed the interfering signal(s) to be both inband and out of band, which is meaningful for
design and test of EW receivers, however inband testing generally is not meaningful for narrowband communications
receivers. These standards were difficult to follow and had to be tailored to properly evaluate the EW and radar system.
MIL-STD-461B/C still allowed the interfering signal(s) to be both inband and out of band but deleted the single signal
interference test (CS08 Conducted Susceptibility test). MIL-STD-461D/-462D leave the pass/fail criteria entirely up to
what is listed in the individual procurement specification. It also places all interfering signals out of band, redesignates each
test number with a number "100" higher than previously used, and combines "CS08" as part of CS104. Therefore, to
provide meaningful tests for EW and radar systems, the procurement specification must specify the three ranges of
performance mentioned in the beginning of this section and that the tests are to be performed with the interfering signal(s)
both inband and out of band. The four tests are as follows (listed in order of likelihood to cause problems):
Test Name

MIL-STD-461A

MIL-STD-461D

Undesired, Single signal interference test

Desired with undesired, two signal interference tests
Two signal intermodulation test
Two signal cross modulation test

CS08
CS04
CS03
CS05

Part of CS104
CS104
CS103
CS105

The rest of this section explains the application of these tests and uses the names of the original MIL-STD461A tests to separate the tests by function.
F

Frequency Source

1
TEST SETUP
Directional
Isolator
A directional coupler used
Coupler
To Receiver
B
Being Tested
backwards (as shown here in Figure 1) is an
F1 + F 2
-10 dB
C
A
easy way to perform two signal tests. The
F
2
CW signal should be applied to the coupling
Directional
Coupler
-20 dB
arm (port B) since the maximum CW signal
To Spectrum Analyzer
level is -10 dBm. The pulse signal should
be applied to the straight-through path (port
Figure 1. Receiver Test Setup When Antenna Can Be Removed
C) since the maximum pulse level is +10
dBm peak. These power levels are achievable with standard laboratory signal generators, therefore one doesn't have to
resort to using amplifiers which may distort the signals. Always monitor the output signal to verify spectrally pure
signals are being applied to the test unit.
This can be accomplished by another
F Frequency Source
1
To Spectrum Analyzer
directional coupler used in the standard
Isolator
configuration. Dissimilar joints or damaged
B
F1 + F 2
-10 dB
C
or corroded microwave components can
A
F2
cause mixing. This can also result if the two
To Receiver
with active
Directional
signal generators are not isolated from one
antenna
Coupler
another. Therefore, even if a directional
coupler is used to monitor the signal line, it
Figure 2. Receiver Test Setup When Antenna Is Active

5-7.1

is still advisable to directly measure the input to the receiver whenever there is a suspected receiver failure. This test
does not need to be performed in an EMI shielded room and is more suitable for a radar or EW lab where the desired
signals are readily available. If the receiver's antenna is active or cannot be removed, a modified test as shown in
Figure 2 should be performed. The monitoring antenna which is connected to the spectrum analyzer should be the same
polarization as the antenna for the receiver being tested. Amplifiers may be required for the F1 and F2 signals. It is
desirable to perform this test in an anechoic chamber or in free space.
In the following discussion of CS08, CS04, CS03, and CS05 tests, it is assumed that when the receive light
illuminates, the receiver identifies a signal that matches parameters in the User Data File (UDF) or pre-programmed list
of emitter identification parameters. If a receiver is different, the following procedures will have to be appropriately
tailored. If the UDF does not have entries for very low level signals in the 10% and 90% regions of each band,
complete testing is not possible. Most problems due to higher order mixing products and adjacent band leakage are
only evident in these regions. In the following tests, the lowest level where the receive light is constantly on is used to
identify the minimum receive level. If a receiver has a receive level hysteresis or other idiosyncracy, then using a 50%
receive light blinking indicator may be more appropriate. Whatever technique is appropriate, it should be consistently
used during the remainder of the test. The maximum frequency for testing is normally 20 GHz. If a millimeter wave
receiver is being tested, the maximum frequency should be 110 GHz.
CS08 - UNDESIRED, SINGLE SIGNAL INTERFERENCE TEST
MIL-STD-461B/C (EMI design requirements) deleted this test. MIL-STD-461D allows a single signal test as
part of CS104 (CS04) but specifies it as an out of band test. The original CS08 inband and out of band test is still
needed and is the most meaningful test for wide band EW receivers which have a bandwidth close to an octave. This
test will find false identification problems due to 1) lack of RF discrimination, 2) higher order mixing problems, 3)
switch or adjacent channel/band leakage, and 4) cases where the absence of a desired signal causes the receiver to
search and be more susceptible. In this latter case, a CS04 two signal test could pass because the receiver is captured
by the desired signal, whereas a CS08 test could fail. Examples of the first three failures are as follows:
EXAMPLE 1
0 dB

A 2 to 4 GHz receiver which uses video

detection (e.g., crystal video) and doesn't measure RF is
used for this example. This receiver assumes that if the
correct Pulse Repetition Interval (PRI) is measured, it is
from a signal in the frequency band of interest. Three
cases can cause false identification. Refer to Figure 3.
(1) Region A&C. The 2 to 4 GHz band pass
filter will pass strong signals in regions A&C. If they
have the correct PRI, they will also be identified.

- dB
B

A
2

C
4

D
9

Frequency (GHz)

Figure 3. Frequency Areas in a Sample 2-4 GHz Receiver

(2) Region B. Any other signal besides the desired signal in the 2 to 4 GHz region that has the correct PRI
will also be identified as the signal of interest.
(3) Region D. Band pass filters with poor characteristics tend to pass signals with only limited attenuation at
frequencies that are three times the center frequency of the band pass filter. If these signals have the correct PRI, they
will be incorrectly identified.
High duty cycle signals (CW or pulse doppler) in regions A, B, C, and D may overload the processing of signals,
saturate the receiver, or desensitize the receiver. This case is really a two signal CS04 test failure and will be addressed
in the CS04 section.
5-7.2

EXAMPLE 2

Mixer

A receiver measuring the carrier frequency of each pulse (i.e. instantaneous

frequency measurement (IFM)) and the PRI is used for this example. False signal
identification can occur due to higher order mixing products showing up in the
receiver pass bands. These unwanted signals result from harmonics of the input RF
mixing with harmonics of the Local Oscillator (LO). Refer to Figures 4 and 5.

RF
8 to 10 GHz

IF
2 to 4 GHz

LO
6 GHz

Figure 4. Low Side Mixing

Mixers are nonlinear devices and yield the sum, difference, and the original
signals. Any subsequent amplifier that is saturated will provide additional mixing products.
If a 8.5 GHz signal with a 1 kHz PRI is programmed to be
identified in the UDF, measurements are made at the 2.5 GHz
Intermediate Frequency (IF), i.e., RF-LO = IF = 8.5-6 = 2.5 GHz.
The same 2.5 GHz signal can result from an RF signal of 9.5
GHz due to mixing with the second harmonic of the LO i.e., 2 X 6 9.5 = 2.5 GHz. This signal will be substantially attenuated
(approximately 35 dB) when compared to the normal IF of 9.5 - 6 =
3.5 GHz. If the receiver has filters at the IF to reduce the signal
density and a filter has minimum insertion loss at 2.5 GHz and
maximum insertion loss at 3.5 GHz, then only the low level 2.5 GHz
signal will be measured and assumed to be due to a 8.5 GHz input
signal whereas the input is really at 9.5 GHz.

IF
4

LO = 6 GHz
Desired
IF = RF-LO

3
Undesired
IF = 2LO-RF
2
8

9
Correct
UDF
Signal

10 RF
Extraneous
Signal

Figure 5. Low Side Mixing Results

Table 1. Intermodulation
Product Suppression
Harmonic of
LO
RF
1
1
2
1
3
1
1
2
2
2
3
2
1
3
2
3
3
3
1
4
2
4
1
5
3
5
1
6
2
6
1
7
3
7
Courtesy Watkins-Johnson

Suppression
0
)P-41
2)P-28
-35
)P-39
2)P-44
-10
)P-32
2)P-18
-35
)-39
-14
2)P-14
-35
)P-39
-17
2)P-11

Spurious intermodulation products can also

result from high side mixing, but generally the
suppression of undesired signals is greater. In this
case, the LO is at a frequency higher than the RF
input. This is shown in Figures 6 and 7.
As previously mentioned, the amplitude of
intermodulation products is greatly
reduced from that of the original
IF
signals. Table 1 shows rule of thumb
4
approximate suppression (reduction),
where )P = PRF(dBm) - PLO(dBm).
As can be seen, the strength of the LO
3
is a factor. The higher the LO power,
the more negative the suppression
becomes.
If one assumes the maximum
RF power for full system performance
is +10 dBm and the LO power level is
+20 dBm, then )P = -10 dB minimum.
Therefore in this example, the 3RF2LO mixing product would be 2)P 44 = - 20 - 44 = -64 dB when
5-7.3

Mixer
RF
8 to 10 GHz

IF
2 to 4 GHz

LO
12 GHz

Figure 6. High Side Mixing

LO = 12 GHz
Undesired
IF = 3RF-2LO
Desired
IF = LO-RF

2
8

9
Extraneous
Signal

10 RF
Correct
UDF
Signal

Figure 7. High Side Mixing Byproducts

compared to the desired mixing product.

5-7.4

The use of double mixing, as shown in Figure 8, can significantly reduce unwanted signals but it is more
expensive. For a 8 GHz signal in, one still generates a 2 GHz IF but by mixing up, then down, unwanted signals are not
generated or significantly suppressed.

Hi Mixer

Hi Mixer
IF

RF
8 to 10 GHz

X
15 to 13 GHz

Band
Pass
Filter

Final IF
X
2 to 4 GHz

LO
23 GHz
IF
15

LO
17 GHz
IF
4

LO = 23 GHz
Desired
IF = LO-RF

14

LO = 17 GHz
Desired
IF = LO-RF

13

2
8

10 RF

13

14

15 RF

Figure 8. Double Mixing

Some of these problems can be corrected by :
(1) always having LOs on the high side versus low side of the input RF (but this is more expensive),
(2) using double mixing
(3) software programming the receiver to measure for the potential stronger signal when a weak signal is
measured in a certain IF region, and
(4) improved filtering of the LO input to the mixer and the output from the mixer.
EXAMPLE 3
If the same receiver discussed in example 2 had additional bands (Figure 9) and used a switch at the IF to select
individual bands, a strong signal in an adjacent band could be inadvertently measured because:
(1) the switch, which may have 80 dB of isolation when measured outside the circuit, may only have 35 dB
isolation when installed in a circuit because of the close proximity of input and output lines,
(2) the strong signal in one band may have the same IF value that is being sought in an adjacent band, and
(3) the additional parameters such as PRI may be the same.

5-7.5

As shown in Figure 9, assume that in

band 2 we are looking for a 4.5 GHz signal that
has a PRI of 1 kHz. Measurements are made at an
IF of 3.5 GHz since LO-RF = IF = 8-4.5 = 3.5
GHz. If a 6.5 GHz signal is applied to band 3, its
IF also equals 3.5 since LO-RF = 10-6.5 = 3.5
GHz. If this is a strong signal, has a PRI of 1
kHz, and there is switch leakage, a weak signal
will be measured and processed when the switch is
pointed to band 2. The receiver measures an IF of
3.5 GHz and since the switch is pointed to band 2,
it scales the measured IF using the LO of band 2
i.e., LO-IF = RF = 8-3.5 = 4.5 GHz. Therefore, a
4.5 GHz signal is assumed to be measured when a
6.5 GHz signal is applied. Similarly this 6.5 GHz
signal would appear as a weak 3.5 GHz signal
from band 1 or a 9.5 GHz signal from band 4.

Directional Coupler
2 to 4
Band 1
4 to 6
Band 2

2 to 4

All Frequencies in GHz

2 to 4

X
LO=8

6 to 8
Band 3

IF
Processing

2 to 4

LO=10
8 to 10
Band 4

2 to 4

LO=6 *
* Use of low side LO was done to emphasize a CS08 problem

Figure 9. Multi Band Receiver with Common IF

In performing this test it is important to map the entries of the UDF for each band i.e., show each resulting IF, its PRI,
and the sensitivity level that the receive light is supposed to illuminate, i.e., if a test in one band used a PRI
corresponding to a PRI in another band where the receive threshold is programmed to not be sensitive this will negate
the effectiveness of a cross coupling test. Mapping the UDF will facilitate applying a strong signal to one band using
the PRI of a desired signal in an adjacent band.
CS08 TEST PROCEDURE
Assume that the receiver band is 2 to 4 GHz
as shown in Figure 10. Pick the UDF entry that has
the greatest sensitivity. UDF #1 entry is for a 3.05
GHz signal with a PRI of 1 kHz. If the test signal is
set for the UDF #1 PRI, a receive light will also occur
at the frequencies of UDF #2 if it also has the same
PRI (this is not a test failure). If adjacent bands don't
also have entries with the same PRI, then the test
should be repeated for the band being tested with at
least one of the adjacent band PRI values.

0 dB

- dB

UDF #1

UDF #2

2 GHz

4 GHz

Frequency

Figure 10. Receiver Band with Multiple UDF Entries

(1) Set the receiver or jammer to the receive
mode, verify it is working for UDF #1 and record Po,
the minimum signal level where the receive light is constantly on.
(2) Raise this signal to its maximum specified level for full system performance. If a maximum level is not
specified, use +10 dBm peak for a pulse signal or -10 dBm for a CW signal.
(3) Tune this strong RF signal outside the UDF #1 range and record any RF frequency where the receive light
comes on. If another inband UDF has the same PRI, this is not a failure.

5-7.6

(4) This test is performed both inband and out of band. Out of band tests should be performed on the high end
to five times the maximum inband frequency or 20 GHz, whichever is less, and on the low end to IF/5 or 0.05 F0,
whichever is less, unless otherwise specified. The out of band power level is +10 dBm peak for a pulse signal or -10
dBm for a CW signal, unless otherwise specified.
(5) If a receive light comes on when it is not supposed to, record the RF and reduce the power level to where
the receive light just stays on constantly. Record this level P1. The interference rejection level is P1-P0= PIR
(6) Repeat this test for each type of signal the receiver is supposed to process, i.e. pulse, PD, CW, etc.
CS04 - DESIRED WITH UNDESIRED, TWO SIGNAL INTERFERENCE TEST
The intent is for a weak desired signal to be received in the presence of an adjacent CW signal. The desired
signal is kept tuned at minimal power level and a strong unmodulated signal is tuned outside the UDF region. Radar
and EW receivers without preselectors are likely to experience interference when this test is performed inband.
Receivers with nonlinear devices before their passive band pass filter, or filters that degrade out of band, are likely to
experience susceptibility problems when this test is performed out of band.
Tests performed inband - An unmodulated CW signal is used. If the receiver is supposed to handle both pulsed
and CW signals, this test is performed inband. If the pulse receiver is supposed to desensitize in order to only process
pulse signals above the CW level, then only this limited function is tested inband i.e., normally the levels correspond, if
a CW signal of -20 dBm is present, then the receiver should process pulse signals greater than -20 dBm.
CS04 TEST PROCEDURE
FL

(1) As shown in Figure 11, initially the pulse

signal is tuned to F0 and the minimum receive level P0
is recorded, i.e., minimum level where the receive light
is constantly on.

0 dB

(2) The pulse signal is raised to the maximum

specified level for full system performance and tuned
on either side of F0 to find the frequencies on both
sides (FHigh and FLow) where the receive light goes
out. If a maximum pulse power level is not specified,
then +10 dBm peak is used.

- dB

FO

FH

Strong CW
Signal
Weak
Pulse
Signal

2 GHz

UDF #1

4 GHz

Frequency
Figure 11. CS04 Test Signals

In some receivers FL and FH are the band skirts.

(3) The pulse signal is returned to the level found in step 1. A CW signal at the maximum specified CW
power level for full system performance is tuned above FH and below FL. If a maximum CW power level is not
specified, then -10 dBm is used. Anytime the receive light is lost, the tuned CW RF value is recorded. The CW signal
should be turned off to verify that the pulse signal can still be received in the absence of interference. If the pulse signal
is still being received, then the interfering CW signal should be reapplied and decreased to the lowest power level where
the receive light stays on constantly. Record this level P1. The interference rejection level is P1 - P0 = PIR.
(4) Out of band tests should be performed to five times the maximum inband frequency or 20 GHz, whichever
is less, and on the low end to IF/5 or 0.05 F0, whichever is less, unless otherwise specified. The out of band CW power
level is -10 dBm unless otherwise specified.
5-7.7

Failures - Out of band test

(1) If a non-linear device such as a limiter is placed before a band pass filter, a strong out of band signal can
activate the limiter and cause interference with the inband signal. The solution is to place all non-linear or
active devices after a passive band pass filter.
(2) Band pass filters with poor characteristics tend to pass signals with only limited attenuation at frequencies
that are three times the center frequency of the band pass filter. Passage of a CW or high duty cycle signal that
is out of band may desensitize or interfere with the processing of a weak inband signal.

CS03 INTERMODULATION TEST

This two signal interference test places a pulse signal far enough away (f) from the desired UDF frequency
(F0) that it won't be identified. A CW signal is initially placed 2f away. If an amplifier is operating in the saturated
region, these two signals will mix and produce sum and difference signals. Subsequent mixing will result in a signal at
the desired UDF frequency F0 since F1 - (F2-F1) = F0. These two signals are raised equally to strong power levels. If no
problem occurs, the CW signal is tuned to the upper inband limit and then tuned out of band. A similar test is
performed below F0.
CS03 TEST PROCEDURES
f
F1-High

F 1-Low FO

(1) Set the receiver or jammer to the receive

mode. Verify it is working at a desired signal
frequency, (F0), and record the minimum signal level
i.e., lowest level where the receive light is constantly
on (record this level P0).

0 dB

- dB

(2) The modulated signal is raised to the

maximum specified level for full system performance
and tuned on either side of F0 to find the frequency F1
on both sides where the receive light goes out. If a
maximum power level is not specified, +10 dBm peak
is used. The difference between F1 and F0 is f as
shown in Figure 12.

2 GHz

UDF #1

4 GHz

Frequency
Figure 12. Initial CS03 Test Signal

(3) As shown in Figure 13, a pulse signal is

tuned to F1 and a CW signal is tuned to F2 where
F2 = F1 + f on the high side. The power level of the
two signals is initially set to P0 and raised together
until the maximum specified levels for full system
performance are reached. If maximum power levels
are not specified, then +10 dBm peak is used for the
pulse signal and -10 dBm is used for the CW signal.
Whenever the receive light comes on, the two signals
should be turned off individually to verify that the
failure is due to a combination of the two signals
versus (1) a single signal (CS08) type failure or (2)
another inband UDF value has been matched. If the

2f
f
FO

F1

F2

0 dB
CW

Pulse

- dB
2 GHz

UDF #1

4 GHz

Frequency
Figure 13. CS03 Testing Signal
5-7.8

failure is due to the two signal operation, then the power level (P1 and P2) of F1 and F2 should be recorded. If P1=P2,
the intermodulation rejection level is P1-P0=PIM. If P1P2, it is desirable to readjust them to be equal when the receive
light just comes on.
(4) Once the F1 + F2 signals are raised to the maximum power test levels described in step 3 without a failure,
then F2 is tuned to the upper limit of the band. F2 should also be tuned out of band to five times the maximum inband
frequency or 20 GHz whichever is less unless otherwise specified. The out of band power level is -10 dBm unless
otherwise specified. Whenever the receive light comes on, F2 should be turned off to verify that the failure is due to a
two signal test. If it is, turn F2 back on and equally drop the power levels of F1 and F2 to the lowest level where the
receive light just comes on. Record the power levels (P1 and P2).
(5) Step 3 is repeated where F1 is f below F0 and F2=F1-f. Step 4 is repeated except F2 is tuned to the lower
limit of the band. F2 should also be tuned out of band down to 0.1 F0, unless otherwise specified.
(6) Normally if a failure is going to occur it will occur with the initial setting of F1 and F2. Care must be taken
when performing this test to ensure that the initial placements of F1 and F2 do not result in either of the signals being
identified directly.

As shown in Figure 14, if F1 was placed at 3.2 GHz it

would be identified directly and if F2 was placed at 3.4 GHz it
would be identified directly. Whereas, if F1 was at 3.1 GHz and F2
was at 3.2 GHz neither interfering signal would be identified
directly but their intermodulation may result in an improper
identification at F0. Later when F2 is tuned higher, the receive light
will come on around 3.4 GHz and 3.6 GHz. This is not a test
failure just a case of another inband UDF value being matched.

CW
Amplifier Saturated

High Pulse
Signal

Amplifier Linear

Amplifier Linear

CW

3 GHz
1K

3.2 GHz
1K

3.4 GHz
CW

3.6 GHz
CW

Figure 14. Sample UDF Entries

CS05 - CROSS MODULATION

Amplifier Linear

Pulse

F0

This two signal interference test places a weak CW

signal where the receiver is programmed for a pulse signal and
tunes a strong pulse signal elsewhere. As shown in Figure 15,
when an amplifier is saturated, lower level signals are
suppressed. When an amplifier is operated in the linear region
all signals receive the rated linear gain. In this test the pulse
signal will cause the amplifier to kick in and out of saturation
and modulate the weak CW signal. The receiver may measure
the modulation on the CW signal and incorrectly identify it as a
pulse signal.

Figure 15. Cross Modulation Example

5-7.9

CS05 TEST PROCEDURE

(1) Initially the pulse signal is tuned to F0 and
the minimum power level P0 where the receive light is
constantly on is recorded.

FL

FO

FH

0 dB
Strong Pulse Signal
(No response)

(2) As shown in Figure 16, the signal is

raised to the maximum specified level for full system
performance for a pulse signal and tuned on either side
of F0 to find the frequencies on both sides, (FHigh and
FLow) where the receive light goes out. If a maximum
pulse power level is not specified, then +10 dBm peak
is used.

- dB

Weak Pulse Signal

(With Response)

2 GHz

UDF #1

4 GHz

Frequency

Figure 16. Initial CS05 Test Signals

(3) The pulse signal from step 2 is turned off
and a second signal is placed at F0. It is a CW signal
that is 10 dB stronger than the peak power level (P0) measured is step 1. The receive light should not come on.
(4) As shown in Figure 17, the strong pulse signal of step 2 is turned back on and tuned above FH and then
tuned below FL. Out of band tests should be performed to the maximum RF of the system + maximum IF or 20 GHz
whichever is less and on the low end to the minimum RF of the system minus the maximum IF, unless otherwise
specified.
(5) If a receive light occurs, turn off the weak
CW signal since the "failure" may be due to the tuned
pulsed signal, i.e. a CS08 failure or another inband
UDF value has been matched.

FL

FO

FH

0 dB
Strong Pulse Signal

If the light extinguishes when the weak CW

signal is turned off, then turn the signal back on,
reduce the value of the high level pulse signal until the
minimum level is reached where the light stays on
constantly. Record this level as P1. The cross
modulation rejection level is P1-P0-10 dB = PCM.

- dB

Weak CW Signal
(10dB greater than oP )

2 GHz

UDF #1

4 GHz

Frequency
Figure 17. Final CS05 Test Signals

5-7.10

SIGNAL SORTING METHODS and DIRECTION FINDING

As shown in
Figure 1, signal processing
is basically a problem of
signal detection, emitter
parameter measurement
and correlation, emitter
sorting, identification, and
operator notification. The
ultimate goal of this
processing is to classify
radar signals by their
unique characteristics and
to use this data to identify
enemy radars operating in
the
environment,
determine their location or
direction, assess their
threat to friendly forces,
and
display
this
information
to
the
operator.

ELINT
Database
(Location)

Detect
Signal
Activity

De-interleave
(Sort) Signals

TYPICAL ESM/RWR SIGNAL PROCESSING

Threat UDF
Database
(Type)

Measure
AOA
Freq
PRI etc.

Display
Jammer

Determine
Signal Type and
Characteristics

Correlate
(Identification)

Action

Take Direct
CM Action

Chaff

Other
Determine
Location
(DF)

Record
Results

Figure 1. Signal Processing Steps

While not all electronic support measures (ESM) or radar warning receiver (RWR) systems perform every step in
this process, each completes some of them. For example, ESM systems seldom initiate direct CM action, while RWRs
sometimes do. Also ESM systems frequently record electronic data for future use, but few RWRs do. ESM systems place
more emphasis on accurate emitter location and hence direction finding capabilities, while RWRs usually give a rough
estimate of position/distance.
The typical emitter characteristics that an ESM system can measure for a pulse radar include the following data:
1. Radio Frequency (RF)
2. Amplitude (power)
3. Direction of Arrival (DOA) - also called Angle of Arrival (AOA)
4. Time of Arrival (TOA)
5. Pulse Repetition Interval (PRI)
6. PRI type
7. Pulse Width (PW)
8. Scan type and rate
9. Lobe duration (beam width)
However, this list is not comprehensive. Other emitter parameters are available which may be necessary to
characterize the threat system.
More sophisticated ESM systems can measure additional parameters, such as PRI modulation characteristics,
inter-and intra-pulse Frequency Modulation (FM), missile guidance characteristics (e.g., pattern of pulse spacing within
a pulse group), and Continuous Wave (CW) signals.

5-8.1

Still other parameters which can describe an electromagnetic wave but are currently not commonly used for
identification include polarization and phase. However, as threat emitters begin to use this data more frequently to avoid
jamming the more important they may become in identifying signals.
Some of the emitter characteristics which describe an electromagnetic wave are shown in Figure 2.
Polarization

Frequency

Ey

Waveshape
(Pulse width & interval)
and Amplitude

Ex

Phase
DOA
Time
A

These variables can be constant or time varying

Figure 2. Information Content of an Electromagnetic Wave

Table 1 illustrates the relative importance of several measured parameters during various stages of signal
processing.
Table 1. Importance of Emitter Parameters During Signal Processing
Parameter

Pulse Train
De-interleavement

Emitter
Identification

Intercept
Correlation

2
1
2
0
2
2
2
0
0

2
0
0
0
2
2
1
2
1

2
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
1

Frequency
Amplitude
Angle of Arrival
TOA
PRI
PRI type
PW
Scan rate and type
Lobe Duration
0 Not Useful

1 Some Use

2 Very Useful

Some emitter parameters can be measured using a single pulse; these parameters are referred to as monopulse
parameters. The monopulse parameters include RF, PW, DOA, amplitude and TOA. RF can be determined on a
pulse-by-pulse basis by receivers that can measure frequency. Frequency is very useful for emitter identification since most
radars operate at a single frequency. Most real-time systems measure pulse width instead of pulse shape because the latter
5-8.2

is much more difficult to characterize mathematically. Unfortunately, the apparent pulse width can be severely distorted
by reflections, and consequently, its usefulness for emitter identification is limited. DOA cannot be used for emitter
identification, but is excellent for sorting signals. A number of ESM systems use both frequency and DOA information
to distinguish the new signals from the old (that is, known) ones. Amplitude also cannot be used for emitter identification.
However, it can be used for sorting and for gross distance estimation using precompiled emitter's effective radiated power.
Moreover, amplitude in conjunction with TOA can be used to determine the emitter's scan characteristics.
Other emitter parameters such as PRI, guidance and scan characteristics can be determined only by analyzing a
group of pulses. All these parameters are useful for emitter identification; unfortunately, they require time for data
collection and analysis, and call for sophisticated signal processing algorithms.
The problem of signal recognition in real-time is complicated by two factors: modulation of the signals and the
very high pulse densities expected in the environment. Complex modulations (for example, inter-pulse RF modulation,
intra-pulse RF modulation and agile Pulse Repetition Frequencies (PRFs)) present a significant pattern recognition problem
for a number of ESM systems. It is expected that during some missions, hundreds of emitters will be transmitting
simultaneously in the same vicinity. Wide-open antenna/receiver combination systems may have to cope with up to a
million PPS. Even narrow-band receivers can expect data rates up to 100,000 PPS. At these rates, a single modern
computer cannot be expected to process all the pulses, derive the characteristics for all emitters and identify the emitters
in real-time. Other factors which encumber signal recognition include missing pulses, atmospheric noise and multiple
reflections of pulses.
Present RWRs are designed primarily to cope with stable emitters. A stable emitter is one whose frequency and
pulse repetition interval (PRI) remain relatively constant from pulse to pulse. The future threat will move steadily away
from the stable emitter towards agile emitters which vary their frequency and PRI characteristics. The first change in this
direction is towards the patterned agile emitter which varies its pulse and frequency parameters in accordance with a specific
pattern. Examples of patterned agile emitters are MTI radars which use staggered PRFs, pulse Doppler radars which change
frequency and PRF on a block-to-block basis, and certain frequency-agile radars whose transmitter frequency is
mechanically modulated in a systematic pattern (e.g., spin-tuned magnetron). The next step in this evolution is towards truly
agile emitters which change their frequency and PRF in a random manner on a pulse-to-pulse basis. One tempering factor
in this evolution is that radars which process Doppler must maintain a constant frequency for at least two consecutive
pulses.
In addition to agile frequency and PRI parameters, the future threat will be composed of a number of high-PRF
pulsed Doppler, burst-frequency, CW, pulse-compression, agile-beam, and LPI radars, which use pseudo-noise waveforms.
This conglomeration of radar types will cause a high signal density which must be segmented into a manageable data stream
by the use of both frequency and spatial filtering in the RWR. While frequency and PRI are good parameters for sorting
present-day non-agile emitters, they are poor or useless parameters for sorting agile emitters.
Angle of arrival is generally regarded as the best initial sorting parameter because it cannot be varied by the emitter
from pulse to pulse.

5-8.3

PASSIVE DIRECTION FINDING AND EMITTER LOCATION

Direction finding (DF) systems provide several important functions in modern EW systems. We have already
discussed the importance of measuring the emitter's bearing, or angle of arrival (AOA), as an invariant sorting
parameter in the deinterleaving of radar signals and in separating closely spaced communication emitters. In addition,
the conservation of jamming power in power-managed ECM systems depends on the ability of the associated ESM
system to measure the direction to the victim emitter. A function which is becoming increasingly important in defense
suppression and weapon delivery systems involves locating the emitter's position passively. This can be accomplished
from a single moving platform through successive measurements of the emitter's angular direction, or from multiple
platforms which make simultaneous angular measurements.
The emitter identification function requires identifying and associating consecutive pulses produced by the
same emitter in angle of arrival (AOA) and frequency. The AOA is a parameter which a hostile emitter cannot change
on a pulse-to-pulse basis. However, to measure the AOA of pulses which overlap in the time domain first requires
them to be separated in the frequency domain. The advanced ESM receivers which accomplish this function must
operate over several octaves of bandwidth while providing RMS bearing accuracies on the order of at least 2 degrees
with high POI and fast reaction time in dense signal environments.
There are basically three methods, depicted in
Figure 3, which allow the passive location of stationary
ground-based emitters from airborne platforms. These
are:

TRIANGULATION
Bearing

Bearing

1. The azimuth triangulation method where the

intersection of successive spatially displaced bearing
measurements provides the emitter location;

AZIMUTH / ELEVATION
Depression
Angle

2. The azimuth/elevation location technique, which

provides a single-pulse instantaneous emitter location
from the intersection of the measured azimuth/elevation
line with the earth's surface; and

Altitude
Bearing

TIME DIFFERENCE OF ARRIVAL

3. The time difference of arrival (TDOA), or precision

emitter location system (PELS) method, which
measures the difference in time of arrival of a single
pulse at three spatially remote locations.

3
T3

T1

Additional methods include:

T2

1
2

Figure 3. Passive Emitter Location Techniques

1. Phase rate of change, which is similar to
triangulation, except it makes calculations using the phase derivative.

2. Angle distance techniques, where the distance from the emitter is derived from the signal strength (with known
"threat" characteristics).
3. RF Doppler processing, which measures Doppler changes as the aircraft varies direction with respect to the
"target" radar.

5-8.4

The relative advantages and disadvantages of each are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Emitter Location Techniques
Measurement Technique

Advantages

Disadvantages

Triangulation

Single Aircraft

Non-Instantaneous Location;
Inadequate Accuracy for Remote Targeting;
Not Forward Looking

Azimuth/Elevation

Single Aircraft;
Instantaneous Location
Possible

Accuracy Degrades Rapidly at Low Altitude;

Function of Range

Time Difference of
Arrival (Pulsed Signals)

Very High Precision,

Very Complex, At Least 3 Aircraft; High Quality

Receivers; DME (3 Sites);
Very Wideband Data Link;
Very High Performance
Control Processor;
Requires Very High Reliability Subsystems.
Requires common time reference and correlation
operation for non-pulse signals.

Can Support Weapon

Delivery Position
Requirements
Very Rapid, Can Handle
Short On-Time Threat

The triangulation method has the advantage of using a single aircraft, and its accuracy is greatest for a long
baseline and the broadside geometry. The accuracy degenerates as the aircraft heading line approaches the boresight to
the emitter.
The azimuth/elevation technique also has the advantage of using a single aircraft, but suffers from the
difficultness of making an accurate elevation measurement with limited vertical aperture and in the presence of
multipath effects.
The TDOA technique requires multiple aircraft and is complex, but has high potential accuracy. The
determination of the location of the site involves the solution of at least two simultaneous second order equations for the
intersection of two hyperbolas which represent T2 - T1 = Constant #1 and T3 - T2 = Constant #2. This method can be
used to obtain a fix for an emitter which radiates only a single pulse.
ANGLE-OF-ARRIVAL (AOA) MEASUREMENTS
Several of the above DF measurements require AOA determination. Threat AOA measurements are also
required to inform the aircrew in order to position the aircraft for optimal defense.
As shown in Figure 4, angle-of-arrival measuring systems fall into three main system categories of:
1. Scanning beam
2. Amplitude comparison or Simultaneous-multiple-beam
3. Phased Interferometer techniques

5-8.5

C Scanning Beam
- Slow Response
- Low Probability of Intercept

Bearing

C Amplitude Comparison
- Very Common, Low Cost
- Small Size
- Relatively Low Resolution
- One RF Path per Band/Sector

A1

A2

A2

A3

Bearing

DOA = f(A2/A3)

C Phased Interferometer or Array

- Very High Resolution
- High Cost
- Larger Size
- 3-5 Antennas/RF Paths per
Band/Sector
- Conformal Arrays Possible

or

DOA = f() Phase)

Figure 4. Angle-of-Arrival Measurement Techniques

Scanning Beam
The mechanically scanning beam, or "spinner," requires only a single receiver and also exhibits high sensitivity
due to the use of a directive antenna. The disadvantage is that the "spinner" usually exhibits slow response because it
must rotate through the coverage angle (e.g., 360 degrees) to ensure that it intercepts an emitter. Also, if the emitter
uses a scanning directional antenna, both beams must point at each other for maximum sensitivity, which is a low
probability occurrence. Both of these effects cause the mechanically scanning beam technique to have a low probability
of intercept (POI).
Amplitude Comparison
The two primary techniques used for direction finding are the amplitude-comparison method and the
interferometer or phase-comparison method. The phase-comparison method generally has the advantage of greater
accuracy, but the amplitude-comparison method is used extensively due to its lower complexity and cost. Regardless of
which technique is used, it should be emphasized that the ultimate rms angular accuracy is given by:

)2 '

k2B
SNR ,

where 2B is the antenna's angular beamwidth,

is the signal-to-noise ratio.
or interferometer lobe width, and SNR

Thus, phase interferometers that typically use very widebeam antennas require high signal-to-noise ratios to
achieve accurate angle-of-arrival measurements. Alternately, a multi-element array antenna can be used to provide
relatively narrow interferometer lobes, which require modest signal-to-noise ratios.
Virtually all currently deployed radar warning receiving (RWR) systems use amplitude-comparison direction
finding (DF). A basic amplitude-comparison receiver derives a ratio, and ultimately angle-of-arrival or bearing, from a
pair of independent receiving channels, which utilize squinted antenna elements that are usually equidistantly spaced to
provide an instantaneous 360E coverage. Typically, four or six antenna elements and receiver channels are used in such
5-8.6

systems, and wideband logarithmic video detectors provide the signals for bearing-angle determination. The monopulse
ratio is obtained by subtraction of the detected logarithmic signals, and the bearing is computed from the value of the
ratio.
Amplitude comparison RWRs typically use broadband cavity-backed spiral antenna elements whose patterns
can be approximated by Gaussian-shaped beams. Gaussian-shaped beams have the property that the logarithmic
output ratio slope in dB is linear as a function of angle of arrival. Thus, a digital look-up table can be used to determine
the angle directly. However, both the antenna beamwidth and squint angle vary with frequency over the multi-octave
bands used in RWRs. Pattern shape variations cause a larger pattern crossover loss for high frequencies and a reduced
slope sensitivity at low frequencies. Partial compensation of these effects, including antenna squint, can be
implemented using a look-up table if frequency information is available in the RWR. Otherwise, gross compensation
can be made, depending upon the RF octave band utilized.
Typical accuracies can be expected to range from 3 to 10 degrees rms for multi-octave frequency band
amplitude-comparison systems which cover 360 degrees with four to six antennas.
The four-quadrant amplitude-comparison DF systems employed in RWRs have the advantage of simplicity,
reliability, and low cost. Usually, only one antenna per quadrant is employed which covers the 2 to 18 GHz band. The
disadvantages are poor accuracy and sensitivity, which result from the broad-beam antennas employed. Both accuracy
and sensitivity can be improved by expanding the number of antennas employed. For example, expanding to eight
antennas would double the accuracy and provide 3 dB more gain. As the number of antennas increases, it becomes
appropriate to consider multiple-beam-forming antennas rather than just increasing the number of individual antennas.
The geometry of multiple-beam-forming antennas is such that a conformal installation aboard an aircraft is difficult.
Therefore, this type of installation is typically found on naval vessels or ground vehicles where the space is available to
accommodate this type of antenna.
Simultaneous-multiple-beam (amplitude comparison)
The simultaneous-multiple-beam system uses an antenna, or several antennas, forming a number of
simultaneous beams (e.g., Butler matrix or Rotman lens), thereby retaining the high sensitivity of the scanning antenna
approach while providing fast response. However, it requires many parallel receiving channels, each with full
frequency coverage. This approach is compatible with amplitude-monopulse angular measuring techniques which are
capable of providing high angular accuracy.
A typical example of a multiple-beam antenna is a 16-element circular array developed as part of a digital ESM
receiver. This system covers the range from 2 to 18 GHz with two antenna arrays (2 to 7.5 GHz and 7.5 to 18 GHz),
has a sensitivity of -55 to -60 dBm and provides an rms bearing accuracy of better than 1.7 degrees on pulsewidths
down to 100 ns.
Phased Interferometer Techniques
The term interferometer generally refers to an array type antenna in which large element spacing occurs and
grating lobes appear.
Phase interferometer DF systems are utilized when accurate angle-of-arrival information is required. They
have the advantage of fast response, but require relatively complex microwave circuitry, which must maintain a precise
phase match over a wide frequency band under extreme environmental conditions. When high accuracy is required (on
the order of 0.1 to 1E), wide baseline interferometers are utilized with ambiguity resolving circuitry. The basic
geometry is depicted in Figure 5, whereby a plane wave arriving at an angle is received by one antenna earlier than the
other due to the difference in path length.
5-8.7

The time difference can be expressed as a phase difference:

N = T)J = 2Ba(f/c) = 2B (d sin 2)/8,

ANTENNA
BORESIGHT

where 2 is the angle of arrival,

d is the antenna separation, and
8 is the wavelength in compatible units.

LINE OF SIGHT
TO EMITTER

SIN 2 =
a

a
d

The unambiguous field of view (FOV) is given by 2 = 2

sin-1 (B/2d), which for 8/2 spacing results in 180E coverage. This
spacing must be established for the highest frequency to be
received.
Interferometer elements typically use broad antenna beams
with beamwidths on the order of 90E. This lack of directivity
produces several adverse effects. First, it limits system sensitivity
due to the reduced antenna gain. Secondly, it opens the system to
interference signals from within the antenna's broad angular
coverage. The interference signals often include multipath from
strong signals which can limit the accuracy of the interferometer.

RECEIVER
NO. 2

RECEIVER
NO. 1

N DETECTOR
Figure 5. Phase Interferometer Principle

In an interferometer, the locus of points that produce the

same time or phase delay forms a cone. The indicated angle is the true azimuth angle multiplied by the cosine of the
elevation angle. The error in assuming the incident angle to be the azimuth angle is negligible for signals near the
antenna's boresight. At 45E azimuth and 10E elevation, the error is less than 1E, increasing to 15E for both at 45E.
Two orthogonal arrays, one measuring the azimuth angle and the other the elevation angle can eliminate this error. For
targets near the horizon, the depression angle is small, thereby requiring only horizontal arrays.
The rms angular accuracy of an interferometer in radians is given by:

F2 ' )" / (B@ SNR), where )" = 8/(d@cos2) is the separation between adjacent nulls.
For a two-element interferometer, the spacing (d) must be 8/2 or less to provide unambiguous, or single lobe
90E, coverage. This, in effect, sets a wide interferometer (or grating) lobe which must be split by a large factor to
achieve high accuracy. This, in turn, imposes a requirement for high SNR to achieve the large beam-splitting factor.
For example, if 0.1E accuracy is required from an unambiguous two-element interferometer, then a SNR of about 50 dB
is required to achieve this accuracy. This may be difficult to achieve considering the inherently low sensitivity of an
interferometer system.
When high accuracy is required from an interferometer system, it is usual to employ separations greater than
8/2. The increased separation sets up a multi-grating-lobe structure through the coverage angle which requires less SNR
to achieve a specified accuracy. For example, a two-element interferometer with 168 spacing would set up a 33grating-lobe structure (including the central lobe) throughout the 90E coverage angle. Within each of the 33 grating
lobes, it would only require a SNR on the order of 20 dB to achieve 0.1E accuracy. However, there would be 33
ambiguous regions within the 90E angular coverage and also 32 nulls (where the phase detector output is zero), about
which the system would be insensitive to an input signal. The ambiguities could be resolved by employing a third
antenna element with 8/2 spacing, which would provide an accuracy on the order of 3E with 20 dB SNR. This accuracy
is sufficient to identify which of the 33 lobes contains the signal. Providing coverage in the null regions requires
additional antenna elements.
Interferometers employing multiple antenna elements are called multiple-baseline interferometers. In a typical
design, the receiver consists of a reference antenna and a series of companion antennas. The spacing between the
5-8.8

reference element and the first companion antenna is 8/2; other secondary elements are placed to form pairs separated
by 1, 2, 4, and 8 wavelengths. The initial AOA is measured unambiguously by the shortest-spaced antenna pair. The
next greatest spaced pair has a phase rate of change which is twice that of the first, but the information is ambiguous
due to there being twice as many lobes as in the preceding pair. A greater phase rate of change permits higher angular
accuracy while the ambiguity is resolved by the previous pair. Thus, the described multiple-baseline interferometer
provides a binary AOA measurement where each bit of the measurement supplies a more accurate estimate of the
emitter's AOA.
Harmonic multiple-baseline interferometers use elements which are spaced at 2n@8/2, with n = 0, 1, 2, 3. In
nonharmonic interferometers, no pair of antennas provides a completely unambiguous reading over the complete field
of view. For example, the initial spacing in the nonharmonic interferometer might be 8, while the next companion
element spacing is 38/2. Ambiguities are resolved by truth tables, and hence the accuracy is set by the spacing of the
widest baseline antenna pair. Nonharmonic interferometers have been implemented over 9:1 bandwidths (2 to 18 GHz)
with rms accuracies from 0.1 to 1E and with no ambiguities over 90E. The principal advantage of the nonharmonic
over the harmonic interferometer is the increased bandwidth for unambiguous coverage.
Interferometer DF accuracy is determined by the widest baseline pair. Typical cavity-backed spirals, track to 6
electrical degrees, and associated receivers track to 9E, resulting in an rms total of 11E. At a typical 16 dB SNR, the
rms phase noise is approximately 9 electrical degrees. For these errors and an emitter angle of 45E, a spacing of 258 is
required for 0.1E rms accuracy while a spacing of 2.58 is needed for 1E accuracy. For high accuracy, interferometer
spacings of many feet are required. In airborne applications, this usually involves mounting interferometer antennas in
the aircraft's wingtips.
The characteristics of typical airborne amplitude comparison and phase interferometer DF systems are
summarized in Table 3. The phase interferometer system generally uses superheterodyne receivers which provide the
necessary selectivity and sensitivity for precise phase measurements.
Table 3. Direction Of Arrival Measurement Techniques
Sensor Configuration

Amplitude Comparison
Typically 4 to 6 Equispaced Antenna
Elements for 360E Coverage

22BW )CdB (Gaussian Shape)

24S

DF Accuracy

DFACC .

DF Accuracy
Improvement
Typical DF Accuracy
Sensitivity to Multipath/
Reflections
Platform Constraints

Decrease Antenna BW; Decrease

Amplitude Mistrack; Increase Squint Angle
3E to 10E rms
High Sensitivity; Mistrack of Several dB
Can Cause Large DF Errors
Locate in Reflection Free Area

Applicable Receivers

Crystal Video; Channelizer; AcoustoOptic; Compressive; Superheterodyne

)CdB = Amplitude Monopulse Ratio in dB

S = Squint Angle in degrees

5-8.9

Phase Interferometer
2 or more RHC or LHC Spirals in Fixed
Array
DFACC =

8
)2
2Bd cos 2

Increase Spacing of Outer Antennas;

Decrease Phase Mistrack
0.1E to 3E rms
Relatively Insensitive; Interferometer Can
Be Made to Tolerate Large Phase Errors
Reflection Free Area; Real Estate For
Array; Prefers Flat Radome
Superheterodyne

2BW = Antenna Beamwidth in degrees

MICROWAVE WAVEGUIDES and COAXIAL CABLE

In general, a waveguide consists of a hollow metallic
tube of arbitrary cross section uniform in extent in the
direction of propagation. Common waveguide shapes are
rectangular, circular, and ridged. The rectangular waveguide
has a width a and height b as shown in figure 1. Commonly
used rectangular waveguides have an aspect ratio b/a of
b
approximately 0.5. Such an aspect ratio is used to preclude
generation of field variations with height and their attendant
unwanted modes. Waveguides are used principally at
a
frequencies in the microwave range; inconveniently large
guides would be required to transmit radio-frequency power
at longer wavelengths. In the X-Band frequency range of 8.2
Figure 1. The Rectangular Waveguide
to 12.4 GHz, for example, the U.S. standard rectangular
waveguide, WR-90, has an inner width of 2.286 cm (0.9 in.) and an inner height of 1.016 cm (0.4 in.).
In waveguides the electric and magnetic fields are confined to the space within the guides. Thus no power is lost
to radiation. Since the guides are normally filled with air, dielectric losses are negligible. However, there is some I2R power
lost to heat in the walls of the guides, but this loss is usually very small.
It is possible to propagate several modes of electromagnetic
waves within a waveguide. The physical dimensions of a waveguide
TE 10
E Field
determine the cutoff frequency for each mode. If the frequency of the
Relative Magnitude
impressed signal is above the cutoff frequency for a given mode, the
electromagnetic energy can be transmitted through the guide for that
particular mode with minimal attenuation. Otherwise the electromagnetic
energy with a frequency below cutoff for that particular mode will be
TE 20
attenuated to a negligible value in a relatively short distance. This
grammatical use of cutoff frequency is opposite that used for coaxial
cable, where cutoff frequency is for the highest useable frequency. The
Waveguide Cross Section
dominant mode in a particular waveguide is the mode having the lowest
cutoff frequency. For rectangular waveguide this is the TE10 mode. The
TE (transverse electric) signifies that all electric fields are transverse to
TE 30
the direction of propagation and that no longitudinal electric field is
present. There is a longitudinal component of magnetic field and for this
reason the TEmn waves are also called Hmn waves. The TE designation is
usually preferred. Figure 2 shows a graphical depiction of the E field
Figure 2. TE modes
variation in a waveguide for the TE10, TE20, and TE30 modes. As can be
seen, the first index indicates the number of half wave loops across the
width of the guide and the second index, the number of loops across the height of the guide - which in this case is zero. It
is advisable to choose the dimensions of a guide in such a way that, for a given input signal, only the energy of the dominant
mode can be transmitted through the guide. For example, if for a particular frequency, the width of a rectangular guide is
too large, then the TE20 mode can propagate causing a myriad of problems. For rectangular guides of low aspect ratio the
TE20 mode is the next higher order mode and is harmonically related to the cutoff frequency of the TE10 mode. It is this
relationship together with attenuation and propagation considerations that determine the normal operating range of
rectangular waveguide.
The discussion on circular waveguides will not be included because they are rarely used in the EW area.
Information regarding circular waveguides can be found in numerous textbooks on microwaves.
6-1.1

CHARACTERISTICS OF STANDARD RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDES

Rectangular waveguides are commonly used for power transmission at microwave frequencies. Their physical
dimensions are regulated by the frequency of the signal being transmitted. Table 1 tabulates the characteristics of the
standard rectangular waveguides. It may be noted that the number following the EIA prefix "WR" is in inside dimension
of the widest part of the waveguide, i.e. WR90 has an inner dimension of 0.90".
DOUBLE RIDGE RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE
A

Another type of waveguide commonly used in EW systems

is the double ridge rectangular waveguide. The ridges in this
waveguide increase the bandwidth of the guide at the expense of
E
F
D
B
higher attenuation and lower power-handling capability. The
bandwidth can easily exceed that of two contiguous standard
waveguides. Introduction of the ridges mainly lowers the cutoff
frequency of the TE10 mode from that of the unloaded guide, which
C
is predicated on width alone. The reason for this can easily be
explained when the field configuration in the guide at cutoff is
Figure 3. Double Ridge Waveguide
investigated. At cutoff there is no longitudinal propagation down the (Table 2 Lists Dimensions A, B, C, D, E, & F)
guide. The waves simply travel back and forth between the side walls
of the guide. In fact the guide can be viewed as a composite parallel plate waveguide of infinite width where the width corresponds to the direction of propagation of the normal guide. The TE10 mode cutoff occurs where this composite guide has
its lowest-order resonant frequency. This occurs when there is only one E field maximum across the guide which occurs
at the center for a symmetrical ridge. Because of the reduced height of the guide under the ridge, the effective TE10 mode
resonator is heavily loaded as though a shunt capacitor were placed across it. The cutoff frequency is thus lowered
considerably. For the TE20 mode the fields in the center of the guide will be at a minimum. Therefore the loading will have
a negligible effect. For guides of proper aspect ratio, ridge height, and ridge width, an exact analysis shows that the TE10
mode cutoff can be lowered substantially at the same time the TE20 and TE30 mode cutoffs are raised slightly. Figure 3
shows a typical double ridged waveguide shape and Table 2 shows double ridged waveguide specifications. In the case of
ridged waveguides, in the EIA designation, (WRD350 D36) the first "D" stands for double ridged ("S" for single ridged),
the 350 is the starting frequency (3.5 GHz), and the "D36" indicates a bandwidth of 3.6:1. The physical dimensions and
characteristics of a WRD350 D24 and WRD350 D36 are radically different. A waveguide with a MIL-W-23351 dash
number beginning in 2 (i.e. 2-025) is a double ridge 3.6:1 bandwidth waveguide. Likewise a 1- is a single ridge 3.6:1, a
3- is a single ridge 2.4:1, and a 4- is a double ridge 2.4:1 waveguide.
Figure 4 shows a comparison of the frequency /attenuation characteristics of various waveguides. The attenuation
is based on real waveguides which is higher than the theoretical values listed in Tables 1 and 2. Figure 5 shows attenuation
characteristics of various RF coaxial cables.

6-1.2

Figure 4. Attenuation vs Frequency for a Variety of Waveguides and Cables

6-1.3

Table 1. Rectangular Waveguide Specifications

Waveguide
Size

JAN WG
Desig

MIL-W-85
Dash #

Material

WR284

WR42

RG48/U
RG75/U
RG340/U
RG341/U
RG49/U
RG95/U
RG343/U
RG344/U
RG50/U
RG106/U
RG51/U
RG68/U
RG52/U
RG67/U
RG346/U
RG347/U
RG91/U
RG349/U
RG352/U
RG351/U
RG53/U

1-039
1-042
1-045
1-048
1-051
1-054
1-057
1-060
1-063
1-066
1-069
1-072
1-075
1-078
1-081
1-084
1-087
1-091
1-094
1-098
1-100

Copper
Aluminum
Copper
Aluminum
Copper
Aluminum
Copper
Aluminum
Copper
Aluminum
Copper
Aluminum
Copper
Aluminum
Copper
Aluminum
Copper
Aluminum
Copper
Aluminum
Copper

WR34

RG354/U

1-107

Copper

WR28

RG271/U

3-007

Copper

WR229
WR187
WR159
WR137
WR112
WR90
WR75
WR62
WR51

Freq
Range
(GHz)

Freq
Cutoff
(GHz)

2.60 3.95
3.30 4.90
3.95 5.85
4.90 7.05
5.85 8.20
7.05 10.0
8.2 12.4
10.0 15.0
12.4 18.0
15.0 22.0
18.0 26.5
2.0 33.0
26.5 40.0

2.08

Power
(at 1 Atm)
CW

Peak
7650

14.08

45
36
30
24
18
14.5
15
12
10
8
6
4.8
3
2.4
2.8
2.2
1.8
1.4
1.2
1
0.8

17.28
21.1

2.577
3.156
3.705
4.285
5.26
6.56
7.847
9.49
11.54

6-1.4

Insertion Loss
(dB/100ft)

Dimensions (Inches)
Outside
Wall
Thickness

170

.742-.508
1.116-.764
.946-.671
1.422-1.009
1.395-.967
2.097-1.454
1.533-1.160
2.334-1.744
1.987-1.562
2.955-2.348
2.776-2.154
4.173-3.238
4.238-2.995
6.506-4.502
5.121-3.577
7.698-5.377
6.451-4.743
9.700-7.131
8.812-6.384
13.250-9.598
13.80-10.13

0.6

140

16.86-11.73

0.420x0.250

0.04

0.5

100

23.02-15.77

0.360x0.220

0.04

5480
3300
2790
1980
1280
760
620
460
310

3.000x1.500

0.08

2.418x1.273

0.064

1.000x1.000

0.064

1.718x0.923

0.064

1.500x0.750

0.064

1.250x0.625

0.064

1.000x0.500

0.05

0.850x0.475

0.05

0.702x0.391

0.04

0.590x0.335

0.04

0.500x0.250

0.04

Table 2. Double Ridge Rectangular Waveguide Specifications

Waveguide
Size

MIL-W23351 Material
Dash #

Freq
Range
(GHz)

Freq
Cutoff
(GHz)

Alum
Brass
Copper
Silver Al

2.60 7.80

2.093

24

120

0.025
0.025
0.018
0.019

1.655 0.715

WRD250

Power
Insertion
(at 1 Atm) Loss (dB/ft)
CW Peak

Dimensions (Inches)
A

0.44

0.15

0.292

WRD350
D24

4-029
4-303
4-031

Alum
Brass
Copper

3.50 8.20

2.915

18

150

0.0307
0.0303
0.0204

1.48

0.688 1.608

0.816

0.37

WRD475
D24

4-033
4-034
4-035

Alum
Brass
Copper

4.75 11.00

3.961

85

0.0487
0.0481
0.0324

1.09

0.506

1.19

0.606

0.272 0.215

WRD500
D36

2-025
2-026
2-027

Alum
Brass
Copper

5.00 18.00

4.222

15

0.146
0.141
0.095

0.752 0.323 0.852

0.423

0.188 0.063

Alum
Brass
Copper

6.50 18.00

5.348

25

0.106
0.105
0.07

0.720 0.321 0.820

0.421

0.173 0.101

WRD650

WRD750
D24

4-037
4-038
4-039

Alum
Brass
Copper

7.50 18.00

6.239

4.8

35

0.0964
0.0951
0.0641

0.691 0.321 0.791

0.421

0.173 0.136

WRD110
D24

4-041
4-042
4-043

Alum
Brass
Copper

11.00 26.50

9.363

1.4

15

0.171
0.169
0.144

0.471 0.219 0.551

0.299

0.118 0.093

WRD180
D24

4-045
4-046
4-047

Alum
Brass
Copper

18.00 - 14.995 0.8

40.00

0.358
0.353
0.238

0.288 0.134 0.368

0.214

0.072 0.057

Figure 5. Attenuation vs Frequency for a Variety of Coaxial Cables

6-1.5

VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO (VSWR) / REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

RETURN LOSS / MISMATCH LOSS
When a transmission line is terminated with an impedance, ZL, that is not equal to the characteristic impedance of
the transmission line, ZO, not all of the incident power is absorbed by the termination. Part of the power is reflected back
so that phase addition and subtraction of the incident and reflected waves creates a voltage standing wave pattern on the
transmission line. The ratio of the maximum to minimum voltage is known as the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
and successive maxima and minima are spaced by 180E (8/2).

VSWR '

Emax
Emin

'

Ei%Er
Ei&Er

where Emax
Emin
Ei
Er

=
=
=
=

maximum voltage on the standing wave

minimum voltage on the standing wave
incident voltage wave amplitude
reflected voltage wave amplitude

The reflection coefficient, D, is defined as Er/Ei and in general, the termination is complex in value, so that D will
be a complex number.
Z & ZO
Additionally we define: ' ' L
The refection coefficient, D, is the absolute value of the magnitude of '.
ZL % Z O
If the equation for VSWR is solved for the reflection coefficient, it is found that:
Reflection
VSWR&1
Consequently, VSWR ' 1 %D
' D ' *'* '
Coefficient
VSWR%1
1 &D
The return loss is related through the following equations:
Pi

VSWR

Return
Loss (dB)

% Power /
Voltage Loss

Reflection
Coefficient

Mismatch
Loss (dB)

1
1.15
1.25
1.5
1.75
1.9
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
10
20
100
4

4
23.1
19.1
14.0
11.3
10.0
9.5
7.4
6.0
5.1
4.4
3.9
3.5
1.7
0.87
0.17
.000

0/0
0.49 / 7.0
1.2 / 11.1
4.0 / 20.0
7.4 / 27.3
9.6 / 31.6
11.1 / 33.3
18.2 / 42.9
25.1 / 50.0
30.9 / 55.5
36.3 / 60.0
40.7 / 63.6
44.7 / 66.6
67.6 / 81.8
81.9 / 90.5
96.2 / 98.0
100 / 100

0
0.07
0.111
0.200
0.273
0.316
0.333
0.429
0.500
0.555
0.600
0.636
0.666
0.818
0.905
0.980
1.00

0.000
.021
.054
.177
.336
.458
.512
.880
1.25
1.6
1.94
2.25
2.55
4.81
7.4
14.1
4

Er

Return
VSWR&1
' &20 logD
' 10 log
' &20 log
' &20 log
Loss
VSWR%1
Pr
Ei

Return loss is a measure in dB of the ratio of power in the incident

wave to that in the reflected wave, and as defined above always has a
positive value. For example if a load has a Return Loss of 10 dB, then
1/10 of the incident power is reflected. The higher the return loss, the
less power is actually lost.
Also of considerable interest is the Mismatch Loss. This is a measure
of how much the transmitted power is attenuated due to reflection. It
is given by the following equation:
Mismatch Loss = -10 log ( 1 -D2 )

* Divide % Voltage loss by 100 to obtain D (reflection coefficient)

For example, an antenna with a VSWR of 2:1 would have a reflection coefficient of 0.333, a mismatch loss of 0.51 dB, and
a return loss of 9.54 dB (11% of your transmitter power is reflected back). In some systems this is not a trivial amount and
points to the need for components with low VSWR.
If 1000 watts (60 dBm/30 dBW) is applied to this antenna, the return loss would be 9.54 dB. Therefore, 111.1 watts would
be reflected and 888.9 watts (59.488 dBm/29.488 dBW) would be transmitted, so the mismatch loss would be 0.512 dB.

6-2.1

Transmission
line
attenuation improves the
VSWR of a load or
antenna. For example, a
transmitting antenna with a
VSWR of 10:1 (poor) and a
line loss of 6 dB would
measure 1.5:1 (okay) if
measured at the transmitter.
Figure 1 shows this effect.

20
10
8
6
5
4
3

Example

2
1.7
1.5

1.3
Therefore, if you
are
interested
in
1.2
determining
the
1.1
performance of antennas,
1.08
the VSWR should always
Input
Load
Attenuator
Load
1.05
X dB
be measured at the antenna
VSWR
VSWR
1.03
connector itself rather than
1.02
at the output of the
1.01
1.02
1.04 1.06 1.08 1.1
1.2 1.3 1.4
1.6 1.8 2.0
transmitter.
Transmit
1.5:1
(Example)
Input VSWR
cabling will load the line
and create an illusion of
Figure 1. Reduction of VSWR by Attenuation
having a better antenna
VSWR. Transmission lines should have their insertion loss (attenuation) measured in lieu of VSWR, but VSWR
measurements of transmission lines are still important because connection problems usually show up as VSWR spikes.

Historically VSWR was measured by probing the transmission line. From the ratio of the maximum to minimum
voltage, the reflection coefficient and terminating impedance could be calculated. This was a time consuming process since
the measurement was at a single frequency and mechanical adjustments had to be made to minimize coupling into circuits.
Problems with detector characteristics also made the process less accurate. The modern network analyzer system sweeps
very large frequency bandwidths and measures the incident power, Pi, and the reflected power, Pr . Because of the
considerable computing power in the network analyzer, the return loss is calculated from the equation given previously, and
displayed in real time. Optionally, the VSWR can also be calculated from the return loss and displayed real time.
If a filter is needed on the output of a jammer, it is desirable to place it approximately half way between the jammer
and antenna. This may allow the use of a less expensive filter, or a reflective filter vs an absorptive filter.
Special cases exist when comparing open and shorted circuits. These two conditions result in the same 4 VSWR
and zero dB return loss even though there is a 180E phase difference between the reflection coefficients. These two
conditions are used to calibrate a network analyzer.

6-2.2

MICROWAVE COAXIAL CONNECTORS

For high-frequency operation, the average circumference of a coaxial cable must be limited to about one wavelength
in order to reduce multimodal propagation and eliminate erratic reflection coefficients, power losses, and signal distortion.
Except for the sexless APC-7 connector, all other connectors are identified as either male (plugs) which have a center
conductor that is a probe or female (jacks) which have a center conductor that is a receptacle. Sometimes it is hard to
distinguish them as some female jacks may have a hollow center "pin" which appears to be male, yet accepts a smaller male
contact. An adapter is an . zero loss interface between two connectors and is called a barrel when both connectors are
identical. Twelve types of coaxial connectors are described below, however other special purpose connectors exist,
including blind mate connectors where spring fingers are used in place of threads to obtain shielding (desired connector
shielding should be at least 90 dB). Figure 1 shows the frequency range of several connectors and Figure 2 shows most
of these connectors pictorially (. actual size).
1. APC-2.4 (2.4mm) - The 50 S APC-2.4 (Amphenol Precision Connector-2.4 mm) is also known as an OS-50
connector. It was designed to operate at extremely high microwave frequencies (up to 50 GHz).
2. APC-3.5 (3.5mm) - The APC-3.5 was originally developed by Hewlett-Packard (HP), but is now
manufactured by Amphenol. The connector provides repeatable connections and has a very low VSWR.
Either the male or female end of this 50 S connector can mate with the opposite type of SMA connector. The
APC-3.5 connector can work at frequencies up to 34 GHz.
3. APC-7 (7mm) - The APC-7 was also developed by HP, but has been improved and is now manufactured by
Amphenol. The connector provides a coupling mechanism without male or female distinction and is the most
repeatable connecting device used for very accurate 50 S measurement applications. Its VSWR is extremely
low up to 18 GHz. Other companies have 7mm series available.
4. BNC (OSB) - The BNC (Bayonet Navy Connector) was originally designed for military system applications
during World War II. The connector operates best at frequencies up to about 4 GHz; beyond that it tends to
radiate electromagnetic energy. The BNC can accept flexible cables with diameters of up to 6.35 mm (0.25
in.) and characteristic impedance of 50 to 75 S. It is now the most commonly used connector for frequencies
under 1 GHz.
5. SC (OSSC) - The SC coaxial connector is a medium size, older type constant 50 S impedance. It is larger than
the BNC, but about the same as Type N. It has a frequency range of 0-11 GHz.
6. C - The C is a bayonet (twist and lock) version of the SC connector.
7. SMA (OSM/3mm) - The SMA (Sub-Miniature A) connector was originally designed by Bendix Scintilla
Corporation, but it has been manufactured by the Omni-Spectra division of M/ACOM (as the OSM connector)
and many other electronic companies. It is a 50 S threaded connector. The main application of SMA
connectors is on components for microwave systems. The connector normally has a frequency range to 18
GHz, but high performance varieties can be used to 26.5 GHz.
8. SSMA (OSSM) - The SSMA is a microminiature version of the SMA. It is also 50 S and operates to 26.5
GHz with flexible cable or 40 GHz with semi-rigid cable.
9. SMC (OSMC) - The SMC (Sub-Miniature C) is a 50 S or 75 S connector that is smaller than the SMA. The
connector can accept flexible cables with diameters of up to 3.17 mm (0.125 in.) for a frequency range of up
to 7-10 GHz.
6-3.1

10. SMB (OSMB) - The SMB is like the SMC except it uses quick disconnect instead of threaded fittings. It is
a 50 / 75 S connector which operates to 4 GHz with a low reflection coefficient and is useable to 10 GHz.
11. TNC (OST) - The TNC (Threaded Navy Connector) is merely a threaded BNC. The function of the thread
is to stop radiation at higher frequencies, so that the connector can work at frequencies up to 12 GHz (to 18
GHz when using semi-rigid cable). It can be 50 or 75 S.
12. Type N (OSN) - The 50 or 75 S Type N (Navy) connector was originally designed for military systems during
World War II and is the most popular measurement connector for the frequency range of 1 to 11 GHz. The
precision 50 S APC-N and other manufacturers high frequency versions operate to 18 GHz.

Note: Always rotate the movable coupling nut of the plug, not the cable or fixed connector, when mating
connectors. Since the center pin is stationary with respect to the jack, rotating the jack puts torque on the center
pin. With TNC and smaller connectors, the center pin will eventually break off.

An approximate size comparison of these connectors is depicted below (not to scale).

Large ======================== Medium ======================= Small
SC
7mm N
TNC/BNC
3.5mm SMA 2.4mm SSMA

Note: Just because connectors can be

connected together, doesn't mean they
will work properly with respect to power
handling and frequency.

CONNECTOR TYPE
Figure 1. Frequency Range of Microwave Connectors

6-3.2

SMC

APC 2.4 Jack - APC 3.5 Jack

SMA Plug - TNC Plug

SC Jack - Type N Jack

Type N Jack - TNC Jack

SSMA Jack - BNC Jack

Type N Plug - TNC Jack

Figure 2. . Microwave Coaxial Connectors (Connector Orientation Corresponds to Name Below It)

SMC Plug - SMA Jack

Double ridge
Waveguide - SMA Jack

Standard
Waveguide - 7mm
7mm - 3.5mm Plug

Figure 2. Microwave Coaxial connectors (Continued)

6-3.3

POWER DIVIDERS AND DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS

A directional coupler is a passive device which
8/4
couples part of the transmission power by a known amount
Transmitted Port
P Input Port
out through another port, often by using two transmission 1
P2
2
1
lines set close enough together such that energy passing
Isolated Port
through one is coupled to the other. As shown in Figure 1, the P3 Coupled Port
P4
device has four ports: input, transmitted, coupled, and
4
3
isolated. The term "main line" refers to the section between
Figure 1. Directional Coupler
ports 1 and 2. On some directional couplers, the main line is
designed for high power operation (large connectors), while the coupled port may use a small SMA connector. Often the
isolated port is terminated with an internal or external matched load (typically 50 ohms). It should be pointed out that since
the directional coupler is a linear device, the notations on Figure 1 are arbitrary. Any port can be the input, (as in Figure
3) which will result in the directly connected port being the transmitted port, adjacent port being the coupled port, and the
diagonal port being the isolated port.
Physical considerations such as internal load on the isolated port will limit port operation. The coupled output from
the directional coupler can be used to obtain the information (i.e., frequency and power level) on the signal without
interrupting the main power flow in the system (except for a power reduction - see Figure 2). When the power coupled out
to port three is half the input power (i.e. 3 dB below the input power level), the power on the main transmission line is also
3 dB below the input power and equals the coupled power. Such a coupler is referred to as a 90 degree hybrid, hybrid, or
3 dB coupler. The frequency range for coaxial couplers specified by manufacturers is that of the coupling arm. The main
arm response is much wider (i.e. if the spec is 2-4 GHz, the main arm could operate at 1 or 5 GHz - see Figure 3). However
it should be recognized that the coupled response is periodic with frequency. For example, a 8/4 coupled line coupler will
have responses at n8/4 where n is an odd integer.
Common properties desired for all directional couplers are wide operational bandwidth, high directivity, and a good
impedance match at all ports when the other ports are terminated in matched loads. These performance characteristics of
hybrid or non-hybrid directional couplers are self-explanatory. Some other general characteristics will be discussed below.
COUPLING FACTOR
The coupling factor is defined as: Coupling factor (dB) ' &10 log

P3
P1

where P1 is the input power at port 1 and P3 is the output power from the coupled port (see Figure 1).
The coupling factor represents the primary property of a directional coupler. Coupling is not constant, but varies
with frequency. While different designs may reduce the variance, a perfectly flat coupler theoretically cannot be built.
Directional couplers are specified in terms of the coupling accuracy at the frequency band center. For example, a 10 dB
coupling 0.5 dB means that the directional coupler can have 9.5 dB to 10.5 dB coupling at the frequency band center.
The accuracy is due to dimensional tolerances that can be held for the spacing of the two coupled lines. Another coupling
specification is frequency sensitivity. A larger frequency sensitivity will allow a larger frequency band of operation.
Multiple quarter-wavelength coupling sections are used to obtain wide frequency bandwidth directional couplers. Typically
this type of directional coupler is designed to a frequency bandwidth ratio and a maximum coupling ripple within the
frequency band. For example a typical 2:1 frequency bandwidth coupler design that produces a 10 dB coupling with a 0.1
dB ripple would, using the previous accuracy specification, be said to have 9.6 0.1 dB to 10.4 0.1 dB of coupling across
the frequency range.

6-4.1

LOSS

30

In an ideal directional coupler, the main line

loss port 1 to port 2 (P1 - P2) due to power coupled
to the coupled output port is:

Insertion loss (dB) ' 10 log 1 &

P3
P1

25
Coupling Insertion
dB
Loss - dB
3
6
10
20
30

20

3.00
1.25
0.458
0.0436
0.00435

15
10
5

The actual directional coupler loss will be

0
0.01
0.1
1.0
a combination of coupling loss, dielectric loss,
Main Arm (Insertion) Loss - dB
conductor loss, and VSWR loss. Depending on the
frequency range, coupling loss becomes less
Figure 2. Coupling Insertion Loss
significant above 15 dB coupling where the other
losses constitute the majority of the total loss. A graph of the theoretical insertion loss (dB) vs coupling (dB) for a
dissipationless coupler is shown in Figure 2.
ISOLATION
Isolation of a directional coupler can be defined as the difference in signal levels in dB between the input port and
P
the isolated port when the two output ports are terminated by matched loads, or:
Isolation (dB) ' &10 log 4
P1
Isolation can also be defined between the two output ports. In this case, one of the output ports is used as the input;
the other is considered the output port while the other two ports (input and isolated) are terminated by matched loads.
P
Consequently:
Isolation (dB) ' &10 log 3
P2
The isolation between the input and the isolated ports may be different from the isolation between the two output
ports. For example, the isolation between ports 1 and 4 can be 30 dB while the isolation between ports 2 and 3 can be a
different value such as 25 dB. If both isolation measurements are not available, they can assumed to be equal. If neither
are available, an estimate of the isolation is the coupling plus return loss (see VSWR section). The isolation should be as
high as possible. In actual couplers the isolated port is never completely isolated. Some RF power will always be present.
Waveguide directional couplers will have the best isolation.
If isolation is high, directional couplers are
excellent for combining signals to feed a single line to a
receiver for two-tone receiver tests. In Figure 3, one signal
enters port P3 and one enters port P2, while both exit port
P1. The signal from port P 3 to port P 1 will experience 10
dB of loss, and the signal from port P2 to port P1 will have
0.5 dB loss. The internal load on the isolated port will
dissipate the signal losses from port P3 and port P2. If the
isolators in Figure 3 are neglected, the isolation
measurement (port P2 to port P3) determines the amount of
power from the signal generator F2 that will be injected into
the signal generator F1. As the injection level increases, it
may cause modulation of signal generator F1, or even
6-4.2

F1
P3

F1 + F2

Isolators (Section 6.7)

10 dB

P1

P2

Figure 3. Two-Tone Receiver Tests

F2

injection phase locking. Because of the symmetry of the directional coupler, the reverse injection will happen with the same
possible modulation problems of signal generator F2 by F1. Therefore the isolators are used in Figure 3 to effectively
increase the isolation (or directivity) of the directional coupler. Consequently the injection loss will be the isolation of the
directional coupler plus the reverse isolation of the isolator.
DIRECTIVITY
Directivity is directly related to Isolation. It is defined as:
Directivity (dB) ' &10 log

P4
P3

' &10 log

P4
P1

% 10 log

P3
P1

where: P3 is the output power from the coupled port and P4 is the power output from the isolated port.
The directivity should be as high as possible. Waveguide directional couplers will have the best directivity. Directivity is
not directly measurable, and is calculated from the isolation and coupling measurements as:
Directivity (dB) = Isolation (dB) - Coupling (dB)

HYBRIDS
The hybrid coupler, or 3 dB directional coupler, in which the two outputs are of equal amplitude takes many forms.
Not too long ago the quadrature (90 degree) 3 dB coupler with outputs 90 degrees out of phase was what came to mind
when a hybrid coupler was mentioned. Now any matched 4-port with isolated arms and equal power division is called a
hybrid or hybrid coupler. Today the characterizing feature is the phase difference of the outputs. If 90 degrees, it is a 90
degree hybrid. If 180 degrees, it is a 180 degree hybrid. Even the Wilkinson power divider which has 0 degrees phase
difference is actually a hybrid although the fourth arm is normally imbedded.
Applications of the hybrid include monopulse comparators, mixers, power combiners, dividers, modulators, and
phased array radar antenna systems.
AMPLITUDE BALANCE
This terminology defines the power difference in dB between the two output ports of a 3 dB hybrid. In an ideal
hybrid circuit, the difference should be 0 dB. However, in a practical device the amplitude balance is frequency dependent
and departs from the ideal 0 dB difference.
PHASE BALANCE
The phase difference between the two output ports of a hybrid coupler should be 0, 90, or 180 degrees depending
on the type used. However, like amplitude balance, the phase difference is sensitive to the input frequency and typically
will vary a few degrees.
The phase properties of a 90 degree hybrid coupler can be used to great advantage in microwave circuits. For
example in a balanced microwave amplifier the two input stages are fed through a hybrid coupler. The FET device normally
has a very poor match and reflects much of the incident energy. However, since the devices are essentially identical the
reflection coefficients from each device are equal. The reflected voltage from the FETs are in phase at the isolated port and
are 180E different at the input port. Therefore, all of the reflected power from the FETs goes to the load at the isolated port
and no power goes to the input port. This results in a good input match (low VSWR).

6-4.3

If phase matched lines are used for an antenna input

to a 180E hybrid coupler as shown in Figure 4, a null will
occur directly between the antennas. If you want to receive
a signal in that position, you would have to either change the
hybrid type or line length. If you want to reject a signal
from a given direction, or create the difference pattern for a
monopulse radar, this is a good approach.

0E

Sum

180E

Difference

Figure 4. Balanced Antenna Input

OTHER POWER DIVIDERS

Both in-phase (Wilkinson) and quadrature (90E) hybrid couplers
may be used for coherent power divider applications. The Wilkinson's
power divider has low VSWR at all ports and high isolation between
output ports. The input and output impedances at each port is designed
to be equal to the characteristic impedance of the microwave system. A
typical power divider is shown in Figure 5. Ideally, input power would be
divided equally between the output ports. Dividers are made up of
multiple couplers, and like couplers, may be reversed and used as
multiplexers. The drawback is that for a four channel multiplexer, the
output consists of only 1/4 the power from each, and is relatively
inefficient. Lossless multiplexing can only be done with filter networks.
Coherent power division was first accomplished by means of
simple Tee junctions. At microwave frequencies, waveguide tees have two
possible forms - the H-Plane or the E-Plane. These two junctions split
Figure 5. Power Divider
power equally, but because of the different field configurations at the
junction, the electric fields at the output arms are in-phase for the H-Plane tee and are anti-phase for the E-Plane tee. The
combination of these two tees to form a hybrid tee allowed the realization of a four-port component which could perform
the vector sum (E) and difference ()) of two coherent microwave signals. This device is known as the magic tee.

6-4.4

POWER COMBINERS
Since hybrid circuits are bi-directional, they can be used to split up a signal to feed multiple low power amplifiers,
then recombine to feed a single antenna with high power as shown in Figure 6. This approach allows the use of numerous
less expensive and lower power amplifiers in the circuitry instead of a single high power TWT. Yet another approach is
to have each solid state amplifier (SSA) feed an antenna and let the power be combined in space or be used to feed a lens
which is attached to an antenna. (See Section 3-4)
TYPICAL HYBRID SIGNAL ADDITION
+40 dB SOLID STATE AMPLIFIERS (SSAs)
(Voltage Gain of 100)
0E- 6dB

0E- 3dB

IN

IN

0E- 9dB

0E+31dB

90E- 9dB

90E+31dB

90E- 9dB

90E+31dB

180E- 9dB

180E+31dB

90E- 9dB

90E+31dB

180E- 9dB

180E+31dB

180E- 9dB

180E+31dB

270E- 9dB

270E+31dB

IN

90E+34dB

180E

Output
90E, 270E
Signals Cancel
Output
180E, 180E
Signals Add

180E+37dB

90E- 6dB

SIGNAL
INPUT

90E

IN

ANTENNA
OUTPUT

180E+34dB
90E- 3dB
90E- 6dB

IN

IN

270E+40dB

180E+34dB
270E+37dB

180E- 6dB

IN

270E+34dB

NOTE: All isolated ports of the hybrids have matched terminations. They have signals which are out of phase and cancel

Figure 6. Combiner Network

Sample Problem:
If two 1 watt peak unmodulated RF carrier signals at 10 GHz are received, how much peak power could one
measure?
The phase error could be due to a hybrid being used to combine the same signal received from two aircraft antennas.

A. 0 watts

Signal
A

B. 0.5 watts
C. 1 watt
D. 2 watts

Signal
B

E. All of these

Signal
A+B

The answer is all of

these as shown in
Figure 7.

If 180E out of phase, signals cancel

and there is zero watts received

If in phase, the signals add, so

there would be 2 watts received

Any other phase relationship will produce a

signal somewhere between 0 and 2 watts.
This shows signals that are 90E out of phase.

Figure 7. Sinewaves Combined Using Various Phase Relationships

6-4.5

ATTENUATORS / FILTERS / DC BLOCKS

ATTENUATORS
An attenuator is a passive microwave component which, when inserted in the signal path of a system, reduces the
signal by a specified amount. They normally possess a low VSWR which makes them ideal for reducing load VSWR in
order to reduce measurement uncertainties. They are sometimes used simply to absorb power, either to reduce it to a
measurable level, or in the case of receivers to establish an exact level to prevent overload of following stages.
Attenuators are classified as either fixed or variable and either reflective or non-reflective. The fixed and variable
attenuators are available in both waveguide and coaxial systems. Most of the receivers under 20 GHz use coaxial type
attenuators.
FIXED
The performance characteristics of a fixed attenuator are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

input and output impedances

flatness with frequency
average and peak power handling capability
temperature dependence

VARIABLE
The variable attenuator can be subdivided into two kinds: step attenuator and continuously variable attenuator.
In a step attenuator, the attenuation is changed in steps such as 10 dB, 1 dB or 0.5 dB. In a continuously variable attenuator,
the attenuation is changed continuously and a dial is usually available to read the attenuation either directly or indirectly
from a calibration chart.
For a variable attenuator, additional characteristics should be considered, such as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

amount or range of attenuations

insertion loss in the minimum attenuation position
incremental attenuation for step attenuator
accuracy of attenuation versus attenuator setting
attenuator switching speed and switching noise.

REFLECTIVE
A reflective attenuator reflects some portion of the input power back to the driving source. The amount reflected
is a function of the attenuation level. When PIN diodes are zero or reverse biased, they appear as open circuits when
shunting a transmission line. This permits most of the RF input power to travel to the RF output. When they are forward
biased, they absorb some input, but simultaneously reflect some back to the input port. At high bias current, most RF will
be reflected back to the input resulting in a high input VSWR and high attenuation.
ABSORPTIVE
The VSWR of a non-reflective (absorptive) PIN diode attenuator remains good at any attenuation level (bias state).
This is accomplished by configuring the diodes in the form of a Pi network that remains matched for any bias state or by
use of a 90E hybrid coupler to cancel the waves reflected to the input connector.
6-5.1

MICROWAVE FILTERS
INTRODUCTION
Microwave filters are one of the most important components in receivers. The main functions of the filters are:
(1) to reject undesirable signals outside the filter pass band and (2) to separate or combine signals according to their
frequency. A good example for the latter application is the channelized receiver in which banks of filters are used to
separate input signals. Sometimes filters are also used for impedance matching. Filters are almost always used before and
after a mixer to reduce spurious signals due to image frequencies, local oscillator feedthrough, and out-of-frequency band
noise and signals. There are many books which are devoted to filter designs. There are many kinds of filters used in
microwave receivers, so it is impossible to cover all of them.
If a filter is needed on the output of a jammer, it is desirable to place it approximately half way between the jammer
and antenna vs adjacent to either. The transmission line attenuation improves the VSWR of the filter at the transmitter.
This may allow use of a less expensive filter, or use of a reflective filter vs an absorptive filter.
A filter is a two-port network which will pass and reject signals according to their frequencies. There are four kinds
of filters according to their frequency selectivities. In the examples that follow, fL = low frequency, fM = medium frequency,
and fH = high frequency. Their names reflect their characteristics, and they are:
1. A low-pass filter which passes the low frequency signals below a predetermined value as shown in Figure 1.

Output
Strength

Input
Strength
0 dB

- dB

fL fM fH

f L f M fH
Frequency
Figure 1. Low-Pass Filter

6-5.2

fL fM fH

2. A high-pass filter which passes the high frequency signals above a predetermined value as in Figure 2.

Input
Strength

Output
Strength

0 dB

- dB

f L fM f H

fL fM fH
f L fM f H

Frequency
Figure 2. High-Pass Filter

3. A band-pass filter which passes signals between two predetermined frequencies as shown in Figure 3.

Output
Strength

Input
Strength
0 dB

- dB
f L fM fH

fL

fM

fH

Frequency

f L fM fH

Figure 3. Band-Pass Filter

A band-pass filter with different skirt slopes on the two sides of the pass band is sometimes referred to as an
asymmetrical filter. In this filter the sharpness of the rejection band attenuation is significantly different above and below
the center frequency. One additional note regarding band-pass filters or filters in general, their performance should always
be checked in the out-of-band regions to determine whether or not they posses spurious responses. In particular they should
be checked at harmonics of the operating frequency.

6-5.3

4. A band reject filter (sometimes referred to as a bandstop or notch filter) which rejects signals between two
predetermined frequencies such as high power signals from the aircraft's own radar as shown in Figure 4.

Input
Strength

0 dB

- dB
fL fM

fH

Output
Strength

fL

fM

fH

Frequency

fL fM

fH

Figure 4. Band-Reject Filter

In general, filters at microwave frequencies are composed of resonate transmission lines or waveguide cavities that,
when combined, reflect the signal power outside the filter frequency pass band and provide a good VSWR and low loss
within the frequency pass band. As such, specifications for filters are maximum frequency, pass band loss, VSWR, and
rejection level at a frequency outside of the pass band. The trade-offs for filters are a higher rejection for a fixed frequency
pass band or a larger frequency pass band for a fixed rejection, which requires a filter with more resonators, which produce
higher loss, more complexity, and larger size.

DC BLOCKS
DC Blocks are special connectors which have a capacitor (high pass
filter) built into the device. There are three basic types:
1. INSIDE - The high pass filter is in series with the center conductor
as shown in Figure 5. DC is blocked on the center conductor.
2. OUTSIDE - The high pass filter is in series with the cable shield
as shown in Figure 6.
3. INSIDE/OUTSIDE - A high pass arrangement is connected to
both the inner and outer conductors.

Figure 5. Inside DC Block

DC Blocks are ideal for filtering DC, 60 Hz, and 400 Hz from the RF line.
In general, capacitors with a large value of capacitance do not have the
least loss at microwave frequencies. Also, since capacitance is proportional
to size, a large size produces more capacitance with more inductance. Because
of these reasons, D.C. blocks are typically available with a high pass frequency
band starting in the region of 0.1 to 1 GHz.
Figure 6. Outside DC Block
6-5.4

TERMINATIONS / DUMMY LOADS

A termination is a one-port device with an impedance that matches the characteristic impedance of a given
transmission line. It is attached to a certain terminal or port of a device to absorb the power transmitted to that terminal
or to establish a reference impedance at that terminal. Important parameters of a termination are its VSWR and power
handling capacity. In a receiver, terminations are usually placed at various unconnected ports of components such as hybrid
and power dividers to keep the VSWR of the signal path low. It is extremely important that the isolated port in a directional
coupler and the unused port of a power divider (i.e., only three ports of a four-way power divider are used) be properly
terminated. All of the design considerations of directional couplers and power dividers are based on the fact that all ports
are terminated with matched loads. If an unused port is not properly terminated, then the isolation between the output ports
will be reduced which may severely degrade the performance of the receiver.
A termination is the terminology used to refer to a low power, single terminal device intended to terminate a
transmission line. Similar devices designed to accommodate high power are generally termed dummy loads.

TERMINATIONS:
Terminations are employed to terminate unconnected ports on devices when measurements are being performed.
They are useful as dummy antennas and as terminal loads for impedance measurements of transmission devices such as
filters and attenuators.
The resistive elements in most terminations are especially fabricated for use at microwave frequencies. Two types
are commonly employed: (1) resistive film elements, and (2) molded resistive tapers. The resistive film is very thin
compared to the skin depth and normally very short relative to wavelength at the highest operating frequency. The molded
taper consists of a dissipative material evenly dispersed in a properly cured dielectric medium. Both forms of resistive
elements provide compact, rugged terminations suitable for the most severe environmental conditions with laboratory
stability and accuracy.
Terminations should be properly matched to the characteristic impedance of a transmission line. The termination
characteristics of primary concern are:
a. operating frequency range
b. average power handling capability
c. operating temperature range

d. VSWR
e. size
f. weight

Many microwave systems employ directional couplers which require terminations on at least one port, and most
have various modes of operation or test where terminations are needed on certain terminals.
A matched termination of a generalized transmission line is ideally represented by an infinite length of that line
having small, but non-zero loss per unit length so that all incident energy is absorbed and none is reflected.
Standard mismatches are useful as standards of reflection in calibrating reflectometer setups and other impedance
measuring equipment. They are also used during testing to simulate specific mismatches which would be encountered on
the terminals of components once the component is installed in the actual system. The following table shows common
mismatches with the impedance that can provide the mismatch.

6-6.1

Common Mismatches (ZO = 50 S)

Ratio

ZL (higher)

ZL (lower)

1.0 : 1

50 S (matched)

50 S (matched)

1.25 : 1

62.5 S

40 S

1.50 : 1

75 S

33.3 S

2.00 : 1

100 S

25 S

DUMMY LOADS
A dummy load is a high power one port device intended to terminate a transmission line. They are primarily
employed to test high power microwave systems at full power capacity. Low power coaxial loads are generally termed
terminations and typically handle one watt or less.
Most radars or communications systems have a dummy load integrated into them to provide a non-radiating or
EMCON mode of operation, or for testing (maintenance).
Three types of dissipative material are frequently employed in dummy loads: (1) lossy plastic, (2) refractory, and
(3) water.
The lossy plastic consists of particles of lossy material suspended in plastic medium. This material may be
designed to provide various attenuations per unit length but is limited as to operating temperature. It is employed primarily
for low power applications.
The refractory material is a rugged substance that may be operated at temperatures up to 1600EF. It is virtually
incapable of being machined by ordinary means but is often fabricated through diamond wheel grinding processes.
Otherwise material must be fired in finished form. Such material is employed in most high power applications.
The dissipative properties of water are also employed for dummy load applications. Energy from the guide is
coupled through a leaky wall to the water which flows alongside the main guide. Water loads are employed for extremely
high power and calorimetric applications.
While dummy loads can operate over full waveguide bands, generally a more economical unit can be manufactured
for use over narrower frequency ranges.
The power rating of a dummy load is a complex function dependent upon many parameters, including average and
peak power, guide pressure, external temperature, guide size, air flow, and availability of auxiliary coolant. The average
and peak powers are interrelated in that the peak power capacity is a function of the operating temperature which in turn
is a function of the average power.

6-6.2

CIRCULATORS AND DIPLEXERS

A microwave circulator is a nonreciprocal ferrite device which
contains three or more ports. The input from port n will come out at port n +
1 but not out at any other port. A three-port ferrite junction circulator, usually
called the Y-junction circulator, is most commonly used. They are available
in either rectangular waveguide or strip- line forms. The signal flow in the
three-port circulator is assumed as 1v2, 2v3, and 3v1 as shown in Figure 1.

1
3

If port 1 is the input, then the signal will come out of port 2; in an
ideal situation, no signal should come out of port 3 which is called the isolated
port. The insertion loss of the circulator is the loss from 1 to 2, while the loss
from 1 to 3 is referred to as isolation. A typical circulator will have a few
tenths of a dB insertion loss from port 1 to 2 and 20 dB of isolation from port
1 to 3 for coaxial circulators (30 dB or more for waveguide circulators). When
the input is port 2, the signal will come out of port 3 and port 1 is the isolated
port. Similar discussions can be applied to port 3.

Figure 1. Symbolic Expression for a

Y-Junction Circulator

Since circulators contain magnets, they should not be mounted near ferrous metals
since the close proximity of metals like iron can change the frequency response.

As shown in Figure 2, if one port of a circulator is loaded, it

becomes an isolator, i.e. power will pass from ports one to two, but
power reflected back from port two will go to the load at port three
versus going back to port one.
2

Figure 2. Isolator From A Circulator

As shown in Figure 3 this circulator is made into a
diplexer by adding a high pass filter to port two. Frequencies
from port one that are below 10 GHz will be reflected by
port two. Frequencies above 10 GHz will pass through port
two. At the 10 GHz crossover frequency of the diplexer, a
10 GHz signal will be passed to both ports two and three but
will be half power at each port. Diplexers or triplexers (one
input and three output bands), must be specifically designed
for the application.

INPUT
8 to 12 GHz

OUTPUT

2
HIGH PASS
FILTER

8 to 10 GHz

Filter could be a
piece of waveguide
which passes
above 10 GHz

10 to 12 GHz
OUTPUT

Figure 3. Diplexer From A Circulator

6-7.1

Another useful device is the

4-port Faraday Rotator Circulator
shown symbolically in Figure 4. These
waveguide devices handle very high
power and provide excellent isolation
properties.
It is useful when
measurements must be made during
high power application as shown. A
water load is used to absorb the high
power reflections so that a reasonable
power level is reflected to the receiver
or measurement port.

9 kW

ANTENNA
VSWR 2:1

* All loads and the

antenna have a
2:1 VSWR

1 kW *
Reflected power down 10 dB

CW
POWER
INPUT
SOURCE

10 kW

**
** If reverse leakage is not
attenuated by at least 20 dB,
this leakage path dominates
at the measurement port.
Normally, a coaxial circulator
will have at least 20 dB of
reverse attenuation and a
waveguide circulator will
have at least 30 dB of
reverse attenuation.

The Maximum Input Power to

a Measurement Device - The ideal
input to a measurement device is in the
0 to 10 dBm ( 1 to 10 mW) range.
Check manufacturer's specification for
specific maximum value.

1 kW
100 W *

Water 0.9 kW
Load

Reflected power now down

20 dB from power input

100 W

10 W *

40 dB attenuator

Receiver/Measurment Device (9 mW)

Figure 4. Faraday Rotator Circulator

If the RF transmission lines and their components

(antenna, hybrid, etc.) can support the wider frequency range,
circulators could be used to increase the number of
interconnecting RF ports from two as shown in Figure 5, to four
as shown in Figure 6. Figure 7 shows an alternate configuration
using diplexers which could actually be made from circulators as
shown previously in Figure 3.

AFT

FWD
Hybrid
Low Low
Rx Tx

Figure 5. Low Band Configuration

AFT

FWD
Hybrid

AFT

* High
power
device

Hybrid

Low
power
device

Low Low
Rx Tx

FWD

Low High
Rx Rx

High High
Rx
Tx

Figure 6. Low/High Band Configuration

High
power
device
L

Low High
Tx Tx

Figure 7. Alternate Low/High Band Configuration

6-7.2

MIXERS AND FREQUENCY DISCRIMINATORS

Mixers are used to convert a signal from one frequency to another. This is done by combining the original RF
signal with a local oscillator (LO) signal in a non-linear device such as a Schottky-barrier diode.
The output spectrum includes:
C The original inputs, LO and RF
C All higher order harmonics of LO and RF
C The two primary sidebands , LO RF (m,n = 1)
C All higher order products of mLO nRF (where m,n are integers)
C A DC output level
The desired output frequency, commonly called the intermediate frequency (IF), can be either the lower (LO-RF)
or upper (LO+RF) sideband. When a mixer is used as a down converter, the lower sideband is the sideband of interest.
A microwave balanced mixer makes use of the 3 dB hybrid to divide and recombine the RF and LO inputs to two
mixing diodes. The 3 dB hybrid can be either the 90E or 180E type. Each has certain advantages which will be covered
later. The critical requirement is that the LO and RF signals be distributed uniformly (balanced) to each mixer diode.

Figure 1 is a typical balanced mixer block diagram. The mixer diodes are reversed relative to each other; the
desired frequency (IF) components of each diode are then in-phase while the DC outputs are positive and negative
respectively.
The two diode outputs are summed in a tee where the DC terms cancel and only the desired IF component exists
at the IF port.

LO
Input
RF
Input

Low Pass
Filter

3 dB
Hybrid
Coupler

Low Pass
Filter

Figure 1. Mixer Block Diagram

6-8.1

IF
Output

Other types of mixers exist, including the double-balanced mixer, and the Ortho-Quad (quadrature fed dual)
mixer. The relative advantages and disadvantages of each of the four types are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Mixer Comparison
Mixer Type

VSWR 1

Conversion
Loss 2

LO/RF
Isolation 3

Harmonic
Suppression 4

Dynamic
Range

IF
Bandwidth

90E Hybrid

good

lowest

poor

poor-fair

high

wide

180E Hybrid

poor

low

good

good

high

wide

DoubleBalanced

poor

low

Very good excellent

very good

high

extremely
wide

Ortho Quad

good

low

very good

fair

high

wide

NOTES:
(1) Poor = 2.5:1 typical ; Good = 1.3:1 typical
(2) Conversion loss: lowest: 5-7 dB typical; Low 7-9 dB typical
(3) Poor: 10 dB typical ; Good: 20 dB typical ; Very Good: 25-30 dB typical ; Excellent: 35-40 dB typical
(4)
Poor: partial rejection of LO/RF even harmonics
Fair: slightly better
Good: can reject all LO even harmonics
Very Good: can reject all LO and RF even harmonics

Used in various circuits, mixers can act as modulators, phase detectors, and frequency discriminators.
The phase discriminators can serve as a signal processing network for systems designed to monitor bearing,
polarization, and frequency of AM or FM radiated signals.
A frequency discriminator uses a phase
discriminator and adds a power divider and
delay line at the RF input as shown in Figure 2.
The unknown RF signal "A" is divided between
a reference and delay path. The differential
delay (T) creates a phase difference (2) between Signal "A" at
the two signals which is a linear function of Frequency "f "
frequency (f) and is given by 2 = 2BfT.
When the two output signals are fed to
the horizontal and vertical input of an
oscilloscope, the resultant display angle will be
a direct function of frequency.

Delay Line
of time T

Power
Divider

Phase
Discriminator

Figure 2. Frequency Discriminator

6-8.2

Differential
Amplifiers

DETECTORS
A detector is used in receiver circuits to recognize
the presence of signals. Typically a diode or similar device
is used as a detector. Since this type of detector is unable
to distinguish frequency, they may be preceded by a narrow
band-pass filter.

RL

Vo

Vi

A typical simplistic circuit is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Typical Diode Detector Circuit

Original Signal

Coarse Detector Output

To integrate a pulse radar signal, we can add capacitance

to the circuit in parallel with the output load RL to store energy
and decrease the bleed rate. Figure 2 shows a typical input/output
waveform which detects the envelope of the pulse radar signal.
From this information pulse width and PRF characteristics can be
determined for the RWR UDF comparison.

Shaped Output
PW
T = PRI = 1/PRF

Figure 2. Demodulated Envelope Output

When the diode is reverse biased, very little current

passes through unless the reverse breakdown voltage is
exceeded. When forward biased and after exceeding the
cut-in voltage, the diode begins to conduct as shown in
Figure 3. At low voltages, it first operates in a square law
region. Detectors operating in this region are known as
small signal type. If the voltage is higher, the detector
operates in a linear region, and is known as the large signal
type.

Breakdown
Voltage
Square Law
Region
Voltage - V
Saturation
Current

The power/voltage characteristics for a typical

diode detector is shown in Figure 4.

Reverse
Biased

Cut-in
Voltage

Forward
Biased

Square Law Detector

In the square law region, the output voltage Vo is
proportional to the square of the input voltage Vi, thus Vo
is proportional to the input power.
Vo = nVi2 = nPi or Pi % Vo
Where n is the constant of proportionality

Figure 3. Diode Electrical Characteristics

6-9.1

Linear Detector
In the linear detection region, the output voltage is given by:
Vo = mVi and since P=V2/R, Pi % Vo2
Where m is the constant of proportionality
Log Detector Amplifier
10v

Another type of detector arrangement is the Log

detector amplifier circuit shown in Figure 5. It is formed
by using a series of amplifiers and diode detectors. Due
to the nature of the amplifier/diode characteristics, the
output voltage is related to the power by:
Pi % 10pVo + q
Where p and q are constants of proportionality

Linear

1v
100 mv
10 mv

Log / Log Plot

1 mv

Square
Law

100 v
10 v
-80

-60

-40

-20

20

Input Power (dBm)

AMP

AMP

AMP

Figure 4. Diode Power/Voltage Characteristic

Log
Video
Out

The Log detector has good range, but is hampered by large

size when compared to a single diode detector.
Figure 5. Log Detector

Pulse Width Measurements

If the pulse width of a signal was specified at the one-half power point, the measurements of the detected signal
on an oscilloscope would vary according to the region of diode operation. If the region of operation is unknown, a 3 dB
attenuator should be inserted in the measurement line. This will cause the power to decrease by one-half. That point on
the oscilloscope becomes the measurement point for the pulse width when the external 3 dB attenuator is removed.
These voltage levels for half power using the three types of detectors are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Detector Characteristics
Square Law

Linear

Log

Output Voltage When

Input Power is reduced
by Half (3 dB)

0.5 Vin

0.707 Vin

A very small value.

- 0.15 Vin for typical
5 stage log amplifier

Sensitivity &
Dynamic Range

Good sensitivity
Small dynamic range

Less sensitivity
Greater dynamic range

Poorest sensitivity
Greatest dynamic range (to 80 dB)

Also see Section 6-10, Microwave / RF Testing, subsection entitled "Half Power or 3 dB Measurement Point".
6-9.2

MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS
Measurement Procedures
Calculate your estimated power losses before attempting to perform a measurement. The ideal input to a
measurement device is in the 0 to 10 dBm (1 to 10 mW) range.
Linearity Check
To verify that a spectrum measurement is accurate and signals are not due to mixing inside the receiver, a linearity
check should be performed, i.e. externally insert a 10 dB attenuator - if measurements are in the linear region of the receiver,
all measurements will decrease by 10 dB. If the measurements decrease by less than 10 dB , the receiver is saturated. If
the measurements disappear, you are at the noise floor.
Half-Power or 3 dB Measurement Point
To verify the half power point of a pulse width measurement on an oscilloscope, externally insert a 3 dB attenuator
in the measurement line, and the level that the peak power decreases to is the 3 dB measurement point (Note: you cannot
just divide the peak voltage by one-half on the vertical scale of the oscilloscope).
VSWR Effect on Measurement
Try to measure VSWR (or reflection coefficient) at the antenna terminals. Measuring VSWR of an antenna through
it's transmission line can result in errors. Transmission lines should be measured for insertion loss not VSWR.
High Power Pulsed Transmitter Measurements
When making power measurements on a high power pulsed transmitter using a typical 40 dB directional coupler,
an additional attenuator may be required in the power meter takeoff line, or the power sensor may be burnt out.
For example, assume we have a 1 megawatt transmitter, with PRF = 430 pps, and PW = 13 Fs. Further assume
we use a 40 dB directional coupler to tap off for the power measurements. The power at the tap would be:
10 log(Pp) - 10 log(DC) - Coupler reduction =
10 log(109mW) - 10 log(13x10-6)(430) - 40 dB =
90 dBm - 22.5 dB - 40 dB = 27.5 dBm (too high for a power meter)
Adding a 20 dB static attenuator to the power meter input would give us a value of 7.5 dBm or 5.6 mW, a good
level for the power meter.
High Power Measurements With Small Devices
When testing in the presence of a high power radar, it is normally necessary to measure the actual field intensity.
The technique shown in Figure 4, in Section 6-7, may not be practical if the measurement device must be small. An
alternate approach is the use of a rectangular waveguide below its cutoff frequency. In this manner, the "antenna"
waveguide provides sufficient attenuation to the frequency being measured so it can be coupled directly to the measurement
device or further attenuated by a low power attenuator. The attenuation of the waveguide must be accurately measured since
attenuation varies significantly with frequency.

6-10.1

ELECTRO-OPTICS
INTRODUCTION
There are many electro-optical (EO) electronic warfare (EW) systems which are analogous to radio frequency (RF)
EW systems. These EO EW systems operate in the optical portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Electro-optics (EO),
as the name implies, is a combination of electronics and optics. By one definition EO is the science and technology of the
generation, modulation, detection and measurement, or display of optical radiation by electrical means. Most infrared (IR)
sensors, for example, are EO systems. In the popularly used term "EO/IR," the EO is typically used to mean visible or laser
systems. The use of EO in this context is a misnomer. Actually, almost all "EO/IR" systems are EO systems as defined
above. Another often used misnomer is referring to an EO spectrum. EO systems operate in the optical spectrum, which
is from 0.01 to 1000 micrometers. EO includes lasers, photometry, infrared, and other types of visible, and UV imaging
systems.
OPTICAL SPECTRUM
The optical spectrum is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum from the extreme ultraviolet (UV) through
the visible to the extreme IR (between 0.01 and 1000 micrometers (F
Fm)). Figure 1 shows the optical spectrum in detail.
Figure 2 shows the entire spectrum. The end points of the optical spectrum are somewhat arbitrary. On the long wavelength
end of the spectrum IR radiation and microwaves overlap. Similarly, x-rays and the extreme UV overlap on the short
wavelength end of the spectrum. How the division is made depends on one's point of reference. For example, radiation
having a wavelength of 1000 Fm which is emitted from a very hot body and is detected by an energy measuring device such
as a super-cooled bolometer is called IR radiation. However, radiation of the same wavelength (or 300 gigahertz) which
is generated by an electric discharge and is detected by a bolometer in a waveguide is called microwave radiation. Older
texts may refer to the terms near, middle, far, and far-far IR, the frequency limits of which differ from the newer divisions
shown below. Notice that the preferred terminology no longer uses the term "middle IR".
1016

1013

1014

1015

1012
L - sec-1

Frequency
10-1

10-2

3
10

102

10

8 - Fm

Wavelength

0.37

ULTRAVIOLET
EXTREME

FAR

N
E
A
R

0.75
V
I
S
I
B
L
E

INFRARED
NEAR

INTERMEDIATE

FAR

EXTREME

M
I
C
R
O

OLDER IR BAND TERMINOLOGY

Near

UV A = 315 to 400 nm
UV B = 280 to 315 nm
UV C = 100 to 280 nm

0.37

NEAR
UV
0.3 Fm

VIOLET

0.4 Fm

Mid

Far
Long
Wave

Extreme

0.75

VISIBLE SPECTRUM

BLUE

GREEN

0.5 Fm

Y
E
L
L
O
W

O
R
A
N
G
E

0.6 Fm

Figure 1. Optical Spectrum

7-1.1

RED

N
E
A
R

IR
0.7 Fm

0.8 Fm

W
A
V
E
S

L
FREQUENCY
(HERTZ)

10

PENTAHERTZ

TERAHERTZ

GIGAHERTZ

MEGAHERTZ

KILOHERTZ

23

COSMIC RAYS

10

-14

10

-13

10

21

10

10

-12

20

10

19

10

-11

10

-10

10

18

10

-9

10

17

10

16

10

-8

10

-7

10

15

-6

10

14

10
10

-5

10

13

-4

10

12

10
10

-3

10

11

10

10

10

-2

10

-1

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

EXAHERTZ

22

GAMMA RAYS

X-RAYS

ULTRAVIOLET
VISIBLE LIGHT

Fiber Optic
Comm

INFRARED

EHF
MICROWAVES SHF
UHF TV
FM
VHF TV
Mobile Radio
Shortwave Radio

AM

UHF
VHF
HF
MF
LF
VLF

10

AUDIO

10
101
HERTZ

8
WAVELENGTH
(METERS)

ELF

10

10

10
10
10

5
6

10

Figure 2. Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum

7-1.2

ANGSTROM,
NANOMETER, nm

MICROMETER, Fm

MILLIMETER, mm
CENTIMETER, cm

10

ULF

PICOMETER

METER, m

10

15

X-UNIT, XU

KILOMETER, km

TERMINOLOGY
The common terms used to describe optical radiation are the source parameters of power, radiant emittance (older
term) or radiant exitance (newer term), radiance, and radiant intensity. They refer to how much radiation is given off by
a body. The parameter measured by the detector (or collecting object/surface) is the irradiance. Any of these quantities
can be expressed per unit wavelength in which case the subscript is changed from e (meaning energy derived units) to 8 and
the term is then called "Spectral ...X...", i.e. Ie is radiant intensity, while I8 is spectral radiant intensity. These quantities
in terms of currently preferred Systme International dUnits (SI units) are defined in Table 1.

Symbol
Q
Me
Me

Name
Radiant Energy
Radiant Power (or flux)
Radiant Exitance

Table 1. Radiometric SI Units.

Description

Units
J (joules)
W (watts)
W m-2

Rate of transfer of radiant energy

Radiant power per unit area
emitted from a surface
Le
Radiance
Radiant power per unit solid angle
W m-2sr-1
per unit projected area
Ie
Radiant Intensity
Radiant power per unit solid angle
W sr-1
from a point source
Ee
Irradiance
Radiant power per unit area
W m-2
incident upon a surface
X8
Spectral ...X..
(Quantity) per unit wavelength interval
(Units) nm-1 or Fm-1
Where X8 is generalized for each unit on a per wavelength basis; for example, L8 would be called "spectral
radiance" instead of radiance.

In common usage, irradiance is expressed in units of watts per square centimeter and wavelengths are in Fm instead of
nanometers (nm). These previously accepted units and the formerly used symbols are known as the Working Group on
Infrared Background (WGIRB) units, and are shown in Table 2. The radiant intensity is in watts per steradian in both
systems.
Table 2. Older WGIRB Radiometric Units.
Symbol

Name

Description

Units

Solid Angle

SR

Wavelength

Fm

Radiant Power

Rate of transfer of radiant energy

Radiant Emittance

Radiant power per unit area

emitted from a surface

W cm-2

Radiance

Radiant power per unit solid angle

per unit projected area

W cm-2sr-1

Radiant Intensity

Radiant power per unit solid angle

from a point source

W sr-1

Irradiance

Radiant power per unit area

incident upon a surface

W cm-2

X8

Spectral ...X...

(Quantity) per unit wavelength

(Units) Fm-1

7-1.3

Other radiometric definitions are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Other Radiometric Definitions
Symbol

Name

Description

Units

"

Absorptance1

" = (*) absorbed / (*) incident

numeric

Reflectance

D = (*) reflected / (*) incident

numeric

Transmittance

J = (*) transmitted / (*) incident

numeric

0 = (*) of specimen /
numeric
(*) of blackbody @ same temperature
Where (*) represents the appropriate quantity Q, M, M, E, or L
Note (1) Radiant absorptance should not be confused with absorption coefficient.
Emissivity

The processes of absorption, reflection (including scattering), and transmission account for all incident radiation
in any particular situation, and the total must add up to one:
a + D + J = 1, as shown in Figure 3.
A few words may be needed about the unit of solid
angle, the steradian. Occasionally this unit is confusing
when it is first encountered. This confusion may be partly
due to difficulty in visualization and partly due to steradian
being apparently a dimensionless unit (which is in itself a
contradiction). Three solid angles are easy to visualize these are the sphere, the hemisphere, and the corner of a
cube (see Figure 4). There are 4B steradians surrounding
the center of a sphere, 2B steradians in a hemisphere, and
B steradians in the corner of a cube (that is, the solid angle
subtended by two walls and the floor of a room is B
steradians).

The problem of dimensions enters in

calculating the steradiancy of a given area on a
spherical surface.
The number of steradians
intercepted by an area A on the surface of a sphere of
radius R is A/R2. If length is measured in centimeters,
the dimensions of the solid angle is cm2/cm 2. So,
steradian appears to be dimensionless. However, it is
the unit, steradian, that is dimensionless (in terms of
units of length), not the solid angle itself. One
steradian is the solid angle intercepted by an area of
one square centimeter on a spherical surface of one
centimeter radius (or one square foot at one foot).

Figure 3. Radiation Incident on a Body

A
R

Figure 4. Steradian Visualization

7-1.4

IR wavelengths are typically expressed in Fm, visible wavelengths in Fm or nm, and UV wavelengths in nm or
angstroms. Table 4 lists conversion factors for converting from one unit of wavelength to another. The conversion is from
column to row. For example, to convert from Fm to nm, multiply the value expressed in Fm by 103. IR wavelengths are
also sometimes expressed in a frequency-like unit called wavenumbers or inverse centimeters. A wavenumber value can
be found by dividing 10,000 by the wavelength expressed in Fm. For example, 2.5 Fm converts to a wavenumber of 4000
or 4000 inverse centimeters (cm-1).
Table 4. Wavelength Conversion Units
From ->

Angstroms -

Nanometers - nm

To get 9

Micrometers - Fm

Multiply by
1

10

104

Nanometers - nm

10-1

103

Micrometers - Fm

10-4

10-3

Angstroms -

PHOTOMETRIC QUANTITIES
Whereas the radiometric quantities Me, Me, Ie, Le, and Ee have meaning throughout the entire electromagnetic
spectrum, their photometric counterparts Mv, Mv, Iv, Lv, and Ev are meaningful only in the visible spectrum (0.38 Fm thru
0.78 Fm).
The standard candle has been redefined as the new candle or candela (cd). One candela is the luminous intensity
of 1/60th of 1 cm2 of the projected area of a blackbody radiator operating at the temperature of the solidification of platinum
(2045 K). The candela (by definition) emits one lumen (lm) per steradian.
Table 5 displays the photometric quantities and units. These are used in dealing with optical systems such as
aircraft television camera systems, optical trackers, or video recording.

Symbol
Qv
Mv
Mv

Lv

Iv
Ev
K

Name
Luminous energy

Table 5. Photometric SI Units.

Description

Luminous flux
Luminous Excitance
or flux density
(formerly luminous emittance)
Luminance
(formerly brightness)

Rate of transfer of luminant energy

Luminant power per unit area

Luminous Intensity
(formerly candlepower)
Illuminance
(formerly illumination)

Luminous power per unit solid

angle from a point source
Luminous power per unit area
incident upon a surface

Luminous efficacy

K= Mv / Me

Luminous flux per unit solid

angle per unit projected area

7-1.5

Units
lumen sec
(lm s)
lumen
lm m-2

nit (nt) or
candela/m2
or lm/sr@m2
candela or
lm/sr
lux or lx
or lm/m2
lm / w

Table 6 displays conversion factors for commonly used illuminance quantities.

Table 6. Illuminance Conversion Units
Lux (lx)

Footcandle (fc)

Phot (ph)

1 lux (lm m-2)

0.0929

1 x 10-4

1 footcandle (lm ft-2)

10.764

0.001076

104

929

1 phot (lm cm-2)

1x

GENERALIZED DETECTION PROBLEM

SUN

Figure 5 shows a generalized detection

problem. On the left of the diagram are the radiation
sources - the sun, background, and the target of interest.
In the middle is the intervening atmosphere, which
attenuates the radiation as it travels to the detection
system shown on the right of the diagram.

B
A
C
K
G
R
O
U
N
D

TARGET

A
T
M
O
S
P
H
E
R
E

DETECTION
SYSTEM

Anything at temperatures above absolute zero

radiates energy in the electromagnetic spectrum. This
radiation is a product of molecular motion, and the
spectral distribution of the radiation is characterized by
the temperature of the body. The four basic laws of IR
radiation are Kirchhoff's law, Planck's law, the StefanBoltzmann law, and Lambert's cosine law. Kirchhoff
Figure 5. Generalized Detection Problem
found that a material that is a good absorber of
radiation is also a good radiator. Kirchhoff's law states that the ratio of radiated power and the absorption coefficient: (1)
is the same for all radiators at that temperature, (2) is dependent on wavelength and temperature, and (3) is independent
of the shape or material of the radiator. If a body absorbs all radiation falling upon it, it is said to be "black." For a
blackbody the radiated power is equal to the absorbed power, and the emissivity (ratio of emitted power to absorbed power)
equals one. One can also have a graybody - one which emits with the spectral distribution of a blackbody but at a lower
intensity level because it has an emissivity of something less than one.
The radiation from a blackbody at a specific wavelength can be calculated from Planck's law:
C1
Where: C1 = 2Bc2h = 3.7416 x 10-12W cm2
W8 '
C2 = ch/k = 1.4389 cm K
C2
c
=
speed
of light; h = Planks constant; k = Boltzmans constant
85 e 8T &1
With 8 in cm and T in K (= C + 273)
Figure 6 shows the spectral radiant emittance of blackbody radiators at several temperatures as calculated from
this equation. [W8 is in W/cm3 so multiply by 10-4 to get W/cm2micron].
Wein's displacement law takes the derivative of the Plank's law equation (above) to find the wavelength for
maximum spectral exitance (emittance) at any given temperature (or the temperature of maximum output at a given
wavelength):
8m T = 2897.8 FK
For example, given that T=568K, then 8m = 5.1F
F as verified by examining Figure 6.
7-1.6

102
2000K
2000EK//1727C
1727EC/ /3141F
3141EF
10
1273K / 1000C / 1832F
1

873K / 600C / 1112F

10-1
568K / 295C / 563F
10

-2

295K / 27C / 71F

Maximum (Example)
10-3
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

WAVELENGTH - Micrometers
Figure 6. Blackbody Spectral Radiant Emittance
According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, the total radiant emittance of a blackbody is proportional to the fourth
power of the temperature:
W = FT4

5 4
Where: F ' 2B k ' 5.67 x 10&12Watts cm &2 EK &4

15c 2h 3

This is Plank's radiation law integrated over all values of 8.

A blackbody is a perfectly diffuse radiator.

According to Lambert's law of cosines, the radiation
emitted by a perfectly diffuse radiator varies as the
cosine of the angle between the line of sight and the
normal to the surface. As a consequence of
Lambert's law, the radiance of a blackbody cavity is
1/B times the radiant emittance (a conical blackbody
cavity emits into a solid angle of B steradians). The
radiation from a flat plate is emitted into 2B
steradians. The radiation pattern for these sources
are shown in Figure 7. Notice that the conical cavity
has the highest radiation straight ahead, and nothing
at 2 angles approaching 90 whereas the flat plate
has a uniform radiation pattern at all angles in front
of the surface.

FLAT PLATE

CONICAL

Figure 7. Blackbody Radiation Patterns

7-1.7

The interrelationship of the various quantities that describe source and received radiation in a vacuum are:
SOURCE
RECEIVER
SI
WGIRB
SI
WGIRB
Me = M/A
or W = P/A
Ee = Ie/D2
or
H = J/D2
Le = Me/B

or

N = W/B

Ie = LeA

or

J = NA

where A is the radiating area and D is the distance between source and receiver.

In actual practice the intervening atmosphere attenuates the radiation passing from the source to the receiver. When
atmospheric transmission is accounted for, the receiver equation becomes:
Ee = JIe/D2
where J is the atmospheric transmittance.
The sources of radiation encountered outside the laboratory are either targets or backgrounds. One person's target
may be another person's background. The target is the radiation source of interest - for example, an aircraft, a missile, a
structure on the ground, or a ship at sea. The backgrounds are the non-target sources included within the field of view of
the detection system which produce what amounts to noise - background noise. Possible background sources include the
sun, clouds, terrain, the sea, blue sky, night sky, and stars. Figure 8 shows the spectral distribution of radiation from several
targets and background sources. Spectral and spatial means are generally used to discriminate the target from the
background. Spectral discrimination can be used because the targets are often characterized by spectral line or band
emissions which yield a high signal to background ratio within a selected wavelength band. Also the target is usually small
compared to the background so spatial discrimination can be used.
JET ENGINE (900 k)

MISSILE PLUME (1100 - 1700K)

100

100

80

80

60

60

40

40

20

20

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Wavelength - Fm

Wavelength - Fm
FLARE (1800 - 2100K)

INDUSTRIAL SMOKESTACK

100

100

Goes much higher at shorter wavelengths

80

80

60

60

40

40

20

20

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

2.0

Wavelength - Fm

3.0

4.0

Wavelength - Fm

NOTE: These charts show relative not absolute radiant intensity of each signature.
Consequently the "amplitude" of one cannot be compared with the "amplitude" of another.
Figure 8. Spectral Distribution of Various Targets

7-1.8

5.0

ATMOSPHERIC TRANSMISSION
The radiation emitted or reflected from the targets and backgrounds must pass through the intervening atmosphere
before reaching the detection system. The radiation is absorbed and re-emitted by molecular constituents of the atmosphere
and scattered into and out of the path by various aerosol components. In the IR, atmospheric attenuation follows an
exponential relationship expressed by the following equation:
I = Io-kD
where Io is the radiation incident on the attenuating medium, k is the extinction coefficient, and D is the path length.
The molecules that account for most of the absorption in the IR region are water, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide,
ozone, carbon monoxide, and methane. Figure 9 shows the transmission of radiation over a 1 NM level path. The curve
shows absorptions due to: 1) both water and carbon dioxide at 1.4 Fm, 1.85 Fm, and 2.7 Fm; 2) due to water only at 6 Fm;
and 3) due to carbon dioxide only at 4.3 Fm.
Inspection of Figure 9 reveals the presence of atmospheric windows, i.e. regions of reduced atmospheric
attenuation. IR detection systems are designed to operate in these windows. Combinations of detectors and spectral
bandpass filters are selected to define the operating region to conform to a window to maximize performance and minimize
background contributions. Figure 10 shows an expanded view of the infrared portion of the spectrum.
The transmission in a window is greatly dependent on the length and characteristics of the path. Figure 11 shows
the transmission for a 15 NM path at 10,000-foot altitude with 100% relative humidity. As is readily apparent, the
transmission in the windows is greatly reduced over the longer path compared to the transmission for the shorter path shown
in Figure 9. Since water vapor generally decreases with altitude, transmission generally increases and path length becomes
the determining factor. However, path length does not affect transmission of all wavelengths the same.

ATTENUATION OF EM WAVES BY THE ATMOSPHERE

94 GHz 35
22 GHz
60

1.0

3 GHz

Scattering Losses
Absorption losses
occur below the
"scattering loss" line.

0.5

0.1
UV

10
10 2
10 3
Wavelength - Micrometers

1
Vis

IR

Far IR

Extreme IR

10 4
MM

Figure 9. Atmospheric Transmission Over 1 NM Sea Level Path

7-1.9

Microwave

105

100

80
60

40
20
0

O2

H2O

CO2

H2O

O3
CO2

6
7
8
9
Wavelength (microns)

10

H2O
CO2 O3
Absorbing Molecule

11

12

13

H2O CO2

14

15

CO2

Figure 10. Transmittance of Atmosphere Over 1 NM Sea Level Path (Infrared Region)

ATTENUATION AT 10,000 FT
1.0

0.5

DETECTORS
A detector is a transducer which transforms electromagnetic radiation
into a form which can be more easily detected. In the detectors of interest to
EW the electromagnetic radiation is converted into an electrical signal. In
some systems the signal is processed entirely within the system to perform its
function. In others the signal is converted to a form to allow the human eye to
be used for the final detection and signal analysis.
Detection Mechanisms

The physical effects by which electromagnetic radiation is converted

to electrical energy are divided into two categories: photon effects and thermal
effects. EW systems primarily use detectors dependent on photon effects.
0.1
1
102
10
These effects can be divided into internal photo effects and external photo
Wavelength - Micrometers
effects. The external photo effect is known as photoemission. In the
Figure 11. Atmospheric Transmission photoemissive effect, photons impinging on a photocathode drive electrons
Over a 15 NM Path at 10,000 ft Altitude from its surface. These electrons may then be collected by an external
electrode and the photocurrent thus obtained is a measure of the intensity of
the received radiation.
Internal photoeffects of interest are the photoconductive effect and the photovoltaic effect. In the photoconductive
effect, absorbed photons cause an increase in the conductivity of a semiconductor. The change is detected as a decrease
in the resistance in an electrical circuit. In the photovoltaic effect, absorbed photons excite electrons to produce a small
potential difference across a p-n junction in the semiconductor. The photovoltage thus produced may be amplified by
suitable electronics and measured directly.
7-1.10

The pyroelectric effect is a thermal

effect that is applicable to EW systems. The
pyroelectric effect is a change in polarization in
a crystal due to changes in temperature.
Radiation falling on such a crystal is detected by
observing the change in polarization as a build
up of surface charge due to local heating. When
coated with a good black absorber, the crystal
will be sensitive to a wide band of wavelengths.
Figure 12 shows the spectral sensitivity
range of typical detectors using these effects.

Thermal Detectors
Photovoltaic Detectors
Photoconductive Detectors
Phototubes
1
10
10 2
Wavelength - Micrometers

0.1
UV

VIS

IR

10 3

FAR-IR

Figure 12. Spectral Range of Various Detectors

Detector Types
Photon detectors exhibit sharp long wavelength cutoffs. The principle photoemissive detector type in EW systems
is the photomultiplier. Current amplification is obtained in photomultipliers by secondary emission. A series of electrodes
known as dynodes lie between the cathode and the anode. The structure of side-on and end-on type photomultipliers is
shown in Figure 13.
The photoelectrons from the cathode are accelerated and focused onto the first dynode. Secondary electrons from
the first dynode are accelerated and focused onto the second dynode, which emits more secondaries. This process is
continued through from 4 to 16 stages in commercial tubes. Current gains of 10 million can be obtained with 16 stages.
Typical response times (electron transit time) are tens of nanoseconds.
PHOTOCATHODE
SECONDARY
ELECTRONS

PHOTOELECTRONS
ACCELERATING
ELECTRODE

1st
DYNODE

DYNODES

DYNODES
LIGHT

ANODE
LAST
DYNODE
ANODE
SIDE-ON TYPE (TOP VIEW)

END-ON TYPE (SIDE VIEW)

Figure 13. Multiplier Phototubes

7-1.11

Photoconductive detectors consist of a body of semiconductor - single or arrays- having electrodes attached to
opposite ends. In operation they are used in electronic circuits as resistors whose resistance depends on the radiation upon
the sensitive surface. Typical cooled and uncooled configurations are shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14. Photoconductive Detector

Photovoltaic detector configurations are shown in Figure 15. Photoconductive and photovoltaic detectors in EW
systems are usually operated cooled for greater sensitivity. N-type material contains a large number of excess electrons
and few holes, while P-type material contains few electrons and many holes.

RADIATION
N or P TYPE

P or N TYPE
GROWN JUNCTION

DIFFUSED JUNCTION

Figure 15. Photovoltaic Detector Configurations

7-1.12

Diode phototubes and photomultipliers are commonly used detectors for UV systems. The typical IR system uses
arrays of photoconductive or photovoltaic detectors. Many state-of-the-art IR systems use what is known as focal plane
arrays. The advantage of focal plane detectors is the ability to integrate processing electronics elements right on the same
chip as the detector elements. Most visible band systems of interest are televisions. An example of a typical television
camera tube is the vidicon (Figure 16). The vidicon is a storage type camera tube in which a charge-density pattern is
formed by the imaged scene radiation on a photoconductive surface which is then scanned by a beam of low velocity
electrons. The fluctuating voltage coupled out to a video amplifier can be used to reproduce the scene being imaged.
Pyroelectric photocathodes can be used to produce a vidicon sensitive over a broad portion of the IR.

Figure 16. Vidicon

Another type of camera tube is the image orthicon which uses a photoemissive sensitive element (Figure 17).
Small, light weight television cameras can now be made using charge-coupled device (CCD) or charge-injection device
(CID) technology. CCD cameras are the basis of the popular hand-held camcorders.

Figure 17. Image Orthicon

7-1.13

The most common detectors used in surface-to-air and air-to-air missile seekers use compounds which include:
Cadmium Sulfide
CdS
Lead Selenide PbSe
Gallium Arsenide
GaAs
Lead Sulfide
PbS
Indium Antimonide
InSb
Other known detector material includes:
Germanium doped with Copper Ge:Cu
Germanium doped with Gold
Ge:Au
Germanium doped with Mercury Ge:Hg
Mercury Cadmium Telluride
HgCdTe

Germanium doped with Zinc

Indium Arsenide
Lead Telluride

Ge:Zn
InAs
PbTe

Some detectors (such as InSb) have multiple modes of operation, including: Photoconductive (PC), Photovoltaic
(PV), or Photoelectromagnetic (PEM) modes of operation. Typical spectral detectivity characteristics for various detectors
are shown in Figure 18.
Detector Parameters and Figures of Merit
The important parameters in evaluating a detector are the spectral response, time constant, the sensitivity, and the
noise figure. The spectral response determines the portion of the spectrum to which the detector is sensitive. The time
constant is a measure of the speed of response of the detector. It is also indicative of the ability of the detector to respond
to modulated radiation. When the modulation frequency is equal to one over the time constant, the response has fallen to
70.7 % of the maximum value. The time constant is related to the lifetime of free carriers in photoconductive and
photovoltaic detectors and to the thermal coefficient of thermal detectors. The time constant in photoemissive devices is
proportional to the transit time of photoelectrons between the photocathode and anode.

Figure 18. Spectral Detectivity of Various Detectors

7-1.14

The sensitivity of a detector is related to its responsivity. The responsivity is the ratio of the detected signal output
to the radiant power input. For photoconductive and photovoltaic detectors the responsivity is usually measured in volts
per watt -- more correctly, RMS volts per RMS watt. However, the sensitivity of a detector is limited by detector noise.
Responsivity, by itself, is not a measure of sensitivity. Detector sensitivity is indicated by various figures of merit, which
are analogous to the minimum detectable signal in radar. Such a quantity is the noise equivalent power (NEP). The NEP
is a measure of the minimum power that can be detected. It is the incident power in unit bandwidth which will produce a
signal voltage equal to the noise voltage. That is, it is the power required to produce a signal-to-noise ratio of one when
detector noise is referred to unit bandwidth. The units of NEP are usually given as watts, but, more correctly, are watts/Hz
or wattssec .
Another figure of merit is the noise equivalent input (NEI). The NEI is defined as the radiant power per unit area
of the detector required to produce a signal-to-noise ratio of one. The NEI is obtained by dividing the NEP by the sensitive
area of the detector. The units of NEI are watts per square centimeter. An NEI for photoemissive devices is commonly
given in lumens.
The NEP has the disadvantage that better detectors have smaller NEP's, but the human psyche is such that a figure
of merit that increases for improvements in detector performance is preferable. A figure of merit which has that feature is
the detectivity (D), which is defined as the reciprocal of the NEP. The units of D are watts -1sec -. A higher value of
detectivity indicates an improvement in detection capability. The dependence on detector area is removed in another
detectivity measure, known as D-star (D*). D* is the detectivity measured with a bandwidth of one hertz and reduced to
a responsive area of one square centimeter. The units of D* are cmwatts -1sec -. D* is the detectivity usually given in
detector specification sheets. The spectral detectivity is the parameter used in Figure 18.
Besides the NEI mentioned above, the quantum efficiency of the photocathode is also a figure of merit for
photoemissive devices. Quantum efficiency is expressed as a percent -- the ratio of the number of photoelectrons emitted
per quantum of received energy expressed as a percent. A quantum efficiency of 100 percent means that one photoelectron
is emitted for each incident photon.
There are other figures of merit for television cameras. The picture resolution is usually described as the ability
to distinguish parallel black and white lines and is expressed as the number of line pairs per millimeter or TV lines per
picture height. The number of pixels in the scene also defines the quality of an image. A pixel, or picture element, is a
spatial resolution element and is the smallest distinguishable and resolvable area in an image. CCD cameras with 512 x
512 elements are common. Another resolution quantity is the gray scale, which is the number of brightness levels between
black and white a pixel can have.
Noise in Detectors
The performance of a detector is limited by noise. The noise is the random currents and voltages which compete
with or obscure the signal or information content of the radiation. Five types of noise are most prominent in detectors:
thermal, temperature, shot, generation-recombination, and 1/f noise. Thermal noise, also known as Johnson noise or
Nyquist noise, is electrical noise due to random motions of charge carriers in a resistive material. Temperature noise arises
from radiative or conductive exchange between the detector and its surroundings, the noise being produced by fluctuations
in the temperature of the surroundings. Temperature noise is prominent in thermal detectors. Shot noise occurs due to the
discreetness of the electronic charge. In a photoemissive detector shot noise is due to thermionic emission from the
photocathode. Shot noise also occurs in photodiodes and is due to fluctuations in the current through the junction.
Generation-recombination noise is due to the random generation and recombination of charge carriers (holes and electrons)
in semiconductors. When the fluctuations are caused by the random arrival of photons impinging upon the detector, it is
called photon noise. When it is due to interactions with phonons (quantized lattice vibrations), it is called generationrecombination noise. Johnson noise is predominant at high frequencies, shot noise predominates at low frequencies, and
7-1.15

generation-recombination and photon noise are predominant at intermediate frequencies. As the name implies, 1/f noise
has a power spectrum which is inversely proportional to frequency. It is dominant at very low frequencies. In
photoemissive detectors it is called flicker noise and has been attributed to variation in the emission from patches of the
photocathode surface due to variation in the work function of the surface. In semiconductors 1/f noise is also called
modulation noise. Here it is apparently due to surface imperfections and ohmic contacts (which are a form of surface
imperfection).
LASERS
The word laser comes from Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The lasing medium may
be a solid, a gas, or a liquid. Lasing action has been achieved using atoms, ions, and molecules. The emission may be
pulsed or CW.
Figure 19 shows the spectral output of several laser types.
The first laser was a pulsed, solid state laser, the ruby laser. In the ruby laser a xenon flash lamp is used to excite
the atoms in a ruby rod to higher energy levels. The highly polished and mirrored ends of the rod form a resonant cavity.
One end of the rod has a slightly lower reflectivity. The lamp excitation produces an inverted population of excited atoms
which are stimulated to relax to lower energy levels releasing their extra energy as photons. Repeated reflections off the
mirrored ends of the rod causes the photons to bounce back and forth through the rod stimulating further emissions at the
same wavelength and phase producing a highly coherent beam which finally passes through the lower reflectivity end.

TI:
ALEXANDRITE
SAPPHIRE
Dy:CaF
0.72-0.8
0.68-1.13
2.35
Nd:YAG/Glass
DF
Ga:As
(Doubled)
RUBY
Nd:YAG
&
HO: YAG
0.85-0.9
3.4-4.0
0.53
0.69
Nd:Glass
2.06
1.06
RAMAN
HF
CO2
LINES
2.6-3.0 (Doubled)
Nd:YAG
Ramen Shifted
5.3
1.54
CO2
ARGON
9.2-11
El: YAG
0.49 & 0.51
CO
1.64
5.0-7.0
COPPER
VAPOR
0.51-0.57

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0 F

WAVELENGTH - Micrometers

Figure 19. Spectral Lines / Ranges of Available Lasers

7-1.16

10 F

Figure 20 is a schematic representation of a ruby laser. The typical laser rangefinder uses a solid state laser with
a neodymium-YAG crystal lasing at 1.06 Fm.

Figure 20. Ruby Laser

Gas lasers are of several kinds and can be pulsed or CW. The gas dynamic laser obtains its inverted population
through a rapid temperature rise produced by accelerating the gas through a supersonic nozzle. In chemical lasers the
inversion is produced by a chemical reaction. In the electric discharge laser the lasing medium is electrically pumped. The
gas can also be optically pumped. In an optically pumped gas laser the lasing medium is contained in a transparent cylinder.
The cylinder is in a resonant cavity formed by two highly reflective mirrors. The typical configuration is shown in
Figure 21.

Figure 21. Gas Laser

7-1.17

Many gas lasers use carbon dioxide as the lasing medium (actually a mixture of CO2 and other gases). These are
the basis for most high energy or high power lasers. The first gas laser was an optically pumped CW helium-neon laser.
The common laser pointer is a helium-neon laser operating at 0.6328 Fm. The lasing medium is a mixture of helium and
neon gas in a gas discharge or plasma tube as shown in Figure 22.

Figure 22. Helium-Neon Laser

The dye laser is an example of a laser using a liquid for the lasing medium. The lasing medium is an organic dye
dissolved in a solvent such as ethyl alcohol. Dye lasers operate from the near UV to the near IR, are optically pumped, and
are tunable over a fairly wide wavelength range.
Mention should also be made of semiconductor or injection lasers, also known as laser diodes. The junctions of
most semiconductor diodes will emit some radiation if the devices are forward biased. This radiation is the result of energy
released when electrons and holes recombine in the junction. There are two kinds of semiconductor diode emitters: (1) the
light emitting diode (LED), which produces incoherent spontaneous emission when forward biased and which has a broad
(800 angstrom) spectral output, and (2) the laser
diode, which maintains a coherent emission when
pulsed beyond a threshold current and which has
a narrow spectral width (< 10 angstrom). In the
laser diode the end faces of the junction region
are polished to form mirror surfaces. They can
operate CW at room temperatures, but pulsed
operation is more common. Figure 23 shows a
typical diode laser structure.

Figure 23. Diode Laser

7-1.18

Q-switching is a means of obtaining short intense pulses from lasers. The Q-switch inhibits lasing until a very large
inverted population builds up. The switch can be active or passive. A passive Q-switch switches at a predetermined level.
An active Q-switch is controlled by external timing circuits or mechanical motion. The switch is placed between the rod
(or lasing medium) and the 100 percent mirror. Figure 24 shows an arrangement using a Pockels cell as an active Q-switch.

100%
Mirror

Pockels
Cell

Polarizer

Laser
Crystal

Output
Mirror

Figure 24. Q-switch Arrangement

FIBER OPTICS
Fiber optic cables are the optical analogue of RF waveguides. Transmission of radiation through an optical fiber
is due to total internal reflection of the radiation from the walls of the fiber. A plain fiber has leakage through the walls.
This is controlled by coating, or cladding, the fiber with a lower refractive index material. Fibers with the best transmission
characteristics (lowest attenuation) operate in the near infrared (out to 1.7 Fm). Typical attenuations vary from two to ten
dB/km in the visible to 0.2 to 0.5 dB/km in the near infrared. Developmental fibers for use in the 2 to 20 Fm wavelength
range have attenuations of hundreds of dBs/km.
Optical fibers are not used in any current EO systems. Potential applications include use with smart skins where
radiation is collected on the skin and piped by fiber optics to detectors elsewhere in the aircraft. Use of fiber optics in a high
speed data bus for EW systems will probably come first.

ELECTRO-OPTICAL SYSTEMS
A basic EO system is composed of an optical head, an electronics package, and an output unit. The optical head
consists of a window, collecting optics which gathers the incident radiation and focusses it on the detector, a field stop to
define the field of view, a reticle or chopper to modulate and encode the radiation, optical filters to define the wavelength
region of response, a detector to convert the incident radiation into an electrical signal, and a preamplifier to increase the
signal level from the detector before further handling or processing. The system electronics consist of amplifiers, signal
processors, and system controls. The output unit consists of indicators or displays.

7-1.19

Windows/Domes
For most applications of EO systems in EW the detection system is protected from the environment by a window
or dome of optically transmissive material. The window operates both as a weather seal and, in some cases, helps to define
the spectral response region of the system. The transmission bands of a representative sample of window materials is shown
in Figure 25. The end points given are for the 10 percent transmission wavelengths. Not shown in Figure 25 are the various
UV transmissive glasses such as Pyrex, Corex, and Vycor.

Lithium Floride
Magnesium Floride (Irtran 1)
Calcium Floride (Irtran 3)
Fuzed Quartz
Sapphire
Barium Floride

Magnesium Oxide (Irtran 5)

Zinc Sulfide (Irtran 2)
Zinc Selenide (Irtran 4)
Cadmium Telluride (Irtran 6)
Germanium

10

-1

1
10
WAVELENGTH - Micrometers
Figure 25. Transmission of Selected Window Materials
7-1.20

10

Optical Filters
Most optical radiation detectors have a wider sensitivity band than desired for the particular application. To further
define the system sensitivity, band interference filters or absorption filters are used. An absorption filter is a bulk material
with a sharp cut-on or cut-off in its transmission characteristic. A cut-on and a cut-off filter can be combined to make a
bandpass filter. By selecting absorption characteristics of absorption filters combined with the response of a detector, the
desired system response can be obtained. An interference filter is composed of dielectric coatings on an appropriate
substrate combined in such a way to produced cut-on, cut-off, or bandpass filters. Interference filters allow more control
of the final response characteristics and smaller elements.
Besides bandpass filters, EO system optics often have antireflection (or AR) coatings to eliminate or greatly reduce
unwanted reflections between optical elements.
Detector Coolers
Many IR detectors have to be cooled for proper operation. Most systems use closed-cycle coolers or thermoelectric
coolers. Thermoelectric coolers use the Peltier effect, which produces a reduced temperature by passing a d-c current
through a thermoelectric junction. Multi-stage coolers can cool a detector down to below 200K. Closed-cycle coolers
typically are of the Stirling cycle design and utilize the expansion of a gas (helium) to cool a cold finger attached to the
detector. These generally operate at liquid nitrogen temperature (77K).
Displays
Imaging systems such Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) systems use cathode ray tubes (CRTs) to display their
output. Future EW systems may incorporate flat panel displays of some type. Possible types are liquid crystal displays
(LCDs), LED arrays, or gas plasma displays.

Types of Systems
EO systems of interest to EW
include the following:
FLIR systems - A passive thermal
imager which typically uses the emitted
radiation of a target in the 8 to 14 Fm
atmospheric window to produce a picture
of the scene. Figure 26 shows the
configuration of a typical FLIR using the
serial scan approach. A FLIR could be
used with a 10.6 Fm laser target designator
to determine if the proper target is being
illuminated.
Infrared Search and Track Systems
(IRSTS) - The IRSTS is an EO analogue of
a radar system. A focal plane array
detector is scanned across the field of
regard, and the locations of detected targets

Figure 26. Serial Scan FLIR

7-1.21

are displayed on a CRT. Although without direct range measuring capability, triangulation techniques can be used for
passive ranging. If combined with a laser rangefinder, an IRSTS could function just like an optical radar. An IRST provides
better angular resolution but poorer range accuracy than a RF radar system.
Missile Warning Receivers/Sets - These may have either scanning or staring optical systems to detect and process
the radiation from missile motors and alert the pilot that the aircraft is under attack.

Laser Warning Sets - These typically have staring optics. They detect and process received laser radiation. The
pilot is alerted of the type and the direction of the laser detected.
Infrared Countermeasure (IRCM) Systems - The EO analogue of RF jammers. They radiate a modulated IR signal
designed to confuse the detection/tracking system of an attacking IR guided missile and cause it to miss.
Television Camera Sets - High resolution TV camera systems primarily used for the identification friend or foe
application.
Laser Rangefinders - A laser coupled with timing circuits to measure time of travel of laser pulses to and from a
target. They can give very accurate ranges.
Laser Target Designators - Laser systems used to illuminate targets being attacked by laser guided munitions.

7-1.22

LASER SAFETY
Lasers are divided into the following classes:
Class 1
Low power / non-hazardous
Class 2/2a
Low power / minor controls necessary
Emit less than 1 mW visible CW radiation. Not considered hazardous for momentary
(<0.25 sec) unintentional exposure. Class 2a lasers are those class 2 lasers not intended
to be viewed, i.e. supermarket scanners.
Class 3a/3b
Medium power / direct viewing hazard / little diffuse reflection hazard.
Class 3a is visible lasers with 1-5 mW power output, invisible lasers, and those having
1-5 times the Accessible Emission Limit (AEL) of class 1 lasers. Class 3b is all other
class 3 lasers at all wavelengths which have a power output less than 500 mW.
Class 4
High power / eye and skin hazard / potential diffuse reflection hazard or fire hazard
There are several pertinent instructions and guidelines regarding laser use. They are:
C SPAWARINST 5100.12B, Navy Laser Hazards Control Program
C MIL-HDBK-828, Laser Range Safety
C ANSI Z136.1-1993, American National Standard for the Safe Use of Lasers
Every Navy command which uses lasers must have a Laser System Safety Officer (LSSO). There are two
categories of LSSOs, and each command should determine which type is appropriate considering their mission, types of
lasers being used, and size of the laser safety program.
The CAT I LSSO must attend formal training at Naval Safety School. They are qualified to (a) Calculate and/or
measure laser safety parameters, such as Nominal Ocular Hazard Distance (NOHD), and required optical densities for laser
eye wear, (b) Train CAT II LSSO's, (c) Conduct hazard surveys, (d) Classify lasers and laser systems, and (e) Conduct laser
incident investigations, and (f) Perform all the tasks of a CAT II LSSO.
The CAT II LSSO does not have the technical capability to calculate or measure laser safety parameters, and cannot
serve as an instructor of other LSSO's. They are qualified to (a) Approve/disapprove the use of local lasers, (b) Instruct
employees and supervisors on the safe use of lasers, (c) Supervise laser operations and maintenance, (d) Manage incidents
investigations, (e) Conduct laser range safety compliance inspections, (f) Maintain a medical surveillance program, (g)
Maintain an inventory of military exempt and class 3b and class 4 lasers, and (h) Post lasers warning signs, etc.
The hazard ranges of interest are the NOHD for direct viewing of a beam and the r1(safe) or r2(safe) for viewing a
beam reflected off an object such as a wall. These are depicted in figure 1. The hazard range for a laser can be calculated
using the information from enclosure (5) of SPAWARINST 5100.12B. The Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE) values
present laser safety levels as a function of exposure time, laser PRF, pulse duration, and wavelength. Different tables are
used for eye safety while directly viewing a beam, for viewing a diffusely reflected beam, and for skin exposure.
For repeated pulses the following equation is used to calculate the maximum permissible exposure (MPE).
MPE (repeated pulse) =

MPE(single pulse)
( PRF x t e )1/4

Where PRF is the pulse repetition frequency of the laser and te is the exposure duration.
For visible lasers te is usually taken as 1/4 second and for non-visible lasers a value of 10 seconds is used.

7-2.1

[1]

Figure 1 depicts some of the laser hazard distances discussed in SPAWARINST 5100.12B.

Nominal Ocular Hazard Distance (NOHD)

EYE
LASER

BEAM

NOHD

Reflecting
Surface

Diffuse Reflection Hazard

LASER

BEAM

EYE

(diffuse)

Figure 1. Laser Hazard Distances

Range laser safety officers shall be designated for external operations. Range test plans shall specify:
C Permissible aircraft flight paths, and ship or vehicle headings.
C Hazard areas to be cleared.
C Operational personnel locations.
C Types of surveillance to be used to ensure a clear range.
C Radio / communications procedures.
During laser operations no portion of the laser beam may extend beyond the controlled target area unless adequate
surveillance can prevent radiation of unprotected areas. Class 3 and class 4 lasers shall not be directed above the horizon
unless coordinated with those responsible for the given airspace (FAA, Navy, Air Force, etc).
In an industrial environment, warning and hazard signs and lights will be posted, a hazard zone shall be designated
when lasers are in operation, and training shall be provided to operators in the proper eye and body (skin) protection
required. Interlocks to laser operation shall be provided when there is the possibility of unauthorized personnel entering
the hazard area.
Fiber optic cables usually have laser power sources so appropriate warnings or labels need to be applied to
connections or possible breakage points.

7-2.2

FREE FALL / AIRCRAFT DRAG

The purpose of this section is to get an awareness of the distance traveled by a flare or other object such as a bomb,
which is jettisoned or dropped by an aircraft. This will give the reader an appreciation for the significance of aircraft tactical
altitude.
From Newton's second law of motion:
F = moa

and the law of gravitation:

F' K

mome

where: F = Force
mo = Mass of object
a = Acceleration

("G" is also used instead of "K" in some references)

r2

where: F = Force of attraction

K = universal gravitational constant
mo, me= Masses (not weight) of object & earth
r = distance between center of gravity of objects

English Units
lbf
-8
3.44x10 ft4/lb-sec4
slug
feet

SI Units
Newton
-11
6.67x10 m3/kg-sec2
kg
meter

Combining the two equations and solving for "a" :

Kme
a '
' g , the familiar constant acceleration due to gravity.
r2
Since K and me are fixed and the variation in r (the distance from the earth's center) is small except for satellites,
"g" is considered fixed at 32.2 ft/sec2.
For objects with a constant acceleration (g), it can be shown that:
1
d ' v it % at 2
where
d = distance traveled
2
vi= Initial velocity
t = time
a = acceleration = "g"
For a falling object, Figure 1 on the following page may be used to estimate time/distance values.
C The upper curve is for an object shot upward with an initial velocity of 50 ft/sec.
C The middle curve is for an object shot horizontally with an initial velocity of 50 ft/sec or one that is a free-falling
object dropped with no initial vertical velocity.
C The lower curve is for an object with a downward initial velocity of 50 ft/sec.
Notes:
1)
50 ft/sec is the typical cartridge ejection velocity of a flare/chaff expendable.
2)
The top curve actually goes up 39 feet before starting back down, but this is difficult to see due to the graph scale.
3)
This simplification ignores the effects of air drag or tumbling effects on a falling object which will result in a
maximum terminal velocity, with resultant curve straightening.

8-1.1

Figure 1. Object Fall Rate

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
Let us assume that we want to know how far a bomb or other object has fallen after 13 seconds if it had been
dropped from an aircraft traveling at 450 kts which was in a 40E dive.
Our initial vertical velocity is: 450 kts (Sin 40E) (1.69 ft/sec per knot) = 489 ft/sec downward
d = Vit + at2 = -489(13) + (-32.2)(13)2 = - 6355 - 2721 = -9,076 ft.
Remember to keep the signs (+/-) of your calculations in agreement with whatever convention you are using.
Gravity pulls downward, so we used a minus sign for "a" (acceleration). Also the initial velocity was downward.
In reality, any object may well have reached terminal velocity before the time indicated using the above formula
or Figure 1. In this example, the actual distance determined from ballistics tables would have been 8,000 ft, which is about
13% less than the above calculation would indicate. The drag characteristics of the object determine how much shorter the
distance will be. In any case, it will not have dropped farther.
AIRCRAFT DRAG INDEX POINTS - Tactical aircraft carry stores in various combinations depending upon the mission.
Each store has a different drag load which affects range. The pilot needs to know the total drag load in order to determine
his aircraft range on a particular mission. Adding up the total drag in pounds of force for wind resistance would be
cumbersome. Therefore, the drag of the stores is compared to a known reference drag (usually the aircraft), and expressed
as a percentage of aircraft drag multiplied by some constant. This ratio is variously called drag count, drag index, or drag
points. For instance, if a missile has 100 pounds of drag and the reference aircraft drag is 50,000 pounds, the ratio is
100/50,000 = 0.002. Multiply this by a constant of 100 (for example) and the drag index point is 0.2. The pilot only needs
to look on a chart to see what the drag index points are for his stores, add up the drag points, and look on a chart to see what
his aircraft range and best range (or endurance) speed will be.

8-1.2

MACH NUMBER and AIRSPEED vs ALTITUDE

MACH NUMBER is defined as a speed ratio, referenced to the speed of sound, i.e.
Velocity of Interest
(at the given atmospheric conditions)
MACH NUMBER '
Velocity of Sound

[1]

Since the temperature and density of air decreases with altitude, so does the speed of sound, hence a given true
velocity results in a higher MACH number at higher altitudes.
AIRSPEED is a term that can be easily confused. The unqualified term airspeed can mean any of the following:
a. Indicated airspeed (IAS) - the airspeed shown by an airspeed indicator in an aircraft. Indicated airspeed is expressed in
knots and is abbreviated KIAS.
b. Calibrated airspeed (CAS) - indicated airspeed corrected for static source error due to location of pickup sensor on
aircraft. Calibrated airspeed is expressed in knots and is abbreviated KCAS. Normally it doesn't differ much from IAS.
c. True airspeed (TAS) - IAS corrected for instrument installation error, compressibility error, and errors due to variations
from standard air density. TAS is expressed in knots and is abbreviated KTAS. TAS is approximately equal to CAS at
sea level but increases relative to CAS as altitude increases. At 35,000 ft, 250 KIAS (or KCAS) is approximately 430
KTAS.
IAS (or CAS) is important in that aircraft dynamics (such as stall speed) responds largely to this quantity. TAS is important
for use in navigation (True airspeed windspeed = groundspeed).
Figures 1 and 2 depict relations between CAS and TAS for various altitudes and non-standard temperature
conditions. The first graph depicts lower speed conditions, the second depicts higher speeds.
As an example of use, consider the chart on the next page. Assume we are in the cockpit, have read our IAS from
the airspeed indicator, and have applied the aircraft specific airspeed correction to obtain 370 KCAS. We start at point "A"
and go horizontally to our flight altitude at point "B" (25,000 ft in this case). To find our Mach, we go down vertically to
point "C" to obtain 0.86 Mach. To get our TAS at our actual environmental conditions, we go from point "B" vertically
until we hit the Sea Level (S.L.) reference line at point "D", then travel horizontally until we reach our actual outside air
temperature (-20EC at altitude) at point "E", then go up vertically to read our actual TAS from the scale at point "F" (535
KTAS). If we wanted our TAS at "standard" temperature and pressure conditions, we would follow the dashed lines
slanting upward from point "B" to point "G" and read 515 KTAS from the scale. Naturally, we could go into the graph at
any point and go "backwards" to find CAS from true Mach or TAS.
Figure 3 shows a much wider range of Mach numbers. It contains only TAS and Mach, since aircraft generally do
not fly above Mach 2, but missiles (which don't have airspeed indicators) do. The data on this graph can be obtained
directly from the following formula for use at altitudes of 36,000 ft and below:
[2]
Speed of Sound (KTAS)' 29.06 518.7 &3.57 A
Where A'altitude (K ft)
The speed of sound calculated from this formula can be used with the equation on the first page to obtain Mach
number. This equation uses the standard sea level temperature of 59E F and a lapse rate of -3.57E/1000 ft altitude.
Temperature stabilizes at -69.7E F at 36,000 ft so the speed of sound stabilizes there at 573 knots. See the last page of this
section for a derivation of equation [2].

8-2.1

1000

900

800

700

TRUE AIRSPEED - KNOTS

600
500
400

300

200

100
1000

F
TEMPERATURE - EC
60E 40E 20E 0E -20E-40E-60E

900
800
EXAMPLE:
A = CAS = 370 KTS
B = Altitude = 25,000 ft
C = MACH = 0.86
D = Sea Level Line
E = Non-std temp = -20EC
F = TAS = 535 KTS
G = TAS (Std Day) = 515 KTS

S.L.
5
10

15
20

700
600
500

25
30
35
40
45
50

400

300
200
100
1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

TRUE MACH NUMBER - M

Figure 1. TAS and CAS Relationship with Varying Altitude and Temperature

1800

1700

1600

1500

1400

TRUE AIRSPEED - KNOTS

1300 1200 1100 1000

900

800

700

600

S.L.

1300

TEMPERATURE - EC
60E 40E 20E 0E -20E -40E -60E

10

1200
1100

15

1000

20
25

900

30

800

35
40

700

45
50

600

55
60

500
400
300
200
2.0

1.9

1.8

1.7

1.6

1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
TRUE MACH NUMBER - M

1.1

1.0

0.9

0.8

Figure 2. TAS and CAS Relationship with Varying Altitude and Temperature (Continued)

8-2.2

100

TRUE AIRSPEED - KNOTS

Figure 3. Mach Number vs TAS Variation with Altitude

The following is a derivation of equation [2] for the speed of sound:

Given: p = pressure (lb/ft2)
T = absolute temperature (ERankine) = EF + 459.7
v = specific volume (ft3/lb)
w = specific weight (lb/ft3) = 1/v
R = a constant (for air: R = 53.3)
D = density = w/g = 1/gv v = 1/gD
From Boyle's law of gasses: pv = RT , therefore we have: p/D = gRT = (32.2)(53.3)T = 1718 T

[3]

It can also be shown that: p/D( = constant; for air ( = 1.4

[4]

From the continuity equation applied to a sound wave: DAVa = (D+dp)A(Va + dVa)

[5]

Expanding and dropping insignificant terms gives: dVa = -Va dD/D

[6]

Using Newton's second law (p + DVa/2 = a constant) and taking derivatives: dp = -DVadVa
substituting into [6] gives:

Va2 = dp/dD

[7]

Then taking derivatives of [4] and substituting in [7] gives: V '

a
Then using [3] gives: V '
a

(p
D

(gRT ' 1.4(1718)T ' 49 T

Using a "Standard" atmosphere of 59E F @ Sea Level (S.L.) and a lapse rate of -3.57E/1000 ft altitude:
ft 3600 sec nm
Va ' 49 459.7 %59 &3.57 A
' 29.06 518.7&3.57A which is equation [2]
sec
hr 6076 ft

8-2.3

[8]
[9]

MANEUVERABILITY
A useful function is to determine how many "G's" an aircraft might require to Table 1. G vs Angle of Bank
make a given turn without altitude loss. From Newton's laws, F cos N = W , where F =
(No altitude loss)
force applied to an aircraft, W = weight, and N = bank angle. By definition "G's" is the
G
N
ratio of the force on an object to it's weight, i.e., G = F/W = 1/cos N
Simple calculations will show the results presented in table 1, to the right.
Given that the average structural limit of an aircraft is about 7 G's, the maximum
bank angle that can be achieved in level (non-descending) flight is 81.8E.

1.0
1.4
2.0
3.9
7.2
11.5

0
45
60
75
82
85

Figure 1 can be used to determine the turn radius and rate-of-turn for any
aircraft, given speed and angle of bank (assuming the aircraft maintains level flight). It
may also be used in the reverse context. It should be noted that not all aircraft can fly at the speeds depicted - they may stall
beforehand or may be incapable of attaining such speeds due to power/structural limitations.
In the example shown on Figure 1, we assume an aircraft is traveling at 300 kts, and decides to make a 30E angle
of bank turn. We wonder what his turn radius is so we can approximate his flight path over the ground, and what his rate
of turn will be. We enter the chart at the side at 300 kts and follow the line horizontally until we intercept the 30E "bank
angle for rate of turn" line. We then go down vertically to determine the 2.10E/sec rate of turn. To get radius, we continue
horizontally to the 30E "bank angle for turn radius" line . We can then go down vertically to determine the radius of 13,800
ft.

Figure 1. Aircraft Turn Rate / Radius vs Speed

8-3.1

The exact formulas to use are:

Rate of Turn '

1091 tan(N)
V

Another interesting piece

of information might be to
determine the distance a typical
aircraft might travel during a
maneuver to avoid a missile.

Radius of Turn '

V2
11.26 tan(N)

V ' Velocity (Kts)

and N ' Angle of Bank

ASSUME:
Vac = 400 Kts & is pulling 7 G's in turn

10 sec

Figure 2 shows a birdseye view of such a typical aircraft

in a level (constant altitude) turn.

Where:

From Table 1:
Angle of bank = 82E
From Figure 1:
Rate of Turn (ROT) / 18E/sec
Radius of Turn / 2100 ft

5 sec

In 5 sec turning, the plane will have turned 90E,

in 10 sec it will have turned 180E

In 5 sec without turning, the plane will have

To counter many air-to-air
traveled 3333 ft, in 10 sec it will have traveled
missiles the pilot might make a
6666 ft.
level turn, however in countering a
400 Kts
SAM, altitude is usually lost for
two reasons: (1) the direction of
maneuvering against the missile
10 sec
5 sec
may be downward, and (2) many
6666 ft
3333 ft
aircraft are unable to maintain
altitude without also losing speed.
Figure 2. Maneuvering Aircraft
These
aircraft
may
have
insufficient thrust for their given weight or may be at too high an altitude. The lighter an aircraft is (after dropping
bombs/burning fuel), the better the performance. Likewise, the higher the altitude, the poorer the thrust-to-weight ratio.
Maximum afterburner is frequently required to maintain altitude at maximum G level.

REFERENCE AXES (Roll, Pitch, Yaw):

The rotational or oscillating movement of an aircraft, missile,
or other object about a longitudinal axis is called roll, about a lateral
axis is called pitch, and about a vertical axis is called yaw as shown
in Figure 3.

Y - Pitch Axis

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
If we want to determine the rate of turn or turn radius more
precisely than can be interpolated from the chart in Figure 1, we use
the formulas. For our initial sample problem with an aircraft
traveling 300 kts, in a 30E angle of bank turn, we have:

Rate of Turn '

1091 tan(N)
1091 tan(30)
'
' 2.1E/sec
V
300

Radius of Turn '

V2
3002
'
' 13,844 ft
11.26 tan(N)
11.26 tan(30)

These are the same results as we determined using Figure 1.

8-3.2

Z - Yaw Axis
X - Roll Axis

Figure 3. Reference Axes

EMP / AIRCRAFT DIMENSIONS

An aircraft flying in the vicinity of an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) acts like a receiving antenna and picks up EMP
radiation in relation to size like a dipole (or half-wavelength dipole). The electromagnetic pulse spectrum decreases above
1 MHz as shown in Figure 1, so an F-14 aircraft that is an optimum wavelength antenna at .8 MHz will pick up less
EMP voltage than a B-52 or an aircraft with a trailing wire antenna. A rule of thumb for the voltage picked up is :
VEMP = 8.1 volts/ft times the maximum dimension of the aircraft in feet
This rule of thumb was generated because a single linear relationship between voltage and aperture seemed to exist
and compared favorably with more complex calculations for voltage picked up by various aircraft when subjected to EMP.
Table 1 shows various aircraft and the frequencies they would be most susceptible to, using f = c/8, where 8
matches the selected aircraft dimension for maximum "antenna reception effect". This should be a design consideration
when trying to screen onboard avionics from the effects of EMP.
The following is a partial listing of aircraft types vs identifying prefix letters (several are used in Table 1):
A
B
C
E
F
H

Attack
Bomber
Cargo
Electronic Surveillance
Fighter
Helicopter

K
O
P
Q
R
S

Tanker
Observation
Patrol
Special mission
Reconnaissance
Anti Sub/Ship

T
U
V
X
Y

Trainer
Utility
Vertical or Short Takeoff
and Landing (V/STOL)
Experimental
Prototype

50 K v/m
-20 dB / decade

-40 dB / decade

1 MHZ

100 MHz

Frequency
Figure 1. EMP as a Function of Frequency

8-4.1

Table 1. AIRCRAFT DIMENSIONS AND EQUIVALENT ANTENNA APERTURE

MISSION

AIRCRAFT
TYPE

HEIGHT
(ft.)

FREQUENCY
(MHz)

LENGTH
(ft.)

FREQUENCY
(MHz)

WING
SPAN
(ft.)

FREQUENCY
(MHz)

f/2

f/2

f/2

A-6C
A-7E
A-10

15.58
16.00
14.66

63.16
61.50
67.05

31.58
30.75
33.52

54.58
46.07
53.33

18.03
21.36
18.43

9.02
10.68
9.21

53.0
38.73
57.5

18.57
25.41
17.1

9.29
12.71
8.55

ELECTRONIC
WARFARE

EA-6B

16.50

59.64

29.82

59.34

16.58

8.29

53.0

18.57

9.29

FIGHTER

F-4J
F-14
F-15
F-16
FA-18
F-117

16.3
16.0
18.4
16.66
15.3
12.42

60.37
61.50
53.42
59.00
64.31
79.15

30.19
30.75
26.71
29.5
32.16
39.57

58.2
62.0
63.75
49.25
56.0
65.92

16.91
15.87
15.42
19.96
17.57
14.91

8.46
7.94
7.71
9.98
8.79
7.46

38.4
64.1
42.8
31.0
40.70
43.33

25.63
15.33
22.97
31.71
24.18
22.69

12.82
7.67
11.48
15.85
12.09
11.34

ASW

P-3C
S-3A
SH-3D

33.75
22.75
16.42

29.16
43.25
59.93

14.58
21.63
29.97

116.42
54.34
72.67

8.45
18.45
13.54

4.23
9.23
6.77

99.67
68.67
62.00

9.87
14.33
15.87

4.94
7.17
7.84

ATTACK

AEW

E-2C

18.4

53.48

26.74

56.50

17.42

8.71

80.58

12.21

6.11

OV-10A
AV-8A
AV-8B
V-22

15.0
11.25
11.64
18.1

65.60
87.47
84.45
54.3

32.80
43.74
42.23
27.2

41.58
45.75
46.3
57.3

23.67
21.51
21.23
17.17

11.84
10.76
10.62
8.58

40.0
25.25
30.3
84.5

24.60
38.97
32.44
11.64

12.30
19.49
16.22
5.82

CH-46D
CH-53A

16.75
24.91

58.75
39.50

29.38
19.75

84.34
88.16

11.67
11.16

5.84
5.58

50.0
72.25

19.68
13.62

9.84
6.81

UH-1E
UH-2A

12.75
15.41

71.18
63.85

35.59
31.93

52.91
52.5

18.60
18.74

9.30
9.37

44.0
44.0

22.36
22.36

11.18
11.18

C-2A

15.92

61.81

30.91

56.6

17.39

8.70

80.58

12.21

6.11

TANKERS

KC-130F

38.1

25.83

12.92

97.8

10.06

5.03

132.5

7.43

3.72

SPECIAL
ELECTRONICS

EC-13OQ

38.5

25.56

12.78

99.34

9.91

4.96

132.5
8

7.42

3.71

T-2B
T-39D
TC-4C

14.8
16.0
23.34

66.49
61.50
42.16

33.25
30.75
21.08

38.7
43.75
67.9

25.43
22.49
14.49

12.72
11.25
7.25

37.85
44.34
78.34

26.00
22.19
12.56

13.0
11.10
6.28

V/STOL

HELICOPTERS
TROOP/CARGO
TRANSPORT
UTILITY
TRANSPORT

TRAINER

8-4.2

DATA BUSSES
INTRODUCTION
The avionics systems on
aircraft frequently contain general
purpose computer components which
perform certain processing functions,
then relay this information to other
systems. Some common examples are
the mission computers, the radar
processors, RWRs, and Jammers.
Each system is frequently laid out as
shown in Figure 1.

WRA

ROM/UDF
High Speed Data Bus

CPU

I/O

RAM

I/O

RS-232
MiscRS-422
Display
RS-485
etc.
IEEE-488
MIL-STD-1553
MIL-STD-1773
GPIB, HPIB, HPIL etc.

I/O
Storage Devices

i.e. Disk, Tape etc

The Input/Output (I/O)
modules will vary in function, but all
serve the same purpose - to translate
the electrical signals from one protocol
to one of another in order to exchange
information. I/O modules are used
Figure 1. Avionics Block Diagram
similarly in general purpose computers
in laboratories to test equipment and/or tie computers together via a local area network (LAN) to exchange information.
Some of the methodologies include a star, ring, or bus type network (see terminology at the end of this section). The high
speed data busses on avionics/computers do not operate as fast as the CPU clock speed, but they are much faster than the
interface busses they connect to. There are a number of interface busses which are widely used by aircraft, avionics systems
and test equipment. The most common include the RS-232, the RS-422, the RS-485, the IEEE-488 (GP-IB/HP-IB) and
the MIL-STD-1553A/B. The MIL-STD-1773 bus is a fiber optic implementation of the 1553 bus and may be used in the
future when technology requires it to reduce susceptibility to emissions or other reasons. A summary follows in Table 1,
then a brief description of each follows immediately, while a section covering each in more detail is provided later.

Table 1. Summary of Bus Characteristics

Bus

Max Length

Max Number of
Terminals(1)

Type

# of
Lines(2)

Data Rate

RS-232C

100 feet max

50 ft at 20k BPS
1.2 km(4)

Serial

3-20

10(5)

Serial

unspecified
20 meters

32
14

Serial
Parallel

3
16

150 - 19,200
baud per sec
see figure in
RS-232
section
10 MHz
500 kHz(6)

100 meters
300 feet
N/A

30
32(7)

Serial
Serial

2
3

20 k BPS
1 MHz

RS-422

RS-485
IEEE-488
(GP-IB/HP-IB)
HP-IL
MIL-STD-1553B
MIL-STD-1773

9-1.1

See notes on next page

Rise
Time(3)

<0.1 Tb

<0.3 Tb

Data Format
5- to 8- bit
serial
unspecified

unspecified
8-bit
parallel
serial
100-300 ns 20-bit serial

NOTES FROM TABLE:

(1) Max Number of Terminals does not include the bus controller.
(2) Including ground/shield
(3) Tb = time duration of the unit interval at the applicable data signalling rate (pulse width)
(4) Length is function of data signalling rate influenced by the tolerable signal distortion, amount of longitudinally coupled
noise and ground potential difference introduced between the controller and terminal circuit grounds as well as by cable
balance. See RS-422 section for graph.
(5) Physical arrangement of multiple receivers involves consideration of stub line lengths, fail-safe networks, location of
termination resistors, data rate, grounding, etc.
(6) Rate can go up to 1 MHz if special conventions are followed.
(7) Max Number of Terminals includes terminal reserved for broadcast commands.

BUS TERMINOLOGY
ADDRESS: A unique designation for the location of data or the identity of an intelligent device; allows each device on a
single communications line to respond to its own message.
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange): Pronounced asky. A seven-bit-plus-parity code
established by ANSI to achieve compatibility between data services.
ASYNCHRONOUS OPERATION: Asynchronous operation is the use of an independent clock source in each terminal
for message transmission. Decoding is achieved in receiving terminals using clock information derived from the message.
BAUD: Unit of signalling speed. The speed in baud is the number of discrete events per second. If each event represents
one bit condition, baud rate equals bits per second (BPS). When each event represents more than one bit, baud rate does
not equal BPS.
BIT: Contraction of binary digit: may be either zero or one. A binary digit is equal to one binary decision or the
designation of one or two possible values of states of anything used to store or convey information.
BIT RATE: The number of bits transmitted per second.
BROADCAST: Operation of a data bus system such that information transmitted by the bus controller or a remote
terminal is addressed to more than one of the remote terminals connected to the data bus.
BUS CONTROLLER: The terminal assigned the task of initiating information transfers on the data bus.
BUS MONITOR: The terminal assigned the task of receiving bus traffic and extracting selected information to be used
at a later time.
BYTE: A binary element string functioning as a unit, usually shorter than a computer "word." Eight-bits per byte are most
common. Also called a "character".
9-1.2

COMMAND/RESPONSE: Operation of a data bus system such that remote terminals receive and transmit data only
when commanded to do so by the bus controller.
CRC: Cyclic Redundancy Check; a basic error-checking mechanism for link-level data transmissions; a characteristic linklevel feature of (typically) bit-oriented data communications protocols. The data integrity of a received frame or packet is
checked via a polynomial algorithm based on the content of the frame and then matched with the result that is performed
by a sender and included in a (most often, 16-bit) field appended to the frame.
DATA BUS: Whenever a data bus or bus is referred to in MIL-STD-1553B, it shall imply all the hardware including
twisted shielded pair cables, isolation resistors, transformers, etc., required to provide a single data path between the bus
controller and all the associated remote terminals.
DCE (Data Communications Equipment): Devices that provide the functions required to establish, maintain, and
terminate a data-transmission connection; e.g., a modem.
DTE (Data Terminal Equipment): Devices acting as data source, data sink, or both.
DYNAMIC BUS CONTROL: The operation of a data bus system in which designated terminals are offered control of
the data bus.
EIA (Electronic Industries Association): A standards organization in the U.S.A. specializing in the electrical and
functional characteristics of interface equipment.
FDM (Frequency-Division Multiplexor: A device that divides the available transmission frequency range into narrower
banks, each of which is used for a separate channel.
FDX (Full Duplex): Simultaneous, two-way, independent transmission in both directions (4-wire).
GPIB: General Purpose Interface Bus (see section 9-5)
HALF DUPLEX: Operation of a data transfer system in either direction over a single line, but not in both directions on
that line simultaneously.
HANDSHAKING: Exchange of predetermined signals between two devices establishing a connection. Usually part of
a communications protocol.
HPIB / HPIL: Hewlett-Packard Interface Bus / Hewlett-Packard Interface Loop
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers): An international professional society that issues its own
standards and is a member of ANSI and ISO.
MANCHESTER ENCODING: Digital encoding technique (specified for the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet baseband network
standard) in which each bit period is divided into two complementary halves; a negative-to-positive (voltage) transition in
the middle of the bit period designates a binary "1," while a positive-to-negative transition represents a "0". The encoding
technique also allows the receiving device to recover the transmitted clock from the incoming data stream (self-clocking).

9-1.3

MESSAGE: A single message is the transmission of a command word, status word, and data words if they are specified.
For the case of a remote terminal to remote terminal (RT to RT) transmission, the message shall include the two command
words, the two status words, and data words.
MODE CODE: A means by which the bus controller can communicate with the multiplex bus related hardware, in order
to assist in the management of information flow.
MODEM (Modulator-Demodulator): A device used to convert serial digital data from a transmitting terminal to a signal
suitable for transmission over a telephone channel, or to reconvert the transmitted signal to serial digital data for acceptance
by a receiving terminal.
MULTIPLEXOR (also Multiplexer): A device used for division of a transmission into two or more subchannels, either
by splitting the frequency band into narrower bands (frequency division) or by allotting a common channel to several
different transmitting devices one at a time (time division).
NETWORK: An interconnected group of nodes; a series of points, nodes, or stations connected by communications
channels; the assembly of equipment through which connections are made between data stations.

Bus
Ring

Star

NODE: A point of interconnection to a network. Normally, a point at which a number of terminals or tail circuits attach
to the network.
PARALLEL TRANSMISSION: Transmission mode that sends a number of bits simultaneously over separate lines (e.g.,
eight bits over eight lines) to a printer. Usually unidirectional.
PHASE MODULATION: One of three ways of modifying a sine wave signal to make it "carry" information. The sine
wave or "carrier" has its phase changed in accordance with the information to be transmitted.
POLLING: A means of controlling devices on a multipoint line.
PROTOCOL: A formal set of conventions governing the formatting and relative timing of message exchange between
two communicating systems.
PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM): The form of modulation in which the modulation signal is sampled, quantized,
and coded so that each element of information consists of different types or numbers of pulses and spaces.
9-1.4

REMOTE TERMINAL (RT): All terminals not operating as the bus controller or as a bus monitor.
SERIAL TRANSMISSION: The most common transmission mode; in serial, information bits are sent sequentially on
a single data channel.
STUBBING: Stubbing is the method wherein a separate line is connected between the primary data bus line and a
terminal. The direct connection of stub line causes a mismatch which appears on the waveforms. This mismatch can be
reduced by filtering at the receiver and by using bi-phase modulation. Stubs are often employed not only as a convenience
in bus layout but as a means of coupling a unit to the line in such a manner that a fault on the stub or terminal will not
greatly affect the transmission line operation. In this case, a network is employed in the stub line to provide isolation from
the fault. These networks are also used for stubs that are of such length that the mismatch and reflection degrades bus
operation. The preferred method of stubbing is to use transformer coupled stubs. The method provides the benefits of DC
isolation, increased common mode protection, a doubling of effective stub impedance, and fault isolation for the entire stub
and terminal. Direct coupled stubs should be avoided if at all possible. Direct coupled stubs provide no DC isolation or
common mode rejection for the terminal external to its subsystem. Further, any shorting fault between the subsystems'
internal isolation resistors (usually on the circuit board) and the main bus junction will cause failure of that entire bus. It
can be expected that when the direct stub length exceeds 1.6 feet, that it will begin to distort the main bus waveforms. Note
that this length includes the cable runs internal to a given subsystem.
SUBSYSTEM: The device or functional unit receiving data transfer service from the data bus.
SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION: Transmission in which data bits are sent at a fixed rate, with the transmitter and
receiver synchronized. Synchronized transmission eliminates the need for start and stop bits.
TERMINAL: The electronic module necessary to interface the data bus with the subsystem and the subsystem with the
data bus. Terminals may exist as separate units or be contained within the elements of the subsystem.
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM): The transmission of information from several signal sources through one
communication system with different signal samples staggered in time to form a composite pulse train.
WORD: A set of bits or bytes comprising the smallest unit of addressable memory. In MIL-STD-1553B, a word is a
sequence of 16 bits plus sync and parity.

9-1.5

RS-232 INTERFACE
Introduction:
The RS-232 interface is the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) standard for the interchange of serial binary
data between two devices. It was initially developed by the EIA to standardize the connection of computers with telephone
line modems. The standard allows as many as 20 signals to be defined, but gives complete freedom to the user. Three
wires are sufficient: send data, receive data, and signal ground. The remaining lines can be hardwired on or off
permanently. The signal transmission is bipolar, requiring two voltages, from 5 to 25 volts, of opposite polarity.
Communication Standards:
The industry custom is to use an asynchronous word consisting of: a start bit, seven or eight data bits, an optional
parity bit and one or two stop bits. The baud rate at which the word sent is device-dependent. The baud rate is usually
150 times an integer power of 2, ranging from 0 to 7 (150, 300, 600 ,...., 19,200 ). Below 150 baud, many system-unique
rates are used. The standard RS-232-C connector has 25 pins, 21 pins which are used in the complete standard. Many of
the modem signals are not needed when a computer terminal is connected directly to a computer, and Figure 1 illustrates
how some of the "spare" pins should be linked if not needed. Figure 1 also illustrates the pin numbering used in the original
DB-25 connector and that now commonly used with a DB-9 connector normally used in modern computers
Specifying compliance to RS-232 only establishes that the signal levels in two devices will be compatible and that
if both devices use the suggested connector, they may be able to be connected. Compliance to RS-232 does not imply that
the devices will be able to communicate or even acknowledge each other's presence.

RS-232 Interface
Frame (Chassis) Ground

1
3

COMPUTER

Transmit data

Receive data

Receive data

Signal Ground

9 22
4 20

Transmit data

Request to send

Request to send

Clear to send

Clear to send

Carrier detect

Carrier detect

Data set ready

Data set ready

Ring indicator

Ring indicator

22 9

Data terminal ready

Data terminal ready

20 4

Figure 1. Direct-to-computer RS-232 Interface

9-2.1

TERMINAL

Table 1 shows the signal names, and functions of the RS-232 serial port pinout. Table 2 shows a complete pin description
Table 1. RS-232 Serial Port Pinout
Name Pin Signal Name

Function

AA

PG
Protective Ground

This line is connected to the chassis ground of the GPIB-232CV. Since the
GPIB-232CV chassis ground is not connected to earth ground, pin 1 should be
connected on both serial devices.

BA

TxD
Transmit Data

This line carries serial data from the GPIB-232CV to the serial host.

BB

RxD
Receive Data

This line carries serial data from the serial host to the GPIB-232CV.

CA

RTS
Request to Send

This signal line is driven by the GPIB-232CV and when asserted indicates that
the GPIB-232CV is ready to accept serial data. The GPIB-232CV unasserts
RTS when it is no longer ready to accept serial data because of a buffer full
condition.

CB

CTS
Clear to Send

This signal line is asserted by the serial host and sensed by the GPIB-232CV.
When asserted, it indicates that the serial host is ready to accept serial data.
When unasserted, it indicates that data transmission should be disabled.

AB

SG
Signal Ground

This line establishes a reference point for all interface voltages.

CD

20 DTR
Data Terminal
Ready

This signal line is asserted by the GPIB-232CV to signal that it has been
powered on, and is ready to operate.

Table 2. RS-232C Interface Signals.

Pin
1
2
3
4
5

Description
Protective Ground
Transmitted Data
Received Data
Request to Send
Clear to Send

Pin
10
11
12
13
14

Data Set Ready

Signal Ground (Common

Return)
Received Line Signal
Detector
(Reserved for Data Set
Testing)

15 Transmission Signal Element Timing

(DCE Source)
16 Secondary Received Data

8
9

Description
(Reserved for Data Set Testing)
Unassigned
Sec. Rec'd. Line Sig. Detector
Sec. Clear to Send
Secondary Transmitted Data

17 Receiver Signal Element Timing

(DCE Source)
18 Unassigned

9-2.2

Pin
19
20
21
22
23

Description
Secondary Request to Send
Data Terminal Ready
Signal Quality Detector
Ring Indicator
Data Signal Rate Selector
(DTE/DCE Source)
24 Transmit Signal Element
Timing (DTE Source)
25 Unassigned

Electrical Characteristics: The RS-232-C specifies the signaling rate between the DTE and DCE, and a digital signal is used
on all interchange circuits. The RS-232 standard specifies that logic "1" is to be sent as a voltage in the range -15 to -5 V
and that logic "0" is to sent as a voltage in the range +5 to +15 V. The standard specifies that voltages of at least 3 V in
amplitude will always be recognized correctly at the receiver according to their polarity, so that appreciable attenuation
along the line can be tolerated. The transfer rate is rated > 20 kbps and a distance of < 15m. Greater distance and data
rates are possible with good design, but it is reasonable to assume that these limits apply in practice as well as in theory.
The load impedance of the terminator side of the interface must be between 3000 and 7000 ohms, and not more than
2500pF.
Table 3, summarizes the functional specifications of the most important circuits.
Table 3. RS-232-C Circuit Definitions
Name

Direction
to:

Function

Data Signals
Transmitted Data (BA)
Received Data (BB)

DCE
DTE

Data generated by DTE

Data Received by DTE

Timing signals
Transmitter Signal Element Timing (DA)
Transmitter Signal Element Timing (DB)
Receiver Signal Element Timing (DD)

DCE
DTE
DTE

Clocking signal, transitions to ON and OFF occur at center of each signal element
Clocking signal, as above; both leads relate to signals on BA
Clocking signal, as above, for circuit BB

Control Signals
Request to Send (CA)
Clear to Send (CB)
Data Set Ready (CC)
Data Terminal Ready (CD)
Ring Indicator (CE)
Carrier Detect (CF)
Signal Quality Detector (CG)
Data Signal Rate Selector (CH)
Data Signal Rate Selector (CI)

DCE
DTE
DTE
DCE
DTE
DTE
DTE
DCE
DTE

DTE wishes to transmit

DCE is ready to transmit; response to request to send
DCE is ready to operate
DTE is ready to operate
Indicates that DCE is receiving a ringing signal on the communication channel
Indicates that DCE is receiving a carrier signal
Asserted when there is reason to believe there is an error in the received data
Asserted to select the higher of two possible data rates
Asserted to select the higher of two possible data rates

Ground
Protective Ground (AA)
Signal Ground (AB)

NA
NA

Attached to machine frame and possibly external grounds

Establishes common ground reference for all circuits

Range: The RS-232-C standard specifies that the maximum length of cable between the transmitter and receiver should
not exceed 100 feet, Although in practice many systems are used in which the distance between transmitter and receiver
exceeds this rather low figure. The limited range of the RS-232C standard is one of its major shortcomings compared with
other standards which offer greater ranges within their specifications. One reason why the range of the RS-232C standard
is limited is the need to charge and discharge the capacitance of the cable connecting the transmitter and receiver.
Mechanical Characteristics: The connector for the RS-232-C is a 25 pin connector with a specific arrangement of wires.
In theory, a 25 wire cable could be used to connect the Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) to the Data Communication
Equipment (DCE). The DTE is a device that is acting as a data source , data sink, or both, e.g. a terminal, peripheral or
computer. The DCE is a device that provides the functions required to establish, maintain,and terminate a data-transmission
connecting, as well as the signal conversion, and coding required for communication between data terminal equipment and
data circuit; e.g. a modem. Table 4, shows the complete summary of the RS-232-C, e.g., descriptor, sponsor, data format,
etc.

9-2.3

Table 4. Summary of the RS-232-C

Data Format

5- to 8- bit serial

Transfer Type

Asynchronous

Error Handling

Optional Parity Bit

Connector

25-pin female connector on DCE; 25-pin male connector on DTE

Length

20 meters

Speed

20 kb/s

Remarks

RS-232 is used in the microcomputer world for communications between two DTEs. The nullmodem is included into one or both connecting devices, and/or cable and is seldom documented.
As a result, establishing an RS-232 connection between two DTEs is frequently a difficult task.

9-2.4

RS-422 BALANCED VOLTAGE INTERFACE

Specifying compliance to RS-422 only establishes that the signal between the specified devices will be compatible.
It does not indicate that the signal functions or operations between the two devices are compatible. The RS-422 standard
only defines the characteristic requirements for the balanced line drivers and receivers. It does not specify one specific
connector, signal names or operations. RS-422 interfaces are typically used when the data rate or distance criteria cannot
be met with RS-232. The RS-422 standard allows for operation of up to 10 receivers from a single transmitter. The
standard does not define operations of multiple tristated transmitters on a link.
The RS-422-A interfaces between the Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and Data Communication Equipment
(DCE) or in any point-to-point interconnection of signals between digital equipment. It employs the electrical characteristics
of balanced-voltage digital interface circuits.
The balanced voltage digital interface circuit will normally be utilized on data, timing, or control circuits where the
data signalling rate is up to 10 Mbit/s. While the balanced interface is intended for use at the higher data signalling rate,
it may ( in preference to the unbalanced interface circuit ) generally be required if any of the following conditions prevail:
C
The interconnecting cable is too long for effective unbalanced operation.
C
The interconnecting cable is exposed to an extraneous noise source that may cause an unwanted voltage in excess
of + 1 volt measured differentially between the signal conductor and circuit common at the load end of the cable
with a 50 ohm resistor substituted for the generator.
C
It is necessary to minimize interference with other signals.
C
Inversion of signals may be required, i.e. plus to minus MARK may be obtained by inverting the cable pair.
Applications of the balanced voltage digital interface circuit are shown in Figure 1.

B
D
T
E

B
D
C
E

D
C
E

B
D
T
E

B
LEGEND:
DTE = Data Terminal Equipment
DCE = Data Communication Equipment
= Interface Generator
= Interface Load
B = Balanced Interface Curcuit
= Telecommunication Channel

Figure 1. Applications of a RS-422 Circuit

9-3.1

D
T
E

D
T
E

While a restriction on maximum cable length is not specified, guidelines are given later with respect to conservative
operating distances as function of data signalling rate.
For a binary system in which the RS-422-A is designed, the data signalling rate in bit/s and the modulation in bauds
are numerically equal when the unit interval used in each determination is the minimum interval.
Electrical Characteristics:
The balanced voltage digital interface circuit consists of three parts: the generator (G), the balanced interconnecting
cable, and the load. The load is comprised of one or more receivers (R) and an optional cable termination resistance (RT).
The balanced voltage interface circuit is shown in Figure 2.
Environmental Constraints:
Balanced voltage digital interface conforming to this standard will perform satisfactorily at data signalling rates
up to 10 Mbit/s providing that the following operational constraints are satisfied:
C The interconnecting cable length is within that recommended for the applicable data signalling rate ( see
Figure 3) and the cable is appropriately terminated.
C The common mode voltage at the receiver is less than 7 volts (peak). The common mode voltage is defined
to be any uncompensated combination of generator-receiver ground potential difference, the generator offset
voltage (Vos), and longitudinally coupled peak noise voltage measured between the received circuit ground
and cable within the generator ends of the cable short-circuited to ground.

BALANCED
INTERCONNECTING
CABLE

LOAD
CABLE
TERMINATION

GENERATOR
A
G

Rt
B

RECEIVER

A1
R

B1

To additional
receivers,
if any
C1

LEGEND:
Rt = Optional Cable Termination Resistance
Vg = Ground Potential Difference
A, B = Generator Interface Points
A1, B1 = Load Interface Points
C = Generator Circuit Ground
C1 = Load Circuit Ground
Note: The physical connections of multiple receiver is not defined

Figure 2. Balanced Digital Interface Circuit

9-3.2

Interconnecting Cable Guidelines:

The maximum permissible length of cable separating the generator and the load is a function of data signalling rate
and is influenced by the tolerable signal distortion, the amount of coupled noise and ground potential difference introduced
between the generator and load circuit as well as by cable balance. The curve of cable length versus signalling rate is given
in Figure 3. This curve is based upon using 24 AWG copper, twisted-pair cable with a capacitance of 52.5 pF/meter
terminated in a 100 ohm load. As data signalling rate is reduced below 90 kbit/s, the cable length has been limited at 1200
meters by the assumed maximum allowable 6 dBV signal loss.
Industry customs are not nearly as well established for RS-422 interfaces as they are for RS-232. The standard
specifies use of the 37-pin "D"; the 9-pin "D" is specified for use with the secondary channel. Most data communications
equipment uses the 37-pin "D"; many computer applications use a 9-pin "D" only. Some equipment applications use the
25-pin "D" defined for RS-232.
Compatibility With Other Interfaces:
Since the basic differential receivers of RS-423-A and RS-422-A are electrically identical, it is possible to
interconnect an equipment using RS-423-A receivers and generators on one side of the interface with an equipment using
RS-422-A generators and receivers on the other side of the interface, if the leads of the receivers and generators are properly
configured to accommodate such an arrangement and the cable is not terminated.
This circuit is not intended for interoperation with other interface electrical circuits such as RS-232-C,
MIL-STD-188C, or CCITT (Comite Consultatif Internationale Telegraphique et Telephonique), recommendations V.28
and V.35. Under certain conditions, the above interfaces may be possible but may require modification of the interface or
equipment; therefore satisfactory operation is not assured and additional provisions not specified herein may be required.

10 k

1.2 k
1k

100

10
10 k

100 k
1M
DATA SIGNALLING RATE - bit/s

Figure 3. Data Signalling Rate vs Cable Length

9-3.3

10 M

RS-485 INTERFACE
STANDARD FOR ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GENERATORS AND RECEIVERS FOR USE IN
BALANCED DIGITAL MULTIPOINT SYSTEMS
Introduction: The RS-485 is the recommend standard by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA) that specifies the
electrical characteristics of generators and receivers that may be employed for the interchange of binary signals in multipoint
interconnection of digital equipments. When implemented within the guidelines, multiple generators and receivers may
be attached to a common interconnecting cable. An interchange system includes one or more generators connected by a
balanced interconnecting cable to one or more receivers and terminating resistors.
Electrical Characteristics: The
electrical characteristics that are
Rt
Rt
specified are measured at an
interconnect point supplied by the
devices manufacturer. Figure 1
A/A1
A1
A
shows
an
interconnection
R
G/R
Balanced
G
application of generators and
Interconnecting
B
B1
B/B1
Cable
receivers having the electrical
C
1
C
L
C/C1
parameters specified.
The
Interface
Described in
elements in the application are:
LEGEND:
This Standard
generators, receivers, transmission
G = Generator
cables, and termination resistances
R = Receiver
(Rt). The loads on the system
G/R = Combination Generator / Receiver
L = Length of stub: the guideline assumes length of stub to be effectively zero
caused by each receiver and
R t = Termination resistance; location and value are not specified in this
passive generator shall be defined
standard, but a generator can drive 32 unit loads plus two termination
in terms of unit loads. Each
resistances of 120 ohms each.
generator can drive up to 32 unit
Figure 1. Multipoint Interconnect Application
loads consisting of both receivers
and generators in the passive state. The loading caused by receivers and passive generators on the interconnect must be
considered in defining the device electrical characteristics. Two areas are of concern: the DC load and the AC load
characteristics. The DC load is defined as a number or fractions of "unit loads". The AC loading is not standardized but
must be considered in the design of a system using the devices meeting this standard.
General System Configuration: The generators and receivers conforming to the RS-485 standard can operate with a
common mode voltage between -7 volts and +7 volts ( instantaneous ). The common mode voltage is defined to be any
uncompensated combination of generator-receiver ground potential difference and longitudinally coupled peak noise voltage
measured between the receiver circuit ground and cable with the generator ends of the cable short circuited to ground, plus
the generator offset voltage (Vos).
Grounding Arrangements: Proper operation of the generator and receiver circuits requires the presence of a signal return
path between the circuit grounds of the equipment at each end of the interconnection. The grounding arrangements are
shown in Figure 2. Where the circuit reference is provided by a third conductor, the connection between circuit common
and the third conductor must contain some resistance ( e.g., 100 ohms ) to limit circulating currents when other ground
connections are provided for safety. Some applications may require the use of shielded interconnecting cable for EMI or
other purposes. The shield shall be connected to frame ground at either or both ends, depending on the application.

9-4.1

Rt

Balanced Interconnecting
Cable Pair

Rt

Third Conductor

No Connection

No Connection

A/A1

A1

G
B
C

G/R

B1

B/B1
C/C1

C1

100 S 100 S

100 S

100 S *
1/2 W

100 S *
1/2 W

Optional
Strap

Logic reference
100 S *
1/2 W

Chassis reference
Earth (safety) reference
* Resistor must become an open
circuit when overloaded

NOTE: Third conductor not required if earth

reference provided in each using equipment.

Figure 2. Grounding Arrangements

Similarity with RS-422-A:

In certain instances, it may be possible to produce generators and receivers that meet the requirements of both
RS-422-A and of RS-485. Table 1 depicts the differences in parameter specifications which exist between the two
documents.
Table 1. Comparison of RS-422-A and RS-485 Characteristics
Characteristic

RS-422-A

RS-485

Min. output voltage

2V into 100 ohm

> 1/2 open circuit V

1.5 V into 54 ohms

Ishort to ground

150 mA maximum

Ishort to -7, +12 volts

trise time

250 mA peak
< 0.1 tb , 100 ohm load

< 0.3 tb , 54 ohm, 50 pF load

Where tb = time duration of the unit interval at the applicable data signalling rate (pulse width).

9-4.2

IEEE-488 INTERFACE BUS (HP-IB/GP-IB)

In the early 1970's, Hewlett-Packard came out with a standard bus (HP-IB) to help support their own laboratory
measurement equipment product lines, which later was adopted by the IEEE in 1975. This is known as the IEEE Std.
488-1975. The IEEE-488 Interface Bus (HP-IB) or general purpose interface bus (GP-IB) was developed to provide a
means for various instruments and devices to communicate with each other under the direction of one or more master
controllers. The HP-IB was originally intended to support a wide range of instruments and devices, from the very fast to
the very slow.
Description:
The HP-IB specification permits up to 15 devices to be connected together in any given setup, including the
controller if it is part of the system. A device may be capable of any other three types of functions: controller, listener, or
talker. A device on the bus may have only one of the three functions active at a given time. A controller directs which
devices will be talkers and listeners. The bus will allow multiple controllers, but only one may be active at a given time.
Each device on the bus should have a unique address in the range of 0-30. The maximum length of the bus network is
limited to 20 meters total transmission path length. It is recommended that the bus be loaded with at least one instrument
or device every 2 meter length of cable (4 meters is maximum). The use of GP-IB extenders may be used to exceed the
maximum permitted length of 20 meters.
Electrical Interface:
The GP-IB is a bus to which many similar modules can be directly connected, as is shown in Figure 1. A total of
16 wires are shown in the figure - eight data lines and eight control lines. The bus cables actually have 24 wires, providing
eight additional for shielding and grounds.

8 - wire data bus

Attention
Ready for data
Data accept
Data available
Serveice request
Interface clear
remote enable
End or Identify

Figure 1. IEEE-488 (HP-IB/GP-IB) Bus Configuration

9-5.1

The GP-IB defines operation of a three-wire handshake that is used for all data transfers on the bus. The bus
operation is asynchronous in nature. The data-transfer rate of the GP-IB is 500 kHz for standard applications and can go
up 1 MHz if special conventions are followed. Each transaction carries 8 bits, the maximum data bandwidth is on the order
of 4 to 8 megabits (1 M byte) per second. The bus is a two way communications channel and data flows in both directions.
Figure 2 illustrates the structure of the GP-IB bus and identifies the 16 connections of the interconnecting cable.

GPIB
Listner
and / or
Talker
DAV
NRFD
NDAC
IFC
ATN
SRQ
REN
EOI

GPIB
Listner
and / or
Talker

GPIB
Listner
and / or
Talker

GPIB
Listner
and / or
Talker

Handshake Bus

Management Bus

DIO - 1

Data Bus
DIO - 8

Figure 2. GP-IB Instrumentation Bus Structure

The cabling limitations make it a less-than-ideal choice for large separation between devices. These limitations
can be overcome with bus extenders. Those attempting to use bus extenders should be aware that few extenders are as
transparent as claimed. This is especially true in handling of continuous data and interrupts. In nonextended environments,
it provides an excellent means for high-speed computer control of multiple devices.
The following table shows the various interface functions, the mnemonics and the descriptions.
Table 1. GP-IB Interface Functions
Interface Function

Mnemonic Description

Talker (extended talker)

T (TE)

Device must be able to transmit

Listener (Extended listener)

L (LE)

Device must receive commands and data

Source Handshake

SH

Device must properly transfer a multiline message

Acceptor Handshake

AH

Device must properly receive remote multiline messages

Remote/Local

RL

Device must be able to operate from front panel and remote information from bus

Service Request

SR

Device can asynchronously request service from the controller

Parallel Poll

PP

Upon controller request, device must uniquely identify itself if it requires service

Device Clear

DC

Device can be initialized to a predetermined state

Device Trigger

DT

A device function can be initiated by the talker on the bus

Controller

Device can send addresses, universal commands, address commands, and conduct
polls

Drivers

This code describes the type of electrical drivers in a device

9-5.2

The cabling specifications of the GP-IB interface system permit interconnecting all devices together in a star or
linear configuration. The GP-IB connector is a 24-pin ribbon-type connector.
In summary, Table 2 on this page and the next shows the complete description of the GP-IB data bus.
Table 2. GP-IB Data Bus Description
IEEE-488, GP-IB, HP-IB, or IEC-625
Descriptor

8-bit parallel,
monodirectional,
multi-master (token
passing)
One controller, one
talker, several
listeners

Arbitration

Token passing: the

controller addresses
the next controller
SRQ Service request
when the controller
assigns modes

Sponsor

Hewlett-Packard

Error handling

Parity bit DI07 when

7-bit ACSII
characters

Standard

IEEE 488, IEC 625

Bus length

15 m

Address space

31 devices

Driver

Special 24 mA
drivers

Data format

8-bit parallel

Speed

1 MByte/s

Transfer type

Write only, talker

toward listener(s) or
commander toward
all others

Timing

Handshaken 3-wire
broadcast transfer:
DAV data valid
NDAC Not data
accepted
NRFD Not ready for
data

References

IEEE Computer
Society

Connector

24-pin Amphenol
Female connector on equipment
chassis.
DIO1 1 13 DIO5
DIO2 2 14 DIO6
DIO3 3 15 DIO7
DIO4 4 16 DIO8
EOI
5 17 REN
DAV 6 18 Gnd
NRFD 7 19 Gnd
NDAC 8 20 Gnd
IFC
9 21 Gnd
SRQ 10 22 Gnd
ATN 11 23 Gnd
Shld
12 24 Gnd

Remarks

The 488 is most commonly

used for data acquisition of H-P
peripherals. Programmable
interfaces and drivers exist and
simplify the development of
microprocessor interfaces.

HP-IL Variation:
Since introduction of the IEEE-488, technology produced a generation of medium-speed, low-power,
instrumentation which had a need to operate in an automatic test system such as the GP-IB. The HP-IL (Hewlett-Packard
Interface Loop), was introduced to meet this need. The HP-IL is a low-cost, low-power alternative to the GP-IB system.
The HP-IL and GP-IB provide the same basic functions in interfacing controllers, instruments, and peripherals, but they
differ in many other respects. HP-IL is suitable for use in low-power, portable applications ( typically used for interface
of battery-power systems ). The GP-IB is not practical to operate from battery power. The HP-IL maximum data rate is
20K bytes per second. This is a high rate compared to the RS-232C, but much slower than GP-IB. The HP-IL can operate
over distances of up to 100 meters between any two devices. Since it is a loop environment, there is no maximum system
cable restriction. The basic device-addressing scheme allows for up to 30 devices on a loop.

9-5.3

MIL-STD-1553 & 1773 DATA BUS

PURPOSE
In recent years, the use of digital techniques in aircraft equipment has greatly increased, as have the number of
avionics subsystems and the volume of data processed by them.
Because analog point-to-point wire bundles are inefficient and cumbersome means of interconnecting the
sensors, computers, actuators, indicators, and other equipment onboard the modern military vehicle, a serial digital
multiplex data bus was developed. MIL-STD-1553 defines all aspects of the bus, therefore, many groups working with
the military tri-services have chosen to adopt it.
The 1553 multiplex data bus provides integrated, centralized system control and a standard interface for all
equipment connected to the bus. The bus concept provides a means by which all bus traffic is available to be accessed
with a single connection for testing and interfacing with the system. The standard defines operation of a serial data bus
that interconnects multiple devices via a twisted, shielded pair of wires. The system implements a command-response
format.
MIL-STD-1553, "Aircraft Internal Time-Division Command/Response Multiplex Data Bus," has been in use
since 1973 and is widely applied. MIL-STD-1553 is referred to as "1553" with the appropriate revision letter (A or B)
as a suffix. The basic difference between the 1553A and the 1553B is that in the 1553B, the options are defined rather
than being left for the user to define as required. It was found that when the standard did not define an item, there was
no coordination in its use. Hardware and software had to be redesigned for each new application. The primary goal of
the 1553B was to provide flexibility without creating new designs for each new user. This was accomplished by
specifying the electrical interfaces explicitly so that compatibility between designs by different manufacturers could be
electrically interchangeable.
The Department of Defense chose multiplexing because of the following advantages:
C Weight reduction
C Simplicity
C Standardization
C Flexibility
Some 1553 applications utilize more than one data bus on a vehicle. This is often done, for example, to isolate
a Stores bus from a Communications bus or to construct a bus system capable of interconnecting more terminals than a
single bus could accommodate. When multiple buses are used, some terminals may connect to both buses, allowing for
communication between them.
MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing facilitates the transmission of information along the data flow. It permits the transmission of
several signal sources through one communications system.
BUS
The bus is made up of twisted-shielded pairs of wires to maintain message integrity. MIL-STD-1553 specifies
that all devices in the system will connect to a redundant pair of buses. This provides a second path for bus traffic
should one of the buses be damaged. Signals are only allowed to appear on one of the two buses at a time. If a message
cannot be completed on one bus, the bus controller may switch to the other bus. In some applications more than one
1553 bus may be implemented on a given vehicle. Some terminals on the bus may actually connect to both buses.
9-6.1

BUS COMPONENTS
There are only three functional modes of terminals allowed on the data bus: the bus controller, the bus monitor,
and the remote terminal. Devices may be capable of more than one function. Figure 1 illustrates a typical bus
configuration.

Bus
Controller
BC

Remote
Terminal
RT

Monitor
M

Remote
Terminal
RT

Shielded Two-wire CableBus

Remote
Terminal
RT

Figure 1. 1553 Bus Structure

C Bus Controller - The bus controller (BC) is the terminal that initiates information transfers on the data bus.
It sends commands to the remote terminals which reply with a response. The bus will support multiple
controllers, but only one may be active at a time. Other requirements, according to 1553, are: (1) it is "the
key part of the data bus system," and (2) "the sole control of information transmission on the bus shall
reside with the bus controller."
C Bus Monitor - 1553 defines the bus monitor as "the terminal assigned the task of receiving bus traffic and
extracting selected information to be used at a later time." Bus monitors are frequently used for
instrumentation.
C Remote Terminal - Any terminal not operating in either the bus controller or bus monitor mode is
operating in the remote terminal (RT) mode. Remote terminals are the largest group of bus components.
MODULATION
The signal is transferred over the data bus using serial digital pulse code modulation.
DATA ENCODING
The type of data encoding used by 1553 is Manchester II biphase.
C A logic one (1) is transmitted as a bipolar coded signal 1/0 (in other words, a positive pulse followed by a
negative pulse).
C A logic zero (0) is a bipolar coded signal 0/1 (i.e., a negative pulse followed by a positive pulse).

9-6.2

One Bit Time

1 MHz (+)
Clock (0)

NRZ (+)
Data (0)

Manchester II (+)
Bi-Phase Level ( 0)
(+)

Figure 2. Data Encoding

A transition through zero occurs at the midpoint of each bit, whether the rate is a logic one or a logic zero.
Figure 2 compares a commonly used Non Return to Zero (NRZ) code with the Manchester II biphase level code, in
conjunction with a 1 MHz clock.
BIT TRANSMISSION RATE
The bit transmission rate on the bus is 1.0 megabit per second with a combined accuracy and long-term
stability of +/- 0.1%. The short-term stability is less than 0.01%.
There are 20 1.0-microsecond bit times allocated for each word. All words include a 3 bit-time sync pattern, a
16-bit data field that is specified differently for each word type, and 1 parity check bit.
WORD FORMATS
Bus traffic or communications travels along the bus in words. A word in MIL-STD-1553 is a sequence of 20
bit times consisting of a 3 bit-time sync wave form, 16 bits of data, and 1 parity check bit. This is the word as it is
transmitted on the bus; 1553 terminals add the sync and parity before transmission and remove them during reception.
Therefore, the nominal word size is 16 bits, with the most significant bit (MSB) first.
There are three types of words: command, status, and data. A packet is defined to have no intermessage gaps.
The time between the last word of a controller message and the return of the terminal status byte is 4-12 microseconds.
The time between status byte and the next controller message is undefined. Figure 3 illustrates these three formats.

9-6.3

BIT Times

2 3

Command
Word

7 8

5
Sync

Remote Terminal
Address

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1

T/R

Subaddress/Mode

Data Word Count /

Mode Code

Data
Word
Sync

Status
Word

5
Sync

Remote Terminal
Address

16

Data

1 1

Resereved

T/R - Transmit/Receive
P - Parity

Figure 3. 1553 Word Formats

COMMAND WORD
Command words are transmitted only by the bus controller and always consist of:
C 3 bit-time sync pattern
C 5 bit RT address field
C 1 Transmit/Receive (T/R) field
C 5 bit subaddress/mode field
C 5 bit word count/mode code field
C 1 parity check bit.
DATA WORD
Data words are transmitted either by the BC or by the RT in response to a BC request. The standard allows a
maximum of 32 data words to be sent in a packet with a command word before a status response must be returned.
Data words always consist of:
C 3 bit-time sync pattern (opposite in polarity from command and status words)
C 16 bit data field
C 1 parity check bit.
STATUS WORD
Status words are transmitted by the RT in response to command messages from the BC and consist of:
C 3 bit-time sync pattern (same as for a command word)
C 5 bit address of the responding RT
C 11 bit status field
C 1 parity check bit.
The 11 bits in the status field are used to notify the BC of the operating condition of the RT and subsystem.
9-6.4

INFORMATION TRANSFERS
Three basic types of information transfers are defined by 1553:
C Bus Controller to Remote Terminal transfers
C Remote Terminal to Bus Controller transfers
C Remote Terminal to Remote Terminal transfers
These transfers are related to the data flow and are referred to as messages. The basic formats of these
messages are shown in Figure 4.

Controller
to RT
Transfer

RT to
Controller
Transfer

Receive
Command

Data
Word

From Controller
Transmit
Command

Data
Word

.......

Data
Word

**

Status
Word

Status
Word

**

RT to RT Receive
Transmit
Transfer Command Command

Command
Word

Next Sequence

From RT

From Controller

RT = Remote Terminal

Next Sequence

From RT

From Controller

Data
Word

Data
Word

From
Transmitting RT
Status
Data
**
Word
Word

.......

Data
Word

Command
Word
From
Receiving RT

Data
Word

** = End of transmission from that unit

.......

Data
Word

**

Status
Word

# = End of overall sequence

Figure 4. 1553 Data Message Formats

The normal command/response operation involves the transmission of a command from the BC to a selected
RT address. The RT either accepts or transmits data depending on the type (receive/transmit) of command issued by
the BC. A status word is transmitted by the RT in response to the BC command if the transmission is received without
error and is not illegal.

9-6.5

Figure 5 illustrates the 1553B Bus Architecture in a typical aircraft.

Fire Control
Navigation
Panel

Fire Control
Computer

Stores
Management

Fire Control
Radar

Bus Control
Discrete

Central Air
Data Computer

Inertial
Navigation
Unit

Radar
Display

Heads-Up
Display
Unit

Target
Identification

Figure 5. Typical Bus Architecture

MIL-STD-1773
MIL-STD-1773 contains the requirements for utilizing a fiber optic "cabling" system as a transmission
medium for the MIL-STD-1553B bus protocol. As such, the standard repeats MIL-STD-1553 nearly word-for-word.
The standard does not specify power levels, noise levels, spectral characteristics, optical wavelength, electrical/optical
isolation or means of distributing optical power. These must be contained in separate specifications for each intended
use.
Data encoding and word format are identical to MIL-STD-1553, with the exception that pulses are defined as
transitions between 0 (off) and 1 (on) rather than between + and - voltage transitions since light cannot have a negative
value.
Since the standard applies to cabling only, the bus operates at the same speed as it would utilizing wire.
Additionally, data error rate requirements are unchanged.
Different environmental considerations must be given to fiber optic systems. Altitude, humidity, temperature,
and age affects fiber optics differently than wire conductors. Power is divided evenly at junctions which branch and
connectors have losses just as wire connectors do.

9-6.6

GLOSSARY
ACCEPTABLE DEGRADATION - The allowable reduction in system performance. For a fire control radar, the
acceptable degradation is usually expressed as a reduction in range; for example, the maximum lock-on range might be
degraded by 25 percent without loss of essential defense capability.
ACQUISITION - A procedure by which a fire control tracking radar attains initial lock-on. Usually, the
approximate target coordinates are supplied to the tracking radar and it searches a predetermined volume of space to locate
the target.
AEROSOLS - Solid particles dispersed in the atmosphere having resonant size particles with a high index of
refraction. The particles both scatter and absorb visual and laser directed energy so as to cut down on weapon systems
directed by these techniques.
AFC (AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL) - An arrangement whereby the frequency of an oscillator or the
tuning of a circuit is automatically maintained within specified limits with respect to a reference frequency. A magnetron
drifts in frequency over a period of time. The AFC of a radar makes the local oscillator shift by an equal amount so the IF
frequency will remain constant.
AGC (AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL) - A method for automatically obtaining an essentially constant receiver
output amplitude. The amplitude of the received signal in the range gate determines the AGC bias (a DC voltage) which
controls the receiver gain so as to maintain a nearly constant output even though the amplitude of the input signal changes.
AMPLIFIER - An electronic device used to increase signal magnitude or power. See also GaAs FET Amplifier,
Klystron Amplifier, Traveling-Wave Tube Amplifier.
AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM) - A method of impressing a message upon a carrier signal by causing the
carrier amplitude to vary proportionally to the message waveform.
AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING (ASK) - A method of impressing a digital signal upon a carrier signal by causing
the carrier amplitude to take different values corresponding to the different values of the digital signal.
ANGLE JAMMING - ECM technique, when azimuth and elevation information from a scanning fire control radar
is jammed by transmitting a jamming pulse similar to the radar pulse, but with modulation information out of phase with
the returning target angle modulation information.
ANGULAR SEPARATION - This term is frequently used to indicate a protective (from EMI) zone for a missile.
The interfering antenna axis must be separated, throughout the critical portion of the missile flight, from the missile by the
specified angle. The vertex of the angle is at the interference source antenna.
ANTENNA BEAMWIDTH - The angle, in degrees,
between the half-power points (-3 dB) of an antenna beam.
This angle is also nearly that between the center of the
mainlobe and the first null. The angle is given for both
horizontal and vertical planes unless the beam is circular.
When so indicated, the term may refer to the angular width
of the mainlobe between first nulls [beamwidth between first nulls (BWFN)]. See also Antenna Pattern. The figure
illustrates vertical profile for antenna displaying a 10-degree beamwidth characteristic. The values can vary dramatically
with frequency.
10-1.1

ANTENNA CROSS TALK - A measure of undesired power transfer through space from one antenna to another.
Ratio of power received by one antenna to power transmitted by the other, usually expressed in decibels.
ANTENNA ISOLATION - The ratio of the power input to one antenna to the power received by the other. It can
also be viewed as the insertion loss from transmit antenna input to receive antenna output to circuitry.
ANTENNA LOBING - Two lobes are created that overlap
and intercept at -1 to -3dB. The difference between the two lobes
produces much greater spatial selectivity than provided by either
lobe alone. (See also Lobe, Antenna).
ANTENNA NUTATING - An antenna, as used in
automatic-tracking radar systems, consisting of a parabolic
reflector combined with a radiating element which is caused to
move in a small circular orbit about the focus of the antenna with
or without change of polarization. The radiation pattern is in the
form of a beam that traces out a cone centered on the reflector axis. The process is also known as nutating conical scanning.
ANTENNA PATTERN - A cross section of the radiating
pattern (representing antenna gain or loss) in any plane that includes
the origin (source reference point) of the pattern. Both horizontal and
vertical polar plots are normally used to describe the pattern. Also,
termed "polar diagram" and "radiation pattern."
ANTENNA, PENCIL-BEAM - A highly directional antenna
designed that cross sections of the major lobe are approximately
circular, with a narrow beamwidth.
ANTI-CLUTTER CIRCUITS (IN RADAR) - Circuits which attenuate undesired reflections to permit detection
of targets otherwise obscured by such reflections.
APERTURE - In an antenna, that portion of the plane surface area near the antenna perpendicular to the direction
of maximum radiation through which the major portion of the radiation passes. The effective and/or scattering aperture
area can be computed for wire antennas which have no obvious physical area.
A-SCOPE - A cathode-ray oscilloscope used in radar systems to display vertically the signal amplitude as a
function of time (range) or range rate. Sometimes referred to as Range (R)-Scope.
ASYNCHRONOUS PULSED JAMMING - An effective form of pulsed jamming. The jammer nearly matches
the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) of the radar; then it transmits multiples of the PRF. It is more effective if the jammer
pulsewidth is greater than that of the radar. Asynchronous pulsed jamming is similar to synchronous jamming except that
the target lines tend to curve inward or outward slightly and appear fuzzy in the jammed sector of a radar scope.
ATTENUATION - Decrease in magnitude of current, voltage, or power of a signal in transmission between two
points. May be expressed in decibels.
AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CONTROL - See AFC.
AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL - See AGC.
10-1.2

BACKWARD WAVE OSCILLATOR (BWO) - A cross-field device in which an electron stream interacts with
a backward wave on a nonreentrant circuit. This oscillator may be electronically tuned over a wide range of frequencies,
is relatively unaffected by load variations and is stable. BWO is commonly pronounced "be woe".
BALANCED MIXERS - The two most frequently encountered mixer types are single-balanced and doublebalanced. In a double-balanced mixer, four Schottky diodes and two wideband transformers are employed to provide
isolation of all three ports.
BALLISTIC MISSILE - Any missile which does not rely upon aerodynamic surfaces to produce lift and
consequently follows a ballistic trajectory when thrust is terminated.
BANDPASS FILTER - A type of frequency
discrimination network designed to pass a band or
range of frequencies and produce attenuation to all
other frequencies outside of the pass region. The
figure illustrates a typical bandpass filter,
incorporating a bandpass region of (Fh)-(Fl),
offering no rejection (0 dB) to desired signal (Fm)
and much higher rejection to the adjacent undesired
signals Fh, and Fl. The upper and lower frequencies
are usually specified to be the half power (-3dB) or
half voltage points (-6dB).

Input
Strength

Output
Strength
0 dB

- dB
f L fM fH

fL

fM

Frequency

fH
f L fM fH

BANDWIDTH - An expression used to define the actual operational frequency range of a receiver when it is tuned
to a certain frequency. For a radar receiver, it is the difference between the two frequencies at which the receiver response
is reduced to some fraction of its maximum response (such as 3 dB, 6 dB, or some other specified level). The frequencies
between which "satisfactory" performance is achieved. Two equations are used:
F &F
Fu
Narrowband by % ( u l )(100) ; Broadband by ratio
Fc
Fl
Where Fu ' Upper ; Fl ' lower ; Fc ' center ' ( Fu %Fl ) 2
See also Receiver Bandwidth and Spectrum Width.
BARRAGE NOISE JAMMING - Noise jamming spread in frequency to deny the use of multiple radar frequencies
to effectively deny range information. Although this is attractive because it enables one jammer to simultaneously jam
several radars of different frequencies, it does have the inherent problem that the wider the jamming spread, the less
jamming power available per radar, i.e. the watts per MHz bandwidth is low.
BATTERY, MISSILE - A missile battery consists of a missile launcher and its associated missile fire control
systems (such as a MK 11 MOD 0 Missile Launcher and two MK 74 MOD 0 Missile Fire Control Systems).
BEACON - A system wherein a transponder in a missile receives coded signals from a shipboard radar guidance
transmitter and transmits reply signals to a shipboard radar beacon receiver to enable a computer to determine missile position. The missile beacon transmitter and shipboard radar beacon receiver are tuned to a frequency different from that of
the guidance transmitter.
BEAM - See Lobe, antenna. The beam is to the side of an aircraft or ship.
BEAM, CAPTURE - See Capture Beam.
10-1.3

BEAM-TO-BEAM CORRELATION (BBC) - BBC is used by frequency scan radars to reject pulse jamming and
jamming at a swept frequency. Correlation is made from two adjacent beams (pulses). The receiver rejects those targets
(signals) that do not occur at the same place in two adjacent beams.
BEAMWIDTH - See Antenna Beamwidth.
BEAT FREQUENCY OSCILLATOR (BFO) - Any oscillator whose output is intended to be mixed with another
signal to produce a sum or difference beat frequency. Used particularly in reception of CW transmissions.
BINGO - The fuel state at which an aircraft must leave the area in order to return and land safely. Also used when
chaff/flares reach a preset low quantity and automatic dispensing is inhibited.
BIPOLAR VIDEO - Unrectified (pre-detection) IF (both positive and negative portions of the RF envelope) signals
that arise from the type of detection and console display employed in pulse Doppler and MTI receivers.
BISTATIC RADAR - A radar using antennas at different locations for transmission and reception.
BLANKING - The process of making a channel, or device non-effective for a certain interval. Used for retrace
sweeps on CRTs or to mask unwanted signals such as blanking ones own radar from the onboard RWR.
BOGEY - Unknown air target
BURN-THROUGH RANGE - The ability of a radar to see through jamming. Usually, described as the point when
the radar's target return is a specified amount stronger than the jamming signal. (typical values are 6dB manual and 20 dB
automatic). See Section 4-8.
BUTT LINE - Line used for reference in measurement of left/right location. One of several aircraft references.
See also fuselage station and water line.
CAPTURE BEAM - A wide beam incorporated in
capture transmitters of beam rider (command guided)
missile systems to facilitate gaining initial control of a
missile immediately after launch. Upon capture, the system
then centers the missile in the narrow guidance beam. The
figure illustrates a launched missile at point of capture.

CAPTURE TRANSMITTER - A transmitter employing a wide beam antenna to gain initial control of in-flight
missile for the purpose of centering the missile in the guidance transmitter antenna beam. See also Capture Beam.
CARRIER FREQUENCY - The basic radio
frequency of the wave upon which modulations are
impressed. Also called "Carrier" or fc . See figure at
right.

fc (Carrier Frequency)
Spectral Line Spacing 1/PRI
Amplitude changes from + to at every 1/PW interval

CATCH-22 - A lose-lose situation, from the book

of the same name.

1/PRI
-3/PW

10-1.4

-2/PW -1/PW

Frequency
1/PW

2/PW

3/PW

CAVITY - A space enclosed by a conducting surface used as a resonant circuit at microwave frequencies. Cavity
space geometry determines the resonant frequency. A storage area for oscillating electromagnetic energy.
CENTER FREQUENCY - The tuned or operating frequency. Also referred to as center operating frequency. In
frequency diversity systems, the midband frequency of the operating range. See also Carrier Frequency.
CHAFF - Ribbon-like pieces of metallic materials or metallized plastic which are dispensed by aircraft or ships
to mask or screen other "targets". The radar reflections off the chaff may cause a tracking radar to break lock on the target.
The foil materials are generally cut into small pieces for which the size is dependent upon the radar interrogation frequency
(approximately 1/2 wave length of the victim radar frequency). Being this length, chaff acts as a resonant dipole and
reflects much of the energy back to the radar. Also see rainbow, rope, stream chaff, and window.
CHANNEL - A frequency or band of frequencies. In guided missile systems, an assigned center frequency and a
fixed bandwidth around it. Designates operating frequency of track radars and frequency/code assignments of X-band CW
illuminators.
CHIRP - A pulse compression technique which uses frequency modulation (usually linear) on pulse transmission.
CHIRP RADAR - See PC.
CIRCULARLY POLARIZED JAMMING - The techniques of radiating jamming energy in both planes of
polarization simultaneously. With this method, there is a loss of 3 dB of effective power in either linear plane, and
substantial loss if the opposite sense of circular polarization is used (i.e. left vs right). See Section 3-2.
CLUTTER, RADAR - Undesired radar returns or
echoes resulting from man-made or natural objects including
chaff, sea, ground, and rain, which interfere with normal radar
system observations. The figure illustrates a target being
masked by ground clutter
CO-CHANNEL - This term is used to indicate that two (or more) equipments are operating on the same frequency.
COHERENT - Two signals that have a set (usually fixed) phase relationship.
COINCIDENCE DETECTOR - This radar video process requires more than one hit in a range cell before a target
is displayed. This prevents video interference from pulses coming from another radar, because such interference is unlikely
to occur twice in the same range cell.
COLLIMATION - The procedure of aligning fire control radar system antenna axes with optical line of sight,
thereby ensuring that the radars will provide for correct target illumination and guidance beam positioning.
COMMAND CODE - Modulations superimposed upon transmitter carrier signals to provide electronic instructions
to an airborne guided missile or pilotless aircraft. The receiver of the remotely guided vehicle is preset to accept only a
selected transmitter code to eliminate the possibility of the vehicle responding to commands of extraneous signals. Missile
command codes include instructions such as arm, warhead detonate, and self destruct.
COMMAND GUIDANCE - A guidance system wherein intelligence transmitted to the missile from an outside
source causes the missile to traverse a directed flight path.

10-1.5

CONICAL SCAN - See Antenna, Nutating.

CONTINUOUS WAVE and CONTINUOUS WAVE ILLUMINATOR - See CW and CWI.
COOPERATIVE COUNTERMEASURES - (CO-OP) Generic term for jamming the same threat radar from two
or more separate platforms that are in the same radar resolution cell.
COUPLING FACTOR - A multiplying factor, expressed in dB, used to express the change in EM energy intensity
from a radar transmitter to a receiver. The factor includes the antenna gains and the loss (basic transmission loss) caused
by the distance between the antennas. The factor will usually be a negative dB figure (a reduction in intensity) because basic
transmission loss is always a large negative value. The antenna gains may be positive (pointed toward each other) or
negative (no main beam interactions).
CROSS MODULATION - Intermodulation caused by modulation of the carrier by an undesired signal wave.
CROSS POLARIZATION - or "Cross Pole", is a monopulse jamming technique where a cross-polarized signal
is transmitted to give erroneous angle data to the radar. The component of the jamming signal with the same polarization
as the radar must be very small.
CW (CONTINUOUS WAVE) - In radar and EW systems this term means that the transmitter is on constantly;
i.e., not pulsed (100% duty cycle). These systems may frequency or phase modulate the transmitter output. A CW radar
has the ability to distinguish moving targets against a stationary background while conserving spectrum bandwidth
compared to pulsed radar requirements. A CW radar extracts accurate target range-rate data but cannot determine target
range.
CWI (CONTINUOUS WAVE ILLUMINATOR) - A surface or aircraft-based CW transmitter employed in
semiactive homing missile systems where the transmitter illuminates the target and the missile senses the reflected energy.
The transmitter also provides a reference signal to the missile rear receiver to allow determination of range-rate data and
target identification. CW transmitter emissions are sometimes coded corresponding to the associated missile receiver codes
to reduce the possibility of the "missile accepting commands of extraneous signals.
DECIBEL (dB) - A dimensionless unit for expressing the ratio of two values of power, current, or voltage. The
number of decibels being equal to:
dB = 10 log P2/P1 = 20 log V2/V1 = 20 log I2/I1
Normally, used for expressing transmission gains, losses, levels, and similar quantities. See Section 2-4.
DECEPTION - The deliberate radiation, reradiation, alteration, absorption or reflection of electromagnetic energy
in a manner intended to mislead the enemy interpretation or use of information received by his electronic systems.
dB - See Decibel, or Decibel Section 2-4.
dBc - Decibels referenced to the carrier signal.
dBi - Decibels referenced to an isotropic radiator. (dBLi indicating linear isotropic radiator is sometimes used).
dBm - Decibels relative to 1 mW. dBm is calculated by using the ratio of some power (expressed in mW) to 1 mW.
For example, 1 mW is 0 dBm and 10 mW is +10 dBm.
dBsm - Decibel referenced to one square meter.

10-1.6

dBv / dBFv - Decibels referenced to one volt or microvolt, i.e. 0 dBv is 1 volt or 120 dBv.
dBW / dBW - Decibels referenced to 1 watt or one microwatt, i.e. 0 dBW is 1 watt or 30 dBm or 60 dBW.
DEMODULATOR - A device employed to separate
the modulation signal from its associated carrier, also called
Second Detector. See also Detection.
DESIGNATION - The assignment of a fire control
radar to a specific target by supplying target coordinate data
to the radar system.
DETECTION - Usually refers to the technique of
recovering the amplitude modulation signal (envelope)
superimposed on a carrier. See figure at right.
DICKE FIX - This type of radar processing occurs in the IF amplifier. A limiter follows a wideband amplifier, and
then the signal goes to a matched filter amplifier. This discriminates against pulses that are too long (clutter) or too short
(interference). The "DICKE FIX" is a technique that is specifically designed to protect the receiver from ringing caused
by noise, fast-sweep, or narrow pulse jamming. The basic configuration consists of a broadband limiting IF amplifier,
followed by an IF amplifier of optimum bandwidth. The limit level is preset at approximately the peak amplitude of receiver
noise, the bandwidth may vary from 10 to 20 MHz, depending on the jamming environment. This device provides excellent
discrimination against fast sweep jamming (10-500 MHz), usually something on the order of 20 to 40 dB, without
appreciable loss in sensitivity. However, strong CW jamming will seriously degrade the performance of the DICKE FIX
because the CW signal captures the radar signal in the limiter.
DIELECTRICALLY STABILIZED OSCILLATOR - The DSO uses a dielectric resonator as the frequency
determining element. When the dielectric material is properly selected and used, the variations in dielectric constant vs
temperature and the dimensions of the resonant structure vs temperature tend to cancel out, providing relatively good
frequency vs temperature stability. The DSO offers frequency accuracy and stability, low power consumption and high
reliability. Some of the commonly used materials are barium, zirconium, or tin tinates. The composition of these materials
may be controlled to achieve any frequency variation with temperature with close tolerances.
DIODE - An electronic device which restricts current flow chiefly to one direction. See also Gunn diode, IMPATT
diode, PIN diode, point contact diode, Schottky barrier diode, step recovery diode, tunnel diode, varactor diode.
DIODE SWITCH - PIN-diode switches provide state-of-the-art switching in most present-day microwave receivers.
These switches are either reflective or nonreflective in that the former reflect incident power back to the source when in the
isolated state. While both types of switches can provide high isolation and short transition times, the reflective switch offers
multi octave bandwidth in the all shunt diode configuration, while the non-reflective switch offers an octave bandwidth.
DIPLEX - The simultaneous transmission or reception of two signals using a common feature such as a single
antenna or carrier. Typically, two transmitters operate alternately at approximately the same RF and using a common
antenna. See Section 6-7 for a discussion of diplexers.
DIRECTIONAL COUPLER - A 4-port transmission coupling device used to sample the power traveling in one
direction through the main line of the device. There is considerable isolation (typically 20 dB) to signals traveling in the
reverse direction. Because they are reciprocal, the directional coupler can also be used to directively combine signals with
good reverse isolation. The directional coupler is implemented in waveguide and coaxial configurations. See Section 6-4.
10-1.7

DIRECTIVITY - For antennas, directivity is the maximum value of gain in a particular direction. (Isotropic point
source has directivity = 1). For directional couplers, directivity is a measure (in dB) of how good the directional coupling
is and is equal to the isolation minus the coupling. See Section 6-4.
DISH - A microwave reflector used as part of a radar antenna system. The surface is concave and is usually
parabolic shaped. Also called a parabolic reflector.
DOPPLER EFFECT - The apparent change in
frequency of an electromagnetic wave caused by a change in
distance between the transmitter and the receiver during
transmission/reception. The figure illustrates the Doppler
increase that would be realized by comparing the signal
received from a target approaching the radar site to the
transmitted reference signal. An apparent frequency
decrease would be noted for targets departing the radar
location. Differences can be calibrated to provide target
range-rate data.
DRY RUN - A test run with aircraft/ship armament and/or EW switches off.
DUCTING - The increase in range that an electromagnetic wave will travel due to a temperature inversion of the
atmosphere. The temperature inversion forms a channel or waveguide (duct) for the waves to travel in, and they can be
trapped, not attenuating as would be expected from the radar equation.
DUMMY LOAD (Radio Transmission) - A dissipative but essentially nonradiating substitute device having
impedance characteristics simulating those of the antenna. This allows power to be applied to the radar transmitter without
radiating into free space. Dummy loads are commonly used during EMCON conditions or when troubleshooting a
transmitter at a workbench away from it's normal environment.
DUPLEXER - A switching device used in radar to permit alternate use of the same antenna for both transmitting
and receiving.
DUTY CYCLE - The ratio of average power to peak power, or
ratio of pulse length to interpulse period for pulsed transmitter systems.
Interpulse period is equal to the reciprocal of the pulse repetition rate.
See Section 2-5.
The duty cycle of a radar having a pulse length of 0.3 Fsec and
a PRF of 2000 pulses/sec is computed as follows:
Interpulse Period, T = PRI = 1/PRF = 500 Fsec
Duty Cycle '

Pulse length
0.3sec
'
' 0.0006 (or 0.06%) or Duty Cycle in dB = 10log(Duty cycle) = -32.2 dB
Interpulse Period
500 sec

An output tube providing an average power of only 90 watts for such a system would, therefore, provide a peak power of:

Peak Power '

Average Power
90
'
' 150,000 W or 52 dBW or 82 dBm
Duty Cycle
0.0006

10-1.8

EFFECTIVE RADIATED POWER (ERP) - Input power to the antenna in watts times the gain ratio of the antenna.
When expressed in dB, ERP is the transmitter power (PT), in dBm (or dBW) plus the antenna gain (GT) in dB. The term
EIRP is used sometimes and reiterates that the gain is relative to an isotropic radiator.
EGRESS - Exit the target area.
ELECTROMAGNETIC COUPLING - The transfer of electromagnetic energy from one circuit or system to another
circuit or system. An undesired transfer is termed EMI (electromagnetic interference).
EMC (ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY) - That condition in which electrical/electronic systems can
perform their intended function without experiencing degradation from, or causing degradation to other electrical/electronic
systems. More simply stated, EMC is that condition which exists in the absence of EMI. See also Intersystem and
Intrasystem EMC tests.
EME (ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT) - The total electromagnetic energy in the RF spectrum that
exists at any given location.
EMI (ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE) - Any induced, radiated, or conducted electrical emission,
disturbance, or transient that causes undesirable responses, degradation in performance, or malfunctions of any electrical
or electronic equipment, device, or system. Also synonymously referred to as RFI (Radio Frequency Interference).
EMI MODEL - Usually a set of equations or logical concepts designed to illustrate the interactions, the detailed
parameters considerations, and mathematical procedures necessary for proper analysis of a given EMI situation.
EMITTER - Any device or apparatus which emits electromagnetic energy.
EMP (ELECTROMAGNETIC PULSE) - The generation and radiation of a very narrow and very high-amplitude
pulse of electromagnetic noise. It is associated with the high level pulse as a result of a nuclear detonation and with
intentionally generated narrow, high-amplitude pulse for ECM applications. In the case of nuclear detonations, EMP
consists of a continuous spectrum with most of its energy distributed through the low frequency band of 3 KHz to 1 MHz.
ERROR SIGNAL - In servomechanisms, the signal applied to the control circuit that indicates the degree of
misalignment between the controlling and the controlled members. In tracking radar systems, a voltage dependent upon the
signal received from a target whose polarity and magnitude depend on the angle between the target and the center axis of
the scanning beam.
FAST TIME CONSTANT - See FTC.
FEET DRY / WET - Aircraft has crossed from water to shore / aircraft has crossed from shore to water.
FERRET - An aircraft, ship, or vehicle especially equipped for the detection, location, recording, and analyzing
of electromagnetic radiations.
FIELD STRENGTH - The magnitude of a magnetic or electric field at any point, usually expressed in terms of
ampere turns per meter or volts per meter. Sometimes called field intensity and is expressed in volts/meter or dBFv/meter.
Above 100 MHz, power density terminology is used more often. See Section 4-1.
FIRST HARMONIC - The fundamental (original) frequency.

10-1.9

FREQUENCY AGILITY - A radar's ability to change frequency within its operating band, usually on a pulse-topulse basis. This is an ECCM technique employed to avoid spot jamming and to force the jammer to go into a less effective
barrage mode.
FREQUENCY AGILITY RADAR - A radar that automatically or semiautomatically tunes through a discrete set
of operating frequencies in its normal mode of operation.
FREQUENCY DIVERSITY RADAR - A radar system technique, employed primarily as an antijamming feature,
where the transmitter output frequency varies randomly from pulse to pulse over a wide frequency range.
FREQUENCY RANGE - (1) A specifically designated portion of the frequency spectrum; (2) of a device, the band
of frequencies over which the device may be considered useful with various circuit and operating conditions; (3) of a
transmission system, the frequency band in which the system is able to transmit power without attenuating or distorting it
more than a specified amount.
FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (FSK) - A form of FM where the carrier is shifted between two frequencies in
accordance with a predetermined code. In multiple FSK, the carrier is shifted to more than two frequencies. FSK is used
principally with teletype communications.
"FRUIT" - In a radar beacon system, there is a type of interference called "FRUIT", caused by beacon replies to
interrogation asynchronous with the observer's interrogator. The largest amount of this interference is received through the
sidelobes of the interrogating antenna, but it can become dense enough to cause false target indications.
FTC (FAST TIME CONSTANT) - An antijam feature employed in radar systems where receiver circuits may be
selected to provide a short time constant to emphasize signals of short duration to produce discrimination against the low
frequency components of clutter.
FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY - Used synonymously for tuned frequency, carrier frequency, center frequency,
output frequency, or operating frequency.
FUSELAGE STATION or just STATION - A reference point (usually the nose of an aircraft) used to measure or
identify fore and aft locations. One of several aircraft location designations - also see butt line and water line.
GaAs FET AMPLIFIER - Because of their low noise, field-effect transistors are often used as the input stage of
wideband amplifiers. Their high input resistance makes this device particularly useful in a variety of applications. Since
the FET does not employ minority current carriers, carrier storage effects are eliminated giving the device faster operating
characteristics and improved radiation resistant qualities.
GAIN: - For antennas, the value of power gain in a given direction relative to an isotropic point source radiating
equally in all directions. Frequently expressed in dB (gain of an isotropic source = 0 dB). The formula for calculating gain
is:
P(2,N) ' Radiation intensity in given direction
4BP(2,N)
G '
; where P ' Power into lossless antenna radiating uniformly in all directions
in
Pin
Note:

(1) If radiation efficiency is unity, then gain = directivity i.e. if directivity = 2, then gain = 3 dB, etc.
(2) interference losses within an array also affect gain
(3) See Section 3-1 for further details

For amplifiers, gain is the ratio of the output power to input power (usually in dB).
10-1.10

GATE (RANGE) - A signal used to select radar echoes corresponding to a very short range increment. Range is
computed by moving the range gate or marker to the target echo; an arrangement which permits radar signals to be received
in a small selected fraction of the time period between radar transmitter pulses.
GATING - (1) The process of selecting those portions of a wave which exist during one or more selected time
intervals; (2) the application of a square waveform of desired duration and timing to perform electronic switching; (3) the
application of receiver operating voltages to one or more stages only during that portion of a cycle of operation when
reception is desired. See also Gate (Range).
GCI (GROUND-CONTROLLED INTERCEPT) - vectoring an interceptor aircraft to an airborne target by means
of information relayed from a ground-based radar site which observes both the interceptor and the target.
GIGA - A prefix meaning 109 (times a billion). For example, gigahertz (GHz).
GLINT (In Radar) - 1. The random component of target location error caused by variations in the phase front of
the target signal (as contrasted with Scintillation Error). Glint may affect angle, range of Doppler measurements, and may
have peak values corresponding to locations beyond the true target extent in the measured coordinate. 2. Electronic
countermeasures that uses the scintillating, or flashing effect of shuttered or rotating reflectors to degrade tracking or
seeking functions of an enemy weapons system.
GUARDBAND - A frequency band to which no other emitters are assigned as a precaution against interference
to equipments susceptible to EMI in that band.
GUIDANCE, BEAM RIDER - A missile guidance technique which is dependent on the missile's ability to
determine its positions with reference to the center of scan of the guidance radar beam and thus correct its trajectory on the
basis of detected errors.
GUIDANCE CODE - A technique of modulating guidance transmitter carriers with coded pulses compatible with
the receiver code of the missile assigned that system, thus reducing the possibility of the missile accepting erroneous
commands of other transmissions.
GUIDANCE, COMMAND - A guidance system wherein intelligence transmitted to the missile from an outside
source causes the missile to traverse a directed path in space.
GUIDANCE, HOMING, ACTIVE - A system of homing guidance wherein both the transmitter and receiver are
carried within the missile.
GUIDANCE, HOMING, PASSIVE - A form of homing guidance, which is dependent on a missile's ability to detect
energy emitted by the target. Frequently termed Home-On-Jam (HOJ).
GUIDANCE, HOMING, SEMIACTIVE - A system of homing guidance wherein the missile uses reflected signals
from the target which has been illuminated by a source other than within the missile. See also CWI.
GUIDANCE, INERTIAL - A self-contained system independent of information obtained from outside the missile,
usually using Newton's second law of motion.
GUNN DIODE - The Gunn diode is a transferred electron device which because of its negative resistance can be
used in microwave oscillators or amplifiers. When the applied voltage exceeds a certain critical value, periodic fluctuations
in current occur. The frequency of oscillation depends primarily upon the drift velocity of electrons through the effective
length of the device. This frequency may be varied over a small range by means of mechanical tuning.
10-1.11

HARMONIC - A sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or quantity having a frequency that is an integral
multiple of the fundamental frequency. For example, a component which is twice the fundamental frequency is called the
second harmonic. (the fundamental is the first harmonic, which is frequently misunderstood).
HERTZ - The unit of frequency equal to one cycle per second.
HOME-ON-JAM (HOJ) - See Guidance, Homing, Passive.
HORN ANTENNA - A flared, open-ended section of waveguide used to radiate the energy from a waveguide into
space. Also termed "horn" or "horn radiator." Usually linearly polarized, it will be vertically polarized when the feed probe
is vertical, or horizontally polarized if the feed is horizontal. Circular polarization can be obtained by feeding a square horn
at a 45E angle and phase shifting the vertical or horizontal excitation by 90E.
HYPERABRUPT VARACTOR OSCILLATOR - Due to a non-uniform concentration of N-type material (excess
electrons) in the depletion region, this varactor produces a greater capacitance change in tuning voltage and a far more linear
voltage-vs-frequency tuning curve. As a result, this device has an improved tuning linearity and low tuning voltage.
IF (INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY) - The difference frequency resulting from mixing (beating) the received
signal in a superheterodyne receiver with the signal from the local oscillator. The difference frequency product provides
the advantages inherent to the processing (amplification, detection, filtering, and such) of low frequency signals. The
receiver local oscillator may operate either below or above the receiver tuned frequency. A single receiver may incorporate
multiple IF detection.
IF = FLO - FO . (for a local oscillator operating above the
fundamental) where:
60 MHz IF
FO = Received fundamental frequency
Mixer
Desired received
FLO = Local oscillator frequency
signal (1050 MHz)
The simplified block diagram illustrates a typical mixing procedure
Local Oscillator
employed in radar systems to obtain desired IF frequencies. The local
(1110 MHz)
oscillator is tuned above the fundamental frequency in this example.
It should be noted that an undesired signal received at the receiver
image frequency of 1170 MHz will also produce the desired 60 MHz IF frequency; this relationship provides the receiver
image. See also Image Frequency.
IFF (IDENTIFICATION FRIEND OR FOE) - A system using radar transmission to which equipment carried by
friendly forces automatically responds by emitting a unique characteristic series of pulses thereby distinguishing themselves
from enemy forces. It is the "Mode IV" for the aircraft transponder. See also transponder.
IMAGE FREQUENCY - That frequency to
which a given superheterodyne receiver is inherently
susceptible, thereby rendering such a receiver
extremely vulnerable to EMI at that frequency. The
image frequency is located at the same frequency
difference ()f) to one side of the local oscillator as
the tuned (desired) frequency is to the other side. An
undesired signal received at the image frequency by
a superheterodyne receiver not having preselection
would, therefore, mix (beat) with the oscillator,
produce the proper receiver IF, and be processed in
the same manner as a signal at the desired frequency.
See also receiver selectivity.

Antenna

Desired received
signal (1050 MHz)
Image Frequency
( F1 = 1170 MHz )

FLO - FO = IF
F1 - FLO = IF
F1 = FO + 2 IF
60 MHz IF
Mixer

Lower Sideband
IF = FLO - FO = )f
FLO

FO
)f

10-1.12

F1
)f

Upper Sideband
IF = FO - FLO = )f
Local Oscillator
( FLO = 1110 MHz)

F1

FLO
)f

FO
)f

IMAGE JAMMING - Jamming at the image frequency of the radar receiver. Barrage jamming is made most
effective by generating energy at both the normal operating and image frequency of the radar. Image jamming inverts the
phase of the response and is thereby useful as an angle deception technique. Not effective if the radar uses image rejection.
IMPATT DIODE - The IMPATT (IMPact Avalanche and Transit Time) diode acts like a negative resistance at
microwave frequencies. Because of this property, Impatt diodes are used in oscillators and amplifiers. Usually the
frequency range is in the millimeter wave region where other solid state devices cannot compete.
INGRESS - Go into the target area.
INSERTION LOSS - The loss incurred by inserting an element, device, or apparatus in an electrical/electronic
circuit. Normally expressed in decibels determined as 10 log of the ratio of power measured at the point of insertion prior
to inserting the device (P1) to the power measured after inserting the device (P2). Insertion loss (dB) = 10 log P1/P2.
INTEGRATION EFFECT - Pulse radars usually obtain several echoes from a target. If these echoes are added
to each other, they enhance the S/N ratio, making a weak target easier to detect. The noise and interference do not directly
add from pulse to pulse, so the ratio of target strength to undesired signal strength improves making the target more
detectable. Random noise increases by the square root of the number of integrations, whereas the signal totally correlates
and increases directly by the number of integrations, therefore the S/N enhancement is equal to the square root of the
number of integrations.
INTERFERENCE - See EMI.
INTERFERENCE PARAMETERS - Equipment and propagation characteristics necessary for the proper
evaluation of a given EMI situation.
INTERFERENCE/SIGNAL RATIO = See I/S Ratio.
INTERFERENCE THRESHOLD - The level of interference normally expressed in terms of the I/S (interference/signal) ratio at which performance degradation in a system first occurs as a result of EMI.
INTERFEROMETER - When two widely spaced antennas are arrayed together, they form an interferometer. The
radiation pattern consists of many lobes, each having a narrow beamwidth. This antenna can provide good spatial
selectivity if the lobe-to-lobe ambiguity can be solved such as using amplitude comparison between the two elements.
INTERMODULATION - The production, in a nonlinear element (such as a receiver mixer), of frequencies corresponding to the sums and differences of the fundamentals and harmonics of two or more frequencies which are transmitted
through the element; or, the modulation of the components of a complex wave by each other, producing frequencies equal
to the sums and differences of integral multiples of the component frequencies of the complex wave.
INTERSYSTEM EMC - EMC between the external electromagnetic environment (EME) and an aircraft with it's
installed systems. Generally, only system BIT must operate properly on the carrier deck while all system functions must
operate properly in the operational EME.
INTRASYSTEM EMC - EMC between systems installed on an aircraft, exclusive of an external environment.

10-1.13

INVERSE CON SCAN - One method of confusing a radar operator or fire control radar system is to provide
erroneous target bearings. This is accomplished by first sensing the radar antenna scan rate and then modulating repeater
amplifier gain so the weak portion of the radar signal is amplified by the jammer, while the strong portion is not, so the
weapons systems will fire at some bearing other than the true target bearing. The angle deception technique is used to break
lock on CONSCAN radars.
INVERSE GAIN - Amplification, inverse modulation, and re-radiation of a radar's pulse train at the rotation rate
of the radar scan. Deceives a conical scanning radar in angle.
ISOTROPIC ANTENNA - A hypothetical antenna which radiates or receives energy equally in all directions.
I/S RATIO (INTERFERENCE-TO-SIGNAL RATIO) (ISR) - The ratio of electromagnetic interference level to
desired signal level that exists at a specified point in a receiving system. The ratio, normally expressed in dB, is employed
as a tool in prediction of electronic receiving system performance degradation for a wide range of interference receiver input
levels. Performance evaluations compare actual I/S ratios to minimum acceptable criteria.
JAFF - Expression for the combination of electronic and chaff jamming.
JAMMING - The deliberate radiation, reradiation, or reflection of electromagnetic energy with the object of
impairing the use of electronic devices, equipment, or systems by an enemy.
JINK - An aircraft maneuver which sharply changes the instantaneous flight path but maintains the overall route
of flight. More violent than a weave.
JITTERED PRF - An antijam feature of certain radar systems which varies the PRF consecutively, and randomly,
from pulse to pulse to prevent enemy ECM equipment from locking on, and synchronizing with, the transmitted PRF. PRF
is synonymous with pulse repetition rate (PRR).
KILO - A prefix meaning 103 (times one thousand). For example, kilohertz.
KLYSTRON AMPLIFIER - An electron beam device which achieves amplification by the conversion of periodic
velocity variations into conduction-current modulation in a field-free drift region. Velocity variations are launched by the
interaction of an RF signal in an input resonant cavity and are coupled out through an RF output cavity. Several variations
including reflex and multi cavity klystrons are used.
KLYSTRON, MULTICAVITY - An electron tube which employs velocity modulation to generate or amplify
electromagnetic energy in the microwave region. Since velocity modulation employs transit time of the electron to aid in
the bunching of electrons, transient time is not a deterrent to high frequency operations as is the case in conventional electron tubes. See also Velocity Modulation.
KLYSTRON, REFLEX - A klystron which employs a reflector (repeller) electrode in place of a second resonant
cavity to redirect the velocity-modulated electrons through the resonant cavity. The repeller causes one resonant circuit to
serve as both input and output, which simplifies the tuning operation. This type of klystron is well adapted for use as an
oscillator because the frequency is easily controlled by varying the position of the repeller. See also Velocity Modulation.
LEAKAGE - Undesired radiation or conduction of RF energy through the shielding of an enclosed area or of an
electronic device.
LENS, RADAR (MICROWAVE) - The purpose of any such lens is to refract (focus) the diverging beam from an
RF feed into a parallel beam (transmitting) or vice versa (receiving). The polarization is feed dependent.
10-1.14

LIGHT AMPLIFICATION BY STIMULATED EMISSION OF RADIATION (LASER) - A process of generating

coherent light. The process utilizes a natural molecular (and atomic) phenomenon whereby molecules absorb incident
electromagnetic energy at specific frequencies, store this energy for short but usable periods, and then release the stored
energy in the form of light at particular frequencies in an extremely narrow frequency-band.
LIMITING - A term to describe that an amplifier has reached its point of saturation or maximum output voltage
swing. Deliberate limiting of the signal is used in FM demodulation so that AM will not also be demodulated.
LITTORAL - Near a shore.
LOBE, ANTENNA - Various parts of the antenna's
radiation pattern are referred to as lobes, which may be
subclassified into major and minor lobes. The major lobe is
the lobe of greatest gain and is also referred to as the main
lobe or main beam. The minor lobes are further subclassified
into side and back lobes as indicated in the figure to the right.
The numbering of the side lobes are from the main lobe to
the back lobe.

2nd Side Lobe

1st Side Lobe

Back Lobe
Main Lobe

LOCAL OSCILLATOR FREQUENCY - An internally generated frequency in a superheterodyne receiver. This

frequency differs from the receiver operating frequency by an amount equal to the IF of the receiver. The local oscillator
frequency may be designed to be either above or below the incoming signal frequency.
LOG VIDEO - This receiver process, generally implemented in the IF, compresses the dynamic range of the signal
so both weak and strong signals are displayed without changing the gain setting. Output voltage can be calibrated in
volts/dB of input power.
LONG PULSE MODE - Many pulsed radars are capable of transmitting either long or short pulses of RF energy.
When the long pulses of RF energy are selected manually (or sometimes automatically), the radar is said to be operating
in the long pulse mode. In general, "long pulse mode" is used to obtain high average power for long-range search or
tracking, and "short pulse mode" gives low average power for short-range, high-definition, tracking or search.
LOOSE DEUCE - General term for two aircraft working in mutual support of each other.
LORO (LOBE-ON-RECEIVE-ONLY) - A mode of operation generally consisting of transmitting on one nonscanning antenna system and receiving the reflected energy on another scanning system (The receiver could be TWS,
Conical, or monopulse).
MACH NUMBER - The ratio of the velocity of a body to the speed of sound in the medium that is being
considered. In the atmosphere, the speed of sound varies with temperature and atmospheric pressure, hence, so does mach
number.
MAGNETIC ANOMALY DETECTOR - A means of detecting changes in the earth's magnetic field caused by
the presence of metal in ships and submarines.
MAGNETRON - A magnetron is a thermionic vacuum tube which is constructed with a permanent magnet forming
a part of the tube and which generates microwave power. These devices are commonly used as the power output stage of
radar transmitters operating in the frequency range above 1000 MHz and are used less commonly down to about 400 MHz.
A magnetron has two concentric cylindrical electrodes. On a conventional magnetron, the inner one is the cathode and the
outer one is the anode. The opposite is true for a coaxial magnetron.
10-1.15

MAGNETRON OSCILLATOR - A high-vacuum tube in which the interaction of an electronic space charge and
a resonant system converts direct current power into ac power, usually at microwave frequencies. The magnetron has good
efficiency, is capable of high power outputs, and is stable.
MATCHED FILTER - This describes the bandwidth of an IF amplifier that maximizes the signal-to-noise ratio
in the receiver output. This bandwidth is a function of the pulsewidth of the signal.
MDS (MINIMUM DETECTABLE/DISCERNIBLE SIGNAL) - The receiver input power level that is just
sufficient to produce a detectable/discernible signal in the receiver output. The detectable term is interchangeable with Smin
and the discernable term is interchangeable with MVS. See Section 5-2.
MEACONING - A system receiving radio signals and rebroadcasting them (or just transmitting) on the same
frequency to confuse navigation. The meaconing station attempts to cause aircraft to receive inaccurate range or bearing
information.
MEATBALL - Visual light "ball" seen in Fresnel lens optical landing system (FLOLS) by pilot during carrier or
Navy field landing. Used as a reference to determine if flight path is high or low.
MEGA - A prefix meaning 106 (times one million). For example megahertz (MHz)
MICROVOLT PER METER - A commonly used unit of field strength at a given point. The field strength is
measured by locating a standard receiving antenna at that point, and the "microvolts per meter" value is then the ratio of
the antenna voltage in microvolts to the effective antenna length in meters. Usually used below 100 MHz. Above 100
MHz, power density terminology is normally used.
MICROWAVE AMPLIFICATION BY STIMULATED EMISSION OF RADIATION (MASER) - A low-noise
radio-frequency amplifier. The emission of energy stored in a molecular or atomic system by a microwave power supply
is stimulated by the input signal.
MISS DISTANCE - Used variously in different contexts. The distance from the missile to the geometric center of
the aircraft, or the closest point of approach (CPA) of the missile to any portion of the aircraft such as the aircraft nose or
telemetry pod, etc.
MISSILE SYSTEMS FUNCTIONS - Examples of missile system functions are: "acquisition" (ability to lock-on
a desired target); "tracking" of a target; "guidance" of a missile toward a target; "illumination" of a target so that a homing
missile can home on the reflected RF illumination; and "command" signal transmission to a missile to cause it to arm, to
detonate, to commence homing, or to destroy itself.
MIXERS - See Balanced and Schottky Diode Mixers.
MODULATION - The process whereby some characteristic of one
wave is varied in accordance with some characteristic of another wave. The
basic types of modulation are angle modulation (including the special cases
of phase and frequency modulation) and amplitude modulation. In missile
radars, it is common practice to amplitude modulate the transmitted RF
carrier wave of tracking and guidance transmitters by using a pulsed wave
for modulating, and to frequency module the transmitted RF carrier wave
of illuminator transmitters by using a sine wave.

10-1.16

MODULATION, AMPLITUDE - This type of modulation changes the amplitude of a carrier wave in responses
to the amplitude of a modulating wave. This modulation is used in radar and EW only as a switch to turn on or turn off the
carrier wave; i.e., pulse is a special form of amplitude modulation.
MODULATION, FREQUENCY - The frequency of the modulated carrier wave is varied in proportion to the
amplitude of the modulating wave and therefore, the phase of the carrier varies with the integral of the modulating wave.
See also Modulation.
MODULATION, PHASE - The phase of the
modulated carrier is varied in proportion to the amplitude of
the modulating wave. See also Modulation.
MONOPULSE - (See figure to right) A type of
tracking radar that permits the extracting of tracking error
information from each received pulse and offers a reduction
in tracking errors as compared to a conical-scan system of
similar power and size. Multiple (commonly four) receiving
antennas or feeds are placed symmetrically about the center
axis and operate simultaneously to receive each RF pulse
reflected from the target. A comparison of the output signal
amplitude or phase among the four antennas indicates the
location of the target with respect to the radar beam center
line. The output of the comparison circuit controls a servo
system that reduces the tracking error to zero and thereby causes the antenna to track the target.
MOS (MINIMUM OPERATIONAL SENSITIVITY) - The minimum signal which can be detected and
automatically digitally processed by a radar without human discrimination.
MTI (MOVING TARGET INDICATOR) - This radar signal process shows only targets that are in motion.
Signals from stationary targets are subtracted out of the return signal by a memory circuit.
MULTIPATH - The process by which a transmitted signal arrives at the receiver by at least two different paths.
These paths are usually the main direct path, and at least one reflected path. The signals combine either constructively or
destructively depending upon phase, and the resultant signal may be either stronger or weaker than the value computed for
free space.
MULTIPLEX - Simultaneous transmission of two or more signals on a common carrier wave. The three types of
multiplex are called time division, frequency division, and phase division.
MULTIBAND RADAR - A type of radar which uses simultaneous operation on more than one frequency band
through a common antenna. This technique allows for many sophisticated forms of video processing and requires any
jammer to jam all channels at the same time in order to be effective.
MVS (MINIMUM VISIBLE SIGNAL) - The minimum input pulse signal power level which permits visibility of
the output pulse, such as on a radar A-scope display. This level is determined by initially setting the input level above the
visible detection threshold, and then slowly decreasing the amplitude.

10-1.17

NOISE FIGURE, RECEIVER - A figure of merit (NF or F) of a system given by the ratio of the signal-to-noise
ratio at the input, Si / Ni, divided by the signal-to-noise ratio at the output, So / No . It essentially expresses the ratio of
output noise power of a given receiver to that of a theoretically perfect receiver which adds no noise.
S /N
No
Noise Figure ' i i '
SYSTEM OUTPUT
Noise Power Added
S o / No
G Ni
By Receiver

Where So = GSi and G is the gain of the system.

Input Power
times Power Gain GNi

Noise figure is usually expressed in dB and given for an

impedance matched condition. Impedance mismatch will increase
the noise figure by the amount of mismatch loss. NF is usually
given at room temperature; 17EC or 290EK.
See Section 5-2.

Perfect System

Input Power
times Power Gain

No

Actual System

NOISE JAMMING - A continuous random signal radiated with the objective of concealing the aircraft echo from
the enemy radar. In order for it to be effective, it must have an average amplitude at least as great as the average amplitude
of the radar echo. There are three major categories of noise jamming which are grouped by how jamming power is
concentrated: Spot, barrage, and swept jamming. (See individual definitions)
NONCOHERENT - Two signals that have no set phase relationship.
NOTCH - The portion of the radar velocity display where a target disappears due to being notched out by the zero
Doppler filter. If not filtered (notched), ground clutter would also appear on the display. A notch filter is a narrow bandreject filter. A "notch maneuver" is used to place a tracking radar on the beam of the aircraft so it will be excluded.
NULL, ANTENNA PATTERN - The directions of minimum transmission (or reception) of a directional antenna.
See also Lobe, Antenna.
NULL FILL - The nulls in an antenna pattern may
be reduced (filled) by using a second ancillary (spoiler)
antenna whose pattern is such that it fills in the nulls of the
main antenna pattern.
NUTATION - As applied to current missile system
radars, this term refers to the mechanical motion of an
antenna feed to produce a conical scan (fixed polarization) by the main beam of a tracking antenna, thus providing a means
of developing tracking error signals. See also Antenna, Nutating. By analogy, "Nutation" also is used to denote the
electrical switching of the quadrants of a seeker antenna. See also Interferometer. The effect is similar to that of a conical
scan.
NUTATOR - A motor-driven rotating antenna feed used to produce a conical scan for a tracking radar. See also
Antenna, Nutating. Also, the electrical circuits necessary to effect nonmechanical conical scans. See also Nutation.
OPERATIONAL CONSTRAINTS - Limitations on operating procedures in order to prevent interference between
missile systems on a ship or between missile systems in a formation of ships under operational conditions. These limitations
consist of such things as limited frequency bands or channels in which the radars may be tuned, limited sectors of space into
which radar beams may be pointed, limits on minimum spacing between ships, limits on what codes may be used by radars
and missiles on each ship, and limits on minimum interval between firing of certain missiles.

10-1.18

OSCILLATORS - Devices which generate a frequency. See also Backward Wave, Dielectrically Stabilized
Oscillator, Hyperabrupt Varactor Oscillator, Magnetron Oscillator, Varactor Tuned Oscillator, and YIG tuned oscillator.
OSCILLATOR, LOCAL - See Local Oscillator Frequency.
PALMER SCAN - Conical scan superimposed on another type of scan pattern - usually a spiral pattern.
PARAMETER - A quantity which may have various values, each fixed within the limits of a stated case or discussion. In the present case, some examples of parameters; would be: radar frequency, limited by the tuning range of the radar;
missile range, limited by the maximum operating range of the missile; or a missile code, limited by the number of codes
available and by the codes that the ship radars are set up to operate on.
PASSIVE ANGLE TRACKING - Tracking of a target using radiation from the target (such as jamming), with no
radiation from the radar itself. Only angular tracking is possible under these conditions since no measurement of time of
travel of radiation to the target is possible, as is required to obtain target range.
PC (PULSE COMPRESSION) - The process used in search and tracking pulse radars whereby the transmitted
pulse is long, so as to obtain high average transmitter output power, and the reflected pulse is processed in the radar receiver
to compress it to a fraction of the duration of the transmitted pulse to obtain high definition and signal strength
enhancement. Pulse compression may be accomplished by sweeping the transmitted frequency (carrier) during the pulse.
The returned signal is then passed through a frequency-dependent delay line. The leading edge of the pulse is therefore
delayed so that the trailing edge catches up to the leading edge to produce effectively a shorter received pulse than that
transmitted. Pulse compression radars are also referred to as CHIRP radars. Other more sophisticated pulse compression
techniques are also possible and are becoming more popular.
PENCIL BEAM - A narrow circular radar beam from a highly directional antenna (such as a parabolic reflector).
PHASED ARRAY RADAR - Radar using many antenna elements which are combined in a controlled phase
relationship. The direction of the beam can be changed as rapidly as the phase relationships (usually less than 20
microseconds). Thus, the antenna typically remains stationary while the beam is electronically scanned. The use of many
antenna elements allows for very rapid and high directivity of the beam(s) with a large peak and/or average power. There
is also a potential for greater reliability over a conventional radar since the array will fail gracefully, one element at a time.
PIN DIODE - A diode with a large intrinsic (I) region sandwiched between the P- and N- doped semiconducting
regions. The most important property of the PIN diode is the fact that it appears as an almost pure resistance at RF. The
value of this resistance can be varied over a range of approximately one-10,000 ohms by direct or low frequency current
control. When the control current is varied continuously, the PIN diode is useful for attenuating, leveling and amplitude
modulation of an RF signal. When the control current is switched on and off or in discrete steps, the device is useful in
switching, pulse modulating, and phase shifting an RF signal.
POINT CONTACT DIODE - This was one of the earliest semiconductor device to be used at microwave
frequencies. Consisting of a spring-loaded metal contact on a semiconducting surface, this diode can be considered an early
version of the Schottky barrier diode. Generally used as a detector or mixer, the device is somewhat fragile and limited to
low powers.
POLARIZATION - The direction of the electric field (E-field) vector of an electromagnetic (EM) wave. See
Section 3-2. The most general case is elliptical polarization with all others being special cases. The E-field of an EM wave
radiating from a vertically mounted dipole antenna will be vertical and the wave is said to be vertically polarized. In like
manner, a horizontally mounted dipole will produce a horizontal electric field and is horizontally polarized. Equal vertical
and horizontal E-field components produce circular polarization.
10-1.19

PORT - The left side of a ship or aircraft when facing the bow (forward)
POWER (AVERAGE) FOR PULSED RADARS - Average power for a pulse radar is the average power
transmitted between the start of one pulse and the start of the next pulse (because the time between pulses is many times
greater than the pulse duration time, the average power will be a small fraction of peak power).
RF Pulse

For this example: Peak Power = 1 MW, Pulse Time (t) = 0.5 micro-second,
and Interval Between Pulses (T) = 1000 microseconds (1000 pps).
Modulating Pulse

Peak Power = Pwr during pulse time (t) = 1 MW = 106

Watts = 90 dBm.

Avg Power = Average Power During Time (T) = 106 x t/T

= 106 x 0.5/1000 = 0.5 x 103 = 0.5 kilowatt = 57 dBm or 27 dBW

t = pulse width

T = pulse interval = 1/PRF

POWER OUTPUT - Power output of a transmitter or transmitting antenna is commonly expressed in dBW or dBm.
One megawatt would be expressed as 60 dBW or 90 dBm:
10 log (1 megawatt / 1 watt)

= 10 log ( 106/100)
= 10 x 6 = 60 dBW

= 10 log ( 106/10-3)
= 10 x 9 = 90 dBm

10 log (1 megawatt / 1 milliwatt)

POWER (PEAK) FOR PULSED RADARS - Peak power for a pulsed radar is the power radiated during the actual
pulse transmission (with zero power transmitted between pulses).
POWER FOR CW RADARS - Since the power output of CW transmitters (such as illuminator transmitters)
usually have a duty cycle of one (100%), the peak and average power are the same.
POWER DENSITY - The density of power in space expressed in Watts/meter2 , dBW/m2, etc. Generally used in
measurements above 100 MHz. At lower frequencies, field intensity measurements are taken. See Section 4-1.
PPI-SCOPE - A radar display yielding range and azimuth (bearing) information via an intensity modulated display
and a circular sweep of a radial line. The radar is located at the center of the display.
PRESELECTOR - A device placed ahead of the
mixer in a receiver, which has bandpass characteristics
such that the desired (tuned) RF signal, the target return, is
allowed to pass, and other undesired signals (including the
image frequency) are attenuated.

100

Preselector

Mixer
Local
Oscillator

IF
Amplifier

80

100 MHz
for example

40

Tuned
Frequency

60
Image
Frequency

20
0

Frequency

PROPAGATION - In electrical practice, the travel

of waves through or along a medium. The path traveled by
the wave in getting from one point to another is known as
the propagation path (such as the path through the atmosphere in getting from a transmitting antenna to a receiving antenna,
or the path through the waveguides and other microwave devices in getting from an antenna to a receiver).
PULSE COMPRESSION - See PC.

10-1.20

PULSED DOPPLER (PD) - A type of radar that combines the features of pulsed radars and CW Doppler radars.
It transmits pulses (instead of CW) which permits accurate range measurement. This is an inherent advantage of pulsed
radars. Also, it detects the Doppler frequency shift produced by target range rate which enables it to discriminate between
targets of only slightly different range rate and also enables it to greatly reduce clutter from stationary targets. See also
Doppler Effect.
PULSE LENGTH - Same meaning as Pulsewidth.
PULSE MODULATION - A special case of amplitude modulation wherein the carrier wave is varied at a pulsed
rate. Pulse Modulation - The modulation of a carrier by a series of pulses generally for the purpose of transmitting data.
The result is a short, powerful burst of electromagnetic radiation which can be used for measuring the distance from a radar
set to a target.
PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (PRF) - The rate of occurrence of a series of pulses, such as 100 pulses per
second. It is equal to the reciprocal of the pulse spacing (T) or PRT. (PRF = 1/T = 1/PRI). Sometimes the term pulse
repetition rate (PRR) is used.
PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (PRF) STAGGER - The technique of switching PRF (or PRI) to different
values on a pulse-to-pulse basis such that the various intervals follow a regular pattern. This is useful in compensating for
blind speeds in pulsed MTI radars. Interpulse intervals which differ but follow a regular pattern.
PULSE REPETITION INTERVAL (PRI) or TIME (PRT) - Time between the beginning of one pulse and the
beginning of the next.
PULSE SPACING - The interval of time between the leading edge of one pulse and the leading edge of the next
pulse in a train of regularly recurring pulses. See also Pulse Repetition Frequency. Also called "the interpulse period."
PULSEWIDTH - The interval of time between the
leading edge of a pulse and the trailing edge of a pulse
(measured in microseconds for the short pulses used in
radar). Usually measured at the 3 dB midpoint (50-percent
power or 70% voltage level) of the pulse, but may be
specified to be measured at any level. See Section 6-10 for measurement techniques.
QUANTIZE - The process of restricting a variable to a number of discrete values. For example, to limit varying
antenna gains to three levels.
RADAR - Radio detection and ranging.
RADAR CROSS SECTION - A measure of the radar reflection characteristics of a target. It is equal to the power
reflected back to the radar divided by power density of the wave striking the target. For most targets, the radar cross section
is the area of the cross section of the sphere that would reflect the same energy back to the radar if the sphere were
substituted. RCS of sphere is independent of frequency if operating in the far field region. See Section 4-11.

10-1.21

RADAR RANGE EQUATION - The radar range equation is a basic relationship which permits the calculation
of received echo signal strength, if certain parameters of the radar transmitter, antenna, propagation path, and target are
known. Given:
P G G 82F
Pr ' t t r
(freespace)
as the basic two-way radar equation (see Sections 4-4 thru 4-6)
(4B)3R 4
where:
Pr =
Pt =
Gt =
Gr =

Peak power at receiver input

Transmitted signal level (power)
Gain of transmitting antenna (dimensionless ratio)
Gain of receiving antenna (dimensionless ratio)

8
R
F

=
=
=

Wavelength of signal (length) = c/f

Range of target to radar (distance)
Radar cross section of target

In practical use, the radar range equation is often written in logarithmic form, all terms expressed in decibels, so that the
results can be found by simple processes of addition and subtraction. Using the above equation and 8 = c/f
10 log Pr = 10 log Pt + 10 log Gt + 10 log Gr + 10 log F - 40 log R - 20 log f + 20 log c - 30 log 4B
where: f = Signal frequency (cycles {dimensionless}/time)
c = Speed of light (length/time)
10 log Pr = 10 log Pt + 10 log Gt + 10 log Gr + GF - 2"1
where "1 and GF are factors containing the constants and conversion factors to keep the equations in consistent units.
Refer to Sections 4-4 through 4-6
RADAR TRIGGER KILL - see Trigger Kill, Radar
RADIATION EFFICIENCY - E = Pradiated/Pin (ideal=1)
RADIATION PATTERN - See Antenna Pattern.
RADIO FREQUENCY - See RF.
RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFERENCE - See RFI.
RAIL KEEPING - Ability of countermeasures to keep the missile on the launch rail, i.e., prevent launch.
RAINBOW - A technique which applies pulse-to-pulse frequency changing to identifying and discriminating
against decoys and chaff.
RANGE CELL - In a radar, a range cell is the smallest range increment the radar is capable of detecting. If a radar
has a range resolution of 50 yards and a total range of 30 nautical miles (60,000 yds), there are: 60000/50 = 1,200 range
cells.
RANGE GATE - A gate voltage used to select radar echoes from a very short range interval.
RANGE GATE PULL OFF (RGPO) - Deception technique used against pulse tracking radars using range gates.
Jammer initially repeats the skin echo with minimum time delay at a high power to capture the AGC circuitry. The delay
is progressively increased, forcing the tracking gates to be pulled away ("walked off") from the target echo. Frequency
memory loops (FML's), or transponders provide the variable delay.

10-1.22

RANGE RATE - The rate at which a radar target is changing its range with respect to the radar (in feet per second
for example). Note that this rate is not the same as target velocity unless the target is moving straight toward or straight
away from the radar.
RANGE SCOPE - See A-Scope or PPI.
RECEIVER BANDWIDTH - The difference between the
limiting frequencies within which receiver performance in respect to
some characteristic falls within specified limits. (In most receivers
this will be the difference between the two frequencies where the
intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier gain falls off 3 dB from the gain
at the center IF frequency.) See also Receiver Selectivity.

RECEIVER SELECTIVITY - The degree to which a

receiver is capable of differentiating between the desired signal
and signals or interference at other frequencies. (The narrower
the receiver bandwidth, the greater the selectivity.)
REFLECTION - The turning back (or to the side) of a
radio wave as a result of impinging on any conducting surface
which is at least comparable in dimension to the wavelength of
the radio wave.

F1

F2
Receiver Bandwidth

1.0
0.707

Gain of 0.707 corresponds to

a 3 dB decrease and is also
called the half power points

Center of
Frequency

SELECTIVITY
Wide receiver bandwidth
undesired signal will passs

Desired Signal

Narrow receiver bandwidth

increases signal rejection

Undesired Signal

RESOLUTION - In radar, the minimum separation in angle or in range between two targets which the radar is
capable of distinguishing.
RF (RADIO FREQUENCY) - A term indicating high frequency electromagnetic energy.
RFI (RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFERENCE) - Any induced, radiated, or conducted electrical disturbance or
transient that causes undesirable responses or malfunctioning in any electrical or electronic equipment, device, or system.
Same as EMI. Not to be confused with the logistic term ready for issue (also RFI).
RING AROUND - A condition in which a repeater jammer's total gain, from receiver antenna to transmitter
antenna, exceeds the antenna isolation resulting in the repeater amplifying it's own internal noise. Akin to positive feedback
in an amplifier that causes unwanted oscillations.
RING AROUND (RADAR-TO-MISSILE) - The condition where radio frequency interference signals from a
transmitter of one missile radar enter the receiving circuits of a missile under the control of another missile radar.
RING AROUND (RADAR-TO-RADAR) - The condition where radio frequency interference signals from a
transmitter of one radar enter the receiving circuits of another radar.
ROPE - An element of chaff consisting of a long roll of metallic foil or wire which is designed for broad, lowfrequency response. See Chaff.
R-SCOPE - (RANGE SCOPE) See A-scope or PPI.

10-1.23

SAFETY OF FLIGHT (SOF) TEST - A flight test to verify that a new or modified subsystem will not cause a
major problem with the aircraft, i.e., interference can occur, but will not be such that required navigational systems will fail
or which might potentially cause the loss of an aircraft under all normally expected weather conditions.
SCAN - To transverse or sweep a sector or volume of airspace with a recurring pattern, by means of a controlled
directional beam from a radar antenna. See also Antenna, nutating.
SCHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE - The Schottky barrier diode is a simple metal-semiconductor boundary with no
P-N junction. A depletion region between the metal contact and the doped semiconductor region offers little capacitance
at microwave frequencies. This diode finds use as detectors, mixers, and switches.
SCHOTTKY DIODE MIXER - The mixer is a critical component in modern RF systems. Any nonlinear element
can perform the mixing function, but parameters determining optimal mixing are noise figure, input admittance, and IF noise
and impedance. The Schottky diode is particularly effective because of its low noise figure and nearly square law
characteristics.
SCHOTTKY DIODE SWITCH - Standard P-N diodes are limited in switching ability at high frequencies because
of capacitance provided by the minority carriers. The Schottky diode overcomes this problem by use of the metalsemiconductor junction with inherently low carrier lifetimes, typically less than 100 picoseconds.
SEARCH RADAR - A radar whose prime function is to scan (search) a specified volume of space and indicate the
presence of any targets on some type of visual display, and, in some cases, to provide coordinates of the targets to a fire
control system to assist in target acquisition and tracking.
SEEKER - The seeker consists of circuitry in a homing missile which detects, electronically examines, and tracks
the target; provides data for controlling the flight path of the missile; and provides signals for destroying the missile or for
detonating it at intercept. (The seeker function is similar to that of an interferometer.)
SELF-SCREENING JAMMING (SSJ) - Each aircraft carries it's own jamming equipment for it's own protection.
SENSITIVITY - The sensitivity of a receiver is taken as the minimum signal level required to produce an output
signal having a specified signal-to-noise ratio. See also Minimum Visible Signal and Minimum Discernible Signal (MDS).
SENSITIVITY TIME CONTROL - See STC.
SENSOR - The receiver portion of a transmitter/receiver pair used to detect and process electromagnetic energy.
SHIELDING - The physical arrangement of shields for a particular component, equipment, or system, (A shield
is a housing, screen, or other material, usually conducting, that substantially reduces the effect of electric or magnetic fields
on one side of the shield upon devices or circuits on the other side.) Examples are tube shields, a shielded enclosure or
cabinet for a radar receiver, and the screen around a screen
room.
Carrier Frequency

SHORT PULSE MODE - See Long Pulse Mode.

SIDEBAND - A signal either above or below the
carrier frequency, produced by the modulation of the carrier
wave by some other wave. See figure at right |

Lower
Sideband

Upper
Sideband

Frequency
Carrier modulated by a sine wave

10-1.24

Lower
Sideband

Upper
Sideband

Frequency
Carrier amplitude modulated by a pulse

SIDELOBE - See Lobe, Antenna.

SIGNAL STRENGTH - The magnitude of a signal at a particular location. Units are volts per meter or dBV/m.
SIGNATURE - The set of parameters which describe the characteristics of a radar target or an RF emitter and
distinguish one emitter from another. Signature parameters include the radio frequency of the carrier, the modulation
characteristics (typically the pulse modulation code), and the scan pattern.
SILICON CONTROLLED SWITCH - A P-N-P-N device able to operate at sub-microsecond switching speeds
by the application of gate signals. Because it is a four layer device, this switch is also known as a tetrode thyristor.
SLANT POLARIZATION - Technique of rotating a linear antenna 45E so it can receive or jam both horizontal
and vertical polarization although there is a 3 dB loss. See Section 3.2.
SOLID STATE STAMO - A stable master oscillator constructed using transistors and other solid state devices
as opposed to vacuum tubes. See also STAMO.
SPECTRUM - The distribution of power versus frequency in an electromagnetic wave. See also Spectrum
Signature Analysis and illustrations under Sideband.
SPECTRUM ANALYZER - An electronic device for automatically displaying the spectrum of the electromagnetic
radiation from one or more devices. A cathode ray tube display is commonly used to display this power-versus frequency
spectrum. For examples of two types of displays, see illustrations under Sideband.
SPECTRUM SIGNATURE ANALYSIS - The analysis of the electromagnetic radiation from an electronic device
to determine the relative power in each sideband, harmonic, and spurious emission compared to the carrier frequency. This
particular distribution (or spectrum) is peculiar to the device and can identify this type of device, thereby acting as an identifying "signature."
SPECTRUM WIDTH (TRANSMITTER) - The difference between the frequency limits of the band which contains
all the spectrum frequency components of significant magnitude.
SPOILER ANTENNA - An antenna used to change (spoil) the antenna pattern of a second antenna so as to reduce
the nulls in the pattern of the second antenna. See also Null Fill .
SPOKING (RADAR) - Periodic flashes of the rotating radial display. Sometimes caused by mutual interference.
"SPOOFING" - A type of deception by using an electronic device to transmit a "target" echo. The spoofing
transmitter must operate at the same frequency and PRF as the radar to be deceived. The radar main pulse triggers the
spoofing transmitter which, after a delay, transmits a false echo.
SPOT JAMMING - Narrow frequency band jamming concentrated against a specific radar at a particular
frequency. The jamming bandwidth is comparable to the radar bandpass. Can deny range and angle information.
SPURIOUS EMISSION - Electromagnetic radiation transmitted on a frequency outside the bandwidth required
for satisfactory transmission of the required waveform. Spurious emissions include harmonics, parasitic emissions, and
intermodulation products, but exclude necessary modulation sidebands of the fundamental carrier frequency.

10-1.25

SQUINT ANGLE - The angular difference between the

axis of the antenna mainlobe and the geometric axis of the antenna
reflector, such as the constant angle maintained during conical scan
as the mainlobe rotates around the geometric axis of the reflector.

Main Lobe Axis

Antenna
Squint Angle
Reflector Geometric Axis

STAGGERED PRF - Staggered PRF allows an increase in MTI blind speeds such that no zeros exist in the velocity
response at lower velocities. In a two-period mode, the usual "blind speed" or occurrence of a zero in the velocity response
is multiplied by a factor which is a function of the ratio of the two repetition periods.
STAMO (STABLE MASTER OSCILLATOR) - A very stable (drift free) oscillatory used to provide a precise
frequency for transmission and for comparison with the reflected radar signal returned to the receiver, such as in a Doppler
radar where a precise difference between transmitted and received signals must be measured to determine accurately the
Doppler frequency.
STAND-FORWARD JAMMING - A method which places the jamming vehicle between the enemy sensors and
attack aircraft.
STAND-IN JAMMING (SIJ) - Similar to stand-forward jamming but usually using an UAV with a lower powered
jammer instead of a jammer aircraft.
STAND-OFF JAMMING (SOJ) - An ECM support aircraft orbits in the vicinity of the intended target. As the
fighter-bomber pilot starts his strike penetration, the ECM aircraft directs jamming against all significant radars in the area.
This technique provides broad frequency band ECM without affecting performance of the strike aircraft.
STARBOARD - The right side of a ship or airplane when facing the bow (forward).
STC (SENSITIVITY TIME CONTROL) - Gain control that reduces the radar receiver gain for nearby targets as
compared to more distant targets. STC prevents receiver saturation from close-in targets.
STEP RECOVERY DIODE - A charge-controlled switch which ceases current conduction so rapidly that it can
be used to produce an impulse. Cyclic operation of the diode can produce a train of impulses which when used with a
resonant circuit can produce a single frequency output at any harmonic of the pulse frequency.
STERADIAN - Unit of solid angle. An entire sphere has 4B steradians.
STREAM CHAFF - Operational technique of dropping large quantities of chaff for a continuous period of time.
This results in a "ribbon" or "stream" of returns many miles in lengths on radarscopes. The penetrating strike force can then
use the resulting chaff corridor to mask their penetration.
SUBHARMONIC - A frequency which is an integral submultiple of another frequency. For example, a sine wave
whose frequency is one-third of the frequency of another sine wave is called the third subharmonic. (3 MHz is the third
subharmonic of 9 MHz).
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER - A receiver that mixes the incoming signal with a locally generated signa]
(local oscillator) to produce a fixed, low intermediate frequency (IF) signal for amplification in the IF amplifiers.
SUPPRESSION - Elimination or reduction of any component of an emission, such as suppression of a harmonic
of a transmitter frequency by band rejection filter.

10-1.26

SUPPRESSION OF ENEMY AIR DEFENSES (SEAD) - Activity which neutralizes, destroys, or temporarily
degrades enemy air defense systems by using physical attack or electronic means (SEAD pronounced "seed" or "C add").
SUSCEPTIBILITY - The degree to which an equipment or a system is sensitive to externally generated
interference.
SWEPT JAMMING - Narrowband jamming which is swept through the desired frequency band in order to
maximize power output. This technique is similar to sweeping spot noise to create barrage jamming, but at a higher power.
SWITCHES - See also Diode Switch, Silicon Controlled Switch, Schottky Diode Switch.
SYNCHRODYNE - A klystron mixer amplifier stage in a transmitter, where two signal frequencies are applied
as inputs and a single amplified signal is taken out.
TARGET SIZE - A measure of the ability of a radar target to reflect energy to the radar receiving antenna. The
parameter used to describe this ability is the "radar cross section" of the target. The size (or radar cross section) of a target,
such as an aircraft, will vary considerably as the target maneuvers and presents different views to the radar. A side view
will normally result in a much larger radar cross section than a head-on view. See also Radar Cross Section.
TERMINAL IMPEDANCE: - The equivalent impedance as seen by the transmitter/receiver.
TERRAIN BOUNCE - Term for jamming that is directed at the earth's surface where it is reflected toward the
threat radar. Reflected jamming creates a virtual image of the jamming source on the earth as a target for HOJ missiles.
THERMISTOR - A resistor whose resistance varies with temperature in a defined manner. The word is formed
from the two words "thermal" and "resistor,"
THRESHOLD ISR - The interference to signal ratio (ISR) at which the performance of a receiver starts undergoing
degradation. It must be determined by tests.
TRACKING RADAR - A radar whose prime function is to track a radar target and determine the target coordinates
(in range and angular position) so that a missile may be guided to the target, or a gun aimed at the target.
TRACKING RADAR RECEIVER - These are of two primary types: conical scan and monopulse.
(1) The conical scan system directs the radar signal in a circle around the target. The radar paints this circle 15 to 40 times
per second. As the target moves out of the center of this circle, the radar develops aim error voltages and re-aims the
antenna. (2) The monopulse system directs four beams at the target simultaneously. The target is in the middle of the four
beams. If the target is not in the center, the radar return develops an aim error voltage to re-aim the antenna.
TRACK WHILE SCAN (TWS) RADAR - Although it is not really a tracking radar in the true sense of the word,
it does provide complete and accurate position information for missile guidance. In one implementation it would utilize two
separate beams produced by two separate antennas on two different frequencies. The system utilizes electronic computer
techniques whereby raw datum is used to track an assigned target, compute target velocity, and predict its future position,
while maintaining normal sector scan. Most aircraft use only a single antenna.
TRADE-OFF TABLES - A set of tables showing the various combinations of two or more variables that are related
in that making one variable better will make the other variable worse. The trade-off helps find the best solution considering
all combinations. (For example, how a no-interference condition can be maintained if two emitter platforms are brought
close together, if at the same time the frequency separation between their radar transmitters is increased.)
10-1.27

TRANSIENT - A phenomenon (such as a surge of voltage or current) caused in a system by a sudden change in
conditions, and which may persist for a relatively short time after the change (sometimes called ringing).
TRANSPONDER - A transmitter-receiver capable of accepting the electronic challenge of an interrogator and
automatically transmitting an appropriate reply. There are four modes of operation currently in use for military aircraft.
Mode 1 is a nonsecure low cost method used by ships to track aircraft and other ships. Mode 2 is used by aircraft to make
carrier controlled approaches to ships during inclement weather. Mode 3 is the standard system used by commercial aircraft
to relay their position to ground controllers throughout the world. Mode 4 is IFF. See also IFF.
TRAVELING-WAVE TUBE AMPLIFIER - The TWT is a microwave amplifier capable of operation over very
wide bandwidths. In operation, an electron beam interacts with a microwave signal which is traveling on a slow wave helical
structure. The near synchronism of the beam and RF wave velocities results in amplification. Bandwidths of 3:1 are
possible. Operation at high powers or at millimeter wavelengths is possible at reduced bandwidths.
TRIGGER KILL (RADAR) - A method employed to momentarily disable certain radar system circuits to reduce
or eliminate RF emissions which may cause an EMI/EMC or RADHAZ situation such as on the deck of a ship.
TUNNEL DIODE - The tunnel diode is a heavily doped P-N junction diode that displays a negative resistance over
a portion of its voltage-current characteristic curve. In the tunneling process, electrons from the p-side valence bands are
able to cross the energy barrier into empty states in the N-side conduction band when a small reverse bias is applied. This
diode is used as a microwave amplifier or oscillator.
UPLINK - The missile guidance signal which passes midcourse correction command guidance intelligence from
the guidance radar site to the missile.
VARACTOR DIODE - A P-N junction employing an external bias to create a depletion layer containing very few
charge carriers. The diode effectively acts as a variable capacitor.
VARACTOR TUNED OSCILLATOR - A varactor diode serves as a voltage-controlled capacitor in a tuned circuit
to control the frequency of a negative resistance oscillator. The major feature of this oscillator is its extremely fast tuning
speed. A limiting factor is the ability of the external voltage driver circuit to change the voltage across the varactor diode,
which is primarily controlled by the driver impedance and the bypass capacitors in the tuning circuit.
VELOCITY GATE PULL-OFF (VGPO) - Method of capturing the velocity gate of a Doppler radar and moving
it away from the skin echo. Similar to the RGPO, but used against CW or Doppler velocity tracking radar systems. The
CW or pulse doppler frequency, which is amplified and retransmitted, is shifted in frequency (velocity) to provide an
apparent rate change or Doppler shift.
VELOCITY MODULATION - Velocity modulation is modification of the velocity of an electron beam by
alternately accelerating and decelerating the electrons at a frequency equal to the input frequency. Thus, the electrons are
segregated in bunches, each bunch causing a cycle or current as it passes an output electrode. The velocity of the electrons
is thus a function of the modulation voltage. See also Klystron, Multicavity and Klystron, Reflex.
VICTIM - A receiver (radar or missile) that suffers degradation due to ECM or EMI effects.
VIDEO - Receiver RF signals that have been converted (post detection) into a pulse envelope that can be seen when
applied to some type of radar visual display; also used to describe the actual display itself (such as the video on an A-scope).

10-1.28

WARM - Acronym for Wartime Reserve Mode. Any mode of operation of a radar or ECM that is held in reserve,
and never used, except in actual combat.
WATER LINE - A reference line used for vertical measurements. When used with an aircraft it is usually the
ground with the landing gear extended normally. One of several aircraft location designations, also see butt line and
fuselage station.
WAVEGUIDE - A transmission line consisting of a hollow conducting tube of arbitrary geometry (usually
rectangular, but may be circular) within which electromagnetic waves may propagate.
WAVELENGTH (8) - The distance traveled by a wave in one period (the period is the time required to complete
one cycle). 8 = c/f. In the atmosphere, electromagnetic waves travel at c, the speed of light (300 million meters per second
or 30 cm/nsec). At 5 GHz, one wavelength = 6 cm. At 10 GHz, one wavelength = 3 cm.
WAVEMETER - An instrument for measuring the frequency of a radio wave. The wavemeter is a mechanically
tunable resonant circuit. It must be part of a reflection of transmission measurement system to measure the maximum
response of a signal. Below 20 GHz, the wavemeter has been replaced by the frequency counter with much greater accuracy
and ease of use.
WEAVE - An aircraft maneuver that smoothly changes the instantaneous flight path but maintains the overall route
of flight. Not as violent as a jink.
WET RUN - A test run with ship / aircraft armament and/or EW switches on.
WILD WEASEL - USAF aircraft (F-4Gs during Desert Storm) used for suppression of enemy air defense (SEAD)
mission.
WINDOW - WWII name for chaff
YIG TUNED OSCILLATOR - A YIG (yttrium iron garnet) sphere, when installed in the proper magnetic
environment with suitable coupling will behave like a tunable microwave cavity with Q on the order of 1,000 to 8,000.
Since spectral purity is related to Q, the device has excellent AM and FM noise characteristics.
ZENER DIODE - A diode that exhibits in the avalanche-breakdown region a large change in reverse current over
a very narrow range in reverse voltage. This characteristic permits a highly stable reference voltage to be maintained across
the diode despite a wide range of current.

10-1.29