COURSE CODE/TITLE: ARA184: ARABIC RHETORIC I (Bayn)
COURSE WRITER/DEVELOPER: DR BARIHI ADETUNJI Federal College of Education Osiele Abeokuta PROGRAMME LEADER Professor A.F. Ahmed
COURSE EDITOR: Professor Amidu Sanni School of Arts and Social Sciences National Open University of Nigeria Victoria Island- Lagos
National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters 3
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island Lagos
Abuja Office No.5 Dar es Salaam Street Off Aminu Kano Crescent Wuse II, Abuja Nigeria
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng URL: www.nou.edu.ng National Open University of Nigeria First Printed
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T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S U n i t 1 O r i g i n s a n d E v o l u t i o n o f b a l g h a 4 U n i t 2 C o n t r i b u t i o n o f e a r l y A r a b i c R h e t o r i c i a n s 1 1 U n i t 3 F a s h a h & B a l g h a ( C l a r i t y & E l o q u e n c e ) 1 5 U n i t 4 B a y n a n d U s l b 2 2 U n i t 5 E l e m e n t s o f b a y n 2 6 U n i t 6 U s e s a n d C o m p o n e n t s o f t a s h b h ( s i m i l e ) 2 9 U n i t 7 T y p e s o f t a s h b h ( s i m i l e ) 3 3 U n i t 8 H a q q a h a n d M a j z ( V e r i d i c a l a n d A l l e g o r i c a l 3 9 U n i t 9 C l a s s e s o f m a j z ( a l l e g o r y ) 4 1 U n i t 1 0 C o m p o n e n t s o f i s t i r a h ( m e t a p h o r ) 4 5 U n i t 1 1 C a t e g o r i e s o f i s t i r a h 4 8 U n i t 1 2 A l - M a j z a l - m u r s a l ( h y p a l l a g e ) 5 2 U n i t 1 3 K i n y a h ( m e t o n y m y ) 5 8 U n i t 1 4 K i n y a h l - n i s b a h ( m e t o n y m y o f a f f i n i t y ) 6 2 R e f e r e n c e s a n d F u r t h e r R e a d i n g 6 5
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UNIT 1 ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF BALGHA 1.1 INTRODUCTION Language is a vital aspect human civilization. Speech as part of language (verbal language) places man above other animals. Therefore, language should not only occupy a place of pride in human civilization but must also be developed to enhance the status of man as a superior animal. Rhetoric reflects the culture and civilization of the speakers of that language. In this unit, you will learn about the historical origin of Arabic rhetoric (balgha) 1.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: - Understand and define the concept of balgha . - Acknowledge the importance of balgha particularly and correct understanding of the Quran. - Trace the origin of balgha. - Appreciate rhetoric as an important aspect of language. - 1.3 MAIN CONTENTS 1.3.1 Definition of Rhetoric 1.3.2 The term rhetoric is defined in many ways by different authors. In the first instance Oxford English Dictionary (1993) defines rhetoric as the art of using languages to persuade or influence others. Columbia Encyclopaedia defines rhetoric as the the art of swaying an audience by eloquent speech. 6
In addition, Websters New Encyclopaedia Dictionary defines rhetoric as the art of speaking or writing effectively and also, the study or application of the principles and rules of composition. In Arabic, the word balgha is derived from the root verb balgha. Literally, it means to reach, attain, arrive at, or to get to a destination. Technically, it is the art of reaching the utmost perfection in speech or writing style. It is a discipline that deals with clarity, correctness, and beauty in Arabic writing or oral expression. It is also a process, which enables one to distinguish between beautiful and ugly styles in expression.
In balgha, the context is referred to as '=' _---- (what is occasioned by the situation or particular circumstance) or '-- (occasion). Thus, balgha is the ability to produce speech that corresponds to and is in agreement with the contextual situation of which the listener is also an integral part. Failure to observe context means failure to observe the rule of balgha. It therefore follows that every speech situation must have an appropriate speech act. This is stated in Arabic as follows that '-- '-- .' (for every occasion is an appropriate speech act). In grammar (nahw), we are concerned with the correctness and grammaticality of the text whereas in balgha we are, in addition to that, interested in the contextual appropriateness of statement. The correctness and grammaticality of the text correspond roughly to what is referred to as fashah which is a necessary component of balgha. So while fashah can exist with balgha, the latter cannot exist without the former. To make a text contextually appropriate means that the speaker needs to modify and change his text as per context. Hence, it is the context that determines for example, hoe long the text should be, whether certain elements 7
in the texts should be mentioned or omitted, made definite or indefinite, qualified or unqualified, maintain default order or not etc. Moreover, imagery, figures of speech (similes, metaphors etc), linguistic ornamentation and beautification (rhyming) and so on, all contribute to the quality of the effect and impact of the message on the listener. 1.3.2 HISTORICAL BIRTH OF BALGHA Arabic language has a number of branches of study and these include grammar, etymology, lexicography, and rhetoric balgha which did not become an independent branch of knowledge until the 3 rd /9 th century. Although during the pre-Islamic period the Arabs did not comprehend balgha as we understand it today, what reached us from their literary bequest showed their recognition of eloquence as a good attribute. There are recorded sayings of Bedouins marked by terseness, striking metaphors, and similes and sometimes by rhyme (saj), too. Their poets used to gather at the Ukz fair where they exhibited their talents and submitted their works to judges. The Holy Quran indicates the extent of the eloquence of the Arabs thus: =-=, - '-' - ', ',--' ',=' There is of men such one whose speech about this worldly life may dazzle you (Q2: 204) - - ' ' - , - ' - , = ' - ' -= But when the fear is past, they will smite you with sharp tongues The Quran which was revealed in a magnificent rhetorical style played a significant role in the evolution of balgha. The Arabs on seeing the pattern of the revelation of the Quran claimed that they could produce a similar literary piece of its type. This claims made the Holy Quran to challenge them to 8
produce the like of it, one that would be as rich as it, in style and rhetorical meaning. The Quran says - - , -' ' - - - = _ ' = ' - ' - ' - - - , -- '' - - + - , = '` - - , , ' - -- And if ye are in doubt as to what We have revealed from time to time to Our Servant, then produce a chapter like thereunto; and call your witnesses or helpers (if there are any) besides Allah, if your (doubts) are true. However, the Arabs with all their art of eloquence and oratory failed to d so as the Quran prophesized here: ' ' - ' - . ` - - , -' , _ ' = = ' - ' ' - - - = - ' . + - - ' , ' ' ` - - , -' , ' , + = - ' Say: "If the whole of mankind and Jinns were to gather together to produce the like of this Qur'an, they could not produce the like thereof, even if they backed up each other with help and support. Talking about the importance of balgha to the study of the Quran, Ab Hill al-Askar says: The most worthy of knowledge to undertake and the best of it to be preserved after realization of Allah whose praise is sublime is the study balgha and knowledge of fashah (eloquence) through which the inimitability of the Book of Allah, the most exalted is affirmed. The Book, which speaks with candour and guides to the right path is the proof of the veracity of the message and one upon which the credibility of Prophethood depends. The Prophethood raises the flag of truth and establishes the high lighthouse of Religion. It dispels the scepticism of disbelief with its convincing facts and renders asunder the veil from the truth. 9
For reasons stated above, Quranic exegetes (mufassirn) were motivated to study the science of balgha and figures of speech in the Quran especially when they realized that the interaction of the Arabs with non-Arabs had affected their understanding of the interpretation of the Quran. Among the books written on the subject by exegetes are Majz l-Quran by Ab Ubaydah Mamar b. al- Muthann (d. 209/824), Tawl Mushkil l-Quran by Ibn Qutaybah (d. 276/889) and Kitb l-nuqat fi ijz l-Quran by al-Rummni (d. 384/994). Abu Ubaydah wrote his work in response to the inquiry over the meaning of the Quranic expression (Q. 37: 65): ,=',-' -' '+'= The shoots of its fruits stalks are like the heads of the devils The question was justified by the fact that nobody had ever seen the heads of the devil to which the shoots of the fruit stalks are compared. Abu Ubaydah replied that Allah speaks in this verse to the Arabs according to their idiom. He then buttressed his claim with a pre-Islamic verse by Imrul Qays: ='-- --' -'--, ,= ',-' -,--- Would he kill me while my bedfellows were a sword and a sharpened lance like fangs of the ghouls. In this verse, Imru l-Qays compared the edges of his lance with the fangs of the ghouls though he was quite aware that no one had ever seen a ghoul or its fangs. It was effectively used by the poet for aesthetic effect. This incident involving inspired Abu Ubayda to write a book to explain some allegorical expressions in the Quran. Muslims theologians also contributed greatly to the evolution of balgha. These include al- Baqillni (d. 431/1039 CE) who wrote ijz-al-Quran and Ibn Sinn al-Khafj (d.497/1103) who wrote Sirr-l-fashah (the Secret of Eloquence). Al-Zamakhshar also contributed to the study of 10
balgha through his famous Quranic exegesis al-Kashshaf in which he deploys his knowledge of balgha in the context of his Mutazilite theological leaning. Early Arab grammarians, philologists. and jurists also contributed immensely to the evolution of balgha studies. These include Abd l-Qdir al-Jurjni (d. 471/1077) through his Asrr al- balgha (Secret of Eloquence) and Dalil l- ijz (Evidences of inimitability) and al-Sakkk (d. 626/1229) who wrote Mifth al-ulm (Key of sciences). Literary criticisms also contributed to the evolution of balgha. EXERCISES 1. Discuss the evolution of balgha. 2. For every occasion is an appropriate speech Discuss. 1.4 CONCLUSION In this Unit, you have been able to understand that balgha is a vital branch of Arabic language. - The origin of balgha is as old as Arabic language - The science of balgha is important for the correct understanding of the Quran. 1.5 SUMMARY In this unit, the concept of rhetoric has been defined. It has been shown that balgha is a vital aspect of Arabic language, its importance has been explained and its historical origin has been elucidated. 1.6 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT 1. What is contextual and appropriate definition of balgha? 2. Explain the difference between balgha and nahw 11
3. Elucidate on the importance of ilm al-balgha to the study of the Holy Quran. REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp.196-238). Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayan in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of Balgha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited. Askari Abu Hill al-, (1934) Diwan l- mani. Cairo EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P. Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. rhetorics and poetics; 2, 656-62, s.v. rhetorical figures. Cuddon, J. A (1979). A Dictionary of Literary Terms- Penguin Reference. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Hasan Muhammad Ali (1975) Asraar al-bayn. Cairo. Jahiz, Amr b. Bahr al-, (1968) al-Bayn wa l-tabyn. Cairo: Muktabah l-Khanji Jrim, Ali and Amin, Mustaf (1961), al-Balgha al-wdiha, 15 th edition, Cairo: 1961 Majzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sfi fi l-balgha al- Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq. Matlub Ahmad (1980) al-Balgha al-Arabiyyah- al-mani wa- l bayn wa- l- bad. Iraq: Wizrat al-talim l-l wa-l bahth al-ilm Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). Arabic Rhetoric, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33. Mustafa, Ibrahim et al (1942), al-Bayan, Volume 4 only, Cairo: Boulaq Mustafa Maragi Ahmad (n d) Ulm al-balgha wa-l-bayn wa-l-bad. Cairo: Maktabat al-Muhammadiyyah al-Tijriyyah 12
Qazwn, al-Khatb (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idh fi ulm al-balgha, Cairo: Ali Subayh & Sons. Qazwini, al-Khatb, (1904) al-Talkhis fi ulml-balgha, Ed. Abd al-Rahmn al-Barguti (ed). Cairo. Sdiq, Abd al-Rid (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balgha, 4 th edition, Baghdad: Ministry of Education. Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle Eastern Literatures. Shaykh, Abd al-Whid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi wa-l-tawzi, Alexandria: al- Ish. Smyth, William (1995). The Canonical Foundation of ilm al-balghah and al- Sakkks Mifth al-ulm, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24. Sakkaki, Yusuf al-, (1983) Mifth al-ulm. Beirut: Dar al-kutub Sanni, Amidu (1991) Features and Orientations of the Early Works on Arabic Poetics, Hamdrad Islamicus, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp 5-11. Shawqi Dayf (1965) al-Balghah tatawwur wa-trikh. Cairo Thir al-Baghddi (n.d.) Qnn-l-balgha in Rasil al-bulagh, ed Muhammad Kurd Ali. Tubnah, Badawi (1956) al-Bayan l-Arabi. Cairo . Wahbah, Magdi (1974). Mujam mustalaht l-adab (A Dictionary of Literary Terms). Beirut: Libraire Du Liban. 13
UNIT 2 CONTRIBUTION OF EARLY ARABIC RHETORICIANS 2.1 INTRODUCTION Arabic which is the youngest of the Semitic languages underwent various stages in the process of its development before it eventually achieved a position that enabled it to vie with other world languages. An important aspect of the language is balgha. This Unit deals with the contribution of some early Arabic rhetoricians. 2.2.1 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: - Identify some early rhetoricians - Establish their contributions to the science of balgha. 2.3 MAIN CONTENT IBN AL-MUTAZZ (249-296 AH/863-908 CE) His full name is Ab al-Abbs Abd-Allh b. al-Mutazz b. al- Mutawakkil. He devoted his life time to literary studies and studied under some erudite scholars such as al-Mubarrad (d. 285/898) and Ab al-Abbs Thalab (d. 291/903) from the Kufa School. He was also a poet of poet of good repute and has, among other works, a collection of poems by earlier poets to his credit. But his major contribution to balgha studies is the Kitb-al-badwhich he wrote in 247/867. This book has had a vivid and effective influence on later developments in balgha studies in general and that branch of the discipline to which it is devoted in particular. Sanni (1991) It has been observed that a main objective of the author was to demonstrate that new generation of poets who exhibited a 14
special fascination with the rhetorical schemata, had not in fact created them but had only indulged themselves in an extravagant waste of the artistic devices which older works had used judiciously, and more significantly, to show that some of these devices may in fact be illustrated from the Quran and the hadth (Sanni 1991). QUDMAH B. JAFAR (275-338/888-) He was the famous author of Naqd al-shir in which he classified rhetoric into twenty divisions, an improvement on the effort of Ibn al-Mutazz. He became famous for evolving a number of poetic techniques and remedying some poetic standards except that his book has less impact on later critics. ABU HILL AL-ASKARI (d. 395/1004.) He authored many scholarly books, the most significant of which, in regard to rhetoric, is al-Sinatain. This book deals with the prose and poetry. He was also the first to collapse the two concepts of versification and prosification into one for the purpose of theoretical classification (Al-Askari 1984:237) ABD AL-QHIR AL-JURJNI (d. 471/1078) His full name is Abu Bakr Abd al-Qhir Abd-al-Rahmn al-Jurjn. He was a student of Abu l-Husayn Muhammad b. al-Hasan al-Frisi. He wrote Dalil al- ijz and Asrr al-balgha. The first was intended to prove that the style of the Quran is inimitable and in reality it is the most sublime in terms of stylistics. In it, he investigates what kind of change in meaning is effected by word order, syndetic and asyndetic expression, argmentative particles etc. The second book Asrr al-balgha (Mysteries of Eloquence) contains essentially his ideas on simile (tashbh) and analogy (tamthl). Al- Jurjn is recognised by many as the one who systemised two branches of Arabic rhetoric namely, man , to which 15
his Dalil-al-ijz is dedicated, and bayn, the subject matter of Asrr al- balgha. AL-SAKKKI (d. 626/1229) He was an eminent scholar who was well read in other sciences. He has to his credit a book known as Mifth al-ulm which comprises twelve different aspects of Arabic knowledge. The first section is dedicated to Arabic rhetoric in its three parts of Man, Bayn and Bad. Hence the evolution of the traditional Arabic rhetoric reached its zenith with his work. SAFI-AL-DIN AL-HILLI (d. 749/1345) He saw a vision of the Prophet in his dream and was inspired to write a panegyric about him containing all the rhetorical figures he knew. These are explained by the poet himself in the commentary which he had to his poem. He thus became the first to write what came to be known as badiyyat . AL-ZAMAKHSHARI (d. 538/1143) He was an extremely intelligent person, quick witted, and a fore runner in Quranic exegesis, hadith, grammar, linguistic sciences and rhetoric. Of distinction to Arabic rhetoric is his popular work known as al-Kashshf an haqiq al-tanzl which was compiled in 538A.H. EXERCISES 1. For what was al-Jurjn recognised by many Arab rhetoricians? 2. Who classified rhetoric into twenty divisions? 3. Write a short note on al-Zamakhshar
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2.3 CONCLUSION In this unit, the contribution of some early rhetorician has been properly explained. 2.5 SUMMARY The concept of balgha was introduced purposely to enable one understand the unique structural style of the Quran. Furthermore, balgha is very significant for the proper comprehension of the Quran and the various literary genres of the Arabic language. 2.6 TUTOR MARRKED ASSESSMENT 1. Write a short biographical notice al-Jurjani. 2. Discuss the contributions of al-Sakkaki to the development of Arabic rhetoric 3. Give a short history of Ibn al-Mutazz REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp.196-238). Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayan in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of Balgha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited. Askari Abu Hill al-, (1934) Diwan l- mani. Cairo EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P. Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. rhetorics and poetics; 2, 656-62, s.v. rhetorical figures. Cuddon, J. A (1979). A Dictionary of Literary Terms- Penguin Reference. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. 17
Hasan Muhammad Ali (1975) Asraar al-bayn. Cairo. Jahiz, Amr b. Bahr al-, (1968) al-Bayn wa l-tabyn. Cairo: Muktabah l-Khanji Jrim, Ali and Amin, Mustaf (1961), al-Balgha al-wdiha, 15 th edition, Cairo: 1961 Majzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sfi fi l-balgha al- Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq. Matlub Ahmad (1980) al-Balgha al-Arabiyyah- al-mani wa- l bayn wa- l- bad. Iraq: Wizrat al-talim l-l wa-l bahth al-ilm Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). Arabic Rhetoric, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33. Mustafa, Ibrahim et al (1942), al-Bayan, Volume 4 only, Cairo: Boulaq Mustafa Maragi Ahmad (n d) Ulm al-balgha wa-l-bayn wa-l-bad. Cairo: Maktabat al-Muhammadiyyah al-Tijriyyah Qazwn, al-Khatb (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idh fi ulm al-balgha, Cairo: Ali Subayh & Sons. Qazwini, al-Khatb, (1904) al-Talkhis fi ulml-balgha, Ed. Abd al-Rahmn al-Barguti (ed). Cairo. Sdiq, Abd al-Rid (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balgha, 4 th edition, Baghdad: Ministry of Education. Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle Eastern Literatures. Shaykh, Abd al-Whid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi wa-l-tawzi, Alexandria: al- Ish. Smyth, William (1995). The Canonical Foundation of ilm al-balghah and al- Sakkks Mifth al-ulm, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24. 18
Sakkaki, Yusuf al-, (1983) Mifth al-ulm. Beirut: Dar al-kutub Sanni, Amidu (1991) Features and Orientations of the Early Works on Arabic Poetics, Hamdrad Islamicus, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp 5-11. Shawqi Dayf (1965) al-Balghah tatawwur wa-trikh. Cairo Thir al-Baghddi (n.d.) Qnn-l-balgha in Rasil al-bulagh, ed Muhammad Kurd Ali. Tubnah, Badawi (1956) al-Bayan l-Arabi. Cairo . Wahbah, Magdi (1974). Mujam mustalaht l-adab (A Dictionary of Literary Terms). Beirut: Libraire Du Liban. 19
UNIT THREE FASHAH AND BALGHA (CLARITY AND ELOQUENCE) INTRODUCTION In Arabic rhetoric, fashah and balgha are two terms which are very important. In fact they are closely related because they both qualify the same object, that is, discourse. The area of difference is that fashah is used to qualify individual word (-') while balgha qualifies an entire discourse or speech act. This unit deals with this important aspect of Arabic rhetoric, explaining its concept and the conditions for a word to be eloquent. 3.1 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to - Define and explain the concept of fashah and balgha. - Know the condition for a word to be _,- and _,'- - Identify if a word is _,- or not. 3.3 MAIN CONTENT FASHAH Literally, fashah means clarity or clearness. The Arabs say _--' _-(the morning brightened up) when the day is clear -=-- .-=' _- (the child speech is clear) when the words are manifest. BALGHA It literally means reaching or attaining a height. The Arabs say -,'= -'- (I reached my destination) to indicate arrival at an intended place. However, the term balgha is a verbal noun originally used to describe the oratory power of a 20
khatb (speaker). The target of a speaker or a writer is ultimately to reach his audience or reader through proper articulation and effective use of language. CLARITY OF WORD -'' ='- A word is considered eloquent when it is free from any of the following three flaws: '-'' '-- - cluster of consonants - ' -= ' =- strange words - ',-' -''=- Non conformity with Arabic etymological rules -' '-- : This is a situation where a cluster of consonants appear in a word. A word that contains consonants of the same sound or very close articulation is said not to be eloquent, because the pronunciation of the word will be very difficult, whereas an eloquent word should be very light and easy to pronounce. For example: the word _=+' which means shrub eaten by camels is very difficult to pronounce because it contains three consonants that have the same point of articulation, that is, the glottis. Therefore, _=+' is not an eloquent word, instead, its synonym --' is better. Another example is ----' which means a raised position, contains consonants , and . Also .,'--='(sword) is also difficult to pronounce. All the afore-mentioned are examples illustrating =' '--, hence they are not eloquent words. =-' -= (strangeness of words). This is the employment of word that has passed into disuse because of its age, hence it is very difficult to comprehend. For example: ''- (to gather) which has the same meaning with _--=. Also, _-- 21
means --(to depart). And ==' means --- (to be hard). All these are archaic or strange words that are no more in use. - ',-' -''=- This happens when the etymological rules are not followed in the formation of the pattern of a particular word concerned. For example, the word ',- is used as broken plural for ,- in the following poetical line of al-mutannabi
,- '-' - =, '- ,-= '+' ',- '-' - '-' If some people were to be swords for Sayf al-Dawla, then among such men would be whistles and drums. According to the etymological rule, the broken plural for ,- is ,- Another is -+- The word -+- does not conform with etymological rule. According to the rule, a subject formed from any three lettered verb should be on the measurement of .=' . therefore - should be -' not -+- Another example is ,` ` the word ,` does not conform with etymological rule of nisbah (affinity) ,` it should be ,` CLARITY OF SENTENCE `' ='- For a sentence or an expression to be eloquent, it must be clear enough in articulation and meaning to perfect understanding of listeners or readers. Therefore, the wording of the sentence should be eloquent (i.e. free from the defects discussed above under eloquence of a word). Moreover, it must be free from any of the following: - '-'' '-- cluster of words - --''-' -- weakness of structure - -,--' ' =-' complication of wordings 22
- ,--' -,--' complication of meaning '-'' '-- This is known as discordant arrangement of words. For example, the wording of the following is , therefore the expression are not eloquent - = - ,' - '-- = - The tomb of Harb is at an abandoned site; and there is no tomb near Harbs tomb. --''- - ,' =-- =-- -- , = --' - A generous person he is, whenever I praise him the whole world joins me; but when I abuse him, I do it alone. The wording of the poem is eloquent on its own but because the words have close places of articulation and the arrangement of the words is so clumsy it makes the pronunciation of the sentence very difficult and it renders the expression not eloquent. Hardly can one repeat the sentence three times without having babbling. -,''-' -- This is when the structure or form of a sentence violates any of the grammatical rules such as the mandatory elision of nun of the imperfect jussive as when one says , ' instead of =, ' Another example is in the use of a pronoun after the particle of exception such as ` For example, ` =', '- ' ,' 23
Excepting you no one else is brave. According to the rule, only a personal pronoun not a suffix can come after the particle of exception such as `. The correct formation should be ` -- ,' =-'' -,--' (Verbal Complication). This occurs when the words of a sentence are not properly arranged in accordance with the rules of grammar. For example, ,= '-'- _- ,'- -= ` '- The above expression is not eloquent due to the complication in the words and disorderly arrangement in breach of syntactical rules. The -- must not be separated from the ,-,- and the exempted _----- is not to be separated from the particle of exception. The proper arrangement should be '- -= '- ` ,= _- ,'- Another example is the following: --=- -- `-`' ,- ,-' '- ,, - The expression is not eloquent because there is a separation between ---- and -= (i.e.,- --=- )and -= (predicate) comes after ---- (subject) i.e. `-`' -- the correct arrangement should be ,, - '- --=- ,- ,-' `-`' -- 24
,--' -,--' (Complication of Meaning). This refers to the use of a word in a figurative sense to convey an idea which is not appropriately understood from the manner in which the word is used THE ELOQUENCE OF A SPEAKER '--' ='- A speaker is said to be eloquent when he has succeeded in arresting the attention of his audience with his speech. It is indicated by the ability to use plain and proper words in an expression. In a nutshell the speaker should refrain from using artificial ornamentation and verbal jugglery. EXERCISES Explain why the words underlined cannot be considered eloquent - --'- -= _--- --=-- -= =-`- --= - -- - ('==) '-'-- _'= ` - (,`' _' ---) ,` ` - - (, -'-) _--= .= - - -,-' _ ',-' (--=) --=-=
3.4 CONCLUSION In this unit, you have been able to learn that for eloquence to occur the word must free from - Cluster of words. - Weakness of structure. - Complication of wordings. - Complication of meaning.
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SUMMARY In this unit, you have been able to know that eloquence of a word, sentence, and the speaker is very important for effective communication between the speaker and the audience. 3.6 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT 1. When can a word be considered eloquent? 2. Write short notes on the following: 4. '-'' '-- 5. -,''-' -- 6. =-'' -,--' 7. ,--' -,--' 8. REFERENCES/FURTHER READING 9. Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp.196-238). 10. Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayan in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of Balgha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited. 11. Askari Abu Hill al-, (1934) Diwan l- mani. Cairo 12. EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P. Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. rhetorics and poetics; 2, 656-62, s.v. rhetorical figures. 13. Cuddon, J. A (1979). A Dictionary of Literary Terms- Penguin Reference. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. 14. Hasan Muhammad Ali (1975) Asraar al-bayn. Cairo. 26
15. Jahiz, Amr b. Bahr al-, (1968) al-Bayn wa l-tabyn. Cairo: Muktabah l- Khanji 16. Jrim, Ali and Amin, Mustaf (1961), al-Balgha al-wdiha, 15 th
edition, Cairo: 1961 17. Majzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sfi fi l- balgha al-Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq. 18. Matlub Ahmad (1980) al-Balgha al-Arabiyyah- al-mani wa- l bayn wa- l-bad. Iraq: Wizrat al-talim l-l wa-l bahth al-ilm 19. Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). Arabic Rhetoric, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33. 20. Mustafa, Ibrahim et al (1942), al-Bayan, Volume 4 only, Cairo: Boulaq 21. Mustafa Maragi Ahmad (n d) Ulm al-balgha wa-l-bayn wa-l-bad. Cairo: Maktabat al-Muhammadiyyah al-Tijriyyah 22. Qazwn, al-Khatb (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idh fi ulm al-balgha, Cairo: Ali Subayh & Sons. 23. Qazwini, al-Khatb, (1904) al-Talkhis fi ulml-balgha, Ed. Abd al- Rahmn al-Barguti (ed). Cairo. 24. Sdiq, Abd al-Rid (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balgha, 4 th edition, Baghdad: Ministry of Education. 25. Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle Eastern Literatures. 26. Shaykh, Abd al-Whid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi wa-l-tawzi, Alexandria: al-Ish. 27. Smyth, William (1995). The Canonical Foundation of ilm al-balghah and al-Sakkks Mifth al-ulm, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24. 27
28. Sakkaki, Yusuf al-, (1983) Mifth al-ulm. Beirut: Dar al-kutub 29. Sanni, Amidu (1991) Features and Orientations of the Early Works on Arabic Poetics, Hamdrad Islamicus, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp 5-11. 30. Shawqi Dayf (1965) al-Balghah tatawwur wa-trikh. Cairo 31. Thir al-Baghddi (n.d.) Qnn-l-balgha in Rasil al-bulagh, ed Muhammad Kurd Ali. 32. Tubnah, Badawi (1956) al-Bayan l-Arabi. Cairo . 33. Wahbah, Magdi (1974). Mujam mustalaht l-adab (A Dictionary of Literary Terms). Beirut: Libraire Du Liban. 28
UNIT 4 BAYN AND USLB 4.1 INTRODUCTION Bayn basically means lucidity and distinctness through which clarity in speech act is achieved. In Arabic rhetoric, it refers an art which enables the use of language to express a meaning effectively. Uslb refers to methods used for an effective communication to occur. This unit deals with bayn and also focuses on the different divisions of styles used in Arabic discourse. 4.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to 34. Understand the concept of bayn 35. Know the different divisions of uslb in Arabic rhetoric. 4.3 MAIN CONTENTS 4.3.1 BAYN It is one of the three main branches of balgha. It is the art of expressing a thought with clarity. As a term in Arabic rhetoric, it refers to body of knowledge which enables the user of the literary language to express one and the same meaning and nuances in different structures which vary as to clarity in expressing the intended meaning (Abubakre 1989) The Holy Quran says: - = ' ' , - ' - ' = ' -- ' ' ' = ' - ' ' = 29
' - - = - - - ' - -' - = - , = -' = -' (Allah) Most Gracious! It is He Who has taught the Qur'an He has created man He has taught him speech (and intelligence). The sun and the moon follow courses (exactly) computed; And the herbs and the trees - both (alike) bow in adoration. (Q55:1-5) Allah also said: - ' ' - - - = - - . ' ' -' , - - ' - ' = , ' = ' - ' - , - ' - And We have sent down to thee the Book explaining all things, a Guide, a Mercy, and Glad Tidings to Muslims. (Q16:89). Ibn al-Mutazz describes bayn as the interpreter of the heart, the polisher of the mind and the dispeller of doubt. Ibn Abd Rabbih says the soul is the pillar of the body, knowledge is the pillar of the soul and bayn is the pillar of knowledge. 4.3.2 USLUB Style (uslb) in Arabic rhetoric is no doubt an important instrument for effective communication. Traditional Arabic rhetoricians have divided uslb into three categories: 36. -'' ,'-` scientific style 37. -` ,'-` literary style 38. -'==' ,'-` oratory style 30
-'' ,'-` : This is a style used when a factual information is to be communicated. It does not allow for the use of figurative expressions or idioms, there is no room for any colouration of discourse. Clarity is the watchword. This style is common in school textbooks or historical accounts or scientific reports or experiments -` ,'-` : This is used in artistic prose or poetry. Figures of speech such as simile and allegory, and embellishments, such as imagination, proverbs among others are used. -'==' ,'-` This is the style used by orators. An orator should ensure his speech agrees with what a particular situation requires. He should employ an appropriate language for every situation. He should express himself eloquently. EXERCISES 1. Explain bayn in Arabic literary tradition. 2. Illustrate the contribution of early scholars to bayn. 4.4 CONCLUSION In this unit, the science of bayn, one of the branches of balgha, has been introduced and the divisions of uslb explained. 4.5 SUMMARY Balgha is relevant to Quranic exegesis, Islamic law, politics, and commercial advertisement. It was hardly known to the Arabs before the Quran. For this importance to be realised, there should be an in-depth knowledge of all the components. 4.6 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT 1. Explain the concept of bayn. 31
2. What do you understand by uslb? 3. Mention the kinds and features of each. 4. When can each kind of uslb be used?
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp.196-238). Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayan in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of Balgha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited. Askari Abu Hill al-, (1934) Diwan l- mani. Cairo EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P. Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. rhetorics and poetics; 2, 656-62, s.v. rhetorical figures. Cuddon, J. A (1979). A Dictionary of Literary Terms- Penguin Reference. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Hasan Muhammad Ali (1975) Asraar al-bayn. Cairo. Jahiz, Amr b. Bahr al-, (1968) al-Bayn wa l-tabyn. Cairo: Muktabah l-Khanji Jrim, Ali and Amin, Mustaf (1961), al-Balgha al-wdiha, 15 th edition, Cairo: 1961 Majzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sfi fi l-balgha al- Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq. Matlub Ahmad (1980) al-Balgha al-Arabiyyah- al-mani wa- l bayn wa- l- bad. Iraq: Wizrat al-talim l-l wa-l bahth al-ilm 32
Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). Arabic Rhetoric, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33. Mustafa, Ibrahim et al (1942), al-Bayan, Volume 4 only, Cairo: Boulaq Mustafa Maragi Ahmad (n d) Ulm al-balgha wa-l-bayn wa-l-bad. Cairo: Maktabat al-Muhammadiyyah al-Tijriyyah Qazwn, al-Khatb (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idh fi ulm al-balgha, Cairo: Ali Subayh & Sons. Qazwini, al-Khatb, (1904) al-Talkhis fi ulml-balgha, Ed. Abd al-Rahmn al-Barguti (ed). Cairo. Sdiq, Abd al-Rid (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balgha, 4 th edition, Baghdad: Ministry of Education. Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle Eastern Literatures. Shaykh, Abd al-Whid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi wa-l-tawzi, Alexandria: al- Ish. Smyth, William (1995). The Canonical Foundation of ilm al-balghah and al- Sakkks Mifth al-ulm, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24. Sakkaki, Yusuf al-, (1983) Mifth al-ulm. Beirut: Dar al-kutub Sanni, Amidu (1991) Features and Orientations of the Early Works on Arabic Poetics, Hamdrad Islamicus, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp 5-11. Shawqi Dayf (1965) al-Balghah tatawwur wa-trikh. Cairo Thir al-Baghddi (n.d.) Qnn-l-balgha in Rasil al-bulagh, ed Muhammad Kurd Ali. Tubnah, Badawi (1956) al-Bayan l-Arabi. Cairo . 33
Wahbah, Magdi (1974). Mujam mustalaht l-adab (A Dictionary of Literary Terms). Beirut: Libraire Du Liban. 34
UNIT 5 ELEMENTS OF BAYN 5.1 INTRODUCTION This unit treats the different elements of bayn (figures of speech) which are employed to express various strands of meanings and ideas. It must be noted that figures of speech may at times resemble one another and care should be exercised by students in distinguishing one from another so as to enjoy the aesthetics use of language. 5.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 39. Understand the different elements of rhetoric. 40. Give example of each element. 5.3 MAIN CONTENTS Elements of bayn are also known as figure of speech. They include the following: 1. Simile (tashbh): A simile is an imaginative comparison, usually introduced by like or as. For example: She is like a pig He is as black as the bottom of the pot. It is called tashbh in Arabic. 2. Metaphor (istirah): It is an imaginative statement in which one thing is said to be or identified with another. It is an implied or compressed expression. The entire world is a stage. 35
He is a lion. This is called istirah which is a type of majz (allegory) in Arabic. 3. Climax (Dhirwat): A climax presents a series of ideas each one or more important than the previous. For example, I came, I saw, I conquered. It is called al-Dhirwat in Arabic 4. Irony (Tahakkum): An irony is the expression of a thought by words which superficially suggest the opposite meaning. For example, Nigerians are the most honest people on earth. My wife is the devil incarnate, I love her so much. In Arabic it is called tahakkum. 5. Synecdoche: It is the representation of a whole by a part. E.g. All hands are on deck. It is called majz al-mursal al-kuliyyah in Arabic. EXERCISES Give the different elements of rhetoric. 5.4 CONCLUSION In this unit, some elements of bayn have been discussed with relevant examples. 5.5 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT Illustrate with examples in Arabic, the various elements of bayn. 36
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp.196-238). Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayan in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of Balgha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited. Askari Abu Hill al-, (1934) Diwan l- mani. Cairo EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P. Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. rhetorics and poetics; 2, 656-62, s.v. rhetorical figures. 37
Cuddon, J. A (1979). A Dictionary of Literary Terms- Penguin Reference. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Hasan Muhammad Ali (1975) Asraar al-bayn. Cairo. Jahiz, Amr b. Bahr al-, (1968) al-Bayn wa l-tabyn. Cairo: Muktabah l-Khanji Jrim, Ali and Amin, Mustaf (1961), al-Balgha al-wdiha, 15 th edition, Cairo: 1961 Majzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sfi fi l-balgha al- Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq. Matlub Ahmad (1980) al-Balgha al-Arabiyyah- al-mani wa- l bayn wa- l- bad. Iraq: Wizrat al-talim l-l wa-l bahth al-ilm Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). Arabic Rhetoric, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33. Mustafa, Ibrahim et al (1942), al-Bayan, Volume 4 only, Cairo: Boulaq Mustafa Maragi Ahmad (n d) Ulm al-balgha wa-l-bayn wa-l-bad. Cairo: Maktabat al-Muhammadiyyah al-Tijriyyah Qazwn, al-Khatb (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idh fi ulm al-balgha, Cairo: Ali Subayh & Sons. Qazwini, al-Khatb, (1904) al-Talkhis fi ulml-balgha, Ed. Abd al-Rahmn al-Barguti (ed). Cairo. Sdiq, Abd al-Rid (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balgha, 4 th edition, Baghdad: Ministry of Education. Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle Eastern Literatures. Shaykh, Abd al-Whid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi wa-l-tawzi, Alexandria: al- Ish. 38
Smyth, William (1995). The Canonical Foundation of ilm al-balghah and al- Sakkks Mifth al-ulm, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24. Sakkaki, Yusuf al-, (1983) Mifth al-ulm. Beirut: Dar al-kutub Sanni, Amidu (1991) Features and Orientations of the Early Works on Arabic Poetics, Hamdrad Islamicus, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp 5-11. Shawqi Dayf (1965) al-Balghah tatawwur wa-trikh. Cairo Thir al-Baghddi (n.d.) Qnn-l-balgha in Rasil al-bulagh, ed Muhammad Kurd Ali. Tubnah, Badawi (1956) al-Bayan l-Arabi. Cairo . Wahbah, Magdi (1974). Mujam mustalaht l-adab (A Dictionary of Literary Terms). Beirut: Libraire Du Liban. 39
UNIT 6 USES AND COMPONENTS OF TASHBH (SIMILE) 6.1 INTRODUCTION This is an important aspect of bayn in Arabic rhetoric. It entails attributing a quality found in one item to another by way of comparison. In any statement in which this figure is used, it is usually made up of two parts. The first part is mushabbah (the object being compared) and the second is the mushabbah bih (object to which comparison is made). The comparison is made through the use of a particle called adt l-tashbh, which are: '' and '). In this unit, you will learn the objectives and parts of tashbh. 6.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit you should be able to Understand the objectives of tashbh. Know the components of tashbh. 6.3. OBJECTIVE OF USING TASHBH. There are various objectives of using tashbh and these include: 41. ---' '- ',- Establishing the possibility of comparison A poet says: --, , '-' '+-- # _-'-- --- --'' -- You are like sunlight which is too far to be reached, but its light and ray are close to the people - ''= ',- Establishing the status of the object being compared Al-Nbigha says: 40
-, +-- --, ' -'= # -, ,'-' -- =-' You are like sun and other kings are (like) stars; when the sun rises no star shows. The poet here likens all kings to stars and his patron to the sun which appearance suppresses the status of all stars. He thus enhances the status of his patron. - ''= --- ',- Illustration of the limitation of status Example: '= ,- =-` ' , # -,'= ,- '-` '+, There are forty-two milk bearing she-camel black as the quil of a crow. - ''=,-- Confirmation of condition. A poet says: = ' .`- -=,` '- =' # ' '-` ,'-' Hearts in their state of mutual aversion are like a broken of glass which cannot be mended. - ,,-' Beautification. It is to praise an object being compared. For example, . _ -+-'' =-` ` . Your word is like honey in sweetness. - ,---' _ Disfigurement. This is to make repulsive the object being compared as when a poet says: -,== -+-, =' # -' '`-=- '-
If he gesticulates when speaking he appears like a monkey laughing loudly or an old woman slapping (an object). 41
6.3.2 PARTS OF TASHBH A tashbh is made up of the following four parts (i) ---' The object or notion being compared (ii) - ---' The object or notion to which comparison is being made. (iii) - -' = The feature of comparison (iv) ,---' Particle of comparison The poet al-Brd says: - =--,` =-'' -' # _-' ,' ,- -,-- '- - Its purity among the people is like a flash, time is like a sea which is ever turbid. Al-dahr (time) in the above poem is mushabbah while al-bahr (sea) is mushabbah bih. The kaf is the particle (adat al-tashbh) and l yanfaku dh kadar, is wajh al-shibah.
, '-'' ,' =-- -'- # - -' , -' . Everything on the surface of earth is dust; if I could earn your love then (acquiring) wealth will be easy. EXERCISES 1. What is tashbh 2. Explain the four parts of tashbh
42
6.4 CONCLUSION In this unit, the concept of tashbh has been introduced, the objectives have been explained and its components enumerated. 6.5 SUMMARY The knowledge of tashbh is important in the understanding of Quran and Arabic literary works 6.6 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT (1) Explain the objectives of using tashbh in speeches. (2) With various examples explain the features of comparison in bayn.
43
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp.196-238). Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayan in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of Balgha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited. Askari Abu Hill al-, (1934) Diwan l- mani. Cairo EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P. Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. rhetorics and poetics; 2, 656-62, s.v. rhetorical figures. Cuddon, J. A (1979). A Dictionary of Literary Terms- Penguin Reference. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Hasan Muhammad Ali (1975) Asraar al-bayn. Cairo. Jahiz, Amr b. Bahr al-, (1968) al-Bayn wa l-tabyn. Cairo: Muktabah l-Khanji Jrim, Ali and Amin, Mustaf (1961), al-Balgha al-wdiha, 15 th edition, Cairo: 1961 Majzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sfi fi l-balgha al- Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq. Matlub Ahmad (1980) al-Balgha al-Arabiyyah- al-mani wa- l bayn wa- l- bad. Iraq: Wizrat al-talim l-l wa-l bahth al-ilm Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). Arabic Rhetoric, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33. Mustafa, Ibrahim et al (1942), al-Bayan, Volume 4 only, Cairo: Boulaq Mustafa Maragi Ahmad (n d) Ulm al-balgha wa-l-bayn wa-l-bad. Cairo: Maktabat al-Muhammadiyyah al-Tijriyyah Qazwn, al-Khatb (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idh fi ulm al-balgha, Cairo: Ali Subayh & Sons. 44
Qazwini, al-Khatb, (1904) al-Talkhis fi ulml-balgha, Ed. Abd al-Rahmn al-Barguti (ed). Cairo. Sdiq, Abd al-Rid (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balgha, 4 th edition, Baghdad: Ministry of Education. Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle Eastern Literatures. Shaykh, Abd al-Whid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi wa-l-tawzi, Alexandria: al- Ish. Smyth, William (1995). The Canonical Foundation of ilm al-balghah and al- Sakkks Mifth al-ulm, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24. Sakkaki, Yusuf al-, (1983) Mifth al-ulm. Beirut: Dar al-kutub Sanni, Amidu (1991) Features and Orientations of the Early Works on Arabic Poetics, Hamdrad Islamicus, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp 5-11. Shawqi Dayf (1965) al-Balghah tatawwur wa-trikh. Cairo Thir al-Baghddi (n.d.) Qnn-l-balgha in Rasil al-bulagh, ed Muhammad Kurd Ali. Tubnah, Badawi (1956) al-Bayan l-Arabi. Cairo . Wahbah, Magdi (1974). Mujam mustalaht l-adab (A Dictionary of Literary Terms). Beirut: Libraire Du Liban.
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UNIT 7 TYPES OF TASHBH 7.1 INTRODUCTION There are many types of tashbh. If all the components of tashbh are present, it is known as tashbh mursal (free simile). If any is dropped, it is known as muakkad (emphatic simile). Tashbh is said to be more expressive and artistic if the particle and attribute of simile are dropped. 7.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to 42. Understand and identify the various kinds of tashbh with appropriate examples. 7.3 MAIN CONTENTS The various types of tashbh are as follows: 1. .--' ,---' 2. .---' ,---' 3. .-=-' ,---' 4 . -,-' ,---' 5 . _,'-' ,---' 6 . .,`--' ,---' .--' ,---' (unrestricted simile) This is a free simile where the particle of tashbh is mentioned as in the following example: ,=' _ =-'' = - You are like rain in generosity. This is a simile whereby the aspect of resemblance (wajh al-shabah) is mentioned. Another example is: =`= ' _ ,--'' Your conduct is like the cool breeze in gentleness. 46
.-=-' ,- - -' (synoptic simile) This is a type of simile where the aspect of resemblance is not mentioned. -' '+ -' -,-=' '- We visited the garden which looks like paradise. Here the aspect of resemblance which is beauty and grandeur ('+-) beauty is suppressed. ,---' -,-' (emphatic simile) This is an emphatic simile in which the particle of comparison is suppressed. Not only this, the object being compared (mushabbah) is portrayed as having the quality in a higher proportion than the object to which it is being compared (mushabbah bihi). An example is the following: -='= - =-' _ ,=' The horse is a dazzling lightning in fastness. Here, the particle of comparison (kaf) is dropped, and horse is portrayed as lightning itself instead of it being likened to lightning. _,'-' ,---' (effective/sublime simile) This is a combination of the feature of mujmal and mu'akkaad and wajh al- shabah is also dropped. Here the object being compared and the subject are artistically considered to be the same. An example is the following: ,- '-' ) -=' ----' ( The opinion of the teacher is a scale. (subject and predicate). 47
The scale is a symbol of correctness and accuracy, and the opinion of the teacher is so designated. Another example is: '- ' --- =- ) -=' ----' ( We are the plant of monticule (hill) (subject & predicate) The Quran says: --' '- -' ---- ' ' -'' ) --= _-'-' - ( And when the sky is rent asunder and it becomes red like ointments. Q.55:36 '= '+-' '-'= '-'-' .,'' '- '-'- ) '=' ( And we made the night as a covering and the day as a means of subsistence. Q.76:10-11 '--' -=- '-,- --' ) --= _-'-' - ( And the heaven shall be opened as if there were doors. Q. 78: 19 '+- ` ' .= -' ) '=' ( (It is He Allah) Who has made for you the earth like a carpet spread out. Q 43:10 ' ,---' - .,`- (pictorial simile) This is a kind of simile where the aspect of resemblance would be a picture of something visible. This can be illustrated with the following from the poet al- Mutannab: ,--'= =',= ,=' +, # '-' '+,='-= ---- '- 48
As the eagle shakes its two wings (in enthusiasm), so do the army around you. The enthusiastic shaking of the wings by the bird in preparation for flight so is the enthusiastic show of preparedness to fight while they surround the patron. The Holy Qur'an says: ','-=, ' ` ,-' ,' -= -' .`- .-=, '-=' .`- ,-- ,-' ,-' .`- -- '-- - ','- ,-''=' ,-' -+,` - The similitude of those who were entrusted with the Torah but who subsequently failed to bear it is like that of a donkey which carried huge tommes (but understands them not). Evil is the similitude of people who falsify the Signs of Allah, and Allah guided not people who do wrong. (Q. 62:5). In the verse just quoted, the Israelites were chosen as the bearers of Allah's message which was ultimately corrupted by their descendants who even failed to act according to its dictates. They are thus likened to beasts of burden that carry volumes of knowledge without taking advantage of their contents. TASHBH BASED ON PERCEPTIBILITY (I) ,-=-''- ,-=-' ,--- (perceptible-perceptible). This is a kind of simile where mushabbah and the mushabbah bihi are perceived through one of the senses. For example, '-=' _ -' -',' -, I saw the boy, it was as if he was a rose in handsomeness. Here -',' (The boy) and ,' (The flower) which are mushabbah and mushabbah bihi respectively are palpable objects and are thus compared. 49
(II) ,--''- ,-=-' ,--- (perceptible-cognitive). This is a kind of simile where the mushabbah, a concrete item, is compared to an imaginary item, as can be illustrated with the following verse by Bashshr b. Burd '=- '-''` '- '- # ,- '-' '- ,=- I am awake, but when time is depressed I too will, I am nothing but like time when it is awake. Here, the mushabbah, (an- I) is a concrete being while the mushabbah bihi (al-zamn- time), is an imaginary or abstract being. Another example is: .-' .=' ---, '- .-' ---, _ ,-' '=' Bad conduct spoils (good) deed as vinegar spoils honey. EXERCISES 1. Elucidate al-tashbh al-balgh 2. Expatiate on al-tashbh al-muakkad 7.4 CONCLUSION In this unit, you have been able to understand the various kinds of tashbh with appropriate examples 7.5 SUMMARY In this unit, you have been able to know tashbh (simile) in its various kinds. Where the quality of comparison (wajh al-shabah) is expressed, such a simile is known as mufassal (detailed/explicit), but where it is not known it is designated as mujammal (implicit/synoptic). If the particle of tashbh is expressed it is known as free simile but where it is elided this is known as emphatic simile. 7.6 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT 50
1. Discuss free simile in Arabic rhetoric. 2. Compare and contrast _,'-' ,---' with .,`--' ,---' 3. Elucidate on -,-' ,---' in Arabic rhetoric REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp.196-238). Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayan in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of Balgha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited. Askari Abu Hill al-, (1934) Diwan l- mani. Cairo EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P. Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. rhetorics and poetics; 2, 656-62, s.v. rhetorical figures. Cuddon, J. A (1979). A Dictionary of Literary Terms- Penguin Reference. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Hasan Muhammad Ali (1975) Asraar al-bayn. Cairo. Jahiz, Amr b. Bahr al-, (1968) al-Bayn wa l-tabyn. Cairo: Muktabah l-Khanji Jrim, Ali and Amin, Mustaf (1961), al-Balgha al-wdiha, 15 th edition, Cairo: 1961 Majzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sfi fi l-balgha al- Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq. Matlub Ahmad (1980) al-Balgha al-Arabiyyah- al-mani wa- l bayn wa- l- bad. Iraq: Wizrat al-talim l-l wa-l bahth al-ilm Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). Arabic Rhetoric, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33. Mustafa, Ibrahim et al (1942), al-Bayan, Volume 4 only, Cairo: Boulaq 51
Mustafa Maragi Ahmad (n d) Ulm al-balgha wa-l-bayn wa-l-bad. Cairo: Maktabat al-Muhammadiyyah al-Tijriyyah Qazwn, al-Khatb (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idh fi ulm al-balgha, Cairo: Ali Subayh & Sons. Qazwini, al-Khatb, (1904) al-Talkhis fi ulml-balgha, Ed. Abd al-Rahmn al-Barguti (ed). Cairo. Sdiq, Abd al-Rid (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balgha, 4 th edition, Baghdad: Ministry of Education. Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle Eastern Literatures. Shaykh, Abd al-Whid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi wa-l-tawzi, Alexandria: al- Ish. Smyth, William (1995). The Canonical Foundation of ilm al-balghah and al- Sakkks Mifth al-ulm, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24. Sakkaki, Yusuf al-, (1983) Mifth al-ulm. Beirut: Dar al-kutub Sanni, Amidu (1991) Features and Orientations of the Early Works on Arabic Poetics, Hamdrad Islamicus, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp 5-11. Shawqi Dayf (1965) al-Balghah tatawwur wa-trikh. Cairo Thir al-Baghddi (n.d.) Qnn-l-balgha in Rasil al-bulagh, ed Muhammad Kurd Ali. Tubnah, Badawi (1956) al-Bayan l-Arabi. Cairo . Wahbah, Magdi (1974). Mujam mustalaht l-adab (A Dictionary of Literary Terms). Beirut: Libraire Du Liban. 52
UNIT 8 HAQQAH AND MAJZ 8.1 INTRODUCTION A word can be used for either is literal/veridical (haqqah) or allegorical/figurative (majz) meaning In this unit, you will learn about the different use of these two important aspects of bayn. 8.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to 43. Explain the words haqqah and majz 44. Give examples of each. 8.3 MAIN CONTENT Where a word is used in its literal sense, it is said to be an example of haqqah usage as in the following: =-' ' '-' The sea was calm. The word bahr (sea) is used here in its literal sense. However, if it is used in a figurative sense, a majz usage would be deemed to have occurred, as in the following: -'=` ,''- --, --, =-', He is the sea, he stretches out his hand in assistance and help (that is he is generous and helpful). 53
In this example, we would find out that the expression --, --, (stretches out his hands) indicates that the literal meaning of bahr is not intended. Such an expression which indicates that the literal meaning is not intended is known as qarnah (guide). It may be verbal (lafziyyah) or contextual (hliyyah). EXERCISES (1) What is haqqah and majz (2) Explain the difference between explicit and implicit usage. 8.4 CONCLUSION In this unit, the concept of haqqah and majz has been explained. 8.5 SUMMARY In this unit you have been able to know that a word can be used for both literal and figurative meaning. 8.6 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT (1) Compare and contrast literal (surface) and figurative (deep) usage in Arabic. REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp.196-238). Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayan in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of Balgha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited. Askari Abu Hill al-, (1934) Diwan l- mani. Cairo EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P. Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. rhetorics and poetics; 2, 656-62, s.v. rhetorical figures. 54
Cuddon, J. A (1979). A Dictionary of Literary Terms- Penguin Reference. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Hasan Muhammad Ali (1975) Asraar al-bayn. Cairo. Jahiz, Amr b. Bahr al-, (1968) al-Bayn wa l-tabyn. Cairo: Muktabah l-Khanji Jrim, Ali and Amin, Mustaf (1961), al-Balgha al-wdiha, 15 th edition, Cairo: 1961 Majzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sfi fi l-balgha al- Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq. Matlub Ahmad (1980) al-Balgha al-Arabiyyah- al-mani wa- l bayn wa- l- bad. Iraq: Wizrat al-talim l-l wa-l bahth al-ilm Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). Arabic Rhetoric, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33. Mustafa, Ibrahim et al (1942), al-Bayan, Volume 4 only, Cairo: Boulaq Mustafa Maragi Ahmad (n d) Ulm al-balgha wa-l-bayn wa-l-bad. Cairo: Maktabat al-Muhammadiyyah al-Tijriyyah Qazwn, al-Khatb (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idh fi ulm al-balgha, Cairo: Ali Subayh & Sons. Qazwini, al-Khatb, (1904) al-Talkhis fi ulml-balgha, Ed. Abd al-Rahmn al-Barguti (ed). Cairo. Sdiq, Abd al-Rid (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balgha, 4 th edition, Baghdad: Ministry of Education. Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle Eastern Literatures. Shaykh, Abd al-Whid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi wa-l-tawzi, Alexandria: al- Ish. 55
Smyth, William (1995). The Canonical Foundation of ilm al-balghah and al- Sakkks Mifth al-ulm, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24. Sakkaki, Yusuf al-, (1983) Mifth al-ulm. Beirut: Dar al-kutub Sanni, Amidu (1991) Features and Orientations of the Early Works on Arabic Poetics, Hamdrad Islamicus, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp 5-11. Shawqi Dayf (1965) al-Balghah tatawwur wa-trikh. Cairo Thir al-Baghddi (n.d.) Qnn-l-balgha in Rasil al-bulagh, ed Muhammad Kurd Ali. Tubnah, Badawi (1956) al-Bayan l-Arabi. Cairo . Wahbah, Magdi (1974). Mujam mustalaht l-adab (A Dictionary of Literary Terms). Beirut: Libraire Du Liban. 56
UNIT 9 CLASSES OF MAJZ (ALLEGORY) 9.1 INTRODUCTION Majz is of two categories. This is based on the nature of the predicate. If an action or quality is attributed to a subject or an object that is not factually authentic, this will be considered as an example of majz aql (cognitive allegory). But if the majz involves the transfer of the meaning of a word to another entity with which it shares some semantic connection this is classified as majz lughaw (linguistic majz). 9.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to Explain the types of majz. Give examples of the two types of majz. 9.3 MAIN CONTENT In Arabic rhetoric, majz is divided into the following two categories: 1) majz aql (cognitive allegory) It refers to cases where the intended meaning can be ascertained through the application of mental reasoning. For example, in the following: -- -= '-' , -- . The Minister of Education built many schools. This cannot be factually correct, as he could not have physically built the structures, but rather, he must have commissioned competent people to do this. Yet another example is the following: 57
-'= -- - . (This is a fully occupied (lit. occupying) house. The normal statement should have used passive participle mamrun in place of the active participle, mirun that is used. But by cognition, it is understood that it is the former that is meant. 2) majz lughaw- (linguistic allegory). It refers to cases in which the figure of speech requires a transfer of the meaning of a word to another object or entity by virtue of shared value or attribute. This is further divided into istirah (metaphor) and majz mursal (free allegory) ISTIRAH (Metaphor) Literally it means borrowing, but as a rhetorical term, it means the transference of a meaning from its literal sense to a figurative sense not by means of comparison but by giving the new sense a character of actuality and factualness. For example: _ --- ,-- '--' Shining pearls spread in the sky (in reference to stars). The literal meaning of is pearls but it has been used here figuratively to mean stars. The link between the literal meaning (pearls) and the metaphorical meaning (stars) originated from simile. That is, the origin of our example is: -'' ,=- '--' _ -- ' '+- Stars like pearls in beauty and brightness spread in the sky. The object of comparison that ,=- is dropped along with the particle of comparison while the quality in respect of which the comparison is being made is mentioned. This is known as istirah tasrhiyyah (explicit metaphor). 58
The second type is istirah makniyyah (implicit metaphor). This is when the thing likened to is dropped in an expression and replaced with a word which refers to it. For example, E.g. '-'- ' _--- I read a book that made a good company of me. In this example, the book is likened to the friend ) -='-' ( which keeps a company. The word is dropped but replaced with a word which refers to one of its duties i.e. --' (to keep company). So, this is an implicit metaphor. EXERCISES 1. Explain the various types of majz 2. Discuss istirah in Arabic rhetoric. 9.4 CONCLUSION In this unit, the various types of majz has been explained and istirah have been vividly explained. 9.5 SUMMARY The categories and types of majz and istirah have been explained. 9.6 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT 1. Elucidate mental figure in Arabic rhetoric. 2. With examples, mention the famous links of mental figure.
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REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp.196-238). Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayan in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of Balgha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited. Askari Abu Hill al-, (1934) Diwan l- mani. Cairo EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P. Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. rhetorics and poetics; 2, 656-62, s.v. rhetorical figures. Cuddon, J. A (1979). A Dictionary of Literary Terms- Penguin Reference. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Hasan Muhammad Ali (1975) Asraar al-bayn. Cairo. Jahiz, Amr b. Bahr al-, (1968) al-Bayn wa l-tabyn. Cairo: Muktabah l-Khanji Jrim, Ali and Amin, Mustaf (1961), al-Balgha al-wdiha, 15 th edition, Cairo: 1961 Majzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sfi fi l-balgha al- Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq. Matlub Ahmad (1980) al-Balgha al-Arabiyyah- al-mani wa- l bayn wa- l- bad. Iraq: Wizrat al-talim l-l wa-l bahth al-ilm Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). Arabic Rhetoric, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33. Mustafa, Ibrahim et al (1942), al-Bayan, Volume 4 only, Cairo: Boulaq Mustafa Maragi Ahmad (n d) Ulm al-balgha wa-l-bayn wa-l-bad. Cairo: Maktabat al-Muhammadiyyah al-Tijriyyah Qazwn, al-Khatb (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idh fi ulm al-balgha, Cairo: Ali Subayh & Sons. 61
Qazwini, al-Khatb, (1904) al-Talkhis fi ulml-balgha, Ed. Abd al-Rahmn al-Barguti (ed). Cairo. Sdiq, Abd al-Rid (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balgha, 4 th edition, Baghdad: Ministry of Education. Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle Eastern Literatures. Shaykh, Abd al-Whid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi wa-l-tawzi, Alexandria: al- Ish. Smyth, William (1995). The Canonical Foundation of ilm al-balghah and al- Sakkks Mifth al-ulm, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24. Sakkaki, Yusuf al-, (1983) Mifth al-ulm. Beirut: Dar al-kutub Sanni, Amidu (1991) Features and Orientations of the Early Works on Arabic Poetics, Hamdrad Islamicus, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp 5-11. Shawqi Dayf (1965) al-Balghah tatawwur wa-trikh. Cairo Thir al-Baghddi (n.d.) Qnn-l-balgha in Rasil al-bulagh, ed Muhammad Kurd Ali. Tubnah, Badawi (1956) al-Bayan l-Arabi. Cairo . Wahbah, Magdi (1974). Mujam mustalaht l-adab (A Dictionary of Literary Terms). Beirut: Libraire Du Liban. 62
UNIT 10 COMPONENTS OF ISTIRAH 10.1 INTRODUCTION Metaphor (istirah) is made up of some components. These components will be explained in this unit. Also, the various divisions of istirah will be discussed. 10.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to 45. Explain the components of istirah 46. Explain the divisions of istirah 10.3 MAIN CONTENTS Istirah consists of three parts (1) -- '--- (borrowed from). A semantic sphere from which a meaning or quality is transferred. (2) '--- ' (borrowed to). The semantic entity to which a meaning or quality is transferred. (3) '--- (borrowed attribute). The specific meaning or quality that is metaphorically employed. For example, the following verse from the Quran (Q 14: 1): _''- ' : ,-' _' '-'=' - '-' =-' =,' -'-'- '- . A book (it is) that We revealed to you so that you might take people out of darkness into light 63
In this verse, ignorance is likened to darkness while knowledge is likened to light. The analysis goes thus: --'--- : '' .+=' ''--- : -+' `-' '--- : ,-' '-'=' Istirah can be further divided into asliyyah (primary) and tabaiyyah (secondary). Istirah 'asliyyah: This is where the meaning or quality of a concrete being is transferred to another, as in -- -',' . The boy is a lion Where the quality of bravery as represented by lion is represented in the human who is portrayed as being a lion itself. Istirah taba'iyyah (secondary metaphor): This is where the metaphorical word is a derived noun or a finite verb, as in the following Quranic verse ,-, +-' ,-''-= - '+-=-- _ ,'` -= --' _-,- = -- '-' "And when the anger of Musa (Moses) subsided (literally, kept quiet), he took up the Tablets; and in their inscription was guidance and mercy for those who fear their Lord. (Qur'an 7:154). The subsiding of Musa's anger is likened to quietness of a human after making some noise because both situations result in calmness. Then, the word which refers to quietness is ' ,-' ' which is not used, but rather, a verbal derivative which is the infinitive - - Therefore whenever a derivative, which could be a verb or an adjective, of the mushabbah bihi is used, the istirah is called taba'iyyah. 64
EXERCISES 1. Explain the components of istirah. 2. Discuss primary and secondary metaphor. 10.4 CONCLUSION In this unit, you have been introduced to the components of istirah. 10.5 SUMMARY It is important to understand the components of istirah for effective understanding of the concept. 10.6 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT (i) What is istirah? (ii) Explain the differences between explicit and implicit metaphor. (iii) Write a short note on the following. (I)-- '--- (II) ''--- (III) '---
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp.196-238). Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayan in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of Balgha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited. Askari Abu Hill al-, (1934) Diwan l- mani. Cairo EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P. Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. rhetorics and poetics; 2, 656-62, s.v. rhetorical figures. 65
Cuddon, J. A (1979). A Dictionary of Literary Terms- Penguin Reference. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Hasan Muhammad Ali (1975) Asraar al-bayn. Cairo. Jahiz, Amr b. Bahr al-, (1968) al-Bayn wa l-tabyn. Cairo: Muktabah l-Khanji Jrim, Ali and Amin, Mustaf (1961), al-Balgha al-wdiha, 15 th edition, Cairo: 1961 Majzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sfi fi l-balgha al- Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq. Matlub Ahmad (1980) al-Balgha al-Arabiyyah- al-mani wa- l bayn wa- l- bad. Iraq: Wizrat al-talim l-l wa-l bahth al-ilm Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). Arabic Rhetoric, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33. Mustafa, Ibrahim et al (1942), al-Bayan, Volume 4 only, Cairo: Boulaq Mustafa Maragi Ahmad (n d) Ulm al-balgha wa-l-bayn wa-l-bad. Cairo: Maktabat al-Muhammadiyyah al-Tijriyyah Qazwn, al-Khatb (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idh fi ulm al-balgha, Cairo: Ali Subayh & Sons. Qazwini, al-Khatb, (1904) al-Talkhis fi ulml-balgha, Ed. Abd al-Rahmn al-Barguti (ed). Cairo. Sdiq, Abd al-Rid (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balgha, 4 th edition, Baghdad: Ministry of Education. Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle Eastern Literatures. Shaykh, Abd al-Whid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi wa-l-tawzi, Alexandria: al- Ish. 66
Smyth, William (1995). The Canonical Foundation of ilm al-balghah and al- Sakkks Mifth al-ulm, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24. Sakkaki, Yusuf al-, (1983) Mifth al-ulm. Beirut: Dar al-kutub Sanni, Amidu (1991) Features and Orientations of the Early Works on Arabic Poetics, Hamdrad Islamicus, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp 5-11. Shawqi Dayf (1965) al-Balghah tatawwur wa-trikh. Cairo Thir al-Baghddi (n.d.) Qnn-l-balgha in Rasil al-bulagh, ed Muhammad Kurd Ali. Tubnah, Badawi (1956) al-Bayan l-Arabi. Cairo . Wahbah, Magdi (1974). Mujam mustalaht l-adab (A Dictionary of Literary Terms). Beirut: Libraire Du Liban.
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UNIT 11 CATEGORIES OF ISTIRAH 11.1 INTRODUCTION There are three categories of istirah, namely, mutlaqah (absolute), murashshhah (fortified) and mujarradah (naked/simple). Another sub-type, istirah murakkabah (compound metaphor) will also be discussed. 11.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to 47. Explain the different categories of istirah. 48. Understand the concept of complicated metaphor 49. Give examples of the different categories of istirah. 11.3 MAIN CONTENT The three categories of istirah are: i. istirah mutlaqah (absolute.metaphor) This is the one in which no appropriate reference is made to either the mushabbah or mushabbah bihi . An example for this is from the Qur'an. -'-= '-' _= ' -' '- ,'=' _ ' We indeed ferried you over the ship when the water overflew (lit. transgressed (Q 69: 11). ii istirah murashshah (enhanced/fortified metaphor): This is the one in which an appropriate reference is made to the word metaphorically used in order that the metaphor might be enhanced as in the following Quranic verse: 68
Quran says: -+''- '`-' -- ,-' =-' --+- ,-' '- +-'=- -=-'- , . Those are the one who have purchased error for guidance so their commerce was profitless, and they were not guided (Qur'an 2:16) iii istirah mujarradah (naked/bare metaphor): This is one in which an appropriate reference is made to the object or meaning being compared (mushabbah) rather than any reference to the object of metaphor (mushabbah bihi). The following is an example: -'= , -= - - -' - '-' -- --= ' . Ahmad is the best writer whenever his pen drinks from his inkpot or sings on his paper. Here pen portrayed as man is made to drink and sing. ISTIRAH MURAKKABAH (COMPOUND METAPHOR) This is the one based on historic comparison of at least two ideas. The following is an example: = =,- `= --- _- I can see you going back and forth (literally putting one leg forward and another backward). Here, the person draws a comparison in parable over an affair in which someone is indecisive; putting one leg in front and the other backward. Yet another example is the following from al-Mutanabbi: `' '-' - - -=, # =, - - - , Whoever has a bitter mouth out of sickness will find bitter even pure, and fresh water. 69
Here, the poet reproaches those who criticised his poetry and person to his patron by implying that an ignorant person finds fault with a good product in the same way as a sick person finds pure water bitter. The metaphor here is in the form of a parable, hence it is considered compound. Another example is: -, -' _---,'- . '- --' _+---` '-- ',' _-'- Not all that man aspires he attains, winds sometimes blow on sailors( literally ships) that which is not desired EXERCISES (1) Compare and contrast primary and secondary metaphor. (2) Explain the following terms -'=- '-- and - '-- - = 11.4 CONCLUSION In this unit, the different categories of istirah have been identified and explained. 11.5 SUMMARY Istirah should neither be vague nor semantically far-fetched as to render it unintelligible; it is a product of artistic imagery and should be clear and revealing. 11.6 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT 1. Explain istirah mujarradah 2. Expatiate on complicated metaphor 70
REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp.196-238). Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayan in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of Balgha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited. Askari Abu Hill al-, (1934) Diwan l- mani. Cairo EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P. Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. rhetorics and poetics; 2, 656-62, s.v. rhetorical figures. Cuddon, J. A (1979). A Dictionary of Literary Terms- Penguin Reference. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Hasan Muhammad Ali (1975) Asraar al-bayn. Cairo. Jahiz, Amr b. Bahr al-, (1968) al-Bayn wa l-tabyn. Cairo: Muktabah l-Khanji 71
Jrim, Ali and Amin, Mustaf (1961), al-Balgha al-wdiha, 15 th edition, Cairo: 1961 Majzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sfi fi l-balgha al- Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq. Matlub Ahmad (1980) al-Balgha al-Arabiyyah- al-mani wa- l bayn wa- l- bad. Iraq: Wizrat al-talim l-l wa-l bahth al-ilm Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). Arabic Rhetoric, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33. Mustafa, Ibrahim et al (1942), al-Bayan, Volume 4 only, Cairo: Boulaq Mustafa Maragi Ahmad (n d) Ulm al-balgha wa-l-bayn wa-l-bad. Cairo: Maktabat al-Muhammadiyyah al-Tijriyyah Qazwn, al-Khatb (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idh fi ulm al-balgha, Cairo: Ali Subayh & Sons. Qazwini, al-Khatb, (1904) al-Talkhis fi ulml-balgha, Ed. Abd al-Rahmn al-Barguti (ed). Cairo. Sdiq, Abd al-Rid (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balgha, 4 th edition, Baghdad: Ministry of Education. Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle Eastern Literatures. Shaykh, Abd al-Whid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi wa-l-tawzi, Alexandria: al- Ish. Smyth, William (1995). The Canonical Foundation of ilm al-balghah and al- Sakkks Mifth al-ulm, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24. Sakkaki, Yusuf al-, (1983) Mifth al-ulm. Beirut: Dar al-kutub Sanni, Amidu (1991) Features and Orientations of the Early Works on Arabic Poetics, Hamdrad Islamicus, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp 5-11. 72
Shawqi Dayf (1965) al-Balghah tatawwur wa-trikh. Cairo Thir al-Baghddi (n.d.) Qnn-l-balgha in Rasil al-bulagh, ed Muhammad Kurd Ali. Tubnah, Badawi (1956) al-Bayan l-Arabi. Cairo . Wahbah, Magdi (1974). Mujam mustalaht l-adab (A Dictionary of Literary Terms). Beirut: Libraire Du Liban. 73
UNIT 12 AL-MAJZ L-MURSAL (HYPALLAGE) 12.1 INTRODUCTION Al-Majz-l-mursal applies to a usage in which the figurative rather than the literal meaning of a word or phrase is meant. It is different from istirah in that there is no connection between the literal and figurative meaning. In this unit, the concept of al-majz l-mursal and its rhetorical importance will be discussed. 13.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to 50. Explain the meaning of al-majz l-mursal and its links 51. Understand the differences between mental (cognitive) figure and linguistic figure 13.3 MAIN CONTENTS al-Majz l-mursal (hypallage) refers to the use of a word to denote a meaning other than its original meaning but without any direct relationship between the new meaning and the original meaning. The connection therefore, between the two would be looked for at some other levels. This is because there is hardly any majz which does not possess any kind of relationship with the original meaning. The following are the relationships which may exist between the two 1. ,---' (al-sababiyyah- causality). This is when the literal meaning causes the figurative meaning to exist. 74
For example: -= -,' .-` The camel grazed grass (literally the abundant rain). In this example the word al-ghayth (rain) is used metaphorically to mean green grass. But since rain causes grass to grow, the relationship between grass and rain is causative, so the usage is allegorical with no direct relationship between the original meaning of the word and its new meaning. 2. ,---' al-Musabbabiyyah (result). This is when the figurative meaning is the effect of the original meaning of the idiom used, as in the following example from the Holy Qur'an. ' '--' - ' -, And He (Allah) sends for you sustenance from the heaven It is obvious that the word sustenance is used instead of rain. There is a connection between the two in that food and sustenance are the effects of rainfall. 3. ,-=' al-juziyyah (part-to-whole) This is where the figurative meaning is a part of the larger meaning. For example: ' ` ,- '+' ' -' -,==' '- ` The orator made a speech (literally a word) which had a great impact (on the audience. Here the world kalimah (literally a word) is used in place of kalm (speech). This is regarded as a class of free figure; the semantic connection between the literal and figurative meaning is that word is part of speech. 75
4. , '' al-Kulliyyah (whole-to-part) this is where the figurative word is wholly related to the actual meaning of the intended meaning which is part of it. The Holy Qur'an says: ,-' - +-' _ +-'- ,'=, ,-' -= = They thrust their fingers into their ears to keep out the stunning thunder-clap for fear of death (Q2: 19) Here the word asbi (fingers) is used instead of fingertip which is in fact part of finger. So the whole is used whereas it is the part that is intended. 5. ' '- '--= itibr m kna (past status). This is the use of a word which literal meaning refers to the former status of the subject or object being described, as in the following: +',- _-'-,' ,-' "And give unto orphans their properties". Q 4: 2. Here, the word orphans is used in respect of grown-ups who should now be given full control of properties inherited from their parents. They are referred to as orphans in consideration of their original status. '- ',-= ,, 6 itibr m sayakn (future status). A word that is used in consideration of the future status of the subject or object, as can be illustrated with the following: ` , -' '- =' ` =- - - '-, , ' (Allah) if you leave them (i.e. disbelievers) they will lead your servants astray and they will beget none but wicked disbelievers. Q. 71:72 ',-= ' --= -,-=' _ I planted beautiful flowers in the garden 76
In the first examples, it is assumed that the children to be born by the disbelievers will also be disbelievers. In the second example, it is assumed that the stalk being planted will become flowers. 7- '=-' ,' mahalliyyah (spatial). This is where the space or place is mentioned but it is actually the occupants that are meant, as in the following: '- ' -' ,- '- '+, ) '+' Ask the village where we have been (Qur'an 12:82). The word village is used although it is the inhabitants that are intended. ,''=' 8 al-hlliyyah (occupancy). It is the use of a word the literal meaning of which indicates the occupier of a place, to mean the place itself, as in the following: ` - - _-' , the righteous ones are indeed in comfort. Qur'an 83:22 Here nam (comfort) is metaphorically used to mean paradise. EXERCISES (1) Explain the difference between the literal and metaphorical meanings. (2) Highlight the function of qarnah and alqah in a metaphorical expression. 12.4 CONCLUSION In this unit, you have been able to: 52. Understand the concept of al-majz l- mursal. 53. Know how it differs from istirah. 54. Understand the important relationships in al-majz l-mursal.
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12.5 SUMMARY Understanding the concept of al-majz l-mursal is important in appreciating the rich idiom of the Quran and the Arabic language. 12.6 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT 1. Compare and contrast between cognitive and linguistic figures. 2. Explain al-majz l-mursal and its links. 78
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REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp.196-238). Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayan in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of Balgha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited. Askari Abu Hill al-, (1934) Diwan l- mani. Cairo EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P. Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. rhetorics and poetics; 2, 656-62, s.v. rhetorical figures. Cuddon, J. A (1979). A Dictionary of Literary Terms- Penguin Reference. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Hasan Muhammad Ali (1975) Asraar al-bayn. Cairo. Jahiz, Amr b. Bahr al-, (1968) al-Bayn wa l-tabyn. Cairo: Muktabah l-Khanji Jrim, Ali and Amin, Mustaf (1961), al-Balgha al-wdiha, 15 th edition, Cairo: 1961 Majzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sfi fi l-balgha al- Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq. Matlub Ahmad (1980) al-Balgha al-Arabiyyah- al-mani wa- l bayn wa- l- bad. Iraq: Wizrat al-talim l-l wa-l bahth al-ilm Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). Arabic Rhetoric, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33. Mustafa, Ibrahim et al (1942), al-Bayan, Volume 4 only, Cairo: Boulaq Mustafa Maragi Ahmad (n d) Ulm al-balgha wa-l-bayn wa-l-bad. Cairo: Maktabat al-Muhammadiyyah al-Tijriyyah Qazwn, al-Khatb (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idh fi ulm al-balgha, Cairo: Ali Subayh & Sons. 80
Qazwini, al-Khatb, (1904) al-Talkhis fi ulml-balgha, Ed. Abd al-Rahmn al-Barguti (ed). Cairo. Sdiq, Abd al-Rid (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balgha, 4 th edition, Baghdad: Ministry of Education. Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle Eastern Literatures. Shaykh, Abd al-Whid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi wa-l-tawzi, Alexandria: al- Ish. Smyth, William (1995). The Canonical Foundation of ilm al-balghah and al- Sakkks Mifth al-ulm, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24. Sakkaki, Yusuf al-, (1983) Mifth al-ulm. Beirut: Dar al-kutub Sanni, Amidu (1991) Features and Orientations of the Early Works on Arabic Poetics, Hamdrad Islamicus, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp 5-11. Shawqi Dayf (1965) al-Balghah tatawwur wa-trikh. Cairo Thir al-Baghddi (n.d.) Qnn-l-balgha in Rasil al-bulagh, ed Muhammad Kurd Ali. Tubnah, Badawi (1956) al-Bayan l-Arabi. Cairo . Wahbah, Magdi (1974). Mujam mustalaht l-adab (A Dictionary of Literary Terms). Beirut: Libraire Du Liban.
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UNIT 13 KINYAH (METONYMY) 13.1 INTRODUCTION In Arabic rhetoric kinyah refers to the intrinsic signification of an expression or idiom. In this unit, the concept will be discussed and its classification explained. 13.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to 55. Understand the concept of kinyah 56. Know the classification of kinyah 13.3 MAIN CONTENT As a rhetorical term, kinyah is a term used to characterize an expression which carries a figurative meaning and a literal meaning. However, the presence of a qarnah (clue) help to establish that it is the figurative sense that is intended which will prevent us from giving the literal meaning. CLASSIFICATION OF KINYAH It is classified into the following three categories i kinyah l-sifah (attributive metonymy). This is where the kinyah referential meaning implies that the person or object possesses a particular attribute or feature. This kind of metonymy is also called metalepsis. For example: i) Aisha has a long space in which an ear-ring hangs -'= - - -, -' ,+- The intended meaning is that Aisha has a long neck. 82
ii) Al-Khans said of his brother Sakhr '- ' ,` - ' -- = ,, -' . '= , _ ' '- He is of long strings of sword, of high stakes, and of abundant ashes when it is winter period. There are three kinyah usages in this line: - '=-' .,,= of long strings of sword meaning he was tall. - , '-' _ of high stakes signifies he is of quality leadership over his people. - ' ,` '- of abundant ashes which means he was generous which is reflected in the frequency of cooking that leaves many ashes, especially in cold winter. (i) kinyah l-sifah (metonymy of attribute) (ii) kinyah l-mawsuf (metonymy of the modified/qualified) (iii) kinyah l-nisbah (metonymy of affinity).
,- ,-' ,'- This is where the kinyahs referential meaning implies the sense of the possessor of an attribute. Example: ,=,' ='- -'- I killed the king of the beasts The phrase malik l-wuhsh is employed to connote lion asad. One has mentioned here- something which has the same description as the intended meaning. (ii) al-Buhturi describing how he killed a wolf: 83
-' - '-' = '+- '' - ) -,-= ( -- ' '+ =- ,, -, ' -=' - ' =' -- I hit it with another (arrow-shot) and caused the iron head to remain in it, wherein is the abode of fear and envy So instead of mentioning the heart directly, the poet mentions such things that are believed to reside in it, namely, fear, malice among others. Hence the metonymy refers to the possessor of the attribute (mawsf). EXERCISES 1. Explain the etymological and rhetorical definition of kinyah 2. Discuss the components of kinyah 13.4 CONCLUSION In this unit, you have been able to understand the concept of kinyah and its classification. 13.5 SUMMARY Kinyah is a trope employed to avoid obscenity, vulgarity and bluntness. Its understanding is important in comprehending the Quran. 13.6 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT (1) Identify and analyze the metonymy in the following - ' ' ,- ` ,`' _-- --' _= ,'- 1 = -'-'-= ' - ,' _ 2 ' . =-- '+=---` =--= _' ','- -, .=- ` (2) Compare and contrast --' , '- and ,-,-' , '-
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REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp.196-238). Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayan in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of Balgha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited. Askari Abu Hill al-, (1934) Diwan l- mani. Cairo EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P. Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. rhetorics and poetics; 2, 656-62, s.v. rhetorical figures. Cuddon, J. A (1979). A Dictionary of Literary Terms- Penguin Reference. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Hasan Muhammad Ali (1975) Asraar al-bayn. Cairo. Jahiz, Amr b. Bahr al-, (1968) al-Bayn wa l-tabyn. Cairo: Muktabah l-Khanji Jrim, Ali and Amin, Mustaf (1961), al-Balgha al-wdiha, 15 th edition, Cairo: 1961 Majzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sfi fi l-balgha al- Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq. Matlub Ahmad (1980) al-Balgha al-Arabiyyah- al-mani wa- l bayn wa- l- bad. Iraq: Wizrat al-talim l-l wa-l bahth al-ilm Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). Arabic Rhetoric, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33. Mustafa, Ibrahim et al (1942), al-Bayan, Volume 4 only, Cairo: Boulaq Mustafa Maragi Ahmad (n d) Ulm al-balgha wa-l-bayn wa-l-bad. Cairo: Maktabat al-Muhammadiyyah al-Tijriyyah Qazwn, al-Khatb (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idh fi ulm al-balgha, Cairo: Ali Subayh & Sons. 85
Qazwini, al-Khatb, (1904) al-Talkhis fi ulml-balgha, Ed. Abd al-Rahmn al-Barguti (ed). Cairo. Sdiq, Abd al-Rid (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balgha, 4 th edition, Baghdad: Ministry of Education. Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle Eastern Literatures. Shaykh, Abd al-Whid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi wa-l-tawzi, Alexandria: al- Ish. Smyth, William (1995). The Canonical Foundation of ilm al-balghah and al- Sakkks Mifth al-ulm, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24. Sakkaki, Yusuf al-, (1983) Mifth al-ulm. Beirut: Dar al-kutub Sanni, Amidu (1991) Features and Orientations of the Early Works on Arabic Poetics, Hamdrad Islamicus, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp 5-11. Shawqi Dayf (1965) al-Balghah tatawwur wa-trikh. Cairo Thir al-Baghddi (n.d.) Qnn-l-balgha in Rasil al-bulagh, ed Muhammad Kurd Ali. Tubnah, Badawi (1956) al-Bayan l-Arabi. Cairo . Wahbah, Magdi (1974). Mujam mustalaht l-adab (A Dictionary of Literary Terms). Beirut: Libraire Du Liban.
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UNIT 14 KINYAT L- NISBAH (METONYMY OF AFFINITY) 14.1 INTRODUCTION In this unit, you will learn the third category of kinyah, namely, kinyah l- nnisbah the one signifying affinity or relationship. 14.2 OBJECTIVES At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 57. Understand kinyah l-nisbah 58. Use deeper stylistic expressions through this model. 14.3 MAIN CONTENTS KINYA L-NISBAH ---' ,'- In this type, the modifier (sifah) and the modified noun (mawsf) are mentioned but the attribute being expressed is suppressed although it is attributed An example of this is: ` ,- -=-' , =,- # =,- ,- ' Glory is between your clothes and generosity is within your two garments. Instead of attributing glory and generosity to the person being described, both qualities are attributed to something associated with him and no one else, namely clothes and garments. But in reality, it is the person that is intended not the things associated with. Where there are several hints in regard to metonymy use, such is designated talwh. For example, ,- -'-` ' Ibrahim is a man of plenty ashes. 87
This is in reference to him as a generous and hospitable person who cooks a lot to entertain his guests. There is also a kind of metonymy known as tard (allusion) when a positive statement is made to indicate to the addressee that he is behaving contrary to that positive statement. As when it is said to someone threatening public peace: +-- -' ,= '' '- The best of men is one who is most useful to people. EXERCISES 1. Compare and contrast between talwh and tarid 14.4 CONCLUSION In this unit, you have been able to understand the concept of kinyah l-nisbah. 14.5 TUTOR MARKED ASSESSMENT - Elucidate on ---' ,'- in Arabic rhetoric
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REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge. (Specifically pp.196-238). Abubakre, R.D. (1989) Bayan in Arabic Rhetoric: An analysis of the core of Balgha. Ibadan: Intec Printer Limited. Askari Abu Hill al-, (1934) Diwan l- mani. Cairo EAL (1998)- Encyclopaedia of Arabic Literature (Eds), Julie. S. Meisami and P. Starkey, 2 vols (London & New York: Routledge, 2, 651-56, s.v. rhetorics and poetics; 2, 656-62, s.v. rhetorical figures. Cuddon, J. A (1979). A Dictionary of Literary Terms- Penguin Reference. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Hasan Muhammad Ali (1975) Asraar al-bayn. Cairo. Jahiz, Amr b. Bahr al-, (1968) al-Bayn wa l-tabyn. Cairo: Muktabah l-Khanji Jrim, Ali and Amin, Mustaf (1961), al-Balgha al-wdiha, 15 th edition, Cairo: 1961 Majzi, Ahmad al-Sayyid (1424AH/2005CE), al-Manhal al-sfi fi l-balgha al- Arabiyya, Cairo: al-Shuruq. Matlub Ahmad (1980) al-Balgha al-Arabiyyah- al-mani wa- l bayn wa- l- bad. Iraq: Wizrat al-talim l-l wa-l bahth al-ilm Musawi, Muhsin J. al- (2001). Arabic Rhetoric, in Thomas O. Sloane (Ed.), Oxford Encyclopaedia of Rhetoric, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 29-33. Mustafa, Ibrahim et al (1942), al-Bayan, Volume 4 only, Cairo: Boulaq Mustafa Maragi Ahmad (n d) Ulm al-balgha wa-l-bayn wa-l-bad. Cairo: Maktabat al-Muhammadiyyah al-Tijriyyah Qazwn, al-Khatb (1402AH/1982CE), al-Idh fi ulm al-balgha, Cairo: Ali Subayh & Sons. 90
Qazwini, al-Khatb, (1904) al-Talkhis fi ulml-balgha, Ed. Abd al-Rahmn al-Barguti (ed). Cairo. Sdiq, Abd al-Rid (1395AH/1975CE) Editor, al-Balgha, 4 th edition, Baghdad: Ministry of Education. Sanni, Amidu (forthcoming). Review of Abdul-Raof, Hussein (2006). Arabic Rhetoric. A Pragmatic Analysis. London & New York: Routledge, in Middle Eastern Literatures. Shaykh, Abd al-Whid Hasan al- (1999), al-Badi wa-l-tawzi, Alexandria: al- Ish. Smyth, William (1995). The Canonical Foundation of ilm al-balghah and al- Sakkks Mifth al-ulm, Der Islam, 72, pt 1, pp. 7-24. Sakkaki, Yusuf al-, (1983) Mifth al-ulm. Beirut: Dar al-kutub Sanni, Amidu (1991) Features and Orientations of the Early Works on Arabic Poetics, Hamdrad Islamicus, Vol. 14, no. 2, pp 5-11. Shawqi Dayf (1965) al-Balghah tatawwur wa-trikh. Cairo Thir al-Baghddi (n.d.) Qnn-l-balgha in Rasil al-bulagh, ed Muhammad Kurd Ali. Tubnah, Badawi (1956) al-Bayan l-Arabi. Cairo . Wahbah, Magdi (1974). Mujam mustalaht l-adab (A Dictionary of Literary Terms). Beirut: Libraire Du Liban.