2003 Indonesian Rivers

CLIMATE CONTROLS
ON STRATIGRAPHY
Edited by:
C. BLAINE CECIL
U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia 20192, U.S.A.
AND
N. TERENCE EDGAR
U.S. Geological Survey, St. Petersburg, Florida 33710, U.S.A.
Copyright 2003 by
SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology)
Laura J. Crossey, Editor of Special Publications
SEPM Special Publication Number 77
Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A. October, 2003
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
NUMBER OF MONTHS WHEN RAINFALL
EXCEEDS EVAPOTRANSPORATION
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Climate Controls on Stratigraphy
ISBN 1-56576-085-9
2003 by
SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology)
6128 E. 38
th
Street, Suite 308
Tulsa, OK 74135-5814, U.S.A.
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29 OBSERVATIONS ON CLIMATE AND SEDIMENT DISCHARGE IN SELECTED TROPICAL RIVERS, INDONESIA
OBSERVATIONS ON CLIMATE AND SEDIMENT DISCHARGE
IN SELECTED TROPICAL RIVERS, INDONESIA
C. BLAINE CECIL
FRANK T. DULONG
RONALD A. HARRIS
Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602, U.S.A.
JAMES C. COBB
Kentucky Geological Survey, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, U.S.A.
HAROLD G. GLUSKOTER
AND
HENDRO NUGROHO
Department of Geology, UPN Veteran Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Present address: Department of Geology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602, U.S.A.
ABSTRACT: Factors that influence fluvial sediment discharge in warm climates (catchment-basin size, relief, gradient, tectonic setting,
bedrock lithology, and rainfall) can readily be evaluated in fluvial systems of Indonesia. In equatorial Sumatra and Seram, rainfall,
catchment-basin size, relief, and gradient are similar, whereas bedrock geology and tectonic setting differ. The relief and rainfall in
equatorial Borneo is similar to that of Sumatra and Seram, but gradient, catchment-basin size, and tectonic setting differ. All factors,
except rainfall, are very similar for Timor and Seram. A pronounced dry season in Timor and Java distinguish those islands from the
wet climates of Seram and Sumatra, respectively.
The nature of stream channels (braided or meandering), stream bed materials, the degree of fluvial estuarine fill, deltas, and the nature
of coastlines were used to evaluate sediment discharge. In addition, reconnaissance-level stream sampling was conducted for solid-
suspended-sediment concentrations, solute concentrations, and pH in rivers in equatorial regions in Sumatra and Borneo, in Seram at 3
S, in Irian Jaya at 4 S, and in West Timor at 10 S. Rainfall in Sumatra, Borneo, and Seram exceeds evapotranspiration for all months of the
year (> 100 mm/month and > 2.4 m/yr, perhumid climate). In contrast, in Timor 85 percent of all rainfall (1.4 m/yr) occurs during a four-
month rainy season (dry subhumid climate).
The absence of a fluvially derived bed load, river-mouth deltas, the lack of fluvial fill of estuaries, and mud-dominated coastal zones
in the perhumid regions are indicative of a very low fluvial sediment discharge. Very low sediment concentrations (10 mg/l suspended
and 10 mg/l solute) in modern rivers in the perhumid equatorial region of Indonesia are consistent with this observation. In contrast,
sediment discharge in dry subhumid climates of Indonesia is very high, as indicated by coarse-grained braided-stream bed materials
with cobbles transported to the coast, the complete fluvial fill of estuaries, the formation of river-mouth deltas, and coarse-grained
beaches. Very high sediment concentrations (2100 mg/l suspended and 340 mg/l dissolved) during rainy-season discharge in modern
rivers in dry-subhumid regions of Indonesia (Timor) are consistent with this observation. The dominant variable affecting fluvial
sediment discharge among the islands of Indonesia, therefore, appears to be the degree of seasonality in rainfall regardless of tectonic
setting, relief, or catchment-basin size. Solute concentrations in humid and perhumid climates are indicative of bedrock geology.
Chemical weathering of massive Miocene limestone thrust sheets in high mountainous areas of Seram and Irian Jaya results in solute
concentrations that approximate the solubility of calcite (~ 50 mg/l). Humid and perhumid areas without significant limestone bedrock
geology have solute concentrations that approximate that of rainwater (~ 10 mg/l).
SEPM Special Publication No. 77, Copyright 2003
SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology), ISBN 1-56576-085-9, p. 2950.
INTRODUCTION
This study compares and contrasts the apparent sediment
transport in some modern tropical river systems that may serve
as analogues for sediment supply to ancient depositional sys-
tems, particularly those in ancient cratonic seas. Much of the
information on sediment supply from modern tropical rivers has
been derived from hydrological and geomorphological studies
(e.g., Summerfield, 1991; Olive et al., 1994) rather than sedimen-
tological investigations and the perspective of sediment supply.
Modern analogues that can be used to interpret sediment sup-
plies in ancient depositional systems are, therefore, underdevel-
oped. Modern large rivers of the tropics and subtropics, such as
the Amazon, the Ganges/Brahmaputra, the Indus, and the Zaire
(Congo), empty along passive continental margins. As a result,
these rivers generally appear to be atypical of sediment-supply
systems to most ancient cratonic depositional environments.
Smaller river systems, such as those in Indonesia, may be repre-
sentative of sediment supply in ancient cratonic seas and foreland-
basin systems.
If cyclic variation in sediment supply (sedimentation) is
related to cyclicity in paleoclimate (Huntington 1907; Wanless
and Shepard, 1936; Cecil, 1990), then the rivers on the islands of
Indonesia are ideal analogues because they span climate belts
that range from perhumid at the equator (Cecil, this volume,
Part 1) to dry subhumid at 10 S (Fig. 1). By studying sediment
supply in these modern rivers, it may be possible to extrapolate
results to ancient systems where the climate may have cycled
between relative extremes in both seasonality and amount of
annual rainfall. Climatic changes of large magnitude, and their
C.B. CECIL, F.T. DULONG, R.A. HARRIS, J.C. COBB, H.G. GLUSKOTER, AND H. NUGROHO 30

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0 100 200 400 600 miles
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Arafura Sea
Java
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INDONESIA
effects on variation in sediment supply, are not well docu-
mented in the humid tropics (Verstappen, 1975) although there
is a considerable body of evidence that is indicative of signifi-
cant shifts in rainfall regimes during the Quaternary (Van der
Karrs, 1988). There also appears to have been extreme climate
shifts in the eastern Sahara Desert (dry tropics) where ground-
penetrating radar has revealed at least two periods of major
fluvial incision that underlie modern sand seas (see Summerfield,
1991, p. 359-360). Interpretations of lithostratigraphic relation-
ships can be improved, therefore, as cyclic fluctuation in
paleoclimate is further documented and related to cycles in
sediment supply.
Considerable uncertainty persists regarding controls on sedi-
ment discharge (supply) in modern fluvial systems (Milliman
and Meade, 1983; Milliman, 1997). Many studies suggest that
tectonic uplift is the primary control on erosion and fluvial
sediment discharge (Meade, 1996; Milliman, 1997). Catchment-
basin size and provenance also are proposed to be important
controlling factors on yield (Staub and Esterle, 1994; Walling and
Webb, 1996; Milliman, 1997). In addition, rainfall is one of the
primary controls on sediment yield from modern rivers (Langbein
and Schumm, 1958; Fournier, 1960). Unless the level of uncer-
tainty concerning the importance of the variables can be reduced
or somehow quantified, it will always be difficult to use existing
studies of modern environments as analogues for the interpreta-
tion of ancient depositional systems.
Comparison of Sediment Supply in Four Tropical
and Subtropical River Systems
Although there have been studies in modern tropical environ-
ments, an understanding of fluvial sediment discharge as a
function of climate remains ambiguous. Most studies generally
have compared sediment discharge with annual rainfall (Milliman,
1997) rather than monthly rainfall amounts and monthly distri-
bution throughout the year, as suggested by Fournier (1960) and
Cecil and Dulong (this volume, Part 1). As a result, there has been
a tendency to suggest that high annual rainfall results in high
fluvial sediment discharge. Other studies point out that there is
little (if any) correlation between sediment discharge and annual
rainfall (Milliman and Meade, 1983; Milliman, 1997; Hooke,
2000). In western Indonesia, it is sometimes assumed that erosion
rates and sediment loads must be high because the climate is
perhumid (Keller and Richards, 1967; Milliman and Meade, 1983)
or because the region is undergoing tectonic uplift, which in turn
is believed to be the primary control on sediment discharge
(Meade, 1996; Milliman, 1997). However, neither high mountain-
ous areas nor perhumid climates necessarily equate to high
sediment discharge. This is demonstrated by the exceedingly low
sediment discharge from the western slope of the arid central
Andes Mountains and by the very limited degree of sedimentary
fill extending into the adjacent central PeruChile trench (Cecil
and Edgar, 1994; Edgar and Cecil, this volume, Part 3). It is also
demonstrated by the exceedingly low sediment discharge from
rivers that debouch from the mountainous perhumid regions of
equatorial Sumatra to the Sunda Shelf (Cecil et al., 1993) and the
Zaire (Congo) River (Meade, 1996). Extreme conditions of rain-
fall, tectonic setting, or catchment-basin size compound the prob-
lem of understanding sediment discharge in rivers of the tropics
and subtropics. Four previously studied tropical to subtropical
river systems with headwaters in high mountainous areas (> 5000
m) include the following: (1) the Fly River, New Guinea, which is
in a humid climate setting, (2) the Amazon River, South America,
whose huge catchment basin is in a humid to subhumid climate,
(3) the Zaire, where the catchment is situated primarily in a
humid to perhumid climate, and (4) the Ganges/Brahmaputra
river system, where the catchment is situated mainly in a dry
subhumid climate. In the humid climate of the Fly River, the
sediment load is thought to be derived primarily from intense
slope failure in high and very steep mountainous areas (Markham
and Day, 1994). The combined effects of high mountains, high
rainfall, and frequent earth tremors are conducive to extreme
volumes of landslide debris (Markham and Day, 1994). The
relatively high sediment discharge (derived from erosion of
FIG. 1.Climate belts in Indonesian study areas, which range from perhumid at the equator (dark blue) to dry subhumid in Timor
at 10 S (yellow).
landslide debris in high mountains in a tectonically active area
and a humid climate) has apparently contributed to the concept
that high mountains and high annual rainfall always equates
with high sediment discharge. The sediment discharge from the
Amazon River to the Atlantic Ocean further contributes to the
concept that high annual rainfall always results in high sediment
discharge (Meade, 1996). It has been suggested that the sediment
in the Amazon is derived principally from the vast catchment
basins of the eastern slope of the Andes Mountains and that much
of the sediment is stored in upstream portions of the Amazon
(Meade, 1996). The sheer volume of the Amazon River discharge
and the subhumid climates in the upper reaches of the Amazon
Basin probably accounts for the relatively high annual sediment
discharge to the Atlantic Ocean. On the basis of data from Meade
(1996), the annual sediment discharges of the Amazon and
Ganges/Brahmaputra are nearly equal even though water dis-
charged from the Amazon is nearly six times that of the Ganges/
Brahmaputra (Table 1).
When sediment discharges are normalized on a mass per unit
volume basis (tons of sediment per km
3
of water discharge),
sediment concentrations of the Ganges/Brahmaputra in the highly
seasonal rainfall (dry subhumid climate) of southern Asia are
approximately twice that of the Fly, six times that of the Amazon,
and two orders of magnitude greater than that of the Zaire
(Congo) (Table 1). The comparisons in Table 1 are indicative of the
influence of seasonal distribution of rainfall on sediment supply
in tropical and subtropical settings. Only the Fly River shows a
distinct influence of tectonics on sediment discharge, apparently
because of slope instability high in the catchment basin. The
dominant control on the other rivers appears to be the degree of
seasonality of rainfall regardless of tectonic setting, heights of
mountains, or catchment basin size.
The data in Table 1 indicate that a significant climatic change
within a given catchment basin also causes a major change in
sediment supply. For example, if the climate of the Zaire Basin
shifted from perhumid or humid to dry-subhumid conditions,
sediment discharge would undergo a major increase even though
annual rainfall would likely decrease.
River Systems, Climate, and Tectonic Setting of Indonesia
A primary objective of our study is to delimit and relate the
perhumid to dry subhumid climatic conditions in Indonesia to
fluvial sediment discharge, which we equate to sediment supply.
Indonesia represents an ideal natural laboratory to test the role of
climate as a control on fluvial sediment discharge in warm
climates because many Indonesian islands have similarities in
geomorphology and geology but significant differences in rain-
fall distribution. Similarities in the size of catchment basins,
stream gradients, relief, and geology are due mostly to similari-
ties in tectonic setting. For example, the islands of Sumatra and
Java are both part of the Sunda arctrench system but annual
rainfall in Java is much less and more seasonal than in Sumatra.
A similar situation exists with the islands of Seram and Timor,
both of which are part of the Banda arccontinent collision zone
of eastern Indonesia, but Timor is much drier and rainfall is more
seasonal. In both the Sunda and Banda arcs, where tectonic and
geologic settings are similar, the number of consecutive wet
months per year is the primary variable that controls differences
in sediment discharge (supply) among fluvial systems.
In order to test the influence that climate may have on sedi-
ment supply, Indonesian rivers were evaluated in the regions of
northeastern Sumatra, western and south-central Borneo, Timor,
Seram, and the southern coast of Irian Jaya (western New Guinea)
(Fig.1). Rainfall for these areas ranges from perhumid in equato-
rial islands to dry subhumid in the more southern islands of Java
and Timor (Ahrens, 1991). Rainfall throughout the study areas is
strongly affected by the seasonal movement of the intertropical
convergence zone (ITCZ), where the Hadley circulations of the
northern and southern hemispheres meet and rise in response to
a low-pressure system that is generated by equatorial solar
heating (Verstappen, 1975; Ahrens, 1991). As the moisture-laden
air of the ITCZ rises, the air cools and precipitation occurs.
Wherever the ITCZ is stationary, or nearly so, rainfall is high and
evenly distributed throughout the year. Because of the nearly
continuous influence of the ITCZ, rainfall conditions in the equa-
torial areas of Indonesia are humid to perhumid. In contrast, the
islands of Timor and Java are outside the influence of the ITCZ for
much of the year. As a result, the climate of these two islands is
dry subhumid, and their wet months are generally concentrated
into a three- to four-month period.
All the islands in this study have experienced identical glacio-
eustatic histories. For the purposes of evaluating modern fluvial
sediment discharge, the amount of tectonic movement probably
did not significantly affect variation in either sea level or fluvial
sediment discharge since the last eustatic rise in sea level about
800012,000 yr B.P. (sea-level history is summarized in Hanebuth,
2000).
The present tectonic setting of these areas appears to be
analogous to conditions in eastern North America during the
Carboniferous and in western North America during the Juras-
sicCretaceous. Many of the intracratonic basins of North America
formed during episodes of crustal loading from continental ac-
cretion and extension, conditions that exist today in the Java and
in the Arafura and Timor Seas of Indonesia (Hamilton, 1979;
Silver and Smith, 1983). The Java Sea separates the Sunda arc
TABLE 1.Annualized sediment concentrations (mass/unit volume) for four tropical to subtropical rivers.
Data are average annual water and sediment discharge.
River system Approximate
Mean
Number
of wet months
Water
discharge,
10
9
m
3
/y
suspended
sediment
discharge,
10
6
t/y
Annualized sediment
concentrations
(10
6
t/km
3
of water discharge)
Zaire (Congo)
(2)
11 1250 43 0.034
Amazon
(2)
810 6300 10001300 0.21
Fly
(1)
9 150 81 0.54
Ganges/Brahmaputra
(2)
5 970 9001200 1.2
Data sources: (1) Markham and Day (1994), and (2) Meade (1996). Approximations of mean seasonality of rainfall
for each catchment basin are based on data from EARTHINFO (1966).
trench system from the stable craton of Borneo, which is a modern
analog for the JurassicCretaceous seas and basins that formed
between the Sierra arctrench system and stable North America.
Rivers along the northeastern coast of Sumatra and northern
coast of Java drain from the high volcanic mountains of the Sunda
Arc and empty into the shallow epeiric Java Sea of the cratonic
Sunda Shelf. The rivers in southwestern and central Borneo drain
a craton of granitic and sedimentary rocks that are primarily
siliciclastic. The Arafura and Timor Seas represent foreland ba-
sins forming astride active foldthrust belts produced by colli-
sion similar to the collisions that formed the Appalachian and
Sevier belts of North America. The islands of Timor, Seram, and
Irian Jaya represent the emergent parts of a foldthrust belt
forming on the northern edge of the Australian continent. Drain-
age basins in these islands consist primarily of sedimentary rock,
particularly thick carbonates in the high mountains.
FIELD INVESTIGATIONS
Reconnaissance field investigations were conducted in rivers,
estuaries, and offshore environments in the Indonesian prov-
inces of Sumatra, West and Central Kalimantan (Borneo), Timor,
Seram, and Irian Jaya (Fig. 2). These studies were conducted to
determine the relative effects of tectonic, eustatic, and climatic
variability on supply of fluvial sediment to epeiric seas and
continental margins. Specific parameters evaluated included the
average monthly amount and distribution of rainfall throughout
the year, heights of mountains, stream type, degree of estuarine
fill, and, where possible, the nature of bed load and of solid and
solute concentrations in rivers, estuaries, and offshore. Water
samples were collected for the determination of pH, specific
conductivity as a measure of solute concentrations, and sus-
pended-solids concentrations. At selected sites, a modified Pfleger
corer and/or dredge were used to collect bottom samples to
determine whether the bottom was erosional or depositional. The
nature, composition, and size of any bed-load materials or lag
deposits were also determined. Our analyses of sediment supply
also considered the average monthly amount and distribution of
rainfall throughout the year.
The climate of the study region varies from perhumid in
equatorial Indonesia to dry subhumid in southern Indonesia. The
climate of the river catchment basins we studied in Sumatra,
Borneo, Seram, and Irian Jaya were either perhumid or humid. In
contrast, the climate of the river catchment basins in our study
areas in Java and Timor ranged from subhumid in Java to dry
subhumid in Timor.
Studies in Perhumid and Humid Climates
Sumatra.
The climate of the Sumatran equatorial study region is
perhumid, on the basis of averaged monthly rainfall data that
were collected at Pakenbaru on the Siak River approximately 100
km inland from the coast (EARTHINFO, 1966) (Fig. 3). The
perhumid climate of the region is the result of a maritime influ-
ence combined with movements of the ITCZ over the equatorial
region of Sumatra (Ahrens, 1991).
In the Sumatra study region, the Siak and Kampar Rivers
(which drain from volcanic mountains in excess of 1600 m in
elevation before crossing the eastern coastal plain of Sumatra)
were evaluated for pH, solute concentrations, suspended-sedi-
ment concentrations, and the nature of bottom sediment. Particu-
lar attention was paid to the Kampar because interpretation of
satellite imagery prior to field investigations indicated the fol-
lowing characteristics: (1) minimal anthropogenic disturbance in
the catchment basin, (2) sediment filling the lower reaches of the
Kampar, and (3) a sediment plume off the mouth of the river in the
Sunda Sea.
Field investigations revealed that high suspended-sediment
concentrations (1700 mg/l) are present at the mouth of the
Kampar estuary but decrease upstream to approximately 40 mg/
l at 80 km inland, and finally to 8 mg/l in the middle estuary 150
km from the coast (Cecil et al., 1993). Maximum bed load occurs
in the lower estuary from the mouth of the estuary to approxi-
mately 85 km upstream, then it rapidly diminishes and is gone at
180 km upstream. The lower 85 km is exceedingly shallow and
difficult to navigate even in small boats of very shallow draft. At
0 100 200 400 600 mi
0 200 400 600 km
Pontianak
Banjarmasin
Jakarta
Pakenbaru
Kupang
Soe
Ambon
Merauke
0
Balikpapan
INDONESIA
Palangkaraya
2
5
SERAM
8
TIMOR
6
3
1
4
7
S
U
M
A
T
R
A
BORNEO
JAVA
IRIAN
JAYA
INDONESIA
FIG. 2.Study areas (circumscribed and numbered) and cities (dots) where rainfall data were collected.
approximately 180 km inland bottom sediment is not detectable
by dredging or bottom profiling, and water depths are over 20
meters. The estuary bottom at 180 km inland is erosional and
consists of a sparse channel lag on partially indurated preexisting
sediment of the Tertiary Minas Formation. It is possible that the
20 m depth at 180 km inland is the result of incision during the last
glacial lowstand. The solute content of the Kampar River estuary
has a distribution analogous to that of the suspended solids.
Maximum solute concentrations (23,000 mg/l) occur at the mouth
as a result of mixing of river water with sea water. At approxi-
mately 35 km inland, concentrations decrease to 6000 mg/l, and
finally to 10 mg/l at 85 km upstream and beyond. Both sus-
pended-solids and dissolved-solids concentrations in the upper
estuary and fluvial portion of the Kampar system are approxi-
mately equivalent to solids and solute concentrations in rainwa-
ter. The pH of the system above the region of salt-water influence
averaged 4.5. Conditions of the Siak River and estuary are similar
to those of the Kampar, except for the absence of bottom sedi-
ments in the lower Siak estuary, where water depths are fairly
consistent at 20 m. This estuary is devoid of bottom sediment
except at the mouth, where there is a mud-dominated estuary
mouth bar, apparently deposited by tidal processes. Both dis-
solved solids and suspended sediment exhibit a dramatic de-
crease in concentration upstream. The pH of the Siak River
upstream of salt water influence is also 4.5. The water in both
rivers is tea colored (such coloration is generally referred to as
black water).
Satellite imagery had revealed the presence of both a sedi-
ment fill and a sediment plume in the lower reaches of the
Kampar and offshore, respectively. This imagery was suggestive
of high sediment supply from the Kampar River. Field investiga-
tions in the Kampar system, however, revealed that the lower
reaches of the Kampar were flood-tide dominated and that sus-
pended and bottom sediments were unrelated to fluvial pro-
cesses. Instead, these sediments were derived from tidal pro-
cesses. Tidal influence was estimated to extend upstream for
approximately 180 km, with the lower 100 km being flood-tide
dominated. The bottom sediment and plume observed on the
satellite image were determined to be the result of strong bank
erosion and redeposition by tidal currents in the lower estuary,
and not the result of fluvial supply.
Bottom sampling revealed that the entire coastal and offshore
marine environments in the Straits of Malacca and the Sunda Sea
are sediment starved, probably as a result of the lack of fluvial
sediment supply. Much of the coastal zone consists of tidal mud
flats colonized by mangroves. Because of low-velocity surface
winds and rare tropical storms within the low-pressure belt of the
ITCZ, wave energy is exceedingly low and wave-dominated
coastal beaches do not occur except where coastlines are exposed
to waves generated in the open ocean outside the ITCZ. The very
limited amount of modern sediment in coastal and offshore areas
is derived entirely from bottom scouring and coastal erosion by
strong tidal currents (Cecil et al., 1993). Conductivity measure-
ments in coastal and offshore areas revealed diminished salinity
(~ 22 ppt), probably as a result of high water discharge and the
mixing of river water draining into the marine environment of the
Sunda Shelf. Shallow Pfleger cores (generally < 0.5 m) retrieved
in offshore areas commonly contained partially indurated red-
mottled, gray-brown mud that appeared to be a paleosol, prob-
ably developed during the last glacial lowstand of sea level
(Hanebuth, 2000). At locations where recent sediment was en-
countered, this sediment consisted of soft mud that was easily
penetrated by the Pfleger corer.
The mineral soils in the Sumatra study area are composed
largely of kaolinite and contain a spodic horizon. These soils most
closely resemble Spodosols, which belong to the suborder of
Aquods. Extensive Histosols (domed peat deposits) are present
between the Kampar and Siak estuaries, and on offshore islands.
Vegetal matter in the peat is generally well preserved and the soil
suborder is Fibrist. These Histosols consist of domed low-ash
peat (< 10 percent ash), are up to 13 m thick, and have accumu-
lated during the last 5000 years (Neuzil et al., 1993: Supardi et al.,
1993; Neuzil, 1997).
The high mountains and perhumid climate of central Sumatra
do not result in high fluvial sediment supply as has been previ-
ously inferred (Keller and Richards, 1967; Gupta, 1996). Instead,
solute and solid sediment concentrations in undisturbed fluvial
systems are exceedingly low. The low pH and black water of
fluvial systems are the result of acidic drainage from extensive
deposits of domed peat (Histosols). Coastal and offshore areas
are sediment starved, and most areas are undergoing erosion by
tidal processes, except on the lee sides of islands, where deposi-
tion of recent sediment is occurring.
In addition to controlling sediment supply, the perhumid
climate has been a primary control on formation of mineral soil
and peat. Spodosol and Histosol genesis are the result of the
perhumid climate and degree of soil drainage.
Gupta (1996) suggested that satellite images can be used to see
sediment plumes off the mouths of rivers and infer fluvial sedi-
ment yield throughout the region. Our data indicate, however,
that satellite images alone cannot be used to determine either
sediment source, fluvial sediment discharge, or sediment yield
from tropical rivers. Sediment sources specific to estuaries and
estuary mouth bars must be determined by field investigations.
West Kalimantan (Western Borneo).
The climate of West Kalimantan is perhumid (Fig. 4), as a
result of maritime influences in combination with movement of
the ITCZ over the equatorial region (Ahrens, 1991). The rainfall
data were collected at Pontianak, on the equator, approximately
130 km south of our study area (EARTHINFO, 1966). The West
Kalimantan study area (Fig. 2) included the Sambas River and
shallow offshore areas of the cratonic shelf under the South China
Sea (Fig. 5). Samples were collected from the Sambas River and
estuary to evaluate pH, solute concentrations, suspended-sedi-
ment concentrations, and the nature of bottom sediment. As with
the rivers studied in Sumatra, field investigations in the Sambas
revealed that the lower reaches were tidally controlled and that
suspended and bottom sediment is derived from tidal processes.
On the basis of salinity measurements and the tidal range ob-
served along the banks of the system, tidal influence was esti-
mated to extend upstream for approximately 40 km from the
estuary mouth. The highest suspended-sediment concentrations
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
J
a
n
F
e
b
M
a
r
A
p
r
M
a
y
J
u
n
J
u
l
A
u
g
S
e
p
O
c
t
N
o
v
D
e
c
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
m
FIG. 3.Average monthly rainfall, Pakanbaru, Sumatra.
were detected at the mouth of the estuary (170 mg/l; Fig. 6) but
decreased up-stream to 3 mg/l at 57 kilometers inland (Fig. 6).
Sediment fill was restricted to an estuary mouth bar. This sedi-
ment is likely derived from tidal erosion and redeposition along
the coast and in the lower estuary. Bed load is present only in the
lower estuary and is derived from tidal processes and not from
fluvial processes.
The solute concentrations in the Sambas estuary have a
distribution analogous to the suspended solids. Maximum sol-
ute concentrations (23,000 mg/l) occur at the mouth as a result
of mixing of river water with sea water. At approximately 35
kilometers inland, concentrations decreased to 6000 mg/l, and
finally to 10 mg/l at 85 km upstream and beyond. As with the
rivers in Sumatra, both suspended-solid and dissolved-solid
concentrations in the fluvial part of the Sambas system are
approximately equivalent to the concentrations of rainwater
(Figs. 6, 7A, B).
Conditions of the Sambas River and estuary are analogous to
those of the Siak River in Sumatra. As in the Siak, the Sambas
estuary is devoid of bottom sediment except at the mouth, where
there is an estuary-mouth bar, apparently the result of tidal
processes. Both dissolved solids and suspended sediment de-
creased dramatically upstream.
In coastal areas of the West Kalimantan study area, sedimen-
tation is restricted to fine-grained material that is being depos-
ited along the coast north of the mouth of the Sambas. Sus-
pended-sediment concentrations in offshore areas are very low
(approximately 5 mg/l) (Fig. 6), even though the bottom is
relatively shallow (< 20 m) and tidal currents are quite strong.
Depth profiling revealed a hummocky bottom surface. Pfleger
cores retrieved in offshore areas commonly contained partially
indurated red-mottled, gray-brown mud. Dredging revealed a
bottom lag, consisting primarily of shell fragments resting on
the partially indurated silty clay. The lag appeared to be con-
fined to the swales,whereas the hummocks are scoured. The
hummocky surface may be a relict soil catena (surface), which
was probably developed during the last glacial lowstand of sea
level. The lack of recent offshore bottom sediment results from
the lack of fluvial sediment supply and from strong tidal cur-
rents that scour and remove any fine-grained material from the
bottom. The very limited amount of modern sediment that
occurs along the coastal area is derived from bottom scouring
and coastal erosion by strong tidal currents, and perhaps also by
wave energy that comes from the open ocean of the South China
Sea. Salinity values offshore were somewhat below normal
salinity for sea water (Fig. 7A).
Mineral soils in the West Kalimantan were not evaluated
because of logistical considerations. However, extensive Histosols
have developed over the last 5000 years in response to the
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
m
FIG. 4.Average monthly rainfall, Pontianak, West Kalimantan.
SAMBAS
RIVER
SOUTH
CHINA SEA
10' 20' 50' 40'
50'
10'
20'
30'
1 00' N
109 00' E
0 10 20 miles
0 10 20 kilometers 1
2 3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11
12
13
14
15 16
17 18
19
20
21
22
23
24
29
30
31
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
28
27
26
25
S8
S9
FIG. 5.West Kalimantan study area with sample locations.
SAMBAS
RIVER
SOUTH
CHINA SEA
10' 20' 50' 40'
50'
10'
20'
30'
1 00' N
109 00' E
0 10 20 miles
0 10 20 kilometers
11
5.8
6.6
11
11
6.1
6.3 2.7
64
4.8
3.9
32 4 2.2 2.5
8.8
130
5.3
6.4
5.2
40
28
18
37
6.9
4.5
31
16
40 140
140
170
15
16
3.1
9
17
5.1
6.7
5
15
5
15
5
5
FIG. 6.Suspended-sediment concentrations (mg/l) in the river,
estuarine, and marine environments, West Kalimantan.
Isoconcentration lines are shown at 5 mg/l and 15 mg/l.
perhumid climate of the region ( Neuzil et al., 1993; Supardi et al.,
1993; Neuzil, 1997).
The highlands of interior Borneo and the perhumid climate of
the region do not result in a high sediment supply by rivers such
as the Sambas. Instead, fluvial sediment supply, both solid and
solute, is exceedingly low, as demonstrated by the absence of
esturine fill, the absence of offshore sediment, and low sediment
concentrations away from tidal disturbance. The partially indu-
rated hummocky bottom in offshore areas may be a relict soil that
developed during the last glacial lowstand of sea level.
Central Kalimantan (South-Central Borneo).
The Central Kalimantan study locality is in the vicinity of
Palangkaraya (Fig. 2), which is located at 2 12' S latitude and is
approximately 130 km north of the southern coast of Borneo. The
climate data were collected closer to the coast at Banjarmasin on
the Barito River, which is located at 3 20' S and approximately 1
10' (130 km) S of Palangkaraya (EARTHINFO, 1966) (Figs. 2, 8).
Climate data were not available for Palangkaraya, but rainfall
may not exceed 100 mm/month during the annual dry season in
the study area (June through August), and, therefore, the climate
at Palangkaraya may be slightly drier than the southern coast.
Thus the climate of the study area is estimated to be marginally
perhumid or humid, given the inland setting. The humid climate
is partly the result of rainfall associated with movement of the
ITCZ over the equatorial region (e.g., Ahrens, 1991) and, to a
lesser extent, maritime influence.
Reconnaissance investigations were conducted along the
Kahayan River and the Rungan River, and in the Histosols north
of Palangkaraya (Figs. 9, 10). The Kahayan flows into a very large
estuary that extends to the Java Sea approximately 130 km south
of the study area. The Kayahan estuary is typical of several large
estuaries along the coast of southern Borneo. There appeared to
be a minor tidal range of approximately 0.5 m on the Kahayan
River at Palangkaraya 130 km inland. We were not able, however,
to document tidal influence at this locality unequivocally. Logs
floating in the Rungan indicated the presence of a significant
timber operation upstream of the study area. We did not attempt
detailed studies of suspended-sediment concentration, in part
because upstream anthropogenic activities such as logging may
affect erosion and suspended-sediment concentrations. How-
ever, logging is unlikely to accelerate weathering at a rate suffi-
cient to affect pH and specific conductivity.
A cursory evaluation of water in the Kahayan and Rungan
Rivers revealed differences in pH and conductivity (Fig. 10). The
Rungan is characterized by values of pH 5 and solute concentra-
tions of 8 mg/l, whereas the Kayahan has pH values of 6.6 and
solute concentrations of 21 mg/l. These differences may be
partially related to drainage of acidic black water with low
dissolved solids from extensive Histosols in the Rungan drain-
age. Both the Kayahan and Rungan are meandering streams
within the study area. They both contain a bed load that is
sufficient to develop point bars that are composed almost entirely
of quartz sand. The bed load diminishes downstream of the
confluence of these two rivers and is nearly gone upon reaching
the upper estuary. Maps of southern Borneo that include fluvial
systems, estuaries, and coastal zones indicate that both meanders
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
0
20 40 60
C
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
d

d
i
s
s
o
l
v
e
d

s
o
l
i
d
s
,

m
g
/
l
Distance from river mouth, km
B
SAMBAS
RIVER
SOUTH
CHINA SEA
10' 20' 50' 40'
50'
10'
20'
30'
1 00' N
109 00' E
0 10 20 miles
0 10 20 kilometers
31
31 32 31
31
30
31
30 30 32
29
32
32
27 31 30 30
32
30
32
30
31
31
32
32
32
32
32
31
31
17
6 (6950)
6 (6700)
4 (5250)
4 (4500)
3 (3000)
4 (3900)
2 (1600)
< 1 (11)
A
FIG. 7.A) Solute concentrations as salinity in ppt and mg/l ( ), in
the estuarine and marine environments, West Kalimantan,
Indonesia. B) Solute concentration (mg/l) in the Sambas River
estuary versus distance from the mouth.
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
m
FIG. 8.Average monthly rainfall, Banjarmasin, Central
Kalimantan.
and point bars diminish downstream in the fluvial systems and
are not developed in the estuaries. Gilmore (1996, and personal
communication) pointed out that the sand content of the Barito
River in South Kalimantan decreased downstream and gave way
to mud in the estuary and offshore environments. Map bathym-
etry of the lower estuaries and nearshore environments suggests
the presence of estuary-mouth bars that are analogous to the bars
documented at our study sites in Sumatra and West Kalimantan.
Coastal zones and offshore areas appear to consist primarily of
mud (Gilmore, 1996), and coastal zones have been colonized by
mangroves.
Soils in the study area are primarily Histosols and Spodosols.
Histosols (domed peat) blanket much of the interfluve areas. Up to
seven meters of peat were measured in the center of the peat dome
north of Palangakraya. The peat began to form approximately 9000
yr B.P., on the basis of
14
C age dates from samples collected at the
base of the domed peat deposits (Neuzil, 1997). Peat accumulation
stopped approximately 2000 yr B.P. (Neuzil, 1997). Petrographic
analysis of the peat revealed very high concentrations of fine-
grained, highly carbonized macerals that are the result of aerobic
degradation, probably over the last 2000 yr. The Histosols are
degraded to the soil suborder of Saprists. The degradation is
probably in response to a weak dry season, which allows the peat
to drain partially and to undergo aerobic degradation. This type of
peat may be a precursor to splint coal in the rock record.
The region, including the Histosols, is underlain by regionally
developed Spodosols, suborder of Tropaquods. The Spodosols
are up to 15 m thick, and they are composed primarily of quartz
sand with a black spodic horizon that occurs deep in the soil
profile. The spodic horizon commonly occurs 24 m above river
level and is composed of amorphous organic material, Al, and Fe.
This horizon is an aquiclude, or confining bed, that inhibits
downward percolation of soil water in the otherwise highly
porous quartz sand above and below the spodic horizon. The
spodic horizon maintains a perched water table that sequesters
water in the overlying horizons of the Spodosol and domed peat
deposits.
The fluvial and esturine processes in Central Kalimantan are
similar to those in the study areas in Sumatra and West Kalimantan.
Differences in water chemistry in the Kayahan and Rungan may
be related partially to drainage of acidic black water with low
dissolved solids from extensive Histosols in the Rungan drain-
age. Values of pH 5 and solute concentrations of 8 mg/l in the
Rungan, compared with pH 6.6 and solute concentrations in the
Kayahan of 21 mg/l, are consistent with this interpretation. The
estuaries and coastal areas of southern Borneo are sediment
starved. The estuaries have not been filled since maximum sealevel
was reached approximately 8000 to 5000 yr B.P. (sealevel history
is summarized in Hanebuth, 2000). This indicates that sediment
discharge has been insufficient to fill the estuaries since the last
rise in sealevel.
The regionally extensive Spodosols are the source of quartz
sand in the fluvial parts of the rivers as a result of erosion of cut
50 m
67 m
330 m
1892 m
795 m
1260 m
1255 m
1150 m
MARTAPURA
BANJARMARSIN
PALANGKARAYA
B
A
R
IT
O
R
.
N
E
G
A
R
A
R
.
P
U
L
A
U
P
E
T
A
K

R
.
K
A
P
U
A
S

R
.
K
A
H
A
Y
A
N

R
.
KAHAYAN R.
RUNGAN R.
JAVA SEA
B
A
R
I
T
O

R
.
= Approximate upper limit
of tidal influence
*
*
*
*
*
= Palangkaraya study area
30'
30'
60 40
80 60 40 20
0
0
20
kilometers
miles
2 S
3 S
4 S
115 E 114 E
Palangkaraya
Rungan
River
Kahayan
River
D
5.0, 8
C
5.6, 15
E
6.6, 21
B
5.6, 18
Site ID
pH, solute (mg/l)
10
0 2 4 6 8 10
0 2 4 6 8
kilometers
miles
FIG. 9.Central Kalimantan study area.
FIG. 10.pH (left-hand value) and solute concentrations (right-
hand value) in the Rungan and Kayahan Rivers, Central
Kalimantan.
banks in meanders (Fig. 11). The thickness and regional extent of
the Spodosols document the importance of humid tropical weath-
ering as a mechanism for the production of a quartz residuum.
Such an accumulation of quartz sand represents a highly signifi-
cant provenance for quartz arenites. Erosion and redeposition of
such deposits could result in orthoquartzites that are mineralogi-
cally mature but texturally immature (such as Lower Pennsylva-
nian sandstones found in the Appalachian, Illinois, and Ouachita
basins of the United States). The spodic horizon appears to have
formed at a paleowater table, and probably records a previous
river or estuarine level linked to an earlier glacioeustatic highstand
of sea level at 9 ka to 12 ka. The 9 ka estimate is derived from
14
C
age dating of samples acquired at the base of the domed peat
deposits (Neuzil, 1997).
East Kalimantan.
The climate of the East Kalimantan study region is humid on
the basis of rainfall data collected at Balikpapan (1

16
'
S)
(EARTHINFO, 1966) (Fig. 12). Rivers draining East Kalimantan
from the highlands of central Borneo debouch into the Makassar
Strait (Fig. 13). Data from maps and satellite images indicate that
most of these equatorial rivers have well defined estuaries and
are without deltas (e.g., Voss, 1983). The Mahakam River, how-
ever, is enigmatic because it has a large river-mouth delta. The
delta is located where the Mahakam River empties into the
Makassar Strait, less than one degree south of the equator. Allen
et al. (1979) describe the delta as a mixed river- and tide-
dominated system. They note the strong influence of tides on
the distribution of modern sediments. They also point out that
data on sediment discharge of the Mahakam River were un-
available at the time of their study. An uneven distribution in
monthly rainfall is indicated in the headwaters of the Mahakam
River by an annual rise and fall of about 8 m in water levels in
the Kutai Basin (Diemont and Pons, 1992). The Kutai Basin (the
Kutei Basin of Hamilton, 1979) is a very large depression and
swampy region located approximately 120 km upstream of the
Mahakam Delta (Fig. 12).
The Mahakam River and many of its tributaries have their
headwaters in the highlands of central Borneo. The main stem of
the Mahakam River and numerous tributaries flow in a general
eastward direction into the Kutai Basin, located approximately
120 km upstream of the head of the distributaries in the Mahakam
delta (Fig. 13). The Kutai Basin is a large Tertiary and Quaternary
structural basin (Hamilton, 1979) that is situated between a
Tertiary fold belt to the east and upland areas of Borneo to the
west. The modern Kutai Basin consists of a vast swamp forest
(Voss, 1988, p. 42), which is thought to contain extensive areas of
topogenous peat (Voss, 1988, p. 38; Diemont and Pons, 1992;
Supardi, personal communication, Directorate of Mineral Re-
sources, Republic of Indonesia, 1990) (Fig. 13). On the basis of
data from numerous map sources (e.g., Voss, 1982, p. 42), the
mouths of the Mahakam River and its tributaries appear to be
drowned as they enter the Kutai Basin. Swampy conditions
appear to extend well up the main stem of the Mahakam and its
tributary rivers as they enter the swamp (Fig. 13).
The apparent lack of prograding deltas at the mouths of the
Mahakam and its tributaries (where they enter the western mar-
gin of the Kutai Basin) indicates that the modern rivers are
sediment starved as they debouch from the highlands of central
Borneo into the Kutai Basin. The lack of sediment entering the
Spodic horizon
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
m
FIG. 11.Spodosol (~ 7 m thick) exposed in the cut bank of a
meander in the Kahayan River. The Spodosol is composed
entirely of quartz with trace amounts of accessory minerals.
The Spodic horizon is the dark-colored zone (~ 1 m thick)
approximately 2 m above river level.
FIG. 12.Average monthly rainfall, Balikpapan, East Kalimantan.
0
0
20
20 10 40
60 kilometers
60 miles
116 E 30' 117 E
30'
1 S
0
1223 m
825 m
590 m
331 m
50 m
487 m
401 m
2000 m
425 m
750 m
348 m
339 m
211 m
72 m
385 m
333 m
1274 m
722 m
1015 m
656 m
373 m
25 m
= Approximate extent of
the freshwater swamp
forest, Kutai Basin
Mahakam
Delta
M
a
k
a
s
a
r

S
t
r
a
i
t
FIG. 13.Mahakam River and delta, and modern Kutai Basin,
East Kalimantan.
Kutai Basin (which in itself is a sediment trap) negates the
possibility of significant sediment discharge from the highlands
of central Borneo to the modern Mahakam delta and the Makassar
Straits. It appears, therefore, that sediment supply from the
highlands of central Borneo to the modern Mahakam delta is nil.
On the basis of
14
C dating, Diemont and Pons (1992) suggest
that swamp conditions developed in the Kutai Basin about 5000
yr B.P. Their dates indicate that the modern swamp began to
develop concurrently with the last high stand of sea level, which
also occurred at about 5000 yr B.P. (Grossman et al., 1998;
Hanebuth, 2000). It is unlikely that significant amounts of sedi-
ment have reached either the Kutai Basin or the modern Mahakam
Delta since the inception of the swamp conditions in the Kutai
Basin at 5000 yr B.P.
The available data indicate that the sediment discharge from
the modern Mahakam River and its tributaries is exceedingly
low. The delineations of kilometer-scale swampy conditions
upstream of the central Kutai Basin strongly indicate that limited
amounts of sediment have entered the Kutai Basin since the
inception of swamp development, which began some 5000 yr B.P.
(Demont and Pons, 1988). If large amounts of sediment were
coming in from the highlands, there would be evidence of deltas
prograding into the swamps of the Kutai Basin. The modern
Mahakam Delta, therefore, is a relict feature that is being re-
worked by tidal processes. A strong tidal influence has been
noted by Allen et al. (1979) and by Gastaldo et al. (1995). The
modern subaerial and intertidal parts of the delta (as described by
Allen et al., 1978) likely were deposited prior to 5000 yr B.P. Sea-
level fall (Hanebuth, 2000) and tidal reworking during the last
5000 years probably accounts for the morphology of the modern
subaerial and intertidal parts of the delta, rather than recent
progradation as suggested by Allen et al. (1979).
Although the modern Mahakam River delta may be sediment
starved, vast amounts of sediment have been delivered in the
past. There are various explanations for the source of the sedi-
ment in the delta. It is possible that the Mahakam River is an
antecedent stream that has cut and eroded the Tertiary fold belt
as uplift progressed in the region between the modern Kutai
depositional basin and the coast (Voss, 1988). This downcutting
and lateral erosion over a downstream distance of 100 kilometers
must have produced an enormous amount of sediment. Analyses
of sedimentary rock fragments and quartz in cores extracted from
the delta (Welton et al., 2000; Welton, personal communication,
2000) also indicate that sediment was supplied from the anteced-
ent portion of the Mahakam River. Sediment supply from streams
that are actively downcutting during uplift represents an inter-
play between tectonics and stream erosion, in which climate may
have a secondary effect.
In addition to potential sediment supply from an antecedent
stream, there may have been variations in fluvial sediment sup-
ply to the Mahakam Delta that were linked to variation in
paleoclimate. Palynomorphs retrieved from cores in the delta
indicate that a shift in vegetation from rainforest to grasses
(savannah) occurred 18,000 yr B.P. (Caratini and Tissot, 1988).
Other workers have suggested similar climate changes through-
out the region (van der Kaars, 2000). A shift from rainforest to
savannah vegetation correlates with paleoclimate cooling and an
increase in detritus along with grass pollen, and a concomitant
drop in sea level (Caratini and Tissot, 1988). We suggest that a
drier and more seasonal climate may account for periods of
savannah development and increased sediment supply.
There is general agreement on both sea-level and climate
history during the Holocene in the equatorial Pacific, including
the Mahakam Delta region (e.g., Verstappen, 1975; Stuijts et al.,
1988; van der Kaars, 1988; Grossman et al., 1998; Hanebuth, 2000).
During drier periods, rainforests were replaced by grasslands
and the periods of grassland cover correlate with periods of
increased sediment discharge. Coastal sedimentation and stratig-
raphy of the modern environments therefore need to be reas-
sessed in terms of variations in sediment discharge as related to
variations in paleoclimate.
Sediment supply by the modern Mahakam River and its
tributaries is very low, as they flow from the highlands of central
Borneo into the Kutai Basin. Because of the low sediment supply
and the presence of the Kutai Basin sediment trap, it is unlikely
that significant amounts of modern fluvial sediment are reaching
the Mahakam Delta from the highlands of central Borneo. The
presence of extensive estuaries at the mouths of other rivers along
the east coast of Borneo are also indicative of low supply of fluvial
sediment. Most of the sediment deposited in the Mahakam Delta
may have been derived from erosion by the antecedent part of the
Mahakam River. There remains a need, however, for detailed
evaluation of the sediment source and sediment discharge varia-
tions of the Mahakam River and its delta.
Seram.
The Seram study area is located approximately 3 S (Fig. 2).
Rainfall data collected at Ambon indicate that the climate of
Seram is perhumid (data from EARTHINFO, 1966) (Fig. 14).
Unlike the other study areas, with a perhumid climate where
monthly rainfall is rather evenly distributed, Seram has a four-
month period (May through August) of exceedingly intense
rainfall. The maximum rainfall of nearly 600 mm per month
occurs in June and July (Fig. 14). This period of extremely high
rainfall may be related partially to the movement of the ITCZ over
the area. The overall climate, however, is controlled by the ITCZ
plus maritime and orographic effects. Our investigations were
conducted during July at the height of the period of most intense
rainfall.
Reconnaissance investigations were conducted near the
mouths of several rivers that drain the rugged southwestern
coastal area of Seram (Figs.15, 16). All the streams in the study
have a relatively straight course in response to rather steep
gradients. These streams debouch into the Banda Sea. As a result
of the tectonic setting in Seram, the coast line is rugged, the coastal
plains are very narrow, and the estuaries generally are not
extensive. Bottom sediment in the rivers consisted mostly of sand
and pebbles with some cobbles. Water samples were collected to
evaluate suspended sediment (Fig. 17, Table 2) and pH and
conductivity (Fig. 18, Table 2). The pH values were relatively
constant and ranged between 7.5 and 8.0. Conductivity was used
to estimate solute concentrations, which ranged from a high of
125 mg/l to a low of 10 mg/l. Most solute concentrations, how-
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
m
FIG. 14.Average monthly rainfall, Ambon, Seram.
ever, approximated calcite saturation of 50 mg/l (Krauskopf,
1967).
Suspended-sediment concentrations clearly have a bimodal
distribution directly related to the presence or absence of timber-
ing operations in the various catchment basins. Catchments
without timbering had very low suspended-sediment concentra-
tions that ranged from a low of 7 mg/l to a high of 14 mg/l.
Catchments with timbering operations have high suspended-
130 E
128 E 30'
3 S
4 S
30'
0
0 20 60 kilometers
10 30 miles
805 m
600 m
620 m
1038 m
1006 m
1331 m
1400 m
1245 m
1075 m
3019 m
2080 m
1445 m
2121 m
1688 m
1071m
1351 m
FIG. 15.River locations and elevation of some mountains in Seram.
0
0
10 30 miles
20 40 kilometers
128 E 30'
Ambon
3 S
30'
129
S1
S3
S4
S2
S5
S8
S9
S10
S6
S7
S13
S12
S11
FIG. 16.Sample sites in Seram.
sediment concentrations that ranged from 190 to 820 mg/l (Fig.
17, Table 2).
Coastal zones consist of mud colonized by mangroves. Some
sand beaches are present, but they are less common than mud-
dominated coastlines. As in the other perhumid study areas,
there is insufficient sediment coming down the rivers to fill the
estuaries. Soils in the study area were not investigated.
The fluvial processes in Seram are similar to those in the
study areas in Sumatra and in West, Central, and East
Kalimantan. The solid-sediment and solute loads of the streams
0
0
10 30 miles
20 40 kilometers
128 E 30'
Ambon
3 S
30'
129
Sample locations;
suspended sediment (mg/l)
S1
11
S3
11
S4
11
S2
6.7
S5
68
S8
120
S9
14
S10
8.2
S6
67
S7
210
S13
190
S12
820
S11
37
FIG. 17.Suspended-sediment concentrations (mg/l) in pristine (star) and disturbed (dot) drainage sample locations in Seram.
(Data are from Table 2.)
TABLE 2.pH, conductivity (mohs), calculated solute concentrations, and suspended-sediment concentrations
for selected rivers in Seram. Data were collected during the period of intense rainfall. Samples collected in river systems
disturbed by logging operations contained suspended-sediment concentrations ranged from 200 mg/l (X = 430 mg/l = 0.43 x
10
6
metric tons/km
3
of water discharged). All other rivers had very low suspended-sediment concentrations (X = 26 mg/l =
0.026 x 10
6
metric tons/km
3
of water discharged).

ID S Lat. E Long. Temp.,

C
pH conductivity
mohs
Solutes,
mg/l
Solids,
mg/l
S1 3 20' 28" 128 21' 45" 27 7.7 203 130 11
S2 3 25' 46" 128 24' 25" 24 7.3 7
S3 3 26' 14" 128 33' 43" 26 7.3 58 37 11
S4-1 3 26' 10" 128 34' 30" 25 6 13 10 11
S5 3 25' 58" 128 38' 32" 26 7.3 61 39 68
S6 3 22' 53" 128 40' 03" 26 7.3 23 16 67
S7 3 21' 53" 128 40' 18" 26.5 7.4 192 120 210
S8-1 3 19' 39" 128 41' 41" 24 7.6 86 54 510
S9 3 14' 10" 129 04' 08" 24 7.9 78 49 14
S10 3 12' 01" 128 58' 01" 24 7.5 120 75 8
S11 3 14' 20" 128 49' 55" 23 7.9 90 56 37
S12 3 15' 01" 128 48' 02" 24 8.0 105 65 820
S13 3 16' 10" 128 48' 18" 24 8.0 89 56 190
are highly restricted, except in those rivers with anthropogenic
effects from timbering operations. The lack of esturine fill and
prograding deltas is also indicative of the low sediment dis-
charges. The coastal areas of Seram also appear to be sediment
starved because of the lack of sediment coming down the rivers
even though there is active tectonic uplift and heavy rainfall.
The low sediment discharge persists in undisturbed catchment
basins even during the period of extremely high rainfall. Some
of the stream sampling was conducted during torrential rains,
yet the stream waters were clear and free of suspended sedi-
ment. The nearly neutral pH and solute concentrations that
approximate calcite saturation in the fluvial systems are prob-
ably the result of drainage from Miocene carbonates in the high
mountains.
Irian Jaya.
The island of New Guinea is one of the largest islands in the
world, spanning nearly ten degrees of latitude and longitude.
Irian Jaya, the easternmost province of Indonesia, covers the
western half of the island. Many climatic zones occur because of
the size of the island, the annual movement of the ITCZ across
the island, and orographic and maritime effects. Cold and
humid climates occur in the high mountains, where glaciers are
present only three degrees south of the equator. In contrast, the
hot climates of the coastal lowlands range from perhumid along
the north coast to dry subhumid in the south. On the basis of
rainfall data collected at Meruke (data from EARTHINFO, 1966)
(Fig. 19), approximately 600 km to the southeast, we estimate
the climate of the coastal lowlands of the study area to be moist
subhumid or humid. Our reconnaissance investigation was
confined to one area that ranged from the coastal plain up to
near the crest of the mountains in the vicinity of 137

E, 4

S (Figs.
1, 20). The high alpine region (4000 m) is humid to perhumid and
cold with remnant glaciers. Rainforests of the coastal lowlands
give way to a fern-dominated vegetation in alpine areas.
The high mountains are exceedingly steep, and orographic
precipitation in the form of rainfall and condensing fog is quite
high. Landslides are common, and recent slides continue to
partially block stream drainage. Slides probably occur at decadal
time scales, and fresh landslide scars dot the alpine landscape.
Low-gradient alluvial fans occur where the rivers debouch at
the foot of the mountains. Streams become braided on the fans but
meander on the low-gradient coastal plain until they reach the
upper estuary. The braided-stream beds consist mainly of small
boulders and cobbles with lesser amounts of pebbles. The mod-
FIG. 18.pH (left-hand values) and solute concentrations (right-hand values) in Seram. (Data are from Table 2.)
0
0
10 30 miles
20 40 kilometers
128 E
30'
Ambon
3 S
30'
129
Sample locations;
pH, solute (mg/l)
S1
7.7, 125
S3
7.3, 37
S4
6.0, 10
S2
7.3
S5
7.3, 39
S8
7.6, 54
S9
7.9, 49
S10
7.5, 75
S6
7.3, 16
S7
7.4, 118
S13
8.0, 56
S12
8.0, 65
S11
7.9, 56
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
m
FIG. 19.Average monthly rainfall, Meruke, Irian Jaya.
ern fans are vegetated with rainforest, and they do not appear to
be aggrading.
The pH, conductivity, and suspended-sediment concentra-
tions were measured in five closely spaced rivers (Figs. 21, 22;
Table 3). Water from all sites had a pH of approximately 7.
Conductivity measurements indicate that solute concentrations
were low and near the solubility of calcite, except for station 14,
which had a conductivity of 525 mohs. The high conductivity at
this locality is the result of salt-water influence in the estuary from
which the sample was collected. Suspended-sediment concentra-
tions were very low (< 50 mg/l), even in the high mountains
(stations 1517; Fig. 21, Table 3).
A low sediment discharge in the Irian Jaya study area is
indicated by the presence of estuaries that extend across the
coastal plain nearly to the toes of the low-gradient alluvial fans.
If there were a significant sediment discharge, then we would
expect the estuaries to be filled and deltas to be prograding into
the Arafura Sea. On the basis of satellite imagery, filled estuaries
and prograding deltas are rare. The apparent low sediment
discharge in the study area in Irian Jaya is consistent with the low
sediment discharges we observed in the other humid and
perhumid study areas.
The alluvial fans at the base of the mountains may be the result
of deposition caused by the sudden and major decrease in gradi-
ent. The very coarse material in the fans may be derived from
landslides in the high mountains, or the fans may be relict
features that were deposited under a more seasonal and drier
climatic regime during glacial intervals.
136 30' E 137 00'
4 00' S
30'
5 00'
0
0
20
20 miles 10
40 kilometers
A
r
a
fu
r
a
S
e
a
S14
S12
S11
S13
S16
S15
S17
FIG. 20.Sampling sites, Irian Jaya.
136 30' E 137 00'
4 00' S
30'
5 00'
0
0
20
20 miles 10
40 kilometers
A
r
a
fu
r
a
S
e
a
11
0.62
12
44
13
22
14
6.3
15
0.76
16
0.99
17
4.9
Suspended sediment (mg/l)
Sample locations
FIG. 21.Suspended sediment, Irian Jaya. Data are from Table 3.
TABLE 3.pH, conductivity (mohs), calculated solute concentrations, and suspended-sediment
concentrations for selected rivers in Irian Jaya.
ID E Long. S Lat. Temp,
C
pH Conductivity,
mohs
Solutes,
mg/l
Solids,
mg/l
S11 136 57' 12" 4 26' 04" 25 6.9 20 14 0.62
S12 136 53' 54" 4 26' 13" 24.7 7.9 140 87 44
S13 136 49' 14" 4 23' 38" 24.7 7.7 130 81 22
S14 136 51' 49" 4 45' 16" 28 7.1 525 320 6.3
S15 137 05' 46" 4 07' 18" 15 6.9 20 14 0.76
S16 137 05' 44" 4 06' 44" 14 7.0 29 20 0.99
S17 137 05' 58" 4 09' 37" 13.5 6.7 2 3.0 4.9
Studies in Dry Subhumid Climates
North Coast of Java.
The climate of northern Java (Fig. 2) is dry subhumid, on the
basis of averaged monthly rainfall data collected at Jakarta
(EARTHINFO, 1966) (Fig. 23). Northward-draining rivers origi-
nate in the high volcanic mountains of Java and debouch into the
shallow epeiric Java Sea. Rivers along the north coast of Java are
muddy and sediment laden, in contrast to the rivers in humid and
perhumid areas, where the rivers are commonly black but free of
sediment. Estuaries do not occur along the Java coast. If estuaries
existed since the last rise in sea level, they have since been filled
by sediment.
The geomorphology of the drainage basins and coastal plains
of Java and Sumatra appear to be very similar. Rivers from both
islands drain into the shallow epeiric Sunda Sea. Unlike the
coastal plain of equatorial Sumatra, where extensive deposits of
thick domed peat have formed, there are no significant amounts
of peat in Java.
The similarities in catchment-basin size, heights of moun-
tains, and stream gradients in Java and Sumatra preclude these
variables as the primary control on differences in sediment deliv-
ery to the Sunda Shelf from these two islands. Sediment in the
rivers in Java could be the result of anthropogenic effects, al-
though this seems unlikely because major anthropogenic effects
have not existed for a long enough period to account for the
sediment fill of any estuaries. Instead, it appears that the dry
subhumid climate of Java results in high sediment discharges,
and also precludes peat formation. In contrast, the humid and
perhumid climates of Sumatra result in highly restricted fluvial
sediment discharge, unfilled estuaries, extensive deposits of peat,
and sediment-starved coastal and marine environments.
West Timor.
The West Timor study region is located between 9 and 12 S
latitude (Fig. 2), and the climate of the region is dry subhumid, on
the basis of averaged montly rainfall data collected at Kupang
and Soe (EARTHINFO, 1966) (Fig. 25A, B). Kupang has four wet
months and eight dry months, whereas Soe has four wet months
plus two months where the average monthly rainfall marginally
exceeds evapotranspiration and six dry months (Fig. 25A, B). The
rainy season partially coincides with the passage of the ITCZ over
Timor. The minor differences in rainfall between Kupang and Soe
are probably related to orographic effects as a result of differences
in elevation. Our field investigations were conducted during a
dry season and a wet season.
Fluvial systems, both north and south of the eastwest trend-
ing drainage divide in West Timor, were evaluated (Fig. 24).
Rivers in the study area are braided from the mountains to the
coast (Fig. 24), and bed sediments are dominated by cobbles and
pebbles, with lesser amounts of sand-size material. These sedi-
ments are transported across the coastal plain to both the north-
ern and southern coasts. The beaches are composed of cobbles
and pebbles with subordinate amounts of sand near the mouths
of the Mina and Benain Rivers along the southern coast (Fig. 24).
Beaches near the mouth of the Tona River on the north coast (Fig.
24) were composed of sand. In contrast to mangrove forests along
the sediment-starved, mud-dominated coasts in humid and
perhumid regions, mangrove forests were not observed on either
coast of Timor.
Two sets of samples were collected in Timor. One set of
samples was collected near the middle of the eight-month dry
season (August) and a second set was collected in the middle of
the four-month rainy season (February). The suspended-sedi-
ment concentrations, pH, and solute concentrations are illus-
trated in Figures 26A and B and 27A and B, respectively, and
Table 4. Water samples collected during the dry season were
alkaline, and solute concentrations were one to two orders of
magnitude higher than in fluvial systems in Sumatra and Borneo.
Solute concentrations in water samples collected during the rainy
season were also an order of magnitude higher than in samples
from fluvial systems in Sumatra and Borneo and six times higher
than the mean value for Seram. In contrast to the high solute
concentrations, dry-season suspended-sediment concentrations
were generally less than 5 mg/l (Table 4), whereas the mean value
136 30' E 137 00'
4 00'S
30'
500'
0
0
20
20 miles 10
40 kilometers
A
r
a
fu
r
a
S
e
a
12
7.9, 87
11
6.9, 20
13
7.7, 81
14
7.1, 320
16
7.0, 20
15
6.8, 14
17
6.7, 3
Sample locations
pH, Solute (mg/l)
FIG. 22.pH (left-hand values) and solute concentrations (right-
hand values), Irian Jaya. Data are from Table 3.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
m
FIG. 23.Average monthly rainfall, Jakarta, Java.
for suspended-sediment concentrations in samples collected
during the rainy season was 2100 mg/l.
Samples collected in the dry season had very low suspended-
sediment concentrations (X = 4.4 mg/l), consistent with the low-
flow condition of the rivers. Very high suspended-sediment
concentrations (X = 2100 mg/l) confirm very high sediment
discharge during the four-month rainy season. All streams were
braided under low flow conditions. The bed material of the
braided streams and high-water marks resulting from abrasion
on outcrops are indicative of a very high bed load and suspended
load during rainy-season high-flow conditions. A further indica-
tion of high sediment load in the rivers of Timor is the common
occurrence of river-mouth deltas and complete absence of estuar-
ies along the coasts.
Alkaline pH values of 8 and high solute concentrations (200
500 mg/l) in samples collected during the dry season indicate
that stream waters exceed calcite saturation of 50 mg/l (Krauskopf,
1967, p. 65). High solute values during the dry season indicate
that streams and groundwater contain dissolved salts in addition
to calcium carbonate. These high values are consistent with a high
solute load in a dry subhumid climatic setting where solutes are
concentrated by evapotranspiration (Cecil and Dulong, this vol-
ume, Part 1, their Figure 2).
Coral reefs, quite common in offshore areas along the south-
ern coast of Timor, also belie major differences in sedimentology
between Timor and the study areas in Sumatra and Borneo,
where coral reefs were not observed. The absence of coral reefs in
Sumatra and Borneo may, in part, be the result of high water
discharge and low sea-water salinity (20 ppt and 30 ppt, respec-
tively) relative to a salinity of 35 ppt for normal sea water. In
coastal Timor the salinity was measured at 39 ppt during the dry
season. The coarse-grained materials in fluvial and coastal sys-
0 40 kilometers
10 S
125 E 124 E 10' 30'
50'
30'
0 10
10
30 miles
MINA RIVER
BASIN
BENAIN RIVER
BASIN
1375 m
1190 m
2425 m
2070 m
1635 m
1115 m
Kupang
Pantemakassar
01
04
05
06
09
08
07
02
03
10
FIG. 24.Sampling sites in fluvial systems in West Timor ( = wells, = rivers, and = beach observation sites).
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
m
600
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
,

m
m
500
400
300
200
100
0
FIG. 25.A) Average monthly rainfall, Kupang, West Timor. B)
Average monthly rainfall, Soe, West Timor.
A
B

tems in Timor, in contrast to mud-dominated systems in humid
study areas, indicate that delivery and dispersal of fine-grained
sediment into offshore coral habitats are not significant. Coastal
and peritidal sedimentation in Timor is, therefore, one of mixed
carbonates and siliciclastics. This mixed system is primarily the
result of the dry-subhumid climate.
Our observations on soils in Timor indicate that Histosols do
not occur and that calcic Vertisols (suborder Usterts) are very
common. The highly seasonal rainfall of the dry-subhumid cli-
mate of Timor is particularly conducive to the formation of calcic
Vertisols but is not conductive to the formation of soils that form
under humid and perhumid climatic conditions, such as Histosols
(as low-ash peat), Ultisols, Oxisols, or Spodosols (Cecil and
Dulong, this volume, Part 1, and references therein).
The dry-subhumid climate of Timor controls the solute load
and the sediment load in rivers. Fluvial sediment discharge, both
solid and solute, is especially high when compared to the perhumid
study areas in Sumatra, Borneo, and Seram. The high sediment
discharges are interpreted from grain size of the bed materials we
observed during low-flow conditions, braided streams to the
coast, the complete fill of estuaries, wave-dominated deltas and
high solute concentrations throughout the year and high sus-
pended-sediment concentration during the rainy-season high-
flow conditions. The coarse-grained sediments of the Timor
coasts are in sharp contrast to the mud-dominated coasts of
Sumatra, Seram, and Borneo.
Given the similarities in height of mountains, stream gradi-
ents, and catchment basin-size among the various study areas, it
is the difference in climate that accounts for the marked contrast
in stream load and soil formation among the perhumid study
areas of Sumatra, Borneo, Seram, and the dry-subhumid climate
of Timor. The extensive development of calcic Vertisols and the
absence of Histosols in the dry-subhumid climate of Timor are in
marked contrast to the combination of extensive Oxisols, Ultisols,
Spodosols, and Histosols that occur in the humid and perhumid
equatorial study areas.
There are no estuaries in Timor, unlike Sumatra, Borneo, Seram,
and Irian Jaya. Estuaries never developed because sediment sup-
ply kept pace with sea-level rise, or estuaries formed during early
sea level rise but were subsequently filled because of the high
supply of fluvial sediment. If we assume that rainy-season dis-
charge accounts for all suspended sediment discharged by the
rivers in Timor, then the annualized sediment concentration is 0.7
x 10
6
metric tons/km
3
of water discharged. The 0.7 x 10
6
metric
tons/km
3
value is 60 percent of that of the Ganges/Bramaputra
and 27 times that of the average value for the undisturbed rivers we
sampled in Seram. The geology, including tectonic setting and
geomorphology, of Seram and Timor is nearly identical. It is,
therefore, the perhumid climate of Seram versus the dry-subhumid
climate of Timor that best accounts for the sharp contrasts in
annualized sediment concentrations and fluvial sediment supply.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Indonesia represents an optimal natural laboratory to study
relations among allocyclic processes and fluvial sediment dis-
TABLE 4.pH, conductivity ( mohs), solute concentrations (calculated from conductivity), and suspended-sediment concentra-
tions for selected rivers in West Timor. Stream samples were collected during low-flow conditions in the dry season and
moderate-flow to flood conditions in the rainy season.
ID River S Lat. E Long. Season & relative
flow
Temp .,
C
pH Conductivity,
mohs
Solutes,
mg/l
Solids,
mg/l
02 Tona 9 12' 24" 124 18' 40" dry, low 27.9 8.2 720 440 16
03 well water 9 15' 30" 124 20' 53" dry, N/A 26.7 7.2 1600 970 3.9
Mina Basin
07 Besi 9 58' 39" 124 05' 38" dry, low 23.1 8.1 550 330 1.7
107 Besi 9 58' 33" 124 07' 22" rainy, ebb flood 27.3 7.6 520 320 3500
08 Besi 9 54' 13" 124 05' 24" dry, low 26.8 8.2 525 320 2.3
108 Besi 9 58' 08" 124 04' 21" rainy, unflooded 30.0 7.6 650 400 55
09 well water 10 18' 04" 124 18' 04" dry, N/A 26.6 8.1 2900 1800 7.0
109 well water 10 04' 10" 124 13' 10" rainy, N/A 29.5 5200 3100 8.0
10 Mina 10 05' 01" 124 12' 15" dry, low 28.2 8.2 775 470 4.3
110 Mina 10 05' 01" 124 12' 15" rainy, unflooded 30.0 7.4 600 360 470
Benain
Basin
01 Noni 9 33' 28" 124 21' 57" dry, low 8.2 360 220 0.13
101 Noni 9 33' 28" 124 22' 01" rainy,
flood
24.0 7.6 230 140 1800
04 Muti 9 33' 38" 124 30' 20" dry, low 22.9 8.0 500 300 0.80
104A Muti 9 33' 29" 124 30' 06" rainy, not flooding 29.0 7.5 435 260 200
104B Muti rainy, flooded 285 170 7600
05 Benain 9 42' 30" 124 27' 52" dry, low 24.3 8.4 450 270 3.0
105 Benain 9 42' 26" 124 27' 58" rainy, flood 27.3 7.5 560 340 1100
06 Benain,
near coast
9 36' 16" 124 52' 04" dry, low 25.1 8.4 600 360 2.4
0 40 kilometers
10 S
125 E 124 E
10' 30'
50'
30'
0 10
10
30 miles
01
0.13
04
0.80
05
3.0
06
2.4
09
7.0
08
2.3
07
1.7
02
16
03
3.9
10
4.3
0 40 kilometers
10 S
125 E 124 E
10' 30'
50'
30'
0 10
10
30 miles
101
1800
104B
7600
105
1100
109
8.0
108
55
107
3500
110
470
104A
200
FIG. 26.A) Suspended-sediment concentrations (mg/l) in West Timor, dry season (data are from Table 4). B) Suspended-sediment
concentrations in West Timor, rainy season (data are from Table 4).
A
B
0 40 kilometers
10 S
125 E
124 E 10' 30'
50'
30'
0 10
10
30 miles
01
8.2, 220
04
7.7, 300
05
8.4, 270
06
8.4, 360
09
8.1, 1700
08
8.2, 320
07
8.1, 330
02
8.2, 440
03
7.2, 970
10
8.2, 470
0 40 kilometers
10 S
125 E 124 E 10' 30'
50'
30'
0 10
10
30 miles
101
7.6, 140
104A
7.5, 260
105
7.5, 340
109
--, 3100
108
7.6, 400
107
7.6, 320
110
7.4, 360
104B
--, 170
FIG. 27.A) pH (left-hand values) and solute concentrations (right-hand values) in West Timor, dry season (data are from Table 4).
B) pH (left-hand values) and solute concentrations (right-hand values) in West Timor, rainy season (data are from Table 4).
A
B
charge. Our study areas included climates that range from
perhumid in Sumatra, East, Central, and West Kalimantan, and
Seram, to humid in Irian Jaya, to dry-subhumid in Timor and
Java, among which are settings that represent the same tectonic
system in two different climates. Most Indonesian rivers in our
study have similar-size catchment basins and stream gradients,
and all rivers have identical glacioeustatic sea-level histories. The
predominant allocyclic variable that controls variation in sedi-
ment discharge among Indonesian rivers is, therefore, climate
(chiefly the amount and seasonality of rainfall).
Perhumid and Humid Climates
Rivers draining the perhumid and humid areas of Sumatra,
West and Central Kalimantan, and Irian Jaya cross broad and
flat coastal plains before debouching into shallow epeiric seas.
The rivers evaluated in the humid climates of Seram and East
Kalimantan cross a rugged coastal area with very narrow coastal
plains before emptying into the deep Banda Sea and Makassar
Strait, respectively. With the exception of Irian Jaya, character-
istics of those settings with perhumid climates and extensive
coastal plains that border epeiric seas include the following: (1)
extensive Histosols and Spodosols, (3) meandering acidic black-
water rivers with exceedingly low solute and suspended-sedi-
ment concentrations but which may contain significant amounts
of terrestrial organic matter, (4) limited fluvial bed loads, prima-
rily as point bars, which diminish downstream and finally
disappear before, or in, the upper estuaries, (5) extensive estu-
aries without sediment fill derived from fluvial systems, (6)
mud-dominated, sediment-starved coastal and nearshore ma-
rine environments, and (7) the absence of nearshore coral reefs.
The Irian Jaya study area differs because of the presence of low-
gradient alluvial fans with braided streams between the base of
the mountains and the proximal coastal plain. The active tec-
tonic setting of Seram precludes the development of broad
coastal plains, extensive estuaries, and extensive deposits of
peat. The fluvial systems of Seram are, however, also sediment
starved. The estuaries that do exist in Seram are not filled with
sediment, and deltas have not developed. The rivers in East
Kalimantan also appear to be sediment starved. Most have
estuaries, except for the Mahakam River, which has a large
delta. The predominant source of the sediment for the Mahakam
Delta is probably from the antecedent part of the Mahakam
River, which eroded the tectonically active 70-km-wide area
between the delta and Kutai Basin during Neogene and Quater-
nary folding and uplift. Hamilton (1979) suggests that folding
was concurrent with Neogene sedimentation.
Dry-Subhumid Climates
In contrast to the sediment-starved Indonesian rivers in
perhumid and humid climates, river and coastal systems in the
dry-subhumid climates of Timor and Java can be characterized
by river-mouth deltas, sand and coarser-grained beaches, ab-
sence of estuaries, and absence of Histosols, Spodosols, Oxisols,
and Ultisols. In addition, the island of Timor has characteristics
that contrast with humid and perhumid regions as follows: (1)
calcic Vertisols, (2) braided rivers with high annual solute loads,
bed loads, and suspended loads, coarse-grained detritus in coast
zones, and (4) coral reefs. Black-water rivers and mangrove
forests were not observed in Timor.
The pedogenic and sedimentologic regimes of the study areas
(Fig. 28) are consistent with the conceptual diagrams for soil
formation and sediment supply of Cecil and Dulong (this vol-
ume, Part 1). The findings of our study reinforce the concept of
climate as a primary agent of weathering, erosion, sediment
transport, and sedimentation. Therefore, evaluation of
paleoclimate and paleoclimate change should be included in
genetic stratigraphic analysis, especially in terrestrial, coastal,
continental-margin, and epeiric-seaway depositional sequences.
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AHRENS, D.A., 1991, Meteorology Today: St. Paul, Minnesota, West Pub-
lishing Co., 576 p.
ALLEN, G.P., LAURIER, D. AND THOUVENIN, J.P., 1979, Etude Sdimentologique
du delta de la Mahakam: TOTAL, Compagnies Franaises des Ptroles,
Paris, Notes et Mmoirs 15, 156 p.
BURNHAM, C.P., 1984, The Forest environment: Soils, in Whitmore, T.C.,
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
ARID
SEMIARID
DRY SUBHUMID
MOIST SUBHUMID
HUMID
PERHUMID
Su = Sumatra; WK = Western Kalimantan; CK = Central
Kalimantan; EK = East Kalimantan; T = Timor; S = Seram;
IJ = Irian Jaya; J = Java
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
T
J
IJ
S
EK
CK
WK
SU
S
E
D
I
M
E
N
T

Y
I
E
L
D
NUMBER OF WET MONTHS
WET: RAINFALL EXCEEDS EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
T
IJ
S
EK
CK
WK
SU
S
O
L
U
T
E

Y
I
E
L
D
P
E
A
T

F
O
R
M
A
T
I
O
N
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
SU
WK
CK
EK
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
E
O
L
I
A
N

T
R
A
N
S
P
O
R
T
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
ENTISOL AND INCEPTISOL
HISTOSOL
VERTISOL
ARIDISOL
SPODOSOL
OXISOL
ULTISOL
MOLLISOL
ALFISOL
SU WK CK
T EK
FIG. 28.Schematic representation of sediment yield of tropical rivers and soils in Indonesia as a function of climate.
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