Descartes Passions of the Soul In his analysis of human understanding, Descartes realizes that humans have a

tendency to orient themselves more towards some things over others. Usually, whatever it is that enhances our quality of
life is something worth pursuing, and our volitions (desires) reflect this. Beginning with an underdeveloped person (say, an
infant), humans come to an understanding of what is beneficial to them, and what is not. Can we trace a pathway between
the physical world and our eventual understanding of it? To answer this question, Descartes precisely defines the
components of the human person, building him from, quite literally, the ground up.
Descartes develops a sort of hierarchy that transitions from our perceptions of the what we perceive in the real world and
our coming to understand it. In our quest to seek what is good and the happiness there derived, we interact with our
surroundings and attain sensation. The animal spirits that transduce this sensation lead to
The passions, according to Descartes, are a product of the movement of animal spirits which act upon our soul. Our
sensation/perceptions are largely responsible for the bulk of our passions (like fear)
Two kinds of passions, those that manifest themselves as a product of the external environment acting on the animal
spirits then acting on the soul, and those that originate in the soul.
In our development, we must have the former before the latter. It is essential for our understanding of, first most, what the
passions are. This is our first taste of passions. We gain understanding of these passions by the proper use of our human
faculty of wisdom. This is the origin of virtue, which we obtain from a recognition of those actions that consistently furnish
happiness.
Having been identified, the virtues allow man to conjure passions in his soul, which orient us to the feeling of happiness
again. The Rube Goldberg machine now operates in reverse: our soul causes the movement of our body which now acts
on the environment and extracts happiness from it.
The Chief virtue is generosity. Descartes might refer to it as the greatest use of our God-given quality of free will.
Generosity, as Descartes defines it, is constant resolutionnever to lack the volition toexecute all things he judges
best which is to follow virtue perfectly (article 153). Such a perfect pursuit will no doubt lead always to happiness.
Thus, they are largely the terminal effect of the external environment acting on us, as when we are startled by a cougar.
The virtues, however, are a concept recognized
Our sensations/perceptions are the key to our passions/emotions and our subsequent understanding of them and thus the
world around us
Nietzsche and Religious differences Nietzsche is obviously not a fan of what Christianity has done to the human state.
The hebrew, buddhist, and muslim religions had seemed to be beneficial for those qualities of the ancient human (what
would be desirable in Nietzsche time, he would say), whereas Christianity had destroyed these qualities.
The difference between the major religions is how they portray the human person and dictate his end. We can get a
glimpse at each of these religions by contrasting them with Christianity
The Islamic culture is one that fosters our fundamental human wants and needs, that provides us with rare and refined
luxuriousness that Christianity outright denies. The Islamic culture treats the human condition as essentially privileged
with the fruits of the earth. (Sec. 60-1)
The wonderful culture of the Moors in Spain, which was fundamentally nearer to us and appealed more to our senses
and tastes than that of Rome and Greece, was trampled down why? Because it had to thank noble and manly instincts
for its origins
Compared to Christianity, Buddhism is a hundred times more realistic than its Christian counterpart, and founded upon
long centuries of philosophical speculation[at a time when] the concept, god was already disposed of (sec. 20). It
approaches the human person as one who naturally struggles in the physical world, but copes without resorting to the
agent of sin as a sort of scapegoat. Our human frailties are indicative of immoderation, and the remedy lies not in the
supernatural, but in reflective contemplation of ourselves. The standards of perfection are thus more easily attainable to
the buddhist, to the Christian, it is nearly impossible.Judaism:
The triumphs of the Jews make evident that, although linked as the bearer of the decadent religion, Christianity, it is
anything but decadent; Where Christians are willing to throw away their physical state and the beauty that may be
contained in this world, the Jewish peoples have indicated their reluctance to succumb for a seemingly higher cause.
the Jews are a people gifted with the very strongest vitality, so much so that when they found themselves facing
impossible conditions of life they chose voluntarily, and with a profound talent for self-preservation, the side of all those
instincts which make for dcadenceThe Jews are the very opposite of dcadents: they have simply been forced into
appearing in that guise, and with a degree of skill approaching the non plus ultra of histrionic genius they have managed
to put themselves at the head of all dcadent movement. dcadence is no more than a means to an end.
Judaism considers the human person as one who mustChristianity may have been the result of an internal confusion
among a few that took this decadence seriously, and was a successful spin-off of Judaism.
The Jew relies on nature as a means for his self-preservation, and so emphasizes the bondage of the human person to
physical world: Originally, and above all in the time of the monarchy, Israel maintained the right attitude of things, which is
to say, the natural attitude. Its Jahveh was an expression of its consciousness of power, its joy in itself, its hopes for itself:
to him the Jews looked for victory and salvation and through him they expected nature to give them whatever was
necessary to their existenceabove all, rain (sec. 25). The human person is entitled to the fruits of nature in a way that
the Christian is not (that is, doesnt allow himself to be). This requisite claim is essential for their existence, making
Judaism more accepting of the physical human state that Christianity is.
Fr. Clarke It would seem that Clarke would be telling us to assess the good of activities from a fundamentally Christian
(but more generally, religious) standpoint. Doing so adds a dimension to this activity that allows a reflection on our human
end, and without which there no fixedposition on technology that all Christians must hold in order to be good
Christians (pg.247). Taken to be a means of human fulfillment and a pursuit of happiness, Christianity is in need to
coexist with technology as it becomes more prevalent in human affairs, especially in our coming to know the physical
world. Clarke aims to reconcile the mixed feelings towards technology that many Christians have adopted, hoping to
transform this relationship from one of distrust and fear to cooperation and mutual growth (?). He does so, firstly, by
prefacing the fact that technology is a God-given activity, and thus is meant to compliment our humanity rather than stand
outside of it. He then reminds Christians of their position in the cosmos in relation to God, and how technology helps aid in
this structuring.
the overall balanced fulfillment of man must always be the center of focus and all particular activities[are]
subordinated to this primary goal (pg. 248).
A first essential principle for the wise use of technology [is] that is cannotbe made an end in itself.
This view every Christian must adopt, for then technology is given a greater purpose as a gift from god and not of
something from the earth.
The basicordering is the superiority of the spiritual dimensionover the materialthe latter becomes [the]
instrument of the spirit in man.
Reminds Christians once again that the spirit occupies a higher rung in the grand scheme of things, making technology
appear less of a threat to our existence.
Long Essay:Augustine, Nietzsche, and Descartes all believe that our pursuit towards God and the state that he
encompasses is what orients us towards living a whole human life.
Nietzsche, too, promoted the concept of God, but this had differed from that of Augustines and Descartes. Nietzsches
god most harmonizes with that of Yaweh, one that, in a sense, is constantly tinkering with mankind so as to make a truly
robust, ideal, dominating human being. As he puts, Israel maintained the right attitude Its Yaweh was an expression
ofpowerjoyhope for itself[a source of] victory and salvationnecessary to [the Jews] existence (sec. 25). As the
Jews had triumphed against centuries of strife and remained steadfast, so Nietzsches bermensch were to eventually be
the final outcome of Yawehs experimentation. Christianity, however, skewed this version of god into something more
docile and inconvenient for the development of Nietzsches ideal man, a god who twists morality[making it] no longer a
reflection of the conditions which make for the sound like and development of the people (s. 25).
Augustines Confessions portray his sorrowful struggles as he searches for meaning in his life. Though Augustine
In his discussion on self-esteem, Descartes mentions Wisdom as the means by which humanity has the capability of
discerning ones own actions. This requires free will and the dominion over our volitionsmaking us masters over
ourselves[which] renders us like God (article 152). In mastering ourselves, we attain the ability to control the passions
and use them to acquire the become the ultimate good, or God-like. It is this goal to emulate god that enables our mastery
of the passions.
Parts/aspects: Our Power of will and God:
Descartes mentions that virtue comes about by our ultimate human characteristic, that which makes most like God: our
Free Will. It is through this that we are given the means of pursuing virtue, and thus elevates us to a state of being that
affords the ability to remain (if we so choose) perpetually happy.
Augustine presents a bleaker picture of the human will and our eventual discovery of God and happiness. Through his
example, Augustine shows that our free will is a double-edged sword: the free choice of the will[is] the cause of my sin
(113-14). Augustine goes on to pinpoint the origin of his tainted will, saying The self which willed to serve was identical
with the self which was unwillingI was in conflict with myselfdissociated from myself (148). Augustine felt compelled
to devote his being to the pursuit of God, but the will that commands [was] incomplete (148). Thus the free will which
God bestowed on us is in dire need of correction we must realize, as Augustine did the nub of the problem [is] to reject
[ones] own will and to desire [Gods] (155). In coming to pure happiness, the essential core of human life, to God, we
must meld our free will with His, become like Him, become complete.
To Nietzsche, our Will also is that which brings us towards a more God-like state, however this supreme condition is
described in more evolutionist terms: mainly that it is a state of total dominion. Life itself, Nietzsche explains, appears to
me as an instinct for growththe accumulation of forces, for power (s. 6). Power is mans object, his destiny, his means
of achieving an elevated existence. Though it be a different route to mans end, uninhibited will (if properly directed) is
mans resource for fulfilling Gods plan.