Chickenpox is a highly contagious disease caused by

primary infection with varicella zoster virus (VZV).

[1]
It usually starts with
avesicular skin rash mainly on the body and head rather than on the limbs. The rash
develops into itchy, raw pockmarks, which mostly heal without scarring. On
examination, the observer typically finds skin lesions at various stages of healing and
also ulcers in the oral cavity and tonsil areas. The disease is most commonly
observed in children.
Chickenpox is an airborne disease which spreads easily through coughing or
sneezing by ill individuals or through direct contact with secretions from the rash. A
person with chickenpox is infectious one to two days before the rash appears.
[2]
They
remain contagious until all lesions have crusted over (this takes approximately six
days).
[3]
Immunocompromised patients are contagious during the entire period as
new lesions keep appearing. Crusted lesions are not contagious.
[4]

Chickenpox has been observed in other primates,
including chimpanzees
[5]
and gorillas.
[6]

The origin of the term chicken pox, which is recorded as being used since 1684,
[7]
is
not reliably known. It has been said to be a derived from chickpeas, based on
resemblance of the vesicles to chickpeas,
[7][8][9]
or to come from the rash resembling
chicken pecks.
[7][9]
Other suggestions include the designation chicken for a child (i.e.,
literally 'child pox'), a corruption of itching-pox,
[8][10]
or the idea that the disease may
have originated in chickens.
[7]
Samuel Johnson explained the designation as "from
its being of no very great danger."
[11]

The early (prodromal) symptoms in adolescents and adults are nausea, loss of
appetite, aching muscles, and headache. This is followed by the characteristic rash
or oral sores, malaise, and a low-grade fever that signal the presence of the disease.
Oral manifestations of the disease (enanthem) not uncommonly may precede the
external rash (exanthem). In children the illness is not usually preceded by
prodromal symptoms, and the first sign is the rash or the spots in the oral cavity. The
rash begins as small red dots on the face, scalp, torso, upper arms and legs;
progressing over 1012 hours to small bumps, blisters and pustules; followed
by umbilication and the formation of scabs.
[12][13]

At the blister stage, intense itching is usually present. Blisters may also occur on the
palms, soles, and genital area. Commonly, visible evidence of the disease develops
in the oral cavity & tonsil areas in the form of small ulcers which can be painful or
itchy or both; this enanthem (internal rash) can precede the exanthem (external rash)
by 1 to 3 days or can be concurrent. These symptoms of chickenpox appear 10 to 21
days after exposure to a contagious person. Adults may have a more widespread
rash and longer fever, and they are more likely to experience complications, such as
varicella pneumonia.
[12]

Because watery nasal discharge containing live virus usually precedes both
exanthem (external rash) and enanthem (oral ulcers) by 1 to 2 days, the infected
person actually becomes contagious one to two days prior to recognition of the
disease. Contagiousness

Causes Of Chickenpox
Chickenpox is caused by the varicella-zoster virus. You catch it by coming into
contact with someone who is infected.
Chickenpox is a very contagious infection. Around 90% of people who have not
previously had chickenpox will become infected when they come into contact with
the virus.
How you catch the virus
The chickenpox virus is spread most easily from someone who has the rash. The
blisters are very itchy and break open easily, which can contaminate surfaces or
objects. The virus may then be transferred by touching the surface or object, then
touching your face.
The virus is also contained in the millions of tiny droplets that come out of the nose
and mouth when an infected person coughs or sneezes. This can also contaminate
surfaces or objects.
It normally takes 14 days for the symptoms of chickenpox to show after you have
come into contact with the virus. However, this can vary from person to person
from as little as 7 days, up to 21 days. This is called the "incubation period".
Someone with chickenpox is most infectious from one to two days before the rash
appears, until all the blisters have crusted over. This usually takes five to six
days from the start of the rash.
Read more about the diagnosis of chickenpox and how to stop chickenpox
spreading.
Shingles
If you have not had chickenpox before, you can also catch chickenpox from
someone with shingles (an infection caused by the same virus). However, it's not
possible to catch shingles from someone who has chickenpox.

How do you catch chickenpox?
If youre not immune to chickenpox, you can easily catch it through close contact
with someone who has it, such as:
face-to-face contact, for example, having a conversation with someone who
has chickenpox, or
being in the same room as someone who has chickenpox for at least 15
minutes
This is because the virus can spread through the air, in tiny droplets from an infected
person.
Chickenpox can also be passed on by contact with the blisters that are caused by
chickenpox and shingles.
Pregnant women, newborn babies and the immunocompromised
If you have chickenpox, you should avoid contact with certain groups until youre no
longer infectious. These include pregnant women, newborn babies and
immunocompromised people, such as people with transplants or undergoing
immunosuppressive therapy. Varicella zoster virus can cause severe disease in
these groups.
How long is chickenpox infectious for?
Someone with chickenpox is infectious from about one to two days before the rash
develops, until all the blisters have fully crusted over. This is usually five to six days
after the start of the rash.

Symptoms and Complications of Chickenpox
Flu-like symptoms start to develop a day or two before an itchy red rash
appears. Fatigue, mild headache, fever, chills, and muscle or joint aches are typical.
The rash emerges as raised red bumps that turn to teardrop-shaped blisters that are
extremely itchy.
These blisters may appear anywhere on the body, usually starting on the scalp,
spreading to the trunk or torso, and then to the arms, legs, and face. In some cases,
the rash may even spread across your entire body, including areas such as the
throat, mouth, and vagina.
The blisters come in waves, with new crops developing as old ones burst. New
blisters stop forming within about 5 days. By the sixth day, most blisters will have
burst, dried, and crusted over. 2 weeks after that, most of the scabs will have
disappeared.
Children usually have a much milder infection and recover faster than
adults. Babies, adults, and those with weakened immune systems tend to have
more severe and longer-lasting symptoms. They are at higher risk of developing
complications, including inflammation of the brain (encephalitis) and pneumonia.
Newborns whose mothers develop chickenpox during early pregnancy are at risk for
low birth weight and birth defects. If the mother develops chickenpox a week before
birth, the newborn is at risk for a life-threatening infection.
Children who have had the chickenpox vaccine can still get
chickenpox.However, they usually have a much milder case with a smaller number
of blisters.
Cellulitis (a skin infection from bacteria) is by far the most common complication in
children. It may leave scarring, especially if the child scratches the
lesions.Necrotizing fasciitis ("flesh-eating disease") in children, though extremely
rare, can occur as a complication of infection entering through the chickenpox
lesions. An awkward problem occurs when chickenpox blisters appear in the mouth,
throat, or anus. Lesions in these places are very uncomfortable. If the rash gets near
the eyes, consult your doctor.
Like many viruses, the varicella-zoster virus is never completely gone once it
has entered your body. Anyone who's had chickenpox carries dormant viruses in
the roots of their nerve cells. These can sometimes reappear years later as shingles,
a painful skin rash that affects a particular area of skin.
Shingles can appear at times of emotional stress, or when the immune system is
low. It's not always known what has provoked the virus to come out of hiding. It's
important to know that the shingles rash can transmit chickenpox. People who
have already had chickenpox are immune, but people who haven't can get it from
other people's shingles.

Treating and Preventing Chickenpox
In most cases, treatment is directed at relieving symptoms until the illness
goes away on its own. Non-medical therapy includes:
keeping the body cool, as heat and sweat aggravate itchiness
applying cool-water compresses to the affected skin areas to reduce itchiness
keeping nails cut short and hands clean, as bacteria found under fingernails can
infect open skin lesions
taking daily baths with soap and water, which can prevent bacterial infections
Your doctor may advise a variety of medical treatments:
Over-the-counter medicated creams and ointments can be applied to the affected
skin to reduce itchiness. These may contain local anesthetics. If the medication is
being used for a child, be sure to read the package carefully to make sure that it
is safe for children, and to find the appropriate dose. Talk to your pharmacist for
advice on choosing the best medication.
Antihistamine liquids and pills can also ease severe itching.
Antiviral medication, such as acyclovir*, may help if taken early in the course of
the illness. They are appropriate for high-risk people, including those with
weakened immune systems, adults, and pregnant women but are seldom
necessary for otherwise healthy children.
Acetaminophen may be used for fever. Anyone under the 18 years of age should
not take acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) or ASA-containing products because these
contain ingredients (salicylates) that may cause Reye's syndrome. This is a rare
and often fatal inflammation of the brain and liver seen in children taking ASA,
particularly during an episode of chickenpox or influenza.
If you've never had chickenpox, try to stay away from anyone who's infected
until all the blisters have dried and scabs have formed. People at high risk
who've been exposed to the chickenpox virus should see their doctor immediately as
they may need immune globulin (antibodies against varicella zoster). This will
provide temporary protection for about 3 weeks against the development of
chickenpox or its complications. People most prone to the illness include those with
low resistance to diseases, such as newborns, people who have AIDS, or people
taking corticosteroids, transplant medications, or cancer medications.
A vaccine against chickenpox is available. In Canada, the chickenpox vaccine is
part of the recommended immunization schedule. It's recommended that anyone
over 12 months of age who has never had chickenpox should receive 2 doses of the
chickenpox vaccine. For children, the first dose is given at 12 to 18 months of age
and the second dose at 4 to 6 years of age. For people 13 years of age and over, the
2 doses are given at least 4 to 6 weeks apart. The chickenpox vaccine contains a
live but weakened form of the varicella-zoster virus. The vaccine causes the immune
system to make antibodies that defend you from future infection by the virus. It is
85% to 95% effective.
The vaccine sometimes causes a slight fever. In up to 6% of cases, a mild
chickenpox-like rash may appear around the injection site. This is most likely to
occur in people with weakened immune systems. Because this rash may be
contagious, you should avoid contact with high-risk people such as pregnant women.
The vaccine isn't recommended for pregnant women, people with active untreated
tuberculosis, those with blood disorders or a suppressed immune system, or those
with severe allergic reactions to neomycin (an antibiotic) and gelatin.










Tuberculosis, MTB, or TB (short for tubercle bacillus), in the past also
called phthisis, phthisis pulmonalis, or consumption, is a widespread, and in
many cases fatal, infectious disease caused by various strains of mycobacteria,
usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
[1]
Tuberculosis typically attacks the lungs, but
can also affect other parts of the body. It is spread through the air when people who
have an active TB infection cough, sneeze, or otherwise transmit respiratory fluids
through the air.
[2]
Most infections do not have symptoms, known as latent
tuberculosis. About one in ten latent infections eventually progresses to active
disease which, if left untreated, kills more than 50% of those so infected.
The classic symptoms of active TB infection are a chronic cough with blood-
tinged sputum, fever, night sweats, and weight loss (the latter giving rise to the
formerly common term for the disease, "consumption"). Infection of other organs
causes a wide range of symptoms. Diagnosis of active TB relies
on radiology (commonly chest X-rays), as well as microscopic examination
and microbiological culture of body fluids. Diagnosis of latent TB relies on
the tuberculin skin test (TST) and/or blood tests. Treatment is difficult and requires
administration of multiple antibiotics over a long period of time. Social contacts are
also screened and treated if necessary.Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem
in multiple drug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) infections. Prevention relies on
screening programs and vaccination with the bacillus Calmette-Gurin vaccine.
One-third of the world's population is thought to have been infected with M.
tuberculosis,
[3]
with new infections occurring in about 1% of the population each
year.
[4]
In 2007, an estimated 13.7 million chronic cases were active globally,
[5]
while
in 2010, an estimated 8.8 million new cases and 1.5 million associated deaths
occurred, mostly in developing countries.
[6]
The absolute number of tuberculosis
cases has been decreasing since 2006, and new cases have decreased since
2002.
[6]
The rate of tuberculosis in different areas varies across the globe; about 80%
of the population in many Asian and African countries tests positive in tuberculin
tests, while only 510% of the United States population tests positive.
[1]
More people
in the developing world contract tuberculosis because of a poor immune system,
largely due to high rates of HIV infection and the corresponding development
of AIDS.
[7]

Tuberculosis may infect any part of the body, but most commonly occurs in the lungs (known
as pulmonary tuberculosis).
[9]
Extrapulmonary TB occurs when tuberculosis develops
outside of the lungs, although extrapulmonary TB may coexist with pulmonary TB, as well.
[9]

General signs and symptoms include fever, chills, night sweats, loss of appetite, weight loss,
and fatigue.
[9]
Significant nail clubbing may also occur.
[10]
Causes
Mycobacteria
Main article: Mycobacterium tuberculosis
The main cause of TB is Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a small, aerobic,
nonmotile bacillus.
[9]
The high lipid content of this pathogen accounts for many of its
unique clinical characteristics.
[18]
It divides every 16 to 20 hours, which is an
extremely slow rate compared with other bacteria, which usually divide in less than
an hour.
[19]
Mycobacteria have an outer membrane lipid bilayer.
[20]
If a Gram stain is
performed, MTB either stains very weakly "Gram-positive" or does not retain dye as
a result of the high lipid and mycolic acid content of its cell wall.
[21]
MTB can withstand
weak disinfectants and survive in a dry state for weeks. In nature, the bacterium can
grow only within the cells of a hostorganism, but M. tuberculosis can be cultured in
the laboratory.
[22]

Using histological stains on expectorated samples from phlegm (also called
"sputum"), scientists can identify MTB under a regular (light) microscope. Since MTB
retains certain stains even after being treated with acidic solution, it is classified as
an acid-fast bacillus (AFB).
[1][21]
The most common acid-fast staining techniques are
the ZiehlNeelsen stain, which dyes AFBs a bright red that stands out clearly against
a blue background,
[23]
and the auramine-rhodamine stain followed by fluorescence
microscopy.
[24]

The M. tuberculosis complex (MTBC) includes four other TB-
causing mycobacteria: M. bovis, M. africanum, M. canetti, and M. microti.
[25]
M.
africanum is not widespread, but it is a significant cause of tuberculosis in parts of
Africa.
[26][27]
M. bovis was once a common cause of tuberculosis, but the introduction
of pasteurized milk has largely eliminated this as a public health problem in
developed countries.
[1][28]
M. canetti is rare and seems to be limited to the Horn of
Africa, although a few cases have been seen in African emigrants.
[29][30]
M. microti is
also rare and is mostly seen in immunodeficient people, although the prevalence of
this pathogen has possibly been significantly underestimated.
[31]

Other known pathogenic mycobacteria include M. leprae, M. avium, and M. kansasii.
The latter two species are classified as "nontuberculous mycobacteria" (NTM). NTM
cause neither TB nor leprosy, but they do cause pulmonary diseases that resemble
TB.
[32]

A number of factors make people more susceptible to TB infections. The most important risk
factor globally is HIV; 13% of all people with TB are infected by the virus.
[6]
This is a
particular problem in sub-Saharan Africa, where rates of HIV are high.
[33][34]
Of people
While TB is easily passed from person to person under certain
circumstances, it generally doesnt spread through casual contact.
How Can You Get TB?
TB is a highly contagious bacterial infection that can quickly spread if not
caught, isolated, and treated early. Tuberculosis is an airborne disease,
and can be caught by breathing in the air that an infected person has
contaminated through:
Breathing
Coughing
Talking
Singing
Sneezing
TB germs must be forced into the air, and to get a tuberculosis infection
you must breathe in those germs. But even if you've been around an
infected person, or breathed in the bacteria they expelled into the air, you
still have a chance at escaping TB not everyone who breathes in the
bacteria will develop tuberculosis.
Ways You Wont Get TB
If you can get tuberculosis infection by breathing in the air where
someone spoke, it should be pretty easy to catch the illness by just
touching someone who has TB, right?
Actually, no. You can't get TB by touching an infected person.
Tuberculosis germs don't stick to clothing or skin; they hang out in the air.
You also can't get TB by:
Giving an infected person a hug or a kiss
Using the same
toothbrush
Eating or drinking after
an infected person
Shaking hands
Sharing clothing, a
bed, or towels
Using the same toilet
as an infected person
Who's Most Contagious?
A person who has been infected with tuberculosis may not yet show
any symptoms of TB, and may have no idea that they're sick and
theyre also are not contagious at this stage.
If active tuberculosis disease does develop, and symptoms appear
such as persistent coughing, coughing up blood, breathing problems, or
flu-like symptoms the disease is contagious. Even before a TB
diagnosis, people can unwittingly transmit tuberculosis to others. People
with symptomatic TB are contagious until they have taken their TB
medications for at least two weeks. After that point, treatment must
continue for months, but the infection is no longer contagious.
Anyone who has been in contact with someone with TB should have a
tuberculosis test (also called a PPD test) immediately to find out whether
they have the illness, and if they are capable of spreading it to other
people.
Who Is Most Susceptible to Tuberculosis?
Being around a person infected with TB, or even breathing in the air
contaminated with tuberculosis germs, doesn't mean that you'll definitely
get TB. However,certain people are more susceptible to the disease than
others.
People with healthy immune systems are better able to defend
themselves against the progression of tuberculosis infection into active
Poliomyelitis /poliomalats/, often called polio or infantile paralysis, is an
acute, viral, infectious disease spread from person to person, primarily via the fecal-
oral route.
[1]
The term derives from the Ancient Greek polis (), meaning
"grey", myels (marrow), referring to the grey matter of the spinal cord, and
the suffix -itis, which denotes inflammation.,
[2]
i.e., inflammation of the spinal cords
grey matter, although a severe infection can extend into the brainstem and even
higher structures, resulting in polioencephalitis, producing apnea that requires
mechanical assistance such as an iron lung.
Although approximately 90% of polio infections cause no symptoms at all, affected
individuals can exhibit a range of symptoms if the virus enters the blood stream.
[3]
In
about 1% of cases, the virus enters the central nervous system, preferentially
infecting and destroying motor neurons, leading to muscle weakness and
acute flaccid paralysis. Different types of paralysis may occur, depending on the
nerves involved. Spinal polio is the most common form, characterized by asymmetric
paralysis that most often involves the legs.Bulbar polio leads to weakness of
muscles innervated by cranial nerves. Bulbospinal polio is a combination of bulbar
and spinal paralysis.
[4]

Poliomyelitis was first recognized as a distinct condition by Jakob Heine in 1840.
[5]
Its
causative agent, poliovirus, was identified in 1908 by Karl Landsteiner.
[5]
Polio had
existed for thousands of years in certain areas, with depictions of the disease in
ancient art. Major polio epidemics started to appear in the late 19th century in
Europe and soon after the United States,
[6]
and it became one of the most
dreaded childhood diseases of the 20th century. The epidemics are attributed to
better sanitation which reduced the prevalence of the disease among young children
who were more likely to be asymptomatic. Survivors then develop immunity.
[7]
By
1910, much of the world experienced a dramatic increase in polio cases and
epidemics became regular events, primarily in cities during the summer months.
These epidemicswhich left thousands of children and adults paralyzedprovided
the impetus for a "Great Race" towards the development of a vaccine. Developed in
the 1950s, polio vaccines have reduced the global number of polio cases per year
from many hundreds of thousands to under a thousand
today.
[8]
Enhanced vaccination efforts led by Rotary International, the World Health
Organization, and UNICEF should result in global eradication of the
disease,
[9][10][11]
although in 2013 there were reports by the World Health
Organization of new cases in Syria.
[12]

On 5 May 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a public health
emergency of international concern, or PHEIC,
[13]
due to the renewed spread of polio
Cause
Poliomyelitis is caused by infection with a member of the genus Enterovirus known
as poliovirus (PV). This group of RNA viruses colonize the gastrointestinal tract
[1]

specifically the oropharynx and the intestine. The incubation time (to the first signs and
symptoms) ranges from three to 35 days, with a more common span of six to 20
days.
[4]
PV infects and causes disease in humans alone.
[3]
Its structure is very simple,
composed of a single (+) sense RNA genome enclosed in a protein shell called
a capsid.
[3]
In addition to protecting the viruss genetic material, the capsid proteins enable
poliovirus to infect certain types of cells. Three serotypes of poliovirus have been identified
poliovirus type 1 (PV1), type 2 (PV2), and type 3 (PV3)each with a slightly different capsid
protein.
[21]
All three are extremely virulent and produce the same disease symptoms.
[3]
PV1
is the most commonly encountered form, and the one most closely associated with
paralysis.
[22]

Individuals who are exposed to the virus, either through infection or by immunization with
polio vaccine, develop immunity. In immune individuals, IgA antibodies against poliovirus are
present in the tonsils and gastrointestinal tract, and are able to block virus
replication; IgGand IgM antibodies against PV can prevent the spread of the virus to motor
neurons of the central nervous system.
[23]
Infection or vaccination with one serotype of
poliovirus does not provide immunity against the other serotypes, and full immunity requires
exposure to each serotype.
[23]

A rare condition with a similar presentation, nonpoliovirus poliomyelitis, may result from
infections with nonpoliovirus enteroviruses.
[24]

Poliomyelitis is highly contagious via the fecal-oral (intestinal source) and the oral-oral
(oropharyngeal source) routes.
[23]
In endemic areas, wild polioviruses can infect virtually the
entire human population.
[25]
It is seasonal in temperate climates, with peak transmission
occurring in summer and autumn.
[23]
These seasonal differences are far less pronounced
intropical areas.
[25]
The time between first exposure and first symptoms, known as
the incubation period, is usually six to 20 days, with a maximum range of three to
35 days.
[26]
Virus particles are excreted in the feces for several weeks following initial
infection.
[26]
The disease is transmitted primarily via the fecal-oral route, by ingesting
contaminated food or water. It is occasionally transmitted via the oral-oral route,
[22]
a mode
especially visible in areas with good sanitation and hygiene.
[23]
Polio is most infectious
between seven and 10 days before and after the appearance of symptoms, but transmission
is possible as long as the virus remains in the saliva or feces.
[22]

Factors that increase the risk of polio infection or affect the severity of the disease
include immune deficiency,
[27]
malnutrition,
[28]
physical activity immediately following the
onset of paralysis,
[29]
skeletal muscle injury due to injection of vaccines or therapeutic
Prevention
Passive immunization
In 1950, William Hammon at the University of Pittsburgh purified the gamma
globulin component of the blood plasma of polio survivors.
[50]
Hammon proposed the gamma
globulin, which contained antibodies to poliovirus, could be used to halt poliovirus infection,
prevent disease, and reduce the severity of disease in other patients who had contracted
polio. The results of a large clinical trial were promising; the gamma globulin was shown to
be about 80% effective in preventing the development of paralytic poliomyelitis.
[51]
It was also
shown to reduce the severity of the disease in patients who developed polio.
[50]
The gamma
globulin approach was later deemed impractical for widespread use, however, due in large
part to the limited supply of blood plasma, so the medical community turned its focus to the
development of a polio vaccine.
[52]

Vaccine
Two types of vaccine are used throughout the world to combat polio. Both types induce
immunity to polio, efficiently blocking person-to-person transmission of wild poliovirus,
thereby protecting both individual vaccine recipients and the wider community (so-
called herd immunity).
[53]

The first candidate polio vaccine, based on one serotype of a live but attenuated (weakened)
virus, was developed by the virologist Hilary Koprowski. Koprowski's prototype vaccine was
given to an eight-year-old boy on 27 February 1950.
[54]
Koprowski continued to work on the
vaccine throughout the 1950s, leading to large-scale trials in the then Belgian Congo and the
vaccination of seven million children in Poland against serotypes PV1 and PV3 between
1958 and 1960.
[55]

The second inactivated virus vaccine was developed in 1952 by Jonas Salk at the University
of Pittsburgh, and announced to the world on 12 April 1955.
[56]
The Salk vaccine, or
inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV), is based on poliovirus grown in a type of monkey
kidney tissue culture (vero cell line), which is chemically inactivated with formalin.
[23]
After
two doses of IPV (given by injection), 90% or more of individuals develop protective antibody
to all three serotypes of poliovirus, and at least 99% are immune to poliovirus following three
doses.
[4]

Subsequently, Albert Sabin developed another live, oral polio vaccine (OPV). It was
produced by the repeated passage of the virus through nonhuman cells at
subphysiological temperatures.
[57]
The attenuated poliovirus in the Sabin vaccine replicates
very efficiently in the gut, the primary site of wild poliovirus infection and replication, but the
vaccine strain is unable to replicate efficiently within nervous system tissue.
[58]
A single dose
of Sabin's oral polio vaccine produces immunity to all three poliovirus serotypes in about
Symptoms and Complications of Polio
Polio is a serious condition that causes paralysis in less than 1% of those
infected (paralytic polio). However, most people do not become sick at all. In a
small number of cases, the disease causes flu-like symptoms but does not lead
paralysis (non-paralytic polio).
Non-paralytic polio causes symptoms that mimic the flu. A person may
experience a sore throat, fatigue, nausea, diarrhea, a fever, or vomiting. Most cases
of non-paralytic polio clear up in a number of days, but some people go on to
developmeningitis, a condition in which the lining of the brain is infected. Meningitis
can be fatal if it is not treated quickly.
When a person develops paralytic polio, the symptoms are more serious. As the
virus spreads through the nerves it destroys nerves that control muscles. The
infection may be fatal if the brain and respiratory organs become affected.
Nonparalytic polio
Some people who develop symptoms from the poliovirus contract nonparalytic polio a
type of polio that doesn't lead to paralysis (abortive polio). This usually causes the same
mild, flu-like signs and symptoms typical of other viral illnesses.
In rare cases, poliovirus infection leads to paralytic polio, the most serious form of the
disease. Paralytic polio has several types, based on the part of your body that's affected
your spinal cord (spinal polio), your brainstem (bulbar polio) or both (bulbospinal polio).
Initial signs and symptoms of paralytic polio, such as fever and headache, often mimic those
of nonparalytic polio. Within a week, however, signs and symptoms specific to paralytic polio
appear, including:
Loss of reflexes
Severe muscle aches or weakness
Loose and floppy limbs (flaccid paralysis), often worse on one side of the body
Post-polio syndrome
Post-polio syndrome is a cluster of disabling signs and symptoms that affect some people
several years an average of 35 years after they had polio. Common signs and
symptoms include:
Progressive muscle or joint weakness and pain
General fatigue and exhaustion after minimal activity
Muscle atrophy
Breathing or swallowing problems
Human immunodeficiency virus infection / acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a disease of the human immune system caused by
infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
[1]
The term HIV/AIDS represents
the entire range of disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus from early
infection to late stage symptoms. During the initial infection, a person may
experience a brief period of influenza-like illness. This is typically followed by a
prolonged period without symptoms. As the illness progresses, it interferes more and
more with the immune system, making the person much more likely to get infections,
includingopportunistic infections and tumors that do not usually affect people who
have working immune systems.
HIV is transmitted primarily via unprotected sexual
intercourse (including anal and oral sex), contaminated blood
transfusions,hypodermic needles, and from mother to child during pregnancy,
delivery, or breastfeeding.
[2]
Some bodily fluids, such as saliva and tears, do not
transmit HIV.
[3]
Prevention of HIV infection, primarily through safe sex and needle-
exchange programs, is a key strategy to control the spread of the disease. There is
no cure or vaccine; however, antiretroviral treatment can slow the course of the
disease and may lead to a near-normal life expectancy. While antiretroviral treatment
reduces the risk of death and complications from the disease, these medications are
expensive and have side effects. Without treatment, the average survival time after
infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtype.
[4]

Genetic research indicates that HIV originated in west-central Africa during the late
nineteenth or early twentieth century.
[5]
AIDS was first recognized by the United
States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 1981 and its cause
HIV infectionwas identified in the early part of the decade.
[6]
Since its discovery,
AIDS has caused an estimated 36 million deaths worldwide (as of 2012).
[7]
As of
2012, approximately 35.3 million people are living with HIV globally.
[7]
HIV/AIDS is
considered a pandemica disease outbreak which is present over a large area and
is actively spreading.
[8]

HIV/AIDS has had a great impact on society, both as an illness and as a source
of discrimination. The disease also has significanteconomic impacts. There are
many misconceptions about HIV/AIDS such as the belief that it can be transmitted by
casual non-sexual contact. The disease has also become subject to
many controversies involving religion. It has attracted international medical and
political attention as well as large-scale funding


Causes of HIV/AIDS
According to researchers, two viruses cause AIDS, namely HIV-1 and HIV-2.
These viruses belong to a family called the retroviruses and are able to infect
a person for the rest of that person's life.

ccording to researchers, two viruses cause Aids, namely HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the
predominant virus in most parts of the world, whereas HIV-2 is most commonly found in
West Africa. These viruses belong to a family called the retroviruses. They are unique viruses
in that they are able to insert their genetic material into the genetic material (DNA) of cells of
the person that they have infected. In this way they are able to infect a person for the rest of
that person's life.

To understand how the virus eventually causes Aids, see the section "Course of the disease".

Viruses that are very closely related to HIV are found in other primates (apes and monkeys).
These viruses are called Simian Immunodeficiency Viruses (SIV). HIV-2 is genetically
almost indistinguishable from the SIV found in sooty mangabeys. A very close genetic
relative of HIV-1 has been found in chimpanzees. Therefore most scientists accept that the
human immunodeficiency viruses are recently derived from these primate viruses. The
earliest human blood sample found to contain HIV dates from 1959; this sample was
collected in central Africa.

Based on molecular technology and the use of large computer programmes, scientists have
been able to trace back the genetic origins of HIV-1 and HIV-2 and roughly pinpoint the time
when these viruses first appeared in humans. The current theory is that sometime between
1930-1940 there was a "species-jump" of certain SIV's into human populations, probably
through the practise of slaughtering, preparing and consuming of "bush meat" from monkeys
in parts of Central and West Africa.

HIV is not as contagious as is often believed. The virus does not survive long outside the
body and can only be transmitted through the direct exchange of certain body fluids such as
blood, semen and vaginal fluid. The virus can gain access to the body at its moist surfaces
("mucous membranes") during sex, or through direct injection into the blood stream. Sex is
the major mode of transmission of HIV worldwide.

HIV can be transferred from one person to another (transmitted) through:


How Its Spread
HIV is transmitted by three main routes: sexual contact, exposure to infected body
fluids or tissues, and from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or
breastfeeding (known as vertical transmission).
[2]
There is no risk of acquiring HIV if
exposed to feces, nasal secretions, saliva, sputum, sweat, tears, urine, or vomit
unless these are contaminated with blood.
[29]
It is possible to be co-infected by more
than one strain of HIVa condition known as HIV superinfection.
[34]

Sexual
The most frequent mode of transmission of HIV is through sexual contact with an
infected person.
[2]
The majority of all transmissions worldwide occur
through heterosexual contacts (i.e. sexual contacts between people of the opposite
sex);
[2]
however, the pattern of transmission varies significantly among countries. In
the United States, as of 2009, most sexual transmission occurred in men who had
sex with men,
[2]
with this population accounting for 64% of all new cases.
[35]

With regard to unprotected heterosexual contacts, estimates of the risk of HIV
transmission per sexual act appear to be four to ten times higher in low-income
countries than in high-income countries.
[36]
In low-income countries, the risk of
female-to-male transmission is estimated as 0.38% per act, and of male-to-female
transmission as 0.30% per act; the equivalent estimates for high-income countries
are 0.04% per act for female-to-male transmission, and 0.08% per act for male-to-
female transmission.
[36]
The risk of transmission from anal intercourse is especially
high, estimated as 1.41.7% per act in both heterosexual and homosexual
contacts.
[36][37]
While the risk of transmission from oral sex is relatively low, it is still
present.
[38]
The risk from receiving oral sex has been described as "nearly
nil";
[39]
however, a few cases have been reported.
[40]
The per-act risk is estimated at
00.04% for receptive oral intercourse.
[41]
In settings involvingprostitution in low
income countries, risk of female-to-male transmission has been estimated as 2.4%
per act and male-to-female transmission as 0.05% per act.
[36]

Risk of transmission increases in the presence of many sexually transmitted
infections
[42]
and genital ulcers.
[36]
Genital ulcers appear to increase the risk
approximately fivefold.
[36]
Other sexually transmitted infections, such
as gonorrhea, chlamydia, trichomoniasis, and bacterial vaginosis, are associated
with somewhat smaller increases in risk of transmission.
[41]

The viral load of an infected person is an important risk factor in both sexual and
mother-to-child transmission.
[43]
During the first 2.5 months of an HIV infection a
person's infectiousness is twelve times higher due to this high viral load.
[41]
If the
person is in the late stages of infection, rates of transmission are approximately
eightfold greater.
[36]
Symptoms and Complications of HIV/AIDS
Symptoms of HIV infection appear 2 to 12 weeks after exposure. At this point
the virus begins rapidly taking over immune cells in the blood. The symptoms of this
phase are flu-like and include:
When the symptoms begin to appear, the person with HIV is very
infectious.The symptoms usually go away within a week to a month, and the person
will feel fine again. However, the symptoms may return from time to time. The
symptoms of HIV are similar to symptoms of other diseases. The only way to know
for sure whether you are HIV-positive is to be tested. After infection with HIV, it can
take 3 months for antibodies to the virus to be detectable in the blood. On average, it
takes about 22 days to develop antibodies. This is called seroconversion. After
seroconversion occurs, the virus can be detected using a blood test.
After the initial symptoms go away, the body's immune system tries to control
the virus. The immune system can keep the virus at bay for a while, but it can't
completely get rid of it. Many people will feel fine for years before their immune
system weakens and they develop AIDS. Without treatment, about half of HIV-
positive people develop AIDS within 10 years of infection. Some people develop
AIDS within a few years of infection. A few, called long-term non-progressors, do not
develop AIDS until much later. Many factors affect the timeframe to develop AIDS,
including medications and the person's general health and lifestyle.
AIDS is a term applied to advanced HIV disease. AIDS is defined as having HIV
and an opportunistic infection (an infection by a microorganism that ordinarily does
not cause disease unless the immune system is weakened) normally associated with
AIDS. These infections can be bacterial, fungal, viral, or parasitic. Examples of
opportunistic infections include toxoplasmosis, pneumocystis pneumonia,
cryptococcal meningitis, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML),
cryptosporidium, cytomegalovirus, and Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC). With
the use of better medications to treat HIV, the risk of opportunistic infections has
dropped over the years; however, people with AIDS will usually need to take
medications (such as antibiotics) to prevent opportunistic infections.
People who have AIDS are also more likely to develop cancer, especially cancers of
the immune system (lymphomas). Another cancer common for people with AIDS is
Kaposi's sarcoma, a type of cancer that causes bluish red nodules on the legs and
that spreads to the lymph system. Women with AIDS are prone to developing
cancers of the cervix. Gay men with HIV have higher rates of infection by HPV, a
virus linked to anal cancer, and precancerous HPV strains.
Children with AIDS tend to get common childhood infections like conjunctivitis, otitis
media, and tonsillitis, but they experience symptoms much worse than the infection
usually causes.
Excessive weight loss or "wasting syndrome" is a problem for approximately
20% of people who have HIV infection. It is associated with an unexplained
loss of 10% or more of normal body weight, plus chronic diarrhea (30 days or
more) or chronic weakness with fever (30 days or more).
Prevention
Sexual contact
Consistent condom use reduces the risk of HIV transmission by approximately 80% over the
long term.
[81]
When condoms are used consistently by a couple in which one person is
infected, the rate of HIV infection is less than 1% per year.
[82]
There is some evidence to
suggest that female condoms may provide an equivalent level of protection.
[83]
Application of
a vaginal gel containing tenofovir (a reverse transcriptase inhibitor) immediately before sex
seems to reduce infection rates by approximately 40% among African women.
[84]
By
contrast, use of the spermicide nonoxynol-9 may increase the risk of transmission due to its
tendency to cause vaginal and rectal irritation.
[85]
Circumcision in Sub-Saharan
Africa "reduces the acquisition of HIV by heterosexual men by between 38% and 66% over
24 months".
[86]
Based on these studies, the World Health Organization and UNAIDS both
recommended male circumcision as a method of preventing female-to-male HIV
transmission in 2007.
[87]
Whether it protects against male-to-female transmission is
disputed
[88][89]
and whether it is of benefit in developed countries and among men who have
sex with men is undetermined.
[90][91][92]
The International Antiviral Society; however, does
recommend for all sexually active heterosexual males and that it be discussed as an option
with men who have sex with men.
[93]
Some experts fear that a lower perception of
vulnerability among circumcised men may cause more sexual risk-taking behavior, thus
negating its preventive effects.
[94]

Programs encouraging sexual abstinence do not appear to affect subsequent HIV
risk.
[95]
Evidence for a benefit from peer education is equally poor.
[96]
Comprehensive sexual
education provided at school may decrease high risk behavior.
[97]
A substantial minority of
young people continues to engage in high-risk practices despite knowing about HIV/AIDS,
underestimating their own risk of becoming infected with HIV.
[98]
It is not known whether
treating other sexually transmitted infections is effective in preventing HIV.
[42]

Pre-exposure
Treating people with HIV whose CD4 count 350cells/L with antiretrovirals protects 96% of
their partners from infection.
[99]
This is about a 10 to 20 fold reduction in transmission
risk.
[100]
Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) with a daily dose of the medications tenofovir, with
or without emtricitabine, is effective in a number of groups including men who have sex with
men, couples where one is HIV positive, and young heterosexuals in Africa.
[84]
It may also be
effective in intravenous drug users with a study finding a decrease in risk of 0.7 to 0.4 per
100 person years.
[101]

Universal precautions within the health care environment are believed to be effective in
decreasing the risk of HIV.
[102]
Intravenous drug use is an important risk factor and
Typhoid fever also known simply as typhoid
[1]
is a common worldwide bacterial
disease transmitted by the ingestion of food or water contaminated with the feces of an
infected person, which contain the bacterium Salmonella enterica subsp.
enterica, serovarTyphi.
[2]

The disease has received various names, such as gastric fever, enteric fever, abdominal
typhus, infantile remittant fever, slow fever, nervous fever and pythogenic fever. The
name typhoid means "resembling typhus" and comes from the neuropsychiatric symptoms
common to typhoid and typhus.
[3]
Despite this similarity of their names, typhoid fever and
typhus are distinct diseases and are caused by different species of bacteria.
[4]

The occurrence of this disease fell sharply in the developed world with the rise of 20th-
century sanitation techniques and antibiotics.
[5][6

Classically, the course of untreated typhoid fever is divided into four individual stages, each
lasting approximately one week. Over the course of these stages, the patient becomes
exhausted and emaciated.
[7]

In the first week, the temperature rises slowly, and fever fluctuations are seen with
relative bradycardia (Faget sign), malaise, headache, and cough. A bloody nose (epistaxis)
is seen in a quarter of cases, and abdominal pain is also possible. There is a decrease in the
number of circulating white blood cells (leukopenia) with eosinopenia and
relativelymphocytosis; blood cultures are positive for Salmonella typhi or paratyphi.
The Widal test is negative in the first week.
[citation needed]

In the second week of the infection, the patient lies prostrate with high fever in plateau
around 40 C (104 F) and bradycardia (sphygmothermic dissociation or Faget sign),
classically with a dicrotic pulse wave. Delirium is frequent, often calm, but sometimes
agitated. This delirium gives to typhoid the nickname of "nervous fever". Rose spots appear
on the lower chest and abdomen in around a third of patients. There are rhonchi in lung
bases.
The abdomen is distended and painful in the right lower quadrant, where borborygmi can be
heard. Diarrhea can occur in this stage: six to eight stools in a day, green, comparable to
pea soup, with a characteristic smell. However, constipation is also frequent. The spleen and
liver are enlarged (hepatosplenomegaly) and tender, and there is elevation of
liver transaminases. The Widal test is strongly positive, with antiO and antiH antibodies.
Blood cultures are sometimes still positive at this stage.
(The major symptom of this fever is that the fever usually rises in the afternoon up to the first
and second week.)
Causes
How Do People Get Typhoid Fever?
Typhoid fever is contracted by drinking or eating the bacteria in contaminated food or
water. People with acute illness can contaminate the surrounding water supply
through stool, which contains a high concentration of the bacteria. Contamination of
the water supply can, in turn, taint the food supply. The bacteria can survive for
weeks in water or dried sewage.
About 3%-5% of people become carriers of the bacteria after the acute illness.
Others suffer a very mild illness that goes unrecognized. These people may become
long-term carriers of the bacteria -- even though they have no symptoms -- and be
the source of new outbreaks of typhoid fever for many years.
How Is Typhoid Fever Diagnosed?
After the ingestion of contaminated food or water, the Salmonellabacteria invade the
small intestine and enter the bloodstream temporarily. The bacteria are carried by
white blood cells in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow, where they multiply and
reenter the bloodstream. People develop symptoms, including fever, at this point.
Bacteria invade the gallbladder, biliary system, and the lymphatic tissue of the bowel.
Here, they multiply in high numbers. The bacteria pass into the intestinal tract and
can be identified in stool samples. If a test result isn't clear, blood samples will be
taken to make a diagnosis.
Fecal-oral transmission route
The bacteria that cause typhoid fever spread through contaminated food or water
and occasionally through direct contact with someone who is infected. In developing
nations, where typhoid is endemic, most cases result from contaminated drinking
water and poor sanitation. The majority of people in industrialized countries pick up
the typhoid bacteria while traveling and spread it to others through the fecal-oral
route.
This means that S. typhi is passed in the feces and sometimes in the urine of
infected people. You can contract the infection if you eat food handled by someone
with typhoid fever who hasn't washed carefully after using the toilet. You can also
become infected by drinking water contaminated with the bacteria.

Prevention[edit]
Sanitation and hygiene are the critical measures that can be taken to prevent
typhoid. Typhoid does not affect animals, and therefore, transmission is only from
human to human. Typhoid can only spread in environments where human feces or
urine are able to come into contact with food or drinking water. Careful food
preparation and washing of hands are crucial to prevent typhoid.
There are two vaccines licensed for use for the prevention of typhoid:
[10]
the live,
oral Ty21a vaccine (sold as Vivotif by Crucell Switzerland AG) and the
injectable Typhoid polysaccharide vaccine (sold as Typhim Vi by Sanofi Pasteur
and Typherix by GlaxoSmithKline). Both are 50% to 80% protective and are
recommended for travellers to areas where typhoid is endemic. Boosters are
recommended every five years for the oral vaccine and every two years for the
injectable form. There exists an older, killed-whole-cell vaccine that is still used in
countries where the newer preparations are not available, but this vaccine is no
longer recommended for use because it has a higher rate of side effects (mainly pain
and inflammation at the site of the injection).
[10]

Treatment[edit]
The rediscovery of oral rehydration therapy in the 1960s provided a simple way to
prevent many of the deaths of diarrheal diseases in general.
Where resistance is uncommon, the treatment of choice is a fluoroquinolone such
as ciprofloxacin.
[9][11]
Otherwise, a third-generation cephalosporin such
as ceftriaxone or cefotaxime is the first choice.
[12][13][14]
Cefixime is a suitable oral
alternative.
[15][16]

Typhoid fever, when properly treated, is not fatal in most cases. Antibiotics, such
as ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-
sulfamethoxazole, amoxicillin and ciprofloxacin, have been commonly used to treat
typhoid fever in microbiology (Baron S et al.). Treatment of the disease with
antibiotics reduces the case-fatality rate to approximately 1%.
[17]

When untreated, typhoid fever persists for three weeks to a month. Death occurs in
between 10% and 30% of untreated cases.
[18]
In some communities, however, case-
fatality rates may reach as high as 47%.
[citation needed]

Surgery[edit]
Surgery is usually indicated in cases of intestinal perforation. Most surgeons prefer
simple closure of the perforation with drainage of the peritoneum. Small-bowel
resection is indicated for patients with multiple perforations.


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Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful
products, or "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or
derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use" (UN
Convention on Biological Diversity, Art. 2).
[1]
Depending on the tools and applications, it often
overlaps with the (related) fields of bioengineering andbiomedical engineering.
For thousands of years, humankind has used biotechnology in agriculture, food production,
and medicine.
[2]
The term itself is largely believed to have been coined in 1919 by
Hungarian engineer Kroly Ereky. In the late 20th and early 21st century, biotechnology has
expanded to include new and diverse sciences such as genomics, recombinant
gene technologies, applied immunology, and development ofpharmaceutical therapies
and diagnostic tests.
[2]

The wide concept of "biotech" or "biotechnology" encompasses a wide range of procedures
for modifying living organisms according to human purposes, going back to domesticationof
animals, cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that
employ artificial selection and hybridization. Modern usage also includes genetic
engineering as well as cell and tissue culture technologies. The American Chemical
Society defines biotechnology as the application of biological organisms, systems, or
processes by various industries to learning about the science of life and the improvement of
the value of materials and organisms such as pharmaceuticals, crops, and
livestock.
[3]
Biotechnology also writes on the pure biological sciences (animal cell
culture, biochemistry, cell biology, embryology, genetics, microbiology, and molecular
biology). In many instances, it is also dependent on knowledge and methods from outside
the sphere of biology including:
bioinformatics, a new brand of computer science
bioprocess engineering
biorobotics
chemical engineering
Conversely, modern biological sciences (including even concepts such as molecular
ecology) are intimately entwined and heavily dependent on the methods developed through
biotechnology and what is commonly thought of as the life sciences industry. Biotechnology
is the research and development in the laboratory using bioinformatics for exploration,
extraction, exploitation and production from any living organisms and any source
of biomass by means of biochemical engineering where high value-added products could be
planned (reproduced by biosynthesis, for example), forecasted, formulated, developed,
manufactured and marketed for the purpose of sustainable operations (for the return from
bottomless initial investment on R & D) and gaining durable patents rights (for exclusives
rights for sales, and prior to this to receive national and international approval from the
Origins of biotechnology[edit]
Biotechnology arose from the field of zymotechnology, which began as a search for a better
understanding of industrial fermentation, particularly beer. Beer was an important industrial,
and not just social, commodity. In late 19th century Germany, brewing contributed as much
to the gross national product as steel, and taxes on alcohol proved to be significant sources
of revenue to the government.
[2]
In the 1860s, institutes and remunerative consultancies
were dedicated to the technology of brewing. The most famous was the private Carlsberg
Institute, founded in 1875, which employed Emil Christian Hansen, who pioneered the pure
yeast process for the reliable production of consistent beer. Less well known were private
consultancies that advised the brewing industry. One of these, the Zymotechnic Institute,
was established in Chicago by the German-born chemist John Ewald Siebel.
The heyday and expansion of zymotechnology came in World War I in response to industrial
needs to support the war. Max Delbrck grew yeast on an immense scale during the war to
meet 60 percent of Germany's animal feed needs.
[3]
Compounds of another fermentation
product, lactic acid, made up for a lack of hydraulic fluid, glycerol. On the Allied side the
Russian chemist Chaim Weizmann used starch to eliminate Britain's shortage of acetone, a
key raw material in explosives, by fermenting maize to acetone. The industrial potential
offermentation was outgrowing its traditional home in brewing, and "zymotechnology" soon
gave way to "biotechnology."
With food shortages spreading and resources fading, some dreamed of a new industrial
solution. The Hungarian Kroly Ereky coined the word "biotechnology" in Hungary during
1919 to describe a technology based on converting raw materials into a more useful product.
He built a slaughterhouse for a thousand pigs and also a fattening farm with space for
50,000 pigs, raising over 100,000 pigs a year. The enterprise was enormous, becoming one
of the largest and most profitable meat and fat operations in the world. In a book
entitledBiotechnologie, Ereky further developed a theme that would be reiterated through the
20th century: biotechnology could provide solutions to societal crises, such as food and
energy shortages. For Ereky, the term "biotechnologie" indicated the process by which raw
materials could be biologically upgraded into socially useful products.
[4]

This catchword spread quickly after the First World War, as "biotechnology" entered German
dictionaries and was taken up abroad by business-hungry private consultancies as far away
as the United States. In Chicago, for example, the coming of prohibition at the end of World
War I encouraged biological industries to create opportunities for new fermentation products,
in particular a market for nonalcoholic drinks. Emil Siebel, the son of the founder of the
Zymotechnic Institute, broke away from his father's company to establish his own called the
"Bureau of Biotechnology," which specifically offered expertise in fermented nonalcoholic
drinks.
[5]
USES
Industrial Biotechnology
Industrial biotechnology applies the techniques of modern molecular biology to
improve the efficiency and reduce the environmental impacts of industrial
processes like textile, paper and pulp, and chemical manufacturing. For example,
industrial biotechnology companies develop biocatalysts, such as enzymes, to
synthesize chemicals. Enzymes are proteins produced by all organisms. Using
biotechnology, the desired enzyme can be manufactured in commercial quantities.
Commodity chemicals (e.g., polymer-grade acrylamide) and specialty chemicals
can be produced using biotech applications. Traditional chemical synthesis
involves large amounts of energy and often-undesirable products, such as HCl.
Using biocatalysts, the same chemicals can be produced more economically and
more environmentally friendly. An example would be the substitution of protease
in detergents for other cleaning compounds. Detergent proteases, which remove
protein impurities, are essential components of modern detergents. They are used
to break down protein, starch, and fatty acids present on items being washed.
Protease production results in a biomass that in turn yields a useful byproduct- an
organic fertilizer. Biotechnology is also used in the textile industry for the finishing
of fabrics and garments. Biotechnology also produces biotech-derived cotton that
is warmer, stronger, has improved dye uptake and retention, enhanced absorbency,
and wrinkle- and shrink-resistance.
Some agricultural crops, such as corn, can be used in place of petroleum to produce
chemicals. The crops sugar can be fermented to acid, which can be then used as an
intermediate to produce other chemical feedstocks for various products. It has been
projected that 30% of the worlds chemical and fuel needs could be supplied by
such renewable resources in the first half of the next century. It has been
demonstrated, at test scale, that biopulping reduces the electrical energy required
for wood pulping process by 30% (11).

Environmental Biotechnology
Environmental biotechnology is the used in waste treatment and pollution
prevention. Environmental biotechnology can more efficiently clean up many
wastes than conventional methods and greatly reduce our dependence on methods
for land-based disposal.
Every organism ingests nutrients to live and produces by-products as a result.
Different organisms need different types of nutrients. Some bacteria thrive on the
chemical components of waste products. Environmental engineers use
Conclusion
The applications of biotechnology are so broad, and the advantages so compelling,
that virtually every industry is using this technology. Developments are underway
in areas as diverse as pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, textiles, aquaculture, forestry,
chemicals, household products, environmental cleanup, food processing and
forensics to name a few. Biotechnology is enabling these industries to make new or
better products, often with greater speed, efficiency and flexibility (1).
Biotechnology holds significant promise to the future but certain amount of risk is
associated with any area. Biotechnology must continue to be carefully regulated so
that the maximum benefits are received with the least risk.
Biotechnology is at a crossroads in terms of public acceptance. Many Americans
have not yet formed a solid opinion on this complex issue. International
developments over the next few years will certainly have a major influence on the
long-term viability of biotechnology. The future of the world food supply depends
upon how well scientists, government, and the food industry are able to
communicate with consumers about the benefits and safety of the technology.
Several major initiatives are under way to strengthen the regulatory process and to
communicate more effectively with consumers. Both the USDA and FDA have
opened their regulatory systems to outside review and public comment. The
biotechnology industry, university scientists and others are also conducting
educational programs (27). These should further strengthen consumer confidence.
This partnership among the public and private sectors will support these emerging
technologies that will prove vital to the U.S. economy and the developing world in
the new millennium. Even Europe will soon find the real benefits of
biotechnology compelling.










The 2014 FIFA World Cup was the 20th FIFA World Cup, the tournament for
the association football world championship, which took place at several venues across
Brazil. Germany won the tournament and took its fourth title by defeating Argentina 10 in
the final.
It began on 12 June with a group stage and concluded on 13 July with the championship
match.
[5]
It was the second time that Brazil has hosted the competition, the first being
in 1950. Brazil was elected unchallenged as host nation in 2007 after the international
football federation, FIFA, decreed that the tournament would be staged in South America for
the first time since 1978 in Argentina, and the fifth time overall.
The national teams of 31 countries advanced through qualification competitions that began
in June 2011 to participate with the host nation Brazil in the final tournament. A total of 64
matches were played in 12 cities across Brazil in either new or redeveloped stadiums. For
the first time at a World Cup finals, match officials used goal-line technology, as well
as vanishing foam for free kicks.
[6]

All world champion teams since the first World Cup in 1930
Argentina, Brazil, England, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Uruguay qualified for this
competition. The title holders, Spain, were eliminated at the group stage, along with previous
winners England and Italy. Uruguay was eliminated in the Round of 16 and France was
eliminated at the quarter-finals. Host and 2013 Confederations Cup winner Brazil lost to
Germany in the first semi-final. By winning the final, Germany became the first European
team to win a World Cup in the Americas.
[7]
This result marked the first time that sides from
the same continent had won three successive World Cups (following Italy in 2006 and Spain
in 2010).
[8][9]

Host selection
In March 2003, FIFA announced that the tournament would be held in South America for the
first time since 1978, in line with its then-active policy of rotating the right to host the World
Cup among different confederations.
[11][12]
The decision meant that it would be the first time
that two consecutive World Cups were staged outside Europe and the first time two
consecutive World Cups were held in the Southern Hemisphere (the 2010 FIFA World
Cup was held in South Africa).
[13]
Only Brazil and Colombia formally declared their candidacy
but, after the withdrawal of the latter from the process,
[14]
Brazil was officially elected as host
nation unopposed on 30 October 2007.
[15]

Participating teams and officials
Qualification
Main article: 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification
See also: FIFA World Cup qualification
Following qualification matches between June 2011 and November 2013, the following 32
teams shown with their final pre-tournament FIFA World Rankings
[16]
qualified for the
final tournament. 24 out of the 32 teams to qualify were returning participants from the 2010
World Cup. Bosnia and Herzegovina was the only team with no previous World Cup Finals
experience.
[nb 2][17]
Colombia qualified for the World Cup after 16 years of
absence; Russia and Belgium returned after 12 years. The highest-ranking team to not
qualify wasUkraine (ranked 16th).
[16]

Final draw
Main article: 2014 FIFA World Cup seeding
The 32 participating teams were drawn into eight groups. In preparation for this, the teams
were organised into four pots with the seven highest-ranked teams joining host
nationBrazil in the seeded pot.
[18]
As with the previous tournaments, FIFA aimed to create
groups which maximised geographic separation and therefore the unseeded teams were
arranged into pots based on geographic considerations.
[19][20]
The draw took place on 6
December 2013 at the Costa do Saupe resort in Bahia, during which the teams were drawn
by various past World Cup-winning players.
[21][22]
Under the draw procedure, one randomly
drawn team Italy was firstly relocated from Pot 4 to Pot 2 to create four equal pots of
eight teams.
[19]

Officials
Main article: 2014 FIFA World Cup officials
In March 2013, FIFA published a list of 52 prospective referees, each paired, on the basis of
nationality, with two assistant referees, from all six football confederations for the
tournament. On 14 January 2014, the FIFA Referees Committee appointed 25 referee trios
and eight support duos representing 43 different countries for the tournament.
[23][24]
Yuichi
Nishimura from Japan acted as referee in the opening match whereas Nicola
Rizzoli from Italy acted as referee in the final.
[25][26]

Squads
Main article: 2014 FIFA World Cup squads
As with the 2010 tournament, each team's squad consists of 23 players (three of whom must
be goalkeepers). Each participating national association had to confirm their final 23-player
squad no later than 10 days before the start of the tournament.
[27]
Teams were permitted to
make late replacements in the event of serious injury, at any time up to 24 hours before their
first game.
[27]
During a match, all remaining squad members not named in the starting team
are available to be one of the three permitted substitutions (provided the player is not serving
a suspension).
[27]