1

An Icelandic Primer
With Grammar, Notes, and Glossary
By Henry Sweet, M.A.
New edition by Alaric Hall.
200.
Based by Alaric !"#ite illicitly$ on ima%e &iles scanned in by Sean 'rist ()#ris#to*#na%i.cis.#+enn.ed#,
htt+-..www.lin%.#+enn.ed#./)#ris#to.%ermanic.oi0sweet0abo#t.html, 1'2ed and re&ormatted &or Pro3ect G#tenber% by
Ben 'rowder (crowderb*blan)slate.net, htt+-..www.blan)slate.net.lan%.ete4ts.+h+.
2
Preface to Alarics edition (2007)
5his %rammar is basically Sweet6s, b#t with some twea)in% to ma)e his +resentation a bit less
idiosyncratic !s+eci&ically, Alaric has #sed &or , and e &or , ren#mbered the 7erb classes, and
reordered the s#bstanti7e +aradi%ms as NAG8 rather than NA8G$. 5he best 9n%lish %rammar o&
1ld Icelandic today is Michael Barnes, A New Introduction to Old Norse: Part I, Grammar, 2
nd
edn
!:ondon- ;i)in% Society &or Northern 2esearch, 200<$, b#t it contains a lot more detail than many
startin% st#dents need.
There are almost certainly some mistakes and inconsistencies in this versionplease let
Alaric know if you spot any
Preface to !weets edition ("##$)
5he want o& a short and easy introd#ction to the st#dy o& Icelandic has been &elt &or a lon% time=in
&act, &rom the 7ery be%innin% o& that st#dy in 9n%land. 5he Icelandic Reader, edited by Messrs.
;i%&#sson and Powell, in the 'larendon Press Series, is a most 7al#able boo), which o#%ht to be in
the hands o& e7ery st#dent> b#t it still lea7es room &or an elementary +rimer. As the en%a%ements o&
the editors o& the 2eader wo#ld ha7e made it im+ossible &or them to #nderta)e s#ch a wor) &or
some years to come, they raised no ob3ections to my +ro+osal to #nderta)e it mysel&. Meanwhile, I
&o#nd the tas) was a more &ormidable one than I had antici+ated, and accordin%ly, be&ore de&initely
committin% mysel& to it, I made one &inal attem+t to ind#ce Messrs. ;i%&#sson and Powell to ta)e it
o&& my hands> b#t they 7ery )indly enco#ra%ed me to +roceed with it> and as I mysel& tho#%ht that
an Icelandic +rimer, on the lines o& my An%lo?Sa4on one, mi%ht +erha+s be the means o& ind#cin%
some st#dents o& 1ld 9n%lish to ta)e #+ Icelandic as well, I determined to %o on.
In the s+ellin% I ha7e not tho#%ht it necessary to adhere strictly to that ado+ted in the 2eader, &or the
editors ha7e themsel7es de7iated &rom it in their Corpus Poeticum Boreale, in the way o& se+aratin%
&rom , etc. My own +rinci+le has been to de7iate as little as +ossible &rom the traditional s+ellin%
&ollowed in normali@ed te4ts. 5here is, indeed, no +ractical %ain &or the be%inner in writin% t!me &or
t!mi, discardin% ", etc., altho#%h these chan%es certainly brin% #s nearer the oldest MSS., and cannot
be dis+ensed with in scienti&ic wor)s. 5he essential thin% &or the be%inner is to ha7e re#ular &orms
+resented to him, to the e4cl#sion, as &ar as +ossible, o& isolated archaisms, and to ha7e the
de&ecti7e distinctions o& the MSS. s#++lemented by diacritics. I ha7e not hesitated to s#bstit#te !A$
&or !B$ as the mar) o& len%th> the latter o#%ht in my o+inion to be #sed e4cl#si7ely=in Icelandic as
well as in 1ld 9n%lish and 1ld Irish=to re+resent the act#al accents o& the MSS.
In the %rammar I ha7e to ac)nowled%e my %reat obli%ations to NoreenCs Altisl$ndisc%e Grammati&,
which is by &ar the best Icelandic %rammar that has yet a++eared=at least &rom that narrow +oint o&
7iew which i%nores synta4, and concentrates itsel& on +honolo%y and in&lections.
5he te4ts are intended to be as easy, interestin%, and re+resentati7e as +ossible. With s#ch a
lan%#a%e, and s#ch a master o& it as Snorri to choose &rom, this combination is not di&&ic#lt to
realise. 5he be%inner is indeed to be en7ied who ma)es his &irst ac"#aintance with the s+lendid
mytholo%ical tales o& the North, told in an absol#tely +er&ect style. As the death o& 1la& 5ry%%7ason
is %i7en in the 2eader only &rom the lon%er recension o& the Heims)rin%la, I ha7e been able to %i7e
the shorter te4t, which is admirably s#ited &or the +#r+oses o& this boo). 5he story o& A#D#n is not
only a bea#ti&#l one in itsel&, b#t, to%ether with the +recedin% +iece, %i7es a 7i7id idea o& the Norse
ideal o& the )in%ly character, which was the &o#ndation o& their whole +olitical system. As the
3
2eader does not incl#de +oetry !e4ce+t incidentally$, I ha7e added one o& the &inest o& the 9ddaic
+oems, which is at the same time &reest &rom obsc#rity and corr#+tion=the son% o& 5horCs "#est o&
his hammer.
In the %lossary I ha7e 7ent#red to de7iate &rom the 7ery incon7enient Scandina7ian arran%ement,
which +#ts ', (, ), ri%ht at the end o& the al+habet.
I ha7e to ac)nowled%e the %reat hel+ I ha7e had in +re+arin% the te4ts and the %lossary &rom
WimmerCs Oldnordis& *(se+o#, which I consider to be, on the whole, the best readin%?boo) that
e4ists in any lan%#a%e. So e4cellent is WimmerCs selection o& te4ts, that it was im+ossible &or me to
do otherwise than &ollow him in nearly e7ery case.
In concl#sion, it is almost s#+er&l#o#s to say that this boo) ma)es no +retension to ori%inality o&
any )ind. I& it contrib#tes towards restorin% to 9n%lishmen that +recio#s herita%e=the old lan%#a%e
and literat#re o& Iceland=which o#r miserably narrow scheme o& ed#cation has hitherto de&ra#ded
them o&, it will ha7e &#l&illed its +#r+ose.
H9N2E SW995
:ondon,
Febr#ary, GHHI
4
%rammar
G. 5his boo) deals with 1ld Icelandic in its classical +eriod, between G200 and GJK0.
Pronunciation and sound&chan'es
2?2G- 2ather than Sweet6s %#ide, chec) o#t htt+-..www.yo#t#be.com.watchL7MN)o@0onBrE. 5his
%i7es yo# modern Icelandic +ron#nciation, which is what +retty m#ch e7eryone in the 9n%lish?
s+ea)in% world #ses when +rono#ncin% 1ld Icelandic. 5he +ron#nciation o& the 7owels has act#ally
chan%ed "#ite a lot since the 1ld Icelandic +eriod, which is rele7ant to how +oetic metre wor)s> b#t
on the other hand, there ha7e been 7ery &ew +honemic shi&ts o7er the years, and learnin% 1ld
Icelandic with the +ron#nciation o& a li7in% lan%#a%e ma)es it easier to %ain a sense o& &l#ency. 5he
1ld Icelandic letter ) is +rono#nced the same as ( !i.e. li)e the i in ,i#%t$ and the 1ld Icelandic
letters - and are +rono#nced the same as the modern Icelandic letter !i.e. more or less li)e the ur
in %urt in the 9n%lish &o#nd in most +arts o& 9n%land$. For &#rther +ron#nciation &#n, try
htt+-..www.yo#t#be.com.watchL7MhNMGyGaO<IH.
(utation
22. 5he &ollowin% chan%es are i?m#tations !ca#sed by an older i or . &ollowin%, which has %enerally
been dro++ed$-
G

a !)$ ... e -= mann !man acc/$, menn !men$> %nd !hand$, %endr !hands$.
* ... + -= m0l !s+eech$, m(la !s+ea)$.
e !,a, ,)$ ... i -= 1er"r !worth$, 1ir"a !estimate$.
u !o$ ... y -= ,ullr !&#ll$, ,2lla !to &ill$> lopt !air$, l2pta !li&t$.
- ... . -= +r3n !eyebrow$, +l. +r4nn.
o ... / -= &oma !to come$, &mr !comes$.
0 ... 1 -= ,5r !went$, ,)ra !brin%$.
au ... ey -= lauss !loose$, le2sa !loosen$.
,- !,0$ ... . -= s.3&r !sic)$, s4&i !sic)ness$> l.5sta !stri)e$, l4str !stri)es$.
2J. 5he chan%e o& a into e is sometimes the res#lt o& a &ollowin% &, #, or n#, as in de#i dat. s%. o&
da#r !day$, te&inn !ta)en$, #en#inn !%one$, in&. ta&a, #an#a. i a++ears instead o& e, and u instead o&
o be&ore a nasal &ollowed by another cons.- c+. +inda !to bind$, +undinn !bo#nd$ with +resta !b#rst$
+tc. +rt. +rostinn.
2<. 5here is also a u?m#tation, ca#sed by a &ollowin% u, which has o&ten been dro++ed-
a ... ) -= da#r !day$ dat. +l. d#um> land !land$ +l. lnd.
1 Many of the i's which appear in derivative and inflectional syllables are late weakenings of a
and other vowels, as in bani (death) = Old English bana; these do not cause utation!
5
2K. Pnaccented becomes u, as in sumur +l. o& sumar !s#mmer$, &llu"u !they called$, in&in. &alla.
2racture
2I. 5he only 7owel that is a&&ected by &ract#re is e- when &ollowed by ori%inal a it becomes .a,
when &ollowed by ori%inal u it becomes ., as in .ar"ar %en. o& .r" !earth$.
2
When &ollowed by
ori%inal i, the e is, o& co#rse, m#tated to i, as in s&ildir +l#r. nom. o& s&.ldr !shield$, %en. s&.aldar.
%radation
2. By %radation the 7owels are related as &ollows-=
a ... 0 -= ,ara !%o$ +ret. ,5r, whence by m#t. ,)ra !brin%$.
e !i, 3a$ ... a ... u !o$ -= +resta !b#rst$, +rt. +rast, +rt. +l. +rustu, +tc. +rt. +rostinn> ,inna !&ind$,
,undinn !&o#nd ptc/$, ,undr !meetin%$.
e ... a ... * ... o -= stela !steal$, +rt. stal, +rt. +l. st0lu, +tc. +rt. stolinn.
e ... a ... * ... e -= #e,a !%i7e$, #a, !he %a7e$, #0,u !they %a7e$, #e,inn !%i7en$, #., !%i&t$, u?&ract#re
o& #e,6, #(,a !l#c)$ m#t. o& #0,6.
3 ... ei ... i -= s&!na !shine$, s&ein !he shone$, s&inu !they shone$. s5l6s&in !s#nshine$.
,- !3Q$ ... au ... u ... o -= l.3#a !tell a lie$, +rt. lau#, +rt. +l. lu#u, +tc. +rt. lo#inn. l2#i !lie s+st/$ m#t.
o& lu#6. s&.5ta !shoot$, s&.5tr !swi&t$, s&otinn !shot ptc/$, s&ot !shot su+st/$.
4ther chan'es
2H. All &inal 7owels are lon% in accented syllables- '0 !then$, n3 !now$.
2R. In&lectional and deri7ati7e 7owels are o&ten dro+t a&ter lon% accented 7owels- c+. #an#a !to %o$
with ,0 !to %et$, the dat. +l#rals &n.0m !)nees$ with %3sum !ho#ses$.
J0. ;owels are o&ten len%thened be&ore l S cons.- %0l,r !hal& ad./$, ,5l& !+eo+le$> c+. ,5l#inn
!hidden$ with +rostinn !b#rst ptc/$.
5onsonants
JG. 1 is dro++ed be&ore o and u- 1a7a !to %row$, +rt. 57, 1inna !to win$, unninn !won ptc/$, s1elta !to
star7e$, soltinn !star7ed, h#n%ry$.
Final r is o&ten assimilated to a +recedin% cons.
J2. 86lr, 86nr, 86sr always become 6ll, 6nn, 6ss a&ter a lon% 7owel or di+hthon%, as in st5ll !chair
nom/$, acc. st5l, steinn !stone nom/$, acc. stein, 1!ss !wise masc/ nom/ s#/$, 1!s &em. nom. s%., and in
#nacc. syllables, as in the masc. s%. nominati7es mi&ill !%reat$, &em. mi&il, +orinn !carried$, &em.
+orin, 4miss !7ario#s$ &em. 4mis.
JJ. Words in which l, n, r, s are +receded by a cons. dro+ the r entirely, as in the masc. nominati7es
.arl !earl$, %ra,n !ra7en$, 1itr !wise$, 'urs !%iant$, la7 !salmon$.
2 "p! #eran Erde!
6
J<. I& l and n are +receded by a short accented 7owel, the r is %enerally )e+t, as in stelr !steals$,
1inr, !&riend$, sr becomin% ss, as elsewhere.
JK. r is )e+t a&ter ll, and %enerally a&ter nn, as in the masc. nom. allr !all$, and in +rennr !b#rns$.
JI. 9 o&ten stands &or "s as well as ts, as in ':r '2&&i9& !ye seem$ M 8'2&&i"6s&, ;est6,ir9&r
!belon%in% to the West Firths$ M 68,ir"s&r !,r"r, &irth$.
J. In&lectional t is %enerally do#bled a&ter a lon% accented 7owel- ,0r !&ew$ ne#t. ,0tt !c+. allr Call,C
ne#t. allt$, s0 !I saw$, s0tt Ctho# sawest.C
7
6nflections7 nouns
JH. %ender 5here are three %enders in Icelandic=masc#line, &eminine, and ne#ter. 5he %ender is
+artly nat#ral, +artly %rammatical, %enerally a%reein% with the %ender in 1ld 9n%lish. 'om+o#nd
words &ollow the %ender o& their last element.
JR. !tron' and 8eak All wea) no#ns end in a 7owel in the nom. s%. and in most o& the other
cases as well. Most stron% no#ns end in a cons. in the nom. s%.
<0. 5ases 5here are &o#r cases=nominati7e, acc#sati7e, dati7e, %eniti7e. All no#ns !e4ce+t a &ew
contractions$ ha7e the %en. +l. in 6a !,is&a, o& &ishes$, and the dat. +l. in 6um !,is&um$. All stron%
masc#lines !,is&r$ and some stron% &eminines !+r3"r, bride$ ta)e r
J
in the nom. s%. Most stron%
&eminines show the bare root in the nom. s%. with u?m#tation, i& +ossible !0st, &a7o#r, ,r, 3o#rney$.
5he nom. +l. o& all stron% masc. and &em. no#ns ends in r !,is&ar, 0stir$. 5he acc. +l. o& &em. no#ns
is the same as the nom. +l. !0stir$. 5he acc. +l. o& masc. stron% no#ns always ends in a 7owel !,is&a$.
5he +l#r. nom. and acc. o& ne#ters is the same as the sin%. nom. and acc., e4ce+t that in the +l#r.
nom. and acc. they ta)e u?m#tation, i& +ossible !%3s, ho#ses, lnd, lands$.
<G. 5he declensions are most con7eniently distin%#ished by the acc. +l#r.
!tron' (asculines
!G$ a?+l#rals
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ &is)?r !,is%$ &is)?ar
Acc/ &is) &is)?a
Gen/ &is)?s &is)?a
<at/ &is)?i &is)?#m
<2. So also %eimr !home, world$> &onun#r !)in%$> =5rr !5hor$, acc. =5r, %en. =5rs> steinn !stone$,
acc. stein, %en. steins, +l. nom. steinar> %ra,n !ra7en$, acc. %ra,n, +l. nom. %ra,nar> 'urs !%iant$, acc.
%en. 'urs, +l. nom. 'ursar.
<J. 8issyllables in 6r, 6l, 6n %enerally throw o#t the +recedin% 7owel be&ore a 7owel?in&lection-
%amarr !hammer$, dat. %amri> .tunn !%iant$, +l. nom. .tnar. &etill !)ettle$ and l2&ill !)ey$ show
#nm#tated 7owels in the contracted &orms, as in the acc. +l#r. &atla, lu&la.
<<. Some no#ns o& this decl. ta)e 6ar in the %en. sin%., es+ecially +ro+er names, s#ch as >0&on, %en.
>0&onar.
<K. Some no#ns add 1 be&ore 7owels- s(r !sea$, %en. s(1ar.
<I. 5he dat. sometimes dro+s the i- s( !sea$, =5r. da#r !day$ m#tates its 7owel in the dat. de#i.
<. No#ns in 6ir )ee+ the i in the sin%., and dro+ it in the +l#r.-
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ helli?r !ca1e$ hell?ar
3 $ub%ect, of course, to the assiilations described above!
8
Acc/ helli hell?a
Gen/ helli?s hell?a
<at/ helli hell?#m
<H. So also a n#mber o& +ro+er names, s#ch as ?&r4mir, =5rir.
!2$ i?+l#rals
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ staD?r !place$ staD?ir
Acc/ staD staD?i
Gen/ staD?ar staD?a
<at/ staD stTD?#m
<R. So also #ripr !+recio#s thin%$, salr !hall$.
K0. #estr !%#est$ ta)es 6i in the dat. s%., and 6s in the %en. s%.
KG. 5hose endin% in # or & !to%ether with some others$ insert . be&ore a and u- +e&&r !bench$, +e&&,
+e&&, +e&&.ar> +e&&ir, +e&&i, +e&&.um, +e&&.a. So also mer#r !marrow$, stren#r !strin%$.
!J$ u?+l#rals
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ s)3Tld?r !s%ield$ s)ild?ir
Acc/ s)3Tld s)3Tld?#
Gen/ s)3ald?ar s)3ald?a
<at/ s)ild?i s)3Tld?#m
K2. So also 1ndr !twi%$, 1llr !+lain$, 1i"r !wood$. 0ss !%od$ has +l#r. nom. (sir, acc. 0su. sonr
!son$ has dat. s%. s2ni, +l#r. nom. s2nir. It re%#larly dro+s its r o& the nom. in s#ch com+o#nds as
@r2##1a6son !son o& 5ry%%7i$.
!<$ r?+l#rals
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ &Qt?r !,oot$ &Ut?r
Acc/ &Qt &Ut?r
Gen/ &Qt?ar &Qt?a
<at/ &Ut?i &Qt?#m
KJ. So also ,in#r !&in%er$, %en. ,in#rar, +l. ,in#r> 1etr !winter$, +l. 1etr. ma"r !man$ is irre%#lar-
ma"r, mann, manni, manns> menn, menn, mnnum, manna.
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ &aDir !,at%er$ &eDr
Acc/ &TD#r &eDr
Gen/ &TD#r &eDra
<at/ &TD#r &eDr#m
K<. So also +r5"ir !brother$, +l. +r)"r.
KK. Pres. +artici+les #sed as no#ns &ollow this decl. in the +l., &ollowin% the wea) class in the s%.-
9
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ bQndi !2eoman$ bUndr
Acc/ bQnda bUndr
Gen/ bQnda bQnda
<at/ bQnda bQnd#m
KI. So also ,r)ndi !)insman$, +l. ,r)ndr.
!tron' 9euters
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ s)i+ !s%ip$ s)i+
Acc/ s)i+ s)i+
Gen/ s)i+?s s)i+?a
<at/ s)i+?i s)i+?#m
K. So also or" !word$, land !land$ +l. lnd, sumar !s#mmer$ +l. sumur !V 2K$.
KH. men !nec)lace$, &2n !race$, #re2 !do%$ insert . be&ore a and u- #re2.um. %## !stro)e$ inserts 1
be&ore a 7owel- %##1i. &n: !)nee$, &n:, &n:, &n:s> &n:, &n:, &.0m, &n.0. So also tr: !tree$.
KR. ,: !money$ is contracted- %en. ,.0r, dat. ,:.
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ )7WDi !poem$ )7WDi
Acc/ )7WDi )7WDi
Gen/ )7WDi?s )7WDa
<at/ )7WDi )7WD#m
I0. So also &l("i !cloth$. 5hose in & insert . be&ore a and u- mer&i !mar)$, mer&.um, mer&.a. So also
r!&i !so7erei%nty$.
!tron' 2eminines
!G$ ar?+l#rals
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ %3T& !#i,t$ %3a&?ar
Acc/ %3T& %3a&?ar
Gen/ %3a&?ar %3a&?a
<at/ %3T& %3T&?#m
IG. So also mn !mane$, #.r" !%irdle$, 0r !oar$.
I2. 0 !ri7er$ contracts- 0, 0, 0, 0r> 0r, 0r, 0m, 0.
IJ. Many ta)e 6u in the dat. s%.- &erlin# !old woman$, &erlin#, &erlin#u, &erlin#ar> &erlin#ar,
&erlin#ar, &erlin#um, &erlin#a. So also lau# !bath$.
10
I<. 5hose with a m#tated root?7owel !or i$ insert . in in&lection- e2 !island$, e2, e2.u, e2.ar> e2.ar,
e2.ar, e2.um, e2.a. So also Ari##, >el. m(r !maid$, me2, me2.u, me2.ar> me2.ar, me2.ar, me2.um,
me2.a.
IK.
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ heiD?r !%eat%$ heiD?ar
Acc/ heiD?i heiD?ar
Gen/ heiD?ar heiD?a
<at/ heiD?i heiD?#m
!2$ ir?+l#rals
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ tXD tXD?ir
Acc/ tXD tXD?ir
Gen/ tXD?ar tXD?a
<at/ tXD tXD?#m
II. So also sor# !sorrow$, s&ipun !arran%ement$, %,n !harbo#r$ +l. %a,nir, and the ma3ority o&
stron% &eminines.
I. Many ha7e 6u in the dat. s%.- s5l !s#n$, s5l, s5lu, s5lar> s5lir, s5lir, s5lum, s5la. So also .r"
!earth$, stund !+eriod o& time$.
IH. 1ne no#n has r in the nom. s%., &ollowin% %ei"r in the s%.- +r3"r !bride$, +r3"i, +r3"i, +r3"ar>
+r3"ir, +r3"ir, +r3"um, +r3"a.
!J$ r?+l#rals
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ bQ) !+oo&$ bU)?r
Acc/ bQ) bU)?r
Gen/ bQ)?ar bQ)?a
<at/ bQ) bQ)?#m
IR. So also n0tt !ni%ht$ +l. n(tr, +5t !com+ensation$ +l. +)tr, tnn !tooth$ %en. tannar +l. tennr.
0. %nd !hand$ +l. %endr has dat. s%. %endi.
G. &4r !cow$ has acc. &3, +l. &4r.
2. +r3n !eyebrow$ assimilates the r o& the +l.- +r4nn.
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ mQDir !mot%er$ mUDr
Acc/ mQD#r mUDr
Gen/ mQD#r mUDra
<at/ mQD#r mUDr#m
J. So also d5ttir !da#%hter$ +l. d)tr> s2stir !sister$ +l. s2str.
11
8eak (asculines
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ bo%?i !+ow$ bo%?ar
Acc/ bo%?a bo%?a
Gen/ bo%?a bo%?a
<at/ bo%?a bo%?#m
<. So also m0ni !moon$, ,:la#i !com+anion$.
K. %,"in#i !chie&$ and some others insert . in in&lection- %,"in#.a, %,"in#.ar, %,"in#.um.
I. l: !scythe$ is contracted> its %en. s%. is l.0.
. o7i !o4$ has +l. 7n.
H. %erra !lord$ is indeclinable in the s%.
8eak 9euters
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ h3art?a !%eart$ h3Trt?#
Acc/ h3art?a h3Trt?#
Gen/ h3art?a h3art?na
<at/ h3art?a h3Trt?#m
R. So also au#a !eye$.
8eak 2eminines
!in'ular Plural
Nom/ t#n%?a !ton#ue$ t#n%?#r
Acc/ t#n%?# t#n%?#r
Gen/ t#n%?# t#n%?na
<at/ t#n%?# t#n%?#m
H0. So also st.arna !star$ +l. st.rnur, &ir&.a !ch#rch$, %en. +l#rals st.arna, &ir&na.
?#/ Nom/ elli !old a#e$
Acc/ elli
Gen/ elli
12
<at/ elli
HG. So also #le"i !3oy$ and many abstract no#ns.
H2. l2#i !&alsehood$ has +l. l2#ar> so also #Brsimi !+recio#s thin%$.
6nfle:ions7 ad,ectives
HJ. Ad3ecti7es ha7e three %enders, and the same cases as no#ns, tho#%h with +artly di&&erent
endin%s, to%ether with stron% and wea) &orms.
!tron' Ad,ectives
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ #n%?r !2oun#$ #n%?t #n%
Acc/ #n%?an #n%?t #n%?a
Gen/ #n%?s #n%?s #n%?rar
<at/ #n%?#m #n%?# #n%?ri
Pl/ Nom/ #n%?ir #n% #n%?ar
Acc/ #n%?a #n% #n%?ar
Gen/ #n%?ra #n%?ra #n%?ra
<at/ #n%?#m #n%?#m #n%?#m
H<. So also ,a#r !&air$, &em. ,#r, ne#t. ,a#rt.
HK. Some insert . be&ore a and u- n4r !new$, n4.um, n4.an.
HI. Some insert 1 be&ore a 7owel- %0r !hi%h$, %01an, d&&r !dar)$, d&&1ir, &2&r !ali7e$, &2&1ir.
H. 5he t o& the ne#t. is do#bled a&ter a lon% 7owel- n4tt, %0tt. Monosyllables in ", dd, tt &orm their
ne#t. in 6tt- +rei"r !broad$, +reitt> leiddr !led$, leitt. #5"r !%ood$ has ne#t. #ott. sannr !tr#e$ has ne#t.
satt. In #naccented syllables or i& a cons. +recedes, tt is shortened to t- &alla"r !called$, &allat>
+lindr !blind$, +lint, %ar"r !hard$, %art, ,astr !&irm$, ,ast.
HH. l and n assimilate a &ollowin% r- #amall !old$, &em. #mul, &em. acc. #amla, dat. #amalli. 1Cnn
!bea#ti&#l$, %en. +l. 1(nna.
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ mi)ill !#reat$ mi)it mi)il
Acc/ mi)inn mi)it mi)la
Gen/ mi)ils mi)ils mi)illar
<at/ mi)l#m mi)l# mi)illi
13
Pl/ Nom/ mi)lir mi)il mi)lar
Acc/ mi)la mi)il mi)lar
Gen/ mi)illa mi)illa mi)illa
<at/ mi)l#m mi)l#m mi)l#m
HR. So also l!till !little$.
R0. 8issyllables in 6inn ha7e 6it in the ne#t., and 6inn in the masc. s%. acc.- t!#inn !distin%#ished$,
t!#it, t!#inn, +l. t!#n!r. So also &ominn !come$.
RG.
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ annarr !ot%er$ annat Tnn#r
Acc/ annan annat aDra
Gen/ annars annars annarrar
<at/ TDr#m TDr# annarri
Pl/ Nom/ aDrir Tnn#r aDrar
Acc/ aDra Tnn#r aDrar
Gen/ annarra annarra annarra
<at/ TDr#m TDr#m TDr#m
8eak Ad,ectives
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ #n%?i #n%?a #n%?a
Acc/ #n%?a #n%?a #n%?#
Gen/ #n%?a #n%?a #n%?#
<at/ #n%?a #n%?a #n%?#
Pl/ Nom/ #n%?# #n%?# #n%?#
Acc/ #n%?# #n%?# #n%?#
Gen/ #n%?# #n%?# #n%?#
<at/ #n%?# #n%?# #n%?#
R2. So also ,a#ri, %01i, mi&li, etc.
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ yn%ri !2oun#er$ yn%ra yn%ri
Acc/ yn%ra yn%ra yn%ri
Gen/ yn%ra yn%ra yn%ri
<at/ yn%ra yn%ra yn%ri
14
Pl/ Nom/ yn%ri yn%ri yn%ri
Acc/ yn%ri yn%ri yn%ri
Gen/ yn%ri yn%ri yn%ri
<at/ yn%r#m yn%r#m yn%r#m
RJ. So also all com+arati7es, s#ch as meiri !%reater$, and +res. +artic. when #sed as ad3ecti7es, s#ch
as #e,andi !%i7in%$, dat. +l. #e,ndum.
5omparison
R<. !G$ with 6ari, 6astr- r!&r !+ower&#l$, r!&ari, r!&astr> #,u#r !distin%#ished$, #,#ari, #,#astr.
RK. !2$ with 6ri, 6str and m#tation- lan#r !lon%$, len#ri, len#str> st5rr !bi%$, st)rri, st)rstr> un#r
!yo#n%$, 2n#ri, 2n#str.
RI. 5he &ollowin% are irre%#lar-
%amall !old$ ellri el@tr
%QDr !#ood$ betri be@tr
illr !+ad$ 7erri 7erstr
lXtill !little$ minni minstr
mar%r !man2$ &leiri &lestr
mi)ill !#reat$ meiri mestr
9umerals
R.
5ardinal 4rdinal
G. einn !one$ &yrstr !,irst$
2. t7eir annarr
J. YrXr YriDi
<. &3Qrir &3QrDi
K. &imm &immti
I. se4 sZtti
. s3a# s3a#ndi
H. [tta [tti
R. nX# nX#ndi
G0. tX# tX#ndi
GG. elli&# elli&ti
G2. tQl& tQl&ti
GJ. Yrett[n Yrett[ndi
15
G<. &3Qrt[n
GK. &immt[n
GI. se4t[n
G. s3a#t[n
GH. [t3[n
GR. nXt3[n
20. t#tt#%#
2G. einn o) t#tt#%#, etc.
J0. YrXr ti%ir, etc.
G00. tX# ti%ir
GG0. elli&# ti%ir
G20. h#ndraD
G200. Y\s#nd
einn is declined li)e other ad3ecti7es-=
RH.
(asc 9eut 2em
Nom/ einn eitt ein
Acc/ einn eitt eina
Gen/ eins eins einnar
<at/ ein#m ein# einni
It also has a +l. einir, einar, ein> %en. einna, etc. in the sense o& Csome.C
5he ne4t three show 7ario#s irre%#larities.
RR.
(asc 9eut 2em
Nom/ t7eir t7a# t7Wr
Acc/ t7[ t7a# t7Wr
Gen/ t7e%%3a t7e%%3a t7e%%3a
<at/ t7eim t7eim t7eim
Similarly +0"ir !both$-
G00.
(asc 9eut 2em
Nom/ b[Dir bWDi b[Dar
Acc/ b[Da bWDi b[Dar
16
Gen/ be%%3a be%%3a be%%3a
<at/ b[D#m b[D#m b[D#m
G0G.
(asc 9eut 2em
Nom/ YrXr Yr3\ Yr3[r
Acc/ Yr3[ Yr3\ Yr3[r
Gen/ Yri%%3a Yri%%3a Yri%%3a
<at/ Yrim Yrim Yrim
G02.
(asc 9eut 2em
Nom/ &3Qrir &3o%#r &3Qrar
Acc/ &3Qra &3o%#r &3Qrar
Gen/ &3o%#rra &3o%#rra &3o%#rra
<at/ &3Qr#m &3Qr#m &3Qr#m
G0J. 5he others are indeclinable #+ to 'r!r ti#ir, etc.> the ti#ir bein% declined re%#larly as a +l#ral
stron% u?masc#line ti#ir, ti#u, ti#um, ti#a.
G0<. %undra" is a stron% ne#t.- t1au %undru" !2<0$, t1eim %undru"um, etc. It %o7erns the %en. !as
also does '3sund$- ,imm %undru" #5l,a, C&i7e !si4$ h#ndred chambers.C
G0K. '3sund is a stron% ir?&eminine- t1(r '3sundir !2<00$.
G0I. %undra" and '3sund are rarely M G00 and G000.
G0. 1& the ordinals ,2rstr and annarr !V RG$ are stron%, the others wea) ad3ecti7es. 'ri"i inserts a .-
'ri".a, etc.
6nfle:ions7 pronouns
"0# Personal
?#/ Nom/ e) !I$ Y\ !t%ou$ =
Acc/ mi) Yi) si) !onesel,$
Gen/ mXn YXn sXn
<at/ mZr YZr sZr
<ual/ Nom/ 7it it =
Acc/ o))r y))r si)
Gen/ o))ar y))ar sXn
<at/ o))r y))r sZr
17
Pl/ Nom/ 7Zr !we$ YZr !2e$ =
Acc/ oss yDr si) !onesel1es$
Gen/ 7[r yDar sXn
<at/ oss yDr sZr
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ hann !%e$ Yat !it$ hon !s%e$
Acc/ hann Yat hana
Gen/ hans Yess hennar
<at/ hon#m Y7X henni
Pl/ Nom/ Yeir !t%e2$ Ya# YWr
Acc/ Y[ Ya# YWr
Gen/ Yeira Yeira Yeira
<at/ Yeim Yeim Yeim
G0R. e& was o&ten s#&&i4ed to its 7erb, es+ecially in +oetry, bein% sometimes added twice o7er-
m(tta6& !I mi%ht$, s06&6a6& !I saw not> aMCnotC$. So also '3- er6tu !art tho#$, s&alt6u !shalt tho#$ M
8s&alt6tu.
Possessive
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ minn !m2$ mitt mXn
Acc/ minn mitt mXna
Gen/ mXns mXns minnar
<at/ mXn#m mXn# minni
Pl/ Nom/ mXnir mXn mXnar
Acc/ mXna mXn mXnar
Gen/ minna minna minna
<at/ mXn#m mXn#m mXn#m
GG0. So also 'inn !thy$, sinn !his, etc., re&le4i7e$.
GGG. 10rr, 10rt, 10r !o#r$ is re%#lar- acc. masc. 10rn, masc. +l#r. 10rir, 10ra, 10rum, 10rra, etc.
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ yDarr !2our$ yDart yD#r
Acc/ yDarn yDart yDra
Gen/ yDars yDars yDarrar
18
<at/ yDr#m yDr# yDarri
Pl/ Nom/ yDrir yD#r yDrar
Acc/ yDra yD#r yDrar
Gen/ yDarra yDarra yDarra
<at/ yDr#m yDr#m yDr#m
GG2. So also o&&arr !o#r two$ and 2&&arr !yo#r two$.
GGJ. %ans !his$, 'ess !its$, %ennar !her$, and 'eira !their$ are indeclinable.
;emonstrative
GG<.
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ s[ !t%at$ Yat s\
Acc/ Yann Yat Y[
Gen/ Yess Yess Yeirar
<at/ Yeim Y7X Yeiri
Pl/ Nom/ Yeir Ya# YWr
Acc/ Y[ Ya# YWr
Gen/ Yeira Yeira Yeira
<at/ Yeim Yeim Yeim
GGK. %inn, %itt, %in !that$ is in&lected li)e minn !e4ce+t that its 7owel is short thro#%ho#t$- acc. masc.
%inn, +l#r. masc. %inir, %ina, %inum, %inna.
GGI.
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ Yessi !t%is$ Yetta Yessi
Acc/ Yenna Yetta Yessa
Gen/ Yessa Yessa Yessar
<at/ Yess#m Yess# Yessi
Pl/ Nom/ Yessir Yessi Yessar
Acc/ Yessa Yessi Yessar
Gen/ Yessa Yessa Yessa
<at/ Yess#m Yess#m Yess#m
19
;efinite
5he +re&i4ed de&inite article is declined th#s-
GG.
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ inn it in
Acc/ inn it ina
Gen/ ins ins innar
<at/ in#m in# inni
Pl/ Nom/ inir in inar
Acc/ ina in inar
Gen/ inna inna inna
<at/ in#m in#m in#m
GGH. When s#&&i4ed to its no#n it #nder%oes 7ario#s chan%es. In its monosyllabic &orms it dro+s its
7owel a&ter a short !#n?accented$ 7owel, as in au#a6t !the eye$, b#t )ee+s it a&ter a lon% 7owel, as in
06in !the ri7er$, tr:6it !the tree$. 5he dissyllabic &orms dro+ their initial 7owel almost e7erywhere>
not, howe7er, a&ter the 6ar, 6r, o& the %en. s%., nor in menninir !men, nom/$, menn6ina !men, acc/$.
5he 6m o& the dat. +l. is dro++ed be&ore the s#&&i4ed 6num.
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ &is)r?inn s)i+?it %3T&?in
Acc/ &is)?inn s)i+?it %3T&?ina
Gen/ &is)s?ins s)i+s?ins %3a&ar?innar
<at/ &is)i?n#m s)i+i?n# %3T&?inni
Pl/ Nom/ &is)ar?nir s)i+?in %3a&ar?nar
Acc/ &is)a?na s)i+?in %3a&ar?nar
Gen/ &is)a?nna s)i+a?nna %3a&a?nna
<at/ &is)#?n#m s)i+#?n#m %3T&#?n#m
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ bo%i?nn a#%a?t t#n%a?n
Acc/ bo%a?nn a#%a?t t#n%#?na
Gen/ bo%a?ns a#%a?ns t#n%#?nnar
<at/ bo%a?n#m a#%a?n# t#n%#?nni
20
Pl/ Nom/ bo%ar?nir a#%#?n t#n%#r?nar
Acc/ bo%a?na a#%#?n t#n%#r?nar
Gen/ bo%a?nna a#%na?nna t#n%na?nna
<at/ bo%#?n#m a#%#?n#m t#n%n#?n#m
<elative
GGR. 5he ordinary relati7e +ron. is the indeclinable er, o&ten +receded by s0- s0 er M he who, who,
s3 er who &em.
6nterro'ative
G20. 5he ne#t. %1at has %en. %1ess, dat. %1!, which last is chie&ly #sed as an ad7erb M Cwhy.C
G2G.
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ h7[rr !w%ic% o, two$ h7[rt h7[r
Acc/ h7[rn h7[rt h7[ra
Gen/ h7[rs h7[rs h7[rrar
<at/ h7[r#m h7[r# h7[rri
Pl/ Nom/ h7[rir h7[r h7[rar
Acc/ h7[ra h7[r h7[rar
Gen/ h7[rra h7[rra h7[rra
<at/ h7[r#m h7[r#m h7[r#m
G22.
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ h7err !w%ic%, w%o$ h7ert h7er
Acc/ h7ern h7ert h7er3a
Gen/ h7ers h7ers h7errar
<at/ h7er3#m h7er3# h7erri
Pl/ Nom/ h7erir h7er h7er3ar
Acc/ h7er3a h7er h7er3ar
Gen/ h7erra h7erra h7erra
<at/ h7er3#m h7er3#m h7er3#m
6ndefinite
21
G2J. einn6%1err, eitt%1ert, ein%1er !some one$ )ee+s an in7ariable ein6 in the other cases, the second
element bein% in&lected as abo7e.
G2<. sumr !some$ is declined li)e an ordinary ad3ecti7e.
G2K.
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ na))7arr !some$ na))7at nT))#r
Acc/ na))7arn na))7at na))7ara
Gen/ na))7ars na))7ars na))7arrar
<at/ nT))#r#m nT))#r# na))7arri
Pl/ Nom/ na))7arir nT))#r na))7arar
Acc/ na))7ara nT))#r na))7arar
Gen/ na))7arra na))7arra na))7arra
<at/ nT))#r#m nT))#r#m nT))#r#m
G2I.
(asc 9eut 2em
?#/ Nom/ en%i !none, no$ e))i en%i
Acc/ en%an e))i en%a
Gen/ en%is en%is en%rar
<at/ en%#m en%# en%ri
Pl/ Nom/ en%ir en%i en%ar
Acc/ en%a en%i en%ar
Gen/ en%ra en%ra en%ra
<at/ en%#m en%#m en%#m
G2. In %10r6t1e##.a !each o& the two, both$ the &irst element is declined as abo7e, the second is le&t
#nchan%ed.
=er>s
G2H. 5here are two classes o& 7erbs, stron# and wea&. Stron% 7erbs are con3#%ated +artly by means
o& %radation, wea) 7erbs by addin% " !d, t$.
G2R. 5he " o& the 2 +l. is dro+t be&ore 'it !ye two$ and ':r !ye$- #e,i ':r, #0,u 'it.
GJ0. 5here is a middle 7oice, which ends in 6m& in the G +ers. s%. and +l., the rest o& the 7erb bein%
&ormed by addin% s& to the acti7e endin%s, r bein% dro+t, the res#ltin% ts, "s bein% written 9 !V JI$-
&1e9& !acti7e &1e"r CsaysC$, 'u ,e&&9& !,e&&t C%ottestC$.
22
GJG. 5he &ollowin% is the con3#%ation o& the stron% 7erb #e,a !%i7e$, which will show those endin%s
which are common to all 7erbs-
Acti7e
6ndicative !u>,unctive
Present s#/ G. %e& %e&?a
2. %e&?r %e&?ir
J. %e&?r %e&?i
pl/ G. %e&?#m %e&?im
2. %e&?iD %e&?iD
J. %e&?a %e&?i
Preterite s#/ G. %a& %W&?a
2. %a&?t %W&?ir
J. %a& %W&?i
pl/ G. %[&?#m %W&?im
2. %[&?#D %W&?iD
J. %[&?# %W&?i
Imperati1e s#/ 2 %e&> pl/ G %e&?#m, 2 %e&?iD.
Participle pres/ %e&?andi> pret/ %e&?inn.
In,in/ %e&a.
Middle
6ndicative !u>,unctive
Present s#/ G. %e&?#m) %e&?#m)
2. %e&?s) %e&?is)
J. %e&?s) %e&?is)
pl/ G. %e&?#m) %e&?im)
2. %e&?i@) %e&?i@)
J. %e&?as) %e&?is)
Preterite s#/ G. %[&?#m) %W&?#m)
2. %a&?@) %W&?is)
J. %a&?s) %W&?is)
pl/ G. %[&?#m) %W&?im)
2. %[&?#@) %W&?i@)
23
J. %[&?#s) %W&?is)
Impers/ s#/ 2 %e&?s)> pl/ G %e&?#m), 2 %e&?i@).
Partic/ pres/ %e&?andis)> pret/ %e&?i@) neut/
In,in/ %e&?as).
!tron' =er>s
GJ2. In the stron% 7erbs the +l#r. o& the +ret. indic. %enerally has a di&&erent 7owel &rom that o& the
sin%. 5he G s%. +ret. o& the middle 7oice always has the 7owel o& the +l. +ret.- #0,um&. 5he +ret.
s#b3. has the 7owel o& the +ret. indic. +l#r. m#tated- s&aut !he shot$, s&utu !they shot$, s&2ti !he
mi%ht shoot$. B#t there is no m#tation in 7erbs o& the &irst con3.- %l.5pi, in&. %laupa !lea+$.
GJJ. 5he +res. indic. sin%. m#tates the root?7owel in all three +ersons- e& s&4t, '3 s&4tr, %ann s&4tr,
in&in. s&.5ta !shoot$. e howe7er is not m#tated- e& #e,, '3 #e,r. 5he in&lectional r is liable to the
same modi&ications as the r o& no#ns !V J2$- s&!nn, 1e7, in&in. s&!na !shine$, 1a7a !%row$.
GJ<. ;erbs in ld chan%e the d into t in the G, J s%. +ret. indic. and in the im+er. s%.- %elt !held$, %alt
!hold]$, in&in. %alda. nd becomes tt, and n# becomes && #nder the same conditions- +inda !bind$,
#an#a !%o$, +ret. +att, #e&&, im+er. +itt, #a&&.
GJK. 5he t o& the 2 s%. +ret. indic. is do#bled a&ter a lon% accented 7owel- '3 s0tt !tho# sawest$. I&
the G s%. +ret. indic. ends in t or ", the 2 s%. ends in 9t- l:t !I let$, '3 l:9t, +au" !I o&&ered$ '3 +au9t.
GJI. 5here are se7en con3#%ations o& stron% 7erbs, distin%#ished mainly by the characteristic
7owels o& their +reterites.
GJ.
I. ?!hine??con3#%ation
6nfin Third Pres Prt !in' Prt Pl Ptc Prt
bXta !+ite$ bXtr beit bit# bitinn
drX&a !dri1e$ drX&r drei& dri&# dri&inn
%rX+a !#rasp$ %rX+r %rei+ %ri+# %ri+inn
lXDa !#o$ lXDr leiD liD# liDinn
lXta !loo&$ lXtr leit lit# litinn
rXDa !ride$ rXDr reiD riD# riDinn
sX%a !sin&$ sX%r sei% si%# si%inn
slXta !tear$ slXtr sleit slit# slitinn
stX%a !ad1ance$ stX%r stei% sti%# sti%inn
bXDa !wait$ bXDr beiD biD# beiDnn
GJH. 5he &ollowin% has a wea) +resent-
6nfin Third Pres Prt !in' Prt Pl Ptc Prt
7X)3a !mo1e$ 7X)r 7ei) 7i)# 7i)inn
GJR.
24
II. ?5hoose??con3#%ation
6nfin Third Pres Prt !in' Prt Pl Ptc Prt
b3QDa !o,,er$ b^Dr ba#D b#D# boDinn
br3Qta !+rea&$ br^tr bra#t br#t# brotinn
&l3Qta !,loat$ &l^tr &la#t &l#t# &lotinn
hl3Qta !recei1e$ hl^tr hla#t hl#t# hlotinn
)3Qsa !c%oose$ )^ss )a#s )#s#m )osinn
n3Qta !en.o2$ n^tr na#t n#t# notinn
s)3Qta !s%oot$ s)^tr s)a#t s)#t# s)otinn
dr3\+a !drop$ dr^+r dra#+ dr#+# dro+inn
l3\%a !tell lies$ l^%r la#% l#%# lo%inn
l\)a !close$ l^)r la#) l#)# lo)inn
l\ta !+end$ l^tr la#t l#t# lotinn
&l3\%a !,l2$ &l^%r &lQ &l#%# &lo%inn
G<0.
III. ?@ind??con3#%ation
6nfin Third Pres Prt !in' Prt Pl Ptc Prt
bresta !+urst$ brestr brast br#st# brostinn
h7er&a !turn$ h7er&r h7ar& h#r&# hor&inn
s7el%a !swallow$ s7el%r s7al% s#l%# sQl%inn
7erDa !+ecome$ 7erDr 7arD #rD# orDinn
s)3[l&a !s%a&e$ s)el&r s)al& s)#l&# s)ol&inn
dre))a !drin&$ dre))r dra)) dr#))# dr#))inn
&inna !,ind$ &innr &ann &#nd# &#ndinn
7inna !win$ 7innr 7ann #nn# #nninn
binda !+ind$ bindr batt b#nd# b#ndinn
s+rin%a !sprin#$ s+rin%r s+ra)) s+r#n%# s+r#n%inn
stin%a !pierce$ stin%r sta)) st#n%# st#n%inn
bre%Da !pull$ bre%Dr br[ br#%D# br#%Dinn
s_))7a !sin&$ s_))r sT)) s#))# so))inn
st_))7a !sprin#$ st_))r stT)) st#))# sto))inn
G<G. 5he &ollowin% ha7e wea) +resents !which ma)es howe7er no di&&erence in their con3#%ation$-
6nfin Third Pres Prt !in' Prt Pl Ptc Prt
brenna !+urn$ brennr brann br#nn# br#nninn
renna !run$ rennr rann r#nn# r#nninn
25
G<2.
I;. ?@ear??con3#%ation
6nfin Third Pres Prt !in' Prt Pl Ptc Prt
bera !carr2$ berr bar b[r# borinn
nema !ta&e$ nemr nam n[m# n#minn
&ela !%ide$ &elr &al &[l# &Ql%inn
)oma !come$ )_mr )om )7[m# )ominn
so&a !sleep$ s_&r s7a& s7[&# so&inn
G<J.
;. ?%ive??con3#%ation
6nfin Third Pres Prt !in' Prt Pl Ptc Prt
dre+a !&ill$ dre+r dra+ dr[+# dre+inn
%e&a !#i1e$ %e&r %a& %[&# %e&inn
)7eDa !sa2$ )7eDr )7aD )7[D# )7eDinn
meta !estimate$ metr mat m[t# metinn
re)a !dri1e$ re)r ra) r[)# re)inn
eta !eat$ etr [t [t# etinn
s3[ !see$ sZr
<
s[ s[
K
sZnn
G<<. 5he &ollowin% ha7e wea) +resents-=
6nfin Third Pres Prt !in' Prt Pl Ptc Prt
biD3a !as&$ biDr baD b[D# beDinn
sit3a !sit$ sitr sat s[t# setinn
li%%3a !lie$ li%%r l[ l[%#m le%inn
Yi%%3a !recei1e$ Yi%%r Y[ Y[%# Ye%inn
G<K.
;I. ?!hake??con3#%ation
6nfin Third Pres Prt !in' Prt Pl Ptc Prt
&ara !#o$ &err &Qr &Qr# &arinn
%ra&a !di#$ %re&r %rQ& %rQ&# %ra&inn
hlaDa !load$ hleDr hlQD hlQD# hlaDinn
7a4a !#row$ 7e4 Q4 Q4# 7a4inn
standa !stand$ stendr stQD stQD# staDinn
a)a !dri1e$ e)r Q) Q)# e)inn
4 $&, s&r, s&r; s%', s&(, s%'! $ub%! s&, s&r, s&; s&, s&(, s&!
5 $', s'i(, s'!
26
ta)a !ta&e$ te)r tQ) tQ)# te)inn
dra%a !draw$ dre%r drQ drQ%# dre%inn
&l[ !,la2$ &lWr &lQ &lQ%# &le%inn
sl[ !stri&e$ slWr slQ slQ%# sle%inn
G<I. 5he &ollowin% ha7e wea) +resents-
6nfin Third Pres Prt !in' Prt Pl Ptc Prt
he&3a !li,t$ he&r hQ& hQ&# ha&inn
dey3a !die$ deyr dQ dQ d[inn
hlW3a !lau#%$ hlWr hlQ hlQ%# hle%inn
G<.
;II. ?2all??con3#%ation
6nfin Third Pres Prt !in' Prt Pl Ptc Prt
&alla !,all$ &ellr &ell &ell# &allinn
l[ta !let$ lWtr lZt lZt# l[tinn
r[Da !ad1ise$ rWDr rZD rZD# r[Dinn
heita !call$ heitr hZt hZt# heitinn
halda !%old$ heldr helt held# haldinn
%an%a !#o$ %en%r %e)) %en%# %en%inn
&[ !#et$ &Wr &e)) &en%# &en%inn
=============
a#)a !increase$ ey)r 3Q) 3Q)# a#)inn
b\a !dwell$ b^r b3Q b3o%%# b\inn
hT%%7a !%ew$ hT%%r h3Q h3o%%# hT%%7inn
hla#+a !leap$ hley+r hl3Q+ hl3Q+# hla#+inn
G<H. 5he &ollowin% ha7e wea) +reterites in r-
6nfin Third Pres Prt !in' Prt Pl Ptc Prt
%rQa !#row$ %rUr %r_ri %r_r# %rQinn
rQa !row$ rUr r_ri r_r# rQinn
sn\a !twist$ sn^r sn_ri sn_r# sn\inn
G<R. %eita in the +assi7e sense o& Cto be named, calledC has a wea) +resent- e& %eiti, '3 %eitir.
8eak =er>s
GK0. 5here are three con3#%ations o& wea) 7erbs. 5hose o& the &irst ha7e no 7owel in the +resent
indicati7e sin%#lar, and di&&erent root?7owels between the +resent and +reterite indicati7e> those o&
27
the second has a in the +resent and +reterite indicati7e> and those o& the third has no chan%e in the
root 7owel and i in the +resent indicati7e sin%#lar.
I ?tell??con3#%ation
Acti7e
GKG. All these 7erbs ha7e . +receded by a short syllable !tel3a$, or a lon% 7owel witho#t any cons.
a&ter it !d^3a$, or ## !le%%3a$> the . bein% )e+t be&ore a and u, as in the +res. ind. o& sp2r.a !as)$-
sp2r, sp2rr, sp2rr> sp2r.um, sp2ri", sp2r.a, +res. s#b3. G s%. e& sp2r.a> they #nm#tate their 7owel in
the +ret. and +tc. +ret. !s+#rDa, s+#rDr$, the m#tation bein% restored in the +ret. s#b3. sp2r"a,
sp2r"ir, etc. 5he +tc. +ret. o&ten has an i be&ore the ".

6ndicative !u>,unctive
Present s#/ G. tel tel?3a
2. tel?r tel?ir
J. tel?r tel?i
pl/ G. tel?3#m tel?im
2. tel?iD tel?iD
J. tel?3a tel?i
Preterite s#/ G. tal?Da tel?Da
2. tal?Dir tel?Dir
J. tal?Di tel?Di
pl/ G. tTl?D#m tel?Dim
2. tTl?D#D tel?DiD
J. tTl?D# tel?Di
Imper/ s#/ G. tel> pl/ G. tel?3#m, 2. tel?iD.
Partic/ pres/ tel3andi> pret/ tal!i$?Dr.
In,in/ tel3a.
Middle
6ndicative !u>,unctive
Present s#/ G. tel3#m) tel3#m)
2. tels) telis)
J. tels) telis)
pl/ G. tel3#m) telim)
2. teli@) teli@)
J. tel3as) telis)
28
Preterite s#/ G. tTlD#m) telD#m)
2. talDis) telDis)
J. talDis) telDis)
pl/ G. tTlD#m) telDim)
2. talD#@) telDi@)
J. talD#s) telDis)
Imper/ s#/ 2. tels)> pl/ G. tel3#m), 2. teli@).
Partic/ pres/ tel3andis)> pret/ tal!i$@) neut/
In,in/ tel3heyr?as).

ber3a !stri&e$ barDa barDr
le%%3a !la2$ la%Da la%!i$Dr
tel3a !tell$ talDa tal!i$Dr
7e)3a !wa&e$ 7a)Da 7a)Dr
&lyt3a !remo1e$ &l#tta &l#ttr
d^3a !s%a&e$ d\Da d\Dr
GK2. 5he &ollowin% )ee+ the m#tated 7owel thro#%ho#t-
sel3a !sell$ selda seldr
set3a !set$ setta settr
'.
GKJ. 5he &ollowin% are irre%#lar-
sU)3a !see&$ sQtta sQttr
Yy))3a !seem$ YQtta YQttr
S#b3. +ret. s)tta, ')tta.
5he &ollowin% has an ad3. &or its +artic. +ret.-
%T`ra !ma&e$ %T`rDa %T`rr.
IIa. ?5all??con3#%ation
GK<. Acti7e
6ndicative !u>,unctive
Present s#/ G. )all?a )all?a
2. )all?ar )all?ir
J. )all?ar )all?i
pl/ G. )Tll?#m )all?im
2. )all?iD )all?iD
29
J. )all?a )all?i
Preterite s#/ G. )all?aDa )all?aDa
2. )all?aDir )all?aDir
J. )all?aDi )all?aDi
pl/ G. )Tll?#D#m )all?aDim
2. )Tll?#D#D )all?aDiD
J. )Tll?#D# )all?aDi
Imper/ sin#/ 2. )all?a> plur/ G. )Tll?#m, 2. )all?iD.
Partic/ pres/ )all?andi> pret/ )allaDr !neut/ )allat$.
In,in/ )alla.
Middle
6ndicative !u>,unctive
Present s#/ G. )Tll?#m) )Tll?#m)
2. )all?as) )all?is)
J. )all?as) )all?is)
pl/ G. )Tll?#m) )all?im)
2. )all?i@) )all?i@)
J. )all?as) )all?is)
Preterite s#/ G. )Tll?#D#m) )Tll?#D#m)
2. )all?aDis) )all?aDis)
J. )all?aDis) )all?aDis)
pl/ G. )Tll?#D#m) )all?aDim)
2. )Tll?#D#@) )all?aDi@)
J. )Tll?#D#s) )all?aDis)
Imper/ sin#/ 2. )all?as)> pl/ G. )Tll?#m), 2. )all?i@).
Partic/ pres/ )all?andis)> pret/ )all?a@) neut/
In,in/ )all?as).
GKK. So also +2r.a !be%in$, %er.a !ma)e war$, 1a&na !awa)e$.
IIb. ?Aave??con3#%ation
GKI. 5he &ew 7erbs o& this class are con3#%ated li)e those o& con3. IIa, e4ce+t that some o& them
ha7e im+erati7es in 6i- 1a&i, 'e,i> uni. li,a, se#.a ha7e im+er. li,, se#. 5hey m#tate the 7owel o& the
+ret. s#b3. !ynDa$. 5heir +artic. +ret. %enerally occ#rs only in the ne#t.> sometimes the a is dro++ed.
30
li&a !li1e$ li&i li&Da li&at
#na !+e contented$ #ni #nDa #nat
s)orta !+e wantin#$ s)orti s)orta s)ort
Yola !endure$ Yoli YolDa Yolat
Yora !dare$ Yori YorDa Yorat
n[ !attain$ n[i n[Da n[Dr, n[it
GK. 5he &ollowin% show m#tation-
se%3a !sa2$ se%i sa%Da sa%Dr
Ye%3a !+e silent$ Ye%i Ya%Da Ya%at
ha&a !%a1e$ he&i ha&Da ha&Dr
)a#+a !+u2$ )a#+i )ey+ta )ey+tr
GKH. 5he +resent indic. o& the &irst three is as &ollows-
?in#/ G. he&i se%i Ye%i
2, J. he&ir se%ir Ye%ir
Plur/ G. hT&#m se%3#m Ye%3#m
2. ha&iD se%iD Ye%iD
J. ha&a se%3a Ye%3a
GKR. 5he rest o& %a,a is re%#lar. Pres. s#b3. %a,a, %a,ir, %a,i> %a,im, %a,i", %a,i. Pret. indic. %a,"a,
%a,"ir, %a,"i> %,dum, %,"u", %,"u. Pret. s#b3. %e,"a, %e,"ir, %e,"i> %e,"im, %e,"i", %e,"i. Im+er.
%a,, %,um, %a,i". Ptc. %a,andi, %a,"r.
III. ?Aear??con3#%ation
Acti7e
GI0.
6ndicative !u>,unctive
Present s#/ G. heyr?i heyr?a
2. heyr?ir heyr?ir
J. heyr?ir heyr?i
pl/ G. heyr?#m heyr?im
2. heyr?iD heyr?iD
J. heyr?a heyr?i
Preterite s#/ G. heyr?Da heyr?Da
2. heyr?Dir heyr?Dir
J. heyr?Di heyr?Di
31
pl/ G. heyr?D#m heyr?Dim
2. heyr?D#D heyr?DiD
J. heyr?D# heyr?Di
Imper/ s#/ G. heyr> pl/ G. heyr?#m, 2. heyr?iD.
Partic/ pres/ heyr?andi> pret/ heyr?Dr.
In,in/ heyr?a.
Middle
6ndicative !u>,unctive
Present s#/ G. heyr?#m) heyr?#m)
2. heyr?is) heyr?is)
J. heyr?is) heyr?is)
pl/ G. heyr?#m) heyr?im)
2. heyr?i@) heyr?i@)
J. heyr?as) heyr?is)
Preterite s#/ G. heyr?D#m) heyr?D#m)
2. heyr?Dis) heyr?Dis)
J. heyr?Dis) heyr?Dis)
pl/ G. heyr?D#m) heyr?Dim)
2. heyr?D#@) heyr?Di@)
J. heyr?D#s) heyr?Dis)
Imper/ s#/ 2. heyr?s)> pl/ G. heyr?#m), 2. heyr?i@).
Partic/ pres/ heyr?andis)> pret/ heyr?@) neut/
In,in/ heyr?as).
GIG. 5he in&lectional " becomes d a&ter lon% syllables endin% in l or n- si#la !sail$, si#lda> ne,na
!name$, ne,nda, ne,ndr.
GI2. 6"" becomes dd- lei"a !lead$, leidda.
GIJ. " a&ter s and t becomes t- reisa !raise$, reista> m)ta !meet$, m)tta. Also in a &ew 7erbs in l, n-
m(la !s+ea)$, m(lta> spenna !b#c)le$, spenta.
GI<. A&ter nd and pt it is dro++ed- senda !send$, senda, sendr> l2pta !li&t$, l2pta.
GIK. It is +reser7ed in s#ch 7erbs as the &ollowin%- d)ma !3#d%e$, d)m"a> ,)ra !lead$, ,)r"a> %er"a
!harden$, %er"a> %le2pa !%allo+$, %le2p"a.
!tron'&8eak =er>s (aka pretite&present ver>s)
GII. 5hese ha7e old stron% +reterites &or their +resents, &rom which new wea) +reterites are &ormed.
32
6nfin Pres !' Pres Pl Prt Ptc
ei%a !possess$ [ ei%# [tta [ttr
)#nna !can$ )ann )#nn# )#nna )#nnat n/
me%a !can$ m[ me%# m[tta m[tt n/
m#na !remem+er$ man m#n# m#nDa m#nat n/
m#n# !will$ m#n m#n# m#nDa ==
s)#l# !s%all$ s)al s)#l# s)ylda s)yldr
Y#r&a !need$ Yar& Y#r&# Y#r&ta Y#r&t n/
#nna !lo1e$ ann #nn# #nna #nnt n/
7ita !&now$ 7eit 7it# 7issa 7itaDr
GI. 1& these 7erbs munu and s&ulu ha7e +reterite in&initi7es- mundu, s&2ldu.
Anomalous =er>s
GIH. ;il.a !will$-
Present
!in' Plur
G. 7il 7il3#m
2. 7ill 7iliD
J. 7ill 7il3a
?u+./ pres/ 7ili. Pret/ ind/ 7ilda. Ptc/ prt/ 7il3at.
GIR. ;era !be$-
6ndicative !u>,unctive
Present s#/ G. em sZ
2. ert sZr
J. er sZ
pl/ G. er#m sZm
2. er#D sZD
J. er# sZ
Preterite s#/ G. 7ar 7Wra
2. 7art 7Wrir
J. 7ar 7Wri
pl/ G. 7[r#m 7Wrim
33
2. 7[r#D 7WriD
J. 7[r# 7Wri
Imper/ s#/ 7er> pl/ 7eriD. Ptc/ prt/ 7erit n/
5omposition (aka compoundin')
G0. 'om+osition with the %eniti7e is 7ery &re"#ent in Icelandic. 5h#s by the side o& s&ip6st.5rn
!shi+?steerin%$ we &ind s&ips6+rot !shi+Cs brea)in%, shi+wrec)$, s&ipa6%err !army o& shi+s, &leet$.
Geniti7al com+osition o&ten e4+resses +ossession, as in &onun#s6s&ip !)in%Cs shi+$.
;erivation
Prefi:es
GG. Pre&i4es are m#ch less #sed in Icelandic than in 1ld 9n%lish.
al& C"#ite,C C7eryC- al6+3inn C"#ite ready,C al6snotr C7ery cle7er.C
all& Call,C C7eryC- all61aldr Call?r#ler, monarch,C all6%ar"r C7ery hard,C all6st5rum C7ery %reatly.C
and& Ca%ainstC- and6lit Cco#ntenanceC !lita, loo)$, and6s1ar Canswer.C
f,)l& CmanyC- ,.l6menni Cm#ltit#deC !ma"r, man$.
mis& Cmis?C- mis6l!&a Cdis+lease.C
-& C#n?C- 36,ri"r CwarC !,ri"r, +eace$, 36%app Cmis&ort#neC !%app l#c)$.
Bndin's (aka suffi:es)
!a$ No#ns
Personal
G2. &in'rC &in'iC &in'- 1!&in#r C+irate,C %,"in#i Cchie&,C &erlin# Cold woman.C
Abstract
GJ. &D, &em. with m#tation- ,e#r" Cbea#tyC !,a#r, &air$, ,er" C3o#rneyC !,ara, %o$, len#" Clen%thC !lan#r,
lon%$.
&in', &em.- s1iptin# C+#llin%,C 1!&in# C+iracy,C 1ir"in# Chono#r.C
&leikr, masc.- &)r6lei&r Ca&&ectionC !%)rr, dear$, s&.5t6lei&r Cs+eedC !s&.5tr, swi&t$.
&anC &un, &em.- s&ipan Carran%ement,C s&emtun Cam#sement.C
34
!b$ Ad3ecti7es
G<. &u'r- r0"u#r Csa%acio#s,C 'r3"u#r Cstron%.C
&0ttr- &oll5ttr Cbald,C nd5ttr C&ierce.C
&lauss C?lessC- ,:6lauss Cmoneyless,C 5tta6lauss Cwitho#t &ear.C
&li'r C?lyC- undr6li#r Cwonder&#l,C sann6li#r C+robableC !sannr, tr#e$.
&samr- l!&n6samr C%racio#s,C s&2n6samr Cintelli%ent.C
&verDr C?wardC- o,an61er"r C#++er.C
!c$ ;erbs
GK. &na- +rotna Cbe bro)enC !+rotinn, bro)en$, %1!tna Cbecome white,C 1a&na Cawa)e.C Psed to &orm
intransiti7e and inchoati7e 7erbs o& the third con3.
!d$ Ad7erbs
GI. &li'a C?lyC- undar6li#a Cwonder&#lly,C ster&6li#a Cstron%lyC !ster&r, stron%$.
&um, dat. +l.- st5rum C%reatlyC !st5rr, %reat$.
!ynta:
G. Icelandic synta4 %reatly resembles 1ld 9n%lish, b#t has se7eral +ec#liarities o& its own.
5oncord
GH. 'oncord is carried o#t 7ery strictly in Icelandic- allir menn 10ru +3nir Call the men were ready,C
allir 10ru drepnir Call were )illed.C
GR. A +l#ral ad3. or +rono#n re&errin% to two no#ns o& di&&erent !nat#ral or %rammatical$ %ender is
always +#t in the ne#ter- '0 #e&& %ann upp, o& me" %onum *o&i !masc.$, o& =.0l,i !masc.$, o&
Rs&1a !&em.$. '0 er 'au !ne#t.$ %,"u l!tla %ri" #en#it/// Che landed, and with him :., and a., and 2.
When they had wal)ed &or some time...C
5ases
35
GH0. 5he e4tensi7e #se o& the instr#mental dati7e is 7ery characteristic o& Icelandic- whene7er the
direct ob3ect o& a 7erb can be considered as the instr#ment o& the action e4+ressed by the 7erb, it is
+#t in the dati7e, as in &asta sp.5ti Cthrow a s+earC !lit. Cthrow wit% a s+earC$, %ann %elt
%amars&aptinu Che %ras+ed the handle o& the hammer,C %eita '1! C+romise that,C .0ta '1! Ca%ree to
that.C
Ad,ectives
GHG. 5he wea) &orm o& ad3ecti7es is #sed as in 1.9. a&ter the de&inite article, 'essi and other
demonstrati7es. annarr !other$ is always stron%.
GH2., An ad3. is o&ten set in a++osition to a &ollowin% no#n to denote +art o& it- ei#a %0l,t d4rit Cto
ha7e hal& o& the animal,C nnur 'au Cthe rest o& them,C o, mi".a n0tt Cin the middle o& the ni%ht.C
Pronouns
GHJ. s0 is o&ten +#t +leonastically be&ore the de&inite article inn, both be&ore and a&ter the s#bst.- s0
inn un#i ma"r Cthat yo#n% man,C %a,it 'at it d.3pa Cthe dee+ sea.C
GH<. 5he de&inite article is %enerally not e4+ressed at all, or else einn, einn%1err is #sed.
GHK. A no#n !o&ten a +ro+er name$ is o&ten +#t in a++osition to a d#al +ron. o& the &irst and second
+ersons, or a +l#r. o& the third +erson- 'it ,:la#ar, Ctho# and thy com+anions,C me" 'eim 0&a Cwith
him and [)i.C Similarly stendr =5rr upp o& 'eir ,:la#ar C5hor and his com+anions %et #+.C
GHI. 5he +l#rals 1:r, ':r are sometimes #sed instead o& the sin%#lars e&, '3, es+ecially when a )in%
is s+ea)in% or bein% s+o)en to.
GH. si& and s:r are #sed in a strictly re&le4i7e sense, re&errin% bac) to the s#b3ect o& the sentence,
li)e se in :atin- =orr +au" %onum til matar me" s:r C5hor as)ed him to s#++er with him.C
=er>s
GHH. 5he tenses &or which there is no in&lection in the acti7e, and all those o& the +assi7e, are &ormed
by the a#4iliaries s&al !shall$, %a,a !ha7e$, 1era !be$ with the in&in. and +tc. +ret., m#ch as in
modern 9n%lish.
GHR. 5he historical +resent is m#ch #sed, o&ten alternatin% abr#+tly with the +reterite.
GR0. 5he middle 7oice is #sed- !G$ in a +#rely re&le4i7e sense- spara Cs+are,C sparas& Cs+are onesel&,
reser7e oneCs stren%th.C !2$ intransiti7ely- +3a C+re+are,C +3as& Cbecome ready, be readyC> set.a Cset,C
set.as& Csit downC> s4na Cshow,C s4nas& Ca++ear, seem.C !J$ reci+rocally- +er.a Cstri)e,C +er.as& C&i%htC>
%itta, C&ind,C %ittas& Cmeet.C In other cases it s+eciali@es the meanin% o& the 7erb, o&ten em+hasi@in%
the idea o& ener%y or e&&ort- &oma Ccome,C &omas& Cma)e oneCs way.C
GRG. 5he im+ersonal &orm o& e4+ression is widely #sed in Icelandic- ra& 0 storm !acc.$ ,2rir 'eim Ca
36
storm was dri7en in their &ace.C
GR2. 5he inde&. ConeC is e4+ressed in the same way by the third +ers. s%., and this &orm o& e4+ression
is o&ten #sed when the s#b3ect is +er&ectly de&inite- o& ,reista s&al 'essar !'r5ttar Cand this &eat shall
be tried !by yo#$.C
GRJ. 5he abr#+t chan%e &rom the indirect to the direct narration is 7ery common- >araldi &onun#i
1ar sa#t at 'ar 1ar &omit +.arnd4ri, Do& 0 !slen9&r ma"r,D CNin% Harold was told that a bear had
arri7ed, and that an Icelander owned it.C 5he direct narration is also #sed a&ter at !that$- %ann s1arar
at De& s&al r!"a til >el.arD Che answers that he will ride to Hel.C